jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 2 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.93-98.2017 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article the development of android based dictionary for graphic technique ika agustina1, murtopo 2 1teknik grafika, politeknik negeri media kreatif, indonesia 2desain grafis, politeknik negeri media kreatif,, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 19, 2017 final revision: december 14, 2017 available online: december 29, 2017 dictionary is one of the important media in learning english. along with the rapid development of mobile technology at this time, the various applications for mobile is widely developed as a medium of learning, one of them is the application of android-based dictionary. dictionaries on mobile devices are more practical than conventional dictionaries, as users can receive information quickly anywhere without space and time constraints. related to this, the research aims to create a dictionary application of english-indonesian graphics techniques capable of running on android-based phones. this application is built to help and meet the needs of students majoring in graphic technique in searching for meaning and understand various english words related to science of graphics. the collection of words and phrases (word entries) related to the science of graphic technique is done through literature studies of books, internet and other relevant sources. in addition, the collection of words and phrases is also done by conducting in-depth interviews with lecturers or graphic technique experts. the programming languages used in making this language dictionary application use java 2 micro edition (j2me) and sqlite. the dictionary after being validated of 4.14 with good category) and tested received positive response from the students indicated with very positive questionnaire results. keyword dictionary, graphic technique, android correspondence email: agustina.ika87@gmail.com murtopo25@yahoo.com i. introduction technology developments encourage rapidly evolving language that results in the language that is now used increasingly dynamic following civilization and human culture. the need for speed and accuracy in learning requires that educational elements such as lectures and students seek educational technology that helps to accelerate the achievement of students’ competence. similarly, in the context of language learning the existence of a dictionary is necessary, as chaer (2007) points out that the dictionary function is to preserve the purity of the language. so to accommodate the thoroughness of the use and disclosure of names and terms it requires a dictionary to straighten and enrich the treasury of language http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.93-98.2017 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 94 in accordance with the context. but the existing dictionary is less specific with the context of majors and expertise, especially in the field of graphics technique, then with rapid technological advances, required an application that can accelerate the fulfillment of competent human resources graphics techniques. therefore, this research designs and creates a bilingual graphics dictionary application with english-indonesian translation, and can be used on android-based mobile devices to make it easier for students to find meaning and understand english words and phrases related to the science of graphics. ii. methods this research used research and development (r & d) method. researchers collected data from books, the internet and other sources relevant to the techniques of graphics as well as from experts who are competent in the field of graphic technique. meanwhile, the model used in designing this application was uml (unified modeling language). the object of this study is 'lexicon entry'. the entry is the input word or phrase in the dictionary given in the entry (alwi: 2003). technique of collecting data in this research was documentation. documentation was done in two ways. first, by collecting english words and phrases related to the graphic techniques of the dictionary, some graphic technique books and other sources such as the internet and the encyclopedia. second, collecting words and phrases of graphic techniques through lecturers of graphic techniques and practitioners in the field of graphic technique to confirm the accuracy and suitability of the meaning of the words. the steps in research conducted were: 1. preparation at this stage the researchers analyzed the needs of the research, in the form of materials, data, as well as hardware and software used in the production of dictionary applications of graphic techniques english and indonesian, as well as additional literature related to research in the form of books, articles, journals related to programming android. 2. data collection at this stage, the researchers collected words and phrases graphic techniques in english and indonesian. the researchers also collected references on theories of how to design an android-based dictionary application. as the mobile application programming language used in this research was java 2 micro edition (j2me) and sqlite for database used to store data. 3. system analysis analyzing the existing problems on how the application of english indonesian language graphic dictionary can be run easily and can be utilized by users on mobile using android minimum operating system 2.2 (frozen yoghurt). 4. system design the stage of preparation of processes, data, process flow and relationships between data, application interfaces and meet the needs in accordance with the analysis of user needs dictionary graphic technique of english indonesia translation and indonesia english translation. in the system design described overview of the general system database implemented with design model of unified modeling language and table. 5. implementation at this stage, the creation of the application program that runs on gadgets and mobile based on the design and implements string matching algorithm. the views of the apps created and the installation process were tailored to the analysis and design made earlier. the running steps in this application is, when inputs are entered in the form of words in the indonesian language, then processed with a mechanism that has been defined ika agustina/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 95 and produce the output of words in english and vice versa. 6. testing and evaluation at this stage, researchers tested the application program that has been created and then handled and fixed errors that exist in the application program to run properly. at this stage the researchers performed various testing to test the program model. the test was to check for existing logic errors as well as layouts. this stage aimed to produce the correct software logically and in accordance with the design goals at the beginning. the dictionary was also tested on the students and evaluated the deficiencies with the responses through the questionnaire. iii. result implementation of dictionary application the process that occurs in the use of the graphic english indonesian dictionary application is as follows: 1. in the process of initial screen, there are two option buttons to enter and exit. 2. when the user selects the login button, the user will be presented with a translation screen page, while the quit button is used to directly exit and end the application. 3. once you have entered the translation page, there are two categories of options to translate from indonesian into english or from english into indonesian. 4. followed by inputting words into word search form that has been available for translation 5. for the translation process, then the user can click the translate button that is useful for word search. 6. the result of a word search that has been input will be displayed on the result form. application development this english indonesian dictionary application can be installed on android based smartphone previously compiled via eclipse galileo's ide (integrated development environment) through codes which then become a file in the .apk (android package) form. for further development in the distribution of applications, developers are required to package the applications that have been made. in doing packaging, developers can also include certificates on applications that have been made as evidence that the application is a self-developed application. this certificate also serves as a key provided by google as a way of identifying for application developers. the following is the display of the application dictionary. figure 1. the icon of dictionary application figure 3.2 front page ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 96 figure 3. translating page figure 4. page of picture searching the result of validation and testing of english – indonesian graphics dictionary application a. validation to prove the expediency of bilingual graphics dictionary, then first step was to validate the dictionary application by asking the suggestion and opinion of media and technology along with graphic technique experts and practitioners. the result of validation on the dictionary application quality was calculated with the scale range 1-5, as the following criteria: x > 4.2 = very good 3.4 < x ≤ 4.2 = good 2.6 < x ≤ 3.4 = moderate 1.8 < x ≤ 2.6 = bad x ≤ 1.8 = very bad table 1 the result of bilingual graphic dictionary validation no aspect validation score valida tion 1 validat ion 2 validat ion 3 1 design of dictionary apps 4.3 4.1 4.2 2 content feasibility 4.1 4.1 4.0 3 content display 4.1 4.0 4.3 average 4.17 4.07 4.17 total average 4.14 based on the data above, it can be concluded that bilingual graphic dictionary application in total has met the good quality category. however, there was some shortage in the application that needs to revise in order to make it proper utilized. the shortage resided in image to illustrate the word or phrase as reference. b. the testing the testing resulted qualitative data in critique and suggestion form from three validations and students as testing respondents. the data were used to improve the production quality of bilingual graphics dictionary based-android application. the qualitative data in the form of questionnaire is shown in table 2. ika agustina/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 97 table 2 comments and suggestion of validator on bilingual graphic dictionary valid ation comments and suggestion correction 1 add help and about menu simplify the lexicon help and about were added the lexicon roots were simplified 2 display image as word illustration and reference image database was created as word illustration and reference 3 the word input form needs to simplify adjust the font size remove the underlined target words the word input form was simplified the font size was adjusted the underlined target words were removed questionnaire of dictionary application was intended for students as subject user of bilingual graphics dictionary application. student criticism and suggestion on the questionnaire after using bilingual graphics dictionary application as a whole can be seen in table 3. tabel 3. comments and suggestion of students on bilingual graphic dictionary dictionary application aspects comments and suggestion correction image the image is needed as word illustration and reference the database of image related to the word or phrase was added font font size needs to magnify adjust font size with readability distance. also specially composed with the meaning of a word in a particular field called terminology dictionary, e.g. a specialized dictionary of graphic techniques. utilization of bilingual dictionary application (english-indonesia) based on android graphics empirically proven to accommodate the needs of students as replacement of book that is easy to carry and can be used anytime and anywhere. the use of dictionaries on mobile devices is very practical compared to conventional dictionaries in the form of large and thick books in general or the use of dictionaries on the computer (pc) because through a mobile dictionary. all words can be input and found to match quickly even with a complicated process but the need for reference material for english in graphics that has not been developed can be answered with the creation of bilingual graphics technique dictionary. therefore, it is one solution to accelerate the fulfillment of competitive human resources graphics techniques. iv. conclusions the aplication of bilingual dictionary (english-indonesia) for graphic technique android based is able to display words or phrases and images with consistent, reliable, relevant, coherent and up-to-date in accordance with the study of graphic technique. the app also runs well on all smartphones devices in a compatible, synchronous and smooth manner. this application through validation test with validation test value of 3.81 from 9 validators and independent learning source. consisting 3 english experts, 3 media learning experts, and 3 computer science experts. the qualification of the dictionary product is good because the product revision stage is based on criticism and suggestion from the validator so that it can improve the quality of the application product of the graphics dictionary as an alternative reference discussion language and technology are two mutualism symbiotic entities that support each other. in the context of foreign language learning such as english, significant technological involvement can help to ease the learning process. for example, the availability of a dictionary makes it easier for students to search for words, as well as dictionaries are ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 98 references this application empirically is proven to accommodate the needs of students on electronic dictionary that is easy to carry and can be used anytime and anywhere. this is evidenced by the student's positive response to the presence of this dictionary with a gain index of 4.28 or categorized very well. alwi, h. (2003). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. balai pustaka. jakarta. booch, grady. 2005. object oriented analysis and design with application. 2nd edition. addison-wesley. usa. chaer, abdul. 2007. leksikologi dan leksikografi indonesia. p.t.rineka cipta. jakarta. deny, a. k., erlita, r., & jurianto. 2007. pengembangan kamus elektronik akuntansi keuangan berbasis korpus. skripsi. universitas erlangga. surabaya. kridalaksana, harimurti. 1984. kamus linguistik. gramedia. jakarta. kurniasih, ika. 2014. analisis lema pada kamus bahasa indonesia untuk pelajar. skripsi. universitas negeri yogyakarta. yogyakarta. miles, m. b. dan huberman, a. m. 1994. qualitative data analysis. sage publishers. london. moleong lexy j. 2001. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. rosdakarya. bandung. nation, i.s.p. 2001. learning vocabulary in another language. cambridge university press. cambridge. nazruddin, safaat h. 2011. android (pemograman aplikasi mobile smartphone dan tablet pc berbasis android). informatika. bandung. nugroho, a. .2008. pemograman java menggunakan ide eclipse callisto. penerbit andi. yogyakarta. subhan, arifin. 2014. aplikasi kamus tiga bahasa berbasis android. skripsi. universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. surakarta. sugiyono. 2005. model penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif. alfabeta. bandung. suryani ns, elis. 2014. perkamusan teori dan praktik. alqa print. jatinangor. wasono, antonius bowo, dkk. 2013. teknik grafika dan industri grafika. direktorat psmk: jakarta. waridah, e., wahya, & suzzana. 2013. kamus bahasa indonesia untuk pelajar, mahasiswa & umum. kawan pustaka. bandung. viska, m., juwita, irvanizam. 2011. aplikasi kamus dwi bahasa aceh-indonesia berbasis java untuk telepon genggam. skripsi. universitas syiah kuala. banda aceh. the role of maxims in the process of investigations: a case study in situbondo resort police office jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.48-53.2018 article the role of maxims in the process of investigations: a case study in situbondo resort police office yopi thahara, ahmad yusuf firdaus, firqo amelia abdurachman saleh situbondo university, east java, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 01, 2018. final revision: april 20, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 this study aims to reveal the role of maxim in the conversation between the investigators and suspects in giving information during the making of investigation reports in situbondo police office. this is an interdisciplinary linguistic research that utilizes linguistic and pragmatic disciplines. the theory used to analyze the data in this study is the theory of speech acts initiated by searle. this is a qualitative descriptive research, and it produces deep descriptions of the words, writings, and behaviors that can be observed from a specific individual, group, society, or organization in a particular context that is holistically studied. the result of this research is the role of maxim in the process of investigation and the degree of the trustworthiness. keyword maxim violation, police investigation, crime motives correspondence e-mail: yopi.thahara@gmail.com i. introduction an investigation is conducted by the police officers to get the detail information from the suspects about criminal cases. in the process of investigation, the police officers are required to have special capabilities. the capabilities should include the ability to communicate, the ability to create questions that can reveal the motives of crimes committed, and the ability to uncover the secrets held by the suspects. the investigation process is always related to the question and answer process undertaken by an investigator and a suspect. in the process of investigation, the investigator is often faced with some problems that need patiences and skills to overcome. the most problems in the investigation are the languages and attitudes. the languages means the language of the suspects. the attitudes means the attitude of the suspects which tend to cover the secrets about the cases. regarding the disclosure of crime motives, an investigation process is required. the investigation process is not a simple matter because the suspects sometimes do not want to tell the truth. therefore, the researchers are interested in investigating the investigation processes of some criminal cases that occur in situbondo. the investigation processes are done at situbondo resort police. the investigation process is always related to the question and answer process undertaken by an investigator and a suspect. in this study, the process of investigation is examined with pragmatics, the science that discusses language in its use. specifically, the http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.48-53.2018 yopi thahara / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 49 researchers investigate the maxim in the process of investigation. related studies have previously been done by some researchers. aminudin (2014) conducts a research on forensic linguistics which focuses on the quality of question formulas submitted by the investigators and their relation to the full and true disclosure of information provided, discourse constructions developed by investigators to disclose information especially in connection with the strategy of the topic of conversation at the time of investigation, as well as the level of obedience in preparing the bap as a report containing the information. another research which is related to this research has been done by hadiyani (2014). in her research, hadiyani examines the types of questions, responses and presuppositions that appear in the investigative intervention processes. the research findings show that in the case of fraud and embezzlement, most of the questions are open-ended and only a few are closed. this research is different from the previous researches because this research focuses on the investigation process. this research focuses on the cooperative principles of conversations conducted by police investigators and defendants. therefore, the research discusses what happens in the investigation processes done by the investigators and the suspects; the system of conversational maxims that occur in the conversations between the police investigators and suspects; and the pattern of cooperation done by the suspects. this study aims to reveal the cooperative principles (maxims) that occur during the conversations between the investigators and suspects. the principles are classified based on the theory proposed by grice. grice in thomas (1996: 63) suggests four cooperative principles: maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation, and maxim of manner. furthermore, this study also aims to reveal the possibility of cooperation that occurs from the investigation process between the investigators and suspects. however, leech (1993: 2) says that the inclusion of pragmatics is the last stage in the waves of linguistic expansion, from a narrow discipline that takes care of the physical data of language to a broad discipline that includes forms, meanings, and contexts. this development of language studies comes from the highly concentrated language philosophers of pragmatic studies, including austin (1962), searle (1969), and grice (1975). on the basis of comparisons with structural analysis, it can be argued that those treated in pragmatic analysis are two things, namely (1) a lingual unit (or, sentence) that can be used to express a number of functions in communication, and (2) a particular communicative function that can be expressed with a number of linguistic units. (kaswanti purwo, 1990: 14). to achieve an understanding in a conversation, grice (1975) formulates a principle of cooperation (cooperative principles) which consists of four maxims of conversation, namely maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxims of relation, and maxim of manner. in the maxim of quantity, the speakers must give information that is informative as possible. speakers also do not give more details than necessary. in the maxim of quality, the speakers must not say anything wrong. speakers do not say something that is not proven. maxim relation means that the speakers must speak relevantly. in the maxim of manner, the speakers must avoid obscurity, avoid coercion, speak briefly, and speak regularly. ii. methods this is a descriptive qualitative research. this describes the principle of cooperation used by the defendants at during the investigation processes in situbondo resort police office. yopi thahara / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 50 bogdan and taylor (1992: 21-22) explains that qualitative research is a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of speech or writing and the behavior of those observed. a qualitative approach is expected to produce in-depth descriptions of the words, writings, and / or behaviors that can be observed from a particular individual, group, society, or organization in a given context that is viewed from a holistic and comprehensive perspective. this study belongs to the qualitative research because the data collected are tangible words in sentences or drawings that have more meaning than just numbers (sutopo, 2002). in this study the data are the result of direct observations in situbondo resort police office. the numbers that appear on research are not the measure or parameter, but rather a tool supporting to obtain data. the data are words uttered by the defendants in situbondo resort police office. meanwhile, the data sources of this research ares two. the first data source used by researchers is the defendants at the situbondo resort police office. the second source of data is information from the investigator. this research involves suspects investigated in june 2017 until september 2017. in addition, investigators and other stakeholders are also involved to draw the conclusion. the data collection technique used in this study is the technique of sampling (sampling), the analysis of documents, and questionnaire. with the technique of sampling, the selection of informants is done based on the criteria. this sampling technique is also used by the researchers in determining the necessary data sources. the document analysis is done by analyzing the maxims. mechanical analysis of documents (content analysis) is a way to find a variety of ways that are relevant to the needs and goals of the research (yin sutopo, 2006: 81) furthermore, to analyze the data, this study uses content analysis with contrastive analysis and ethnographic approaches. the analysis was performed by contrasting the information submitted by the defendants with the information given by the investigators. after that, the analysis is continued by looking at the relationship between the parts in the data or elements involved in it. the applicability of contrastive analysis is very useful for use in the study of language, especially when researchers want to find a relationship, similarity, and diferences. mechanical analysis by spradley (1980) includes a four-step analysis: domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, analysis of the cultural theme.. iii. result and discussion maximize of quantity maxim of quantity requires each participant to give contribution as much as needed by the interlocutor. here is an example of maxim of quantity violation found in the investigation process at situbondo resort police. p: ada no hp, pak? t: gak punya hp. ngalah ke istri curiganya dari hp. ya udah. in this case, we can see that t violates the maxim of quantity because he gives information that is not needed "ngalah curiganya dari hp. ya udah." the context of the conversation on the data is that the investigator asks a question about the phone number. the answer required by investigator is actually "yes" or "no." however, in the conversation, the speaker, who in this case acts as a criminal, delivers an answer that is not needed. the actual message to be conveyed is "no." the explanation, as we can see above, is basically unnecessary. maxim of quality this maxim requires each participant to say the truth. here is a violation of the maxim of quality encountered in the process of investigation in situbondo resort police office. yopi thahara / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 51 p: permasalahannya dengan bapak apa, apakah ada masalah keuangan? t: bukan p: permasalahan dia tidak tinggal serumah lagi? t: bukan. bener hanya itu permasalahannya, karena curiga itu. kalo masalah keuangan terus terang saja, saya memang pns, tapi golongan rendah. kalo sebelum nikah saya ngasih gaji tiap bulan on this issue p provides information that is not informative when asked about his quarrel with his wife. in the conversation, the investigator asks about the reason why p committed acts of violence to q. the answer the investigator hopes for is actually a reason. in this case, t gives an answer that has nothing to do with the question asked by the investigator. maxim of relevance maxim of relevance requires that each participant contribute relevantly to the subject matter of the conversation. the following is the example of violation of maxim of relevance found in the investigation process at situbondo resort police. p: sejak kapan bapak tidak memberi nafkah? t: gini itu pak. terus terang kalo masalah nafkah saya ndak ngasih.cuma saya mengunjungi ibu in this case, p answers the question with an irrelevant answer. p commits a maximal offense relationship. the description given by t has nothing to do with the question asked by the investigator. the investigator's question in this case relates to the time. however, in his answer, t does not give any time-related information. maxim of manner this maxim requires that each participant speak directly without exaggeration. people who speak without considering this point are said to violate the maxim of manner. the following is a form of maxim of manner violation found in the investigation process at situbondo resort police. p: setelah nikah siri, benar istri ikut ke rumah bapak? t: di sini (situbondo) in this case, t gives unclear information. it gives an answer 'here'. the answer raises the vagueness of the wife's existence. the results of this study as a whole can be seen in the following table. table 1. recapitulation of result no maxim type total 1 obeying : quantity 94 quality 19 relevance 7 manner 4 total 124 2 violating : quantity 39 quality 14 relevance 21 manner 22 total 96 from the table above, it can be seen that in the process of investigation the suspects dominantly obeying the maxim with the total 124 responses. the maxim quantity are dominantly obeyed by the suspect. it means that the suspects do not give more unnecessary information to the investigators. obeying the maxim of quality with 19 utterances means that the suspects give the answers that appropriate with the evidence. obeying the maxim of relevance with 7 data means that the suspects give relevant answers to the questions. however, the maxim of quantity is also dominantly violated in the process of investigation. there are 39 question that are violated by the suspects. the violation of the maxim of quantity means that the suspect give more information about the subjects asked. the suspects give more detail information which mean the probability of the lying is low. violating maxim of manner is also done by the suspects with 22 data. violating maxim of manner means that the suspects give the yopi thahara / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 52 answer by considering the question or the question is not directly answered. violating maxim fo relevances are 21 data. it means that the suspects do not give the relevant answer. the violations of the maxim quality are 14 data. it means that the suspect give different answer with the evidence. iv. conclusion in the process of investigation, the knowledge of the cooperative principle is very necessary. obeying the maxim of quantity means that answer the questions by giving the necessary information or do not give more information that is needed. obeying the maxim of quantity in the investigation process can result low trustworthiness. otherwise, violating maxim quantity means the suspect give more information. the probability to lie is low, so the violating the maxim of quantity can result high trustworthiness. obeying maxim of quality means that answer appropriate with the evidences. obeying maxim of quality in the investigation process can result high trustworthiness. otherwise, violating maxim of quality can result low trustworthiness. obeying maxim of relevance means that the suspects relevantly answer to the subject matter of the conversation. obeying maxim of relevance can result high trustworthiness. in contrast, violating maxim of relevance can result low trustworthiness. obeying maxim of manner means that the suspect answer directly without exaggeration. obeying maxim of manner in the investigation can result high trustworthiness. in contrast, violating maxim of manner can result low level of trustworthiness. references bodgam, r dan steven j. t. (1975). introduction to qualitative research methods. new york: john willey and sons. coulthard, m. (2005). some forensic applications of descriptive linguistics. veredas coulthard, m. & a. johnson. (2010). the routledge handbook of forensic linguistics london: routledge. hadari, n. (1995). buku metode penelitian bidang sosial. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. handayani.(2014). tipe pertanyaan, respon dan praanggapan yang muncul pada interviu investigatif kepolisian. jurnal parole vol.4 (1), 38-53. h.b. sutopo(2006).metodologi penelitian kualitatif : dasar teori dan terapannya dalam penelitian surakarta: universitas. sebelas maret. houses of parliament.(2015). forensic language analysis. london: the parliamentary office of science and technology. james, c. (1980). contrastive analysis. london kaelan.(2004). “filsafat analitis menurut ludwig wittgenstein: relevansinya bagi pengembangan pragmatik”. dalam jurnal humaniora volume 16, no. 2, juni 2004: 133146. kartono, k. (1999). patologi sosial. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. kaswanti purwo, b. (1990). pragmatik dan pengajaran bahasa menyibak kurikulum 1984.yogyakarta: penerbit kanisius. leech, g. (1993). prinsip-prinsip pragmatik. (terjemahan) m.d.d. oka. jakarta: penerbit universitas indonesia. mey, j. (1993). pragmatics. oxford: united kingdom. santosa, r. (2012). metode penelitian kualitatif kebahasaan. draf buku. surakarta: fakultas sastra dan seni rupa spradley, j.p. (1980). participant observation. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. yopi thahara / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 53 tarigan, h.g. (2009). pengajaran sintaksis. bandung:angkasa. ___________________ . 2009.prinsip-prinsip dasar sintaksis. bandung:angkasa. turell, m.t. (2008). the role and task of the forensic linguist in giving evidence.universitat pompeu fabra. wijana, i dewa putu.(1996). dasar-dasar pragmatik. yogyakarta: penerbit andi. internet: http://www.tribratanewssitubondo.com/berita-kapolres-situbondo-rilis-hasil-ungkap-33kasus-kriminal-yang-resahkan-masyarakat.html##ixzz44glucca3 interferences of minangkabau-indonesian efl students’ dialogues: a result of double language transfer jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.37-41.2018 article interferences of minangkabau-indonesian efl students’ dialogues: a result of double language transfer shally amna universitas putra indonesia, west sumatera, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 12, 2018 final revision: april 26, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 learning english as a foreign language is a long journey of language transfer for students in west sumatera, indonesia. when the students learn to produce a sentence in english, they often use double language transfers, that is, from minangkabau language as their native language to indonesian language as their national language and from indonesian language to english language. furthermore, the effect of literal translation which is used as mainly method in the process of learning languages at schools worsen the students’ errors and mistakes in learning english language. this research seeks to investigate the interferences in english conversation scripts made by students of upi yptk padang who were assigned to create a conversation in groups to certain topics. the results of the lexical and syntactical interferences found in the scripts indicated that the students are struggling with noun-verb confusion, subject matters, word choices, tenses, and non-existence forms of auxiliaries in l1. the findings provide insight into english learning and teaching techniques and present suggestions for lectures and materials developers. keyword interference, language transfer, noun-verb confusion, word choices, pragmatics awareness correspondence e-mail: shallyamna@gmail.com i. introduction indonesia is a country with multiple ethnics and culture. as the bonus, each ethnic has its language and custom. however, indonesia has an indonesian language to unite the whole archipelago. this language is taught at any level of schools and is used as a formal language. in the other words, when it comes to structural formal written language, any ethics in indonesia will refer to indonesian language. the students in west sumatera province in indonesia mostly use minangkabau language (ml) as their first language and indonesian language (il) as their second language. the two languages are different in both grammar and vocabulary. since most of the students are islam, they also learn to read and comprehend arabics to read qur’an. after all, english as an international language comes as the third or the fourth language for them (sukandi, 2014). as you can see, students then will learn http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.37-41.2018 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 38 english in accordance with their knowledge of their first and second language; minangkabau and indonesian language. that situation become the first reason of many errors and mistakes in students english language production. the second reason is that because the students learn english mostly with the means of translating, english teaching method which mostly applied in asia is grammartranslation method (william, 2003). in west sumatera, this method has also been inherited by teachers to teachers at school (sukandi, 2014). for example, in explaining tense, the teachers feel like explaining it in indonesian language or minangkabau language will make the students comprehend more than just explaining it in english, and so they try to translate it word to word into indoensian language. frequently, when the students want to know the meaning of a word in english, the teacher find its synonym in indonesian or minangkabau frame of mind. in his journal sukandi also explains that both teachers and students cannot avoid using this method since “they were born in a community that already has a language and culturally-embedded contained in words.” third reason is most students feel easier to translate a language from the native language to english language, rather than finding how is to say the appropriate expression they mean in english by thinking of some tense and proper vocabulary. this paper is aimed to look at the interferences as seen in errors and mistakes in students’ english language when it is written in english conversation as a result of the three reasons above. interference has been defined by many of experts all over the world. lekova (320) says that language interference is one of the current problems in foreign language teaching. dulay et al (1982) states that interferences is a custom in the way of transferring surface structure of the native language onto the surface structure of the foreign language. and lott (1983) defines interference as 'errors in the learner’s use of the foreign language that can be traced back to the mother tongue'. the presentation and the progress that students make in the target language are influenced by the indigenous language structures, which means l1 interference is cause by cross-linguistic and language transfer (hashim, 1999). the difference of structures in l1 and l2 will cause moderately to the occurrence of mistakes students make in l2, which representing an interference of l1 on l2 (dechert, 1983; ellis, 1997). erdogan bada conducted research about japanese first-language. in his research he found interferences toward learning english in japan found that “…interference incorporates the tendency of transferring of the rules of the learner’s native language to the foreign language-this could either be a second or a third language” (3). bada’s research gives us insights that what efl students do, in the case of learning english in japan, is that they put the rules existing in the first language and incorporates those into english. likewise, this phenomenon is likely to happen in minangkabau-indonesian efl students. on the surface, they might learn english through grammar drills, but in their mind, they construct the sentences that they utter or write through what they already have in mind about constructing sentences and ideas in minangkabau. for example, “the phenomena of language change that are observed in italian speech of the second and third generation may be defined on the basis of two processes. the first process is simplification. the second process is transfer. by ‘transfer’ we mean ‘the incorporation of language features from one language to another” (marzo, 2002). marzo’s research clearly tells us that linguistic transfer between one languages into another one exists among students whose english is a foreign language for them. shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 39 the case study was purposed to answer the following questions: a) what are the interferences in ml and il which cause error and mistake in el? b) what are ml and il structures which interfere the structure of el? c) how the multiple language transfer can cause interference of ml and il onto el? ii. methods participant the participant of the study in students in the second semester at putra indonesia university yptk padang. there are 50 students in class who are grouped into 7 groups. the students have already taken basic english grammar course in the first semester, so that they are expected to understand how to produce sentences in correct grammar of english. the 7 groups of students are assigned to create a conversation related to a certain topics given (family, holiday, tourism places, hobby, friendship). the students may choose any topic they like, and may use dictionary if necessary. the task is given for about one week in order to give the student enough time to discuss the conversation scripts. method after giving a week of discussion, the scripts were collected and then were analyzed by the errors and mistakes. after that, the students in each group was called and interviewed. it was done to find out the student intention behind the ‘error’. the questions were ”what did you mean by saying this?” or “why did you use this words?”. the answers to the interview are used to help the process of data analysis. iii. result l1 lexical interference usually the students just picked up the words they saw in the dictionary, based on the words the searched from their l1. [1] hello ata, i’m still on the road. the students mean i am still on the way, they chose the word road instead of way when they transferred the word ‘jalan’ in ml and il into english. unfortunately, the students fail to consider the exact word meaning for ‘jalan’ in ml and il according to the context. in il “saya sedang di jalan” does not mean that the students are exactly on the street, but on the way of journey to the certain location. both languages have the same expression, but mistakes happen when student wrongly interpreted the context of the word use. [2] ok, i along mutia. the students mean awak samo mutia in ml and then the word samo is transferred into il became bersama dengan. the students fail to choose the correct word to represent their idea. because the word bersama dengan in english can be translated literally into together with, along with. but these need to build in one complete sentence like i along with mutia went to the library. but of course in their context, the student just should write it as ‘i am with mutia’ [3] yes, already you home alone. the students mean in il ya sudah, kamu ke rumah saja sendirian. the correct translation for the sentence is okay, just go home by yourself. the students fail to transfer the whole massage correctly by translating word to word from il to el. the expression of ya sudah should not be translated into yes already, and the imperative of kamu ke rumah saja need verb in english that is just go home. the, sendirian should be transferred into reflexive pronoun that is by yourself. [4] i join sad widya. english has special expressions in giving their condolence and those not include i join sad. even though there is the word ikut bersedih in il, in el people say i am sorry to hear that or i am deeply saddened by the loss that you have encountered. shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 40 [5] i go to jakarta to place my brother. beside there is an issue with tense, the translation of word ‘to place’ is also wrong. it derives from ml ‘ka tampek abang wak’ and transfer to il ‘ke tempat abang saya’ which means in english to my brother’s house or to visit my brother. [6] i college in upi yptk. the confusion of noun and verb in language transfer from ml and il to el often cause interference. the students mean in il saya kuliah di upi yptk and try to translate the word kuliah into college because he does not know that the structure of sentence in english must form subject and verb afterwards. the word kuliah can be noun and verb in ml and il but not in el. therefore the correct language choice should be verb study. [7] i am dizzy because task campus lots. the student’s main clause i am dizzy mean saya pusing in il, but in english, although most of adjective you put directly after to be, the adjective dizzy commonly comes after the word feel, like i feel dizzy. the subordinate clause of the sentence is false because the student just transfer ml into el word to word without considering her grammar lesson. ‘karena tugas kampus banyak’ means she has a lot of campus assignment to do. in el, the quantifier should be put before noun as the adjective. [8] task which one. the student wanted to say tugas yang mana in il. the structure of the sentence in il enable us to put question words after noun. however in el is different. the structure of the question sentence must begin by question words or to be. in this case he should said which task? [9] that can be arranged. the sentence seems to come with proper grammar in el. in fact, it is out of the context while the students mean ‘itu bisa diatur’ in il as a sign that he took an ease at his friend’s problem. in this context, the word choice ‘arrange’ is not appropriate and should be changed with ‘managed’. moreover, it is commonly to say ‘take it easy’ in el so such situation given. [10] your body hot or tired. the word to be and auxiliary verbs does not exist in il. therefore, even though the students have learn tense for at least 9 years at school, the use of them is still unmaximized. besides that, the question sentences is ambiguous to statement sentence if it emerges in spoken context. in the context, the student want to ask his friend in il ‘kamu sakit atau lelah?’ but fail to transfer it to el. i should be ‘are sick or tired?’ [11] have you gone to the doctor? the grammatical factor of the text is correct. but in el people will say ‘have you seen the doctor’ to express the same idea. the word ‘seen’ when it is transfer to il means ‘melihat’. it will break the idea of the questions. therefore, the case like this should be explained clearly by the teachers. l1 syntactic interference [12] when we can go? the matters of auxiliary when they have to be inverted in question must be understood by the students. again, it is difficult since il do not have these auxiliaries. so, in this sentence, the students made the sentence only by using the form of making question in il. [13] if you play futsal how do you feel? the sentence is in conditional. in english conditional sentence comes with rule that the next clause should have modal like ‘would’. shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 41 so, the correct sentence should be ‘...how would you feel?’. [14] the pattern of life regularly how. clearly, the student had no idea of word positions in el like you have to put adjective before now, etc. the actual sentence in il is ‘pola hidup teratur yang bagaimana’ in el, you should say ‘how to have disciplined life syle?” but the student had no idea to find such expression in english so he just translated word by word from il to el. worse still, they put the question word at the end of the question sentence. after analyzing some errors and mistakes the students made, it can be seen that interferences existed because of the several factors, including the frequency of using local language and first language and limited undestanding of english structure. in speaking, most of students speak using minangkabau language, but in relation to formal language, minangkabau students are referred to indonesian language. both of languages used also cause interferences. as a result, speaking or using english language by minangkabau students has multiple interferences. the students have limited knowledge of the structure of sentence in english. even they have learned grammar and tenses for years, it seems that they still catch that as a puzzle. iv. conclusion the research shows indicates that tense still become the main problem in making sentences. although many of lessons at school focus on this skill, the students still confuse to set the sentence in correct grammar and tense. beside, question and conditional structure absolutely bring the most errors and mistakes. there is a huge confusion of noun and verb from l1 to l2. in choosing a word to say, the students cannot differentiate whether the word the use is noun or verb in english, because in indonesian language they can be interchangeable. references cakir, ismail. “developing cultural awareness in foreign language teaching.” turkish online journal of distance education-tojde. vol. 7, no. 3, 2006 dechert, h.w. 1983, 'how a story is done in a second language' in strategies in interlanguage communication, eds. c. faerch and g. kasper, longman, london. dulay, h., burt, m. & krashen, s. (1988). language two. new york: oxford university hashim, a. (1999). crosslinguistic influence in the written english of malay undergraduates. journal of modern languages, 12(1), 59-76. lekova, b. “language interference and methods of its overcoming in foreign language teaching” trakia journal of sciences, vol. 8, suppl. 3, 2010. lott, d. 1983. analyzing and counteracting interference errors. elt journal, vol.37/3, pp 256261. marzo, stefania. “between two languages: the linguistic repertoire of italian immigrants in flanders.” proceedings of the 4th international symposium on bilingualism. eds. james cohen, kara t. mcalister, kellie rolstad, and jeff macswan. somervill, massachussets: cascadilla press, 2002. sukandi, s. s. first language interferences on minangkabau-indonesian efl students ’ linguistic repertoire in the process of advancing their multilingual awareness, 443–453. 2014 thomas, jenny. 1995. meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london and new york: longman. widiati, utami. “the teaching of efl speaking in the indonesian context: the state of the art.” bahasa dan seni. vol. 34, no. 2. 2013 williams, james d. “grammar and usage.” concepts in composition: theory and practice in the teaching of writing. london: lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers, 2003 21 the implication and application of simalungun language maintenance on learning english febri asmita saragih email: febriasmita@gmail.com abstrak penulisan tesis ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pemeliharaan bahasa simalungun dalam belajar bahasa inggris. dalam penulisan ini, untuk memecahkan masalah, digunakan beberapa teori, yaitu lado (1964:23), saragih (2012:5), oriyama (2010:95), kelly (2000:47), jones (1958:15), roach (2002), kelly (2000:47), unesco (2003:15), dan holmes (2001: 21). sumber data dikumpulkan dari sumber-sumber pertama berupa penelitian kepustakaan. studi pustaka dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan kata ganti personal dari buku simalungun dan buku bahasa inggris, seperti kamus dan ensiklopedi. sumber kedua adalah penutur simalungun asli. penulis mewawancarai penutur yang menjadi subjek penelitian yang terdiri atas beragam usia, jenis kelamin, latar belakang. penulis mendengar bunyi 'd' diucapkan 't' dalam kata dan terjadi penghilangan bunyi u, r, dan a. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa pemeliharaan bahasa pada pelafalan bahasa simalungun terjadi pada pelafalan konsonan ‘d’ yang dilafalkan ‘t’ yang memiliki implikasi dan aplikasi dalam bahasa inggris. setelah menganalisis data, penulis berupaya memberikan jawaban yang berhubungan dengan masalah. penulis berharap dapat membantu pembaca untuk mengetahui implikasi dan aplikasi pemeliharaan bahasa simalungun dalam belajar bahasa inggris dan juga dapat membuat bunyi dari bahasa simalungun sebagai kemudahan dalam belajar bahasa inggris untuk memngembangkan pelafalan dari vokal dan konsonan. keywords: language, maintenance, pronunciation introduction language is a communication tool that is used by human to do interaction in daily life. language is very important for human because it is a tool to combine many race in the world. in community also need language so that interaction in community fluent, that is communication. lado (1964: 11) says” language is intimately tied to man’s feelings and activity. it is bound up with nationality, religion, and the feeling of self. it is used for work, worship, and play by everyone, be he beggar or banker, savage or civilized”. lado (1964: 23) says” a language is part of the culture of a people and the chief means by which the members of a society communicate”. a language, therefore, is both a component of culture and a central network through which the other components are expressed language is the primary instrument of communication in our lives. in our social activities, we use language to communicate with other people. for various purpose and reason, every individual uses spoken and written language in to convey his feeling , option , and idea. language is the most fundamental means of communication, because it lays a very important role in human interrelation. we can communicate with the other expressing our ideas or feeling by the use of signs, sounds, and gestures to teach language is to teach comunication in an act of comunication we are jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 22 in influenced by enviromental cues as well as by our own intention (rivers 1971:190) simalungun comes from north sumatra. north sumatra is a provinsi which located in sumatra island, indonesia and capital of in medan. by geografis, simalungun is divided into two location, they are simalungun atas and simalungun bawah. simalungun atas (raya, purba, silou dan silimakuta) and simalungun bawah (bandar, siantar, panei and tanah jawa). simalungun has plateau until along the length of toba lake and some mountains next to north west of toba lake. temporary location of simalungun bawah is famous lowland with its soil fertility for the effort of plantation , agriculture and rice field. the simalungun language is one language that grow and develop in people of simalungun, and so do other tribe that remaining in region simalungun. we can not digress from language and simalungun culture for we still stay in region of the simalungun people so that look existence the language and simalungun culture in front of indonesia republic state (sinalsal 2008) saragih (2012:5) says” simalungun language is at risk now with different levels of language extinction based on different area”. simalungun is one of tribe that develop in region sumatera utara – east indonesia that told from century iv when kindom of raja nagur. the situation that happened in simalungun is not of excise to maintain existence and also forming of simalungun language,at the time the simalungun language didn’t be known the people who lived in simalungun, specially when entry of outsider to region of simalungun, and so do people simalungun submerged until less excisionly maintain this language, making the language more and more lost. (sinalsal 2008 : 2). damanik (2009:11) stated that there are two factors that affected the simalungun language, first external factors which is related to globalization and the second, internal factor which is affected by the language speakers, now majority of the simalungunese shift from simalungun language into indonesia language as janse said that a language is potentially endangered if the generation start preferring a dominant language and the learn the obsolescing language imperfectly. when two or more languages are in contact, three alternatives will occur, firstly the language maybe maintained without change, secondly there may be shift of some words in the language, and thirdly, one of the languages may be leading than the others language that is called as language loss or death. since 1928, indonesian language was used as national language of indonesia which pledged by the youth of indonesia. then in 1948 it was used as national language of indonesia and official language. the situation effects the young indonesian to be multilingual. they use indonesia as unity language than local. language regeneration stop in the future instead of simalungun language, which is seldom practices by the generation. base on oriyama (2010:95) said that multilingual and multicultural caused the language potentially endanger than the dominant language and culture will be applied in the community they live. beside that parents also influence the children language, as nazaruddin (2011: 60) said that parent role influence children language, the existences of the language is in endangered level since there is no effort of transmitting the language to children. language attitude of simalungun language is mainly supportive to maintain of simalungun language. they may see it as essential to their community and identity and they may use it without promoting it. they may be ashamed of it and, therefore not promote it. or they may see it as a nuisance and actively avoid using it. members of speech community are not usually neutral towards their own language. when attitudes towards their language are very positive, the language may be seen as a key symbol of group identity. the simalungun language is daily language in simalungun area. in the context of life, simalungunese has been not almost used the simalungun language in daily life, such as in issn 2339-1162 23 family and society. it is caused by the condition or the simalungunese. number of simalungunese are always increase and increasingly the world. the people are in simalungun area have been dominated by several of tribes, so, the simalungun language increasingly marginalized. this is caused a work placement in simalungun, new comer comes from different tribe, many people married with other tribe, many generations moved to another place so that the using of simalungun language is decrease. as well as simalungunese moved elsewhere looking for work, school, etc in family, many the parents didn’t use simalungun language in communication with their children but used the indonesian language. it is caused parents is often spoken indonesian language in daily life. based the researcher observation, using the simalungun language is getting lost which the generations have been seldom to used simalungun language in daily life. the parents didn’t care and didn’t teach their children about simalungun language. the effects increase this world so that the children teach international language and they are prever than simalungun language. therefore, at this moment the simalungun language is almost extinct this there is not the maintenance of simalungun language. this condition shows maintaining simalungun language is a must to protect one of many vernaculars language in indonesia from extinction. there are three reasons to protect and maintain simalungun language, first stated in indonesian constitutively that is uud 1945 the government must be responsible to maintain vernaculars as the national culture. secondly, vernacular is national wealth, because the death of vernaculars have on the death of culture. and thirdly, vernacular contributes to enrich the vocabularies of indonesian language. furthermore it is important to conduct a study on simalungun language maintenance, in order to maintain indonesian language from being endangered. in maintaining simalungun language there are many ways potentially done as a solution, some of them by opening short course for people who wants to know about simalungun language, than to build up self confidence to speak simalungun language by unionizing a simalungun language community. and one of common intra marriage in simalungun culture is with the closer family. intra marriage has big effect in maintaining simalungun language, because the children can learn simalungun language directly from their parents. the maintenance of simalungun language has influence on learning english. when the simalungunese speak simalungun language, there is the similarity between simalungun language with english which in pronunciation so that when learning english, the simalungunese is easier learning english because they have been ever or usual on pronounced english sound. in simalungun language, there is sound which the last letter has changing in pronunciation. the sound is letter ‘d’ is pronounced ‘t’. for example, sorod is pronounced /sɔrɔd/, bɑgod /bɑgɔd/. and in english also there is sound which the last letter has changing in pronunciation. the sound is letter ‘d’ is pronounced ‘t’. for example, barked /bɑ:kt/, stopped/stɔpt/. then, there is missing pronunciation in speech sound. for example, magouan/mɑgɔan/. this is example of simalungun language maintenance. while in english, aunt /ɑ:nt/. theoretical 1. unesco (2003:15) says “language maintenance is supporting the stable use, in speaking and in writing (where orthographies exist), of the non-dominant language in a region or state with both multilingualism and a dominant language (lingua franca), such as maori in new zealand”. 2. anne pauwels (2004:719) says” language maintenance is often done through the identification of domains and situations in which the language is no longer used or is jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 24 gradually making way for the use of another language”. 3. fishman (1989:177) says “language maintenance is the pursuit of linguistic continuity between generations. fase (1992:25) defines “ language maintenance as the retention use and proficiency in the language”. when two or more language in contact, three alternative will occur, 1)the language maybe maintain without any change ,2) there may be shift of some from in the language, 3)one of the language may be leading to from none use , called language loss. 4. nahir (1984:315) says” language maintenance defines as the preservative of the use of groups’ native language as a first or even as a second language”. 5. language is purely human and non – instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols (sapir 1921: 17) method the methods used in this study are: 1. the research library, the research by research by collecting, studying and analyzing books and articles and other materials related to the title. 2. collecting the data by interview using tape recorder. esterbeg (2002) says” interview is a meeting of two persons to exchanges information and idea through question and responses, resulting in communication and joint construction of meaning about a particular topic”. (sugiyono, 2013:317) susan stainback (1988) says “interviewing provide the researcher a means to gain a deeper understanding of how the participant interpret a situation or phenomenon than can be gained through observation alone. (sugiyono, 2013:318) the next, esterbeg (2002) says” interviewing is at the heart of social research. if you look through almost any sociological journal, you will find that much social research is based on interview, either standardized or more in depth”. (sugiyono, 2013:318) discussion according to roach (2002) said that english sound of the consonant ‘d’ is pronounced ‘t. there are words of simalungun pronunciation occurs in consonant, they are sogod /sɔgɔt/, sorod /sɔrɔt/, sibahud /sibɑhʊt/, marorod /marɔrɔt/, saud /sɑut /, lingod /lingɔt/, sukod /sukɔt/, manabad /mɑnɑbɑt /, morbad /mɔrbɑt/, bod /bɔt/, sabad /sɑbɑt/, maporad /mɑpɔrɑt/, abad /ɑbɑt/, botad /bɔtɑt/, sopad /sɔpɑt/, manarad /mɑnɑrɑt/, paragad /pɑrɑgɑt/, pod-pod /pɔtpɔt/, sarad /sɑrɑt/, hirpud /hirpʊt/, hid-hid /hithit/, raod-raod /rɑɔtrɑɔt/, simagod /simɑgɔt/, marapod /mɑrɑpɔt/, rikod /rikɔt/, sardad /sɑrdɑt/. the missing pronunciation of simalungun pronunciation, it has some words such as pailahon /pəlahon/. in pronunciation /u/, such as magouan /mɑgɔɑn and loumbang /lʊmbang/. in pronunciation /r/, such as burbur /bʊ:bur/, gorbas /gɔ:bas/, turbung / tʊ:bung/. in pronunciation /a/ agembit /‘gəmbit/ and agepe /‘gəpə/. then, missing pronunciation of english pronunciation , in pronunciation /u/ such as aunt /ɑ:nt /, in pronunciation /r/, such as card /ka:d/, in pronunciation /ɑ/ bread /bred/. based the data, the words of simalungun pronunciation and english pronunciation of /d/ is in final position is pronounced /t/ and the words also is regular verbs. the missing pronunciation of simalungun pronunciation, it has some words such as pailahon /pəlahon/. in pronunciation /u/,such as magouan / mɑgɔɑn and loumbang /lʊmbang/. in pronunciation /r/, such as burbur / bʊ:bur /, gorbas /gɔ:bas /, turbung /tʊ:bung. in pronunciation /a/ agembit /‘gəmbit/ and agepe /‘gəpə/. then, missing pronunciation of english pronunciation, in pronunciation /u/ such as aunt /ɑ:nt/. in pronunciation /r/, such as card /ka:d/, in pronunciation /ɑ/ bread /bred/. finding from the data analysis that the application of language maintenance of simalungun issn 2339-1162 25 pronunciation that occurs in consonant has implication and application on learning english. there is a sound changing in the last letter which consonant sound, ‘ d ’ is pronounced /t/ in simalungun language. the words are sogod /sɔgɔt/, sorod /sɔrɔt/, sibahud /sibɑhʊt/, marorod /marɔrɔt/, saud /sɑu /, lingod /lingɔt/, sukod /sukɔt/, manabad /mɑnɑbɑt/, morbad /mɔrbɑt/, bod /bɔt/, sabad /sɑbɑt/, maporad /mɑpɔrɑt/, abad /ɑbɑt/, botad /bɔtɑt/, sopad /sɔpɑt/, manarad /mɑnɑrɑt/, paragad /pɑrɑgɑt/, pod-pod /pɔtpɔt/, sarad /sɑrɑt/, hirpud /hirpʊt/, hid-hid /hithit/, raod-raod /rɑɔtrɑɔt/, simagod /simɑgɔt/, marapod /mɑrɑpɔt/, rikod /rikɔt/, dan sardad /sɑrdɑt/. from the analysis the pronunciation of /d/ tobe /t/ in english pronunciation , there is a sound changing in the last letter which presented another consonant, ‘ d ’ is pronounced /t/ in english language such as clapped /klæpt/, brushed /brʌʃt/, laughed /lɑːft/ ,wished /wɪʃt/, kissed /kɪst/, helped /helpt/, washed /wɒʃt/, watched /wɒʃt/, looked /lʊkt/, parked /pɑːkt/, helped /helpt/, liked /laɪkt/, fixed /fɪkst/, danced /dɑːn st/, breathed /briːðt/, raked /reɪkt/, faxed /fækst/, hoped /həʊpt/, popped /pɒp/, talked /takt/, frothed / frawθt /, laughed /læft/, kissed /kist/, reached /riytʃt/, missed /mist/, walked /wɔːkt/. from the analysis the sound of missing pronunciation in simalungun language, there is a miss sound of the word the simalungun language and english language. the sounds of simalungun language in pronunciation /i/, such as pailahon /pəlahon/. in pronunciation /u/, such as magouan /mɑgɔɑn and loumbang/ lʊmbang/. in pronunciation /r/, such as burbur /bʊ:bur/, orbas /gɔ:bas/, turbung /tʊ:bung/. in pronunciation /a/ agembit /‘gəmbit and agepe /‘gəpə/. then, the sounds is not presented of english language, in pronunciation /u/ such as aunt /ɑ:nt /. in pronunciation /r/, such as card /ka:d/, in pronunciation /ɑ/, bread /bred/. conclussion after the writer finished the research, the writer conclude there are words of simalungun pronunciation occurs in consonant, they are sogod /sɔgɔt/, sorod /sɔrɔt/, sibahud /sibɑhʊt/, marorod /marɔrɔt/, saud /sɑut /, lingod /lingɔt/, sukod /sukɔt/, manabad /mɑnɑbɑt/, morbad /mɔrbɑt/, bod /bɔt/, sabad /sɑbɑt/, maporad /mɑpɔrɑt/, abad /ɑbɑt/, botad /bɔtɑt/, sopad /sɔpɑt/, manarad /mɑnɑrɑt/, paragad /pɑrɑgɑt/, pod-pod /pɔtpɔt/, sarad /sɑrɑt/, hirpud /hirpʊt/, hid-hid /hithit/, raod-raod/ rɑɔt rɑɔt/, simagod /simɑgɔt/, marapod /mɑrɑpɔt/, rikod /rikɔt/, sardad /sɑrdɑt/. from the analysis the pronunciation of /d/ tobe /t/ in english pronunciation , there is a sound changing in the last letter which presented another consonant, ‘ d ’ is pronounced /t/ in english language such as clapped /klæpt/, brushed /brʌʃt/ ,laughed /lɑːft/ ,wished /wɪʃt/, kissed /kɪst/, helped /helpt/, washed /wɒʃt/, watched /wɒʃt/, looked /lʊkt/, parked /pɑːkt/, helped /helpt/, liked /laɪkt/, fixed /fɪkst/, danced /dɑːn st/, breathed /briːðt/, raked /reɪkt/, faxed /fækst/, hoped /həʊpt/, popped /pɒp/, talked /takt/, frothed /frawθt/, laughed /læft/, kissed /kist/, reached /riytʃt/, missed /mist/, and walked /wɔːkt /. from the analysis the sound of missing pronunciation in simalungun language, there is a miss sound of the word the simalungun language and english language. the sounds of simalungun language in pronunciation /i/, such as pailahon /pəlahon/. in pronunciation /u/, such as magouan /mɑgɔɑn and loumbang /lʊmbang/. in pronunciation /r/, such as burbur /bʊ:bur/, gorbas /gɔ:bas/, turbung /tʊ:bung). in pronunciation /a/ agembit /‘gəmbit and agepe /‘gəpə/. then, the sounds is not presented of english language, in pronunciation /u/ such as aunt /ɑ:nt /, in pronunciation /r/, such as card /ka:d/, in pronunciation /ɑ/ bread / bred /. suggestion after the writer finished this research paper, the writer hopes it can help the readers to know the implication and application of simalungun maintenance on learning english. also can make sounds of simalungun language as ease on learning english to develop pronunciation of vowel and english consonant. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 26 bibliography assistence multi lingual matters. multilingual matters ltd.canada. amrin saragih (http://imasusu.blogspot.com/2012/01/.html, accessed on 14 july 2012) bayley, robert, dkk. language maintenance and shift the oxford handbook of sociolinguistics. damanik, ramlan. 2009. pemertahanan bahasa simalungun di kabupaten. fishman, joshua a. 1997. reversing language shift: theoretical and empirical fondation of hayward, katrina. 2000. experimental phonetics. england: longman. holmes, janet. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistic. endinburgh: pearson education. lado, robert. 1964. “language teaching a scientificapproach”. newyork. lado, robert. 1964. language teaching a scientific approach. new york. nazaruddin. 2010. the parents roles in maintaining bml in langkat. english applied linguistics study program the state university of medan. a thesis oriyama, k. 2010. heritage language maintenance to japanese identity formation. heritage language journal purba. juliaman. sinalsal (sahap pakon aksara simalungun). dewan pimpinan pusat, pematang siantar: 2008. purba, rudolf, dkk. 2012. “pematang siantar: peradaban bahasa simalungun”. purba, dkjd. sejarah simalungun. jakarta: bina budaya simalungun. a thesis. roach, peter. 2000. english phonetics and phonology. cambridge: university press. unesco. 2003. language vitality and language endangerment: unesco ad 1 group on endangered language. paris nazir, m. 1988. metode penelitian. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. w. best, john. 1982. methodologi penelitian pendidikan. surabaya: usaha nasional, a thesis. http://ic.payap.ac.th/graduate/linguistics/theses/ duanlei_thesis.pdf http://www.english.wisc.edu/rfyoung/336/attitu des.pdf. http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.109 3/oxfordhb/9780199744084.001.0001/oxf ordhb-9780199744084-e-16 bahasa minangkabau di daerah asal dengan bahasa minangkabau di daerah rantau malaysia: kajian dialektologis reniwati, noviatri, aslinda, midawati fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas andalas abstrak dalam makalah ini dibandingkan bahasa minangkabau yang digunakan di daerah asal dengan bahasa minangkabau yang digunakan di daerah rantau malaysia. kajian beruang lingkup dialektologi karena isolek yang digunakan di rantau malaysia dihipotesiskan sebagai variasi dari bahasa minangkabau. satuan bahasa yang dibandingkan adalah leksikon. perhitungan persamaan dan perbedaan bentuk leksikal dengan menggunakan metode dialektometri diperoleh tingkat variasi bahasa dari titik-titik pengamatan yang dibandingkan. hasil perhitungan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tingkat variasi bahasa yang paling tinggi adalah perbedaan subdialek. kata kunci: migrasi, bahasa, minangkabau, asal, rantau 1. pendahuluan merantau sudah menjadi budaya orang minangkabau. masyarakat ini memang terkenal dengan kecenderungannya untuk berpindah (merantau). pada awalnya, mereka merantau ke daerah yang tidak jauh dari daerah asal (darek). keinginan membawa hasil bumi yang berlimpah dan keinginan mengenal daerah luar mendorong mereka merantau lebih jauh ke hilir melintasi banjaran bukit barisan dan menghala sungai besar seperti kampar, siak, indragiri, dan batang hari serta mengharungi lautan hingga sampai ke semenanjung malaya. kejayaan kerajaan melaka pada abad 15 lebih mendorong mereka berniaga dan kemudian merantau ke sana. sebahagian dari mereka membuka kampung di melaka (naning) dan negeri sembilan. arus migrasi berlanjut sampai pada masa penjajahan belanda dan ini dilatarbelakangi oleh perlakuan diskriminatif atau represif yang dipraktikkan oleh pemerintah hindia belanda (gusti asnan, 2007). ramainya perantauan ke pulau penang, misalnya terkait dengan keberhasilan dengan bangsa inggris menguasai jalur perdagangan di selat melaka pada tahun 1786 gkaba(sjarifoedin, 2011: 307; kato, 2005:97). perantauan ke rao (kuala lumpur) berkait dengan kekalahan orang padri dari belanda pada pertengahan abad ke-19 (sjarifoedin, 2011:461; gusti asnan, 2007). pada penghujung abad 19, orang minangkabau membuka lombong biji timah dan membuka kedai di kuala lumpur dan sekitaran. sejarah awal kuala lumpur penuh diwarnai oleh kegiatan masyarakat perantau yang datang kebanyakkannya dari tanah minang (dan juga dari jawa) (nelmawarni bungo dan nordin hussin, 2011). di antara mereka ada yang memiliki tanah yang cukup luas dan menanaminya dengan pohon karet. awal abad 20, orang minang lebih ramai lagi merantau ke semenanjung malaya. daerah asal mereka beragam. ada yag jurnal arbitrer 173 datang dari bonjol, rao, dan batu sangkar. kemudian orang pariaman dan bukittingi juga datang ke sana untuk berniaga dan membuka usaha lainnya. perantauan kemudian menyebar sampai ke kawasan selangor sekarang seperti gombak dan kuang. perantau minangkabau juga banyak dijumpai di kawasan selangor bagian selatan dan tenggara yang dahulunya termasuk ke dalam negeri sembilan. sebagian mereka adalah para migran yang datang jauh sebelum abad 18. sebagian lagi termasuk perantau baru yang datang kemudian. daerah perantauan mereka meluas dan menyebar sampai perak, kedah, kelantan, dan kawasan sekitaran. para pakar di bidang sejarah dan sosiobudaya sudah mengkaji keterkaitan masyarakat minangkabau asal dengan daerah rantau tersebut di atas. linguistik dapat melakukan hal yang sama dalam mencari jawaban ada tidaknya jejak keminangkabauan di daerah rantau dari aspek bahasa. dari asumsi ini dikembangkan hipotesis bahwa bahasa di daerah rantau tersebut memiliki persamaan dengan bahasa di daerah yang ada hubungan sejarah dengannya. dari hipotesis ini dirumuskanlah permasalahan, yaitu bagaimana tingkat variasi bahasa saat ini antara kedua kawasan, bagaimana persamaan dan perbedaan leksikal dan morfologis antara kedua kawasan, dan apakah faktor yang menyebabkan perubahan berlaku. bahasa memiliki daerah pakai. daerah pakai itu bisa menyempit dan bisa pula meluas. menyebar dan meluasnya daerah pakai bahasa bergantung pada kedinamisan penutur bahasa tersebut. meluas misalnya disebabkan oleh penuturnya meluaskan wilayah huni mereka. omar (1985:4) menamakan penyebaran bahasa berlaku bersama-sama dengan penyebaran penuturnya dengan sebutan penyebaran secara migrasi atau secara perpindahan. keberagaman bahasa menurut guiraud (dalam ayatrohaedi, 1985: 34) dapat pula disebabkan oleh adanya hubungan atau keunggulan bahasa-bahasa yang terbawa ketika terjadi perpindahan penduduk. satuan-satuan bahasa yang dibawa perantau ini bisa berubah dan mengakibatkan banyak perbedaan dengan bahasa minangkabau asal. dalam hal ini, isolek-isolek tetangga berperan dalam proses terjadinya suatu dialek. sebagaimana diketahui, daerah penelitian merupakan daerah yang dikelilingi oleh daerah-daerah yang mungkin juga memiliki kekhasan dan berpotensi turut membentuk kekhasan isolek daerah penelitian. variasi dari satuan-satuan bahasa dapat berbentuk bunyi (bidang fonologi), morfem (bidang morfologi), kalimat (bidang sintaksis), makna (bidang semantik), dan leksikon (bidang lesikologi). variasi bahasa yang dibincangkan dalam tulisan ini dibatasi pada bidang leksikon. peta 1. daerah darek dan rantau minangkabau vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 174 dari perbandingan diperoleh jawaban tingkat variasi dialectal dan persamaan dan perbedaan bentuk leksikal bahasa minangkabau yang digunakan di pasaman timur (bonjol, disingkat b) dan tanah datar (bukik gombak, disingkat bg) dengan bahasa minangkabau yang digunakan di daerah rantau negeri sembilan (rembau, disingkat r) dan selangor dahrul ihsan (simpang tiga gombak, disingkat st). 2. metode untuk mengelompokkan variasi leksikal digunakan kerangka dialektometri. dialektometri ialah pengukuran secara statistik untuk memperoleh kejelasan tingkat variasi bahasa yang pengukurannya dilakukan dengan membandingkan sejumlah bahan yang terkumpul dari daerah yang diteliti dengan menggunakan rumus: s ×100 = d% n s = jumlah beda dengan titik pengamatan lain n = jumlah peta yang dibandingkan d = jarak kosa kata antara titik pengamatan yang dibandingkan (seguy dalam ayatrohaedi 1985: 59-60). pengelompokan mengikuti rumusan guiter (dalam ayatrohaedi 1985: 60): di bawah atau sama dengan 20% dianggap tidak berbeza, 21%-30% dianggap perbedaan bicara, 31%-50% dianggap perbedaan subdialek, 51%-80% dianggap perbedaan dialek, dan > 80% dianggap perbedaan bahasa. perhitungan dialektometri dilakukan dengan dua cara, yaitu segitiga dialektometri dan permutasi. dengan teknik segi tiga dialektometri, titik-titik pengamatan berdekatan saja yang akan dibandingkan sesuai dengan ketentuan penetapan titik-titik pengamatan yang dibandingkan. dengan teknik permutasi, satu titik pengamatan dibandingkan dengan semua titik pengamatan lainnya. penerapan dialektometri akan membuktikan kebenaran hipotesis penelitian ini dan temuan sejauh mana persamaan dan perbedaan bahasa minangkabau asal dengan bahasa minangkabau rantau. adapun leksikon (glos) yang dibagi dengan jumlah leksikon yang (disingkat tp) yang dibandingkan berjumlah 658 leksikon. jumlah ini akan menunjukkan perbedaan antara titik-titik pengamatan. 3. hasil dan pembahasan perhitungan segi tiga dialektometri berdasarkan ketentuan segi tiga dialektometri, titik pengamatan yang akan dibandingkan tersebut tidak boleh bersinggungan. oleh karena itu, titik-titik pengamatan yang akan dibandingkan itu adalah: bg (tp 1) dengan b (tp 2), bg dengan r (tp 3), b-r (tp 3) b-st, dan rst. peta segi tiga dialektometri dapat dilihat di bawah ini. b bg st r b 214 287 285 bg 303 st 177 r jurnal arbitrer 175 peta 2. peta segi tiga dialektometri pada peta di atas tampak tidak ada garis yang menghubungkan antara b dengan r. garis tidak dapat ditarik karena terhalang oleh garis yang menghubungkan antara bg dengan st. berikut ini ditampilkan tabel yang memuat perbedaan leksikon antartitik pengamatan (tp). dari tabel di atas tampak bahwa jumlah perbedaan yang paling tinggi adalah antara bg dengan r yang diikuti oleh b dengan st, bg dengan st, b dengan bg, dan st dengan r. tabel di atas juga memperlihatkan jumlah angka perbedaan yang rendah, yaitu antara st dengan r. setelah dihitung persentase tingkat variasinya, angka variasi persentasenya selaras dengan angka perbedaan sebelumnya. berikut ini ditampilkan tabel hasil perhitungan dalam bentuk persentase. setelah dihitung persentasenya sesuai dengan rumus dialektometri, maka didapat rumusan tingkat variasi bahasa antara titiktitik pengamatan yang dibandingkan. rumusannya adalah sebagai berikut. a. secara umum tidak ada satu titik pengamatan yang menunjukkan perbedaan bahasa. b. tingkat variasi bahasa antara semua titik-titik pengamatan yang dibandingkan berada pada tingkat subdialek saja kecuali antara st dengan r. pengelompokkan tingkat variasi antara tp-tp tersebut adalah pada peringkat subdiale. jumlah persentasenya tidak melebihi 50 %. antara st dengan r hanya menunjukkan perbedaan pada tingkat bicara. tabel 2. persentase tingkat variasi bahasa segi tiga dialektometri persentase yang paling rendah, yaitu antara st dan r. kedua titik pengamatan ini berada di malaysia. demikian pula dengan persentase antara titik pengamatan yang berada di sumatra barat, yaitu antara bg-b. akan tetapi, angka persentasenya lebih tinggi daripada angka persentase antara st dengan r. selanjutnya, persentase yang paling tinggi adalah antara bg-r. keadaan persentase yang juga tinggi juga terdapat antara b-st. perbedaan angka persentase antara tp-tp tersebut, kecuali bg-r sangat rendah, yaitu berkisar antara 1,02-1,34. dari perhitungan segitiga dialektometri dapat pula dikatakan bahwa angka persentase yang tinggi tersebut terdapat antara tp-tp yang berbeda negara. sementara tp-tp yang berada di negara yang sama cenderung menunjukkan angka persentase yang lebih rendah. b bg st r b 32.52 43.62 43.31 bg 44.82 st 26.18 r vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 176 perhitungan permutasi berdasarkan aturan perhitungan permutasi, setiap titik pengamatan dibandingkan dengan titik pengamatan yang lain. berdasarkan cara ini, maka titik-titik pengamatan yang dibandingkan adalah bg-b, bg-r, bg-st, b-st, r-st, bg-r, b-r, dan st-r. tabel 3 di bawah ini menampilkan perbedaan leksikal antara titik-titik pengamatan tersebut. setelah diterapkan rumus dialektometri, maka persentase perbedaan adalah seperti tertera pada tabel di bawah ini. persentase perbedaan leksikon hasil perhitungan dengan cara permutasi ini sama dengan cara segi tiga dialektometri. rumus yang digunakan adalah sama. perbedaannya terletak pada kehadiran persentase antara b dengan r. mengikut aturan segi tiga dialektometri tidak ada garis yang menghubungkan keduanya. oleh karena itu, persentasenya tidak ada. berbeda dengan aturan segi tiga dialektometri, aturan permutasi membolehkan menghitung tingkat variasi bahasa antara kedua titik pengamatan ini. hasil perhitungannya dapat dilihat pada tabel 4 di atas. persentase antara keduanya paling tinggi di antara persentase yang lain. meskipun demikian, angka persentasenya masih menunjukkan perbedaan pada tingkat subdialek. dari semua persentase perbedaan dengan cara permutasi di atas memperkuat dapatan penelitian sebelumnya, melalui cara segi tiga dialektometri bahwa persentase perbedaan leksikon antara titik pengamatan yang berada di negara yang sama cenderung rendah. sebaliknya, persentase perbedaan leksikon antara titik pengamatan yang berada di negara yang berbeda cenderung tinggi. perubahan leksikal hasil penerapan rumus dialektometri dengan cara segi tiga dialektometri dan permutasi tidak menunjukkan perbedaan bahasa. perbedaannya malah berada pada tingkat perbedaan subdialek. artinya, leksikon yang digunakan masyarakat di titik-titik pengamatan tersebut masih banyak yang sama. akan tetapi apabila diperhatikan lagi semua leksikon yang berbeda, bentuknya memang berbeda. tabel 3. perbedaan leksikon tabel 4. persentase tingkat variasi bahasa permutasi perbedaan itu disebabkan oleh asal leksikon itu memang berbeda. tampaknya titik pengamatan di selangor dan negeri sembilan mendapat pengaruh leksikon dari bahasa inggris yang menjadi bahagian dari kosa kata bahasa melayu malaysia. misal, di tp st digunakan bentuk /las/ untuk konsep „terakhir‟. konsep „jas‟ direalisasikan dengan /kut/ di tp st dan r. contoh lain, di tp st digunakan bentuk /poket/ untuk konsep „kantong‟. untuk dua konsep terakhir, tp-tp daerah b bg st r b 32.52 43.62 43.31 bg 41.12 44.82 st 26,18 r b bg st r b 214 287 285 bg 278 303 st 177 r jurnal arbitrer 177 asal menggunakan bentuk yang berasal dari bahasa belanda. rendahnya persentase perhitungan dialektometri antara titik-titik pengamatan di rantau, yang tidak menunjukkan perbedaan dapat dipahami. keadaan ini berbeda dengan hasil perhitungan dialektometri antara dua titik pengamatan di daerah asal yang sedikit lebih tinggi daripada hasil perhitungan dialektometri antara titik pengamatan di daerah rantau. keadaan sarana transportasi dan alam, serta jarak mempengaruhi mobilitas dan komunikasi penduduk. politik bahasa dan keadaan kebahasaan kedua negara juga berbeda. selain itu, sejarah kolonial kedua negara juga berbeda. contoh-contoh yang telah disebutkan di atas menunjukkan hal demikian. 4. penutup dari paparan analisis data dapat ditarik sejumlah kesimpulan. pada bahasa yang digunakan masyarakat di titik-titik pengamatan di daerah asal dengan daerah rantau terdapat persamaan dan perbedaan bentuk leksikon. hasil penerapan perhitungan dialektometri baik dengan teknik segi tiga dialektometri mahupun permutasi menunjukkan hasil yang cenderung sama. titik-titik pengamatan menunjukkan pengelompokan paling tinggi adalah pada tingkat subdialek kecuali antara tp st dengan r. dari persentase perbedaan leksikal, kedua tp rantau ini menunjukkan perbedaan pada tingkat bicara. sementara antara tp-tp di daerah asal, yaitu tp b dan bg menunjukkan perbedaan subdialek. terdapat sejumlah faktor yang berperan dalam membentuk perbedaan antara tptp daerah rantau dengan tp-tp daerah asal. faktor itu antara lain adalah masalah sarana dan prasarana, politik bahasa, dan sejarah kolonial kedua negara yang berbeda. vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 178 daftar pustaka ayatrohaedi. 1985. bahasa sunda di daerah cirebon. seri ildep. jakarta: djambatan. chambers, j.k. & trudgill, p. 1980. dialectology. cambridge-london: cambridge university press. de josseline de yong, p.e. 1969. minangkabau and negeri sembilan:socio-political structure in indonesia. djakarta: bharata. dobbin, cristine. 2008. gejolak ekonomi, kebangkitan islam, dan gerakan padri. depok: komunitas bambu. francis, w. n. 1983. dialectology: an introduction. london & new york: longman. gusti asnan. 2007. “penjajahan belanda di sumatera barat dan migrasi orang minangkabau ke tanah semenanjung”. makalah pada seminar sehari indonesia malaysia: geografi melayu dalam perspektif budaya, padang, tanggal 10 september 2007. idris, abdul samad.1968. negeri sembilan dan sejarahnya. seremban. kato, tsuyushi. 2005. adat minangkabau dan merantau dalam perspektif sejarah. terjemahan. jakarta: balai bahasa. koentjaraningrat. 1996. pengantar antropologi i. jakarta: rineka cipta. kurath, h. 1972. studies in area linguistic. bloomington: indiana universiry press. lauder, multamia retno mayekti tawangsih. 1990. “pemetaan distribusi bahasa di tangerang”. jakarta: universitas indonesia. disertasi. mohamed, noriah dan reniwati. 2010. “kosa kata dasar empat isolek dan menimbangkan semula isolek selako dalam rekonstruksi bahasa melayik purba: satu tinjauan perbandingan linguistik historis komparatif”. makalah pada seminar antarabangsa linguistik lintas bidang, 18 maret 2010. padang: universitas andalas. nadra dan reniwati. 2009. dialektologi: teori dan metode. yogyakarta: cv elmatera publishing. nadra, reniwati, efriyades. 2006. “daerah asal dan arah migrasi orang minangkabu di provinsi jambi, bengkulu, dan sumatera utara berdasarkan kajian variasi dialektal”. laporan penelitian rukk. nadra, reniwati, efriyades. 2008. “daerah asal dan arah migrasi orang minangkabu di provinsi jambi, bengkulu, dan sumatera utara berdasarkan kajian variasi dialektal”. jurnal makara, serisosial-humaniora volume 12, juli 2008, nomor 1, issn 1693-6701. naim, mokhtar. 1979. merantau: pola migrasi suku minangkabau. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. nelmawarni bungo dan nordin hussin, 2011. “merantau ke kuala lumpur: tradisi merantau dan berdagang masyarakat minang” dalam geografia online, tm malaysian journal of society and space 7 special issue: social and spatial challenges of malaysian development (116 131). nothofer 1996 “dialek kampong ayer dalam perbandingan dengan dialek/bahasa austronesia barat yang lain”. makalah untuk simposium kampong ayer bandar seri begawan, brunei darussalam. jurnal arbitrer 179 omar, asmah haji. 1985. susur galus bahasa melayu. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. petyt, k.m. 1980. the study of dialect: an introduction to dialectology. worcester and london: the trinity press. reniwati. 1990. “bahasa minangkabau dan dialek negeri sembilan dalam perbandingan fonemis”. andalas, jurnal penelitian dan pengabdian pada masyarakat, issn 0852-003. no.5/september/tahun ii/1990. reniwati. 2011. “bahasa minangkabau dan dialek negeri sembilan dalam perbandingan fonologis”. makalah dalam persidangan antarabangsa hubungan malaysia-indonesia v (pahmi5) di university malaya, kuala lumpur. reniwati. 2013. “dialek negeri sembilan: kajian rekonstruksi jejak keminangkabauan” dalam seminar kebangsaan isu ketamadunan dan cabaran semasa (sikcas) di pusat pengajian ilmu kemanusiaan universiti sains malaysia pada 27 november 2013. sjarifoedin tj.a, amir. 2011. minangkabau dari dinasti iskandar zulkarnain sampai tuanku imam bonjol. jakarta: pt gria media prima. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. tentang penulis 1. dr. reniwati, m.hum. adalah dosen di jurusan sastra daerah fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. pendidikan terakhir, s3, diselesaikan di apm um malaysia. 2. dra. noviatri, m.hum. adalah dosen di jurusan sastra indonesia fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. pendidikan terakhir, s2, diselesaikan di fakultas sastra universitas gadjah mada. 3. dr. aslinda, m.hum. adalah dosen di jurusan sastra indonesia fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. pendidikan terakhir, s3, diselesaikan di fssk ukm malaysia. 4. dr. midawati, m.hum. adalah dosen di jurusan sejarah fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. pendidikan terakhir, s3, diselesaikan di fssk ukm malaysia. vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 180 62 fonologi bahasa korea ria febrina, sri wahyuni, sonezza ladyanna jurusan sastra indonesia, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas andalas email: riafebrina03@gmail.com email: eny.azwar@gmail.com email: ladyannahufs@gmail.com abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan fonologi bahasa korea. bahasa korea memiliki fonem /i/, /i:/, /e/, /e:/, /u/, /u:/, /ŭ/, /o/, /o:/, /ŏ/, /a/, /a:/, /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /j/, /c/, /g/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /s/, /x/, /h/, /č/, /l/, /r/, /y/, /w/; /ṫ/, dan /ṗ/; diftong [ia], [iŏ], dan [iu]; serta serta struktur suku kata v, vk, kv, kvk, kvv, kkv, dan kvkk. fonem bahasa korea berupa fonem vokal /i/, /e/, /u/, /o/, dan /a/ berdistribusi secara lengkap. namun, fonem /e/ hanya berdistribusi di tengah dan akhir kata saja. diftong [ia] dan [iu] berdistribusi di tengah kata, sementara fonem [iŏ] terdapat di tengah dan akhir kata. kata-kata kunci: fonologi, fon, fonem, bahasa korea pendahuluan bahasa korea merupakan bahasa yang berasal dari rumpun bahasa altaik. menurut crystal (1987:306), rumpun bahasa altaik memiliki cakupan geografi mulai dari siberia sampai sungai volga. crystal juga menyatakan bahwa rumpun bahasa altaik meliputi bahasa turki, mongolia, dan tungusik. rumpun bahasa altaik ini terdiri dari 40 bahasa atau lebih. selanjutnya, crystal (1987) menyatakan bahwa alasan bahasa korea termasuk dalam rumpun altaik adalah karena bahasa korea mempunyai kekhasan susunan dan kesamaan dengan bahasa lain yang tergolong rumpun altaik. bahasa korea diduga lebih banyak dipengaruhi oleh bahasa china. lebih dari setengah kosakata bahasa korea berasal dari bahasa china. bahasa korea memiliki tataran bahasa tersendiri, termasuk fonologi. fonologi berkaitan dengan bunyi-bunyi bahasa yang dituturkan oleh penuturnya, baik yang tidak membedakan makna (fonetik), maupun yang membedakan makna (fonemik). bunyi-bunyi yang dituturkan oleh penutur bahasa korea memiliki keunikan. misalnya, bunyi [ŭ] dalam bahasa korea dapat dilihat pada [ŭisa] yang berarti ‘dokter’. fonem lainnya yang ditemukan dalam bahasa korea ialah fonem [i] yang dapat dilihat seperti pada data berikut. /i/ /ima/ ‘dahi’ selain itu, bahasa korea memiliki fonem konsonan tunggal [č], seperti [čaka] yang bermakna ‘penulis’. bahasa korea memiliki kaidah kebahasaan tersendiri. sistem fonologi bahasa korea berbeda dengan bahasa lain di dunia. oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan penelitian mengenai fonologi bahasa korea. metode penelitian data dalam bahasa korea dikumpulkan dengan metode simak yang dikemukakan oleh sudaryanto (1993:133—136). metode simak dilakukan dengan menyimak penggunaan bahasa oleh penutur korea dalam melafalkan issn 2339-1162 63 kata dalam bahasa korea. untuk daftar kata, digunakan daftar kosa kata dasar dan kosa kata budaya yang digunakan oleh departemen pendidikan nasional (2006). metode simak dilakukan dengan menyimak penggunaan bahasa penutur bahasa korea dengan teknik dasar berupa teknik sadap dan simak bebas libat cakap (sblc), serta teknik rekam dan teknik catat sebagai teknik lanjutan. teknik sadap menuntut ketelitian peneliti dalam menyadap pelafalan kata dalam bahasa korea. selanjutnya, teknik sadap ini diikuti dengan penerapan teknik sblc dalam penelitian, yaitu dilakukan dengan menyimak pelafalan kata tanpa perlu melibatkan diri ke dalam ajang pembicaraan. pada teknik ini, digunakan teknik lanjutan rekam untuk merekam kata yang dilafalkan penutur korea. setelah perekaman, penelitian dilanjutkan dengan menggunakan teknik lanjutan catat dengan menggunakan transkripsi fonetis. untuk mengimbangi teknik tersebut, digunakan teknik simak libat cakap (slc) yang dikemukakan sudaryanto (1993:133—134). teknik slc merupakan teknik imbangan bagi teknik pertama slbc. teknik slc ini menuntut partisipasi peneliti untuk mendapatkan data yang jelas, yang disertai dengan menyimak pembicaraan, sambil meminta pengulangan kata yang kurang jelas yang dituturkan oleh penutur korea. teknik ini pun disertai dengan teknik rekam untuk merekam data yang diperoleh dari informan, serta teknik catat dengan menggunakan transkripsi fonetis. teknik ini dapat menghasilkan data yang lebih akurat. pada tahap analisis fonologi bahasa korea, digunakan metode padan yang dikemukakan oleh sudaryanto (1993:13), yaitu metode yang alat penentunya di luar dan tidak menjadi bagian dari bahasa yang bersangkutan. metode padan yang digunakan adalah metode padan fonetis artikulatoris (sudaryanto, 1993:23—29). metode ini dilakukan dengan teknik dasar berupa teknik pilah unsur penentu dengan daya pilah sebagai pembeda organ wicara. alat penentu ini digunakan untuk menentukan satuan lingual seperti fon dan silabe bahasa korea. lalu, dilanjutkan dengan teknik lanjutan berupa teknik hubung banding menyamakan (hbs) dengan alat penyamaan berupa standar penyamaan atau pembaku, yaitu ipa. analisis data dilanjutkan dengan menggunakan metode agih. sudaryanto (1993:31—39) mengemukakan bahwa metode agih merupakan metode yang alat penentunya berupa bahasa yang bersangkutan. teknik dasarnya adalah teknik bagi unsur langsung (teknik bul), dan digunakan teknik lanjutan berupa teknik ganti yang dilaksanakan dengan menggantikan fon yang dicurigai sebagai fonem dengan fon lain yang mirip secara artikulatoris. hasil analisis data disajikan berdasarkan metode penyajian formal dan informal. menurut sudaryanto (1993:144—157), metode penyajian formal dilakukan dengan menggunakan tanda dan lambang, serta metode informal adalah metode yang diwujudkan dengan menyajikan hasil analisis data melalui uraian kata-kata biasa. hasil dan pembahasan bahasa korea memiliki fonem vokal dan fonem konsonan. dalam penelitian ini, dideskripsikan juga diftong dan struktur suku kata bahasa korea. penjelasan mengenai fonem, diftong, dan struktur suku kata dalam bahasa korea dapat dilihat sebagai berikut. fonem vokal dalam bahasa korea, terdapat 12 fonem vokal. fonem-fonem vokal tersebut adalah tujuh fonem vokal biasa, dan lima fonem vokal panjang. fonem-fonem vokal biasa adalah /i/, /e/, /u/, /ŭ/, /o/, /ŏ/, dan /a/. fonem-fonem vokal panjang adalah /i:/, /e:/, /u:/, /o:/, dan /a:/. kedua belas fonem tersebut dibedakan berdasarkan bagian lidah, posisi lidah, dan bangun atau bentuk mulut. bila dimasukkan ke dalam tabel fonem vokal, hasilnya adalah sebagai berikut. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 64 tabel 1 fonem vokal dalam bahasa korea ket: i = berdasarkan maju mundurnya lidah ii = berdasarkan membundartidaknya bibir iii = berdasarkan naik turunnya lidah tb = tak bundar b = bundar fonem /i/ fonem /i/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /i/ [ima] ‘dahi’ [gwail] ‘buah’ [hǒri] ‘pinggang’ [ijaŋ] ‘kepala desa’ [jukida] ‘bunuh’ [maktegi] ‘tongkat’ [ip] ‘daun’ [masida] ‘minum’ [puri] ‘akar’ tabel 2 distribusi fonem /i/ fonem /i:/ fonem /i:/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /i:/ [i:sŭl] ‘embun’ [dǒnji:da] ‘lempar’ [ai:] ‘anak’ [i:jil] ‘disentri’ [či:mčaxan] ‘tenang’ [ṗeŋi:] ‘gasing’ [i:bul] ‘selimut’ [jaŋi:n] ‘tukang’ [bǒŋǒri:] ‘bisu’ tabel 3 distribusi fonem /i:/ fonem /e/ fonem /e/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /e/ [galsek] ‘coklat’ [baŋpe] ‘perisai’ [bek] ‘seratus’ [čamse] ‘pipit’ [nelgŭn] ‘tua’ [gade] ‘kudakuda’ tabel 4 distribusi fonem /e/ fonem /e:/ fonem /e:/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. awa l tengah akhir /e: / [me:tbidulgi ] ‘perkutut’ [ge:] ‘kepiting’ [me:gi] ‘ikan lele’ [ebǒlle:] ‘kepompong ’ [ge:ŭreŭbeŋi ] ‘pemalas’ [gaunde:] ‘tengah’ tabel 5 distribusi fonem /e:/ fonem /u/ fonem /u/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /u/ [uri] ‘kami’ [bul] ‘api’ [diukgu] ‘sepak bola’ [udunhan] ‘dungu’ [gurŭm] ‘awan’ [noŋbu] ‘petani’ [utta] ‘tertawa’ [puri] ‘akar’ [jiryu] ‘anak sungai’ tabel 6 distribusi fonem /u/ i ii iii depan tengah belakang b tb b t b b tb atas i, i: ŭ u, u: tengah e, e: ŏ o, o: bawah a, a: issn 2339-1162 65 fonem /u:/ fonem /u:/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. aw al tengah akhir /u: / [bu:yuha n] ‘kaya’ [ǒbu:] ‘nelayan’ [xŭŋe:mu :l] ‘jala besar’ [noŋbu:] ‘petani’ [ju:k] ‘bubur’ [muhwagwanam u:] ‘beringin’ tabel 7 distribusi fonem /u:/ fonem /ŭ/ fonem /ŭ/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /ŭ / [ŭisa] ‘dokter’ [buŭn] ‘benih’ [botŭ] ‘perahu’ [ŭmak] ‘musik’ [gurŭm] ‘awan’ [sŭtyuŏdisŭ ] ‘pramugari’ [ŭčeguk ] ‘kantor pos’ [nappŭda] ‘buruk’ [teipŭ] ‘tape recorder’ tabel 8 distribusi fonem /ŭ/ fonem /o/ fonem /o/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /o / [oda] ‘datang’ [joŭn] ‘baik’ [so] ‘sapi’ [opa] ‘abang/kak ak lakilaki’ [sogŭn] ‘garam’ [gmo] ‘adik perempu an ibu’ [odumak] [yakonhada [chaŋgo] ‘pondok’ ] ‘bertunang an’ ‘lumbun g’ tabel 9 distribusi fonem /o/ fonem /o:/ fonem /o:/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /o:/ [o:m] ‘kudis’ [de:mo:ri] ‘botak’ [no:] ‘dayung’ [o:jum] ‘kencing’ [mo:goli] ‘kalung’ [dando:] ‘parang’ [o:jiŋǒ] ‘cumicumi’ [gwigo:li] ‘anting’ [sikčo:] ‘cuka’ tabel 10 distribusi fonem /o:/ fonem /ŏ/ fonem /ŏ/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /ŏ / [ŏje:] ‘kemarin’ [dŭŋe:ŏpda] ‘gendong’ [biŏ] ‘padi’ [ŏduwun] ‘gelap’ [jŏpsi] ‘piring’ [saŋčŏ] ‘luka’ [ŏrisŏkŭn ] ‘bodoh’ [jŏtgarak] ‘bertunangan ’ [čŏnkŏ] ‘sepeda ’ tabel 11 distribusi fonem /ŏ/ fonem /a/ fonem /a/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /a/ [ai] ‘anak’ [doraoda] ‘balik’ [ṫŭda] ‘bakar’ [abŏji] ‘ayah’ [bawi] ‘batu’ [nupta] ‘baring’ [ajossi] [orbarŭn] [gŏtta] jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 66 ‘panggilan untuk lelaki tua’ ‘benar’ ‘berjalan’ tabel 12 distribusi fonem /a/ fonem /a:/ fonem /a:/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /a:/ [ba:da] ‘laut’ [bǒrida:] ‘buang’ [na:mja] ‘lelaki’ [yǒlda:] ‘buka’ [xa:l] ‘golok’ [daṫuda:] ‘berkelahi’ tabel 13 distribusi fonem /a:/ fonem konsonan dalam bahasa korea, terdapat 21 fonem konsonan. fonem-fonem konsonan tersebut adalah /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /j/, /c/, /g/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /s/, /x/, /h/, /č/, /l/, /r/, /y/, /w/, /ṫ/, dan /ṗ/. kedua puluh satu fonem tersebut dapat dilihat sebagai berikut. fonem /b/ fonem /b/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /b/ [baram] ‘angin’ [mulbagaji] ‘gayung’ [boda] ‘lihat’ [ŏbu] ‘nelayan’ [be] ‘perut’ [iseŭlbi] ‘gerimis’ tabel 14 distribusi fonem /b/ fonem /p/ fonem /p/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /p/ [puri] ‘akar’ [jŏpsi] ‘piring’ [ip] ‘daun’ [palgan] [sipṗal] [nunsŏp] ‘merah’ ‘delapan belas’ ‘berat’ [parŭn] ‘cepat’ [sipman] ‘seratus ribu’ [xŏp] ‘cangkir’ tabel 15 distribusi fonem /p/ fonem /d/ fonem /d/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /d/ [denamu] ‘bambu’ [mida] ‘dorong’ [dakta] ‘gosok’ [jijihada] ‘membopong’ [dolboda] ‘mengasuh’ [yŏlda] ‘membuka’ tabel 16 distribusi fonem /d/ fonem /t/ fonem /t/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /t/ [terida] ‘hantam’ [dotjulde] ‘cadik’ [gŭrŭt] ‘wadah’ [tŏlŏjida] ‘jatuh’ [sutgarak] ‘sendok’ [dŏt] ‘jerat’ [tŭda] ‘mengapung’ [dotjari] ‘tikar’ [sot] ‘periuk’ tabel 17 distribusi fonem /t/ fonem /j/ fonem /j/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /j/ [je] ‘abu’ [gajaŋjari] ‘pemalu’ [jŏŋo] ‘tengah hari’ [bujirŏnhan] ‘rajin’ [jaŋnimin] ‘buta’ [gaji] ‘terung’ tabel 18 distribusi fonem /j/ fonem /c/ issn 2339-1162 67 fonem /c/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /c/ [cinbap] ‘nasi kukus’ [orŭncok] ‘kanan’ [calbŭn] ‘pendek’ [ǒncok] ‘kiri’ [cirŭda] ‘menikam’ [doŋcok] ‘timur’ tabel 19 distribusi fonem /c/ fonem /g/ fonem /g/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /g/ [gurŭn] ‘pita’ [gogi] ‘daging’ [ge] ‘anjing’ [sagoyaja] ‘sagu’ [gokju] ‘arak’ [gŏguma] ‘ubi’ tabel 20 distribusi fonem /g/ fonem /k/ fonem /k/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /k/ [kŭn] ‘tali’ [odumakjip] ‘dangau’ [gultuk] ‘lubang asap’ [kot] ‘bunga’ [doki] ‘kapak’ [yak] ‘obat’ [kŏpsil] ‘kulit’ [dakta] ‘gosok’ [mok] ‘leher’’ tabel 21 distribusi fonem /k/ fonem /m/ fonem /m/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /m/ [mul] ‘air’ [namja] ‘lelaki’ [sam] ‘tiga’ [mugŏun] [ŏmŏni] [hoŋsurim ‘berat’ ‘ibu’ ] ‘bakau’ [murŭp] ‘lutut’ [gamja] ‘kentang’ [maŭm] ‘hati’ tabel 22 distribusi fonem /m/ fonem /n/ fonem /n/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal, tengah, dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /n/ [nunsŏp] ‘berat’ [ŏndŏk] ‘bukit’ [čuwun] ‘dingin’ [noran] ‘kuning’ [sonmok] ‘pergelangan tangan’ [jopŭn] ‘sempit’ [namu] ‘pohon’ [hana] ‘satu’ [nun] ‘mata’ tabel 23 distribusi fonem /n/ fonem /ŋ/ fonem /ŋ/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /ŋ/ [jŏŋsuri] ‘ubun-ubun’ [čonjaŋ] ‘kepala kampung’ [čosŭŋdal] ‘bulan sabit’ [yaŋ] ‘domba’ [sŏŋin] ‘dewasa’ [ṫaŋ] ‘tanah’ tabel 24 distribusi fonem /ŋ/ fonem /s/ fonem /s/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /s/ [sa] ‘empat’ [wonsuŋi] ‘beruk’ [suyŏŋhada] ‘berenang’ [sekiyŏmso] ‘anak kambing’ [son] ‘tangan’ [doksuri] ‘elang’ tabel 25 distribusi fonem /s/ fonem /x/ jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 68 fonem /x/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /x/ [xo] ‘hidung’ [samxida] ‘telan’ [xoŋ] ‘kacang’ [uŋxŭrida] ‘jongkok’ [xotsuyŏm] ‘kumis’ [hŏboxada] ‘sembuh’ tabel 26 distribusi fonem /x/ fonem /h/ fonem /h/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata, seperti berikut. awal tengah akhir /h/ [hŏri] ‘pinggang’ [ilhŭ] ‘tujuh puluh’ [he] ‘matahari’ [ohu] ‘sore’ [horaŋi] ‘harimau’ [jijihada] ‘bopong’ tabel 27 distribusi fonem /h/ fonem /č/ fonem /č/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /č/ [čŏnsik] ‘asma’ [saŋčŏ] ‘luka’ [čaemnŭn] ‘sabar’ [yače] ‘sayur’ [čo] ‘lilin’ [čučŭxada] ‘raba’ tabel 28 distribusi fonem /č/ fonem /r/ fonem /r/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /r/ [puri] ‘akar’ [uri] ‘kami’ [jŏtgarak] ‘bertunangan’ tabel 29 distribusi fonem /r/ fonem /l/ fonem /l/ berdistribusi pada posisi tengah dan akhir kata. awal tengah akhir /l/ [giŏlhon] ‘kawin’ [kul] ‘madu’ [ṗalkumči] ‘siku’ [gwail] ‘buah’ [dŭlti] ‘alangalang’ [biŏl] ‘bintang’ tabel 30 distribusi fonem /l/ fonem /y/ fonem /y/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /y/ [yŏmso] ‘kambing’ [sekiyaŋ] ‘anak domba’ [yŏu] ‘musang’ [sagoyaja] ‘sagu’ [yače] ‘sayur’ [jiryu] ‘anak sungai’ tabel 31 distribusi fonem /y/ fonem /w/ fonem /w/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akh ir /w / [wonsuŋi] ‘kera’ [giwa] ‘genteng’ [wahamke] ‘dengan’ [gŏwi] ‘angsa’ [wujŏpčoxa ha] [muhwagwana mu] issn 2339-1162 69 ‘sentuh’ ‘beringin’ tabel 32 distribusi fonem /w/ fonem /ṫ/ fonem /ṫ/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /ṫ/ [ṫeŏnada] ‘lahir’ [jŏnṫoŋjidoja] ‘kepala adat’ [ṫŏk] ‘dagu’ [bokṫoŋ] ‘sakit perut’ [ṫamyoksŭrŏun] ‘rakus’ [sonṫop] ‘kuku’ tabel 33 distribusi fonem /ṫ/ fonem /ṗ/ fonem /ṗ/ berdistribusi pada posisi awal dan tengah kata. awal tengah akhir /ṗ/ [ṗi] ‘darah’ [aṗŭn] ‘sakit’ [ṗiri] ‘suling’ [sipṗal] ‘delapan belas’ [ṗiŏniuk] ‘dendeng’ [ṗŭraiṗen] ‘wajan’ tabel 34 distribusi fonem /ṗ/ diftong diftong dalam bahasa korea dibagi menjadi tiga jenis, yaitu [ia], [iŏ], dan [iu]. ketiga jenis diftong ini biasanya terdapat pada tengah dan akhir suku kata. diftong [ia], contoh: [ia] /dalgial/ ‘telur’ [ia] /piam/ ‘pipi’ [ia] /jongiaŋ/ ‘bisul’ diftong [iŏ], contoh: [iŏ] /biŏl/ ‘bintang’ [iŏ] /gŭniŏ/ ‘ia’ [iŏ] /hiŏ/ ‘lidah’ diftong [iu], contoh: [iu] /giul/ ‘jeruk’ [iu] /sipiuk/ ‘enam belas’ struktur suku kata kata dalam bahasa korea terdiri atas satu, dua, tiga, empat, lima, dan enam suku kata. struktur suku kata tersebut dapat dilihat sebagai berikut. a. satu suku kata /je/ ‘abu’ /mul/ ‘air’ /ge/ ‘anjing’ b. dua suku kata /pu-ri / ‘akar’ /go-gi/ ‘daging’ /sŏ-da/ ’berdiri’ c. tiga suku kata /o-rŭn-cok/ ‘kanan’ /nu-rŭ-da/ ‘peras’ /mak-de-gi/ ‘tongkat’ d. empat suku kata /mŏ-ri-xa-rak/ ‘rambut’ /meet-bi-dul-gi/ ‘perkutut’ /giŏ-dŭ-ra-ŋi/ ‘ketiak’ e. lima suku kata /mu-sŏ-wo-ha-nŭn/ ‘tajam’ /ya-gan-baŋ-bŏm-de/ ‘ronda malam’ /dŭŋ-na-mu-bu-če/ ‘kipas angin’ f. enam suku kata /gi pŭnjamŭljada/ ‘nyenyak’ /he-bon-jŏ-ki-it-ta/ ‘pernah’ struktur suku kata tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel berikut. no struktur suku kata contoh 1 v a-ne 2 vk an-ge 3 kv ma-rŭn 4 kvk mul 5 kvv yŏu 6 kkv gwa-il 7 kkvk chaŋ-go tabel 35 struktur suku kata dalam bahasa korea penutup bahasa korea memiliki fonem /i/, /i:/, /e/, /e:/, /u/, /u:/, /ŭ/, /o/, /o:/, /ŏ/, /a/, /a:/, /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /j/, /c/, /g/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /s/, /x/, /h/, /č/, /l/, /r/, /y/, /w/; /ṫ/, dan /ṗ/; diftong [ia], [iŏ], dan [iu]; jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 70 serta serta struktur suku kata v, vk, kv, kvk, kvv, kkv, dan kvkk. fonem bahasa korea berupa fonem vokal /i/, /e/, /u/, /o/, dan /a/ berdistribusi secara lengkap. namun, fonem /e/ hanya berdistribusi di tengah dan akhir kata saja. diftong [ia] dan [iu] berdistribusi di tengah kata, sementara fonem [iŏ] terdapat di tengah dan akhir kata. daftar pustaka crystal, david. 1987. the cambridge encyclopedia of language. london: cambridge university press. departemen pendidikan nasional. 2006. “kuisioner kosa kata dasar dan kata budaya dasar”. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional. marsono. 2008. fonetik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. verhaar, j.w.m. 2001. asas-asas linguistik umum. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. wijana, i dewa putu. 2009. berkenalan dengan linguistik. yogyakarta: pustaka araska. kompetensi makrostruktur mahasiswa unidha dilihat dari fungsi hemisfer kanan handoko, s.s, m.hum rahma yanti, s.s, m.eil rabbi antaridha, s.s, m.a universitas dharma andalas handzain@yahoo.co.id abstract research on language competence of university students is critical since many people consider them have problem in well manner, especially in communication. communication is not only passing information from speaker to hearer through language but also involve critical thinking and cognitive aspect of language. macrostructure is competence which reflects speakers ability in using cognitive aspect to processing language. while microstructure is processed in left hemispher, macrostructure depends on process in right hemisphere. it is because macrostructure need holistic processing which connect partial informations and figure out the relation between the informations. research toward students of universitas dharma andalas shows that many students have problem in processing macrostructure aspect of language. about 81% participants have problem in summarizing, 75% participants have problem in memorizing adjective, 70% participants have problem in immidiate memory processing, 75% particiants have difficulty in figuring implicit relation, and 70% participants have difficult in using cohesion. keywords: macrostructure, right hemisphere, language competence volume iii no. 2, edisi oktober 2016 35 i. pendahuluan nologi, semantik, dan sintaksis) saja, tapi juga harus mempertimbangkan aspek kon penelitian tentang kompetensi bahasa, teks dan sosial. hal ini dikarenakan baha khususnya kompetensi yang berkaitan desa merupakan entitas yang tidak dapat ngan otak kanan, sering kali diabaikan dadipisahkan dari konteks dan aspek sosial lam penelitian kebahasaan. hal ini mungpenggunaan bahasa. oleh karena ini, da kin dikarenakan kompleksitas bahasa itu lam berkomunikasi, selain hemisfer kiri, sendiri dan juga kompleksitas penutur bakinerja hemisfer kanan juga harus diop hasa. karena kompleksitas ini, maka petimalkan agar penutur bahasa mampu ber nelitian tentang uji kompetensi kebahasabahasa dengan baik. an juga meliputi aspek yang cukup komp leks pula. salah satu metode yang telah dikem bangkan untuk memuji kompetensi keba dharmaperwira-prins (2004: 40) mehasaan hemisfer kanan adalah ―pemerik nyatakan bahwa penelitian mengenai basaan komunikasi hemisfer kanan‖ (pk hasa dan hemisfer kanan meliputi aspek hk) (dharmaperwira-prins, 2004). meto leksiko-semantik, makro-struktur, pragde ini bertujuan untuk memeriksa ganggu matik, dan prosodi. aspek leksiko-sean-gangguan leksiko-pragmatik, makros mantik meliputi aspek penamaan, di mana truktur, prosodi dan menulis, dan ga hemisfer kanan berfungsi dalam penamngguan pragmatik. metode ini terdiri dari aan kata-kata yang konkret, yang dapat alat pemeriksaan berupa baterai pemerik digambarkan secara visual. semakin konsaan dan daftar pertanyaan. dengan me kret dan semakin pendek sebuah kata, senggunakan metode ini, dapat diketahui makin mudah hemisfer kanan mengenaada tidaknya gangguan komunikasi dan linya. sebaliknya, kata-kata yang abstak tingkat kompetensi hemisfer kanan subjek diproses di hemisfer kanan berdasarkan yang diteliti. analisis susunan huruf-hurufnya. aspek makrostruktur adalah struktur keseluruhan dalam peneli tian ini, peneli ti menerapkan sebuah cerita atau teks. hemisfer kanan metode pkhk untuk menguji kompetensi berperan dalam pemahaman cerita secara kebahasaan mahasiswa, khususnya kom keseluruhan dan membuat hubungan yang petensi makrostruktur. dihara pkan dengan logis dalam sebuah teks (kohesi dan penerapan metode ini dapat ditemukan koherensi). aspek pragmatik meliputi hugangguan-gangguan komunikasi, khusus bungan bahasa dan konteks penggunaannya yang berkaitan dengan kompetensi nya. hemisfer kanan berperan dalam memakrostruktur, sehingga dapat dicarikan ngutarakan dan memahami bahasa sesuai solusi dan tindakan terhadap gangguan dengan konteks komunikasi, seperti megangguan tersebut untuk membentuk ge mahami aspek tidak langsung, kiasan, dan nerasi yang mampu mengoptimalkan humor. aspek kebahasaan ini bisa dikefungsi hemisfer kiri dan hemisfer kanan tahui dengan melakukan uji kompetensi secara berimbang. kebahasaan. kompetensi makrostruktur dan fungsi uji kompetensi kebahasaan merupakan hemisfer kanan cara untuk mengetahui kompetensi keba hasaan meliputi aspek multidimensi yang proses berbahasa tidak hanya didominasi berperan dalam komunikasi. uji kompeoleh hemisfer kiri. banyak penelitian tensi kebahasaan seharusnya tidak saja neurologi yang menunjukan bahwa bahasa berfokus pada aspek mikrolinguistik (fojuga diproses di hemisfer kanan. hipo 36 arbitrer tesis lenneberg (1967) menyatakan bahbaik bentuk (koherensi) ataupun makna wa kedua hemisfer pada anak berumur 2 (kohesi), dan perbandingan macam kata. tahun memiliki potensi yang sama dalam istilah makrostruktur pertama kali diper memporoses bahasa, namun seiring waktu kenalkan oleh bierwisch (1965) dan ke hemisfer kiri berkembang dan mendomimudian dikembangkan oleh kintsch dan nasi hingga usia pubertas. penelitian mevan dijk (1978) untuk menjelaskan ka nunjukan bahwa kemapuan bahasa anarakteristik cerita sebuah teks atau wa litik yang meliputi aspek fonologis, leksicana. mereka membahas tentang hubu kal, morfologis, dan sitaksis diproses pada ngan kesesuaian antarunsur-unsur dalam hemisfer kiri, sedangkan kemampuan wacana (kohes i dan koherensi) , serta topik holistik seperti aspek makrostruktur, pragatau ide pokok wacana. brown dan yule matik, prosodik, dan emosional diproses (1983) kemudian mengembangkan karak pada hemisfer kanan (dharmaperwirateristik cerita sebuah wacana dengan me prins, 2004). libatkan aspek-aspek yang lebih kom prehensif, seperti topik (topik kalimat dan secara keseluruhan, dalam komunikasi topik wacana), tema, relevansi, struktur kedua hemisfer bekerja sama dan saling informasi (informasi lama dan informasi melengkapi dalam memproses bahasa. baru), kelengkapan cerita, kohesi dan hubungan antara hemisfer kiri dan kanan koherensi, serta pesan atau nilai moral sangat penting untuk koordinasi. hal ini sebuah teks. memungkinkan ketika seseorang meng analisis kalimat dengan hemisfer kiri, secara umum, makrostruktur dapat digu maka dia dapat mencarikan prosodi yang nakan untuk mengevaluasi berbagai ting tepat. begitu juga dengan aspek konteks, katan bahasa. hal ini memungkinkan ka ketika memproses input ujaran, maka rena makrostruktur mencakup proses dua hemisfer kanan berperan dalam memaarah, yaitu bawah ke atas (bottom-up) dan hami konteks ujaran. atas ke bawah (top-down). proses bottom up meliputi informasi tunggal atau dalam metode pemeriksaan komunikasi proposisi yang merupakan makna seman hemisfer kanan, dharmaperwira-prins tis sebuah teks. proses top-down mewakili (2004) membagi aspek komunikasi proses pemaknaan pemaknaan (inferen hemisfer kanan menjadi dua bagian. pertial) yang melibatkan aspek kognitif dan tama adalah aspek kebahasaan yang meliaspek linguistik. proses pemaknaan (infe puti aspek leksiko-semantik, makrostrukrential) ini memungkinkan aplikasi mak tur, dan pragmatik dan bagian kedua adarostruktur untuk: 1) meringkas cerita, 2) lah aspek prosodi yang meliputi aspek inti cerita, atau 3) pelajaran atau moral intonasi, tekanan, dan emosi. dari sebuah cerita. (ulatowska, dkk.: dalam penelitian ini, peneliti fokus 1999). kompetensi makrostruktur dipro pada kompetensi aspek makros truktur ses pada hemisfer kanan, khususnya pada yang mencakup kemampuan reseptif dan bagian anterior pada girus cingulate, kemampuan ekspresif. makrostruktur daerah temporo -parieto-occipital, area me adalah hubungan keseluruhan sebuah dial pada prefrontal, serta precuneus cerita atau teks. pengetahuan makro(fonseca dkk, 2009). struktur meliputi pemaham an terhadap tema atau ide pokok sebuah teks, susunan belakangan ini, kajian tentang makro cerita, kelengkapan cerita, keringkasan struktur mulai dilirik oleh ahli klinis yang cerita, hubungan logis antarbagian cerita mengaplikasikan aspek makrostruktur un tuk melihat kemampuan komunikasi pada volume iii no. 2, edisi oktober 2016 37 pasien yang mengalami cedera otak, seperti yang dilakukan oleh ahli terapi bahasa myers (1993), brookshire dan nicholas (1993); ryder, dkk. (2008), kobayashi (2010), wolfe (2010), sastra (2011; 2012), dan handoko (2015). hal ini dikarenakan makrosturktur berpotensi sebagai model untuk pemahaman dan produksi wacana atau teks yang meliputi aspek yang lebih kompleks seperti menyelesaikan masalah, memberi solusi, atau analisis kritis. gangguan pada aspek makrostruktur tentu akan memberikan dampak buruk dalam berkomunikasi. dharmaperwira-prins (2004) mencatat bahwa gangguan pada aspek makrostruktur terdiri atas gangguan reseptif dan gangguan ekspresif. gangguan reseptif meliputi pemahaman terhadap pesan cerita, gangguan dalam mengerti susunan dan urutan cerita, gangguan dalam memahami informasi penting dalam cerita, dan mengerti hubungan logis antarbagianbagian cerita. dengan kata lain, penderita ganguan makrostruktur mengalami kesulitan dalam memahami wacana atau teks. gangguan ekspresif meliputi gangguan mengatakan secara jelas tema sebuah cerita, gangguan dalam keberlanjutan cerita, gangguan menceritakan urutan cerita yang tepat, gangguan dalam menceritakan informasi penting agar cerita dimengerti, dan mampu mengungkapkan hubungan logis antarbagian-bagian cerita. penderita gangguan ekspresif tidak mampu memproduksi atau memproduksi ulang sebuah teks dengan baik. berbagai kompetensi kebahasaan yang melibatkan hemisfer kanan, seperti leksiko-semantik, makrostruktur, dan pragmatik mensinergikan beberapa bagian-bagian pada hemisfer kanan dalam memproses input kebahasaan. adapun bagian-bagian yang terlibat dalam proses komunikasi hemisfer kanan terlihat pada tabel berikut: tabel 1: daerah aktif pada hemisfer kanan berdasarkan pada empat komponen ketika terjadi proses komunikasi proses daerah aktif pada hemisfer kanan leksikogirus frontal inferior, lobus semantik temporal dan lobus parietal inferior, bagian anterior pada girus cingulate, dan bagian pre-frontal dan mesial pada korteks occipital makrostru bagian anterior pada girus ktur cingulate, daerah temporo parieto-occipital, area medial pada pre-frontal, serta precuneus pragmatik bagian korteks pre-frontal, bagian medial girus temporal, bagian posterior girus cingulate, dan precuneus prosodi bagian korteks mesio frontal, daerah parietal inferior, dan postero-superior sulkus. sumber: fonseca dkk. (2009: 30) gangguan kebahasaan yang dapat terjadi akibat lesi atau disfungsi pada hemisfer kanan, secara singkat tampak pada tabel berikut: tabel. 2: ikhtisar gangguan makrostruktur bahasa pada disfungsi hemisfer kanan gangguan makrostruktur gangguan makrostruktur (tingkat cerita) persepsi mengerti tema pokok sebuah cerita mengerti urutan tepat dari bagian-bagian menangkap semua bagian-bagian yang penting 38 arbitrer koherensi (hubungan logis) mengerti hubungan implisit membuat kesimpulan yang betul menginterpretasi pernyataan yang salah menginterpretasikan moral menginterpretasikan humor mengidentifikasikan dan menginterpretasikan perasaan produksi menandakan tema pokok cerita membuat urutan yang tepat dari bagianbagian memberi semua informasi yang penting keringkasan cerita koherensi: menandakan hubungan kausal menggunakan kata sifat secara kualitatif memberi isi emosi sebuah cerita sumber: dharmaperwira-prins (2004: 68) di samping gangguan-gangguan tersebut di atas, lesi atau disfungsi pada hemisfer kanan dapat juga menyebabkan gangguangangguan prosodi, gangguan emosi, serta gangguan menulis dan membaca. namun dalam penelitian ini, ketiga gangguan tersebut juga tidak dibahas karena bukan merupakan aspek kebahasaan. ii. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan terhadap mahasiswa angkatan 2016 universitas dharma andalas. subjek penelitian dipilih secara acak dengan melibatkan 25 responden. instrumen peneliti dikembangkan berupa baterai komunikasi dan daftar pertanyaan yang dikembangkan untuk memeriksa kompetensi kebahasaan yang berhubungan dengan fungsi hemisfer kanan. instrumen penelitian dilengkapi dengan baterai komunikasi untuk mendiagnosa dan mengkualifikasi gangguan-gangguan komunikasi yang ditemukan. pengumpulan data penelitian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode observasi. metode observasi adalah pengumpulan data dengan cara mengamati obyek penelitian (sudaryanto, 1993: 133-137). data penelitian ini diperoleh dari baterai komunikasi hemisfer kanan (bkhk) dan daftar pertanyaan komunikasi hemisfer kanan (dpkhk). metode analisis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode padan. metode padan adalah metode yang digunakan dalam analisis data yang alat penentunya di luar, terlepas, dan tidak menjadi bagian dari bahasa yang bersangkutan (sudaryanto, 1993: 15). dalam penelitian ini, alat penentu analisis adalah kenyataan yang ditunjuk oleh bahasa (padan referensial) dan mitra wicara (padan pramatik). deskripsi kompetensi makrostruktur dilihat dari fungsi hemisfer kanan dimulai dengan analisis gangguan makrostruktur dengan menerapkan teori brown dan yule (1983) dan teori kintsch dan van dijk (1978). kemudian hasil analisis dikelompokkan menjadi kompetensi reseptif dan kompetensi ekspresif. hasil analisis kemudian diinterpretasi dengan menggunakan konteks yang telah disajikan pada daftar pertanyaan pemeriksaan kompetensi kebahasaan. iii. hasil dan pembahasan dari hasil analisis diperoleh hasil ditemukan adanya gangguan persepsi (reseptif) makrostruktur yang ditemukan meliputi gangguan memahami tema cerita (55%), gangguan daya ingat langsung (70%), gangguan meringkas cerita (81%), gangguan menangkap informasi penting (59%), gangguan memberi urutan yang benar (63%), gangguan menangkap kata yang berisi emosi (33%), gangguan mengerti hubungan implisit (47%), gangguan menandakan perasaan (41%), dan gangguan menandakan adjektiva (75 %). volume iii no. 2, edisi oktober 2016 39 grafik. 1 persentase kompetensi persepsi makrostruktur mahasiswa unidha dari grafik di atas tampak bahwa ke banyakan reseponden mengalam i kesuli tan dalam menentukan tema cerita, diikuti dengan gangguan meringkas cerita dan gangguan menentukan hubungan implisit (koherensi). jadi dapat disimpulkan bah grafik di atas menunjukkan perbandingan wa gangguan-gangguan produksi makro struktur yang dialami oleh mahasiswa tingkat gangguan kompetensi persepsi mengakibatkan mahasisw a tidak mampu makrostruktur mahasiswa unidha. graberkomunikasi, khususnya dalam menjaga fik di atas tampak gangguan menandakan topik pembicaraan. gangguan ini juga perasaan memiliki persentase paling tingmengakibatkan mahasisw a tidak fokus gi, diikuti dengan gangguan menandakan dan cenderung keluar dari konteks pem adjektiva dan gangguan menandakan bicaraan. informasi penting. jadi, dapat disimpulkan bahwa gangguan-gangguan ini menyebabrendahnya kompetensi makrostruktur ini kan mahasiswa bersikap acuh, kurang mengakibatkan mahasiwa tidak mampu perhatian, dan memiliki solidaritas yang berkomunikasi dengan baik, acuh, tidak rendah. fokus, mengada-ada, tidak mampu ber untuk kompete ns i produksi (ekspresif) pikir holistik, dan kurang kreatif. kom petensi produksi ini juga tidak jauh beda makrostruktur, gangguan-gangguan yang dengan kompetensi persepsi makrostruk ditemukan antara lain, gangguan tata batur dengan total persentase kemampuan hasa (56%), gangguan kohesi (70%, gaproduksi. hal ini mengindikasikan adanya ngguan memberikan urutan yang tepat keterkaitan antara kompetensi persepsi (33%), gangguan menyebutkan informasi makrostruktur dengan kompetensi persep penting (48%), gangguan menandakan si. oleh karena itu, salah satu solusi yang hubungan implisit (75%), dan gangguan dapat dikembangkan untuk meningkatkan menandakan isi perasaan dan emosi kompetensi makrostruktur adalah pembe (37%). lajaran berbasis esai sehingga mahasiswa grafik. 2 tidak hanya mampu menentukan mana pilihan yang benar tapi juga mampu persentase kompetensi persepsi mengaitkan informasiinformasi yang ada makrostruktur mahasisw a unidha dan mampu membangun pemikiran yang logis dan berterima. pembelajaran seperti ini juga mengasah kemampuan holistik 40 arbitrer mereka sehingga mampu berpikir global dan kreatif. iv. kesimpulan dari hasil analisis dapat dilihat bahwa hasil uji kompetensi kebahasaan ini me banyak responden yang mengalami ganunjukkan bahwa gangguan komunikasi ngguan daya ingat dan memori yang saberbahasa tidak hanya diakibatkan oleh ngat berpengaruh kepada kemampuan cedera atau lesi pada otak. orientasi pem untuk menceritakan dan menangkap inforbelajaran yang cenderung lebih mengopti masi penting sebuah cerita. rendahnya malkan hemisfer kiri membuat hemisfer kemampuan daya ingat responden akan kanan tidak berkembang. dalam kompe sangat berpengaruh terhadap kemampuan tensi memahami bahasa, ketidakseimba belajar responden yang kemudian akan ngan hemisfer kiri dan hemisfera kanan memengaruhi prestasi belajarnya. selain ini mengakibatkan proses pemaknaan itu, hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan hanya berfokus pada makna literal dan bahwa responden juga sulit dalam menaninterpretasi pertama. gangguan ini meng dai informasi penting dan menandakan akibatkan seseorang dianggap tidak pe aspek emosi dalam sebuah cerita. rendahngertian, kurang cerdas, atau lemot. se nya kompetensi menandai informasi penmentara itu, dalam proses produksi bahasa ting dapat mengakibatkan responden menkurangnya kompetensi hemisfer kanan jadi tidak efektif dalam pembelajaran semengakibatkan produksi bahasa tidak me dangkan rendahnya kompetensi emosi damerhatikan aspek -aspek pemahaman emo pat mengakibatkan responden tidak mamsional, pemahaman sosial, dan pemaha pu memahami emosi lawan bicanya. hal man konteks. gangguan ini mengakibat ini tentunya sangat tidak baik bagi perkan seseorang dianggap tidak sopan, acuh, kembangan psikologis dan kognitif resdan kasar. ponden baik dari dalam konteks personal maupun dalam konteks sosial. volume iii no. 2, edisi oktober 2016 41 referensi bierwisch, m. (1965). poetic and linguistik. dalam h. kruezer & r. gunzenhanser (eds.), mathematikund dichtung. münchen: nymphenburger. brookshire, r. h., & nicholas, l. e. (1993a). comprehension of narrative discourse by aphasic listeners. dalam h. h. brownwell & y. joanette (eds.), narrative discourse in neurologically im-paired and normal aging adults (pp. 151-170). san diego, ca: singular publishing group, inc. brown, gillian dan goerge yule. (1983). discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge press. dharmaperwira-prins, reni. (2004). gangguan-gangguan komunikasi hemisfer kanan dan pemeriksaan komunikasi hemisfer kanan (pkhk). jakarta: djambatan. fonseca, rochele paz, dkk. (2009). hemispheric specialization for communicative processing: neuroimaging data on the role of the right hemisphere. psychology & neuroscience, (vol. 2, no. 1, hal. 25 – 33). handoko (2015). language competence of student toward right hemispher brain function : a neuropragmatic study. arbitrer. vol. 2, hal 1-10) kintsch, w., & van dijk, t. a. (1978). toward a model of text comprehension and production. psychological review (85, hal. 363-394). kobayashi, frank. (2010). linguistic effects on the neural basis of theory of mind. the open neuroimaging journal. (vol. 4, hal. 37-45). lenneberg, eric h. (1967). biological foundations of language. new york: wiley. myers, p. (1993). narrative expressive deficits associated with right-hemisphere damage. dalam h. h.brownell & y. joanette (eds.), narrative discourse in neurologically impaired and normal aging adults (hal. 279-296). san diego, ca: singular publishing group, inc. ryder, nuala, dkk. (2008). a cognitive approach to assessing pragmatic language comprehension in children with specific language impairment. international journal of language and communication disorder. (vol. 43, hal. 427-447). ulatowska, hanna k, dkk. (1999). macrostructure and inferential processing in discourse of aphasic patients. psychology of language and communication(vol. 3 no 2, hal. 3-20). sastra, gusdi, dkk. (2012). penerapan model terapi linguistik untuk meningkatkan kemampuan bicara penderita disartria. makalah disajikan dalam seminar internasional budaya membentuk jati diri dan karakter bangsa, universitas andalas, padang, 13-14 november. sastra, gusdi. (2011). neurolinguistik: suatu pengantar. bandung: alfabeta. sudaryanto. (1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana univ. press. wolfe, victoria. (2010). brain metters: translating research into classroom practice. usa: alexandria. volume iii no. 2, edisi oktober 2016 43 journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 88 mengapa mesin pencari suara gagal mengenali bahasa indonesia? sebuah kajianawal tentang asr (automatic speech recognition) bahasa indonesia oleh, totok suhardiyanto universitas indonesia email: totok.suhardiyanto@ui.ac.id abstract this paper is about the study of indonesian automatic speech recognition (asr) designed by informationaltechnological computer ( tik).specifically, this paper is aimed at describing how this tool operates in recognizing some in-puts in indonesian language. tik industry has something to do with indonesian pwo where the use of the smart phones developes massively in indonesia. this study processes around 10.774 data in indonesian language in form of sentence, phrase, and word. from this number, less than 20% can be categorized perfect. the others have an error in format and recognition. this is due to some factors bringing about the failure of asr in recognising the in put in indonesian language. key words: asr (automatic speech recognition), voice search, format error, recognation failure, wer (word error rate) 1. pendahuluan dalam kajian linguistik komputasional, pengenalan wicara (speech recognition) merupakan salah satu bidang yang sangat menantang, khususnya bagi bahasa-bahasa non-eropa. bidang ini merupakan salah satu kajian utama dalam bidang linguistik komputasional dan bersentuhan dengan intelijensi buatan (artificial intelligence) (jurafsky and martin, 2008). pengenalan wicara pada umumnya dapat dibatasi sebagai sistem yang mampu mengubah masukan dalam bentuk suara ke dalam bentuk tertulis, atau mentranskripsikan bunyi ke bentuk tulisan. selanjutnya, pengenalan wicara dalam makalah ini akan dirujuk sebagai asr (automatic speech recognition), singkatan yang lazim digunakan di kalangan peneliti linguistik komputasional dan pemrosesan bahasa alami (nlp = natural language processing). setakat ini, dapat dikatakan bahwa perkembangan asr bahasa indonesia masih belum menggembirakan. kualitasnya masih cukup jauh dari harapan. meskipun demikian, beberapa nama besar dalam industri tik sangat menaruh perhatian dalam persoalan asr bahasa indonesia (selanjutnya disingkat asr bi). goodwater dkk. (2010) totok suhardiyanto 89 mengatakan bahwa tuturan merupakan salah satu hal tersulit untuk dikenali dalam kajian sistem pengenalan otomatis karena tingginya tingkat ketidaklancaran, variasi pelafalan, sertabanyaknya variabel dalam hal akustik dan prosodi. lebih lnjut, goodwater dkk menyebut ada tiga faktor yang potensial berpengaruh pada tingkat kesalahan asr, yaitu faktor ketidaklancaran, faktor leksikal, dan faktor prosodis. oleh karena itu, sangat penting untuk mengetahui yang mana dari faktor-faktor tersebut yang bermasalah bagi asr bi. mengapa kajian asr bi menjadi sangat penting dan menjadi salah satu perhatian industri tik internasional? ada dua alasan utama. pertama, ke depan hampir semua peranti tik, terutama telepon pintar (smartphone) akan menggunakan sistem berbasis suara (voice generated system). jadi, basis interaksi di antara pengguna manusia dan mesin tik tidak lagi berupa masukan berbentuk huruf atau string, melainkan suara. gambar 1: kepemilikan telepon genggam dan telepon pintar di indonesia 20082013 (sumber: http://www.roymorgan.com/findings) journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 aplikasi asr memang belum begitu populer di indonesia. berdasarkan survei yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini, paling tidak terdapat empat alasan utama gambar 3: hasil survei mengenai alasan tidak menggunakan vs pada telepon genggam (n= 33) gambar 2: perbandingan jumlah pengguna mesin pencari di wilayah asia timur sumber http://www.comscore.com/analysis pencarian teks lebih nyaman 22% hasil vs tidak bagus 28% lain 7% , vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 90 aplikasi asr memang belum begitu populer di indonesia. berdasarkan survei yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini, paling tidak terdapat empat alasan utama mengapa di indonesia fenomena kenaikan jumlah pengguna telepon pintar secara tajam tidak berbanding lurus dengan meningkatnya pemakaian vs? hasil survei mengenai alasan tidak menggunakan vs pada telepon perbandingan jumlah pengguna mesin pencari di wilayah http://www.comscore.com/analysis) tidak tahu ada vs 17% smartphon e untuk kebutuhan standar 18% tidak tahu cara pakai 8% lain-lain 7% mengapa di indonesia fenomena kenaikan ara tajam tidak berbanding lurus dengan totok suhardiyanto 91 alasan pertama adalah kampanye atau publikasi mengenai penggunaan mesin pencari suara tidak optimal. tidak banyak orang yang tahu bahwa beberapa perusahaan tik, termasuk google dan microsoft, telah menyediakan aplikasi berbasis suara (pada gambar 3: “tidak tahu ada vs”). kedua, hasil dari mesin pencari suara bahasa indonesia tidak bagus dan tidak bisa diandalkan (“hasil vs tidak bagus”).. akibatnya, banyak pengguna telepon pintar di indonesia yang tidak mau lagi menggunakannya. ketiga, dalam menggunakan telepon genggam atau telepon pintar, orang indonesia lebih suka memasukkan input dengan cara mengetikkannya daripada mengucapkannya (“pencarian teks lebih nyaman”). barangkali ini terkait dengan keutamaan menggunakan pesan singkat secara tertulis daripada pesan dengan suara di indonesia. pesan singkat masih dapat digunakan dan ditolerir pada saat rapat, namun tidak untuk pesan bersuara. keempat. pada dasarnya masyarakat indonesia masih belum dapat dikategorikan masyarakat yang berteknologi tinggi. mereka mampu membeli peranti yang lebih canggih, seperti telepon pintar misalnya, namun sebagian besar hanya menggunakan fungsi-fungsi dasar dari peranti generasi sebelumnya (“menggunakan smartphone untuk kebutuhan standar”). secara umum, pengguna telepon pintar beranggapan bahwa asr bi masih jauh dari kondisi yang memuaskan (lihat gambar 3). paling tidak hal tersebut terkait dengan beberapa faktor baik teknis maupun linguistis. pertama adalah sistem aplikasi yang belum terbangun dengan sempurna. kaidah algoritma, pemodelan, maupun pangkalan data masih belum cukup untuk mengenali masukan berbahasa indonesia. kedua, sistem jaringan internet 3g di indonesia masih belum ajek dan mempunyai kapasitas merata di seluruh wilayah indonesia. akibatnya, penangkapan sinyal audio dan transfer data sangat rentan mengalami gangguan. ketiga, belum ada variasi lafal yang menjadi standar dalam kasus bahasa indonesia. sebagai akibatnya, perancang asr mengembangkan asr bi tidak berdasarkan data variasi bahasa di lapangan. selain pemain internasional, sistem pengenalan suara bahasa indonesia atau asr bi juga pernah dikembangkan oleh peneliti lokal (suyanto & adityatama 2012). suyanto dan adityatama membangun sistem aplikasi yang mereka namai indovm untuk mendiktekan pesan singkat berbahasa indonesia pada telepon pintar android. penelitian mereka masih menunjukkan tingginya tingkat kesalahan kata atau word error rate (wer) untuk sistem yang berbasis model statistik (statistical language model) dan cukup rendah pada sistem yang berbasis kaidah bahasa. aplikasi tersebut menampilkan performa yang cukup bagus baik dari segi akurasi, maupun waktu tanggapan. kajian terdahulu pada pengenalan monolog dan dialog spontan, serta journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 92 percakapan menunjukkan bahwa kata-kata yang jarang digunakan cukup sulit dikenali (fosler-lussier & morgan 1999; shinozaki & furui 2001). selain itu, tingkat kesalahan yang tinggi juga terkait dengan tuturan atau ujaran yang cepat (siegler & stern 1995; fosler-lussier & morgan 1999; shinozaki & furui 2001). dalam kajian shinozaki & furui (2001) terhadap asr bahasa jepang, tuturan yang sangat lambat dan panjang kata (dalam bentuk suara) juga berpengaruh pada tingkat kesalahan pengenalan. kata-kata yang lebih pendek ternyata lebih sering mengalami kesalahan. kemudian, adda-decker & lamel (2005) juga mengemukakan bahwa baik asr bahasa perancis maupun inggris menemui kesulitan dalam mengenali tuturan laki-laki daripada perempuan karena terkait dengan tingkat ketidaklancaran dan penggunaan kata-kata yang dipendekkan. sejalan dengan penelitian pada asr, hasil penelitian dalam bidang psikolinguistik pun menyebutkan bahwa seperti asr, manusia pun lebih mudah mengenali— tentu saja lebih cepat dan lebih akurat— kata yang lebih sering digunakan daripada kata yang jarang digunakan (marslenwilson 1987; dahan dkk. 2001). selain itu, pengenalan juga lebih sulit pada kata yang secara fonetis mirip dengan kata lain daripada kata yang mempunyai tingkat distingtif tinggi (luce & pisoni 1998). dalam asr bi, tentu saja juga menarik apakah faktor-faktor yang ditemukan dalam penelitian terdahulu juga muncul secara signifikan. oleh sebab itu, kertas kerja ini disusun atas dasar dua pertanyaan mendasar. pertama, bagaimana kinerja atau performa asr bi dalam proses pengenalan masukan berbahasa indonesia. kedua, faktor-faktor apa saja dalam bahasa indonesia yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja atau performa tersebut. 2. metodologi 2.1 data pada kertas kerja ini,analisis didasarkan pada keluaran (output) mesin pencari suara atau vs dari sebuah perusahaan tik terkemuka. diperoleh data sebanyak 10.774 unit pencarian yang terdiri atas kata, frase, klausa, dan bahkan kalimat. pemerolehan data tersebut dilakukan secara acak dalam kurun waktu sebulan pada maret 2013. untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama pada penelitian ini, yakni bagaimana kinerja atau performa asr tersebut, pertama kali dilakukan klasifikasi kesalahan ke dalam tigakategori utama: kategori salah, kategori benar, dan kategori cacat data. kategori salah merupakan keluaran asr bi yang tidak sesuai dengan rujukan atau masukan. kategori ini dibagi lagi menjadi tiga subkategori yakni pengurangan, penambahan, dan penyulihan (lihat gambar 4). ref: tetapi dia tidak mau asr: tetapi bila tidak ***membeli sebuah kamus eval: s d i gambar 4: contoh kategorisasi data ke dalam penambahan (i), penyulihan (s), dan pengurangan (ref= referensi atau masukan, asr= hasil pengenalan atau keluaran, dan eval= evaluasi dan kategorisasi). sementara itu, kategori benar adalah keluaran yang dihasilkan asr tepat atau sesuai dengan rujukan masukan. kategori terakhir,yakni kategori cacat data, adalah data yang tidak dapat digunakan karena kualitas audio yang buruk. setelah dilakukan klasifikasi data, kategori benar dan cacat data dikeluarkan dari analisis karena fokus penelitian ini pada kesalahan pengenalan asr bi. meskipun demikian, jumlah keluaran benar yang dihasilkan asr digunakan lagi ketika menghitung f measure untuk membandingkan hasilnya dengan penghitungan tingkat kesalahan kata atau wer. untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, dalam analisis digunakan standar pengukuran word error rate (ser) dengan formulasi sebagai berikut. dengan perincian s = penyulihan d = penyulihan i = penambahan/penggantian totok suhardiyanto 93 tetapi dia tidak mau membeli *** kamus tetapi bila tidak ***membeli sebuah kamus s d i contoh kategorisasi data ke dalam penambahan (i), penyulihan (s), dan pengurangan (ref= referensi atau masukan, asr= hasil pengenalan atau keluaran, dan itu, kategori benar adalah keluaran yang dihasilkan asr tepat atau sesuai dengan rujukan masukan. kategori terakhir,yakni kategori cacat data, adalah data yang tidak dapat digunakan karena setelah dilakukan klasifikasi data, tegori benar dan cacat data dikeluarkan dari analisis karena fokus penelitian ini pada kesalahan pengenalan asr bi. meskipun demikian, jumlah keluaran benar yang dihasilkan asr digunakan lagi ketika menghitung f measure untuk membandingkan hasilnya dengan penghitungan tingkat kesalahan kata atau untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, dalam analisis digunakan standar pengukuran (ser) dengan formulasi ref = jumlah total data yang menjadi referensi 2.2 analisis fitur pada bagian ini, dijabarkan fitur yang akan dianalisis pada data kesalahan yang telah diperoleh dan dikategorisasikan. pada makalah ini, hanya hasil analisis dua fitur yang akan ditampilkan. kedua fitur itu adalah ketidaklancaran dan kategori kata. sebagaimana disebutkan sebelumnya, ketidaklancaran dipercayai dapat meningkatkan kesalahan pengenalan oleh sistem asr (goldwater 2010). fitur ketidaklancaran yang diperhatikan dalam penelitian ini terdiri atas (1) sebelum/setelah jeda fitur ini merujuk pada kata yang muncul langsung mendahului atau mengikuti sebuah jeda (2) sebelum/setelah fragmen fitur ini merujuk pada kata yang muncul langsung mendahului atau mengikuti sebuah fragmen (3) sebelum/setelah repetisi contoh kategorisasi data ke dalam penambahan (i), penyulihan (s), dan pengurangan (ref= referensi atau masukan, asr= hasil pengenalan atau keluaran, dan jumlah total data yang menjadi pada bagian ini, dijabarkan fitur yang akan dianalisis pada data kesalahan yang telah diperoleh dan dikategorisasikan. pada makalah ini, hanya hasil analisis dua fitur yang akan ditampilkan. kedua fitur itu adalah ketidaklancaran dan kategori aimana disebutkan sebelumnya, ketidaklancaran dipercayai dapat meningkatkan kesalahan pengenalan oleh sistem asr (goldwater 2010). fitur ketidaklancaran yang diperhatikan dalam kata yang muncul langsung mendahului atau fitur ini merujuk pada kata yang muncul langsung mendahului atau journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 94 fitur ini merujuk pada kata yang muncul langsung mendahului atau mengikuti sebuah pengulangan (4) dalam repetisi fitur ini merujuk pada kata yang muncul dalam rangkaian pengulangan. keluaran asr fitur ya sebelum pengulangan anak repetisi pertama anak repetisi kedua anak repetisi ketiga dari setelah repetisi kebon sebelum jeda mmm kacang setelah jeda tanah sebelum fragmen bub abang setelah fragmen karena keluaran asr yang dijadikan data dalam penelitian ada yang berbentuk kata tunggal, frase, klausa, bahkan kalimat, analisis fitur ketidaklancaran ini hanya akan diterapkan pada data yang tidak berbentuk kata tunggal. selanjutnya, beberapa penelitian terdahulu juga menyebutkan bahwa kata yang jarang muncul lebih sulit untuk dikenali. selain itu, ada juga yang mengemukakan bahwa kata individual dan kelompok kata juga berbeda dalam hal pengaruhnya terhadap kesalahan asr. oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini, fitur kategori leksikal juga akan diamati. fitur ini terdiri atas dua kelompok. kelompok pertama adalah fitur sintaksis yang terdiri atas tiga kelas, yaitu: (1) kelas terbuka, (2) kelas tertutup, dan (3) kelas pemarkah wacana. nomina, verba, dan adjektiva masuk ke dalam kelas terbuka, sementara preposisi, artikula, konjungsi, dan sebagainya masuk ke dalam kelas tertutup. kelas pemarkah wacana mencakup unsur-unsur seperti: wah, deh, kok, dan sebagainya. kelompok kedua adalah fitur lingkungan kata yang terdiri atas dua hal, yakni (1) kata individual, dan (2) rangkaian kata. fitur kata individual merupakan kata kunci pencarian yang hanya terdiri atas satu kata tunggal. sementara itu, fitur rangkaian kata merupakan fitur yang mencakupbentuk yang bukan merupakan kata tunggal, melainkan bentuk yang muncul bersama dengan unsur lain. totok suhardiyanto 95 3. asr bahasa indonesia sebelum masuk ke dalam bagian hasil dan pembahasan, ada baiknya pada makalah ini dijelaskan apa dan bagaimana asr. secara ringkas, asr atau pengenalan wicara otomatis merupakan sistem atau aplikasi yang berkemampuan untuk menerjemahkan bahasa lisan ke dalam bentuk tulisan (jurafsky and martin 2008). asr masa kini pada umumnya dikembangkan berdasarkan model statistik agar dapat menghadapi variasi dalam dialek, aksen, suara latar, dan pelafalan. jika dijalankan pada lingkungan yang sunyi, asr dengan model ini dapat mencapai ketepatan lebih dari 90%. meskipun tiap asr yang dikembangkan perusahaan it berbeda satu sama lain, namun paling tidak ada model yang biasanya digunakan untuk memrosesmasukan wicara di dalam asr. (1) berbasis contoh model ini menggunakan pangkalan data yang disematkan ke dalam program. setelah memasukan input suara ke dalam sistem, pengenalan berlagsung dengan mencocokkan input ke pangkalan data. kekurangan model ini terletak pada ketidakmampuan sistem untuk mengenali input yang tidak ada di dalam pangkalan data. (2) berbasis pengetahuan model ini menganalisis spektrogram wicara untuk memperoleh data dan menciptakan kaidah yang mampu mengatasi input atau masukan wicara yang diterima asr. (3) stokastik model ini merupakan yang paling umum pada saat ini. asr stokastik menggunakan model probabilitas untuk memodelkan ketidakapastian input. asr bi yang menjadi sumber data dalam penelitian ini merupakan asr yang dikembangkan dengan model berbasis pengetahuan. 4. hasil dan diskusi hasil klasifikasi terhadap data dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan masih sangat mendominasi hasil pengenalan asr terhadap masukan berbahasa indonesia. dari 10.774 kata, hanya 17.55% kata yang dikenali dan sesuai dengan masukan, sementara 80.46% salah dan tidak sesuai dengan masukan. hanya sekitar 1.98% data yang masuk kategori cacat data (lihat gambar 5). journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 96 gambar 5: hasil klasifikasi data keluaran asr bi dalam mengukur performa asr bi, setelah diperoleh nilai wer, untuk memberikan perbandingan dalam penyajian pada tabel 1 diberikan pula nilai f measure yang biasanya digunakan untuk mengukur keakuratan mesin pencari. jadi, jika wer menunjukkan kesalahan, f measure justru sebaliknya. dari sudut ketidaklancaran, tampak bahwa kesalahan pengenalan lazim terjadi pada dua situasi. pertama, ketika sebelum fragmen atau penggalan unsur wicara, nilai wer cukup tinggi, yakni 28,3%. juga ketika terjadi pengulangan, kesalahan pengenalan kemungkinan akan terjadi pada salah satu segmen yang diulang. nilai wer pada bagian repetisi juga cukup tinggi, yakni sekitar 32,3%. dari apa yang terlihat pada tabel 1, jika dibandingkan fitur lainnya, tampaknya ketidaklancaran hanya berpengaruh sedikit pada kesalahan asr bi. namun, bisa saja ini terjadi karena lebih dari 60% data dalam bentuk keluaran satu kata. dengan demikian, agak sulit diukur ketidaklancarannya karena tidak adanya unsur-unsur lain yang muncul menyertai. sementara itu, dari fitur kata tunggal atau rangkaian, tampak bahwa kesalahan pada keduanya sama-sama cukup besar, menyentuh tingkat wer di atas 40%, baik untuk keluaran yang berbentuk kata tunggal, maupun keluaran yang berbentuk frase, klausa, maupun kalimat. 80% 18% 2% salah benar cacat data totok suhardiyanto 97 tabel 1tingkat kesalahan kata (word error rate = wer) pada data pada fitur kategori kata, berdasarkan hasil analisis, tampaknya asr bi memang cukup kesulitan untuk mengenali kelas kata terbuka, seperti nomina, verba, dan adjektiva (43.2%). hal yang sama juga terjadi pada kata-kata pemarkah wacana (31.5%).namun, tampaknya kelas kata tertutup cukup mudah utuk dikenali oleh asr. barangkali itu terjadi karena keanggotaan kelas kata ini cenderung tetap dan tidak pernah berubah. dengan demikian, model statistik yang digunakan pada asr mampu memprediksi dan mengantisipasi masukan yang berupa kelas kata tertutup. 5. kesimpulan dari kajian awal tentang asr bi ini tampak bahwa memang performa sistem aplikasi ini masih cukup jauh dari harapan. total kesalahannya masih di atas 80%. kemudian, dari sudut fitur, tampak bahwa faktor ketidaklancaran dalam produksi masukan cukup berpengaruh terhadap kinerja asr. sementara itu, faktor yang paling berpengaruh terhadap kinerja asr bi adalah kategori kelas kata terbuka dan pemarkah wacana. selain itu, bentuk kata tunggal dan unsur yang lebih panjang daripada kata mempunyai pengaruh yang sama dalam hal kinerja asr bi. asr bi yang dibangun dengan menggunakan model pengetahuan jelas masih jauh dari cukup kemampuannya untuk mengenali dan memroses bunyi ujaran bahasa indonesia. pengembangan menggunakan model mesin belajar (machine learning) dengan membuat dan menambahkan pangkalan data latihan yang berisi ujaran berbahasa indonesia tentu akan memperbaiki kinerja asr bi di masa mendatang. peningkatan performa dan kinerja asr bi tentu saja akan fitur wer f measure % data sebelum jeda 16.1 0.62 1.8 setelah jeda 15.8 0.643 2.3 sebelum fragmen 28.3 0.545 1.8 setelah fragmen 21.4 0.582 1.6 sebelum repetisi 13.4 0.525 4.7 setelah repetisi 14.6 0.567 6.6 dalam repetisi 32.3 0.436 16.3 tunggal 40.0 0.31 64.3 rangkaian 41.0 0.3 35.7 kelas terbuka 43.2 0.3 50.2 kelas tertutup 6.7 0.632 41.8 pemarkah wacana 31.5 0.37 8.0 journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 98 berimbas pada peningkatan penggunaan asr bi oleh para pengguna internet dan telepon pintar di indonesia. referensi adda-decker, m., dan lamel l. 2005. do speech recognizers prefer female speakers dalam proceeding of interspeech, 2205-2208. dahan, d., magnuson, j., dan tanenhaus, m. 2001. time course of frequency effects in spoken-word recognition: evidence from eye movements. cognition psychology 42, 317-367. fosler-lussier, e., dan morgan, n. 1999. effects of speaking rate and word frequency on pronunciations in conversational speech. speech communication 29, 137-158. goldwater, s., jurasfky, d., dan manning, c.d. 2010. which word are hard to recognize? prosodic, lexical, and disfluency factors that increase speech recognition error rates. speech communication 52, 181-200. jurafsky, d. dan martin, j.h. 2008. speech and language processing (2nd edition). new york: pearson prentice hall. luce, p., dan pisoni, d. 1998. recognizing spoken words: the neighborhood activation model. ear hearing 19, 1-36. shinozaki, t., dan furui, s. 2001. error analysis using decision trees in spontaneous presentation speech recognition. dalam proceeding of asru 2001. siegler, m., dan stern, r. 1995. on the effects of speech rate in large vocabulary speech recognition systems. dalam proceeding of icassp. suyanto dan adityatama, j. 2012. indovm: indonesian voice messaging system. proceedings of 8th international conference on information science and digital content technology (icidt), 2012, volume 1, 145-148. 12 hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase bahasa indonesia efri yades dan leni syafyahya program studi sastra indonesia fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas email: efriyades@ymail.com email: lenisyafyayah@gmail.com abstract this article aims to explain the phrase indonesian. in this case will be described fungsional relationship between elements in the phrase and meaning that occur as a result of relationship. to achieve the objectives of this study, collected from spoken and writen language. on the data is collected, analyzed by a unified and distribusional. after data analysis has been done, in the presence of a fungtional relationship bet ween elemens found in the phrase. functional relationships between elements in the phrase endocentric is the core and mobifeers, while the phrase exocentric is the relator and the axis. meaning generated as a result of functional relationship between elemens in endocentric phrases such as: property, amount, tupe, state, and processes. however, the meaning of wich is generated in the phrase exocentric among others: the direction, places, destination, origin, and sustainability. keywords: fungtional relationship, phrase, and meaning pendahuluan frase merupakan unsur sintaksis yang terkecil jika dibandingkan dengan unsur sintaksis lainnya yaitu kalusa dan kalimat. hal ini ditegaskan oleh djajasudarma (2010:55), unsur sintaksis yang ter \kecil adalah adalah frase dan dapat dikaji berdasarkan kelas frase dan tipenya. frase hanya mengisi atau menduduki salah satu fungsi sintaksis dalam satu klausa atau dalam satu kalimat. artinya, satu fungsi sintaksis yaitu: s,p,o,pel,k hanya diisi atau diduduki satu frase. unsur klausa yang terdiri atas dua kata atau lebih yang tidak melapau batas fungsi atau yang bersifat nonpredikatif disebut frase (lihat verhaar,1995:97; ramlan,1995:151; putrayasa,2007:3; arifin dan junaiyah, 2008:18). sebuah frase sekurang-kurangnya mempunyai dua anggota pembentuk konstruksi. unsur-unsur tersebut berhubungan secara fungsional satu dengan yang lainnya dalam konstruksi. hubungan fungsi antarnsur terdiri atas unsur pusat yang menjadi inti frase, sedangkan pewatas sebagai unsur yang menjelaskan tentang inti frase (khairah dan sakura ridwan,2014: 22). hubungan antarunsur ini akan menghasilkan makna. frase dapat dibedakan berdasarkan dua hal yaitu: yang pertama berdasarkan sama tidaknya distribusi frase dengan unsur-unsur pembentuknya dan yang kedua berdasarkan persamaan distribusi dengan kategori unsurunsur yang menjadi inti frase. berdasarkan sama tidaknya distribusi frase dengan unsur pembentuknya, frase terdiri atas frase endosentris dan frase eksosentris (lihat ramlan;1996:154; putrayasa,2007:7; arifin dan junaiyah,2008:18; parera,2009:55; khairah dan sakura ridwad, 2014:22). selanjutnya, frase berdasarkan persamaan distribusi dengan kategori unsur yang menjadi inti, frase terdiri dari frase nominal, frase verbal, frase adjektival, frase numeralia, frase pronominal, adverbial, dan frase preposisional (lihat ramlan, issn 2339-1162 13 1996:155; khairah dan sakuraridwan, 2014:2978). dalam kesempatan ini penulis akan membahas frase bahasa indonesia. pembahasannya berdasarkan tiga masalah yaitu (1) apa saja jenis frase berdasarkan distribusi kategori kata yang menjadi inti frase?, (2) bagaimana hubungan fungsi antarunsur dalam frase? (3) apa saja makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan tersebut? selanjutnya, tujuan penulisan ini adalah (1) menjelaskan jenis frase berdasarkan distribusi kategori kata yang menjadi inti frase, (2) menjelaskan hubungan fungsi antarunsur dalam frase, (3) menjelaskan makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan tersebut. data diambil dari penggunaan bahasa indonesia secara lisan dan tulisan. penggunaan bahasa indonesia secara lisan diperoleh dari media elektronik, sedangkan penggunaan bahasa indonesia secara tertulis diambil dari buku, majalah, tabloid, dan koran. kemudian, data dianalisis dengan menggunakan metode padan dan metode agih/distribusional (lihat subroto, 1992:59—89; sudaryanto, 1993:13—16). berikutnya, hasil analisis data disajikan dengan metode penyajian informal dan formal (sudaryanto, 1993: 144-157). pembahasan hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase akan dijelaskan berdasarkan jenis frase. penjelasan juga ditambahkan dengan makna gramatikal yang terjadi akibat hubungan tersebut. berikut penjelasan hubungan fungsional dalam frase dengan makna gramatikalnya. 1. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase endosentris dan makna gramatikalnya contoh: 1. pedagang besar kendalikan pasar. 2. keberadaab pangkalan angkot belum mampu mengurai kemacetan. 3. para bandar narkoba itu telah merusak jutaan generasi bangsa. frase pedagang besar pada contoh (1) terdiri atas dua unsur yaitu unsur inti dan unsur pewatas. yang menjadi unsur inti pada frase ini adalah kata pedagang, sedangkan yang menjadi unsur pewatasnya adalah kata besar. makna gramatikal yang terjadi akibat hubungan ini adalah keadaan. frase belum mampu pada contoh (2) terdiri atas dua unsur yaitu unsur inti dan unsur pewatas yang terletak di depan unsur inti. yang menjadi unsur inti dalam frase ini adalah kata mampu, namun yang menjadi unsur pewatasnya adalah kata belum. adapun makna gramatikal dari konstruksi ini adalah makna keselesaian. frase jutaan generasi bangsa pada contoh (3) terdiri atas dua unsur yaitu unsur inti dan unsur pewatas. yang menjadi unsur inti adalah kata generasi , sedangkan unsur pewatasnya adalah kata bangsa dan jutaan. makna gramatikal dalam konstruksi ini adalah milik dan jumlah. 2. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase eksosentris dan makna gramatikalnya contoh: 4. pemerintah akan memperluas jaringan pipa gas ke permukiman. 5. program imuniasi di tanah air masih belum merata. 6. pemerintah kota padang mengandeng pihak ketiga untuk berinvestasi. frase ke permukiman pada contoh (4) terdiri atas perangkai dan sumbu. yang nenjadi unsur perangkai dalam frase ini adalah kata ke , sedangkan unsur sumbu adalah kata permukiman. makna dalam konstruksi frase ini adalah makna arah. frase di tanah air pada contoh (5) terdiri atas unsur perangkai yaitu kata di dan sumbu yaitu kata tanah air. adapun makna gramatikalnya adalah tempat. frase untuk berinvestasi pada contoh (6) terdiri atas dua unsur yaitu unsur perangkai dan sumbu. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 14 yang menjadi perangkai pada frase ini adalah kata untuk, sedangkan yang menjadi sumbu adalah kata berinvestasi. makna granatikalnya adalah makna tujuan. 3. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase nominal dan makna gramatikalnya a) fn: n + n/fn cobtoh: 7. permasalahan ras inti pewatas 8. bakat mereka inti pewatas 9. kelompok negara islam inti pewatas frase permasakahan ras pada contoh (7), bakat mereka pada contoh (8), dan kelompok negara islam (9) merupakan frase nominal berkonstruksi nomina sebagai unsur inti dan nomina atau frase nomina sebagai pewatasnya. unsur inti pada contoh (7) adalah kata permasakahan, pada contoh (8) adalah kata bakat, dan pada contoh (9) adalah kata kelompok. adapun unsur pewatasnya terletak di belakang unsur inti. yang menjadi pewatas pada contoh (7) adalah kata ras, pada contoh (8) adalah kata mereka, dan pada contoh (9) adalah frase negara islam. selanjutnya, makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan tersebut yaitu pada contoh (7) adalah makna jenis, pada (8) adalah makna milik, dan pada contoh (9) adalah makna jenis. b) fn: n + adj/fadj contoh: 10. pelajaran khusus inti pewatas 11. aktor senior inti pewatas 12. gadis sangat cantik inti pewatas hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada frase pelajaran khusus pada contoh (10) adalah kata pelajaran berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata khusus berfungsi sebagai pewatas. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna derajat. hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada frase aktor senior pada contoh (11) adalah kata aktor berfungai sebagai unsur inti dan kata senior berfungsi sebagai pewatas. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna derajat. hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada frase gadis sangat cantik pada contoh (12) adalah kata gadis berfungsi sebagai inti dan frase sangat cantik berfngsi sebagai pewatas. makna gramatikal pada konstrusi ini adalah makna keadaan. unsur pewatasnya terletak di belakang unsur inti yang disebut pewatas belakang. c) fn: n + v contoh: 13. ayam bakar inti pewatas 14. gedung parkir inti pewatas 15. zat berbahaya inti pewatas hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase nominal pada contoh (13), (14), dan (15) adalah unsur inti dan pewatas yang terletak di belakang unsur inti. yang menjadi unsur inti pada frase tersebut adalah kata ayam pada contoh (13), kata gedung pada contoh (14), dan kata zat pada contoh (15) yang berkategori nomina. adapun yang menjadi unsur pewatas adalah kata bakar, parkir, dan berbahaya yang berkategori verba. makna gramatikal pada konstruksi contoh (13) adalah makna proses, pada contoh (14) adalah makna tempat, dan pada contoh (15) adalah makna keadaan. d) fn: n + numeralia contoh: 16. anak kedua inti pewatas 17. level satu inti pewatas 18. lantai lima inti pewatas frase pada contoh (16), (17), dan (18) merupakan frase nominal yang memiliki hubungan fungsi antarunsur yaitu kata anak, level, dan lantai yang berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata kedua, satu, dan lima issn 2339-1162 15 berfungsi sebagai pewatas. makna gramatikal konstruksi ini adalah makna tingkat. e) fn: n + adverbia contoh: 19. teh saja inti pewatas 20. gol lagi inti pewatas 21. temannya tadi inti pewatas hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada frase nominal pada contoh (19) adalah kata teh sebagai unsur inti dan kata saja berfungsi sebagai pewatas yang berkategori adverbia.makna gramatikalnya adalah makna pembatasan. selanjutnya, hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada contoh (20) adalah kata gol yang berkategori nomina berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata lagi yang berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas. adapun makna gramatikalnya adalah perulangan. kemudian, hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada contoh (21) kata temannya berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, namun kata tadi yang berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna waktu. f) fn: n + determinan contoh: 22. penguasaan itu inti pewatas 23. hal tersebut inti pewatas 24. tengkulak ini inti pewatas hubungan fungsional antarunsur pada contoh (22), (23), dan (24) antara kata penguasaan, hal, dan tengkulak yang berkategori nomina dan berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan itu, tersebut, dan ini yang berkategori determinan dan berfungsi sebagai pewatas. adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan tersebut adalah makna penentu. g) fn: num + n/fn contoh: 25. tiga grup pemenang inti pewatas 26. dua bulan pertama inti pewatas 27. empat pelaku imti pewatas hubungan fungsional antara kata grup, bulan, dan pelaku yang berkategori nomina dan berfungsi sebagai inti dan kata tiga, dua, dan empat yang berkategori numeralia dan berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan ini adalah makna jumlah. h) fn: adv + n/fn contoh: 28. banyak perubahan pewatas inti 29. sejumlah kasus pewatas inti 30. beberapa daerah pewatas inti hubungan fungsional antara kata perubahan, kasus, dan daerah yang berkategori nominal dan berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata banyak, sejumlah, dan beberapa berkategori adverbia dan berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan itu adalah makna jumlah. i) fn: n + yang + adj/fadj contoh: 31. drama yang bagus inti pewatas 32. gadis yang sangat cantik inti pewatas 33. kota yang paling bersih inti pewatas hubungan fungsional antara kata drama, gadis, dan kota yang berkategori nomina dan berfungsi sebagai unsur inti pada contoh dan frase yang bagus, yang sangat cantik, dan yang paling bersih berfungsi sebagai pewatas pada contoh (31), (32), dan (33). adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkannya adalah makna keadaan. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 16 4. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase verbal dan makna gramatikalnya a) fv: adv + v hubungan fungsional antara kata berkategori verba yang berfungsi sebagai inti dan kata yang berkategori adverbia yang berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. untuk lebih jelasnya lihat contoh berikut ini. contoh: 34. akan mengganggu pewatas inti 35. dapat memanfaatkan pewatas inti 36. masih melanda pewatas inti hubungan fungsional pada frase akan mengganggu contoh (34) adalah kata mengganggu berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan akan berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai unsur pewatas depan. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna keselesaiab. selanjutnya, hubungan fungsional pada frase dapat memanfaatkan pada contoh (35) adalah kata memanfaatkan berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata dapat yang berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna kesanggupan. kemudian, hubungan fungsional pada frase masih melanda pada contoh (36) adalah kata melanda yang berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata masih berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. adapun makna gramatikalnya adalah makna keselesaian. b) fv: v + adv hubungan fungsional antara kata yang berkategori verba yang berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata yang berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. untuk lebih jelasnya lihat contoh berikut imi. contoh: 37. pergi saja inti pewatas 38. meminta kembali inti pewatas 39. menunjukkan lagi inti pewatas hubungan fungsional pada frase pergi saja pada contoh (37) adalah kata pergi yang berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata saja yang berkategori adverbia yang berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikalnya adalah makna pembatasan. hubungan fungsional pada frase meminta kembali pada contoh (38) yaitu kata meminta berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata kembali berkategori adverbia yang berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. adapun makna gramatikalnya adalah makna perulangan. hubungan fungsional pada frase menunjukkan lagi pada contoh (39) adalah kata menunjukkan yang berkategori verba berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata lagi yang berkategori adverbia yang berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikalnya adalah perulangan. 5. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase adjektival dan makna gramatikalnya hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase adjektival ada dua yaitu kata berkategori adjektif sebagai inti dan kata berkategori adverbia sebagai pewatas depan dan kata berkategori adjektif sebagai unsur inti dan kata berkategori adverbia sebagai pewatas belakang. a) fadj: adv + adj hubungan fungsional antara kata yang berkategori adjektif sebagai inti dan kata yang berkategori adverbia sebagai pewatas depan. perhatikan contoh berikut ini. contoh: 40. segera cair pewatas inti 41. sangat baik pewatas inti 42. secara signifikan pewatas inti kata cair pada contoh (40), baik pada contoh (41), dan signifikan pada contoh (42) adalah kata yang berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata segera, sangat, dan secara berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh pada contoh issn 2339-1162 17 (40) adalah makna waktu, pada contoh (41) adalah makna tingkat, pada contoh (42) adalah makna cara. b) fadj: adj + adv hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase adjektival yang berfungsi unsur inti dan adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. untuk lebih jelasnya, lihat contoh berikut ini. contoh: 43. cantik sekali inti pewatas 44. rajin betul inti pewatas 45. mudah benar inti pewatas kata cantik pada contoh (43), rajin pada contoh (44), dan mudah pada contoh (45) merupakan unsur inti dan kata sekali, betul, dan benar adalah unsur pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi contoh (43) adalah makna paling, contoh (44) dan (45) adalah makna tingkat mutlak. 6. hubungan funsional antarunsur dalam frase numeralia dan makna gramatikalnya hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase numeralia ada tiga konstruksi yaitu: konstruksi numeralia sebagai inti dan penggolong sebagai pewatas belakang, numeralia sebagai unsur inti dan adverbia sebagai pewatas belakang, numeralia sebagai unsur inti dan numeralia sebagai unsur pewatas depan. a) fnum: num + penggolong hubungan fungsional antara kata berkategori numeralia sebagai unsur inti dan kata penggolong sebagai pewatas belakang. lihat contoh berikut ini. contoh: 46. enam ekor inti pewatas 47. dua rumpun inti pewatas 48. satu helai inti pewatas kata enam pada contoh (46), dua pada contoh (47), dan satu pada contoh (48) merupakan unsur inti pada frase tersebut, sedangkan kata ekor, rumpun, dan helai berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh hubungan tersebut adalah makna penggolongan. b) fnum: num + adv hubungan fungsional pada frase yang berkonstruksi numeralia sebagai unsur inti dan adverbia sebagai unsur pewatas belakang. untuk lebih jelasnya, lihat contoh berikut ini. contoh: 49. tiga saja inti pewatas 50. tujuh lagi inti pewatas 51. sepuluh kali inti pewatas hubungan fungsional pada contoh frase (49) adalah kata tiga sebagai unsur inti dan kata saja sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi ini adalah makna pembatasan. selanjutnya, hubungan fungsional pada contoh frase (50) yaitu kata tujuh sebagai unsur inti dan kata lagi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi ini adalah makna penggulangan. adapun hubungan fungsional pada contoh frase (51) merupakan kata sepuluh sebagai unsur inti dan kata kali sebagai unsur pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi itu adalah makna pembatasan. c) fnum: adv + num frase numeralia berkonstruksi adverbia dan numeralia memiliki hubungan fungsional antarunsur yaitu kata berkategori numeralia berfungsi sebagai unsur inti dan kata berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. lihat penjelasan dari contoh berikut ini. contoh: 52. . hanya dua pewatas inti 53. . sedikitnya tujuh pewatas inti 54. . hampir enam. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 18 pewatas inti hubungan fungsional antara kata dua pada contoh (52), tujuh pada contoh (53), dan kata enam pada contoh (54) sebagai inti dan kata hanya, sedikitnya, dan hampir sebagai pewatas depan. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi frase (52) adalah makna pembatasan, sedangkan makna gramatikal pada konstruksi frase (53) dan (54) adalah makna capaian. 7. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase pronominal dan makna gramatikalnya frase pronominal memiliki dua konstruksi yaitu konstruksi promina dan numeralia kolektif atau adverbia atau demontratif dan konstruksi adverbia dan pronomina. lihat penjelasan berikut ini. a) fpron: pron + num kolektif/adv/demontratif hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase pronomina adalah kata berkategori pronomina berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata berkategori numeralia kolektif, adverbia, dan demonstratif berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. perhatikan contoh berikut ini. contoh: 55. mereka bertiga inti pewatas 56. dia saja inti pewatas 57. kami ini inti pewatas kata mereka pada contoh (55), dia pada contoh (56), dan kami pada contoh (57) adalah unsur inti, sedangkan kata bertiga, saja, dan ini berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan konstruksi frase (55) adalah makna himpunan, frase (56) adalah makna pembatasan, dan frase (57) adalah makna penentu. b) fpron: adv + pron hubungan fungsional pada frase yang berkonstruksi adverbia dan pronomina yaitu kata yang berkategori pronomina berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata berkategori adverbia berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. untuk lebih jelasnya, lihat contoh berikut ini. contoh: 58. hanya dia pewatas inti 59. cuma kamu pewatas inti 60. cukup saya saja pewatas inti kata dia, kamu, dan saya pada contoh frase (58), (59), dan (60) berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata hanya, cuma, dan cukup berfungsi sebagai pewatas depan. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi ini adalah makna pembatasan. 8. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase adverbial dan makna gramatikalnya frase adverbial memiliki tiga konstruksi yaitu frase adverbial dengan konstruksi adverbia dan nomina, konstruksi adverbia dan determinan, konstruksi adverbia dan adverbia. berikut pekjelasannya di bawah ini. a) fadv: adv + n contoh: 61. nanti malam inti pewatas 62. kemarin sore inti pewatas 63. tadi pagi inti pewatas frase nanti malam pada contoh (61) memiliki kata nanti berfungsi sebagai inti, sedangkan kata malam berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi itu adalah makna waktu. selanjutnya, frase kemarin sore pada contoh (62) terdiri atas kata kemarin berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata sore berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkannya adalah makna waktu. kemudian, frase tadi pagi pada contoh (63) terdiri dari kata tadi sebagai unsur inti dan kata pagi sebagai pewatas belakang. adapun makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan konstruksi ini adalah makna waktu. issn 2339-1162 19 b) fadv: adv + determinan contoh: 64. sekarang ini inti pewatas 65. saat itu inti pewatas 66. bukan ini inti pewatas frase sekarang ini pada contoh (64) terdiri atas kata sekarang berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata ini berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. selanjutnya, frase saat ini pada contoh (65) terdiri atas kata saat berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata itu sebagai pewatas belakang. adapun frase bukan ini pada contoh (66) terdiri atas kata bukan berfungsi sebagai unsur inti, sedangkan kata ini berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan ketiga frase adalah makna penentu. c) fadv: adv + adv contoh: 67. tidak hanya inti pewatas 68. sedikit saja inti pewatas 69. cuma sedikit inti pewatas kata tidak, sedikit, dan cuma pada contoh (67), (68), dan (69) merupakan unsur inti, sedangkan kata hanya, saja, dan sedikit berfungsi sebagai pewatas belakang. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi frase contoh (67) dan (68) adalah makna pembatas, sedangkan makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi frase contoh (69) adalah makna jumlah. 9. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase preposisional dan makna gramatikalnya frase preposisional memiliki tiga konstruksi yaitu frase preposisional yang berkonstruksi preposisi dan nomina, preposisi dan adjektif, dan preposisi dan adverbia. selanjutnya, lihat penjelasan berikut ini. a) fprep: prep + n contoh: 70. dari rumah perangkai sumbu 71. dalam botol perangkai sumnbu 72. ke pasar perangkai sumbu kata dari, dalam, dan ke dalam contoh (70), (71), dan (72) merupakan unsur perangkai, sedangkan kata rumah, botol, dan pasar adalah sumbu. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi itu adalah makna tempat. b) fprep: prep + adj contoh: 73. sejak kecil perangkai sumbu 74. supaya cantik perangkai sumbu 75. sampai besar perangkai sumbu frase sejak kecil pada contoh (73), supaya cantik pada (74), dan sampai besar pada contoh (75) terdiri atas kata sejak, supaya, dan sampai yang berfungsi sebagai perangkai dan kata kecil, cantik, dan besar sebagai sumbu. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan konstruksi frase (73) dan (74) adalah makna keberangsungan, sedangkan makna gramatikal pada konstrusi frase (75) adalah makna tujuan. c) fprep: prep + adv contoh: 76. pada beberapa perangkai sumbu 77. dari seluruh perangkai sumbu 78. sanpai banyak perangkai sumbu kata pada, dari, dan sampai pada contoh (76), (77), dan (78) merupakan perangkai dan kata beberapa, seluruh, dan banyak berfungsi sebagai sumbu. makna gramatikal yang dihasilkan oleh konstruksi frase (76) adalah makna arah, makna gramatikal pada konstruksi frase (77) adalah makna asal, dan makna jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 20 gramatikal pada konstruksi (78) adalah makna keberlangsungan. kesimpulan 1. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase endosentris terdiri atas dua yaitu ada unsur yang berfungsi sebagai inti dan yang lainnya berfungsi sebagai pewatas. pewatas dapat berada di depan unsur inti yang disebut pewatas depan, sedangkan pewatas yang terdapat setelah unsur inti disebut pewatas belakang. 2. hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase eksosentris terdiri atas dua yaitu perangkai dan sumbu. yang menjadi perangkai adalah preposisi, sedangkan kata lain yang mengikutinya berfungsi sebagai sumbu. 3. makna yang dihasilkan akibat hubungan fungsional antarunsur dalam frase endosentris antara lain: milik, jumlah, jenis, \keadaan, dan proses, sedangkan dalam frase eksosentris antara lain: arah, tempat, tujuan, asal, dan keberlansungan. daftar pustaka arifin, zainal dan junaiyah. 2008. sintaksis. jakarta: grasindo. khairah, miftahul dan sakura ridwan. 2014. sintaksis: memahami satuan kalimat perspektif fungsi. jakarta: pt bumi aksara. parera, j.d. 2009. dasar-dasar analisis sintaksis. jakarta: erlangga. putrayasa, ida bagus. 2007. analisis kalimat. bandung aditama. ramlan. 1996. sintaksis. yokyakarta: karyono. subroto. 1992. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta: uns pres. sudaryanto.1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yokyakarta: gadjah mada university press. template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.67-74.2018 article an ethno-pragmatic analysis of verbal indirection in yoruba temitope michael ajayi university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: august 24, 2018 final revision: october 18, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 the yoruba language is one of the richest languages in the world in terms of how words and expressions can be employed beyond their conventional meanings. one way of achieving unconventional meaning of words and expressions in the language is the deployment of verbal indirection which is a strategic avoidance of speaking directly in order to achieve a communicative goal. as phenomenal as this concept is in the yoruba language and culture, it has not received adequate attention from scholars, particularly in nigeria. this study therefore attempts an ethno-pragmatic analysis of verbal indirection in yoruba, within the purview of hyme’s ethnography of speaking and brown and levinson’s face theory. the study observes, contrary to the existing notion that verbal indirection is a face-saving strategy in language, it can be deployed as a face-threatening strategy in the yoruba language. keyword verbal indirection, yoruba language and culture, hyme’s ethnography of speaking, brown and levinson’s face theory, meaning correspondence e-mail: michealtemitope@yahoo.com i. introduction it is generally accepted among language scholars that speech is a skilled work. as a skilled work, it demands some usually ‘unnoticed’ efforts on the part of speakers. in fact, as oyetade (2000) observes, making a speech as well as its success depends largely on the efforts made by speakers. this explains why conversation is often described as a cooperative activity (grice, 1975). in the submission of grice, the principle that serves as the framework for conversation is ‘make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the state at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged’ (grice, 1975: 45). expanding the tenets of this principle, grice spells out four maxims, namely quantity (which requires an interlocutor in a conversation make their contribution as informative as is required), quality (that requires them not to say what they believe is not true or that for which they lack adequate information or evidence), relation (which demands that an interlocutor is required to be relevant) and manner (which requires the speaker should avoid vague or ambiguous contribution). to grice, these sub-principles serve as the framework for ideal interactive discourses, of which, if any is broken, lack of communication ensues. but of course, this is not necessarily true as there are instances where one or two of the maxims are broken in conversation without resulting in communication breakdown. the excerpt http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.67-74.2018 temitope michael ajayi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 68 below as observed in a yoruba family setting is apt here: jide: kí la ma fi jẹ rice wa? with what are we going to eat our rice? ade: e g g (pronunced as ee g g) jide: ok in the interaction above, ade’s response to the question asked by jide could be described as violating the maxim of manner, given its rendition. hence, jide should not be able to understand it as easily as he does. however, given the response of jide, the vagueness or indirectness beclouding ade’s response does not impair the understanding of the central message passed across by ade. a probe into why ade chose to respond the way she did reveals that it had to be, considering the presence of the baby of the house who was so much in love with egg and would insist on eating egg whenever she heard the word being mentioned around her. so, to keep her in the ‘dark’, the response was very relevant and apt. considering the peculiar weakness of grice’s cooperative principles in handling such a situation as presented in the excerpt above, this study attempts an ethno-pragmatic analysis of verbal indirection in yoruba, particularly within hyme’s ethnography of speaking and brown and levinson’s notion of face. different scholars have examined the phenomenon of verbal indirection and thus have given different definitions of the concept. in the opinion of oyetade (2000), verbal indirection refers to a strategy of communication in which interlocutors avoid directness so as to prevent crises, so as to achieve ‘certain communicative momentary goal. thus, verbal indirection manifests in such expressions as proverbs, metaphors, subtle or polite insults, euphemisms, circumlocutions, honorifics, among others. sharing the position of oyetade, hope (2015) defines (verbal) indirection as ‘a speech form which avoids speaking directly about things or going straight to the point but rather moves around the main purpose of the interactions; still, with the intention of putting the message across’. it involves ‘sounding pleasant’ even when the speaker’s intention is not pleasant. obeng (1994: 42) submits indirection is ‘a communicative strategy wherein interactants abstain or keep away from directness so as to prevent crises or in order to communicate ‘difficulty’ and thus make their utterances consistent with face-saving and politeness’. in line with the submission of obeng, agyekum (2002) posits that ‘the concept of face in communicative events is a universal one whose application is culture-specific; thus, in communicative interactions, interlocutors need to make recourse to the use of indirection so as to save face, and ensure cooperation. contrary to these submissions, as shall be shown in the data analysis, in the yoruba language and culture, it is not in all cases that indirection is employed as a politeness or face-saving strategy. rather, it could be employed as a face-threatening tool. this forms the crux of this paper. this study is an eclectic approach to the study of verbal indirection in yoruba. in particular, it draws inputs from two different but related theoriesethnography of speaking and face. ethnography of speaking, later modified as ethnography of communication, was proposed by dell hymes as a tool to study, describe and explain how people talk, particularly in specific contexts. as submitted by hymes (1974), the starting point of the analysis of any discursive interaction (in any community) is the ethnographic understanding of the communication conduct of the community. he goes further to describe communication conduct as what people do when they communicate with each other. one major phenomenon hyme’s ethnographic of speaking emphasises is the notion of communicative competence. to him, communicative competence, an offshoot of cultural competence, implies knowledge of the structure of the language as well as how, when, who, and with whom to apply it. communicative competence thus subsumes first author / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 69 linguistic competence. therefore, for anyone to be regarded as a member of a speech community, they must demonstrate knowledge, both linguistic and non linguistic (including knowledge of important aspects of their culture as it relates to language use) of speech situation, speech event, communicative act, communicative style, and ways of speaking (hymes, 1974). he then proposes the acronym speaking as variables or factors affecting speech. these are spelt out thus: setting, participants, ends, acts, key, instrumentality, norms and genre. the notion of face is credited to goffman (1955, 1967) who defines face as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself. accordingly, within the framework of face, it is maintained that all adult speakers of a language ‘are aware of the need for speakers to make concessions to those they address’ (oyetade, 2000: 17). expanding the scope of face, brown and levinson (1987) conceive face as the pride of self-image inherent in every adult speaker of a language. it is the public image that every member wants to claim for himself (goffman, 1967). according to brown and levinson (1987), face is of two types, namely positive face and negative face. positive face has to do with the desire to be approved of, liked, appreciated, or the need to have a positive image accepted by others. negative face, on the other hand, refers to the desire to be unimpeded, imposed upon, and/or the need to be free from obligation in one’s action. any action, whether linguistic or non linguistic that contravenes these principles (of positive and negative faces) will be tantamount to facethreats, which are often counterbalanced by elements of politeness (brown and levinson, 1987). while hyme’s ethnography of speaking handles a contextual discussion of verbal indirect expressions in our data, brown and levinson’s face theory accounts for the communicative goal and intention of such expressions. in other words, certain expressions which would appear ‘polite’ (treated as verbal indirect expressions and terms in this paper) within brown and levinson’s face work framework, are deconstructed within hyme’s ethnography of speaking for the proper understanding of their illocutionary goal. ii. methods this data for this study were elicited ethnographically, following labov’s (1972) data elicitation technique which requires that data which comprise the natural conversations of interlocutors or interactants are gathered without their knowledge. with the use of this technique, the participants and their language behaviour were observed unobtrusively, hence the reliability of the data gathered. as a native speaker of the yoruba language, my retrospective and intuitive knowledge is also helpful in the data elicitation and analysis. in all, six interactions have been purposively presented for analysis in this study. data are subjected to ethno-pragmatic analysis within the purview of hyme’s ethnography of speaking and brown and levinson’s face theory. iii. result and analysis ex. 1 son (sneaks in to the sitting room where the mother appears to be sleeping, having left home long without the permission of the parents): mother (wakes up with a jolt) bọ̀dá, ẹ káàbọ̀ o. ibo lẹ ti ń bọ̀? brother, you are welcome. where are you coming from? son (now shaking and stammering): mo ... em em, mo lọ gba ìwé lọ́dọ francis ni i ..em em.. i went to collect a book from francis mother: ó dáa, ẹ pẹ̀lẹ́, ẹ káàbọ̀ sir okay, take care, you are welcome sir son: (now shedding tears)... temitope michael ajayi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 70 ex. 2 brother (had earlier seen his sister with a young man he believes must have been her boyfriend): auntie, ibo lo lọ? aunty, where did you go? sister (with a tone of unease): mi ò lọ ibì kankan i did not go anywhere brother: (laughs and keeps a period of silence) sister (looking more worried now) mi ò lọ ibì kankan sẹ́ i did not go anywhere, really brother: ṣé o rò pé mi ò rí ìwọ àti tope...? did you think i did not see you and tope...? sister: (silence) brother: (slaps the sister) applying hyme’s ethnography of speaking, it is obvious the interaction in example 1 takes place within the home setting, with a mother and her son as the participants. the subject, that is, topic of discourse is the whereabouts of the son who had left home without taking permission from either of her parents. while the tone of the mother is temperate, that of the son is shaky and fear-soaked. one then begins to wonder why the son’s voice or tone demonstrates fear, worry and apprehension. another question that comes to mind is, why is the son shedding tears? after all, following brown and levinson’s face theory, the mother could be said to appeal to the positive face want of the son, particularly with the use of politeness terms such as bọ̀dá, ẹ káàbọ̀ o, ẹ pẹ̀lẹ́ and sir. a glimpse into the yoruba language and culture shows the pattern of the interaction has violated the norm of interpersonal interaction between a mother and her son, an understanding of which puts the son in the state observed in the interaction above. to start with, in a normal circumstance, the mother is not expected to address her son with the politeness term bọ̀dá (brother). in the yoruba language and culture, it is expected that the term can only be used to refer to a superior participant in an interaction. thus, the mother, who is the superior interlocutor here should not have been heard use such term to address her son. however, the mother deliberately employs the use of this term as a way of indirectly sending a danger signal to the son that ‘woe betides him for leaving home without permission’. the boy gets the message, hence his getting jittery and stammering. as if this is not enough, to further threaten the face of the son, the mother resorts to the use of greetings such as ẹ káàbọ̀ o ‘welcome’, ẹ pẹ̀lẹ́ ‘take care’ and sir. greeting is fundamentally essential in the yoruba socio-cultural system (author, in press). according to odebunmi (2015), ‘greetings constitute an integral cultural practice among the yoruba’. it is one way of showing politeness in the language. however, in the yoruba cultural practices, it is expected that the younger is the one to initiate greetings in interpersonal interactions. however, in the excerpt above, the mother deliberately violates this norm by initiating the greeting in order to achieve a communicative intention. prefacing these greetings is ‘ẹ’ an honorific pronoun in yoruba which is used by a participant lesser in age and status in reference to a superior interlocutor. but, as done earlier, the mother deliberately chooses to deploy this term against the convention in the language to indirectly tell the son he is done for. given the circumstance in which the boy had left the house, he is not meant to be greeted by the mother, let alone being addressed as sir. the boy, who knows what all these connote, could not help bursting into tears, even when the mother has not directly made any threatening statement or one that suggests the boy has done anything that would warrant first author / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 71 beating. the mother has successfully employed these politeness terms to convey an indirect message of disapproval and rebuke to the son, even without having expressly or directly done so. in example 2, the uncoventional reference to his sister by the brother as ‘auntie’ is a facethreatening ‘politeness’ strategy that indirectly suggests to her that there is danger. the sister gets the message, bringing to bare her knowledge of norms of social interaction which make it unconventional for her brother, one that is superior to her in age and status, to refer to her in that manner; hence the unease and anxiety noticed in her voice in her response. to further compound the situation, the brother resorts to laughter and silence to further indirectly express his subtle vituperation. here again, the sister further gets the message and repeats the initial response to exonerate herself, but this time with more evidence of apprehension. ex. 3 father (driving back from work sees his son who is a teenager with a female friend) son: (having sighted the father’s car tries to dodge) father: o káàre o well done son: daddy, kì ń ṣe bẹ́ẹ̀ daddy, it is not like that father: don’t worry. à á pàdé nílé .....we shall meet at home son: rárá sir...àbí irú wàhálà wo leléyìí no sir, what kind of problem is this father (drives off) the interaction presented in example 3 is structurally very much like examples 1 and 2 with little differences, particularly with respect to the setting. the setting of this interaction is apparently the road side, while the participants are the father, the son and the young lady who assumes the role of a passive participant in the interaction. the tone of the father in the interaction does not depict any sense of condemnation or scolding. however, a critical appraisal of the boy’s response shows that the father has indirectly said much, particularly with the complimentary greeting o káàre o ‘you have done well or kudos to you’. given the polite nature of this expression, according to the principles of face work by brown and levinson, one wonders what necessitates the feeling of worry, apprehension and disturbance that overwhelms the boy. the answer lies in its context of use. the boy in question is still a tenager who is not expected to have a girlfriend. all that will be expected from him at this stage is to concentrate on his studies, and not have any amorous affairs that could result in an unwanted pregnancy, a development that would portend a terrible blow on his academic career and future, as the case maybe. against this background, he knows he has erred and as such his action should not have generated any form of applause from his father, hence his attempt to explain his position to his father. his statement of apprehension and lamentation at the concluding part of the excerpt also points to his deciphering of the father’s ‘complimentary greeting’ as indirectly meaning ‘you are in trouble’, which is an unmitigated threat to his positive face. another instance of the use of the expression o káàre o to achieve a particular communicative goal is presented in example 4 below: temitope michael ajayi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 72 ex. 4 son (drumming with a plastic bucket, generating a deafening noise) mother: o káàre o, ṣé o gbọ́ well done, did you hear son (stops drumming) the interaction between a mother and son presented above, if taken at the face value, the mother’s statement o káàre o which literally denotes well done or bravo could be interpreted as complimentary, appreciating the drumming skill of the son. if that is the interpretation, following brown and levinson’s face-work theory, the mother would be appealing to the positive face of the boy. however, given the situation in which the statement is made, being one that does not only demonstrate just linguistic competence but also communicative competence in the language, the boy understands the message as his mother indirectly ordering him to stop the drumming activity, and failure to comply would mean serious punitive measure from the mother. hence, he immediately stops drumming even when the mother has not expressly or directly ordered him to do so. this is a threat to the boy’s negative face rather than an attempt to save his positive face. ex. 5 a: femoo, how far now? femoo (for femi), how are things? b: ọmọ, i dey o i am fine c: báwo ni a: mo wà pa jàre i am ok b: ó fine it is fine/good b: ẹ̀yin guys, mo ṣẹ̀ṣẹ̀ ra ọkọ́ tuntun kan guys, i just bought a new car c: yeeeh, won tun de o ! yeeh, they have come again a: (bursts into laughter) b: (hisses) ṣé mo wá ń parọ́ ni...? am i now telling lies? the interaction above takes place in a drinking spot where the three friends usually meet to cool off every evening. the tenure of the interaction is casual, such that would be expected between or among peers. of particular interest to this study is the response of speaker c to the announcement made by speaker b that he has just got a new car. following the cooperative principles of grice, one would be compelled to classify c’s response as violating the maxim of relation as his response, superficially, has no bearing on b’s statement. the use of the third person plural pronoun wọ́n in c’s response does not have any direct referent in the conversation, for instance. and one wonders what calls for a’s laughter in reaction to c’s exclamatory statement. b’s response in the last line of the excerpt provides a clue to this puzzle. speaker c, talking from his experience with b (perhaps as one who tells lies pathologically), indirectly refutes the claim by him (b), to have just acquired a new car. pragmatically, yeeeh, wọ́n tún dé ò! , as expressed by c implies ‘c has come with another lie’. the message is clear to a who bursts into laughter, waiting for the response and reaction of b. in reaction to c’s exclamation, b expresses his displeasure at being indirectly called a liar, a propositon that threatens his positive face. yet again, one wonders how a and b decode c’s statement as calling b a liar when there is nothing in his (b) words that directly establishes this proposition. do we then argue that the use of this verbal indirection strategy by c to debunk the claim b to have acquired a new car is so as to save his positive face? in our opinion, the answer is no. as a matter of fact, c’s intention is to threaten the positive face of b, not minding the indirectness first author / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 73 involved in the rendition of this facethreatening statement. ex. 6 presenter: ...*she finally find out that the statement was not true listener a: ahhh, ó bà mí lórí ! ahhhh, it hit me in the head listener b: mo yẹ̀ ẹ́ ! i dodged it presenter : (looks unhappy but continues with her presentation ) no one is infallible the interaction presented in the excerpt above takes place in a classroom setting during a paper presentation for a course. in the course of her presentation, the presenter apparently makes a grammatical error which triggers off negative reactions from other class members, that is, other participants present. just like we observed in c’s response to b in example 5 earlier presented, the responses of listerners a and b to the grammatical blunder made by the presenter violates the maxim of relation, going by grice’s (1975) argument. they are comments which will literally be taken to be irrelevant to the situation at hand. however, considering the shared social practice among nigerian students (including the participants in this situation) to make such subtle derogatory comments when an indivdual demonstrates linguistic incompetence in english, especially in spoken discourses, the presenter understands the message inherent in such exclamatory sentences, hence her unhappy look and comment ‘no one is infallible’. the expression ahhh, ó bà mí lórí! indirectly presents the blunder made by the presenter as a bullet coming out of a gun and hitting him in the head. listener b’s mo yẹ̀ ẹ́ ! describes her as dodging the bullet coming from the gun (the presenter). these expressions are subtle insults listeners a and b indirectly directed at the presenter to make mockery of the perceived presenter’s deficient mastery of english. having had her positive face threatened unmitigatedly by these comments, the presenter cannot but express her dissatisfaction and displeasure with a remark that anybody can make a mistake. in this excerpt, very much like example 5, no direct attack has been done to the face of the presenter by a and b, yet, the illocutionary import and effect of the indirect insults was pointedly felt by the target, the presenter. do will then opine that this indirectness is an attempt to save the face of the presenter? in our opinion, the answer is no, as the comments, although indirect, are devoid of any face-saving strategy, whatsoever. iv. conclusion this study has attempted an ethno-pragmatic analysis of verbal indirection in yoruba, within the purview of hyme’s ethnography of speaking and brown and levinson’s notion of face. among its objectives is to subject certain expressions which would literally be considered politeness terms, following the principles of maintaining positive and negative faces spelt out by brown and levinson to ethnographic contextual analysis. this is with a view to ascertaining whether these so-called politeness expressions are really face-saving strategies in their contexts of use or not. as has been shown in this study, rather than these expressions functioning as face-saving devices, they are actually deliberately employed by interlocutor as facethreatening strategies. what this thus suggests is the fact that, as argued by scholars such as arundale (2009), brown and levinson’s face theory does not take into consideration the concept of context, as what is linguistically polite may not be contextually so. as shown in this study, if we had limited our anaslysis to face work, all the instances of the use of face-threatening ‘politeness temitope michael ajayi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 74 expressions’ as an indirect attack on interlocutors’ faces in our data would be considered face-saving, even when that is not their communicative function in the contexts of use. similarly, this study has been able to establish the fact that, contrary to the submissions of scholars such as obeng (1994) and oyetade (2000), for instance, that indirection is means of saving face in interactions, it is not always the case, especially in the yoruba language and culture where a particular expression can convey more than the actual meaning. references agyekum, k. (2002). the communicative role of silence in akan. pragmatics 12:1.31-51 arundale, d. r. (2009). constituting face in conversation: face, facework, and interactional achievement. journal of pragmatics 42 (2010) 2078–2105 ajayi, t. m. (2017) ọmọlúàbí and discourse strategies in yoruba conflict resolution television interaction in nigeria: a case study of ṣódáabẹ́ẹ̀. coaxial journal of linguistics, vol. 2, 29-62 brown, p. & levinson, s. c.(1987). politeness: some universals in language usage, cambridge, uk: cambridge university press goffman, e. (1955). on face-work: an analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. journal for the study of interpersonal processes. psychiatry, 18(3):213-31. goffman, e.(1967). interaction ritual: essay on face to face behaviour. garden city: anchors. grice, h. p. (1975). logic and conversation. in p. cole & j. morgan (eds.), syntax and semantics, vol. 3: speech acts (pp.41-58). new york: academic press. hope, p. a. (2015). indirection as a communicative skill among the people of aboraetsifi in the abura asebu kwamankese (a.a.k.) district of central region, ghana. international journal of english language and linguistics research vol.3, no.8, pp.34-44, hymes, . h. (1974). foundations in sociolinguistics: an ethnographic approach. philadephia: university of pennsylvania press. obeng, g. s. (1994). verbal indirection in akan informal discourse. journal of pragmatics 21, 37-65 odebunmi, a. (2015). ọmọlúàbí. handbook of pragmatics. germany: benjamins publishing company. doi: 10.1075/hop.19.omo1 oyetade, s. o. (2000). verbal indirection in yoruba informal conversation. isese: ibadan journal of folklore, vol. 2 no 1, 16-25 labov, w. (1972). the study of language in its social context. in pride, j. b. and janet holmes (eds) sociolinguistics, 180-202. harmondsworth: penguin https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254953 first author / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 75 diction character of headline news in west sumatra mass media jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 17 article diction character of headline news in west sumatra mass media elly delfia busan university of foreign studies, south korea submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 12, 2017 final revision: may 05, 2017 available online: may 16, 2017 diction in headline mass media is important because it describes the overall news content. the mass media has a moral responsibility to provide learning for the reader about the correct use of language. that's called character diction. diction character or character choice of words used in the title of the news media can influence the character speaking readers for diction has meaning and soul. diction used in the mass media headlines west sumatra, includes euphimisme, sarcasm, regional language (language minangkabau), foreign language (english), idioms, abbreviations and acronyms, indonesian non standard, and nicknames keyword characters diction, headline news, mass media correspondent e-mail: delfiaelly@yahoo.co.id i. introduction the development of science and technology triggers the development of language and mass media. the development of mass media is parallel to the language because language is a primary object of mass media. language, especially diction is used by mass media for constructing events to be to the news. this topic interesting to be analyzed. diction is important because it contains behind a psychological burden that may affect the attitude and character of the reader. the effect can be seen from the public response to the existence of a mass media. at present, the mass media is easily accessible by people from various circle. conversely, the mass media also easily access the life of the community to the private spaces. everything in the mass media often become a reference and a way of life for the community. shortly, mass media has become the "new teacher" in community life. the existence of the mass media sometimes also able to beat the existence and popularity of real teachers. the mass media is an official channel to spread the word and the message to the community by using language as the main medium (kbbi, 2008: 892). this is in accordance with the opinion of widjono (2012:25) who explained that one of the main functions of language as a tool of communication, a transmitter of information, and a means of building intelligence and character of the nation. as a business engaged in the field of communication and information services, the mass media use language, especially diction, to develop the business. diction is an appropriate word choice and usage harmony to express the idea in order to obtain a certain effect as http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ elly delfia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 18 expected (kbbi, 2008:328). diction is an important because one of the indicators of the language associated with tricks or how to choose the appropriate words to convey information so that to readers will be attracted. the ability to choose diction become the key success of the mass media. diction can affect behavior, thought, and orientation of the readers, especially diction used in the tittle. for the mass media, the tittle or headline is the influential rating or the main door or the face that determines whether or not they are read or loved by people. therefore, the diction in the headline deliberately formulated to suit the needs of readers, affect the reader's emotions, and attract readers. diction used by mass media in constructing reality or events that occur in the community is expected to be a moral lesson and character for the community as expressed by tester (2003:152),that through the mass media of moral concern and moral issues more are created and expressed in social situations and culture of modern society. the mass media became a tool of social control to people's lives. the diction also often become a trending topic among the public because it contains a controversial meaning. diction, such as cicak versus buaya were popular when the kabareskrim susno duadji was against the indonesian national police, galau become popular is because of a cellular network starring by artist sule, kontroversi hati, konspirasi kemakmuran, mengkudeta, where introduced by vicky prasetyo that known as vickynisasi. more recently, diction kado ulang tahun dari presiden untuk anas urbaningrum also become popular in the mass media, both printed and electronic because of its paradox and satire meaning. moreover, a singer, syahrini is popular with the diction cetar membahana, sesuatu, ulala, and alhamdulillah ya. the diction is copied and used by people in daily communication without adequate knowledge about the meaning and accuracy of the situation. there are aspects of language neglected there, such as the use of diction that is not in accordance with the public knowledge and disorganized. diction has become popular because it is used by the popular person. therefore, the characteristic of diction of the headline news is important to be explained. the source of the data are from four mass media in west sumatera, singgalang, padang ekspres, and posmetro. the data was taken in 2014 because of high political activities in this year, like presidential election and the legislative elections were held in this year. the diction used in the headline was constructed suchlike as to bring various forms of imaging to the figure legislative candidates and presidential candidates. ii. methods diction has been discussed by several writers, including widjono, hs. (2012) and keraf (2007). diction is the right choice of the words and the tune is used according to the situation and context. in the kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2008:328), a diction is defined as the right choice of words and tune is used to express the idea in order to obtain a certain effects as expected. keraf (2007:22) states that the definition of diction is much broader than what is reflected by the fabric of the words themselves. diction is not only used to express an idea, but also includes the issue of phraseology, style, and expression. in analyzing the problem, keraf theory is applied (2007:100) which is stated that the utilization of the word and the accuracy of word choice can be determined by several conditions, namely: 1. carefully, connotation and denotation should be distinguised. to get the basic meaning or understanding of basic, a word must use denotatif diction, whereas to get an emotional reaction, the mass media may use words with connotative. 2. carefully, words which are synonymous. 3. must be able to distinguish words like spelling, like a victim, inference interference, the corporation-the cooperative. elly delfia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 19 4. avoid the words of his own creation. although the word is always growing and increased in from time to time, it does not mean everyone should create their own words. a new word emerged first from famous people such as presidents, dignitaries, and author. 5. beware or be warned against the use of foreign prefixes and other foreign words, such as favorable-a favorite, culture-cultural. 6. verb preposition should be used idiomatically, as hoped would not expect to be, talking about not talking about. 7. must be able to distinguish common words and a special word for a special word to describe something more precise than common words. 8. must pay attention to the changes that occur in the meaning of the words that are already known. 9. use words that show sensual special perception. 10. taking into account the continuity of the choice of words. in addition, a theory of meaning and interpretation that reflects the character of the diction used analysis of connotation and change the meaning of words from parera (2004, 97106). according to parera, a word has meaning and soul. word meaning and spirit can influence the attitudes and behavior of the wearer language. as a business engaged in the field of journalism, mass media is fully aware that the existence of words into the selling price, and the cutting edge for developing a business or business mass media. iii. result diction is an appropriate choice of words and the tune. diction is an appropriate word choice and usage harmony to express the idea in order to obtain a certain effect as expected (kbbi, 2008:328). studies the diction of headline become important to the role of the mass media is important in determining the moral barricades and character of the community. modern society can not be free from dependence on the mass media. everything offered mass media into public consumption. start of information, anxiety, kindness, depravity, and various pathologies (deviation) moral happens to people in various parts of the world does not escape from the media. world to being small and none is to the present of the mass media. indonesia community can be easy to monitor events in different parts of the continent, such as america and europe. massa media showed all information about other country. information from mass media can be make happy, sad, panic, and also forget about themselves. in fact, cohen on his book folk devils and moral panic said stereotypes and construction narrative news in mass media means that the moral barricades are handled by editor, bishops, politicians, and the other smart people. furthermore, cohen also stating that the conditions, events, person or group to become the threat to values in the society: characteristics showed of according at the time and stereotype by mass media (cohen, 1972:9) in tester (2003:154). diction of headline in the mass media of west sumatra also play a role in shaping character people of west sumatra. characters of diction in the mass media in general exposes west sumatra connotations. this is consistent with the philosophy of life minangkabauists priority in speaking figuratively. diction connotation is stimulating and evocative senses, feelings, attitudes, judgments, and beliefs readers or listeners (parera, 2009: 99). furthermore, parera states that an author, journalist (journalists), authors, advertisers, poet, and would knowingly and intentionally use and choose words that are connotations to stimulate the senses. stimulate its connotations and readers. stimuli, suggestions, and emotions that arise as a result of reading a diction that is selected as the headline referred to the character of diction headlines. keraf (2007:22) states that the definition of diction is much broader than what is reflected by the fabric of the words themselves. diction is not only used to express an idea or ideas, but also includes the issue of phraseology, style, and expression. elly delfia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 20 iv. discussion 4.1 character of diction of headline news in west sumatra mass media diction of headline in the mass media of west sumatra contains more connotations or figurative. this corresponds to the proverbial life of the famous west sumatra minangkabau culture that prioritizes figures of speech in speech and language. this is also supported by the expression semi (1994:122) that the diction is "soulless words" to describe the state of mind and soul as well as the author also participated inner and attitudes influence the reader. readers will be respond to every diction with feeling angry, sad, or excited after reading the headline diction for words implies that can trigger and stir emotions. besides connotations, diction in the headline of mass media of west sumatra are also many use the term foreign language, the term local language, abbreviations, and acronyms, and words which implies coarse (sarcasm), words are not raw, and byword specialized in writing the headline. the use of spelling and grammatical errors in the title of the news media can also affect the heart, unpleasant, soul, and attitude of the reader. in addition to spelling errors, diction meaningful connotations also dominant in headlines of mass media. diction meaningful connotation is emotive and evaluative or kind of meaning capable of inflicting stimulus and response and contain emotional values. this is diction can be affect readers to agree and disagree and happy and unhappy (keraf, 2007:29). this is will be due to the connotations meaningful diction, colorful, and decorative. keraf (2009:88) reveals that one of the conditions choose diction is able to clearly differentiate the meaning of connotation and denotation. connotations in the diction of headlines in the mass media of west sumatra, among euphemism, sarcasm, and idioms. 4.1.1 euphemism euphemism is style that is meaningful connotations. euphemism are expressions that do not offend people, phrases to replace the references to insult, and suggestion to something unpleasant (keraf, 2007:132). euphemism are also used a headline in the mass media of west sumatra, among them: 1. polisi-kan (singgalang, 05 /08/2014) tewas tertimpa kayu, keluarga polisikan operator kubu prabowo polisikan kpu 2. jaksa-kan (posmetro, selasa 22 juli 2014) seniman jaksakan pejabat disbudpar in terms of unit lingual, two diction above is a combination of nouns (nouns), the police, prosecutors and affixes (suffix) -kan. two diction above has connotations that calls profession or occupation, namely the police and the prosecutor. two diction stimulates the senses reader to imagine a case of 'evil' or 'scams' that are normally handled by the police and the prosecutor. both diction contains stylistic euphemism. euphemism is one style that is more subtle expression states to replace diction more rude or unpleasant (tarigan, 2009:25-126). polisikan and jaksakan have basic character even more frightening. who is not afraid to deal with the police and prosecutors dubbed as the 'security forces'. if you are already dealing with the police and prosecutors, it is certain the situation was not safe because of polisikan meaningful ' complained or reported a case to the police' and jaksakan means 'to carry or to report a case to the prosecutors'. 4.1.2 sarcasm sarcasm is a style that contains scathing ridicule that hurt and are less pleasant to hear (tarigan, 2009: 92). sarcasm is also called a style that expresses something with harsh words, among them: 1. terbakar, bandel, (singgalang, 5 agustus 2014) giliran pasar tiku terbakar pengembang bandel ditindak 2. membara (singgalang, 06 agustus 2014) elly delfia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 21 kelurahan nankodok membara 3. terdampar, dicabuli, diseruduk (singgalang, 8 agustus 2014) warga asing terdampar di purus dua siswi smp dicabuli di pasaman wabup pasbar pingsan diseruduk rusa 4. menjerit, membangkang (haluan, 02 juni 2014) hama menyerang, petani menjerit petugas hilang, pkl membangkang 5. terpelanting (posmetro, 30 agustus 2014) ngebut, dua pengendara motor terpelanting 6. dilecehkan (posmetro, 15 juni 2014) tertidur, mahasiswa dilecehkan di dalam kamar 7. terjungkal (posmetro, 14 juni 2014) ahsan/hendra ke final, rian/rangga terjungkal 8. sodomi (posmetro, 12 juni 2014) siswa smp sodomi murid paud 9. menyembur, tewas (posmetro 12 juni 2014) darah segar menyembur, petani tewas 10. dipelasah (posmetro, 12 juni 2014) maling kampung dipelasah warga diction membara, terbakar, terjungkal, diseruduk, membangkang, terpelanting have meaning sarcasm and the can influence feel of reader. that is diction consist of violence meaning and make the reader horrified. and then, diction dicabuli, dilecehkan, and sodomi have meaning sexsual violence. that is diction make a reader also horrified. 4.2.3 idioms idiom is a form of language that is aligned with the understanding proverbs. idiom is defined as the structural pattern that deviates from the rules of a common language or do not contain the actually meaning. usually, idioms are phrases and their meaning can not be explained logically and grammatically based on the meanings of words that make it (keraf, 2007:109). idiom can be in the form of a combination of two or more words. idiom has the character of indirect communication for meaningful allegory. idioms in headlines news in the mass media of west sumatera, between that: 1. tebar pesona (singgalang, 06 agustus 2014) bakal calon bupati tebar pesona 2. tebang pilih (singgalang, 04 agustus 2014) jangan tebang pilih ungkap kasus alkes 3. bahu jalan (singgalang, 19 juli 2014) naikkan bahu jalan, bersihkan pasar tumpah 4. rapor merah (haluan, 10 juni 2014) lingkungan di riau dapat rapor merah 5. ujung tombak (haluan , 4 juni 2014) pertanian ujung tombak ekonomi rakyat 6. anak tiri (haluan, 23 juli 2104) sumbar tak akan jadi anak tiri 7. pecah kongsi (postmetro, 03 agustus 2014) emzalmi minta didoakan tak pecah kongsi 8. orang dekat (singgalang, 05 agustus 2014) orang dekat megawati pimpin tim transisi 9. bulan madu (singgalang, 24 juli 2014) presiden baru tanpa bulan madu idioms tebar pesona, tebang pilih, bahu jalan, rapor merah, ujung tombak, pecah kongsi, and elly delfia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 22 orang dekat is not true meaning or not actually meaning according to indonesian language dictionary. the idiom have consist to metaphor and allegory, especially euphemism meaning. tebar pesona has actually meaning as to get want interest by others, tebang pilih and anak tiri has actually meaning as not discrimination, ujung tombak has meaning some one who can believed. pecah kongsi has meaning as broken relationship, and bulan madu has meaning as vacation or relax. 4.2.4 local languages/ minangkabau language local language also reflects the characteristics of a headline news. characters contained of the local language is a desire to highlight the elements of regional identity or locality (local wishdom). the desire to accentuate the locality is an effort to convey the others values than the meaning of words from local language. local language have the value taste and value different meaning than diction of indonesian language. local languages have emotional values are sharp highlight which is influence the behavior and response of the reader. not all local language meaning can represented by indonesian language. a minangkabau language speakers who did wrong will show a different reaction if reprimanded in indonesian language and minangkabau language. for the reasons, some of the headlines in the mass media written by diction of minangkabau language which local language of west sumatera. in addition, there is also the desire of the mass media (reporters and editors) to popularize the terms of local languages in the mass media. the goal is that language minangkabau region can develop better and more universal. local language or minangkabau language used by mass media of west sumatra, among them: 1. cakak banyak (padang ekspres, 30 agustus 2014) warga cakak banyak ikuti outbond 2. coga (singgalang, 11 juli 2014) rendang coga untuk buka sahur 3. dicokok, pengupak (haluan, 01 juni 2014) pengupak toko di pasar raya di cokok 4. dihoyak (singgalang, 19 juli 2014) tabuik pariaman dihoyak di jerman 5. tasingkok (posmetro, 30 agustus 2014) makin tasingkok dan maju 6. pulang basamo (posmetro, 22 juli 2014) perantau iv koto mudiek gelar pulang basamo 7. tagaiang (posmetro, 15 juni 2014) hantam tiang listrik, strada “tagaiang” di bibir jurang 8. dipalak (singgalang, 18 juli 2014) urus kk, warga “dipalak” 10 ribu 9. parang ladiang (posmetro, 20 juli 2014) sopir dan kernet parang ladiang 10. tapakiak (posmetro, 23 juli 2014) irt tapakiak, dompet dikuras copet 11. dipelasah (posmetro, 12 juni 2014) maling kampung dipelasah warga cakak banyak, coga, pengupak, dicokok, dihoyak, pulang basamo, dipalak, tasingkok, tagaiang, tapakiak, dipelasah, and parang ladiang have values different meaning when to translated into indonesian language. there is an element of meaning is lost and unrepresented if diction was translated into indonesian language, for example dihoyak, if translated into indonesian language be 'shaken'. in minangkabau language, diction dihoyak has a harder meaning than 'shaken'. the diction has a meaning closer to the word 'shaken', but also can not be called 'shaken'. dihoyak more precise meaning of the word is on the actions or behavior between 'shaken' and 'shaken'. likewise the meaning diction else in the headline. elly delfia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 23 4.2.5 foreign term effect of foreign language terms from the past until now never be separated from indonesian. most indonesian words come from a foreign language. some say that the indonesian formulated together with a foreign language plus (plus) in the native tongue. various factors cause diction in the form of foreign terms used in indonesian. some things are caused by the limited vocabulary that is indonesian. there was also caused by the development of science, politics, culture, economics, technology, and also because of the influence of lifestyle (life style). some of the diction of foreign terms are then absorbed into the indonesian because it is often used by the people of indonesia. some other diction is still used in the form of foreign terms. it also occurs in the diction of headlines in the mass media of west sumatra who use a lot of foreign terms. in fact, the mass media became one of the parties who popularized various foreign terms on the reading public. the use of diction foreign term in the headline of west sumatra mass media reflects the openness of the media over the progress and development of the times. conversely, the use of foreign terms can also reflect the waning of identity, nationalism, and the affection of the people and the indonesian mass media if the diction-diction of a foreign language is not used in accordance with proper knowledge. it would lead to a loss of identity indonesian. examples of the use of foreign terms in the headlines in the mass media of west sumatra, namely english, among them: 1. back to back (padang ekspres, 30 agustus) bale yakin back to back 2. funbike, di-launching (haluan, 09 juni 2014) bapedalda sumbar gelar funbike lg culved oled dan uhd tv dilaunching 3. eye cathching, superbike (haluan, 01 juni 2014) menarik, ini dia desain dapur yang eye cathching 4. simple style (singgalang, 13 juli 2014) simple style nan elegan 5. ukm award (singgalang, 19 juli 2014) dapoer rendang ryri, dapat ukm award 6. warning (singgalang, 11 juli 2014) kpk warning kpu dan bawaslu 7. tax goes to campus (haluan, 26 juni 2014) kpp pratama gandeng ummy gelar tax goes to campus (haluan, 26 juni 2014) 8. rest area (posmetro, 23 juli 2014) jto jadi rest area bagi pemudik kelelahan the diction funbike, launched, eye cathching, rest area, simple style, warning, an equivalent clear diction has in indonesian language. funbike has meaning equivalent of cycling, inlaunching (released), eye cathching (unsightly), rest area (rest area), and warning (warning). in the several headline, massa media not used indonesian language, but also used foreign language, namely english. foreign term using in the headline for get good and intellectual affect because english is international language. 4.2.6 acronyms and abbreviations diction in the form of abbreviations and acronyms are also widely used in writing a headline in the mass media of west sumatra. abbreviation is a shortened form consisting of one or more letters that can not be read as words. acronyms are abbreviations that form the combined initial letters of words, combination of syllables, or a combination of letters and syllables of words abbreviated series. acronyms be read and treated as a word (waridah, 2008:120-121). the diction headline news in the form of abbreviations and acronyms showed character-saving, effective, and easy. elly delfia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 24 this has to do with limited space or the available space in the media. however, some of the abbreviations and acronyms used in the writing of headlines is not uncommon and has not been officially used in indonesian. acronyms and abbreviations used in mass media headlines west sumatra, among them: a. abbreviations 1. kpk, bawaslu (singgalang, 11 juli 2014) kpk warning kpu dan bawaslu 2. cpns (singgalang, 12 agustus 2014) awas tertipu buku cpns kpp (haluan, 26 juni 2014) kpp pratama gandeng ummy gelar tax goes to campus 3. abg (singgalang, 14 juli 2014) lima pemuda perkosa abg 4. irt (posmetro, 23 juli 2014) irt tapakiak, dompet dikuras copet 5. bb (posmetro, 23 juli 2014) penyidik teruskan kumpulkan bb dan saksi b. acronym 1. lalin (haluan 4 juni 2014) tim penilai wtn datang, lalin kota solok tertib 2. gepeng (singgalang, 19 juli 2014) gepeng di padang panjang didata 3. mobnas (singgalang, 14 juli 2014) mobnas dilarang untuk mudik 4. wamen (haluan, 10 juni 2014) wamen puji rendang paku urang pasaman 5. dinsosnaker adakan pelatihan keterampilan (haluan, 26 juni 2014) 6. sarpras (haluan, 23 juli 2014) pembangunan sarpras dipacu 7. taplau (posmetro, 15 juni 2014) hujan lebat, tiga pasangan bermesum di taplau 8. kube (singgalang, 12 juni 2014) kube bagian dari percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan 9. mapel (padang ekspres, 15 juni 2014) belajar soal-soal di internet, tiga mapel dapat nilai 10 10. kemenpera-kemenkeu (padang ekspres, 15 juni 2014) kemenpera-kemenkeu beda pendapat commission, employess, and abg are grouped into the stands because these abbreviations consisting of the letters can not be read as words. diction sprawl (vagrants and beggars), mobnas (official car), and wamen (deputy ministers) are grouped into the acronym for belonging to the types of abbreviations can be read as words. thus, the character of diction headlines in abbreviated form reflects the attitude and character of frugality, effectiveness, and simplicity. in short diction and acronym, found some new unusual abbreviations used in indonesian standards, such as the irt for housewife and lalin to traffic. 4.2.7 unstandard indonesian language diction or choice of words is not standard is also widely used in the title of the news media of west sumatra. the word is not standard closely related to the use of the correct spelling. correct spelling and words of mutual support in the use of raw indonesian correct. although the correct spelling if the words used are not standard, it remains to be a mistake in the language. indonesian diction is not standard used in the headline of west sumatra mass media looks at the use of the following words: elly delfia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 25 1. nonton bareng (haluan, 26 juni 2014) bupati dan muridnya sd nonton bareng film inspiratif 2. ramadhan (posmetro , 20 juli 2014) ramadhan lebih bermakna dengan lailatul qadar 3. pencontek (posmetro 22 juni 2014) pencontek dianggap kejahatan luar biasa 4. jambangi (singgalang, 12 juni 2014) tim ramadhan jambangi 52 nagari 5. bobok siang (posmetro, 15 juni 2014) dua i-phone hilang saat bobok siang diction nonton bareng, ramadhan, pencontek, jambangi, bobok is indonesian language unstandard. the indonesian language standard for diction ramadhan should be ramadan, nonton bareng should be nonton bersama, pencontek should be penyontek, jambangi should be sambangi, bobok should be tidur. 4.2.8 ephitet ephitet is character word or phrase firmly associated with a person or thing and often used in place of an actual name, tittle, or the like, as man’s best friend for dog. ephitet also explain about any word or phrase applied to a person or thing to describe an actual attributed quality (dictionary.com, 2017:1). ephitet in the headline of mass media, among them: 1. beruang merah (haluan, 22 juni 2014) beruang merah siap hentikan generasi emas. 2. der panzer (haluan, 21 juni 2014) der panzer masih perkasa atas afrika 3. kabau sirah muda (haluan, 23 juli 2014) semen padang kalahkan kabau sirah muda beruang merah is ephitet for russia country, der panzer is ephitet for germany, and kabau sirah muda ephitet for semen padang football club. ephitet reflection of character someone or some country because power or uniqueness. the ephitet can be influence character of mass media reader, particularly can increase reader knowledge. v. conclusion a diction have a suggestion that may affect the reader's mind. suggestion or encouragement that comes from a word called character words (diction). diction may affect the attitudes and behavior of the reader. likewise diction in the headline. characters of diction of headline in the mass media of west sumatra can affect the mindset, behavior, and characters readers. characters of diction of headline in the mass media of west sumatra include to eight, among that: 1) euphemisms (smoothing meaning). 2) sarcasm (rant meaning). 3) idioms (expression in the form of a phrase) that means figuratively. 4) local language terms (minangkabau language). 5) foreign language terms (english) 6) abbreviations and acronyms. 7) indonesian language unstandard 8) ephitet thus the character of diction headlines in the mass media of west sumatra. hopefully language mass media can serve as guidelines for speaking character reader or the public because the mass media are resources that have a moral responsibility to educate the community, including educating the public language. elly delfia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 26 references keraf, gorys. 2007. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta:gramedia. parera, j.d. 2004. teori semantik. jakarta:erlangga. redaction. 2013. “sebelum kita ber-vickynisasi.” edukasi.kompas.com., september 17, 2013. accesed, february 13, 2014. redaction. 2017. “ephitet.” dictionary.com., accesed, april 04, 2017. semi, atar. 1993. anatomi sastra. padang:angkasa raya. tarigan, henry guntur. 2009. pengajaran gaya bahasa. bandung:angkasa. tester, keith. 2003. media massa, budaya, dan moralitas. yogyakarta:juxtapose tim penyusun. 2008. kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta:gramedia pustaka utama. waridah, ernawati. 2008. eyd dan seputar kebahasa-indonesia. jakarta:kawan pustaka. widjono hs. 2012. bahasa indonesia mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian di perguruan tinggi. jakarta:grasindo. microsoft word 113-121 dwi widayati.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.113-121.2019 article diversity of culinary ecolexicon of main cuisine in malay communities on the east coast of north sumatra dwi widayati faculty of humanities, universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 14, 2019 final revision: october 09, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this paper aims to describe the diversity of the main culinary eco-lexicon in malay society. data were collected through interviews with informants who were very familiar with the traditional culinary eco-lexicon. an in-depth discussion with content analysis is carried out on each culinary eco-lexicon, especially in the effort of meaning and description. the analysis of the diversity of culinary eco-lexicon is done by using ecolinguistic theory. from the results of the analysis it was concluded that there is a diversity of culinary eco-lexicons which refer to certain types of culinary, for example for culinary weaving, four variations of the eco-lexicon, namely anyang buas-buas (langkat malay, and asahan malay), anyang sibuas-savas leaves (serdang malay), anyang sibuihbuih (batubara malay), and labar buas-buas (panai malay). it indicates that the eco-lexicon diversity of culinary names and types of herbs reflects the understanding of the speaker toward their environment. the more lexicons use to reflect the environment indicates the richness of the environment itself. keyword eco-lexicon, culinary, malay, ecolinguistics. correspondence e-mail: dwiwidayati@usu.ac.id i. introduction lexicon is a reflection that shows the identity of the people. there are quite several lexicon types that can demonstrate this identity, among others, is environmental lexicon (ecolexicon) related to culinary. malay, as one of the ethnic groups in north sumatra, has a characteristic which is manifested the lexicon used in their language. it may lead the similar or different to malays in other regions. in other words, the location or environment may contribute to the variation, even though the referents referred to the culinary. for example, eco-lexicon bubur pedas (spicy porridge), some call it bubur podas, some other call it bubur pedas. the ingredient includes si kentut or daun sikontut (paederia foetida). however, not all malay ethnics use these leaves for the ingredient. this is due to the difficulty of finding these leaves. for anyang daun sibuas-buas there are four variations, including anyang buas-buas (langkat malay and asahan malay), anyang daun sibuas-buas (serdang malay), anyang daun sibuih-buih (batubara malay), and labar sibuas-buas (panai malay). these lexicons are still familiar in malay society. in short, it dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 114 can be implied that there are ecolexicon diversity of culinary names, and types of herbs of a language is a manifestation of people's understanding of their environment. furthermore, lexicons containing information about the environment indicates that the rich of the environment within the language community. the ecolexicon or environmental vocabulary is reflection of the rich of the environment and nature, both human, cultural, and society (nuraisyah, mohd salehuddin mohd zahari, mohd zain mohd kutut, mohd shaazali mohd sharif, 2013). the research on culinary ecolexicon as part of the malay language environment vocabulary aims to uncover the various spiritual and physical riches of the community fill and muhlhasler 2001). however, over time and by the change of socioecological, some lexicons were displaced by the lexicon from outside malay. the environment changes, the language that lives in the speech changes over time (lindo and bundsgaard, 2000: 10-11). the language level that changes quickly is the lexicon. this change is influenced by three dimensions, including ideological, social or sociological, and biological dimensions (widayati et al., 2017, and 2018). therefore, this paper aims to uncover the diversity of the culinary ecolexicon of the malay community, especially the main cuisine ecolexicon, so that the diversity of the culinary ecolexicon is documented. thus, the next generation can learn the language, the generation can even see it of documents that may no longer be able to speak in that language (hwia, 2017: 17). this research was conducted based on ecolinguistic theory. ecolinguistics is the study of interactions between existing languages and their environment (haugen, 1972, in peter, 1996: 57). theoretically, a language that is in a certain area has a close relationship with the environment and the speaker community. humans as users of language and the environment as living spaces of language, influence each other. thus, the ecolinguistic study here focuses on changes in the physical environment of speech that have an impact on language change (liebert, 2001 in mbete, 2009) or language changes presenting ecological changes. ecolinguistic studies that describe the problem of language in society are a quite complex phenomenon. a language can have problems with its geographical location, with its environment both natural and sociocultural, and with the community as a language speaking. the excavation of several malay culinary ecolexicons (as part of ecolinguistic studies) in the speaker community is an attempt to extract verbal knowledge that is still remain in the speaker's cognitive. verbal knowledge is classified into shapes and categories morphologically and ecolinguistically. the categorization includes noun categories, both animate (biotic) and inanimate (abiotic) which are the names and ingredients of culinary, while the verbal category covers activities in culinary processing and the adjective category includes the characteristics of entities and conditions found in the culinary, both when processing as well as at the time of presentation (bauer, 1983; kridalaksana, 1989; alwi 2008). without ignoring the ecolinguistic parameters adopted from ecological parameters, namely environment, diversity, and interrelationship, interaction, and interdependence (fill and muhlhausler, 2001; odum, 1996) special environments (bioregion and ecoregion) (haugen, 1972) become the foundation in interpreting some environmental culinary ecolexicon. it is from this natural environment that distinctive language, expressions, and words are realized. the sub-ethnic phenomenon or also the subculture based on environmental wealth is a symptom of a relationship between language, culture, and the environment (see cassirer, 1999 in mbete, 2015: 12). diversity, interaction, and interdependence, or interplay and interdependence, are ecosystem concepts in ecology (odum, 1996), including human ecology and language dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 115 ecology (see mbete 2009). that is, humans as users of language and the environment as living spaces of language influence each other. thus, the ecolinguistic study here focuses on changes in the physical environment of speech that have an impact on language change (liebert, 2001 in mbete, 2009) or language changes presenting ecological changes. ii. methods research data were collected by interviewing informants, who had an understanding of traditional malay cuisine. the data is then tabulated and analyzed with descriptive methods. the depiction of the diversity of the culinary ecolexicon of the main cuisine is carried out with content analysis. an in-depth discussion was carried out on each culinary ecolexicon, especially in the effort of meaning and description. the analysis also provides the status of the lexicon, whether they remain, change, or disappear. the analysis focuses on the lexicon associated with the environment where the lexicon exists, both the natural environment and the social and cultural environment. the aim is to sort, classify, give meaning to this culinary lexicon. this in-depth interview also serves to affirm the meaning and cultural value of each culinary type concluded. iii. result the main cuisine for the malay community is a staple food companion. this means that this dish can be categorized as a side dish of staple food. malay people who are close to the coast are very familiar with the main types of food made from fish, shrimp, shellfish, and coastal plants. from these ingredients, various types of dishes are processed, including fish fat curry, sour fish curry, and anyang. 1. anyang anyang is generally known in the pesisir malay of north sumatra community. anyang lexicon is synonymous with labar in panai melay. anyang is a malay culinary which contain fresh vegetables with a crispy and savory taste. vegetables that are widely used in anyang include cassava leaves (daon ubi), papaya leaves (daon botik), kale (kangkung), beans (kacang panjang), bean sprouts (tauge), bananas bag (jantong pisang), cucumbers (timun), etc. the culinary lexicon is also related to some othe food lexicons, herbs, flavors, and verbs of processing. some similar culinary are generally related to spice lexicon, which is almost the same. anyang has some variations which come from different ingredients and complementary recipes. several variations were found in this study. the naming of anyang variation has similarities and differences from the five research sites (langkat, serdang bedagai, batubara, tanjungbalai, and labuhanbatu). the name of anyang includes anyang sibuasbuas, anyang ikan, anyang pakis, anyang kepah, anyang temu paoh, anyang umbut pisang, dan anyang jantong (langkat); anyang daun sibuas-buas, anyang pakis, anyang kepah, anyang umbut pisang, dan anyang jantung pisang (serdang bedagai); anyang daun sibuih-buih, anyang pakis, anyang serai, anyang daun semanggi, anyang temu paoh, anyang umbut pisang, anyang jantung/anyang kerabu (batubara); anyang buas-buas, anyang pakis, anyang kopah, anyang bajaronggi, anyang tomu paoh, anyang umbut pisang, anyang jantung (tanjungbalai); anyang ayam and anyang ikan terubuk (labuhanbatu). anyang is commanly available during the holy month of ramadan. in the malay area of langkat, making anyang is usually accompanied by fish or other marine animals. in other variations, anyang is made with pakis (diplazium esculentum), kepah (sterculia foetida), temu pauh and shrimp. it can be een from the use of variations, such as anyang ikan sibuas-buas, anyang pakis, anyang kepah, anyang temu paoh, and anyang udang mentah. in several serdang bedagai communities, they add pumpkin leaves as supplementary ingredients. meanwhile, anyang pakis is dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 116 sometimes mixed with bean sprouts and some parts of the papaya tree, such as papaya flowers (bungo botik), papaya leaves (daon botik), and inner part the papaya tree trunk. there are also ingridient from banana blosom which are used as plaiting material. anyang jantung pisang or anyang umbut pisang is a typical cuisine in malay. banana blossom is a part of banana tree, which is heart-shaped. this part of a banana tree has a red, conical heart lining. banana blossom is usually processed as a cooking dish because it tastes sweet. the research shows that not all types of anyang still exist in the community. anyang buas-buas, for example, is very difficult to find in the city of rantauprapat and several labuhanbatu areas. sibuas-buas plants (premna cordifolia) are plants that have a fragrant aroma, usually live in low-land areas. in the processing, these wild leaves shoots are picked small (diputil, diputik-putik, dipotikpotik, disait-sait), then cleaned. the leaves should be boiled (dirobus) using water. meanwhile, other ingredients needed in the making of these weavers are grated coconut (digongseng), crushed galangal (ditumbuk; giling halus), turmeric, ginger and coriander crushed (digiling), red chili crushed (dipotong; diiris; ciracip), shallots (dirampai) and dried shrimp. keep in mind that there is an ingredient that is always in the making of anyang and there are variations in anyang, which are lime (asam limou), which are squeezing (diporasi/diramas)/ squeezing, into anyang mixture. all these ingredients are processed to produce a distinctive aroma and taste. anyang processing forms a procedural discourse. the interrelation and interaction of the malay community with various types of herbs was reduced by certain verbs to cook anyang culinary so that they could be consumed, such as the word dipotik (to pick) which has meaning to take leaves from the trees and to cut leaves by hand. cutting leaves by hand will give different taste than using a knife. the fresh green color will remain even if the leaves are collected (dicolur) or boiled (dirobus). other verbs are dikukur, digongseng, dan digiling for the noun kelapo. verbs digongseng and digiling halus are commonly used to done the seasoning ingredient. the verb digiling halus is derived from the several nouns, including cabai merah, ketumbar, merica, and udang koring. the verbs dirajang halus is derived from the noun umbut pisang, temu paoh,cabe merah, halio, and bawang merah. furthermore, the verbs digoreng/dipanggang, and dikupek are derived from the noun ayam (chicken) as ingredients for anyang umbut pisang. finally the verb dibolah and diporas are derived from the noun asam limau (lime). fig. 1. sibuas-buas leaves fig. 2. temu paoh leaves (dokumentasi pribadi) 2. gulai gulai or curry (gulai; gule) is one of the most powerful types of food. usually sugar is added to coconut milk as an ingredient to make the sauce. this cuisine is a form of community creativity in order to meet the needs of its living heritage that is passed down as a cultural heritage. gulai which is found in malay society as a form of cultural heritage dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 117 including ayam masak puteh; rendang puteh; ayam masak puteh/rendang ayam puteh), gulai lemak (gulai lemak; gulai lomak; gule lomak; gulai lomak pocah pariok; gulai lomak sinangin), gulai pisang (gulai pisang), gulai rebung (gulai rebong; gulai robung; gulai rebung), gulai darat/terong sembah (terung sembah; gulai tewung), gulai kacang panjang daon buas-buas, gulai lambuk kemuna (sayur lambok; gulai keladi/lambu), and gulai telur terubuk (gulai telur terubuk/gulai ari-ari). there are also two fishary souces that are well known to the malay community, namely, gulai masam ikan mayong and gule masam ikan sumbilang. these two cuisines have the main ingredients of fish. the ingredients are ikan mayung or ikan sembilang mixed with spices such as turmeric, ginger, galangal, onion, red pepper, hazelnut, tomato, sliced acid, basil leaves, turmeric leaves, solid leaves, and star fruit. gulai ayam (chickens curry) with white soup or spicy white chicken is called ayam masak puteh by langkat speakers. in the serdang bedagai, batubara, and tanjungbalai this cuisine is known as rendang putih or rendang ayam putih. meanwhile, this cuisine is not available in tanjungbalai and labuhanbatu. this gulai has ingredients including chicken / meat, coconut milk, and thinly sliced onions. ingredients that should be refined to combine into seasonings are coriander, pepper (marica), cumin (jintan), fennel (adas), hazelnut (kemiri), ginger (haliya; haliyo; haliye), galangal , and lemongrass (soreh; sereh) and salt (garam) ). there are other ingredients such as cloves (bunga cengkeh; bungo congkih), cinnamon (kayu manis; kulit manis), bunga lawang(bunga lawing; bungo lawang), nutmeg buah pala; buah palo), buah pelage, sliced lime and cooking oil. by using the ingredients, the chiken soup (gulai ayam bumbu putih) is cooked through a process of grinding finely grated ingredients by mixing frying oil until fragrant. adding cloves, cinnamon, door flowers, nutmeg, pelage makes the dish even more aromatic. the chicken pieces, coconut milk, sliced onion, and sliced onions cook about a halfhour until it becomes white soup. the malay community also uses stems (rebong; robung;rebung), bananas, and eggplant (terong; terung; tewung); in general, the ingredients used for the soups are similar, especially the use of coconut milk and various spices. for cooking rebung for example, the ingredients are rebung (rebong; rebung; robung), shrimp (kopah; kepah; udang), coconut (kelambir; kelapa; kelapo), chilli (cabe merah), onion (bawah merah), garlic (bawang puteh), turmeric (kunyit), lemongrass (sereh; soreh), galangal (lengkuas), dan ginger (haliya; halio; haliye).. to make gulai pisang (banana curry), the same ingredients are also used, including coconut, red chili, onion, garlic, turmeric, lemongrass, galangal, ginger, kepah / shrimp, cayenne pepper. the bananas used are usually unripe bananas (pisang kepok) with green skin. some banana curry also uses pisang rotan with sweet soup. to make gulai terong some additional ingredients are needed, including asam keeping/asam potong, and daun ubi. in general, to make curry, the seasoning is first mashed and mixed. after that the spices are ground and sauteed. after a few moments of lemongrass, turmeric leaves, coconut milk, salt, asam kandis and the main ingredients are added while stirring until boils. shrimp may be added as a complement. 3. bubur (porridge) bubur (porridge) is culinary that can be found in malay specialties. this culinary has the characteristics of rice which is cooked until soft. porridge generally uses rice, wet seasonings, sea animals, chickens and tubers. porridge found in the coastal malay region includes spicy porridge bubur pedas; bubur podas), bubur lambuk, bubur lambok, bubur lambut, and bubur sup. dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 118 bubur podas dominates all the lexicon of kitchen ingredients and the lexicon of anyang ingredients. with the addition of daun si kontut (paederia foetida), it makes the bubur podas become an icon of the richness of malay spices lexicon. by some extra ingridients, including, daun tapak leman ‘daun mangkok’ (elephantopus scaber); daun ubi ‘daun singkong’ (cassava leaves); kangkung(ipomoea aquatica); kol (brassica oleracea var. capitata); daun pegago ‘pegagan’ (centellaasiatica); kacang panjang (vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis); pisang abu mongkal ‘pisang kepok mengkal’ (musa acuminata × balbisiana; jagung (zea mays);toge ‘tauge’ (phaseolus aureus); buncis (phaseolus vulgaris); ubi rambat ‘ubi jalar’ (ipomoea batatas); ubi kayu ‘singkong’ (manihot esculenta); labu lomak ‘labu kuning’ (cucurbita moschata); kaladi ‘talas’ (colocasia esculenta); labu air (lagenaria siceraria); jipang ‘labu siam’ (sechium edule); wortel (daucus carota); timun (cucumis sativus); mi kuning; sotong (teuthida); ikan tongkol (euthynnus affinis); ikan temonong ‘ikan gembung’ (rastrelliger); ikan cincaro ‘cincarau’ (megalaspis cordyla); dan ikan ogak ‘sarden’ ‘sardinella aurita’, it makes bubur podas much more healthy to consume. this cuisine is commonly available during the month of ramadan. the ingriedients used to make bubur podas manifest the use of noun, including daun mengkudu, daun tapak leman (tapak leman/tapak kudo), daun ubi (daon ubi), kangkung (kangkung), kol (bungo kol), daun pegaga (daon pegago), daun sikentut (daon sikontut), daun kunyit (daon kunyit), daun bajaronggi/saraji, daun jeruk purut (daon jerok purut), daun sop, daun jambu bol muda, temu pauh (tomu paoh), tauge (togeh), pisang abu mantah, jagung (jagung), ubi rambat (ubi rambat), ubi kayu (ubi kayu), keladi (kaladi), kentang (kontang), labu lemak/kuning (labu lomak), jintan manis, kunyit, jahe (halio/alio, halia, halie) beras (boras), lengkuas (langkuas), merica, ketumbar (katumbar), serai (sorai), kelapa (kalapo), bawang merah (bawang merah), kacang tanah (kacang tanah), kerang (kerang; korang), udang (udang), ayam (ayam), sotong asin, sotong, gembung (ikan temӧnӧng), cincarau (ikan tӧgӧh), dencis, dan cabe merah (cabe merah), kepiting. however, some ingridients such as daun tapak leman, daun ubi, kangkung, kol, daun sop, daun jambu bol muda are rarely used by the malay langkat community. fig 3. bubur pedas and anyang pakis (source: https://www.republika.co.id/berita/gayahidup/kuliner/15/07/13/nrepd8-bubur pedasmakanan-khas-langkat-berbuka-puasa) in addition to spicy porridge (bubur podas), bubur lambuk is also delicious. the porridge is cooked with rich spices to give a delicious taste. the ingredients used for making this porridge include sago/rice, water (boiling water), coconut milk, onion and white, pepper (merica), salt (garam), brown and white sugar (gulo merah dan putih), pandan leaves (pandan), turmeric leaves (daun kunyit) and basil leaves (daun selasih). first, sago are mixed with hot water and evenly stirred (dikacau; dicampur). the sago dough is leaved until it becomes fluffy, then rounded up like marbles. meanwhile, turmeric and basil leaves are crushed. the seasonings, salt / flavoring, pepper, and sago that had been rounded off were then mixed into boiling water. after several minutes, the meshed basil leaves and turmeric leaves are put into the mixture. the last step is adding the fried onion (diracip, ditumis) into the porridge. unlike the previous two porridge, porridge soup has additional ingredients as a dish that gives flavor like soup to this porridge. these ingredients are peanuts, carrots, potatoes, dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 119 cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, celery leaves. if the spicy porridge is usually eaten with anyang, soup porridge is a rice-based porridge that is added meat, vegetables and special spices as cooking spices. fig. 4. si kentut leaves 4. sea food various kinds of sea animal are also used for malay. beside curry, there are still a number of seafood dishes such as pindang ikan, sembam ikan, ikan panggang, dan rendang serai kepah. among the characteristics of pindang of costal malay is the use of starfruit or asam potong. shallots (bawang merah), lemongrass (sereh; soreh; serai) ginger (haliyo; haliya; haliye), galangal (lengkuas), red chillies (cabe merah), basil leaves (daon kemangi), turmeric leaves (daon kunyit) are among the ingredients that must also be prepared to make this dish. the spices are then blended with fresh gravy. sembam ikan is a dish that is processed by simply grilling it using hot coals (charcoal / coconut shells). the fish that are usually planted are ikan gombung, sonangin), stingrays (ikan pari) and some freshwater fish. the additional seasoning to provide freshness to these preparations is turmeric, and cut acid or lime (asam limo). a little may also added to enrich the taste. rendang serai kepah is a malay dish made by chopping mussels or mussels using lemongrass. lemongrass is quite dominant feels. other ingredients needed to make this dish are kepah, red chili, cayenne pepper, onion, turmeric, lemongrass, ginger, galangal, coriander, and coconut. 5. pajri nenas pajri nenas is a malay traditional dish made from pieces of pineapple which is seasoned with savory spice. the materials needed to make pineapple pajri are pineapple, onion/white, chili, cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, peanuts, coconut milk, hazelnut, cumin, brown sugar, turmeric, and ginger. gambar 5. pajri nenas (pajri nenas, pajri nonas) (sourcer: https://resepdanmasakan.com/resep-pajrinanas-khas-melayu-sederhana/) the first step taken to make pajri nenas is to cut the pineapple into a small size. then chopped (dirajang) onion, salt or flavoring are pan-fried (ditumis) while adding a few red chilies and water. after a few minutes, cinnamon, clove powder, and nutmeg powder are added a little to have a taste of pineapple pajri sauce. next, pineapple is added and sugar is sprinkled a few minutes. the langkat and serdang bedagai malay call this dish as pajri nenas, while batubara, asahan / tanjungbalai, and labuhanbatu called it pajri nonas. the research shows that pajri nenas are well known in these five coastal malay regions. this dish usually served along with fatty dishes, such as curry and meat. the steps of making this type of food also results in procedural discourse. 6. sarak terong the serdang bedagai malay community knows this dish as serak terong; batubara and asahan malay call it sarak torung; dwi widayati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 120 labuhanbatu malay call it sarak torong. this cuisine is made from eggplant, which is processed using coconut milk similar to curry rendang. in addition, sometimes sarak terong is also use peanut to give more taste. the ingredients needed are including eggplant, red chili, belacan, onion, fried coconut, cumin, cinnamon, brown sugar, white sugar. the process of serving sarak terong provides several verbs including splitting (membelah) eggplants in half, roasting (menyangrai) coconut until oil comes out, meshing (menghaluskan) dried shrimp, meshing (menghaluskan) or pan-fried (menumis) the seasonings, and finally brushing (menyarak) eggplant. 7. sambal the types of sambal known in the malay community are tempoyak durian, sambal cecah (sambal acar), sambal terasi asam sundai, sambal belacan asam binjei. tempoyak durian is a type of sambal made from fermented durian fruit. it also served with pais or pepes ikan. the ingredients used for making tempoyak durian are durian (durian), salt, red and white onions, durian tempoyak (pekasam durian), red chili, cayenne, sugar (gulo pasir), and cooking oil. in contrast to tempoyak sambal, sambal terasi asam sundai and sambal belacan. other ingredients needed are cayenne, red pepper, tomatoes, salt, sugar, cooking oil, and bitumen. iv. conclusion culinary ecolexicons in the malay community reflect the richness of nature and the environment where the speaker lived. some lexicon is not available in a certain area due to the availability of the ingredient found in that area, while some other area use different lexicon to refer to one ingredient. the ecolexicon diversity of culinary names and types of herbs of a language is a manifestation of people's understanding of their environment. these insights are inseparable from the cultural reflection of the local community. the more lexicons that contain information about the environment of a language indicate the greater the wealth of the environment within the language community. besides the name of the culinary itself, some other lexicon are also use, especially noun and verb. acknowledgement this paper is part of a financially supported study by the directorate of research and community service directorate of research and community service directorate general of research and development strengthening ministry of research, technology and higher education. references alwi, hasan, soenjono dardjowidjijo, hans lapoliwa, anton m.moeliono. 2008. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. bauer laurie. 1983. english word-formation. cambridge: cambridge university press. fill, alwin and peter muhlhauser (eds), 2001. the ecolinguistics reader: language, ecology, and environment. continuum. london and new york. haugen, 1972. 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lingual-cultural kitchen herb lexicon representing the asahan malay’s culinary riches“ in international journal of multidisciplinary research and development. 5 (6) 50-53. www.allsubjectjournal.com jurnal arbitrer 13 watak kato dalam bahasa minangkabau: sebagai cerminan perilaku berbahasa masyarkat minangbakabau1 leni syafyahya, efriyades, dan elly delfia jurusan sastra indonesia, universitas andalas abstrak ketidaktepatan penggunaan seruan dalam kehidupan dapat menyebabkan terjadinya kesalahapahaman dalam interaksi. karena seruan itu memiliki watak kato, ‘tata krama kata’ tertentu dalam penggunaannya. dalam tulisan ini akan dijelaskan,bentuk ujaran seruan, watak kato yang terdapat dalam ujaran seruan, variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan tulisan ini berasal dari hasil penelitian kami. secara teknis, penelitian ini dilakukan dengan metode simak dan metode cakap dalam penyediaan data. metode cakap dapat disejajarkan dengan metode wawancara. dalam analisis data digunakan metode, editing (pemeriksaan terhadap kelengkapan dan kelayakan data), koding (klasifikasi data). setelah itu, menafsirkan keabsahan teori dengan data yang telah dikoding. di samping itu, dalam analisis data juga digunakan metode padan dan metode distribusional. berdasarkan analisis data yang telah dilakukan, dapat dijelaskan bahwa bentuk ujaran seruan, watak kato yang terdapat dalam ujaran seruan, variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaannya. ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau memiliki bentuk bentuk lengkap dan bentuk tidak lengkap. dari bentuk lengkap dan tidak lengkap ujaran seruan ini, dapat dikelompokan atas 4 watak kato, yaitu,: kato mancari kawan ‘ kata mencari teman’ kato mancari lawan ‘kata mencari teman’ kato indak bakawan ‘kata tidak berteman’, dan kato indak balawan ‘kata tidak dilawan’. di samping itu, ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau mempunyai variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan. variasi leksikal terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaan, sedangkan variasi penggunaan terjadi karena tujuan penggunaannya. variasi leksikal juga dapat terjadi pada daerah yang sama atau satu daerah. begitu juga halnya dengan variasi penggunaannya. kata kunci: watak kato, seruan, dan bahasa minangkabau 1 tulisan ini berasal dari hasil penelitian hibah bersaing vol. 2, april 2015 14 i. pendahuluan ujaran seruan dalam sosial budaya minangkabau digunakan untuk menjaga keharmonisan antara kelompok masyarakat. hal ini sesuai dengan filsafah orang minangkabau memakai ukuran yang mereka sebut raso jo pareso ‘rasa dengan periksa’. artinya, setiap sesuatu yang akan diujarkan dan dilakukan dihubungkan dengan dengan ukuran perasaan yang sama dan dengan pemeriksaan yang senilai. ukuran raso; hukum piciak jangek, sakik dek awak sakik dek urang ‘ukuran rasa; ukuran cubit kulit sakit oleh kita sakit pula oleh orang’. ukuran pareso; memakai nilai alua jo patuik ‘ukuran periksa memakai alur dengan patut’. dengan kata lain, dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat haruslah saling menghormati dan tenggang rasa. tenggang rasa tersebut dapat diungkapkan melalui ujaran seruan. akan tetapi, pada saat sekarang ini, karena perkembangan kemajuan teknologi dan penyederhanaan bentuk serta pengabaian praktikpraktik budaya dalam masyarakat minangkabau menyebabkan kurang tepatnya penggunaan seruan tersebut. ketidaktepatan penggunaan seruan itu dapat menyebabkan terjadinya kesalahapahaman dalam interaksi. di sisi lain, anak-anak yang bahasa pertamanya bahasa indonesia tidak memahami makna dan aturan penggunaan seruan ini kepada siapa, kapan, dan situasi bagaimana ujaran seruan ini boleh digunakan. penggunaan ujaran seruan ini kadangkala tidak lagi memiliki batas, contohnya, antara kemenakan dengan mamak. si kemenakan tidak lagi menggunakan ujaran yang semestinya kepada mamak, begitu pula sebaliknya. akhirnya, watak kato tidak lagi terpakai dalam budaya minangkabau. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini penting untuk dilakukan agar watak kato dalam ujaran seruan itu dapat dipahami oleh generasi muda. adapun maksud dan tujuan penggunaan ujaran seruan ialah untuk mengungkapkan perasaan dalam pertuturan. perasaan yang diungkapkan bisa perasaan senang, gembira, kagum, sedih, kecewa, jengkel, heran, cemas, mengupat, mengutuk, memuji, dan marah. di samping itu, penggunaan ujaran seruan berkaitan dengan nada suara, sikap atau cara sepanjang yang penulis amati memiliki beberapa perbedaan. perbedaan tersebut ditentukan oleh situasi, keharmonisan hubungan antara penutur dengan mitra tutur, misalnya dengan gembira, santai, biasa/netral, serius, dan resmi, nada suara keras, lembut, dan biasa. penggunaan ujaran seruan yang salah dapat mengganggu keserasian jurnal arbitrer 15 dalam komunikasi bahkan akan menimbulkan pertengkaran di antara peserta tindak ujaran (syafyahya, 2008: 18). hal itu senada dengan pendapat sopiani (2008:1) mengatakan sebaiknya kita semua mengendalikan kata-kata yang keluar dari mulut kita dengan kata-kata positif dan baik. lebih lanjut beliau mengatakan, bayangkan apa yang akan terjadi dengan anak-anak kita, pasangan kita, rekan-rekan kerja kita, dan orang-orang di sekeliling kita bahkan binatang dan tumbuh-tumbuhan di sekeliling kita pun merasakan efek yang ditimbulkan dari getaran-getaran yang berasal dari pikiran dan ucapan yang kita lontarkan setiap saat kepada mereka. melihat pernyataan sopiani itu, kita sebagai manusia boleh berpikir agar selalu bijaksana dalam memilih dan mengucapkan kata-kata yang keluar dari mulut kita. begitu pula dalam sosial budaya minangkabau, untuk menjaga keharmonisan antara kelompok, masyarakat memakai ukuran yang mereka sebut raso jo pareso ‘rasa dengan periksa’. ajaran raso jo pereso terdapat dalam pantun berikut: kaluak paku kacang balimbiang tampuruang lenggang-lenggangkan bao manurun ka saruaso anak di pangku kamanakan dibimbiang urang kampuang dipatenggangkan tenggang jo raso jo pareso (navis, 1982:73) arti pantun di atas mengisyaratkan bahwa dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat haruslah saling menghormati dan tenggang rasa. tenggang rasa tersebut dapat diungkapkan melalui ujaran seruan. ujaran yang mengungkapkan peningkatan emosi dengan penegasan, tekanan, nada, atau intonasi tertentu disebut dengan seruan (kridalaksana, 1993: 196). di samping itu, moussay (1998: 102) mengatakan untuk mengungkapkan perasaan dalam atau penilaian afektif digunakan ujaran seruan. akan tetapi, kalau salah penggunaan ujaran seruan tersebut akan dapat menimbulkan pertentangan bahkan bacakak banyak antarwarga. hal itulah yang mendasari penulis memilih topik penelitian ini. alasan lain mengapa ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau yang dijadikan topik tulisan ini. pertama, perkembangan penggunaan karena kemajuan teknologi dan penyederhanaan bentuk serta pengabaian praktik-praktik budaya dalam masyarakat minangkabau menyebabkan kurang tepatnya penggunaan seruan tersebut. kedua, perkembangan teknologi sudah mempengaruhi generasi muda. pengaruh itu sangat jelas terlihat dalam penggunaan bahasa mereka. mereka senang menggunakan bahasa gaul, prokem, dan alay. dalam penggunaan bahasa vol. 2, april 2015 16 tersebut, mereka tidak lagi memperhatikan lawan tutur yang semestinya. hal ini tentulah sangat mengkhawatir. kalau keadaan ini dibiarkan saja, tentu harapan kita bersama yaitu membangun generasi yang berkarakter hanyalah sebuah mimpi belaka. di sisi lain, dapat dikatakan bahwa kecerdasan merupakan bagian dari karakter manusia. kemampuan berbahasa yang efektif, logis, lugas, jelas, dan mudah dipahami merupakan refleksi kecerdasan. kecerdasan berbahasa berkaitan dengan kemampuan memahami orang lain, misalnya menyatakan simpati, mengucapkan rasa terima kasih, menyatakan kecewa, dan bernegosiasi. semua itu tentulah menggunakan ujaran seruan. alieva (1991:263) mengatakan kata-kata yang menyatakan perasaan dan isi hati disebut dengan kata seru. ada kata-kata seru menyatakan perasaan dan ada yang menyatakan arti kausatif, sifat ajakan, suruhan, atau pernyataan. rumusan yang hampir sama dinyatakan oleh kridalaksana (1993:84) bentuk yang tidak dapat diberi afiks dan yang tidak mempunyai hubungan sintaksis dengan bentuk lain dan dipakai untuk mengungkapkan perasaan disebut interjeksi. dengan kata lain, interjeksi itu adalah istilah lain dari kata seru. moussay (1998: 102) mengatakan untuk mengungkapkan perasaan dalam atau penilaian afektif digunakan ujaran seruan. lebih lanjut moussay mengatakan, ujaran tersebut memiliki dua bentuk yaitu bentuk lengkap dan bentuk tidak lengkap. bentuk lengkap dibangun berdasarkan model yang sama dengan ujran interogatif dan menggunakan partikel tak takrif yang sama sebagai ekslamatif. hanya intonasinya yang berbeda, yang di sini ditandai dengan tanda seru di akhir ujaran, sedangkan bentuk tak lengkap ialah bentuk yang dipersingkat menjadi intejeksi saja. bentuk itu dapat dipahami dalam suatu konteks dan tanda seru diletakkan langsung setelah interjeksi yang lazim diletakkan di awal ujaran. interjeksi itu termasuk onomatope, teriakan, kutukan, panggilan ataupun umpatan. semua interjeksi itu dianggap sebagai kata tugas. dengan demikian, moussay mengklasifikasikan interjeksi ke dalam salah satu bagian dari ujaran seruan. dalam buku moussay ini, belumlah dijelaskan bentuk-bentuk ujaran seruan secara mendalam, dan kaidah penggunaannya. oleh karena itu, dalam tulisan ini akan dijelaskan hal-hal tersebut. dalam bahasa minangkabau, katakata yang digunakan dalam ujaran memiliki sifat-sifat tertentu. sifat kata-kata merupakan watak kato/ ucapan yang bila diujarkan akan menimbulkan reaksi bagi jurnal arbitrer 17 pendengarnya (navis, 1982: 101). watak kata-kata itu terdiri dari empat jenis yaitu: 1. kato mancari kawan ‘ kata mencari teman’ kata-kata/ucapan yang menimbulkan rasa simpati atau rasa senang bagi pendengarnya. 2. kato mancari lawan ‘kata mencari teman’ kata-kata/ucapan yang menentan, tajam, atau kotor sehingga membangkitkan amarah yang mendengarnya. 3. kato indak bakawan ‘kata tidak berteman’ kata-kata/ucapan yang bersifat fitnah, gunjingan/bohong . 4. kato indak balawan ‘kata tidak dilawan’ kata-kata/ucapan yang bersifat perintah yang salah tetapi harus tetap dilaksanakan. rumusan yang senada dinyatakan oleh (ayub dkk, 1993:300 dalam bahasa minangkabau terdapat ujaran seruan (interjeksi) yang pada umumnya mengacu ke a). sikap positif, b) sikap negatif, c) menyatakan keheranan, dan d) netral/campuran, sesuai dengan konteks yang mengiringinya. secara umum tulisan ini bertujuan untuk mengiventarisasikan penggunaan ujaran seruan dan analisis konteks sosial-budaya berdasarkan perspektif sosiolinguistik. di samping itu, secara khusus tulisan ini bertujuan untuk: 1. mendeskripsikan ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau yang digunakan baik di daerah darek ‘daerah asal minnangkabau’ maupun daerah rantau ‘daerah baru minangkabau’. 2. menjelaskan watak kato dalam ujaran seruan sebagai cerminan perilaku berbahasa dan berbudaya masyarakat minangkabau. 3. menjelaskan variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan ujaran seruan dalam masyarakat minangkabau. secara teknis penelitian ini dilakukan dengan metode simak dan metode cakap dalam penyediaan data. metode cakap dapat disejajarkan dengan metode wawancara. dalam analisis data digunakan metode, editing (pemeriksaan terhadap kelengkapan dan kelayakan data), koding (klasifikasi data). setelah itu, menafsirkan keabsahan teori dengan data yang telah dikoding. di samping itu, dalam analisis data juga digunakan metode padan dan metode distribusional. penyediaan data ujaran seruan peneliti peroleh dari penggunaan lisan. data bahasa lisan diperoleh tuturan lisan masyarakat secara spontanitas di daerah sumatera barat minus mentawai, pengalaman pribadi individu, dan observasi langsung ke lapangan. dalam sejarah minangkabau, dibicarakan tentang wilayah minangkabau yang terdiri atas dua daerah, yaitu daerah darek ‘darat’ dan daerah rantau ‘daerah pemukiman vol. 2, april 2015 18 baru’ (batuah, 1965:25). disebut sebagai daerah darek karena terletak jauh dari pinggiran laut dan dipandang sebagai daerah pemukiman tertua asal minangkabau sementara daerah rantau umumnya terletak di sepanjang pantai` pulau sumatera (medan, 1980:31). daerah darek ialah daerah ‘asal minangkabau’ dan yang termasuk daerah darek, yaitu: solok ( kota dan kabupaten), solok selatan, bukittinggi, kabupaten agam, kabupaten tanah datar, payakumbuah, lima puluah kota, dan kabupaten tanah datar. daerah rantau ialah daerah rantau dan yang termasuk daerah rantau, yaitu kota padang, kabupaten padang pariaman, dan kabupaten sawahlunto sijunjuang, kabupaten dhamasraya, kabupaten pasaman barat, kabupaten pasaman, dan kabupaten pesisir selatan. ii. pembahasan 2.1 bentuk ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau dibedakan atas bentuk lengkap dan bentuk tidak lengkap. bentuk lengkap dibangun berdasarkan model yang sama dengan ujaran interogatif dan menggunakan partikel tak takrif yang sama sebagai eksklamatif. hanya intonasinya yang berbeda, yang di sini ditandai dengan tanda seru di akhir ujaran. bentuk lengkap ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau, yaitu: a, aa, apo, ‘apa’, bara,’berapa’, baa, baalah, ‘bagaimana’, di ma, ‘di mana’,sia,’siapa’, anto, nto, , manga,’ manga-manga, ’mengapa’, dek a,’kenapa’ dan bilo, ‘kapan’. contoh: 1. dima nyo lalok ! ‘di mana dia tidur!’ 2 . anto mangko jadinyo laklah! ‘mengapa begini jadinya laillahailallah! di samping itu, bentuk tak lengkap ialah bentuk yang dipersingkat menjadi kata seru/interjeksi. bentuk itu dapat dipahami dalam suatu konteks dan tanda seru diletakkan langsung setelah interjeksi, yang lazimnya diletakkan di awal ujaran. interjeksi itu termasuk, teriakan, kutukan, dan umpatan. di bawah ini, dijelaskan beberapa contoh bentuk tidak lengkap ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau. bentuk tidak lengkap ujaran seruan teriakan ((panggilan minta perhatian/perintah keras) a!, aa!, uu!, uuk!,ah!, eh! ii!, iiii!, ii pantiak!, aduah!, onde!, onde mande! onde mak!, onde nak!, nde nak!, nende!, nde!, ndeee!, nde+astagfirullah!, ndeh! alah!, alaa!, ee!, eee!, e!, oi!, oih!, o!, hm!, ei!, ai!, laklah!,la a lah, lah!, aa!, hah!, patuik ala oi!, alhamdulillah! , nama binatang, kata carut. oi!, oik!, ai!, hoi!, oih!,oii kaniaklah!, ee a lah!, ee pantak!, oi bunduang!, kama juo lai!, hoi!, oi kasikolah!, ai kamarilah!, jurnal arbitrer 19 onde baa waang sabananyo ko!oi tolong angkek iko a! pailah ang dari siko!, pailah ang/kau ka situ!, kaluang ang/kau kini juo baruak!, baronjaklah ang/kau dari siko!bakureh lah ang lai!, masuaklah ang capek!, woi, mada! kamarilah ang! bakiroklah ang/gaw!, batundolah dari siko!, angkuilah baju ang!baa di ang/gaw nan katuju!, pailah pokak!, pai copek!, bisuak jo dunsanakdunsanak ko awak karajoan kubuah lai!, iko kecekan ka diundang!, oi, waang ndak salasi yo kanciang! kutukan mati kanai tangan!, ka diumbuik aba!, dilulua bancah!, diumbuik gaca!, mati tatungkuik!, malantonglah!, mati tagak!, anak ka ditumbuak kalera!, ka dianta kalera!, tintiang kalera!, diumbuik aba!, ditembak patuih!, wabah!, tajirangkang!, tajangkak!, diampeh karamauik!, sakangan!, sakang!, padek langek!, ditumbuak potu lah ang!matilah ang!, capeklah ang mati!, kok lai ka mati bisuak ang!, pugatlah ang/kau!, dilulua bonca!, kok lai ditumbuak potu ang/kau!, indak ka salomaik!, cilakolah gaw!, minta surek anyuiklah ang/gaw!, matilah gaw!, oi mati tagaklah gaw/ang!, ka lulua harimau!, didicak setanlah gaw/ang!, lantak bunduang!, bungkanglah ang/kau!= matilah ang!, jan kasalamaik iduik waang!, umpatan anak sarok!, anak samparah!, anak sampureh!, anak singiang-ngiang rimbo!, anak baruak!, kantuik alah hoi!, kuciang kurok!, kapunduang ang!, anak kacik!, anak pacandolan!, anak pacandaian! kata carut, anak ndak tau diuntuang ang!, anglah kanai mah!, gilo!, anak luwo nikah !, anak boruak!, anak bala!, anak galadia!, anak gacik!, ancak saketek pado baruak!, paja i sadah!, anak isampu!, a ka guno ang di rumah ko!, malokeklah! awak ang ndak ba utak!, anak rubilih!, anak kanciang! pokak ang!, anak vol. 2, april 2015 20 siampa ma!, anak kalera! gunjingan anak sianu tu yo santiang, si anu tu yo elok bana, si anu tu rancak bana, si anu tu yo mujue untuang e. ee..anak si re!, anak tu maracik parangainyo, dek ulah paja tu, anak si anu tu yo bana mada, pujian rancaknyo padusi tu lai!, codiak ang kini yee!, gadang e rumahnyo lai!, sontiang wak yo!, gadihnyo anak tu lai!, gagahnyo ang lai!, angek na hati wak e!, santiang!, onde yo santiang!, hebaik bananyo!, onde buruak bana kau ma! semua contoh bentuk tidak lengkap ujaran serua bahasa minangkabau pada tabel itu akan dapat dipahami bergantung pada konteks penggunaannya. artinya, bentuk itu kadangkala dapat berpindah kelompok bergantung pada konteksnya. 2.2 watak kato dalam ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau bentuk lengkap dan tak lengkap ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau dapat digunakan dalam berbagai keadaan. artinya, ujaran itu dapat digunakan dalam keadaan senang, sedih, marah, dan kecewa bergantung pada konteks. di samping itu, dalam bahasa minangkabau kata-kata yang digunakan dalam ujaran juga memiliki watak tertentu. dari bentuk lengkap dan tidak lengkap ujaran seruan ini, dapat dikelompokan atas 4 watak kato, yaitu,: 1. kato mancari kawan ‘ kata mencari teman’ berdasarkan analisis data, dapat dilihat bahwa dalam kehidupan sehari-hari masih banyak manusia menggunakan ujaran yang bersifat mencari kawan yang mengacu ke sikap positif. sifat ujaran mencari kawan artinya, antara penutur dengan mitra tutur dalam peristiwa tutur berusaha mengungkapkan kata-kata/ujaran yang menimbulkan rasa simpati/rasa senang bagi pendengarnya. ujaran seruan yang mengacu ke sikap positif ini biasanya diucapkan oleh manusia sebagai ekspresi senang, kagum, gembira, dan bahagia. ujaran yang bersifat positif berarti memiliki watak kato mancari kawan. dari bentukbentuk lengkap yang telah contohkan di atas, dapat kita lihat contoh (1—2) dima ‘dimana’ dan anto ‘mengapa’ berwatak mencari teman yang mengacu ke sikap positif mengungkapkan kekhawatiran dan kekecewaan si pembicara. di samping itu, sama dengan bentuk lengkap, bentuk tak lengkap juga memiliki watak. dari bentuk tak lengkap, kato yang berwatak mancari kawan, yaitu kato pujian dan kato teriakan minta perhatian, serta teriakan. contoh kato mencari jurnal arbitrer 21 kawan yang mengacu ke sikap positif. 3. a! lah tibo wak ‘ nah! kita sudah sampai’ 4. hm! tingga selah jo kami dih ‘hm! tinggal sajalah dengan kami’ 5. angek na hati wak e! ‘saya senang sekali’ 6. santiang!, ‘pintar’ berdasarkan analisis data, dari semua bentuk yang telah dijelaskan bahwa kato yang memiliki watak mencari kawan dalam ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau, yaitu kato teriakan, panggilan minta perhatian, dan kato pujian. 2. kato mancari lawan ‘kata mencari teman’ ujaran mencari lawan artinya, antara penutur dengan mitra tutur dalam peristiwa tutur berusaha mengungkapkan kata-kata/ujaran yang menentang, tajam, atau kotor sehingga membangkitkan amarah yang mendengarnya. kato yang diujarkan membangkitkan amarah pendengarnya tentulah bersifat negatif. ujaran seruan yang mengacu ke sikap negatif diucapkan oleh manusia sebagai ekspresi dari rasa kesal, marah, emosi atau melecehkan orang lain. akan tetapi, kadang-kadang ujaran seruan negatif juga dilontarkan sebagai tanda keakraban antara penutur dengan mitra tutur dalam situasi tertentu/ konteks tertentu. . berdasarkan analisis data, dari semua bentuk ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau yang tergolong ke dalam kato mancari lawan, yaitu umpatan dan kutukan. contoh 7. oi mati tagaklah gaw/ang! ‘ oi mati berdirilah kamu’ 8. ka lulua harimau! ‘ dimakan harimau kamu’ 9.didicak setanlah gaw/ang! ‘ didicak setan kamu’ 10. kuciang kurok! ‘ kucing kurok’ 11. kapunduang ang! 12. anak gacik! ‘anak anjing’ 13. anak pacandolan! ‘ anak haram’ di samping ujaran umpatan dan kutukan di atas, bentuk teriakan kadangkala juga digunakan sebagai ujaran untuk menyatakan perasaan kesal dan apabila diujarkan akan menimbulkan emosi pendengarnya. contoh: 14. aa!, dikau palasik, kamarilah kalau kau bagak. 15. hah!, 16. patuik ala oi!, 3. kato indak bakawan ‘kata tidak berteman’ kata-kata/ucapan yang bersifat fitnah, gunjingan/bohong merupakan kato berwatak indak vol. 2, april 2015 22 bakawan. gunjingan merupakan kato atau tuturan yang digunakan untuk membicarakan orang atau seseorang. gunjingan, fitnah, dan berkata bohong terjadi biasanya di tempat umum, seperti di warung, di pasar, dan di kantor. gunjingan ini dapat terjadi antarteman sebaya, lebih besar, bahkan lebih tua. dalam pergunjingan sering dibicarakan kebaikan dan keburukan seseorang. menurut pandangan masyarakat gunjingan ini merupakan perkataan yang tidak bersifat positif. contoh penggunaan gunjingan dalam kehidupan seharihari: 17. paja tu elok bana nasibnyo. ‘anak itu nasibnya baik sekali’ 18. ampulai e ndak amuah mancari ‘suaminya tidak mau bekerja’ 19. anak paja u yo bana mada ‘anaknya nakal sekali’ kato indak bakawan, dalam tuturan biasanya dibicarakan oleh beberapa orang dan ditujukan untuk seseorang atau kelompok orang. dalam pertuturan kalau pergunjingan tidak didengar oleh orang yang dipergunjingan tentulah tidak akan menimbulkan masalah dalam hubungan sosial. akan tetapi, pergunjingan yang terjadi di dengar oleh orang/kelompok yang dipergunjingkan tentulah akan menimbulkan kesalahapahaman bahkan pertekangkaran. karena pergunjingan membicarakan kebaikan dan keburukan seseorang, penggunaan kato teriakan, kato pujian, kato kutukan, dan kato umpatan tidak dapat dihindari dalam pergunjingan. 4. kato indak balawan ‘kata tidak dilawan’ kata-kata/ucapan berwatak perintah yang keras tetapi harus tetap dilaksanakan. kato perintah keras yang dimaksud ialah perintah yang digunakan ketika seseorang marah kepada anaknya, adiknya, atau kemenakannya yang tidak mau disuruh atau dilarang dalam melakukan suatu perbuatan. tuturan ini sering dilakukan hampir di semua tempat dengan nada keras. contoh, 20. pailah balian gulo tu, pantek! ‘pergilah belikan gula, kata carut!’ 21. antian lah kajo waang a! ‘hentikanlah kerja kamu!’ 22. masuaklah kau capek, anak palasik! ‘masuklah kamu, cepat, anak palasik!’ sama halnya dengan kato indak bakawan, dalam penggunaan kato indak balawan, si penutur juga sering mempergunakan kato umpatan, teriakan, dan kato kutukan. kata-kata tersebut digunakan sebagai ungkapan perasaan kesal atau marah si penutur kepada mitra tutur. dari uraian watak kato di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa dalam kehidupan sehari-hari masih banyak manusia jurnal arbitrer 23 menggunakan ujaran yang berwatak mencari kawan, berwatak mencari, berwatak indak bakawan, dan berwatak indak balawan. hal ini dilatarbelakangi oleh berbegai situasi beragam yang dihadapi dalam kehidupan. sepertinya, tingkat pendidikan tidak berpengaruh dalam penggunaan kata-kata tersebut. artinya, penggunaan ujaran seruan yang memiliki lima watak itu kadangkala juga diujarkan oleh penutur yang memiliki pendidikan tinggi. bahkan, perbedaan umur juga kadangkala tidak lagi dipertimbangkan. di samping itu, penggunaan ujaran seruan berkaitan dengan nada suara, sikap atau cara sepanjang yang penulis amati memiliki beberapa perbedaan. perbedaan tersebut ditentukan oleh situasi, keharmonisan hubungan antara penutur dengan mitra tutur, misalnya dengan gembira, santai, biasa/netral, serius, dan resmi, nada suara keras, lembut, dan biasa. kadang-kadang ujaran seruan mencari lawan juga dilontarkan sebagai tanda keakraban antara penutur dengan mitra tutur. sepanjang pengamatan yang dilakukan, tampaknya hubungan sosial lebih dominan dalam mengatur penggunaan ujaran seruan. penggunaan ujaran seruan yang salah dapat mengganggu keserasian dalam komunikasi bahkan akan menimbulkan pertengkaran di antara peserta tindak ujaran 2.3 variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau mempunyai variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan. variasi leksikal terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaan, sedangkan variasi penggunaan terjadi karena tujuan penggunaannya. variasi leksikal juga dapat terjadi pada daerah yang sama atau satu daerah. begitu juga halnya dengan variasi penggunaannya. berdasarkan bentuknya dapat kita lihat variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau: 1. bentuk teriakan dan perintah keras bentuk teriakan bervariasi leksikal berdasarkan daerah penggunaannya, misalnya, di daerah pariaman ada hoi!, eeui!, wayoee, di pasaman ada, auu!, oooi!, e koma!, dan di payakumbuah ada, aaa!, onde!, kama juo lai!. berdasarkan contoh di atas, dapat dikatakan bahwa kato teriakan bervariasi leksikal pada penggunaan daerah yang sama dan pada daerah yang berbeda. penggunaan bentuk teriakan ini juga bervariasi, yaitu digunakan untuk mengungkapkan rasa marah dan untuk menyapa. penggunaan kato teriakan untuk mengungkapkan rasa vol. 2, april 2015 24 marah dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut ini, 23. eee! pakak mah! ‘eee! tuli! 24. hoi kalera ang yo! ‘hai kcr kamu ya! namun, bentuk teriakan ini juga dapat digunakan untuk menyapa orang sebagai basa-basi dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat. berikut contoh penggunaannya: 25. kama juo tu! ‘mau kemana tu!’ 26. oi marilah! ‘hai kemarilah!’ di samping bentuk teriakan, adalagi teriakan berbentuk perintah. bentuk yang dimaksud ialah bentuk perintah keras atau memaksa orang melakukan sesuatu. perintah keras ini mempunyai variasi leksikal baik di daerah yang sama maupun di daerah yang berbeda. contoh variasi leksikal di daerah yang sama, yaitu daerah pasaman, oi tolong tua!, hindanglah!, dan tobang ambualah!. contoh variasi leksikal yang terjadi di daerah yang berbeda, yaitu: di padang, barangkeklah baruak!, di pariaman pailah anjiang!, dan di bukittinggi, tabanglah ang kambiang!. dari sisi penggunaannya, bentuk perintah keras ini tidak bervariasi. bentuk ini hanya digunakan untuk mengekspresikan rasa marah dan kesal kepada orang. biasanya digunakan kepada anak yang sulit untuk dimintai tolong. 2. bentuk kutukan variasi leksikal pada bentuk kutukan terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaan. contohnya, di bukittinggi, mati ka ditembak patuih!, di padang, ka mati anyuiklah!, di damasraya, ka mati tumbuak ikuk puso dang an!. pada daerah yang sama juga dapat terjadi variasi leksikal, contohnya, di payakumbuah dilulua boncah! dan matilah copek! dalam penggunaannya, pada dasarnya bentuk kutukan tidak bervariasi. bentuk kutukan digunakan masyarakat untuk mengekspresikan rasa marah kepada orang lain. akan tetapi, dalam konteks tertentu bagi sekelompok orang kadangkala bentuk kutukan digunakan sebagai tanda keakraban antara penutur dengan mitra tutur. 3. bentuk umpatan bentuk umpatan mempunyai variasi leksikal. variasi leksikal terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaan. contoh, di padang, anak haram!, di bukittinggi, anak jadah!, dan di solok anak galadak!. sama halnya dengan bentuk kutukan, pada dasarnya penggunaan umpatan tidak bervariasi. bentuk umpatan ini hanya digunakan untuk mengungkapkan rasa kesal dan marah kepada orang lain. akan tetapi, dalam konteks tertentu bagi sekelompok orang kadangkala bentuk kutukan digunakan sebagai tanda keakraban antara penutur dengan mitra tutur. jurnal arbitrer 25 bentuk gunjingan variasi leksikal terjadi akibat perbedaan daerah penggunaan. lain daerah kadang-kadang lain pula kata yang digunakan untuk bergunjing. contohnya, di pasaman, si anu tu congkak bona!, di solok, anak si anu tu yo dak elok!, dan di pesisir selatan, onde! yo santiang bana wak yo. variasi penggunaan kato gunjingan ada dua, yaitu gunjingan digunakan untuk membicarakan kebaikan orang lain dan gunjingan untuk membicarakan keburukan orang lain. kedua jenis gunjingan itu dalam kehidupan sehari-hari tetaplah merupakan hal yang tidak terpuji. bentuk pujian variasi leksikal kato pujian dapat terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaannya. contoh, di padang, gadih wak yo!, di damasraya, codiak nyian kiro!, dan di pasaman barat, kan elok ti paja tu!. variasi leksikal kato pujian ini juga bisa terjadi pada daerah penggunaan yang sama, contoh di padang, manih bana!, yo santiang bana!, dan coga bana!. dalam penggunaannya, kato pujian tidak bervariasi. kato ini hanya digunakan untuk memuji atau menyenangkan hati orang atau mitra wicara. berdasarkan keterangan variasi lekasikal di atas, dapat dikatakan bahwa variasi leksikal dapat terjadi baik pada daerah yang sama maupun pada daerah yang berbeda. di sisi lain, variasi penggunaan ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau terjadi karena perbedaan tujuan. iii. kesimpulan berdasarkan analisis data yang telah dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa: 1. ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau memiliki bentuk bentuk lengkap dan bentuk tidak lengkap. dari bentuk lengkap dan tidak lengkap ujaran seruan ini, dapat dikelompokan atas 4 watak kato, yaitu,: kato mancari kawan ‘ kata mencari teman’ kato mancari lawan ‘kata mencari teman’ kato indak bakawan ‘kata tidak berteman’, dan kato indak balawan ‘kata tidak dilawan’ 2. ujaran seruan dalam bahasa minangkabau mempunyai variasi leksikal dan variasi penggunaan. variasi leksikal terjadi karena perbedaan daerah penggunaan, sedangkan variasi penggunaan terjadi karena tujuan penggunaannya. variasi leksikal juga dapat terjadi pada daerah yang sama atau satu daerah. begitu juga halnya dengan variasi penggunaannya. vol. 2, april 2015 26 referensi alieva, n. f. et al.1991. bahasa indonesia deskripsi dan teori. yogyakarta: kanisius. ayub, asni. dkk.1992.tata bahasa minangkabau. jakarta : pusat pembinaan dan pengembanagan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. alwasilah, a. chaedar. 1985. sosiologi bahasa. bandung: angkasa. batuah. a. dt. 1965. tambo alam minangkabau payakumbuh : pt limbagao. chaer, abdul dan agustina,leoni. 1995. sosiolinguistik. jakarta : rineka cipta. djajasudarma, t. fatimah. 1993. metode linguistik ancangan metode penelitian dan kajian. bandung : eresco. halim, abdul hanafi. 2007. metodologi penelitian bahasa. batusangkara: stain kridalaksana, harimurti. 1993. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia. marsono, dan paina pratama. 2002. sosiolinguistik. yogyakarta: sabda. medan, tamsin 1980. geografi dialek bahasa minangkabau. jakarta : pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. moleong, lexy j. 1990. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remaja rosda karya. ______________. 2007. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. moussay, gerard. 1998. tata bahasa minangkabau. terj. hidayat rahayu s. jakarta : effeo university of leiden. nababan, p.w.j. 1991. sosiolinguistik suatu pengantar. jakarta : pt gramedia. navis, a.a. 1984. alam terkembang jadi guru. jakarta. pustaka grafiti. sopiani, ahmad. 2008. “ orang besar dibentuk kata-kata positif’ dalam http://nasruni.wordpress.com. subroto, d. edi. 1992. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. ed. 1. surakarta : sebelas maret university press. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta : duta wacana university press. syafyahya, leni dkk. 2000. kata sapaan bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten agam. jakarta : pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional. jurnal arbitrer 27 syafyahya, leni. 2008 “ujaran seruan bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten agam” padang: universitas andalas. spolsky, bernard. 2003. sociolinguistics. oxford : university press suwito. 1982. sosiolinguistik teori dan problema. surakarta: henary offset. toeah, datoek. 1976. tambo alam minangkabau. bukittinggi : cv pustaka indonesia. wardhaugh, ronald. 1992. an introduction to sociolinguistics. second edition. new york : basil blackwell. 78 student’s ability in using lexical collocations in descriptive writing at the english department of padang state polytechnic yalmiadi dharma andalas university email: yalmiadi@unidha. ac.id abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan jenis kolokasi leksikal yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa dalam tulisan deskriptif, dan yang banyak salah dalam penggunaannya serta menjelaskan penyebab kesalahan tersebut. jenis penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif. subjek penelitian adalah mahasiswa semester genap tahun akademik 2011/2012 sebanyak 22 mahasiswa yang dipilih menggunakan random sampling technic. data diperoleh dari tulisan deskriptif mahasiswa. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ketujuh jenis kolokasi leksikal yang ada seperti; verb [creation and or activation] + noun (l1), verb [eradictionand or nullification] + noun (l2), adjective + noun (l3), noun + verb (l4), n1 + of + n2 (l5), adverb + adjective (l6), and verb + adverb (l7) dapat ditemukan dalam tulisan mahasiswa tersebut. jenis kolokasi yang banyak salah adalah (l3), (l1), dan (l4), sedangkan (l5), (l7), dan (l2) lebih sedikit, selanjutnya (l6) paling sedikit ditemukan. penyebab terjadinya kesalahan tersebut adalah: intervensi bahasa kedua, perbendaharaan kata, terjemahan per kata, terjemahan langsung, tidak memperhatikan aturan, serta kurangnya pengetahuan siswa tentang kolokasi itu sendiri. kata kunci: kolokasi leksikal, tulisan deskriptif abstract in the case of injection gasoline engine, or better known as spark ignition engines, an effort to improve engine performance as well as to reduce fuel consumption is a fairly complex problem. generally, engine performance improvement efforts will lead to increase in fuel consumption. however, this can be solved by performing engine torque control based on intelligent regulation such as fuzzy logic inference system. in this study, fuzzy logic engine torque regulation is used to control the throttle position entered by the driver to achieve optimal engine torque. an engine torque vs. throttle position and engine speed mapping for economical vehicle feel is used to build this control process regulation. from simulation result, it can be concluded that this control strategy is very effective to reduce fuel consumption and simultaneously optimize the engine performance. keywords: engine torque control, fuzzy logic, spark ignition engine issn 2339-1162 79 introduction in the process of teaching and learning english, there are two indispensible aspects that must be closely paid attention by both teachers and students. the first is english vocabulary and the second one is grammar. however, the second aspect of the teaching english in indonesia has been customarily a focus for most english as foreign language (efl) teachers.they emphasize on grammar more than on vocabulary. as a result, most students have good understanding to the grammar than to the vocabulary. the role of english vocabulary has long been taken too lightly in the efl teaching because the efl teachers assume that the students’ success in learning english is only seen from the students’ ability in grammatical mastery. the efl teachers’ assumption is evidently true as they give emphasis to the teaching of the forms and functions of english grammar. their attention to the forms and the functions of the grammar are more serious than to the teaching of english vocabulary. this is caused by the efl teachers are worryabout having their students’ spoken and written text impede the readers’ understanding toward the incorrect uses of grammatical forms and functions. therefore, the indonesian teachers and students’ paradigm to the teaching of english subject matter is no more than the teaching of english grammar. the teaching of english vocabulary is very important to enhance the students’ english writing or speaking proficiencies. in learning vocabulary, thornbury (2002:3-12) explainsthatthere are at least6types ofvocabulary. the types are word classes, word families, word formation, multi-word units, collocations and homonyms. these six types must be learnt and mastered by the efl students in order to improve as well as to increase their english vocabulary mastery in both written and spoken communication. in relation to the mastery of english collocation, the students whose language are not english should prioritize to learn it as it is a main part of the type of vocabulary. the aimofunderstanding english collocation is to increase learners’ speaking and writing proficiencies well. therefore, the efl learners are expected to pay close attention to the mastery of the collocation along with the mastery of vocabulary. in addition, collocation is already fixed or very strong to present the meaning of the expression used by the speakers, for instance, take a picture/photo where no word other than take which collocates with picture/photo. furthermore, collocation provides a similar meaning to another word such as, keep tois similar with stick to. the ability to pair a group of words into the right position makes someone’s language different from the native speakers’. based on a brief explanation of making uses of collocation above either in spoken or in written communication, the researcher is triggered up and motivated to conduct a study on students’ collocation because of those facts found when correcting students’ english writings in campus. this study is very important to conduct because collocations have been considered as high frequency word combinations for native speakers which will determine the nature of english used by non-native speakers. their importance for teaching and learning has been increasingly recognized. in addition, collocations have not yet been generally integrated into the teaching materials or as one of the topics of discussion in english syllabus at school or at campus , as a result theyhave not been given serious consideration in the english teaching and learning processes yet. collocations can be integrated intothe four skills of english especially within the area of vocabulary teaching. this research is aimed at finding out the types of lexical collocations, the types of the lexical collocation which were incorrectly made, and jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 80 the causes of collocational problems found in the odd semester english department students’ descriptive writings at padang state polytechnic. method thisresearch used descriptive qualitative method. descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. it involves collecting data in order to answer question or to testhypothesis concerning with the status of the object of the study. it can also measure what already exists within our daily life(gay, 2000:275 and 2009: 112). in addition, arikunto (1997:310) says descriptive research is not aimed at testing hypothesis but only to describe about the variable, phenomena, or situation. the data were collected through observation after assigning the odd semester students 2011/2012 at english department padang state polytechnic to write english descriptive tasks. the data were analyzed based on the descriptive analysis.to check data trustworthiness, the researcher lengthened the time to accomplish students’ writing and then discussedthe topicsof writing given with another writing lecturer and researcher’s advisors. the conclusion taken based on the description of the data. finding and discussion the typesof lexicalcollocations foundin english department students’ descriptive writing based on the analysis of the data, the researcher revealed out that the students used the seven types of lexical collocations in their descriptive writing or all types were used by the students. they are (l1 = verb (creation and or activation) + noun, l2 = verb (eradication and or nullification) + noun, l3 = adjective + n, l4 = noun + verb, l5 = noun1 + of + noun2, l6 = adverb + adjective, and l7 = verb + adverb. however, even though they have paired the words, the students were still unable to make the correct or fixed lexical collocations. the incorrect lexical collocations made by the students could be observed in the subsequent details based on their respective classifications. the first students’ problem related to the correct use of the seven types of lexical collocations was verb + noun (l1) collocation. in this type, the students’ understanding of verb + noun lexical collocation was rather problematic. it was problematic because the students often overlookedto functionthe parts of speech such as nounsor verbsor vice versa correctly so thatit contributestotheformation ofthe correctlexical collocations.. as it is known, verb syntactically denotes an action (take, read, cook, drive, etc), state an occurrence (happen), state of being (be, exist). in syntagmatic levels, verbs are inflected to encode tense, modal auxiliary verbs, aspect (grammatical category), mood (speaker’s intention of statement, fact, desire, or command) and voice (active or passive). whereas, noun linguis-tically is a member of a large, open lexical category whose member can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. as a result, the students’ incomprehension of verb and noun caused them poorly present and collocate the correct verb and noun lexical collocations. the followings are the explanations of incorrect uses of lexical collocation verb (creation or activation) + noun (l1) made by the students in their descriptive writing. he could handle this country and nation very good. in this sentence, the student was unable to collocate the word ‘this country’ to its preceding verb of ’handle’. to collocate ‘this country’ with the right lexical collocation, the student should pair it with ‘manage’ as in ‘he could manage this country and nation very good’. issn 2339-1162 81 we will think about …, natural and refreshing. ‘think about’ is a reflection or recalling upon somebody or something. in order to collocate correctly, ‘think about’ should be paired with noun not with adjectives ‘natural’. therefore, the right collocation is ‘we will think about …, nature and refreshment’. in this location, there were three torrent waterfalls that down to one big natural pond. ‘waterfalls never down to one big natural pond’. a waterfall is a place where water flows over the edge of a steep, high cliff in hills or mountains, and falls into a pool below. therefore to collocate ‘waterfall’ correctly to ‘one big natural pond’, it must occurs with ‘fall into’ or ‘flow into’ as in this sentence, ‘there were three torrent waterfalls that fall/flow into one big natural pond’. in collocating verb + noun lexical collocation, the students got the difficulty to write the correct one. the difficulty was seen from the sentences they wrote in which they cannot form the verb + noun lexical collocation based on its types. as a result, the verb + noun lexical collocations were incorrectly written as shown above. furthermore, the second type of lexical collocation seemed precisely similar to previous one whereas they are actually dissimilar that is verb + noun (l2). the difference between them is laid on the function of the verb itself. on the first type, the verb functions as to create/activate a noun, for example: make an agreement. this example described that someone ‘creates’ an agreement with another. whereas, on the second type, it used to eradicate or nullify (eradication/ nullification) a noun, for instance; turn off water. this indicates that someone ‘nullifies’ the flow of water from the tap (stop the water tap). the differences between the first and the second patterns brought about the failure of correct collocation of verb and noun (l2). the followings are the list of incorrect uses of lexical collocation of verb (eradication/nullification) + noun (l2) by the students. the type of verb + noun lexical collocation is the students’ difficulty to pair it correctly. as a consequently, they produced the incorrect verb + noun lexical collocation. here are the elaborations of them. soekarno disconnected tie with malaysia country… the right lexical collocation used to stop the tie between two or more countries is ‘cut off’ which means to separate the countries from things that they are normally connected with and collocates with ‘tie’. therefore, the sentence should be ‘soekarno cut off the tie with malaysia country’ instead of ‘soekarno disconnected tie with malaysia country’. he brave to war the colonial from dutch when one is going to express ‘his/her struggle to oppose colonialism’, the right lexical collocation used is to ‘go to war’ or ‘fight against for’ as in ‘he was brave to fight against for the dutch colonialism instead of ‘to war the colonial’. the next one is …when i am doing anything which can damagingmyself using ‘damaging’ for myself is incorrect. ‘damaging’ is physically acceptable for an object which means to break. to collocate with ‘myself’, it should be paired with ‘endanger or harm’ as in ‘…when i am doing anything which can endanger/harmmyself’. thirdly, adjective + noun (l3), this type describes the use of adjective and noun in the lexical collocations. generally, adjectives were words used to syntactically describe or specify a jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 82 noun or noun phrase or give more information about the object explained. adjectives are traditionally eight english parts of speech. whereas, noun is linguistically a member of a large, open lexical category whose member can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. consequently, the use of this type, adjective + noun, is the third formula made by the students inaccurately. the incorrect type of adjective + noun can be observed as follows. most of the following bold typed and italicized sentences are incorrect because the students used nouns to modify adjectives. these automatically violate the pattern. here are the explanations; society indonesians also remember him as bungkarno or pakkarno in using the correct modifier, the students should not transfer the thought of word for word translation literally, because it will produce unacceptable lexical collocation. as a result, society indonesians is collocatively incorrect. the correct one is ‘indonesian society’. ‘society’ is modified by ‘indonesian’ to specify what kind/type of society is. he also success to build relationship international with another countries in the world as in the previous example, it is clear that adjective modifies a noun. it comes before the noun not in vise verse. thus, the right lexical collocation for the above datum is ‘international relationship’. badoray 1 is the big one, … this is the degree of comparison of superlative case. superlative is the form of an adjective / adverb that ends in –est or that begins –most. to collocatively correct, badoray 1 is the biggestone, … the students’ knowledge of pairing adjective + noun lexical collocation is still troubling. the data above indicate that the students still have problem to produce the fixed expression of adjective + noun lexical collocation. fourthly, the ability of pairing the forms of noun + verb (l4) depends on how well the students’ comprehension to this part of speech. noun, as it has been explained previously, linguistically is a member of a large, open lexical category whose member can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. whereas, verb describes or asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events or state of being. in this pattern, the students poorly paired noun and verb collocation. consequently, in the student’s descriptive writings, the researcher find that some students were unable to pair the word based on the pattern of lexical collocation. the incorrect collocation of noun + verb can be observed as follows: to visit sungai pua willtakes around 15 minutes from bukittinggi. in this sentence, the student assumption to ‘to visit sungai pua’ as a noun phrase is incorrect. this assumption caused the subject is missed. to clarify it as a subject, the student should form ‘to visit’ becomes ‘visiting’ as in visiting sungai pua takes about 15 minutes from bukittinggi’. our walk together to eliminate boredom… as in the previous example, it should be ‘we walk…’. fifthly, noun + of + noun (l5), as it has been explained previously that noun is to denote a person, a thing, an animal or abstract thing. when it denotes a person or a thing with other nouns, noun should have to collocate with other noun. on the contrary, in this type, the students issn 2339-1162 83 were unable to form and function noun correctly, for example: the process of cook. this pairing is incorrect since the word cook does not represent the function of noun, yet it is more to its function as a verb. to produce the right collocation, the students ought to form it as in ‘the process of cooking’. the word process does collocate with cooking instead of cook. consequently, most of them made mistake to pair correct collocation. the incorrect lexical collocation of noun + of + noun made by the students in their descriptive writing can be seen as follows: the older spelling soekarno, based on dutch orthography. in the students’ descriptive writings, some of the students were found to violate the lexical collocations of noun of noun. the sentence, ‘the older spelling soekarno, based on dutch orthography’, is incorrect collo-catively. it missed ‘of’ between ‘spelling’ and ‘soekarno’. it should be ‘…spelling of soekarno…’. he became the presidentindonesia for many years… as in the previous one, it should be ‘…the president of indonesia…’ sixth, the pattern of adverb + adjective (l6) is another part of lexical collocation rule which is used incorrectly by the students. adverb provides information about the manner, place, time, frequency, etc. its main function in a sentence is to modify verb. adjective on the other hand describes or specifies noun. when these two words are collocated, the adverb should have to collocate with adjectives. on the contrary, in the student’s writings, adjective is frequently taken on the first position and then proceeded by adverb. as a result, the frequent use of this pattern is of the student’s common mistakes in writing. the followingsare the incorrect form of the use of this pattern: the waterfall has water that is very clearly and cold. ‘very’ and ‘clearly’ are both adverbs whose functions are to modify verb and adverb. however, the student did not mean to modify either verb or adverb. s/he intended to emphasize on adjective ‘clear’ and ‘cold’ instead of ‘clearly’. therefore, to avoid it from incorrect collocation, the lexical collocation should be ‘the waterfall has water that is very clear and cold’. this location is easy accessible by public transportation ‘easy’ and ’accessible’ are adjectives. both of them cannot be paired directly as they have the same function to modify noun. in this sentence, the right collocation is ‘this location is easily accessible by public transportation’. the last one is the pairing of verb + adverb (l7). this type is the last student’s weak point. they tended to put adverb before verb, for instance, ‘we directly go home after our class is over…’ instead of ‘we go home directly after our class is over…’.this mistake makes lexical collocations do not meet its basic rule. the followings are the list of the improper use of lexical collocations made by students in their writing task. the spelling "sukarno" is used frequent in english. some students violated the rules of lexical collocations of verb + adverb. they assumed that adjectives were identical with adverbs as adverbs derived from adjectives. the assumption is incorrect because the students did not understand how to form the correct adverbs. in ‘…the spelling "sukarno" is used frequent in english…’ is in correct. the correct one is ‘the spelling "sukarno" is used frequently in english’. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 84 …exchange experiences that commonlyoccurred in campus. based on grammatical rules the phrase, ‘commonly occurred’ is correct. however, in lexical collocation pattern the context of the sentence make it inappropriate to be pair that way. the correct one should be ‘…exchange experiences that occurred commonly in campus.’ the above elaborations reveal out that the seven types or patterns of lexical collocation are found in english department students’ descriptive writing at padang state polytechnic. however, the number of the usage is not similar one to another. types oflexicalcollocations which were commonlyusedincorrectly by the english department students in descriptive writings the followings are the elaboration of types of lexicalcollocationswhich werecommonly used incorrectlyby the students in their descriptive writing. first of all adjective + noun. lexicalcollocation.typicallexicalcollocationscon sistof nouns,adjectives,verbs,andadverbs.as it is known that the adjective is a modifier that has the grammatical property of comparison.it is oftenidentifiedbyspecialderivationalendingsorby specialadverbialmodifiersthat precedeit. it specifies noun into a certain color, shape, weigh, length, form, and so forth. secondly, it was followed by verb + noun. in collocating the words, the students used ingform(to training students…) instead of the base form (to trainstudents)of verb in paring the words up so that many time students mistook noun as verb or as adjective. consequently, these problems contribute to misusethe correctcollocation. thirdly, it was noun + verb. the pairing of noun + verb depended on how well the students’ comprehension to this part of speech. basically, if the students understood that noun as it has been explained previously, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition would not brought mistakes in producing the accepted collocation. as a consequently, in their writings, the students were unable to pair the word based on the pattern of lexical collocation fourthly, it was noun + of + noun. the students were found to poorly form and function noun correctly, for example: the process of cook. this pairing is incorrect since the word cook does not represent the function of noun, yet it is more to its function as a verb. to produce the right collocation, the students ought to form it as in the process of cooking. the word process does collocate with cooking instead of cook. consequently, most of them made mistake to pair correct collocation. whereas, in the uses of the lexical collocations of verb + adverb, adverb + adjective and verb + noun, students did few mistakes because these four patterns were rarely foundin their writing task, so that the numberof the mistake done isfew. if the students often used these four patterns, there would possibly be numerous mistakes came up. in fact, these four patterns were rarely used in expressing their ideas as native speakers do. the causes of lexical collocation difficulties made by students in their descriptive writing the followings are the causes of lexical collocation difficulties found in the students’ english descriptive writings. the first problem is the inability to collocate words based on the english standard lexical collocation. this happened due to the intervention of students’ indonesian language collocations, for example, he also success to build relationship international with another countries in the world, instead of he also success to build internationalrelationship with another countries in the world. issn 2339-1162 85 it was obviously incorrect because the adjective is used to modify noun. whereas in indonesian language, the adjective comes after noun. this process of collocating words in writing has been frequently adopted by the students. the second problem of using incorrectly lexical collocations is vocabulary. one of the most important factors of learning english language is the learning of the targeted vocabularies and how to use them appropriately. vocabulary in general and collocation in particular are important to language learning. if collocational associations were not properly taught and learned, the resulting irregularities would occur in the students’ writing. students whose language is not english need to know which words go with which other words, how words go together normally, and how we can manipulate these arrangements to make new meanings for ourselves. the increase of knowledge of collocations can result in better performance in the students’ writing skill and even in oral skill. thisis a sentence extracted from students’ writing task.large the museum is 80x80 m instead of the size ofthe museum is 80x80 m. the above datumshows that it is the students’ lack of vocabulary that make them write or use vocabulary that way in writing. if only the students have sufficient vocabulary they would be able to use the correct noun instead of adjective. the third weakness of using correct lexical collocation is the application of literal or word for wordtranslation:students werelikelytotransferthethoughtword-forwordfroml1tol2 when they were not succeeding in finding out the correct collocations. they take the strategy of their native (indonesian language) literal translation to produce either acceptable or unacceptable collo-cations. it can be seen in the following student’s sentence such as; …because people indonesia love him instead of …because indonesianpeople love him. thiscase was frequently brought to their daily classroom-writing task that lead to their lexical collocation problems. the next one is the use of direct translation: some students remembered only the indonesian translation of the word. therefore,theyrelied ondirect translationto produce collocations. for example, the purpose is to training studentsinstead ofthe purpose is to train students. the word training has been adopted into indonesian language or it has been becoming a daily used vocabulary to the indonesiansociety. consequently, when students talk or write in english, they tend to use the word training directly into their utterance or sentence without considering the root of the word as it is seen in the above mentioned sentence. another example is seen in the following sentence; fifth, there is an ignorance of rule restrictions: some students did not knowthat somecollocational restrictions are completely based on themeaningof theword andrange;othersdidnottake the eight parts of speech (noun, verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection), into consideration. as a result, they produced unacceptable lexical collocations in their descriptive writing, for example; pariaman also has 6 little islandsinstead ofpariaman also has 6 smallislands. the last one is the lack of knowledge of collocational properties: many students did not understand the potential collocational properties of the words they knew. take the word good for example. it could be assumed that most students knew the collocation a good boy, but few students generated the collocation a good knowledge. it can be observed in the sentence jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 86 like …he always good take care of cat, instead of … he always takes a good care of cat. the lack of collocational properties caused by poorly havingcommunication strategies, are attributable to inaccuracy in pairing words in writing. conclusion and suggestion the types oflexicalcollocations which are foundin english department students’ descriptive writing are (1) verb (creation and or activation) + noun lexical collocation, (2) verb (eradication and or nullification) + noun lexical collocation, (3) adjective + noun lexical collocation, (4) noun + verb lexical collocation, (5) noun1 + of + noun2 lexical collocation, (6) adverb + adjective lexical collocation and (7) verb + adverb lexical collocation. these all types were used by the students or found in their english descriptive writing. the types oflexicalcollocations which were commonly used incorrectlyby the students in their english descriptive writings are; adjective + noun (l3) lexical collocation, verb + noun (l1) lexical collocation and the last one is noun + verb (l4). these types of lexical collocation affected thestudents’ ideas or thought to the object, person and place being described.meanwhile, the other four lexical collocation of verb + noun (l2), noun1 + of +noun2 (l5), adverb + adjective (l6) and verb + adverb (l7), wereless common and slightly influenced by the students’ thought in explaining or describing the object, person or place. the causes of lexical collocation difficultiesfound are based on the following reasons; lack of collocational concept, direct translation,word per word, the collocationa lerrors resulted from wordcoinage, retrieval (thestudents' ability to recall collocations from theirmemory) and the last one is the students’ lack of knowledge of collocational properties. the students did not understand the potentialcollocationalpropertiesofthewordstheyk new. therefore, the following actions should be done by efl teachers; introduce and teach vocabulary along with the way how they are paired together (the lexical collocation), train students to observe and note collocations in studying, and encourage students to collecttheir collocation.show contrastive types of lexical collocation and providecollocation instructionto the students. next, explainthebenefits of understanding collocations,and the last one is remind students to use the seventh types of lexical collocation correctly in their writing. note: this article is written based on the writer’s thesis in graduate program of state university of padang. the advisors of the thesis are prof. dr. jufrizal, m.hum and dr. hamzah, m.a., m.m. referensces ainurrofiq, a. 2010. englishandindonesianpatternsof lexical collocations:acrosslinguistic comparison. thesis, unpublished paper. arikunto, s, 1997. prosedurpenelitian. jakarta: rinekacipta. bartsch, s. 2004. structural and functional propertiesof collocationsin english: a corpus study of lexical and pragmaticconstraints on lexical 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english collocation in use: advanced. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. palmer, f. r. 1981. semantics (2nd ed): a new outline. london: cambridge university press. richards, j. c. 1974. a non-contrastive approach to error analysis in j. c. richards (ed.). error analysis: perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 172-188). london: longman. thornbury, s. 2002. how to teach vocabulary. new jersey: pearson education limited. weir, c. j. 1990. communicative language testing. new york: prentice hall. template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 2 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.65-75.2017 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article english blends found in social media giyatmi1, ratih wijayava2, sihindun arumi3 fkip pendidikan bahasa inggris universitas veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 2, 2017 final revision: november 28, 2017 available online: december 5, 2017 there are many new words in the social media such as netizen, trentop, and delcon. those words belong to blending. blending is one of word formations that combine two clipped words to form a brand new word. the researchers are interested in analyzing english blends used in the social media such as instagram, twitter, facebook, and blackberry messenger. this research aims at (1) describing english blends used in the social media (2) describing kinds of english blends used in social media (3) describing the process of english blends formation used in the social media. this research uses some theories dealing with definition of blending and kinds of blending. this research belongs to a descriptive qualitative research. data of the research are english blends used in the social media. data sources of this research are websites that consist of some english words used in social media and some social media users as the informant. method of data collecting in this research is observation which is combined with writing technique. observation is done by observing some websites that consist of some english words used in social media. writing technique is done by taking some notes on the data and encoding them in symbols such as no/english blends /kinds of blending. the researchers use source triangulation to check the data and theory triangulation to determine kinds of blending and blend formation in social media. there are 115 data of english blends. those data consists of 65 data of instagram, 47 data of twitter, 1 datum of facebook, and 2 data of blackberry messenger. there are 2 types of blending used in social media; 108 data of blending with clipping and 7 data of blending with overlapping. there are 10 ways of blend formation found in this research. keyword blending, definition of blending, kinds of blending correspondence e-mail: giyatmi85jimmy@gmail.com i. introduction today’s era is known as a digital age or sometimes it is known as information age. it is a time when most information is digitalized. it starts with the introduction of the personal computer with its ability to transfer information quickly. it even grows faster when internet is used. since then the society can access and share much information fast and freely through a new media called a social media. it is a kind of technology with computer that enables its users to create and http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 66 share information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression through communities and network. nowadays most of the society know and use a social media such as facebook, twitter, instagram, and whatsapp in their life. many people are bound to social media. they start and end their days with social media. social media has very important roles in the society. it is used to socialize with no boundaries. social media enables people to talk without meeting each other. it even can reunite the long lost friends, since some social media like facebook has searching friend feature just by typing their names. social media also provides entertainment for their users, such as you tube with its movies and videos. the users of social media can channel their interest by joining some groups having similar interest in social media such as hobspot. social media can give us some knowledge because sometimes the users of social media such as facebook will share some article dealing with religion, health, education, etc. even now social media can be used for trading through online shop such as ebay and shopee. despite of the roles, the society must be wise and careful in using the social media. it can give bad effects too, such as being addicted to it, the rising of cyber crime, etc. regardless the positive and negative effects of social media, there is something interesting with the booming of it, especially in linguistic field. unconsciously, social media contribute in the appearance of many new words or vocabularies. most of them are english such as netizen, trentop, delcon, etc. those new words are actually from two words that are combined into one new word such as netizen (internet + citizen), trentop (trending + topic), delcon (delete + contact). the mixing process of two words to form a new word is known as blending in morphology. there are still many blends used in social media that seem interesting to be analyzed. there are many researches discussing blending. naghmenh mirzaie hosseinzadeh in new blends in english language (2014) holds a research to identify the new blends in english. the research shows that most of the blends are made by clipping and overlapping. klaudia bednarova-gibova (2014) in some insight into portmanteau words in current fashion magazines (2014) has a research analysing the vogue words found in elle fashion magazine 2013. the results show that there are two kinds of blends used namely fused blends and telescoped blends. paul cook in using social media to find english lexical blends presents a method for identifying english lexical blends from social media, specially twitter. the research shows that 57% of 976 candidate lexical blends found in twitter are blends. meanwhile, the research conducted by the researchers here aims at describing kinds of english blends found in social media such as instagram, twitter, facebook, and blackberry messanger. in addition this research is also aimed at describing how the english blends in social media such as instagram, twitter, facebook, and blackberry are formed. so far the previous researches only show on types of blending. the previous researches have not discussed further on the process of how the blends are formed. this research focuses on describing english blends used in social media and the studying of blending types used in social media such as instagram, twitter, facebook, and blackberry. in addition, this research also describes the blend formations found in those social media. this article is the outcome of a research belonging to penelitian dosen pemula (pdp) that is fund by direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat direktorat jenderal penguatan riset dan pengembangan kementerian riset, teknologi, dan pendidikan tinggi sesuai dengan kontrak tahun anggaran 2017. blending at glance blending actually is not a new thing in the society. some years ago there was indonesian tv news that presented about a new concept giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 67 of outdoor vacation called glamping. glamping is a camping provided with luxurious facilities just like those in seven star hotels. glamping is from glamour + camping. in solo, the researchers’ hometown, there is a special place to hang out for having meal especially in the night time named wedangan or hik or angkringan. wedangan usually sells typical traditional food and beverages from solo. it is usually situated at the side of the street and usually opens at evening. previously wedangan has a traditional sense. however, nowadays, there is a new concept of wedangan which is getting popular in solo. it is called cafedangan which is derived from café + wedangan. around 2016, there was a popular english blend due to the withdrawal of united kingdom from european union called brexit coming form britain + exit. glamping, cafedangan, brexit are classified into blends because those words are actually derived from two words that are mixed or blended to form new words. long before those all words are introduced, there have been some blends such as brunch, motel, sea lab. the word brunch was first recorded in english in 1896. so blending is not a new phenomenon in english. it shows that blending is productive in word formation until this time. however today’s blends are more creative in ideas and forms. there are other terms that are similar to blending such as lexical amalgamation, telescoping, merging, fusing, and portmanteau. blending is a very productive source of words in modern english, in both literary and scientific context (bauer,1983 ;236). today, in english lexicon, a large number of blends can be found which are no longer recognized as such since they have been everyday use for quite along time (katamba, 1994; 184). blending gives much contribution to the development of english word. now blends can be found in many fields such as fashion (jeggings = jeans + leggings, hijack = hijab + jacket), meal (donis= donut + brownies,) social media such as (netizen = internet + citizen). definition of blending broadly, blending can be defined as combining two clipped words. kvetko in bednarova (2014) defines blending as a word formation process similar to shortening combined with merging two different words. in addition, play (2013; 123) mentions that blending is the results of two clipped words that are blended together. furthermore, a blend may be defined as a new lexeme formed from parts of two (or possibly more) other words in such a way that there is no transparent analysis into morph (baeur; 1983;234). blends is a new word that is derived from two source words or splinters that at least one of them is shortened before being blended such as digital + camera (digicam), social + media (sosmed), information + entertainment (infotainment). alego in hossenzadeh (2014; 18) mentions the term blending refers to the combination of two forms where at least one has been shortened. the shortening can be by simple omission of a part of a word or it can be a result of overlapping sounds or letter. based on the given definition, blends can be created by omitting a part of source words (splinters) such as spanish + english (spanglish), fan + magazine (fanzine), situational + comedy (sitcom) or by overlapping sound and letter such as motor + hotel (motel), slang + language (slanguage) cartoon + tune (cartune) before they are combined into a new form. grice states that blending involves the coinage of new lexemes by fusing parts of at least two other source words of which either one is shortened in the fusion and / or where there is some form of phonemic and graphemic overlap of the source words (2004; 639). the process of blending creates a new lexeme by fusing some parts of the splinters (source words) that have been shortened. besides, blending can also involve overlapping of phonemic and graphemic of giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 68 the splinters. these overlapping blending may result a beautiful and unique blends such as cartoon + tune (cartune), sin + cinema (sinema). yule says blending similar to compounding also involves the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term. however, blending is typically accomplished by taking the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word (2006; 53-59). blending is similar to compounding since those two word formations deal with combining two source words to create a new word. the difference is blending involves the process of shortening or clipping the source words before they are blended. besides, the result of blending cannot be seen from the source words combined. to sum up, blending is one way to create a new lexeme involving the process of mixing or blending of two shortened forms. the process of shortening can be done by clipping the part of the source words or splinters or by overlapping the splinter in the form of phonemic or graphemic. the result of blending is totally new word and is sometimes known as a hybrid word (katamba). types of blending blending is usually classified based on the process of its formation. enarsson (2006;4-7) classifies blending as; 1) blending with overlapping the most common overlapping blends occur when the final part of the first splinters overlaps the first part of the second splinters. the overlapping can happen in one or several phonemes such as slanguage (slang+language), sexpert (sex+expert), playbore (playboy+bore), cartune (cartoon + tune), sinema (sin +cinema), cellebrity (cell + celebrity) 2) blending with clipping there is no overlapping in blending with clipping, but there is only omitting a part of one or all splinters. there are some different patterns that can be used to form blending with clipping; a) keeping the whole parts of the first splinter and the last part of the second splinter such as fanzine (fan + magazine), foodoholic (food + alchoholic) b) keeping the whole second splinter and only keeping the first part of the first splinter such as eurasia (europe + asia) c) keeping the first part of the first splinter and the last parts of the second splinter such as brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog) d) combining the first part of both splinters such as agiprop (agitation + propaganda) 3) clipping at morpheme boundaries this kind of blending is created by simple clipping. it is usually done by shortening or clipping at morpheme boundaries such as oxbridge (oxford + cambridge) 4) blending with clipping and overlapping there are blends that can be created by both clipping and overlapping. it happens due to the clipping of the splinter to share a syllable before they are combined. kremmer (2006;2-6) gives some explanation dealing with the type of blending based on its characteristics, such as: 1) intercalative blends these blends occurs in which the two words involved in the blends are so tightly integrated in the blended word that the sounds of one source lexemes are interspersed between the sounds of the other (kremmer, 2006;3). the examples of intercalative blends are; giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 69 2) overlap blends these blends occurs when the two source lexemes (splinters) share some phonological material such as glitter + literati (glitterati), imagine + engineer (imagineer) 3) substitution blends there is sometimes a substitution of a part of one source word or lexemes with other whole lexemes in the process of bending. these blends are called substitution blends such as car + hijacking (carjacking), stool + stargazing (stoolgazing). ii. methods this research belongs to a descriptive qualitative research. this research tries to describe the phenomenon of blending words found in some social media such as facebook, twitter, instagram, and blackberry messenger. the data of the research are the english blends found in the social media (facebook, twitter, instagram, and blackberry messenger). the data sources of the research are websites containing some english words used in social media. besides, the researchers also use some users of the social media as the data source. the method of collecting data used in this research is observation followed by writing technique. observation was done by observing some websites containing some english words used in social media. then the researchers wrote the data. data analysis consists of data reduction, data display and data verification. data reduction is applied to the same data. then the fix data are encoded based on types of blending by using some code i.e. no/blends /type of blending. data is displayed by using narration. the next step is data verification which is done based on the results of the discussion of the problem statements. the researchers used source and theory triangulation during this research. the source triangulation is done to check the data found and the theory triangulation is done to analyze the data. iii. result and discussion having reduced the data, the researchers found 115 data consisting of 65 data from instagram, 47 data from twitter, 1 datum from facebook, and 2 data from blackberry messenger. the researchers found two types of blending word i.e. 108 data of blending with clipping and 7 data of blending with overlapping. blends found in instagram the researchers found 65 data of english blends in instagram. blends in instagram are easily recognized because most of them still keep the word intagram with them. blends in instagram usually appear with hastag sign (#) followed by the photos uploaded in it. hastag is a word or phrase that starts with the symbol # and that briefly indicates what a message in twitter, facebook or instagram is about so that the message will be recognized easily by other users, for example #instalike, #instamusic. instagram seems tobe the social media used most english blends in this research. it is easy for the users of instagram (igers) to make new blends in instagram. based on the research, at least there are three ways to make blends in instagram, such as; a. by blending the word insta (clipped form of instagram) with certain words in a hastag to describe the photos. there are 38 data of english blends using the word insta, such as 001/instalike/bc, 002/instamood/bc, 003/instagood/bc, 043/instafood/bc. giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 70 tabel 1. blending words with insta no data splinters meaning 1 001/instalike/bc instagram + like a hastag following a picture that is displayed in instagram by the instagram’s users so the picture will get some likes from the other igers. 2 002/instamood/bc instagram + mood a hastag following a picture that is posted by instagram users in instagram to reflect their mood. 3 003/instagood/bc instagram + good this hastag is used to tag a post that a user is absolutely proud of. 4 043/instafood/bc instagram + food this hastag is used to tag a post that has something to do with food and beverage. b. by blending certain words with the word gram (another clipped form of instagram) in a hastag to describe the photos. there are 6 data of english blends using the word gram, such as 004/videogram/bc, 035/pianogram/bc, 055/celegram/bc, 057/statigram/bc. tabel 5. blends with tw-, twe-, tweet no data splinters meaning 1 089/tweple/bc twitter + people the user of twitter 2 090/twitpic/bc twitter + picture photo displayed in twitter as an identity 3 072/tweetheart/bc twitter + sweatheart friend in twitter 4 069/twactor/bc twitter + actor a person prentending or acting to be someone else in twitter blending found in facebook there are only 1 datum dealing with blend in facebook. it is 115/propic/bc. it is a picture displayed in someone’s facebook account, so that the account is recognized easily. blending found in blackberry messenger there are two data dealing with blends found in blackberry messenger. the data are 064/delcon/bc, 066/crackberry/bc. types of blends found in social media the research found two types of blending process of blends found in social media (instagram, twitter, facebook, and blackberry messenger). they are blending with clipping and blending with overlapping. blending with clipping blending with clipping occurs when one of the splinters or both of the splinters are clipped before being combined. most of the blends found in the research use this process. there are 107 data found in the research that apply this process. the researchers classified the blends using process of clipping into three groups based on the part of the splinters that are clipped for instance; a) clipping the first splinter there are 53 blends with clipping such as mention in table 6. tabel 6. blending with first splinter clipped no first splinter second splinter blending word 1 instagram nature 015/instanature/bc 2 instagram winter 017/instawinter/bc 6 twitter actor 069/twactor/bc 7 twitter applica tion 087/twapplication this type of blending occurs when the first splinters are clipped. on the other hand, the second splinters are kept full. giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 71 b) clipping the second splinter. there are 21 data belonging to this group as mentioned in table 7; tabel 7. blending with second splinter clipped no first splinter second splinter blending words 1 video instagram 007/videogram/bc 2 cat instagram 011/catstagram/bc 3 iphone photography 047/iphonegraphy/b c 5 crack blackberry 066/crackberry/bc 6 twitter interject 079/twitterject/bc 7 twitter attitude 088/twittertude/bc this type of blending occurs when the second splinters are clipped and the first splinters are kept full. c) clipping both splinters. this type of blending occurs when both splinters are clipped. there are 28 data of blends including to this group as meentioned in table 8. tabel 8. blending with both splinters clipped no first splinter second splinter blending words 1 stat-us instagram 057/statigram/b c 2 del-ete cont-act 062/delcont/bc 3 twitt-er atmosphere 082/twittospher e/bc 4 twitt-er networking 083/twitworkin g/bc 5 twitt-er pic-ture 090/twitpic/bc 6 twi-tter delicious 101/tweelicious /bc blending with overlapping blending with overlapping can occurs when both splinters share the common thing in sounds (phonemes) or letters. there are 8 data dealing with blending with overlapping. all the data are found in twitter. most of the blends are created by using two first letter of twitter i.e. tw that is blended with the second splinter started with the letter w. those two splinters share the same letter w so it causes overlapping in the process of blending. the examples of blending with overlapping found are mentioned in table 9. tabel 9. blending with overlapping n o blending words splinters process of overlapping first second 1 068/rep ortwitter/ bo reporter twitt er report+ twitter 2 075/twet ard/bo twit-ter tard twitter + tard 3 074/twai ting/bo twitter waiti ng tw + waiting 075/twetard/bo is created from twitter + tard. the first splinter is only taken on the first syllable (twit) and directly combined with the whole second splinter that started with letter t. this process causes overlapping in the process of blending. another example is 074/twaiting/bo. the blends is created from twitter and waiting. twitter is taken on the the two front letter (tw) that is directly blended with the whole second splinter (waiting) that is started with the letter w. this blending causes overlapping. the formation of blends found in social media the formation of blends discusses how the blends are formed. it deals with how the splinters are clipped in forming the blends. based on the analysis, the researchers found that the formation of blends can be classified into 10 groups; a) the two syllables from the front of the first splinter + the whole part of the second splinter. the researchers found 41 data belonging to this group which mention in the table 10. giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 72 tabel 10. blends formation 1 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 (in-sta) gram like insta + like 001/instalike/bc 2 (ar-chi) tecture daily archi + daily 019/archidaily/bc 3 (re-porter) twitter report + twitter 068/reportwitter/bo 001/instalike/bc is from insta + like. instagram has three syllables in-sta-gram. insta is taken from two syllables from the front of it. then it is blended with the whole part of the second splinter. 019/archidaily/bc is from archi + daily. archi is taken from the two syllables of the word architecture which has four syllables, ar-chi-tec-ture. after that it is blended with the whole part of the second splinter. b) two syllables from the front of the first splinter + the last syllable of the second splinter. there is only 1 data dealing with this group, it is mentioned in table 11. tabel 11. blends formation 2 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending word 1 (ce-le)-brity in-sta-(gram) cele + gram 055/celegram/bc 055/celegram/bc is from celebrity + instagram. celebrity consists of four syllables while instagram consists of three syllables in-sta-gram. celebrity is clipped on its two syllables from the front (cele) while instagram is clipped on its last syllable (gram). then both clipped words are blended into celegram. c) the whole part of the first splinter + the last syllable of the second splinter. there are 8 data including to this group as mentioned in table 12. tabel 12. blends formation 3 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending word 1 tweet in-sta-(gram) tweet + gram 004/tweetgram/b c 2 food or-(gasm) food + gasm 046/foodgasm/bc 3 status (stati) in-sta-(gram) stati + gram 057/statigram/bc 004/tweetgram/bc is created from tweet + instagram. tweet is taken from the whole part of the first syllable. on the other hand, instagram is clipped on its last syllable so it becomes gram. then both clipped words are blended together into tweetgram. 046/foodgasm/bc is from food + orgasm. food is taken from the whole part of the first syllables meanwhile orgasm is clipped on its last syllables so it becomes gasm. in the end, both clipped forms are blended into foodgasm. d) the whole part of the first splinter + two syllables from the back of the second splinter the researchers found 11 data dealing with this formation process which can be seen in table 13. tabel 13. blends formation 4 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 cat in-(sta-gram) cat + stagram 011/catstagram/bc 2 iphone pho-to-(gra-phy) iphone + graphy 047/iphonegraphy/bc 3 crack black-(ber-ry) crack + berry 066/crackberry/bc giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 73 011/catstagram/bc is from cat + instagram. cat is derived from the whole part of the first splinter meanwhile instagram is clipped on the two syllables from the back of the second splinter so it becomes stagram. at last, both forms are blended into catstagram. 047/iphonegraphy/bc is from iphone + photography. iphone is taken from the whole part of the first splinter. on the other hand, photography which has four syllabells (pho-to-gra-phy) is clipped on its two syllables from the back of the second syllable, graphy. then both forms are combined into iphonegraphy. e) the first syllable of the first splinter and the first syllable of the second splinter. there are 3 data dealing with this process as mentioned in table 14. tabel 14. blends formation 5 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 op-en fol-low op + fol 061/opfoll/bc 2 del-ete con-tact del + con 062/delcont/bc 3 twit-ter pic-ture twit + pic 090/twipic/bc 062/delcon/bc is from delete + contact. delete is clipped on its first syllable so it becomes del. contact is also clipped on its first syllable and it becomes con. then both clipped forms are blended into delcon. f) the whole part of the first splinter + the first syllable of the second splinter. there are 2 data belonging to this process as can be seen in table 15. tabel 15. blends formation 6 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 food pic-ture food + pic 045/foodpic/bc 2 fake fol-low-er fake + fol 063/fakefoll/bc 045/foodpic/bc is from food + picture. food is taken from the whole part of the first splinter while picture is clipped on it first syllable so it becomes pic. in the end the two forms are combined into foodpic. g) two first letter of the first splinter + started from the second letter of the second splinter. there are 10 data applying the process of blends formation. table 16 provides examples of this form. tabel 16. blends formation 7 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 tw-itter s-hepard tw + hepard 076/twhepard/bc 2 tw-itter s-urvey tw + urvey 084/twurvey/bc 3 tw-itter t-ype tw + ype 085/twype/bc 4 twitter technology tw + ech 096/twech/bc 76/twhepard/bc is from twitter + shepard. twhepard is someone who helps to help technical problem in twitter. twhepard is created from (tw)itter + s-(hepard). 096/twech/bc is from twitter + technology. twech is technology in twitter. twech is derived from (tw)-itter + t-(ech)-nology. technology is sometimes clipped into tech. giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 74 h) the first syllable from the front of the first splinter + two last syllables from the back of the second splinter. there are 5 data dealing with this process. they can be seen in table 17. tabel 17. blends formation 8 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 twit-ter de-li-cious twit (twee)+ licious 101/tweelicious/bc 2 twit-ter di-ar-rhea twit (twee) + iarrhea 102/tweetiarrhea/bc 3 twit-ter in-som-nia twit (twee) + somnia 110/twittsomnia/bc 101/tweelicious is from twitter + delicious. it means feeling satisfied after writing some tweets in twitter. feeling satisfied as if tasting delicious food. tweelicious is created from twit + licious so it becomes twitlicious. however to make it easily pronounced so the blended word is simplified into tweelicious. i) two first letter of the first splinter + the whole part of the second splinter. there are 13 data applying this process of blends formation as reflected in table 18. tabel 18. blends formation 9 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 tw-itter actor tw + actor 069/twactor/bc 2 tw-itter idiot tw + idiot 105/twidiot/bc 3 tw-itter explanation tw + explanation 108/twexplanation/bc 4 tw-itter walking tw + walking 093/twalking/bo 069/twactor/bc is derived from twitter + actor. twactor is someone who acts to be someone else in twitter. twactor is created from (tw)-itter + actor. the first splinter is clipped on its two first letter then combined with the whole part of the second splinter. 093/twalking/bo is derived from twitter + walking. it means using twitter while walking. twalking is created by combining tw-itter (two first letter of the first splinter) that is blended with walking (the whole parts of the second splinter) j) the first syllable of the first splinter + the whole part of the second splinter. there are 6 data dealing with this process of blended word formation as reflected in table 19. tabel 19. blends formation 10 no first splinter second splinter process of blending blending words 1 missing tweet mis + tweet 067/mistweetbc 2 twitter tard twit + tard 075/twetard/bo 3 twitter buy twi + buy 086/twebay/bc 4 twitter icon twit + icon 103/twiticon/bc 067/mistweet/bc is from missing + tweet. mistweet is a tweet that makes the user of the twitter feel regret after posting it, so that’s why the user want to delete it. mistweet is created from mis (the first syllable of the first splinter) that is combined with tweet (the whole part of the second splinter). 086/twebay/bc is from twitter + buy. twebay is trading via twitter. twebay is created from twi (the first syllable of the first splinter) that is blended with buy giyatmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 75 (the whole part of the second splinter). however, there is some changing dealing with vowel sound. twi changes into twe and buy changes into bay. in the end, those forms are blended into twebay. iv. conclusion there are many researches dealing with blending. most of them explain on kinds of blending. this research also describes kinds of blending in english words especially found in social media. besides, this research also explains on how to form blends used in social media. based on the discussion of the research, there are three conclusions on this research. there are many english blends found in social media such as 1 english blends in facebook, 65 blends in twitter, 47 english blends in instagram, and 2 english blends in bbm. based on its kind of blending, there are only two kinds of blending seen in social media such as blending with clipping and blending with overlapping. furthermore dealing with the process of blending, the researches found 10 ways of how to form blends in social media. references bednarova, klaudia. gibova, 2014, some insights into portmanteau words in current fashion magazine. enarrson, anna. 2006. new blends in the english language, karlstads universitet gries, stefan th, 2004, shouldn’t it be breakfunch? a qualitative analysis of blend structure in english. hosseinzadeh, naghmeh mirzaie, 2014, new blends in english language. international journal of english language and linguistics research, vol.2 no.2 pp 15-26. katamba, francis. 2005, english words, new york: routledge kemmer, suzanne.2006, schemas and lexical blends, applied and interdisciplinary papers, universitat duisburg-essen yule, george.2006, the study of language, new york: cambridge university press vol. 2, april 2015 54 kendala-kendala pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan2 oleh ronidin3 abstract this article aims to describe the constraints of teaching indonesian in south korea in a qualitative and descriptive manner. they include the learning process in terms of linguistic and non-linguistic aspects. the data obtained through observation and written materials throughout the process of teaching in the department of interpretation and translation of malay-indonesian, hankuk university of foreign studies, yongin, korea and indonesian language course for regional expert of samsung at the same campus. the analysis results suggest that nonlinguistic constraints consist of issues of cultural differences between indonesia and korea, strong influence of the environment that cause interference, and the negative impact of the use of the internet, especially when learners use google translation. meanwhile, linguistic constraints include some aspects of language in the form of linguistic deviation such as language error. frequent errors in the teaching process encompass error word choice, error sentence composition, error of affixes, and the error use of preposition. keywords: indonesian, error, korean students, samsung employees, teaching 2 this work was supported by the hankuk university of foreign studies research fund 2015 3ronidin is a guest lecturers at the department of malay-indonesian interpretation and translation hankuk university of foreign studies, yongin, korea and lecturer at indonesian department, faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang, indonesia. email: pakronidin502@hufs.ac.kr jurnal arbitrer 55 i. pendahuluan bahasa indonesia merupakan salah satu bahasa di dunia yang banyak dipelajari warga negara asing, terutama dari negara yang menjalin kerjasama politik, ekonomi, sosial budaya, seni, dan sebagainya dengan indonesia. bagi negaranegara itu, mempelajari bahasa indonesia merupakan sebuah keniscayaan untuk mengenal indonesia secara lebih dekat. karena itulah beberapa universitas di thailand, jepang, dan korea sengaja mendirikan program studi untuk pengajaran bahasa indonesia (kim, 2012). negara-negara di eropa juga sama. di italia misalnya, terdapat beberapa lembaga dan universitas yang menyelenggarakan pelatihan dan pengkajian bahasa indonesia. negara-negara eropa lain seperti polandia juga membuka kesempatan pengajaran bahasa indonesia melalui berbagai program kerjasama dengan pemerintah indonesia. ada 4 perguruan tinggi di warsawa yang mengajarkan bahasa indonesia yaitu universitas warsawa, warsaw school of economics, collegium civitas, dan universitas vistula (www.kemlu.go.id). di korea selatan, pengajaran bahasa indonesia tidak hanya dilakukan oleh mahasiswa yang sedang belajar di pergurun tinggi yang memang sengaja memilih jurusan bahasa indonesia, tetapi juga oleh para pegawai perusahanperusahan besar korea yang berinvestasi di indonesia. biasanya para pegawai tersebut mengikuti program pengajaran bahasa indonesia yang dibiayai oleh perusahan mereka. di antara perusahaan yang biasa “mengkursuskan” para pegawainya untuk belajar bahasa indonesia antara lain samsung, samtan, hanil, hyunday, cj, lg, kookmin bank, kepco, kowepo, lotte, dan sebagainya (evelyn, 2013: i). selain itu, ada juga keluarga yang “mengkursuskan” anak-anak mereka untuk belajar bahasa indonesia secara privat dengan mahasiswa indonesia yang sedang belajar di korea selatan. besarnya minat pembelajar untuk belajar bahasa indonesia di korea selatan menunjukkan bahwa bahasa indonesia merupakan bahasa yang penting bagi warga korea. selain untuk kepentingan ekonomi dan bisnis, juga untuk upaya peningkatan kerjasama bilateral indonesia-korea. dengan mempelajari bahasa indonesia, warga korea selatan dapat menyenal kebudayaan indonesia secara lebih luas mulai dari sastra, adat istiadat, sejarah, hingga kuliner. tingginya minat warga korea selatan untuk belajar bahasa indonesia juga sebagai efek domino “deman korea” di indonesia. vol. 2, april 2015 56 proses pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan sebagai bahasa kedua (second language learning) sejauh ini bukan tanpa masalah, baik yang dihadapi oleh para pembelajar maupun oleh pengajarnya. kendala yang sering dihadapi kedua pihak dalam proses pengajaran antara lain meliputi kendala yang bersifat nonbahasa dan yang bersifat kebahasaan. kedua bentuk kendala ini menjadi faktor penghambat keberlangsungan proses pengajaran secara efisien. kendala-kendala pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea ini menarik untuk disampaikan setidaknya sebagai bahan perbandingan bagi keberlangsungan program pengajaran bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing (bipa) di universitas-universitas yang ada di indonesia yang juga memiliki masalahnya masing-masing. selain itu, masalah ini perlu dikemukakan sebagai pedoman awal bagi lembaga pengajaran bipa di universitas mana pun di indonesia yang akan menerima mahasiswa asing, khususnya asal korea selatan. ii. metode penulisan tulisan ini akan membicarakan problematika pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan seperti disebutkan di atas. tulisan ini akan disajikan secara deskriptif kualitatif. data-data yang dianalisis bersumber dari hasil observasi dan keterlibatan penulis dalam proses pengajaran di jurusan interpretasi dan terjemahan bahasa melayu-indonesia (selanjutnya ditulis itbmi) hankuk university of foreign studies (hufs), yongin, korea dan kursus bahasa indonesia untuk ahli wilayah samsung4 di kampus yang sama pada musim dingin (winter) awal tahun 2015. data-data tersebut diperoleh melalui hasil pengamatan dan dokumen tertulis berupa tugastugas para pembelajar yang penulis kumpulkan selama proses pengajaran berlangsung . data-data yang dikumpulkan kemudian diidentifikasi dan diklasifikasi berdasarkan tingkat kesalahannya. dengan kata lain, membuat peringkat kesalahan berarti membuat urutan kesalahan berdasarkan keseringan kesalahankesalahan itu muncul. selanjutnya, kesalahan-kesalahan itu dijelaskan dengan mendeskripsikan letak kesalahannya, sebab-sebab terjadinya kesalahan, dan pemberian contoh yang benar sebagai upaya 4 ahli wilayah samsung adalah tenagatenaga profesional yang berasal dari pegawai samsung yang akan ditugaskan di luar korea selatan. selama beberapa bulan mereka dikursuskan dengan biaya perusahaan untuk mempelajari bahasa negara tujuan seperti bahasa inggris, spanyol, arab, urdu, china, vietnam, thailand, melayu, indonesia, dan sebagainya. jurnal arbitrer 57 pembetulan atau koreksi atas kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut. iii. pembahasan 3.1 kendala nonbahasa dalam pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan kendala nonbahasa yang dimaksud adalah kendala yang dihadapi dalam proses pengajaran bahasa indonesia yang tidak berkaitan secara langsung dengan persoalan tata bahasa. kendala-kendala tersebut antara lain meliputi: pertama, masalah perbedaan budaya antara indonesia dan korea. kedua, lingkungan kebahasaan yang tidak mendukung karena para pembelajar berada di lingkungan yang seharihari berbahasa korea, lalu mereka juga secara bersamaan belajar bahasa melayu (malaysia) yang kelihatannya sama dengan bahasa indonesia, tetapi pada kenyataannya sangat berbeda. kemudian faktor ketiga adalah dampak negatif penggunaan teknologi internet. a. perbedaan budaya beberapa aspek budaya menjadi penghambat proses pengajaran bahasa indonesia bagi warga korea selatan. aspek tersebut menjadi penghambat karena adanya perbedaan budaya antara indonesia dengan korea. banyaknya ragam budaya di indonesia yang disertai dengan variasi bahasa daerah yang menyertainya menyebabkan pembelajar kebingungan ketika belajar mengenai konsep-konsep yang berkaitan dengan aspek budaya tersebut. ketika mengajarkan kata “sapaan” misalnya, pengajar agak kesulitan menjelaskan kata sapaan yang beragam jumlahnya di indonesia. kata sapaan “bapak”, “ibu”, “saudara”, “anda”, “kamu” masih mudah untuk dijelaskan dan dipahami penggunaannya oleh pembelajar. akan tetapi, ketika akan menjelaskan sapaan “mas”, “uda”, “abang”, “akang”, “uni”, “mbak”, “neng”, dan sebagainya sebagai sapaan yang lebih santai, pengajar mengalami kesulitan karena umumnya pembelajar tidak mengenal daerah-daerah di indonesia yang menggunakan sapaan tersebut. pembelajar kadangkadang bertanya: misalnya, apa perbedaan sapaan “mas” dengan “uda”. pertanyaan ini harus dijawab dan tidak bisa dikatakan bahwa hal itu bukan bahasa indonesia, karena banyak orang indonesia yang berada di korea selatan yang sehari-hari berbahasa indonesia menggunakan kata sapaan dimaksud. ketika dijelaskan bahwa “mas” adalah sapaan untuk laki-laki di daerah jawa dan “uda” sapaan untuk laki-laki di padang, mereka kebingungan memahaminya. kenapa dalam bahasa indonesia ada unsur jawa, padang, sunda, batak, dan sebagainya. di korea semua vol. 2, april 2015 58 hanya satu. bahasanya juga hanya bahasa korea. tidak ada unsurunsur budaya atau bahasa daerah yang beragam seperti dalam bahasa indonesia. masalah lain yang juga menjadi kendala dalam pengajaran bahasa indonesia dari sisi budaya ini adalah penggunaan bahasa indonesia dialek jakarta yang telah merusak tatanan bahasa indonesia standar. para pembelajar yang memiliki teman atau koneksi di indonesia dan sering berkomunikasi melalui internet dan media-media sosial menganggap bahwa bahasa indonesia dialek jakarta adalah bahasa indonesia yang benar, padahal bahasa tersebut sangat berbeda dengan bahasa indonesia baku. beberapa orang mahasiswa jurusan itbmi hufs yang pernah belajar di jakarta terpengaruh oleh pemakaian dialek tersebut sehingga kadang-kadang tanpa sadar mereka menggunakannya dalam situasi formal. selain dua permasalahan di atas, ada lagi faktor penghambat yang lain. ketika belajar mengenai konsepkonsep yang berhubungan dengan aspek keagamaan, para pembelajar juga merasakan beberapa kesulitan. pembelajar kesulitan memahami kata-kata yang berkaitan dengan aspek keagamaan karena orangorang di korea umumnya jarang membicarakan masalah agama. apalagi yang berhubungan dengan islam sebagai agama mayoritas di indonesia yang sangat “asing” dengan masyarakat di korea yang mayoritas tidak peduli agama. katakata seperti “azan”, “salat”, “sedekah”, “zakat”, “sunat rasul”, dan sebagainya hanya bisa mereka hafal tanpa bisa dipahami hakikatnya. para pembelajar merasakan bahwa wujud kata-kata tersebut sangat asing dalam kehidupan masyarakat korea selatan. b. faktor lingkungan faktor lingkungan menjadi faktor penting dalam pengajaran bahasa. ketika lingkungan tidak mendukung, maka hal tersebut menjadi salah satu faktor penghambat kelancaran penguasaan bahasa yang sedang dipelajari. mengajarkan bahasa indonesia (dan bahasa asing lainnya) di lingkungan orang-orang yang sehari-hari berbahasa korea menyebabkan pembelajar tergoda secara terus menerus untuk menggunakan bahasa ibu mereka dalam komunikasi. dalam situasi seperti ini pengaruh bahasa ibu sangat kuat terhadap bahasa indonesia yang sedang dipelajari. bahasa target hanya digunakan pada waktu belajar saja. di luar jam belajar mereka kembali menggunakan bahasa ibu karena lingkungan mempengaruhinya. hal ini tentu saja memperlambat proses jurnal arbitrer 59 penguasaan bahasa target dan bahkan menyebabkan terjadinya interferensi bahasa ibu (korea) terhadap bahasa indonesia yang sedang dipelajari. ketika terjadi interferensi dapat menimbulkan penyimpangan maupun kesalahan berbahasa (tarigan, 1992: 7-8). kesalahan berbahasa sebagai akibat interferensi ketika pembelajaran berlangsung akan dapat diminimalisir jika pembelajar belajar di lingkungan bahasa target atau “dijauhkan” dari lingkungan bahasa ibu sampai ia menguasai kaedah-kaedah bahasa tersebut. hal inilah yang dilakukan oleh para mahasiswa jurusan itbmi hufs yang belajar di universitasuniversitas yang ada di indonesia melalui program bipa dan langsung bisa praktik di tengah masyarakat yang berbahasa indonesia. selain faktor itu, pengajaran bahasa indonesia di jurusan itbmi hufs dan kursus bahasa indonesia untuk ahli wilayah samsung juga dilaksanakan secara bersamaan dengan pengajaran bahasa melayu (malaysia). lingkungan pengajaran yang seperti ini tentu menyulitkan pembelajar dan juga pengajar yang secara bersamaan mengajarkan kedua bahasa untuk fokus dengan bahasa indonesia karena secara substansi bahasa melayu (malaysia) memiliki perbedaan dengan bahasa indonesia. hal ini kadang-kadang sangat membingungkan pembelajar dan juga pengajar. setelah belajar bahasa indonesia dengan konsepkonsep bahasa indonesia, kemudian mereka belajar dan mengajar bahasa melayu dengan konsep-konsep bahasa melayu pula. meskipun kedua bahasa ini dari rumpun bahasa yang sama, namun substansi kedua bahasa berbeda. bahasa indonesia dalam perkembangannya banyak dipengaruhi oleh bahasa belanda, arab, dan bahasa daerah, sedangkan bahasa melayu belakangan ini banyak dipengaruhi oleh ejaan inggis. konsep-konsep dasar yang digunakan seperti tata bahasa, peristilahan, kosakata, ejaan, pengucapan, serta tekanan kata juga banyak mempunyai ketidaksamaan. beberapa contoh kata-kata yang berbeda antara kedua bahasa antara lain: bahasa inggris bahasa melayu di malaysia bahasa indonesia march mac maret august ogos agustus challenge cabaran tantangan speak bercakap, bertutur, berbual berbicara, bercakap-cakap shop kedai toko vol. 2, april 2015 60 monday isnin senin because kerana karena zoo taman haiwan kebun binatang television televisyen televisi head office ibu pejabat kantor pusat car kereta mobil/oto snow salji salju activity aktiviti aktivitas sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org kondisi pengajaran dengan dua bahasa asing yang berbeda antara bahasa indonesia dan melayu dalam kurun waktu bersamaan seperti dikatakan di atas membuat pembelajar membandingbandingkan kedua jenis bahasa. ada di antara mereka yang memilih fokus pada satu bahasa saja dan keteteran dalam bahasa yang lain. hal ini tentu saja merupakan masalah dalam pengajaran bahasa indonesia maupun melayu, terutama di jurusan itbmi hufs. kendala yang sama juga dihadapi oleh para pengajar asli korea di jurusan yang sama karena harus mengajar beberapa mata kuliah dengan dua bahasa tersebut secara bergantian. menurut mereka sering terjadi kasus campur aduk bahasa atau interferensi dalam proses pengajaran di kelas. c. dampak negatif penggunaan internet dalam proses pengajaran di jurusan itbmi hufs dan kursus samsung, setiap kelas dilengkapi dengan fasilitas komputer dan jaringan internet yang bagus. ketika kelas berlangsung, pengajar dapat menggunakan fasilitas itu tanpa hambatan. akses internet di korea selatan sangat cepat, bahkan yang paling cepat di dunia mengalahkan jepang dan amerika serikat. kecepatan akses internet korea selatan mencapai 14,2 mbps, yang artinya 50 kali lipat lebih cepat dari kecepatan normal (www.duniaberbicara.com). penggunaan internet di jurusan itbmi hufs dan kursus samsung dirasakan sangat membantu terutama untuk menjelaskan kata atau konsep tertentu dengan menampilkan gambar atau ilustrasinya melalui google image. akan tetapi, penggunaan internet ini tidak selamanya berdampak positif dalam proses pengajaran . penggunaan google translete dalam menerjemahkan kata dan kalimat dari bahasa korea ke bahasa indonesia menjadi faktor penghambat penguasaan bahasa para pembelajar. pembelajar berpikir lebih praktis ketika menulis teks yang ditugaskan dengan jurnal arbitrer 61 menggunakan bahasa ibu (korea) kemudian menerjemahkannya ke bahasa indonesia melalui google translete. ketika tugas-tugas itu dikoreksi, terjemahan tersebut sangat buruk dan tidak sesuai dengan hukum tata bahasa dari kedua bahasa yang diterjemahkan. selain itu, menerjemahkan secara instan melalui google translete menyebabkan pembelajar kurang usaha mencari arti sebuah kata dan memahaminya secara bersungguhsungguh. pembelajar yang menggunakan mesin penerjemahan instan melalui internet ini biasanya mengalami kesulitan penguasaan kosakata dibandingkan mereka yang menggunakan kamus dan berusaha menerjemahkan teks secara manual. proses yang instan menghasilkan hasil yang buruk dan instan pula. selain itu, dalam proses penerjemahan melalui google translete, banyak kata diterjemahkan secara tidak tepat. selain kesalahan penerjemahan arti kata, juga paling banyak terjadi adalah kesalahan struktur kalimat. 3.2 kendala kebahasaan dalam pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan kendala kebahasaan adalah kendala yang dihadapi dalam proses pengajaran yang meliputi persoalan kebahasaan/tata bahasa. secara umum, dalam proses pengajaran bahasa kedua (asing), sering terjadi penyimpangan berbahasa sebagai konsekuensi yang harus dihadapi karena kaedah bahasa kedua sangat berbeda dengan bahasa ibu pembelajar. dalam hal ini, (norrish, 1983: 6-8) membedakan penyimpangan berbahasa tersebut menjadi tiga kategori, yaitu: error, mistake, dan lapse. error (kesalahan) merupakan penyimpangan berbahasa secara sistematis dan berkelanjutan karena belum dikuasainya kaidah-kaidah bahasa yang sedang dipelajari. penyimpangan berbahasa kedua adalah mistake (kekeliruan). kekeliruan terjadi ketika seorang pembelajar tidak secara berkelanjutan melakukan penyimpangan dalam berbahasa. kadang-kadang pembelajar mempergunakan kaidah yang benar, tetapi pada waktu yang lain mereka membuat kekeliruan dengan mempergunakan kaidah dan bentukbentuk yang keliru. adapun lapse, (selip lidah) merupakan bentuk penyimpangan yang disebabkan pembelajar kurang konsentrasi, rendahnya daya ingat atau sebab-sebab lain yang dapat terjadi kapan saja dan pada siapa pun. berdasarkan pendapat norish tersebut, maka berikut ini akan dikemukan beberapa kesalahan (error) berbahasa yang sering vol. 2, april 2015 62 terjadi dalam proses pengajaran bahasa indonesia di jurusan itbmi hufs dan pengajaran di kelas samsung. kesalahan-kesalahan sering terjadi karena faktor competence; kurangnya pengetahuan pembelajar terhadap kaedah-kaedah bahasa target. kesalahan yang dimaksud antara lain meliputi: a. kesalahan diksi; b. kesalahan urutan kata; c. kesalahan karena tidak adanya kesatuan gagasan kalimat; d. kesalahan karena kurang lengkapnya fungsi kalimat; e. kesalahan penggunaan imbuhan; dan f. kesalahan penggunaan kata depan. a. kesalahan diksi diksi adalah ketepatan pilihan kata. ketepatan pilihan kata sangat penting dalam keterampilan berbahasa. ketepatan pilihan kata menjadikan bahasa yang digunakan seseorang lebih baik dan estetis. kesalahan diksi bukan saja menyebabkan kerancuan makna dan pemahaman terhadap bahasa yang digunakan, tetapi juga menyebabkan penilaian yang negatif terhadap pengguna bahasa tersebut (keraf, 2004). efektifitas kalimat sangat ditentukan oleh ketepatan pilihan kata (diksi) tersebut. dengan pilihan kata yang tepat, seseorang dapat mengomunikasikan gagasannya secara efektif tanpa salah tafsir. ketepatan pilihan kata juga dapat menghasilkan respon pembaca atau pendengan sesuai dengan target komunikasi yang diharapkan (wijono, 2005: 87-88). kesalahan diksi dalam pengajaran bahasa indonesia di jurusan itbmi dan kelas samsung merupakan kesalahan yang paling sering terjadi. kesalahan diksi terjadi misalnya ketika pembelajar menggunakan kata yang bersinonim. para pembelajar merasa kebingungan memilih kata yang tepat untuk menyusun kalimat karena dalam bahasa indonesia terdapat banyak kata yang bersinonim. di antara kesalahan diksi akibat sinonim kata dapat dilihat dalam contoh di bawah ini: no. kesalahan diksi seharusnya 1. wanita dan pria, selamat pagi. ibu-ibu dan bapak-bapak, selamat pagi. 2. di seoul ada banyak permainan dan pemandangan yang cantik. di seoul ada banyak permainan dan pemandangan yang indah. 3. sebelum kita bertemu dengannya, saya akan berkata sebelum kita bertemu dengannya, saya akan bercerita jurnal arbitrer 63 tentang dia kepada kalian. tentang dia kepada kalian. 4. saya menggunakan kaca mata sampai sekarang. apabila tidak ada itu, saya menjadi buta. saya menggunakan kaca mata sampai sekarang. apabila tidak ada itu, saya menjadi rabun. pada contoh 1, kata wanita dan pria bersinonim dengan beberapa kata seperti perempuan, laki-laki, ibuibu, bapak-bapak. maka pilihan kata yang tepat untuk konteks kalimat tersebut adalah ibu-ibu dan bapak-bapak. begitu pula pada contoh 2, pilihan kata cantik kurang tepat untuk menerangkan pemandangan, seharusnya pemandangan diterangkan dengan kata indah. pada contoh 3, kata berkata juga tidak tepat, seharusnya bercerita. begitu pula pada contoh 4, kata buta maknanya tidak bisa melihat sama sekali, penggunaan kata tersebut tidak tepat, seharusnya digunakan kata rabun karena dalam konteks ini, saya (subjek) masih bisa melihat, cuma kurang jelas atau kabur. kesalahan diksi berikutnya adalah penggunaan kata yang benar-benar tidak tepat untuk kalimat tertentu. keberadaan kata yang dipilih membuat kalimat tersebut kehilangan maknanya. contohnya adalah: no. kesalahan diksi seharusnya 5. ayo, berikan tepuk tangan dengan sayang! ayo, berikan tepuk tangan dengan meriah! 6. saya belajar jurusan di kamar. saya belajar jurus silat di kamar. 7 banyak tempat wisata yang melihat dan menarik di pulau jeju. banyak tempat wisata yang indah dan menarik di pulau jeju. 8. semua bisa membuat dan mengalami kimchi. semua orang bisa membuat dan menikmati kimchi. dalam contoh 5, 6, 7, dan 8 di atas, kata sayang, jurusan, melihat, dan mengalami merupakan pilihan kata yang keliru sehingga kalimat yang dibuat menjadi salah dan kehilangan makna. alternatif perbaikannya seperti kalimat yang terdapat di kolom sebelah kanan. kata sayang digantikan dengan kata meriah karena biasanya tepuk tangan itu diberikan secara meriah; kata jurusan diganti dengan jurus silat; kata melihat digantikan dengan kata indah untuk menerangkan tempat wisata; dan kata mengalami digantikan dengan kata menikmati. vol. 2, april 2015 64 selanjutnya, kesalahan diksi yang terjadi adalah penggunaan kata ada yang kurang tepat. sebaiknya lebih tepat kalau menggunakan kata memiliki atau mempunyai. contok kalimat yang dibuat misalnya adalah: no. kesalahan diksi seharusnya 9. walaupun dia tidak ada banyak uang, tetapi dia tetap membeli kamera. walaupun dia tidak memiliki banyak uang, tetapi dia tetap membeli kamera. 10. walaupun dia ada cacat badan, tetapi dia tetap berolahraga. walaupun dia mempunyai cacat badan, tetapi dia tetap berolahraga. 11. saya ada kekasih perempuan tahun 2010 dan kami berbahagia. saya mempunyai kekasih perempuan tahun 2010 dan kami berbahagia. pada contoh 9, 10, dan 11 di atas, penggunaan kata ada dimaksudkan untuk menyatakan kepemilikan terhadap sesuatu sehingga penggunaannya di dalam kalimat tersebut kurang tepat. kata-kata tersebut dapat digantikan kedudukannya dengan kata memiliki atau mempunyai seperti pada kalimat yang telah diperbaiki di kolom sebelah kanan. kesalahan diksi juga terjadi dalam pemakaian kata berimbuhan. misalnya seperti dalam contoh berikut: no. kesalahan diksi seharusnya 12. saya merasa senang ketika anak saya melahirkan. saya merasa senang ketika anak saya lahir. 13. saya bersenang mencicipi jajanan pinggir jalan pada malam hari. saya senang mencicipi jajanan pinggir jalan pada malam hari. 14. masyarakat melayu mempunyai upacara adat yang berbagai dan bermaju. masyarakat melayu mempunyai upacara adat yang banyak dan maju. kata berimbuhan melahirkan, bersenang, berbagai, dan bermaju pada contoh 12, 13, dan 14 di atas merupakan pilihan kata yang tidak tepat. pilihan terhadap kata-kata berimbuhan tersebut dikacaukan penggunaannya. pada contoh 12, yang dimaksud bukan anak saya jurnal arbitrer 65 yang melahirkan, tetapi anak saya yang baru lahir. jadi, imbuhan mekan pada kata melahirkan dapat dihilangkan menjadi bentuk dasar lahir. contoh 13, kata bersenang kalau dijadikan kata ulang bisa berterima, tetapi logikanya kata bersenang-senang bukan untuk mencicipi makanan, namun untuk menikmati acara hiburan atau pergi liburan. jadi, pada kata tersebut, imbuhan berlebih baik dihilangkan sehingga kata yang tepat adalah senang. pada contoh 14, kata berbagai lebih tepat diganti dengan banyak, sedangkan imbuhan ber pada kata bermaju sebaiknya ditiadakan, diganti dengan kata dasar maju. selain kesalahan-kesalahan di atas , kesalahan diksi juga terjadi ketika kalimat yang dibuat tidak mendukung situasi yang digambarkan akibat kesalahan dalam menerjemahkan kata-kata tertentu. misalnya kesalahan diksi ketika menerjemahkan kata student menjadi murid, padahal yang dimaksud adalah mahasiswa. kesalahan terjemahan lecturer menjadi guru, padahal yang dimaksud adalah dosen. kesalahan menerjemahkan rice menjadi beras, pada yang dimaksud adalah padi. kesalahan dalam menggunakan kata yang diterjemahkan dari bahasa inggris umumnya pada kata-kata yang bersinonim yang berbeda pengunaannya sesuai dengan konteks atau situasi kalimat. b. kesalahan urutan kata dalam menyusun kalimat efektif banyak ditemui kesalahan urutan kata, utamanya pada kata majemuk dan frase sehingga tataran sintaksis kalimat yang dibuat menjadi tidak sempurna. kesalahan urutan kata ini dipengaruhi oleh struktur kata majemuk maupun frase bahasa indonesia yang menggunakan pola d-m5 (diterangkan-menerangkan) berbeda dengan bahasa korea yang menggunakan pola m-d (menerangkan-diterangkan). selain kesalahan pola d-m, juga terdapat kesalahan penyusunan urutan kata dalam kalimat karena kekurangan pengetahuan tentang struktur kalimat bahasa indonesia. beberapa contoh kesalahan urutan kata dapat dilihat dalam contoh berikut ini: 5 d-m, adalah singkatan dari "diterangkan-menerangkan”, yaitu berupa aturan dalam tata bahasa bahasa indonesia yang menjelaskan bahwa dalam kata majemuk dan kata lain dalam kalimat segala sesuatu yang menerangkan biasanya terletak di belakang yang diterangkan. contoh penerapan d-m ini adalah pada kata "kapal terbang" dan kalimat "ali makan." pada kata majemuk "kapal terbang", kata kapal diterangkan oleh kata terbang. demikian pula dalam kalimat "ali makan," subjek ali diterangkan oleh makan. (lihat: sutan takdir alisjahbana tatabahasa baru bahasa indonesia (jakarta: dian rakyat, 1983), hal. 73-75. vol. 2, april 2015 66 no. kesalahan urutan kata seharusnya 15. cirinya adalah tajam batu yang menancap. cirinya adalah batu tajam yang menancap. 16. diberitahukan kepada semua mahasiswa hufs untuk mengikuti musik konser. diberitahukan kepada semua mahasiswa hufs untuk mengikuti konser musik. 17. lain objek wisata di dekat uyuni adalah sebuah lembah batu ‘rock valley’. objek wisata lain di dekat uyuni adalah sebuah lembah batu ‘rock valley’. 18. sampai hari ini, dia belajar rajin untuk impiannya. sampai hari ini, dia rajin belajar untuk impiannya. 19. kapan sejak ayah anda mulai bekerja di samsung? sejak kapan ayah anda mulai bekerja di samsung? pada contoh 15 sampai 19, kata-kata atau frase yang dicetak miring (tajam batu, musik konser, lain objek wisata, belajar rajin, dan kapan sejak) merupakan kata yang terbalik susunannya (pola m-d) sehingga kalimat bahasa indonesia yang dibentuk dari kata atau frase itu menjadi rancu. alternatif pembetulannya (menjadi pola d-m) seperti pada kolom di sebelah kanan (batu tajam, konser musik, objek wisata lain, rajin belajar, dan sejak kapan). c. kesalahan kesatuan gagasan kalimat kalimat yang baik adalah kalimat yang jelas kesatuan gagasannya dan mengandung ide pokok yang jelas pula. dalam hal ini, kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh para pembelajar adalah ketika membuat kalimat yang tidak jelas kesatuan gagasannya. kadang-kadang hanya berupa deretan kata yang tidak memiliki makna apa-apa. kesalahan ini biasanya sering terjadi ketika pembelajar membuat kalimat yang panjang. beberapa contoh kesalahan dapat dilihat pada contoh di bawah ini: no. kesalahan kesatuan gagasan seharusnya 20. sebanyak upacara memerlukan banyak orang sangat mengagumkan. banyak orang melakukan upacara yang sangat mengagumkan. jurnal arbitrer 67 21. upacara kelahiran sangat berbagai berdasarkan daerahdaerah. upacara kelahiran sangat banyak jenisnya berdasarkan daerah asalnya. 22. liburan lalu, saya bisa pergi ke indonesia lagi biar kerja sukarelawan di kota sidoarjo smkn 3 buduran. liburan yang lalu, saya pergi ke indonesia sebagai sukarelawan di smkn 3 buduran, kota sidoarjo. 23. sekitar segenap 1 bulan tim kami tinggal di situ tapi ternyata jangka waktu yang mengajar itu hanya dua minggu sedikit lewat saja. selama 1 bulan tim kami tinggal di situ, tetapi waktu untuk mengajar hanya dua minggu lebih sedikit saja. 24. kehidupan dipengaruhi sangat banyak dan lewat perdagangan pengaruh bisa masuk ke dalam negara indonesia. kehidupan masyarakat dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor dan melalui perdagangan pengaruh itu masuk ke indonesia. 25. setelah membuat makalah ini saya telah pandang karya sastra melayu saya bisa menjadi lebih dalam, khususnya pantun dan syair. setelah membuat makalah ini, pandangan saya terhadap sastra melayu menjadi lebih mendalam, khususnya pantun dan syair. kalimat-kalimat pada contoh 20 sampai 25 di atas tidak jelas kesatuan gagasannya sehingga sangat sulit untuk dimengerti apa yang dimaksud oleh penulisnya. pembaca tidak mampu menangkap hubungan logis antarkatanya. struktur tata bahasanya juga tidak jelas. pada kalimat-kalimat tersebut tidak ada kesepadanan antara struktur dan makna kalimatnya. untuk itu, alternatif perbaikan kalimat tersebut dapat dilakukan seperti yang terdapat dalam tabel di kolom sebelah kanan. d. kesalahan karena kurang lengkapnya fungsi kalimat kesalahan karena tidak lengkapnya fungsi kalimat meliputi kalimat yang tidak memiliki subjek, predikat yang tidak jelas, dan objek pada predikat verba transitif yang didahului oleh preposisi. kesalahan tersebut menyebabkan kalimat yang dibuat tidak efektif seperti dalam beberapa contoh berikut: vol. 2, april 2015 68 no. kalimat yang tidak memiliki subjek seharusnya 26. di seoul ada bagus kereta api bawah. seoul memiliki kereta api bawah tanah yang bagus. 27. dalam pembahasan makalah ini bertujuan untuk mengerti pantun dan syair. pembahasan makalah ini bertujuan untuk memahami pantun dan syair. 28. ketiga akan jelaskan tentang gurindam. ketiga, saya akan jelaskan tentang gurindam. pada contoh 26, 27, dan 28 di atas, kalimat yang dibuat tidak memiliki subjek. pada contoh 26 dan 27 kalimat-kalimat tersebut tidak memiliki subjek karena diawali oleh preposisi. kalimat pada contoh 26 dapat diperbaiki dengan menghilangkan preposisi di sehingga seoul akan menjadi subjeknya, sedangkan pada kalimat contoh 27, preposisi dalam dihilangkan sehingga subjek kalimat tersebut adalah pembahasan makalah ini. pada contoh 28, juga tidak terdapat subjek dalam kalimat tersebut. karena itu, kalimat tersebut dapat diperbaiki dengan menambah subjek, misalnya saya setelah kata ketiga yang dibubuhi tanda koma. perbaikan contoh 26, 27, dan 28 dapat dilihat di kolom sebelah kanan. selanjutnya, kalimat yang dibuat tidak lengkap fungsinya karena predikatnya tidak jelas. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dalam beberapa contoh berikut: no. kalimat yang prediketnya tidak jelas seharusnya 29. ibu yang membawa kue yang diperoleh di pesta. ibu membawa kue yang diperoleh di pesta. 30. angin kencang dan dingin sekali pada kemalaman. angin kencang dan udara dingin sering terjadi pada malam hari. pada contoh 29, pemakaian kata yang di depan predikat membuat predikat tersebut berubah menjadi perluasan subjek. begitu pula pada contoh 30, kalimat tersebut hanya terdiri dari subjek saja. oleh karena itu, untuk memperbaiki kalimatkalimat dimaksud, kata yang pada kalimat 29 harus dihilangkan, sedangkan kalimat 30 harus ditambahkan kata sering terjadi sebagai predikat sebagaimana terdapat dalam kolom perbaikan di sebelah kanan. jurnal arbitrer 69 berikutnya, kesalahan fungsi kalimat terjadi karena menempatkan preposisi di di belakang predikat verba transitif. akibatnya, kalimat yang dibuat tidak efektif, seperti terdapat dalam beberapa contoh berikut: no. kalimat yang verba transitifnya didahuli preposisi seharusnya 31. saya akan menjelaskan tentang kesusastraan melayu klasik. saya akan menjelaskan kesusastraan melayu klasik. 32. tiba-tiba dewa membentak kepada pria itu. tiba-tiba dewa membentak pria itu. kalimat pada contoh 31 dan 32 tidak efektif karena menggunakan preposisi tentang dan kepada setelah verba transitif. kedua preposisi tersebut seharusnya dihilangkan sehingga kalimat yang dibuat menjadi efektif seperti dalam contoh yang telah diperbaiki di kolom sebelah kanan. e. kesalahan penggunaan imbuhan kesalahan penggunaan imbuhan umumnya berupa ketidaktepatan dalam menentukan imbuhan yang akan digunakan dalam proses verbalisasi maupun nominalisasi. imbuhan yang dipakai kadangkadang bertukar-tukar, umpamanya ketika seharusnya menggunakan imbuhan bernamun digunakan imbuhan meatau sebaliknya. seharusnya menggunakan imbuhan me namun digunakan imbuhan di atau sebaliknya. penggunaan imbuhan secara bolak-balik tersebut membuat kalimat yang dibuat menjadi tidak bermakna. beberapa contoh kesalahan imbuhan dapat dilihat dalam contoh berikut: no. kesalahan penggunaan imbuhan seharusnya 33. sebuah bus akan menjalan ke dalam safari. sebuah bus akan berjalan ke dalam safari. 34. saya menonton film kalau ada film yang belum saya menonton. saya menonton film kalau ada film yang belum saya tonton. 35. pansori tidak ada pola bercerita. pansori tidak memiliki pola cerita. 36. mereka bertinggal dengan istri dan dan orang tuanya. mereka tinggal dengan istri dan dan orang tuanya. vol. 2, april 2015 70 37. banyak orang muda tidak dikenal dengan pertunjukan tradisional. banyak orang muda tidak kenal dengan pertunjukan tradisional. 38. saya kurang dimengerti sastra melayu klasik. saya kurang mengerti sastra melayu klasik. kalimat-kalimat pada contoh 33 sampai 38 di atas menggunakan imbuhan yang tidak tepat. awalan mepada kata menjalan dalam kalimat 33 seharusnya berjalan dan awalan mepada kata menonton dalam kalimat 34 sebaiknya dihilangkan menjadi bentuk dasar tonton. awalan berpada kata bercerita dan berpada kata bertinggal pada kalimat 35 dan 36 seharusnya diganti menjadi bentuk dasar cerita dan tinggal. begitu juga contoh 37, awalan dipada kata dikenal seharusnya menggunakan bentuk dasar kenal tanpa awalan. pada contoh 38 adanya dua buah awalan yaitu didan mepada kata dimengerti menyebabkan kalimat tersebut tidak ada makna. seharusnya hanya menggunakan awalan mesaja menjadi kata mengerti. perbaikan kalimat-kalimat dalam contoh-contoh tersebut terdapat dalam kolom sebelah kanan. f. kesalahan penggunaan kata depan kesalahan penggunaan kata depan ini berupa pemakaian kata depan yang tidak tepat dan tidak dipakainya kata depan dalam kalimat yang seharusnya menggunakan kata depan. contoh kesalahan penggunaan kata depan dapat dilihat dalam tabel berikut: no. kesalahan penggunaan kata depan seharusnya 39. seoul tergantung di sungai han untuk pasokan airnya. seoul tergantung pada sungai han untuk pasokan airnya. 40. harimau masuk di dapur. harimau masuk ke dapur. 41. agama dalam indonesia berbeda dengan di korea. agama di indonesia berbeda dengan di korea. 42. tiga tahun yang lalu muridmurid ini masuk dalam sekolah ini. tiga tahun yang lalu muridmurid ini masuk ke sekolah ini. 43. orang yang tinggl di seoul berjalan-jalan semua tempat naik itu. orang yang tinggl di seoul berjalan-jalan ke semua tempat naik kareta itu. jurnal arbitrer 71 kalimat pada contoh 39 dan 40 di atas menggunakan kata depan di yang tidak tepat. kata depan di pada contoh kalimat 39 bisa digantikan dengan kata depan pada, sedangkan kata depan di pada contoh kalimat 40 bisa digantikan dengan kata depan ke. kemudian, penggunaan kata depan dalam pada contoh kalimat 41 dan 42 juga tidak tepat. seharusnya kata depan dalam pada contoh 41 diganti dengan di dan pada contoh 42 diganti dengan ke. ada pun pada contoh kalimat 43, seharusnya sesudah kata berjalanjalan diberi kata depan ke karena kehadiran kata depan ke di sana diperlukan. perbaikan terhadap kalimat yang salah terdapat dalam kolom sebelah kanan. iv. penutup berdasarkan analisis yang dilakukan, maka secara umum dapat disimpulkan bahwa proses pengajaran bahasa indonesia di korea selatan khususnya di jurusan itbmi hufs dan kursus ahli wilayah samsung terkendala oleh faktor nonbahasa seperti faktor kebudayaan, faktor lingkungan, dan faktor penggunaan teknologi internet yang tidak tepat sasaran. sementara itu, dalam hal ketatabahasaan kendala yang dihadapi adalah terjadinya beberapa penyimpangan berbahasa berupa kesalahan-kesalahan (error) berbahasa yang disebabkan oleh faktor kompetensi. kesalahan yang terjadi antara lain kesalahan diksi, kesalahan penyusunan kalimat, kesalahan penggunaan imbuhan, dan kesalahan penggunaan kata depan. kedua kendala ini merupakan faktor penghambat proses penguasaan bahasa indonesia yang diajarkan. sebenarnya masih ada bentuk kesalahan lain yang belum dibicarakan dalam tulisan ini, yaitu kesalahan penggunaan eyd. kesalahan penggunaan eyd ini bisa jadi akan dibicarakan dalam kesempatan yang lain. referensi alisjahbana, s. takdir. 1983. tatabahasa baru bahasa indonesia (cetakan ke-44). jakarta: penerbit dian rakyat. evelyn, yes. 2013. bisa: bahasa indonesia saya ahlinya. korea: yes media, the big. co. ltd. keraf, gorys. 2004. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. vol. 2, april 2015 72 kim, jang gyem. 2012. “sejarah, kurikulum, dan bahasa indonesia jurusan interpretasi dan terjemahan bahasa melayu-indonesia (itbmi), hankuk university of foreign studies, kampus global” dalam jurnal puitika, volume 8, no. 2, september 2012. norrish, john. 1983. language learners and theirs errors. london : the macmillan press. tarigan, henri guntur. 1992. pengajaran analisis konstranstif bahasa. bandung: penerbit angkasa. wijono, hs. 2005. bahasa indonesia mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian di perguruan tinggi, jakarta: grasindo. sumber internet http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/perbedaan_antara_bahasa_malaysia_dan_bahas a_indonesia, diunduh, 16 februari 2015 http://kemlu.go.id/pages/news.aspx?idp=5900&l=id, “bahasa indonesia makin diminati di polandia” diunduh, 16 februari 2015. http://www.duniaberbicara.com/internet/wow-ini-dia-negara-dengankoneksi-internet tercepat.html, dilihat, 17 februari 2015. 36 figurative language found in victor hugo’s les miserable novel: a semantics approach hotma hutasoit s.pd., m.pd. lecturer of school of foreign language permata harapan abstrak penelitian ini membahas terjadinya bahasa kiasan dalam karya victor hugo yang berjudul les miserable melalui pendekatan semantik. tujuan skripsi ini adalah (1) untuk memahami bahasa kiasan perbandingan dan pertentangan yang di temukan dalam novel “les miserables” karya victor hugo,(2) untuk memahami bahasa kiasan hubungan yang di temukan dalam novel “les miserables” karya victor hugo, (3) untuk memahami bahasa kiasan perulangan yang di temukan dalam novel “les miserables” karya victor hugo. peneliti didukung oleh teori leech (1981) dalam semantik terutama untuk makna konotasi dan dancygier dan sweetser (2014), keraf (1994) dan cruse (2006) untuk bahasa kiasan. metode kualitatif digunakan dalam penelitian ini dan penelitian pustaka sebagai teknik yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data. peneliti mengambil 55 sampel dari bahasa kiasan dari novel. bahasa kiasan perbandingan dan pertentangan yaitu 3 personifikasi, 6 metafora, 6 simile, 6 hiperbola, 2 litotes, and 5 paradox. bahasa kiasan hubungan yaitu 1 metonimi, 6 sinekdot, 4 alusi, dan 1elipsis. bahasa kiasan perulangan yaitu 2 pleonasme, 2 klimaks, 1 anti-klimaks, 6 retorika, dan 4 repetisi.temuan dari penelitian ini adalah dari 55 sampel dari bahasa kiasan yang ditemukan dalam novel, peneliti menemukan yang paling banyak 28 bahasa kiasan yang terjadi pada majas perbandingan dan pertentangan, diikuti denagn 15 bahasa kiasan yang terjadi pada majas perulangan, dan yang paling sedikit 12 bahasa kiasan yang terjadi pada majas hubungan dari setiap kategori. kata kunci: semantik, makna konotasi, bahasa kiasan introduction this research, researcher analyzed novel of victor hugo’s “les miserables” which consist of many languages learning about figurative language. figurative language can be found from many media to be used as an abject. one of the writing form which contains so many figurative language is novel.in analizing the usage of figurative language, the researcher uses novel as a media. the reason of choosing novel as media because the researcher finds the gap from previous study if they have analysed object from others media such as song lyric, poem, or movie and seldom to apply novel as their research object.as many people read the novel just to entertain themselves only without grasping any figurative language in it, that is why the researcher take novel as proper media to figure out figurative language too. dancygier and sweetser (2014:5) state that obviously one of the necessary abilities for reading novel is the ability to interpret figurative language. every use of figurative language involves a risk of misinterpretation, though the risk is well worth taking. for the reason who can translate the figure, the dividends are immense. fortunately all people have imagination to some degree, and imagination can be cultivated by practicing one’s ability to interpret figure of speech can be increased. the way to avoid misunderstanding when reading or capturing the meaning in every written or spoken by using semantics approach. issn 2339-1162 37 semantics is the branch of linguistics which deals with meaning. leech (1981: 9) states that semantics is central of the study and representation of the meaning of language expressions, the study of human mind thought processes, cognition, and conceptualization and the relationships of meaning among them. this statement is supported by another expert too,griffiths. according to him (2006:15),“semantics is study of word meaning and sentence meaning, abstracted away from contexts of use, is a descriptive subject. it is an attempt to describe and understand the nature of the knowledge about meaning in their language that people have from knowing the language.” it is not a prescriptive enterprise with an interest in advising or pressuring speakers or writers into abandoning some meanings and adopting others or though pedants can certainly benefit from studying the semantics of alanguage they want to lay down rules about, to become clear on what aspects of conventional meaning they dislike and which they favour. through semantics analysis, a related point is that one can know a language perfectly well without knowing its history. when we think about word meanings, definitions in dictionaries quickly come to mind: we know that, if uncertain about a word’s meaning, we can look it up in a dictionary. this means that it is important to be clear about the similarities and differences between the aspects of meaning that interest linguists (yule, 2010:120). there are a number of ways in expressing ideas which deviate from semantic conventions expressed through the use of figurative language. according to dancygier and sweetser (2014:1) say that figurative language is thought related to one aspect of what gives a text in expressing the idea in particular language and a poetic text-special esthetic value. figurative language express of idea, opinion, or author’s thinking which is consist of syntax, that consist of words, clause to pass certain condition and situations. then figurative language is language is used by authors to create certain effect. from some language experts above, the researcher can concludes that figurative language is language which is used by authors to deliver ideas, thinking, and authors’ opinions forward literature. by learning figurative language, the purpose can be disseminated to reader is able to understand kinds of figurative language and capture the particular meaning by using semantics approach. it is good reference to apply this figurative language in writing formal letter with more quality and giving complimentary or satire to people politely. in victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel, there are many figurative language can be found to be researched. the problems can be identified which are: comparative and contradictive, correlative, and repetitive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables”. the researcher limited the problems that was taken as comparative and contradictive, correlative, and repetitive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables”. the aims of this research are to figure out comparative and contradictive, correlative,and repetitive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables”. this research is expected to give many benefits both theoretically and practically. theoretically, this research is expected to give description about what figurative language is and explain and identify figurative language in victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel. practically, this research will give some knowledge about figurative language like helping the readers who want to understand figurative language in victor hugo’s “les miserables”novel to avoid misunderstanding in meaning, adding knowladge about figurative language when analysing victor hugo’s “les miserables”novel, and as references for further researchers who want to research the same topic. theoretical mainframe to support and describe the problem in this research, the researcher uses the theory from some scientist of languages, and those materials as follow. in analyzing “les miserables” by victor hugo, the researcher applies the semantics theory by geoffrey leech entitled jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 38 semantics, the study of meaning is published in 1981. this theory is proper to be analyzed as the athor concerns to expose conceptual and assosiative meaning and the researher is focusing to analyze associative meaning. to convice and strenghten the main theory, the researcher is also applying othres supporting theories such asnuessel, alan cruse, nick riemer, patrick griffits and so on. semantics semantics is the study of meaning. the word semantics comes from greek word, semantikos meaning ‘significant’, semainein meaning ‘to show, signify’ or ‘indicated’ by sign, from sema meaning ‘sign’. leech (1981: 9) states that semantics is the study and representation of the meaning of language expressions, the study of human mind and the relationships of meaning among them. according to leech (1981: 22-34) there are seven types of classification of the semantic theory which are: conceptual and connotative meaning. conceptual meaning is sometimes called denotative meaning or cognitive meaning. according to leech (1981: 22) “conceptual meaning (sometimes called ‘denotative’ or cognitive meaning) is widely assume to be the central factor in linguistic communication.” it is the first meaning or usage which a word will suggest to most people when the word is said. the easiest way to know the conceptual meaning is to find them in dictionary. meanwhile, connotative meaning is the meaning come in association with something else. it is also known as connotative meaning. according to leech (1981: 25),“connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.” it will be clear if we are talking about connotation, we are in fact talking about the real word experience. someone associates with an expression when someone uses and hears it. connotations play a major role in the language of literature, of politics, of advertising, and a greeting card. one of the major uses of connotative meaning in literature is figurative language. dancygier and sweetser(2014:2) note that meaning in semantics may change in form of figurative language such as metaphor,synecdoche, litotesand so on that can be fullyanalyzed independently of figurative meaning. at this point, meaning does not merely come from lexis or lexeme and an entry found in dictionary but it is based on the cultural and social use of language. in literary world, words are composed to give certain effect for reader in form of figurative language. figurative language figurative language is a way to reflect the characteristic of the novel and the way the researcher think. figurative language used not in usual literal sense but imaginative way. therefore, figurative language is language that cannot be taken literally. figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words (dancygier and sweetser, 2014:9). in other words, language cannot be taken literally. language using figures of speech such as metaphor, personification, simile, hyperbole, paradox, metonymy and irony, to form imagery is figurative language. it is used to increase shock, novelty, appearance, or illustrative consequences. literal and figurative language is a distinction in traditional systems for analyzing language. literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning found in entry in dictionary. figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. these alterations result in figures of speech. figurative language is language using figures of speech (a way of saying one thing and meaning another); in other words, language that cannot be taken literally or should not be taken literally only.the statement above is supportedby keraf (2009: 125-145)states there are several figurative can be classified such as personification, paradox, hyperbole, ellipsis, and so on.figurative language is a word or phrase that comes from everyday literal language for the important of comparison, issn 2339-1162 39 emphasis, clarity, or freshness. metaphor and simile are the two most commonly used figures of speech, but things like simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, personification, apostrophe, are all forms of figurative language. the statement of dancygier and sweetser regarding figurative language are also strenghten by other authors. they are nuessel, cruse, gibbs and colston and keraf. nuessel (2006: 232) notes that figurative language uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. therefore, when a researcher uses literal language, he or she is simply stating the facts as they are. figurative language, in comparison, uses exaggerations or alterations to make a particular linguistic point. figurative language is one which literally in compatible term, forces the readers to attend the connotation rather than to the denotation. gibbs and colston (2012:51-52) also provide the understanding of figurative language as language which employs various figures of speech. some examples are metaphor, simile, antithesis, hyperbole and paradox. in general, figurative language is that kind of language which departs from the language employed in the traditional, literal ways of describing persons or objects. using figurative language is making imaginative description in fresh ways. it is usually immediately obvious whether a researcher is using figurative or literal. figurative language consists of comparative, contradictive, relation and repetition figurative language. comparative figurative language consists of personification, metaphor, and simile. contradictive figurative language consists of hyperbole, litotes and paradox. correlative figurative languages consist of metonymy, synecdoche, allusion and ellipsis. meanwhile repetition figurative language consists of pleonasm, climax, anti climax, rhetoric and repetition. for clearer information, look at these following explanation. personification is figure of speech in describing unliving thing and doesn’t have soul but as though they have characteristics of humanity. it is meant that inanimate things in this world are guessed as animate by give some attributes in them. people who read it guess it can do everything like human being.in some cases, the actual agent is personified (dancygier and sweetser, 2014:63). cruse (2006:106) states that metaphor is a variety of analogy which compare two things directly, but in short pattern and defines metaphor.metaphor involves arelation of resemblance or analogy, although this is notexplicitly stated.it means that between subject and object have same attributes to be compared. according to dancygier and sweetser (2014:137), “simile could then be considered a variety of metaphor that involves amoreexplicit expression of comparison” the majority of similes include the word like and as. according to cruse (2006:80), hyperbole is “a figure of speech involving deliberate exaggerationfor rhetorical effect, to increase impact or to attractattention. exaggeration may be negative or positive.” cruse (2006:186) asserts that litotes is figurative language that is used to state something which made it smaller from originalor or seriousness of something that is less than what is objectively the case, for rhetorical effect. it is meant that people usually use it to make it simple. so that they are not arrogant because they guess something invaluable although exactly is so valuable. another figurative language is analyzed in this chapter is paradox as keraf states paradox is variety of figurative language which contains a real contrast with a fact. it can be meant all of things that interest because of their truth. correlative figurative languages consist of metonymy, synecdoche, ecliptics, and allusion. metonymy is adobted from greece means ‘to show’ or ‘changes’. this figurative language meaning can be shown by keraf that states that figurative language uses specific character or name of thing that state another thing because it has the relation with it closely. another thing can be name of person, something as pronoun, uses words and it shown in. synecdoche is figurative language that use name of partial or representing entity or represent whole or jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 40 opposedancygier and sweetser (2014: 100). there are two types of synechdoche pars pro toto, partial represent whole and totem pro parte, whole represent partial. allusion in figurative language is also found from keraf statement as allusion is figurative language as reference that show indirectly forwards the similarity of person or event that people have known together. repetitive figurative languages consist of pleonasm, climax and anti-climax, rhetoric, and repetition. according to cruse (2006:128), pleonasm is a type of semantic anomaly where someaspect of meaning is felt to be unnecessarily duplicated.”it means figurative language that uses words improperly to emphasize meaning of word. climax in figurative language is adobted of periodic character. it is asserted by keraf that climax is figurative language that states something from small to great. meanwhile, anti-climax is opposite of climax definition that keraf states as figurative language that states something from great to small that is quoted. in rhetorical question is only one assumsion refers to one possible answer as keraf states rhetoric is figurative language in question that the answer has known by questioner. repetition is only described repetition in word, phrase, or clause as keraf states repetition is figurative language that uses repetition word to emphasize meaning. review of previous research before the researcher doing her analysing, there are previous researches thatthe researcher found to analyze about figurative language, they are: first is “the analysis of figurative language in adelle’s song lyrics” by putu ayu retnayanthi who has made paper about figurative language in song lyric. this paper entitled “the analysis of figurative language in adelle’s song lyrics” which has two objectives, the first knowsthe types of figurative language which is found in song lyric, the second is to analyze and describe the contextual understanding of the figurative language used in song lyric. the first theory uses theoretical of figurative language by knickerbokerand reninger (1963)and then the second is using the proposed theory by halliday (1978). the primary data is used in this analysis are adelle’s song lyrics entitled “make you feel my love, rolling in the deep, set fire to the rain and turning tables” taken from two adelle’s albums entitled “19” dan ”21”.secondary data is taken from a short biography of the author is sourced from the internet. this paper uses literature review and observation method in this analysis. figurative language is found including personification, metaphor, synecdoche, hyperbole, allusions, paradoxically, symbols and metaphors. based on contextual understanding of the overall song lyrics tell about betrayal and the conflict in romance. approach to literary context in this case is the form of a song lyric which is very helpful to deepen and expand our knowledge of the literature. the researcher intends to focus of several of kinds of figurative language as the result. there are eight types of figurative languages found in these song lyrics such as: personification, metaphor, synecdoche, hyperbole, allusion, paradox, symbols and metaphor. these kinds of figurative languages are used by the researcher in order to make her creation in this case song lyrics look alive so we can feel the condition that the researcher tries to show in that song lyric. the use of the contextual meaning in this study also opens up all the meanings and the purposes from song lyric.the words that firstly look complicated can be elaborated in the contextual meaning so that they can be better understood. therefore, by using the figurative languages and their contextual meaning, the researcher wants to attract our attention and slowly leads us to the theme. the second analysis is fromfiti iryanti’s paperentitled “a figurative language analysis on sylvia plath poems”. her attention regarding figurative language is intended to at taking comprehensive understanding regarding the use of figurative language within the three poems of sylvia plath; “mirror”, “morning song”, and “metaphors” as the object of the research. the method of te research is descriptive qualitative to depict about the content of the poems. in this issn 2339-1162 41 research, the researcher analyzes the data where the figurative languages are analyzed for their meaning in common sense and with the context of the poems. she also find that plath uses many varieties of figurative language theret are metaphor, simile, personification, paradox, synecdoche, symbol, and hyperbol. as the conclusion, the researcher finds that sylvia plath has used figurative language to make an effect in the poems. there are seven lines that contain figurative language in “mirror”, there are seven lines that contain figurative language in “morning song”, and there are eleven lines that contain figurative language in “metaphors”. the third research is from kholifah rosyida oviyanti is entitled “the using of figurative language in confession of a shopaholic movie”. in her paper,the researcher states the purposes of this research are to find out the types of figurative languages used in the movie and to find out the messages conveyed in the movie. the methodology of this study is qualitative descriptive study; it does not need statistic approach to analysis the material. in this analysis, the researcher explains about the using of figurative language in “the using of figurative language in confession of a shopaholic movie”. qualitative research is a search of which the data written or oral words are descriptively analyzed. the result of this study is that are some of figurative languages used in the dialogue of the movie. from the analysis, it can be concluded that there are metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, paradox, metonymy and irony. this movie has many connotation meaning based on the data analysis. after analyzing the data, it appears that the use of figurative language in “the using of figurative language in confession of a shopaholic movie” is regarded as an instrument by the author to convey their ideas in the movie dialogue. research method the researcher follows the methodology of qualitative approach. this method is based on the data which are words and not about the number to exprress attitudes, opinions, and behaviour (kothari,2004:5). it is called qualitative one, since the collected data are in the forms of sentence. the purpose of the usage of qualitative methodology is to describe the data. one of the charasteristics of qualitative method is to see process we have to deal with setting,that is the place where all things be researched are focused. the research object in this research is victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel the research object in this research is victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel. “les miserables” is one of victor hugo's masterpiece which was first published in 1862 and the reserarcher used edition 1887 that consist of 1687 pages. victor hugo is a fench poet, novelist, and dramatist of the romantic movement. he is considered one of the greatest and best known french writer. the novel in edition 1887 is divided into five pieces and this volume explores about love story combined with the french social criticism in his time. it depicts jean valjean, an ex-convict, was a major figure in the whole story of the contents of this novel. he who had to be languishing in jail for 20 years because of a verytrivial errors. the reseracher analyzed the types of figurative language found in this novel into three categories which are comparative and contradictive, correlative and repetitive figurative language by using connotative meaning. there are many techniques in collecting data. in this research, as the realization of participants’ observation as what qualitative research suggests. this research used library research. according to kothari (2004: 7), library research is a technique of collecting data in a research which used the method of analysis of historical records and documents, through the technique include recording of notes, content analysis, or even statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract guides and content analysis. in this analysis, the instument is the researcher herself in collecting the data by reading and clasifying the figurative language in each categories. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 42 this technique is used to get data relating to figurative languages in victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel by elaborate the steps. the first is looking for victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel by downloading the e-book through website. then, the researcher read the novel every single words for several times by highlighting or marking figurative language in novel. thirdly, the researcher wrote the pointed sentences, deciding which figurative languages in victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel. lastly, the researcher described and gave reasons about figurative languages that were taken. method of analyzing data according to sudaryanto can be classified into five which are referential identity method, articulatory identity method, translational identity method, orthographical identity method, and pragmatic identity methodis called as padan method (sudaryanto, 2015:18). the method of analyzing data that is used in this research is referential and translationalidentity method. referential identity method is research method which its determiner device is outside of language, apart from and does not become part of the language which researched in desribing the reference is reffered to of language (sudaryanto, 2015:15). meanwhile, translational identity method isa method used to analyze the translation of one language into another language (sudaryanto, 2015:15) . the researcher used referential identity method to analyze type of figurative language because in analyzing the figurative language, the researcher refers to theory in chapter two and chapter three as references. the researcher analyzes the data by classifying the type of figurative language based on theory of sudaryanto. then the theory is mentioned in theoritical framework by geoffrey leech (1981), the data is analyzed to explain the types of figurative language in victor hugo’s “les miserables” novel into three categories which are comparative and contradictive, correlative and repetitive figurative language by using connotative meaning. the researcher used translational identity method because the researcher applied supporting theory from indonesian book to analize figurative language and translated to english version by paraphrasing the meaning. the supporting book as this reference is diksi dan gaya bahasa by gorys keraf. according to sudaryanto (2015:241) there are two methods of presenting the result of analysis, formal and informal method. formal method is the researcher presents the result of data analysis is by using symbol, signs, table and diagram. while informal method is the researcher presents the data analysis result by using words or sentences without symbol, signs, table, and diagram. in this research, the researcher presents the data analysis result by using informal presentation method. the researcher chooses them because the researcher in presenting the data analysis result uses the sentences to explain clearly. analysis and discussion the researcher found all of figurative languages listed in section theoretical mainframe. analysis conducted is divided into three categories of figurative language, the first is comparative and contradictive figurative language, the second is correlative figurative language, and the third is repetitive figurative language. all of figurative language is analyzed by using connotative meaning. comparative and contradictive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” in this category, comparative and contradictive figurative languages consist of personification, metaphor, simile, hyperbol, litotes, and paradox. personification is figure of speech in describing unliving thing and doesn’t have soul but as though they have characteristics of humanity. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown as the waves toss him ... the cowardly ocean attacks him furiously... (pg. 119), a silence which engulfed his voice. (pg. 137), the sun was setting, and had almost touched the horizon... (pg.53). issn 2339-1162 43 personification is used to give meaning of giving a voice to things that do not have one, but need one. in basic definition, personification is the attribution of human characteristics to inanimate objects. the objects can be anything the researcher sees around them, the sun is given animate quality because it can touch the horizon. the ability of personification comes with the tightening of reality and the rise of the imaginary. the effect may seem fictitious, but a more abstract look at the object being personified tells us how it exists as a whole. the use of personification in the novel is to help us understand what we did not know earlier. metaphor is a variety of analogy which compare two things directly, but in short pattern and defines metaphor. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown such as poverty and coquetry are two fatal counselors; one scolds and the other flatters,.. (pg. 150), she is a phantom possessed of the form of a nymph and the modesty of a nun,.. (pg. 168), the world is a great diamond! (pg. 169) she is there. one overflows with serenity, with gayety, with ecstasy; one is a radiance amid the night. (pg. 202), this man was almost a monster (pg. 51),she was called the lark in the neighborhood. (pg. 191) simile is considered a variety of metaphor that involves amoreexplicit expression of comparison by indicating word ‘as’ and ‘like’. this figurative language was found in “les miserables” in monsieur to a convict is like a glass of water , the children dispersed like a flock of birds. (pg. 85), ...the ragged brats ran joyously after him, and surrounded him like a swarm of gnats. (pg. 199), his glance was like a gimlet, cold and piercing. (pg. 207), ...it flowed about her like floss silk (pg.219), ... he sobbed with more weakness than a woman, with more fright than a child. (pg. 142). hyperbol is a figure of speech involving deliberate exaggerationfor rhetorical effect, to increase impact or to attractattention.this figurative language was found in “les miserables” in .. it was enough to rend your heart.” (pg. 186), ... that slender chest enough wind to disarrange the fold of the alps. (pg. 162), he wept burning tears, (pg. 142), and there are a thousand little cares. (pg. 202), winter changes ... the heart of man into a stone. (pg. 220), ..feeble cries of a flock of birds ... was traversing the heavens at an immense height. (pg. 135), litotes is figurative language that is used to state something which made it smaller from original or or seriousness of something that is less than what is objectively the case. this figurative language was found in “les miserables” in “for pity’s sake, a glass of water ,” said the man (pg. 87), i say to you, who are passing by, that you are much more at home here than i am myself. everything here is yours. (pg. 99). paradox is variety of figurative language which contains a real contrast with a fact. it can be meant all of things that interest because of their truth. this figurative language was found in “les miserables” in his brain was going through one of those violent and yet perfectly calm moments in which revery is so profound that it absorbs reality. (pg. 142), poverty and coquetry are two fatal counselors; one scolds and the other flatters,.. (pg. 150), though so near to his end, he preseved all the gestures of health (pg.55), he did not study plants; he loved flowers (pg. 30), ...this superintendent, a truly respectable person, firm, equitable, upright, full of the charity which consists in giving, but not having in the same degree that charity which consists in understanding and in forgiving. (pg. 217), correlative figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” in this category, correlative figurative languages consist of metonymy, synecdoche, allusion, and ellipsis. metonymy is figurative language uses specific character or name of thing that state another thing because it has the relation with it closely. another thing can be name of person, something as pronoun. this figurative language was found in “les miserables” in m. myriel was the son of a councilor of the parliament of aix;… (pg. 13). jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 44 synecdoche is figurative language that use name of partial or representing entity or represent whole or oppose. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: the only sound was the tiny, feeble cries of a flock of birds of passage, which was traversing the heavens at an immense height. (pg. 135), ... all the tongues of water dash over his head; (pg. 119), the bishop remained silent for a moment; then he raised his graves eyes,… (pg. 130), he turned his head and saw a little savoyard,… (pg. 134), the collegians, decorated on the collar with a golden fleur-delys, fought each other apropos of the king of rome. (pg. 147), the quarrel over the valley of dappes was begun between switzerland and france by a memoir from captain, afterwards general dufour. (pg. 148), allusion is figurative language as reference that show indirectly forwards the similarity of person or event that people have known together. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: since this sort of details might, particularly at the present moment, and to use an expression now in fashion, give to the bishop of da certain “pantheistical” physiognomy,… (pg. 75), ... monsieur to a convict is like a glass of water to one of the shipwrecked of the medusa, she is a phantom possessed of the form of a nymph and the modesty of a nun,.. (pg. 168), the collegians, decorated on the collar with a golden fleur-de-lys, fought each other apropos of the king of rome. (pg. 147). allusion is a figurative language, in which one refers covertly or indirectly to an object or circumstance from an external context. it is left to the audience to make the connection; where the connection is directly and explicitly stated (as opposed to indirectly implied) by the author, an allusion is instead usually termed a reference. ellipsis is figurative language that eliminates word or part of sentence which is easy to be understood by missing part of sentence, so that the grammatical structural or their sentences contain the valid pattern. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: fantine had been at the factory for more than a year, when, one morning, the superintendent of the workroom handed her fifty franc from the mayor,.. (pg. 216), repetitive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” in this category, repetitive figurative languages consist of pleonasm, climax, anti climax, rhetoric, and repetition. pleonasm is figurative language that uses words improperly to emphasize meaning of word. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: after a pause, the old man raised a finger heavenward and said:-(pg. 62) and this man was almost a monster (pg. 51). climax is figurative language that states something from small to great. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: one of the four was called the young, because she was the youngest of them, and one was called the old; the old one was twenty three. (pg. 150), there are paper mills, tanneries, distilleries, oil factories, watch factories on a large scale, steel mills, copper works, twenty iron foundries at least, four of which, situated at lods, at chatillon, at audincaourt, and at beure, are tolerably large. (pg. 101). anti-climaxis is figurative language that states something fromgreat to small.this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: there were seated and grouped, on the particular evening, in exquisite interlacement, two little girls; one about two years and a half old, the other, eighteen months;… (pg. 178) rhetoric is figurative language in question that the answer has known by questioner. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: what am i ? a little dust collected in an organism. (pg. 46), does human nature thus change utterly and from top to bottom? (pg. 113), “inexorable;yes,” said the bishop. “what think you of marat clapping his issn 2339-1162 45 hands at the guillotine?” (pg.60), where is god? (pg. 120),what was evident was, that he was touched and astounded. but wat was the nature of this emotion? his eye never quitted the old man. (pg. 128), i have money-savings. one hundred and nine francs fifteen sous, which i earned in the galleys by my labor, in the course of nineteen years. i will pay. what is that to me?, repetition is figurative language that uses repetition word to emphasize meaning. this figurative language found in “les miserables” is shown by data below: a pretty woman is a casus belli; a pretty woman is flagrant misdemeanor. (pg. 168), let us say it simply, it was not he who stole; it was not the man; it was the beast, who, by habit and instinct, had simply placed his foot upon that money (pg. 140), there are poor people! there are poor people! (pg.65), winter: no warmth, no light, no noonday, the evening joining on to the morning, fogs, twilight; the window is grey; it is impossible to see clearly at it. (pg. 220), finding in this chapter, the researcher would conclude the research performed. to answer the formulated question in chapter one, the researcher concludesthat from 55 data, the researcher found 55 occurence of figurative languages too. the researcher finds types of figurative languages listed in chapter two into three categories are comparative and contradictive figurative language, correlative figurative language, and repetitive figurative language. to answer the formulated question in chapter 1, the researcher concludes comparative and contradictive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” are personification 3 occurrences, metaphor 6 occurrences, simile 6 occurrences, hyperbole 6 occurrences, litotes 2 occurrences, and paradox 5 occurrences. correlative figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” are metonymy 1 occurrence , synechdoche 6occurrences, allusion 4 occurrences, and ellipsis 1 occurrence. the last, repetitive figurative language found in victor hugo’s “les miserables” are pleonasm 2 occurrences, climax 2 occurrences, anti-climax 1occurrence, rhetoric 6 occurrences, and repetition 4 occurrences. comparative and contradictive figurative language are the most frequently occurred with 28 occurences, followed by repetitive figurative language with 15 occurences, and the least is correlative figurative language with 12 occurences in each categories. suggestion victor hugo’s “les miserable” is a large corpus for linguistc research, especially in dealing with figurative language. this research is recommended for those who are learning figurative language to be challenging because the reader can study about figurative language in novel, they know about definition and explanation about each figurative language, and they can identity figurative language easier by doing researcher’s instruction. the researcher also suggests further research with the same topic but with some researcher colaborated to discover more figurative languages in the novel. naskah jurnal arbitrer finish_3.pdf pola-pola perubahan fonem vokal dan konsonan dalam penyerapan kata-kata bahasa asing ke dalam bahasa indonesia: kajian fonologi asisda wahyu asri putradi universitas negeri jakarta abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perubahan-perubahan fonem yang terjadi dalam kata-kata serapan bahasa indonesia dari bahasa asing. perubahan ini dilihat dari perubahan fonem vokal dan fonem konsonan. metode penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dengan teknik kajian pustaka. data yang diperoleh diambil dari berbagai sumber pustaka untuk kemudian dikelompokkan berdasarkan kriteria tertentu. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat lima pola fonetik penyerapan katakata bahasa asing dalam bahasa indonesia, yaitu pola penyerapan satu dan dua vokal, pola penyerapan satu konsonan, pola penyerapan dua konsonan, pola penyerapan tiga konsonan, serta pola penyerapan vokal dan konsonan. selain itu, juga terdapat kata serapan yang diserap secara utuh dari bahasa sumbernya tanpa mengalami perubahan. kata kunci: kata serapan, perubahan fonem vokal, perubahan fonem konsonan vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 96 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ i. pendahuluan sebuah bahasa akan menunjukkan eksistensi suatu bangsa karena suatu bangsa dapat diketahui dari bahasanya. salah satu fakta yang terdapat dalam bahasa indonesia adalah adanya kata-kata serapan dari bahasa asing yang diserap ke dalam bahasa indonesia. kata-kata asing tersebut ada yang diserap secara utuh, ada pula yang mengalami modifikasi, terutama perubahan penulisan fonem vokal atau konsonan. perubahan ini tidak lepas dari usaha menyesuaikan pelafalan atau pengucapan dikarenakan bahasa indonesia tidak memiliki kata tersebut. perubahan ini juga tidak lepas dari adanya pengaruh perkembangan teknologi, perdagangan, dan komunikasi lisan antara penuturnya. adanya penyerapan kata-kata asing ini tidak dapat dihindari karena bahasa indonesia merupakan salah satu bahasa yang dipakai dalam pergaulan di dunia internasional. saling interaksi dalam komunikasi inilah yang menyebabkan bahasa indonesia mengalami kemajuan yang pesat, terutama dalam penambahan kosakata. penelitian ini secara konkret melihat perubahan yang terjadi dalam proses penyerapan kata-kata asing ke dalam bahasa indonesia, terutama terkait dengan bidang fonologi, yaitu perubahan fonem vokal dan fonem konsonan. hal ini penting karena perubahan fonem vokal dan konsonan merupakan langkah awal untuk menyesuaikan pelafalan kata asing tersebut ke dalam bahasa indonesia sebelum katakata tersebut dipopulerkan kepada masyarakat. kajian pustaka penelitian mengenai kata serapan pernah dilakukan oleh frans syogi dan syarif hidayatullah (2009) dengan judul kata serapan bahasa inggris dalam bahasa indonesia yang meneliti penyerapan kata bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia secara fonologi dan morfologi. dwi marfuah (2012) meneliti perubahan kata serapan bahasa arab dalam bahasa jawa pada majalah djaka lodang. penelitian ini berfokus pada perubahan fonem bahasa arab ke dalam bahasa jawa dalam majalah djaka lodang. ahmad suherman (2012) meneliti perubahan fonologis kata-kata serapan bahasa sunda dari bahasa arab: studi kasus pada masyarakat sunda di jawa barat indonesia. dari beberapa penelitian terdahulu, penelitian mengenai kata serapan ini belum banyak dilakukan sehingga penelitian mengenai kata serapan ini dapat dikembangkan untuk penelitian kata-kata serapan dengan fokus bahasa-bahasa tertentu. ii. metode penelitian penelitian ini bersifat kajian pustaka. data yang diperoleh merupakan data tertulis yang terdapat dalam kamus. data dalam kamus dikelompokkan berdasarkan bahasa asing tertentu. data kemudian dianalisis sesuai konsep fonologi. waktu dan tempat penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di jakarta selama agustus 2014 oktober 2014. sumber data sumber data berasal dari kamus kata serapan karya surawan martinus dan data lainnya yang terkait. teknik pengumpulan data data dikumpulkan berdasarkan sumber asal bahasanya. setiap kata yang diserap ditandai pola-pola perubahan fonemnya 96 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ dan setiap kata yang memiliki persamaan atau perbedaan dikumpulkan bersama. instrumen penelitian instrumen penelitian ini adalah peneliti sendiri dibantu dengan tabel analisis sebagai berikut. no kata bentuk penyera pan jenis peruba han ana lisis teknik analisis data data yang terkumpul sebagaimana dilakukan dalam teknik pengumpulan data, diolah dalam kerangka sistematis dan dijabarkan secara deskriptif. selanjutnya, data tersebut dijabarkan dalam kategori data tertentu. data kemudian dikategorikan sebagai berikut: (1) pola penyerapan satu dan dua vokal, (2) pola penyerapan satu konsonan, (3) pola penyerapan dua konsonan, (4) pola penyerapan tiga konsonan, (5) pola penyerapan vokal dan konsonan, dan (6) penafsiran data. data ditafsirkan berdasarkan konsep dan teori yang berkesesuaian. premis-premis dan hipotesis kerja premis dalam penelitian ini berkaitan dengan pernyataan umum mengenai sifatsifat bunyi bahasa. besarnya pengaruh bunyi yang satu kepada yang lain dalam lingkungannya merupakan ciri atau sifat bunyi-bunyi bahasa seluruh dunia sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa: 1. bunyi bahasa mempunyai kecenderungan untuk dipengaruhi oleh lingkungannya premis ini dicerminkan, seperti dalam beberapa struktur fonemis dalam bahasa indonesia, seperti kelompok-ke-hampir tidak ada kelompok /mg/, /mk/, /np/, kata rangda, tanpa, dan lain sebagainya. 2. sistem bunyi mempunyai kecenderungan bersifat simetris. dalam bahasa indonesia, terdapat sepasang hambat /p, t, c, k; b, d, j, g/ dan nasal /m, n, ñsimetri bunyi itu, sedangkan dalam bahasa inggris, umpamanya, karena hanya terdapat sepasang hambat /p, t, k; b, d, g/, nasal yang ada ialah /m, n, dapat juga sistem-sistem fonem bahasa yang tidak seluruhnya simetris. hal ini disebabkan oleh perkembangan kata khususnya fonemik, yang kemudian akan menuju simetri. kedua premis tersebut dipakai dalam menentukan fonem-fonem dan sistem fonem suatu bahasa sebagai pokokpokok pikiran yang membantu penyelidik bahasa dalam pekerjaannya untuk menentukan fonem-fonem dan sistem fonem bahasa. kajian teori dalam proses penghasilan bunyi bahasa, terdapat tiga sarana yang memegang peranan penting. tiga sarana itu akan menjadi salah satu dasar klasifikasi atau pengelompokan bunyi bahasa. saranasarana itu adalah arus udara, titik artikulasi (hambatan), bergetar tidaknya pita suara pada umumnya, bunyi bahasa itu dihasilkan dengan adanya embusan atau arus udara. arus udara ini dialirkan dari paruparu melalui gerakan kembang kempis. arus udara dan paru-paru dialirkan ke pavol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 89 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ ngkal tenggorokan melalui batang tenggorokan dan menggetarkan pita suara. udara di dalam faring ikut bergetar dengan bergetarnya pita suara. udara dalam faring melakukan resonansi. daerah tabung udara di bawah pita suara (faring) disebut juga kotak suara atau voice box. getaran pita suara itu dialirkan ke rongga mulut. di dalam rongga mulut, arus udara itu ada yang mendapat hambatan, ada pula yang tidak. arus udara ada yang melalui rongga mulut dan ada juga yang melalui rongga hidung. di dalam rongga mulut, arus udara dihambat oleh artikulasi atau striktur, yaitu titik temu antara artikulator aktif dan pasif. bunyi-bunyi bahasa yang dihasilkan alat ucap manusia dapat diklasifikasikan atau dikelompokkan berdasarkan beberapa cara atau dasar. dasar klasifikasi itu antara lain (1) ada tidaknya hambatan (proses artikulasi) pada alat bicara, (2) ada tidaknya ketegangan kekuatan arus udara pada saat bunyi bahasa itu dihasilkan, (3) lamanya bunyi itu diartikulasikan, (4) kedudukan bunyi pada suku kata, (5) derajat kenyaringan, dan (6) arus udara. klasifikasi bunyi bahasa berdasarkan ada tidaknya hambatan berdasarkan ada tidaknya hambatan dalam proses artikulasi, secara umum bunyi bahasa dibedakan atas vokal, konsonan, dan semivokal. 1. vokal bunyi vokal dihasilkan dengan adanya pelonggaran udara yang keluar dari dalam paru-paru tanpa mendapatkan halangan. penjenisan vokal atau perbedaan antara satu vokal dengan vokal lainnya ditentukan berdasarkan beberapa kriteria, yaitu gerak maju mundur lidah, gerak lidah naik turun, dan posisi bibir. berdasarkan gerak lidah maju mundur (horizontal), vokal dibedakan atas vokal depan, vokal pusat, dan vokal belakang. yang termasuk vokal depan adalah [i], [e], dan [ ]. yang tergolong vokal pusat adalah [ ], [a], sedangkan yang tergolong vokal belakang adalah [u], [o], dan [ ]. berdasarkan gerak lidah naik turun, yaitu jarak lidah dengan langit-langit (gerakan vertikal), vokal dibedakan atas vokal tinggi, vokal sedang, dan vokal rendah. yang tergolong vokal tinggi adalah [i], [u], yang tergolong vokal sedang adalah [e], [ ], [ ], [o], dan [ ], sedangkan yang tergolong vokal rendah adalah vokal [a]. selain kriteria gerak maju mundur lidah, dan naik turun lidah, vokal juga ditentukan berdasarkan posisi bibir vokal itu dihasilkan. berdasarkan posisi bibir, vokal dapat dibedakan atas vokal bundar dan vokal tak bundar. yang termasuk vokal bundar adalah [u], [o], dan [ ], sedangkan yang tergolong vokal tak bundar adalah [i], [e], [ ], [ ], dan [a] 2. konsonan apabila vokal adalah bunyi bahasa yang dihasilkan dengan adanya pelonggaran arus udara dari paru-paru tanpa mendapat halangan dalam rongga mulut, tidak demikian halnya dengan konsonan. dalam penghasilan bunyi konsonan, arus udara dari paruparu mendapat hambatan di rongga mulut oleh artikulasi. penggolongan, penjenisan, atau lain berdasarkan bejurnal arbitrer 98 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ berapa kriteria. kriteria itu adalah (1) titik artikulasi, (2) cara hambatan, dan (3) ikut bergetar tidaknya pita suara. 2.1 berdasarkan titik artikulasi, didapati beberapa jenis konsonan. (1) bilabial : [b], [p], [m], [w] (2) labiodental :[v], [f] (3) apikodental : [q ],[d ] (4) apiko alveolar :[d], [t], [l], [n], [r] (5) apiko palatal : [d], [t], [r] (6) lamino alveolar : [z], [s] (7) medio palatal : [j], [c], [ny], [y] (8) dorso velar : [g], [k], [x], [ng] (9) uvular : [r] (10) laringal : [h] (11) faringal : [h] (12) glotal : [?] 2.2 berdasarkan cara hambatan arus udara berdasarkan cara hambatan arus udara dalam rongga mulut oleh titik artikulasi, konsonan dapat dibedakan atas konsonan (1) hambat (stop), (2) paduan (afrikat), (3) geseran (frikatif), (4) getar (trill), (5) sampingan (lateral), (6) sengau (nasal), dan (7) semivokal. a) konsonan hambat (stop) konsonan ini dihasilkan dengan menghambat arus udara sama sekali di tempat artikulasi tertentu secara tiba-tiba, sesudahnya alatalat bicara di tempat artikulasi tersebut dilepaskan kembali. yang tergolong bunyi konsonan hambat ini adalah [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], [?]. b) konsonan paduan (afrikat) bunyi konsonan afrikat ini dihasilkan seperti bunyi hambat, hanya diletupkan secara bertahap. yang tergolong bunyi ini adalah [j], [c], [y]. c) konsonan geseran (frikatif) bunyi konsonan frikatif ini dihasilkan seperti halnya bunyi hambat letup, hanya udara tadi dilepaskan melalui celah tempat udara diembuskan. yang tergolong bunyi ini adalah [v], [f], [z], [s], [h], [x]. d) konsonan getar (trill) bunyi getar (trill) adalah bunyi yang dihasilkan dengan mengartikulasikan ujung lidah pada alveolar dan dilepaskan cepat sekali sehingga terjadi getaran bunyi. yang tergolong bunyi getar (trill) adalah [r]. e) bunyi sampingan (lateral) bunyi konsonan sampingan (lateral) ini dihasilkan dengan menutup arus udara pada titik artikulasi, tetapi udara keluar melalui kedua sisi (samping) lidah. yang tergolong bunyi sampingan atau lateral adalah (i). f) konsonan sengau (nasal) konsonan nasal dihasilkan dengan menutup arus udara ke luar melalui rongga mulut, tetapi membuka jalan agar dapat keluar melalui rongga hidung (gerak uvula turun). yang tergolong konsonan nasal adalah [m], [n], [ng], [ny]. g) konsonan semivokoid bunyi semivokoid sebenamya termasuk bunyi konsonan, tetapi kualitasnya tidak hanya ditentukan oleh alur sempit antarartikulator, tetapi oleh bangun mulut (bibir). yang tergolong konsonan semivokoid adalah [w], dan [y]. 2.3 berdasarkan ikut tidaknya bergetar pita suara pada saat konsonan dihasilkan, diperoleh konsonan bersuara dan konsonan tak bersuara. yang tergolong konsonan bersuara adalah [b], vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 99 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ [d], [g], [h], [m], [n], [p], [v], [z], [i], [r], [j], [q]. 3. diftong konsep diftong berkaitan dengan dua buah vokal dan yang merupakan satu bunyi dalam satu silabel. namun, posisi lidah ketika mengucapkan bergeser ke atas atau ke bawah. karena itu, dikenal adanya tiga macam diftong, yaitu diftong naik, diftong turun, dan diftong memusat. yang ada dalam bahasa indonesia tampaknya diftong naik. (1) diftong naik diftong naik terjadi jika vokal yang kedua diucapkan dengan posisi lidah menjadi lebih tinggi daripada yang pertama. contoh. [ai] <gulai>, [au] <pulau>, [oi] <sekoi>, [ i] <esei>. (2) diftong turun diftong turun terjadi apabila vokal kedua diucapkan dengan posisi lidah lebih rendah daripada yang pertama. bahasa jawa merupakan bahasa yang terdapat diftong turun. contohnya: [ua] pada kata <muarem> <uanteng> (3) diftong memusat diftong ini terjadi apabila vokal kedua diacu oleh sebuah atau lebih vokal yang lebih tinggi dan juga diacu oleh sebuah atau lebih vokal yang lebih rendah. dalam bahasa inggris, ada diftong [o ], seperti pada kata <more> dan kata <floor>. ucapan kata <more> adaa <floor> adalah [flo ]; dan ucapan kata ]. 4. suku kata/silabel silabel atau suku kata adalah satuan ritmis terkecil dalam suatu arus ujaran. satu silabel biasanya melibatkan satu bunyi vokal atau satu vokal dan satu konsonan atau lebih. silabel sebagai satuan ritmis terkecil mempunyai puncak kenyaringan (sonoritas) yang biasanya jatuh pada sebuah bunyi vokal. kenyaringan atau sonoritas, yang menjadi puncak silabel terjadi karena adanya ruang resonansi berupa rongga mulut, rongga hidung, atau rongga-rongga lain dalam kepala atau dada. bunyi yang paling banyak menggunakan ruang resonansi itu adalah bunyi vokal, bukan bunyi konsonan. karena itulah, yang dapat disebut bunyi silabis atau puncak silabis adalah bunyi vokal. umpamanya, kata indonesia [dan]. kata itu terjadi dari bunyi [d], bunyi [a], dan bunyi [n]. bunyi [d] dan bunyi [n] adalah bunyi konsonan, sedangkan bunyi [a] adalah bunyi vokal. bunyi [a] pada kata [dan] itu menjadi puncak silabis dan puncak kenyaringan sebab seperti sudah disebutkan di atas, bunyi [a] sebagai bunyi vokal ketika diproduksi mempunyai ruang resonansi yang lebih besar. jurnal arbitrer 100 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ kemungkinan urutan bunyi konsonanvokal dalam silabel disebut kaidah fonotaktik. bunyi konsonan yang berada sebelum vokal (yang menjadi puncak kenyaringannya) disebut onset (o) dan konsonan yang hadir sesudah vokal disebut koda, sedangkan vokalnya sendiri disebut nuklus. pola urutan vokal (v) dan konsonan (k) yang asli dalam bahasa indonesia adalah sebagai berikut. (1) _v_, seperti [i] pada kata [i+ni] (2) kv_, seperti [la] pada kata [la+ut] (3) _vk, seperti [am] pada kata [am+bil] (4) kvk, seperti [but] pada kata [se+but] sedangkan pola urutan vokal (v) dan konsonan (k) yang berasal dari bahasa asing adalah : (1) kkv, seperti [kla] pada kata [kla+sik] (2) kkvk, seperti [trak] pada kata [trak+tor] (3) kvkk, seperti [teks] pada kata [kon+teks] (4) kkkv, seperti [stra] pada kata [stra+te+gi] (5) kkvkk, seperti [pleks] pada kata [kom+pleks] (6) kkkvk, seperti [struk] pada kata [struk+tur] (7) _vkk, seperti [eks] pada kata [ekspor] iii. pembahasan bahasa indonesia terus berkembang dan dalam perkembangannya bahasa indonesia mengalami pengaruh, terutama dalam bidang kosakata. pengaruh bahasa itu disebut dengan unsur serapan. menurut mansoer pateda dan yennie, dijelaskan bahwa unsur yang berasal dari bahasa yang bukan bahasa indonesia disebut dengan unsur serapan. pengaruh itu ada yang berwujud imbuhan dan kosakata. kosakata inilah yang disebut dengan kata serapan. hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat j.s. badudu y atau pemungutan atau peminjaman kata (kosakata), kata yang diambil dari bahasa lain itu bisa disebut kata pungut atau kata lanjut bahwa kata serapan adalah katakata yang diambil dari bahasa lain, baik dari bahasa daerah maupun bahasa asing. dengan kata lain, yang menjadi sumber kata serapan adalah bahasa daerah dan bahasa asing. kata serapan yang berasal dari bahasa lain itu kaidahnya disesuaikan dengan bahasa indonesia. hal tersebut sejalan dengan tan ialah kata-kata yang dipungut dari bahasa luar atau bahasa lain yang sedikit banyak disesuaikan dengan bahasa sen kata serapan yang terbentuk bukan begitu saja terbentuk melainkan melalui proses penyerapan, yaitu (1) adopsi, (2) adaptasi, (3) penghibridaan, dan (4) serapan terjemahan. 1. adopsi adalah serapan utuh, tanpa perubahan atau penyesuaian. contoh: kata bentuk asli asal kata serapan abad abad bahasa arab alinea alinea bahasa belanda aula aula bahasa belanda vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 101 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ cakra cakra bahasa belanda upacara upacara bahasa arab 2. hibrida adalah kata kompleks yang bagian-bagiannya berasal dari bahasabahasa yang berbeda. contoh: alihbahasa (ind. + skt) alihkode (ind. + ing) prakata (skt. + ind.) 3. serapan terjemahan adalah serapan yang dihasilkan dengan menerjemahkan kata atau istilah tanpa mengubah makna konsepnya. bentuk yang dihasilkan ada dua macam, yaitu sama dan tidak sama. 1. sama bentuk asli kata serapan setting latar plot alur rate laju 2. tidak sama bentuk asli kata serapan up to date mutakhir replace saji ulang catering jasa boga 4. adaptasi adalah serapan yang disesuaikan dengan kaidah bahasa indonesia. penyesuaian itu terjadi pada tataran fonologi, morfologi, dan sintaksis. penyesuaian diusahakan agar bentuk indonesia masih bisa dibandingkan dengan bentuk aslinya sehingga ejaannya hanya diubah seperlunya. contoh penyesuaian unsur serapan dari bahasa inggris: kata serapan bentuk asli machine mesin frequency frekuensi cylinder silinder jadi, penelitian ini berfokus kepada bentuk adaptasi terutama dalam tataran fonologi, yaitu dalam kajian fonetiknya. beberapa alasan terjadinya penyerapan kata-kata daerah atau kata-kata asing: 1. penyerapan kata untuk berbahasa halus, sopan, hormat (eufimisme), dan juga ada kecenderungan untuk lebih berprestise (ameliorasi). 2. penyerapan kata yang berkaitan dengan sifat komunikasi ilmiah atau nonilmiah. 3. penyerapan kata untuk mengisi kekosongan kosakata bahasa indonesia. 4. penyerapan kata-kata yang berkaitan dengan ihwal keagamaan, kedokteran, keolahragaan, politik, ekonomi, teknik, dan sebagainya secara langsung sesuai dengan aslinya dianggap lebih baik daripada terjemahannya. 5. penyerapan kata yang berkaitan dengan kecenderungan pemakai bahasa untuk bergengsi. berdasarkan kutipan-kutipan di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa kata serapan adalah kata yang diambil dari bahasa lain yang berupa bahasa asing maupun bahasa daerah kemudian disesuaikan dengan ejaan bahasa indonesia. kata serapan terbentuk melalui proses penyerapan yang berupa adopsi, adaptasi, penghibridaan, dan serapan terjemahan. kata serapan adalah kata-kata yang berasal dari bahasa asing atau bahasa daerah, kemudian digunakan dalam bahasa indonesia. menurut kridalaksana (2008:112), yang kemudian menamakan kata pinjaman menyatakan bahwa kata pinjaman adalah kata yang dipinjam dari bahasa lain yang kemudian sedikit banyaknya disesuaikan dengan bahasa sendiri. kata pungut (juga kata serapan atau kata pinjam) adalah kata yang berasal dari bahasa asing yang sudah diintegrasikan ke dalam suatu bahasa dan jurnal arbitrer 102 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ diterima pemakaiannya secara umum. ruskhan (2007: 14) menyatakan pemungutan merupakan suatu proses pengambilan pola-pola atau unsur-unsur bahasa lain yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dengan pola-pola yang dtiru. pola itu berlaku juga dalam bahasa penerima. dilihat dari tahap penyerapannya, ada 3 macam kata serapan, yaitu: 1. kata-kata yang sudah sepenuhnya diserap ke dalam indonesia. kata-kata ini sudah lazim dieja secara indonesia sehingga sudah tidak dirasakan lagi kehadirannya sebagai kata serapan. misalnya, kata sabar, sirsak, iklan, perlu, hadir, badan, waktu, botol, dan ember. 2. kata-kata yang masih asing, tetapi digunakan dalam konteks bahasa indonesia. ejaan dan pengucapannya masih mengikuti cara asing. misalnya, shuttle cock, knock out, time out, check in, dan door to door. 3. dalam kelompok ini, termasuk katakata yang dipertahankan keasingannya karena sifat keinternasionalannya, seperti istilah-istilah music andante, moderate, dan adagio. 4. kata-kata asing yang untuk kepentingan peristilahan, ucapan, dan ejaannya disesuaikan dengan kaidah-kaidah bahasa indonesia. perubahan ejaan itu dibuat seperlunya saja sehingga bentuk indonesianya masih dapat dibandingkan dengan bentuk bahasa aslinya. kata serapan adalah kata yang berasal dari bahasa asing yang sudah diintegrasikan ke dalam suatu bahasa dan diterima pemakaiannya secara umum. kemudian, ejaan, ucapan, dan tulisannya disesuaikan dengan penuturan masyarakat indonesia untuk memperkaya kosakata. setiap masyarakat bahasa memiliki cara yang digunakan untuk mengungkapkan gagasan dan perasaan untuk menyebutkan atau mengacu ke benda-benda di sekitarnya. hingga pada suatu titik waktu, kata-kata yang dihasilkan melalui kesepakatan masyarakat itu sendiri umumnya mencukupi keperluan itu. namun, manakala terjadi hubungan dengan masyarakat bahasa lain, sangat mungkin muncul gagasan, konsep, atau barang baru yang datang dari luar budaya masyarakat itu. dengan sendirinya, juga diperlukan kata baru. salah satu cara untuk memenuhi keperluan itu yang sering dianggap lebih mudah adalah dengan mengambil kata yang digunakan oleh masyarakat luar yang menjadi asal hal ihwal baru itu. bahasa indonesia banyak menyerap katakata dari bahasa belanda karena faktor sejarah. sudah tentu rakyat indonesia lebih sering mendengar ungkapan atau kata-kata dari bahasa belanda. tidak heran bangsa indonesia banyak menyerap dari bahasa belanda. selain itu, selama penjajahan pun belanda juga mengubah sistem atau tatanan indonesia dari sistem pendidikan sampai sistem hukum. oleh karena itu, banyak terjadi penyerapan kosakata dari bahasa belanda ke dalam bahasa indonesia. selain karena faktor sejarah penjajahan, hubungan agama juga menjadi faktor penting yang memperkaya kosakata bahasa indonesia. bahasa arab merupakan salah satu bahasa yang juga banyak kosakatanya diserap secara utuh maupun langsung ke dalam bahasa indonesia. hal ini tidak dapat dilepaskan dari faktor agama atau ibadah, sehingga banyak kosakata baru yang diambil secara apa adanya. hal lainnya yang turut memperkaya kosakata bahasa indonesia adalah kemajuan teknologi. banyak kosakata baru yang muncul dari dunia teknologi ini. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 103 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 1. pola penyerapan satu dan dua vokal a. /y/ /i/ contoh: memory memori, energy energi, hydrology hidrologi, system sistem semivokal /y/ berubah menjadi vokal /i/ karena konsonan /y/ merupakan semivokal medio palatal. pada saat pelafalannya, tengah lidah menaik mendekati langitlangit keras namun ketinggian lidah konsonan /y/ sedikit lebih tinggi dibandingkan vokal /i/. b. /ea/ / i/ contoh: gear gir deret vokal /e/ dan /a/ berada dalam satu lingkungan yang sama, yaitu vokal depan. penyerapan atau penggantian yang masuk akal karena berada dalam lingkungan yang sama adalah dengan menggunakan vokal /i/ sebagai vokal depan, tinggi, dan tak bulat. c. /e / /o/ contoh: amplitude amplitudo vokal /e/ berubah menjadi vokal /o/ karena kedua vokal ini /e/ dan /o/ merupakan vokal sedang atas. d. /oo/ /u/ contoh: idioot idiot tidak terdapat diftong /oo/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diftong /oo/ diubah menjadi vokal /o/ saja. e. pelesapan vokal e di akhir kata turbine turbin. vokal /e/ dilesapkan di akhir kata. 2. penyerapan dua vokal a. /o/ dan /e/ /u/ contoh: moer mur deret vokal /o/ dan /e/ berganti menjadi /u/ karena pengaruh vokal /o/ sebagai vokal belakang terhadap /e/ vokal depan mengakibatkan penyesuaian terhadap bunyi vokal belakang yang berdekatan dengan vokal /o/, yaitu /u/. kedua vokal ini saling berhubungan erat karena keduanya sama-sama dihasilkan dengan bentuk bibir yang membulat. b. /e/ /a/ contoh: team tim deret vokal /e/ dan /a/ berada dalam satu lingkungan yang sama, yaitu vokal depan. penyerapan atau penggantian yang masuk akal karena berada dalam lingkungan yang sama adalah dengan menggunakan vokal /i/ sebagai vokal depan, tinggi, tak bulat. 3. pola penyerapan satu konsonan a. /c/ /k/ contoh: canal kanal, computer komputer, canvas kanvas, local lokal, optic optik, crystal kristal, control kontrol konsonan /c/ berubah menjadi konsonan /k/, karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. dalam hal ini, keduanya bisa saling menggantikan. jurnal arbitrer 104 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ b. /ck/ / k/ contoh: socket soket rangkaiaan konsonan /ck/ dalam bahasa indonesia diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ saling berdekatan. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. c. /ch/ /k/ contoh: chronometer kronometer, tachometer takometer tidak terdapat kluster /ch/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /ch/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /k/ letaknya lebih dekat dengan konsonan /c/. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. d. /c/ /s/ contoh: censor sensor, social sosial, circuit sirkuit konsonan /c/ berubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. e. /x / /ks/ contoh: fax faks, pixel piksel, telex teleks konsonan /x/ berubah menjadi kluster /ks/ karena konsonan /x/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi dorso velar yang letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /s/ yang merupakan lamino alveolar. konsonan /k/, /x/, dan /s/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. f. /ph/ /f / contoh: telegraph telegraf tidak terdapat kluster /ph/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /ph/ diubah menjadi konsonan /f/ karena konsonan /f/ berdekatan dengan konsonan /p/. konsonan /f/ merupakan labio dental dan /p/ merupakan bilabial. kedua bunyi tersebut merupakan bunyi tidak bersuara. g. /t/ /s/ contoh: potentiometer potensiometer konsonan /t/ berubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /t/ merupakan apiko alveolar dan konsonan /s/ merupakan lamino alveolar. kedua konsonan tersebut adalah konsonan tidak bersuara. h. /g/ /s/ contoh: voltage voltase konsonan /g/ berubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena letak kedua konsonan tersebut berdekatan. konsonan /g/ merupakan dorso velar dan konsonan /s/ merupakan lamino alveolar. i. /z/ /s/ contoh: stabilizer stabiliser konsonan /z/ berubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /z/ dan konsonan /s/ merupakan lamino alveolar. j. /ld/ /l/ contoh: manifold manifol tidak terdapat kluster /ld/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /l/. konsonan /l/ dan konsonan /d/ merupakan apiko alveolar. kedua konsonan ini /l/ dan /d/ adalah bunyi bersuara. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 105 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ k. /sh/ /s/ contoh: dashpot daspot tidak terdapat kluster /sh/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /sh/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /h/. l. /j/ /y/ contoh: projector proyektor konsonan /j/ diubah menjadi semivokal /y/ karena konsonan /j/ dan semivokoid /y/, keduanya merupakan medio palatal. m. /th/ /t/ contoh: thermistor termistor, thermostat termostat tidak terdapat kluster /th/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /th/ diubah menjadi konsonan /t/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /h/. n. /nn/ /n/ contoh: antenna antena penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /nn/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /n/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /n/ yang lain. o. /s/ /ø/ contoh: menus menu kata menu dalam bahasa inggris menunjukkan kepada bentuk jamak sehingga berakhiran /s/. ketika diserap dalam bahasa indonesia, konsonan /s/ tersebut dilesapkan. p. /ch/ /k/ contoh: cholera kolera bahasa indoensia tidak mengenal kluster /ch/. perubahan yang dimungkinkan adalah mengganti /ch/ medio palatal faringal dengan konsonan di tengahnya /k/ dorsovelar. 4. pola penyerapan dua konsonan a. /s/ /s/ dan /s/ /s/ contoh: processor prosesor 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. 2) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /ss/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /s/ yang lain. b. /c/ /s/ dan /c/ /k/ contoh: circuit sirkuit, accelerometer akse-lerometer 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. 2) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. c. /ch/ /s/ dan /ss/ /s/ contoh: chassis sasis jurnal arbitrer 106 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 1) tidak terdapat kluster /ch/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /ch/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. kedua konsonan ini merupakan bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /ss/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /s/ yang lain. d. /q/ /k/ dan /sh/ /s/ contoh: squish skuis 1) konsonan /q/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/. letak konsonan /q/ berjauhan dengan konsonan /k/ karena /q/ merupakan apiko dental, sedangkan /k/ merupakan dorso velar namun lafal pengucapan antara /q/ dan /k/ hampir mirip. 2. tidak terdapat kluster /sh/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /sh/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /h/. e. /c/ /k/ dan /ss/ /s/ contoh: compressor kompresor 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /ss/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /s/ yang lain. f. /c/ /k/ dan /ll/ /l/ contoh: controller kontroler 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /ll/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /l/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /l/ yang lain. g. /c/ /k/ dan /ck/ /k/ contoh: click klik 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) tidak terdapat kluster /ck/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ saling berdekatan. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. 5. penyerapan tiga konsonan /c/ /k/; /c/ /s/; /ss/ /s/ contoh: access akses, microprocessor mikroprosesor 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 107 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 2) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. 3) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /ss/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /s/ yang lain. 6. penyerapan vokal dan konsonan a. /c/ /k/ dan /eu/ /u/ contoh: directeur direktur 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) /eu/ menjadi /u/ karena vokal /e/ sebagai vokal depan tengah tak bulat berkebalikan dengan vokal /u/ belakang, tinggi, bulat. posisi vokal /u/ lebih tinggi daripada /e/ sehingga pengucapannya lebih mudah menggunakan /u/. b. /cc/ /k/ dan /u/ /i/ contoh: accu aki a) rangkaiaan konsonan /cc/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. b) vokal /u/ diubah menjadi vokal /i/ karena vokal /u/ dan vokal /i/, keduanya merupakan vokal tinggi dan menurut strukturnya kedua vokal ini adalah vokal tertutup. c. c k, ph p dan pelepasan vokal e contoh: microphone mikropon 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) tidak terdapat kluster /ph/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /p/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /h/. 3) vokal /e/ dilesapkan pada akhir kata. d. /ch/ /k/ dan penambahan vokal /e/ contoh: mechanism mekanisme 1) tidak terdapat kluster /ch/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /ch/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /k/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /c/. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. 2) penambahan vokal /e/ di akhir kata. e. /c/ /k/, /ou/ /o/ contoh: coupling kopling 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) ou menjadi o karena saat pelafalannya sama-sama melakukan gerakan turun naiknya lidah bagian jurnal arbitrer 108 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ belakang (pangkal lidah) dan posisi bentuk bibir tertutup bulat. f. /c/ /s/ dan pelesapan vokal /e/ contoh: service servis 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. 2) pelesapan vokal /e/ di akhir kata. g. /i/ /ai/, /gn/ /n/ contoh: design desain 1) vokal /i/ berubah menjadi diftong /ai/ karena dalam pengucapannya terjadi diftong naik. vokal /i/ lebih tinggi dibandingkan vokal /a/ disebabkan oleh posisi lidah vokal kedua lebih tinggi daripada vokal pertama. 2) tidak terdapat kluster /gn/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /n/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /g/. h. /au/ /o/, /v/ /f/, pelesapan vokal /e/ contoh: automotive otomotif 1) diftong /au/ berubah menjadi vokal /o/ karena vokal /o/ berada di antara vokal /a/ dan vokal /u/. 2) konsonan /v/ diubah menjadi konsonan /f/ karena konsonan /f/ dan konsonan /v/, keduanya merupakan konsonan labio dental. 3) pelesapan vokal /e/ di akhir kata. i. /cc/ /k/, /ou/ /u/, /nt/ /n/ contoh: account akun 1) rangkaian konsonan /cc/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /k/ dan konsonan /c/ letaknya saling berdekatan. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. 2) /ou/ diubah menjadi /u/ karena saat pelafalannya sama-sama melakukan gerakan turun naiknya lidah bagian belakang (pangkal lidah) dan posisi bentuk bibir tertutup bulat. posisi vokal /u/ lebih tinggi daripada /o/ sehingga pengucapannya lebih dipilih /u/. 3) tidak terdapat kluster /nt/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /nt/ diubah menjadi konsonan /n/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /n/. konsonan /n/ dan konsonan /t/ merupakan apiko alveolar. j. /g/ /s/, /e/ /i/ contoh: garage garasi 1) penggantian konsonan /g/ dorsovelar menjadi /s/ lamino alveolar 2) perubahan vokal /e/ menjadi /i/ karena kedua vokal ini berada dalam satu lingkungan yang sama. k. /c/ /k/, /d/ /t/, /ø/ /u/ contoh: card kartu 1) konsonan /c/ medio palatal berganti menjadi /k/ dorsovelar 2) konsonan /d/ dan /t/ keduanya merupakan konsonan hambat apikoalveolar lingkungan yang sama dan dapat saling menggantikan. 3) penambahan vokal /u/ dimungkinkan terjadi karena tidak ada kata dalam bahasa indonesia yang tidak berakhiran vokal. munculnya vokal /u/ dimungkinkan terjadi karena pengaruh dari konsonan /d/ atau /t/. ujung lidah harus menaik hingga ceruk gigi atas sehingga bunyi yang dimungkinkan muncul adalah bunyi /u/ atau /i/. l. /ch/ /k/, /nn/ /n/, /e/ /a/ contoh: channel kanal 1) tidak terdapat kluster /ch/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga kluster /ch/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 109 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ karena konsonan letaknya lebih dekat dengan konsonan /c/. konsonan /c/ adalah medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ adalah dorso velar. 2) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /nn/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /n/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /n/ yang lain. 3) vokal /e/ berubah menjadi vokal /a/ karena vokal /e/ dan vokal /a/ adalah vokal yang sama-sama diucapkan dengan bentuk bibir tidak bulat atau terbentang lebar. m. /c/ /k/, /u/ /o/, /mn/ /m/ contoh: column kolom 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /k/ karena konsonan /c/ letaknya berdekatan dengan konsonan /k/. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /k/ merupakan dorso velar. konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /k/ adalah bunyi tidak bersuara. 2) vokal /u/ berubah menjadi vokal /o/ karena kedua vokal tersebut merupakan vokal belakang dan saat pelafalan posisi bentuk bibir tertutup bulat. 3) tidak terdapat kluster /mn/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /m/ karena konsonan /m/ dan konsonan /n/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /m/ merupakan bilabial dan konsonan /n/ merupakan apiko alveolar. konsonan /m/ dan konsonan /n/, keduanya merupakan bunyi bersuara. n. /c/ /s/ dan /e/ /i/ contoh: space spasi 1) konsonan /c/ diubah menjadi konsonan /s/ karena konsonan /c/ dan konsonan /s/ letaknya berdekatan. konsonan /c/ merupakan medio palatal dan konsonan /s/ adalah lamino alveolar. 2) vokal /e/ berubah menjadi vokal /i/ karena vokal /e/ dan vokal /i/ adalah vokal yang sama-sama dihasilkan oleh gerakan peranan turun naiknya lidah bagian depan dan kedua vokal tersebut diucapkan dengan bentuk bibir tidak bulat. o. /tt/ /t/, /y/ /i/, dan penambahan vokal /a/ contoh: battery baterai 1) penyederhanaan konsonan ganda /tt/ dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga diubah menjadi konsonan /n/ dengan melesapkan konsonan /t/ yang lain. 2) penambahan vokal /a/ di antara konsonan /r/ dan /y/ karena vokal /a/ merupakan vokal yang netral. 3) semivokal /y/ berubah menjadi vokal /i/ karena konsonan /y/ merupakan semivokal medio palatal. pada saat pelafalannya, tengah lidah menaik mendekati langit-langit keras, namun ketinggian lidah konsonan /y/ sedikit lebih tinggi dibandingkan vokal /i/. 7. kata-kata yang diserap utuh no. kata asal bentuk penyerapan 1 diesel diesel 2 trotoar trotoar 3 bank bank 4 bit bit 5 zodiak zodiak jurnal arbitrer 110 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 6 salon salon 7 film film 8 video video 9 visa visa 10 vampire vampire 11 digital digital 12 ampere ampere 13 matador matador 14 neutron neutron 15 plaza plaza 16 proton proton 17 volt volt 18 tornado tornado 19 generator generator 20 ohm ohm 21 radiator radiator 22 anglo anglo 23 bonsai bonsai 24 kilowatt kilowatt 25 adaptor adaptor 26 modem modem 27 karaoke karaoke 28 aikido aikido 29 ebi ebi 30 alarm alarm berdasarkan analisis di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa (1) terdapat lima pola fonetik pola-pola fonetik penyerapan kata-kata bahasa asing dalam bahasa indonesia, yaitu pola penyerapan satu dan dua vokal, pola penyerapan satu konsonan, pola penyerapan dua konsonan, pola penyerapan tiga konsonan, dan pola penyerapan vokal dan konsonan; (2) bahasa indonesia juga banyak mengadopsi kata-kata dari bahasa asing secara utuh, misalnya yang berkaitan dengan bidang keagamaan (arab), bidang seni budaya (tionghoa, jepang, sansekerta), hingga bidang teknologi (inggris); dan (3) setiap bunyi bahasa saling pengaruh-mempengaruhi karena posisi atau lingkungan yang sama, maupun terdapatnya pola simetri bunyi yang saling berkaitan satu dengan yang lain. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 111 iv. kesimpulan http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ daftar pustaka badudu, js. 1992. cakrawala bahasa indonesia ii. gramedia: jakarta. chaer, abdul. 2011. pengantar fonologi. jakarta: rineka cipta. kridalaksana, h. 2008. kamus linguistik edisi keempat. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. marsono.1986. fonetik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. martinus, s. 2001. kamus kata serapan. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. muslich, masnur. 2008. fonologi bahasa indonesia. jakarta: bumi aksara. parera, j. d. 1993. pengantar linguistik umum: bidang fonetik dan fonemik. ende flores: nusa indah. pateda, mansoer dan yennie p. pulubuhu. 1987. unsur serapan dalam bahasa indonesia dan pengajarannya. flores nusa tenggara timur: nusa indah. ruskhan, a. g. 2007. bahasa arab dalam bahasa indonesia: kajian tentang pemungutan kata. jakarta: grasindo. soedjito, dkk. 2007. bahasa bantu. jakarta: universitas terbuka. jurnal arbitrer 112 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 52 article an analysis of off record strategies reflecting politeness implicature in “oprah winfrey show” rahma yanti english department, dharma andalas university, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: june 20, 2017 final revision: august 05, 2017 available online: august 24, 2017 this thesis discusses strategies off the record that describes implicatures modesty in a conversation. off record strategy is one of the five strategies. this strategy is discussed for the use of the language used in the forms of direct. the object of research are strategies off the record that describes implicatures politeness in a famous talk show in america, namely, "oprah winfrey show". the data were taken using methods refer to refer techniques involved free conversation, where the author was not involved in the dialogue that occurs because the data is taken from the tv show, recording technique with the aid of a recorded tape. furthermore, the authors use the technique caat by way of transcribing talk show back in the form transcription ortrografis. this analysis uses methods equivalent pragmatic look at the role of external factors of language, especially the factor of interlocutors on selection strategies used off record. the results showed that the context of the situation and the violations of the maxim of conversation will influence the choice of strategies used off record. however there are some cases when this option do not follow the rules. this is because of other factors that come into play in a conbersation such as an intonation. mplicatures appear generally in the form of affirmation that is used in polite. in one sentence found two or more strategy off record selected speakers keyword off record startegy, implicature, implicatures politeness correspondent e-mail: i. introduction to communicate their idea in social interaction, human beings frequently use an indirect expression. whenever people want to make a request for a specific information or provide as much of that information as possible, they tend to express it indirectly. so, there is a gap between what is literally said and what is conveyed. that kind of communication provides a small part of an account of how people communicate using indirect language (levinson, 1983: 98). this kind of communication can be said as implicature according to grice (qtd from gazdar, 1979:38), implicature is a proposition that is implied in the utterance of a sentence in a context http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 53 eventhough that proposition is neither a part of nor an entailment of what was actually said. he claimed that there were two types of implicature: conventional and conversational. conventional implicature arises becuase of conventional fatures of the words employed in an utterance. meanwhile conversational implicature arises because of something implied in the utterance in a certain conversation. this implicature phenomenon is obviously observable in every conversation in which a person implied something in the utterance. the phenomena of what is literally said and what is conveyed can alsway be seen in daily conversation. this phenomenon can be related to grice’s theory of implicature. implicature means an extra message conveyed by speakers indirectly. by ‘extra’ we mean that sometimes there is additional meaning of what the speaker has said (1), sometimes the speaker provides additional information (2), and sometimes he/she conveys something completely different from what he/she said, as seen in the following example. a: where’s bill? bl: there’s a yellow vw, he may be in sue’s house. so, we can say that the theory of conversational implicature is the theory about how people use language in communication. sometimes in implicating something, people tend to be polite. in reality, in order to be polite, people usually say something different from what they mean. they are used to say something indirectly, which is aimed at keeping someone’s feeling in the conversation it means that they want to keep their image or face. the concept of face was proposed by brown and levinson. it means the notion of being embarassed or humiliated or ‘loosing face’ (brown and levinson, 1978: 61). it refers to emotional and social tense of self that someone has (yule, 1996: 60) the concept of face is divided into two types, namely: positive face (the desire to be accepted by others and be treated as the same mebers) and negative face (the desire to have freedom and not to be treated by others). thus, this concept shows the action to be polite to others in order to keep their image. so, politeness can be defined as the means to show the respect to another person’s face. according to brown and levinson (1978: 92), there are five strategies in politeness, they are bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, off record, and don’t do fta. from those straetegies, the analysis is only focused on off record strategies. it shows the indirect use of language. the interesting thing is how poeple say something implied in order to be polite to others. the form of these strategies is not discussed by another four strategies. having considered these factors, the writer chooses the title “an analysis off record strategies reflecting politeness implicature in oprah winfrey show” related to the phenomena of implicature of politeness, the writer identifies two main problems to be solved in this research, in order to focus the study, as follows: 1. what kind of off record strategies that may reflect the politeness implicature? 2. what is the implicature of the politeness utterances? this research studies about the strategies of off record strategy. the data are taken from a real popular talk show in america, “oprah winfrey show”. the analysis is speficically focused on the speech events occuring between oprah, the host of the talk show and the guests. the writer mainly focuses the research on off record straegies used by the participants. the strategies reflect the implicature of politeness among the participants. there are some sub strategies in off record strategy that cause the occurence of implicature, they are giving hints, giving association clues, presuppose, understate, overstate, using tautologies, using contradictions, being ironic, using metaphors, using rhetorical questions, being ambigous, being vague, over generalizing, displacing h, being incomplete or using ellipsis ii. methods in conducting this research, the writer uses the systematic methods of linguistic research, rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 54 namely: collecting data, analysing data and presenting the result of the analysis. first, in collecting data, the writes applies the observation method. it means the writer observes the use of language by the participants in the conversations. the conversations in that tv talk show are collected by applying three techniques, they are: non-participation observation technique, recording technique, and writing technique. the non-participations observation method means the writer observes the use of language by the participants without being involved in the conversations. while recording technique means the writer records the conversation by using tape recorder, and writing techniques means the writer transcribes the conversations that had been recorded by taking a note. second, in analysing the data, the writer uses the pragmatic identity method. it means that the data as the object rsearch are analysed based on the interlocutor/hearer as the factor influencing the linguistic data (sudaryanto, 1993: 15). the data later on are classified into some groups based on the conversational maxim and the strategies of off record strategies. in presenting the result of the analysis, the writer uses both formal and informal methods (sudaryanto, 1993: 145). formal method means the use of tabble. meanwhile informal method is applied by using natural language. in this analysis, the writer analyses the data taken from the popular talk show in america that is broadcasted by one of private televisions in indonesia. the interesting thing in this talk show is all of the participants are the native speakers and the talk show is guided by oprah winfrey, an attractive presenter. implicature is a very interesting phenomenon in pragmatics. it refers to smoething implied in the utterances. many researchers dealing with implicature in relating to politeness strategies. in this chapter, the writer gives some examples on researches related to conversational implicature and off record strategy as one of politeness strategy. related to the notion of conversational implicature and politeness strategy, many researchers have carried some researchers about that. some of them are alexandria kallia, michael haugh, and karen grainger. alexandra kallia, in her paper titled linguistic politeness: the implicature approach, has analysed politeness as a gricean implicature. the topic that she discussed was about politeness as the expected thing to do and politenss as unexpected thing to do and she used gricean approach of implicature. in order to analyse politeness as an implicature, she used the maxims of politeness, which supplements grice’s cooperative principle. these maxims can be observed or flouted and so give rise to different kinds of implicature. she also said that politeness can be a strategy employed in order to achieve smooth interaction, can convey indirect messages to the addressee i.e. implicature of politeness. in her finding, she said that the implicature approach has some advantages. it gives us the means to distinguish between politeness as a message intentionally conveyed by the speaker (the expression of a positive attitude towards the hearer) and politeness as an inference drawn by the hearer (the belief that the speaker is not being sincere, etc). strategic and communicative uses of politeness can be seen as implicature. the difference is that implicature conveyed by the expected (appropriate) strategies (i.e. generated through observance of the maxim of politeness) are standard and constitute background messages. the implicature approach captures a variety of messages: messages favourable for the speaker (‘i mean well’), favourable to the hearer (‘i emphatise you’), messages regarding the social competence of the speaker (‘i’m following the rules’), ironic uses polite forms, etc. this, the same utterance can hae different implicatures depending on the context in which it occurs and the same utterance can be in instance of politic behaviour (it is expected and therefore pass unnoticed) and polite behaviour (unexpected and therefore marked) in different situations. alexandra’s analysis is different from the writer’s analysis. the writer talks about linguistic politeness by using implicature approach. she uses both maxim of conversational and politeness maxim in order to rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 55 know the utterance which is expected or unexpected. meanwhile in her thesis, the writer does not use any politeness maxim; she analyzes one of politeness strategies, this is off record strategy. michael haugh in his paper titled anticipated versus inferred politeness described the distinction between anticipated and inferred politness. he claimed that politeness is anticipated if the speaker expects certain behaviour to occur. on the other hand, if we are not expecting certain behaviour to occur which nevertheless does occur, and this behaviour give rise to politeness, then this politenessmust be inferred. politeness is inferred (by means of an implicature) when the expression used by the speaker is not conventionalised for some use. haugh studied about the politeness utterance that can be anticipated and politeness utterance that can be inferred. according to haugh, politeness utterance that is inferred is categorized into implicature. meanwhile, in her thesis, the writer analyses the use of politeness implicature in politeness strategy, it is off record strategy.many researchers argued that politeness is generally inferred as an implicature, as it usually expected by interactants. this kind of politeness is termed ‘anticipated politeness’ by fraser (qtd from haugh’s journal), in orer to contrast it with brown and levinson’s view on politeness as inferred. while a number of reserachers argued that politeness is only anticipated but otherss assumed that although politeness is primarily anticipated, it may also be inferred in the form of an implicature. iii. result after nalysing the data, it shows that there are several valiation of conversational maxim occusr in the show. the result of table 1 shows the form of violation of conversational maxim, off record strategy, and implicature. table 1. result analysis off record strategy data no. violation of conversational maxim off record strategy the impplicature of polite utterances 1 quantity maxim understate strategy understatement of admission 2 quantity maxim and manner maxim tautology strategy and be vague strategy indirect refusal 3 quality maxim and relevance maxim contradict strategy and give associations clues the assertion statement the assertion statement 4 quality maxim rhetorical question the assertion request 5 manner maxim being vague the assertion request 6 quantity and relevance maxim tautology strategy and presupposes the assertion statement the assertion of refusal 7 manner maxim ellipsis strategy the assertion request 8 quality maxim rhetorical question the indirect confession 9 quality maxim contradict strategy the hesitancy 10 relevance maxim presuppose hints 11 manner maxim ambigous agreement and hints 12 quality maxim and relevance maxim metaphorical substitution and giving clues association the conflict and suggestion 13 quantity maxim overstate strategy support 14 manner maxim and relevance maxim ellipsis strategy and rhetorical question strategy the assertion request 15 relevance maxim hints criticisms 16 quality maxim and manner maxim metaphorical substition and displaces the hearer avoid the guilt’s feeling 17 quality maxim contradict strategy criticisms 18 quality maxim and manner maxim ironic strategy and ellipsis strategy hints and warning 19 relevance maxim and quantity maxim presupose strategy and tautology strategy someone who has big responsibility 20 manner maxim ellipsis strategy the assertion of promise 21 manner maxim being vague uncertain promise 22 relevance maxim hints strategy criticisms rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 56 iv. discussion this research is focused on off record strategy as one of the politeness strategy that is proposed by brown and levinson. in this off record strategy, the utterances are essentially indirect. to construct an off record utterance, one says something that is actually different from what one means. in addition, there is also sub strategies in this off record straetegy, which may reflect the conversational implicature and politeness. in the analysis later on, the writer does not arrange the date based on the violation of maxim, but on the sequence of the talk show. this kind of analysis is done in order to make the context of situation clearer. v. conclusion having analyzed the data, the writer concludes that the interlocutors do not only try to communicate their feeling and idea, but als to maintain their relationshsip with others. this is done by applying some politeness strategie, one of them is off record strategy. there are fourteen possible strategies of off record strategy, namely: giving hints, giving association clues, presuppose, understate, overstate, using tautolgies, using contradictions, being ironic, using rhetorical question, being ambigous, being vague, overgeneralizing, displacing h, being incomplete or using ellipsis. each of the utterance in those strategies shows the violation of conversational maxim which may reflect the conversational implicature. this phenomenon is observed in the real talk show “oprah winfrey show”. the writer finds out some cases of the strategies of off record, they are: giving hints (2 cases), giving association clues (2 cases), presuppose ( 3 cases), understate (1 case), overstate (1 case), tautologies (3 cases), using contradictions (3 cases), being ironic (1 case), metaphors (2 cases), rhetorical questions (3 cases), being ambigous (1 case), being vague (3 cases), displacing h (1 case), being incomplete or using ellipsis (4 cases). all of the utterances show the politeness implicature. from the analysis, the writer finds out that one utterance may reflect two or more strategies of off record strategy. this happens because the utterance is affected by the different context of situation. the implicature of each utterance is each strategy ay hae similar meaning. in addition, the implicature occurs mostly in the form of th assertion. the intonation in this case also affects the meaning of the utterance. to sum up, the findings in this research are closely related to the previous research on the discussion above. the implicature in the polite utterance maybe different in the different situations and someona is more polite when his or her language is more indirect. references bonvillain, nancy. 1997. language, culture and communication in the meaning of message. new jersey. prentice hall brown, p. and levinson, s. 1987. politeness: some universals in the language usage. cambridge. cambridge university press. cruse, d allan. 2000. meaning in language: an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. new york: academic press gazdar, g. 1979. pragmatics: implicature, presupposition and logical form. new york: academic press gibaldi, joseph. 1995. mla handbook for writers of research paper, 4th ed. new york: the modern language association of america. gumperz, john. j. 1982. language and social identity. cambridge: cambridge university press haugh, michael. 2003. anticipated versus inferred politeness. journal of pragmatics. online november 23rd, 2005. rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 57 kallia, alexandra. 2004. linguistics politeness: the implicature approach. journal of pragmatics. online march 15th, 2005. karen, grainger. 2003. politeness or impoliteness? verbal play on the hospital ward. journal of pragmatics. online may 28th, 2006. leech, g. n. 1983. principles of pragmatics. london: longman a sociolinguistic study of the effects of yoruba-english code-mixing on the yoruba language jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.23-30.2018 article a sociolinguistic study of the effects of yorubaenglish code-mixing on the yoruba language owolola oluwaseun basic and general studies dept. federal college of forestry, jericho ibadan, nigeria submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 20, 2018 final revision: april 17, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 this work investigates the effects of yoruba-english codemixing on the yoruba language. from a sociolinguistic perspective, it examines the reasons why people code-mix english with yoruba and the effects of the code-mixing on the yoruba language. the study is modeled after crystal’s (2000) theory of language death. data for the study was collected with the use of self-designed questionnaire which was administered to 100 respondents. the analysis of the responses shows that a number of lexical items of the yoruba language have been lost by the native speakers as a result yoruba-english code-mixing. it also reveals that this sociolinguistic phenomenon may hamper the growth and development of the yoruba language as it has become more convenient for yoruba speakers to code-mix than to coin new words for new concepts, items or ideas. the study, therefore, concludes that uncontrolled yoruba-english code-mixing may render the use of the yoruba language moribund, consequently leading to the death of the language. it is recommended that the native speakers of yoruba should make conscious efforts to use “pure” yoruba, minimizing the use of code-mix. keyword yoruba, english, code-mixing, language death correspondence e-mail: owololaoluwaseu@yahoo.com i. introduction nigeria is a multilingual community with most of its citizens at least bilingual; the reason for this is the fact that the languages in nigeria come in contact with one another on a regular basis. it is normal for there to be influence when speakers of two or more come in contact and interact. when languages come in contact, a lot of linguistic processes take place, such as the evolvement of pidgins, according to adedimeji (2010:3) pidgin english is a combination of “[the] english language (the superstrate) and nigerian languages (the substrate). a lot of borrowings also occur as well as code-mixing. codemixing is simply the combination of languages in a speech event, mostly intrasentential. there are possibilities that one who is exposed to more than one language use them together at particular times during conversation. the reasons for this are countless but the utmost concern of this study is the effect of code-mixing on the languages that are involved. this study focuses on the effects of codemixing yoruba with english. these two http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.23-30.2018 owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 24 languages co-exist side by side in nigeria. english language is a world language. the english language is widely spread and this is due to the widespread of the first speakers of the language. the coming of europeans to nigeria in 1553 for commercial purposes accounts for the contact of nigeria with the english language. on their arrival, there was a major gap in communication, and the need to bridge this gap became very necessary. there was the need to find a means of communication between the europeans and the many ethnic nationalities, now referred to as nigeria. pidgin english was fashioned. the english language has played on the seeming inadequacies of the nigeria’s national languages. it has risen so high, gained grounds and has thus become the language of prestige, desired by everyone. in fact, acceptance in the nigerian society is based on how well and how fluent one’s use of english is. one cannot help but wonder what the lot of those who cannot speak it is. the implication of all this is that the country’s indigenous languages have been relegated and the users of them are seen as people who cannot properly fit into the society. even though certain measures and attempts have been made by several bodies and the government to somewhat increase the value and usefulness of the indigenous languages, there has been little or no improvements because some of the policies made have been left unattended to. the contact of the yoruba people with the english language has brought about codemixing which of course is one of the manifestations of language contact. people find it convenient to shuffle english words in the use of the yoruba language and this has effects on the yoruba language. these effects could be long term or short term, finding this out is the pre-occupation of this study. bello (2007:18-19) observes that codemixing has adverse effects on semi-educated yoruba/english bilinguals; the speakers end up not being competent in either languages, she gave the following examples: a. mo mo nkan ti mo contain (i know my worth) b. o fabricate iro yen ni (he conceived the lie) c. ile wa focus (our house is conspicuously positioned) d. mo gazette e ki nto kan an (i positioned it before nailing it) e. olopa yen gazette ori e (the policeman aimed at his head) one thing is evident from the examples above that the english words involved in the codemixing are not even properly used. the first example, ‘contain’ is used to mean ‘worth’, meanwhile in the contexts above they are not synonyms and cannot be used as substitutes. therefore it could be said that code-mixing alternatives are not always correct, but context sheds more light on the meaning that is intended. bello (2007:19) also observes that there is inappropriateness in code-mixing is both grammatical and semantics; this is because there is no meaningful relationship between what is said and what is meant. she further says that speakers seem to be incompetent in the use of both languages. humaira (2012) looked at the importance of mixing/code-switching in classroom settings and discovered the following: a. when teachers code-mix, they do not do it consciously, they do not know functions and outcomes of this process b. students on their own code-switch for equivalence c. students also code-mix to hold the floor in a conversation or speech event d. in a classroom setting, code-mixing allows for message reinforcement, for emphasis or clarification of already sent message e. in a classroom setting, it is used or introduced for conflict control. ayeomoni (2006) looks at code-mixing and code-switching in the childhood language of certain children in nigeria, it was observed that most children are exposed to two languages right from primary school. and so owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 25 they begin to code-mix because they have not properly learnt the grammar of both languages, it is easy to take from here and there to make a complete sentence. according to him, code-mixing has both negative and positive effects on a child. the responsibility lies on the language teacher to ensure that the students take good advantage of the sociolinguistic phenomenon. code-mixing is a sociolinguistic phenomenon that cannot be wished away, this is because it serves good purposes; but the problem lies where code-mixing begins to adversely affect the speaker and the language(s) involved. bello (2007) noted that it affects indigenous languages and affects the competence of the speaker in the use of either language. ii. methods this study is modeled after crystal’s (2000) theory of language death. he observes that language death is harsh; an unwelcoming yet true, and it is just like the death of human beings. he states that languages die with the death of their speakers. he notes that “the people may live but the language may still die…the members of a community remain alive and well, often continuing to inhabit their traditional territory; but their language nonetheless goes into decline, and eventually disappears to be replaced by some other languages”. he further states that one culture can influence or dominate the other(s), and people start adopting the dominant culture, their mores and values. this dominance will gradually touch on the language of the subjugated and eventually swarm it. he points out that languages that lack prestige lose out to the prestigious ones as the speakers do not feel safe using the former but adores using the latter. the status of the indigenous languages becomes gradually eroded until nobody wants to use them again. the instrument used for data collection in this study is a questionnaire. the questionnaire has twenty nine (29) items divided into three sections. the first section comprises the biographical data. the second section comprises ten (10) items, they are close-ended questions aimed at surveying opinions of respondents on the rate and likely effects of code-mixing. the third section asked an open ended question on the reason why people code-mix. respondents were asked to provide yoruba words for some lexical items written in english. respondents were yoruba/english bilinguals in the university of ilorin. they were 100 in number. iii. result and discussion many nigerians cannot speak their indigenous languages without adding english words to it. table 1: code-mixing english with indigenous nigerian language variable frequency percentage strongly agree 44 44% agree 46 46% strongly disagree 6 6% disagree 3 3% none 1 1% table 1 shows that 44% of the respondents strongly agree that many nigerians cannot speak their indigenous languages without adding english words to it, 46% agree, 6% strongly disagree, 3% disagree and 1% is indifferent. from the data obtained, it is clear that people aware that code-mixing has become part and parcel of nigerian linguistic setting, this is due to the fact that nigerians are exposed to many languages; nigeria being a multi-lingual state. this exposure has made it almost impossible not to code-mix. the reasons for which people code-mix are so many but the negatives almost outweigh the positives. the effect of code-mixing on our indigenous languages has somewhat been adverse, it could be said that on the positive side it aids communication. code-mixing yoruba with english language can lead to the gradual death of yoruba language owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 26 table 2: yoruba-english code-mixing and the effect on the yoruba language variable frequency percentage strongly agree 28 28% agree 36 36% strongly disagree 14 14% disagree 22 22% none 0 0 table 2 reveals that 28% of the respondents strongly agree that yoruba-english codemixing have effects on the yoruba language, 36% agree, 14% strongly disagree and 22% disagree. this implies that code-mixing affects the indigenous languages in that gradually words are lost in the lexicon of the nigeria’s indigenous languages because they are replaced by the english language representations of such senses. it is convenient to code-mix and so people do not bother to know the indigenous representations of certain words, and at the end of the day, english takes over since that is what is known. imagine that this happens for most words in the yoruba lexicon, then there is little or nothing left. it is not only the death of speakers, or their being swarm by larger and stronger languages that leads a language to death; speakers can kill their own languages. the death and decay of a language can start gradually, when speakers start replacing words in it with words from other languages. words in yoruba language are being replaced with their english counterparts, and for such words, speakers may hardly remember they exist. dorian (1998:1) says that “languages are seldom admired to death but are frequently despised to death”, indigenous languages in nigeria has been treated as second fiddles even among the owners of the language. english is the language of prestige and has so much function accrue to it; it is the language of education, governance, basic interactions and so on. to a very large extent, english defines status in nigeria, except of course if money redefines the status of an individual who is a bad user of the english language. dorian (1988:1) further asserts that “it is fairly common for a language to become so exclusively associated with low-prestige people and their socially disfavoured identities that its own potential speakers prefer to distance themselves from it and adopt some other language”. this is exactly the case with english and nigerian indigenous languages. people want to be associated with english language; even illiterates want to be able to speak a word or two in english language when the opportunity for it arises. parents are reluctant to transfer the ancestral language to their children, which lead to the gradual loss of the language. many people code-mix to show a level of knowledge of the english language table 3: code-mixing and linguistic prestige variable frequency percentage strongly agree 27 27% agree 50 50% strongly disagree 19 19% disagree 4 4% none 0 0 table 3 shows that 27% of the respondents strongly agree that code-mixing confers linguistic prestige on people, 50% agree, 19% strongly disagree while 4% disagree. this affirms that many people code-mix to show that they have a level of understanding of the english language, even when it is unnecessary to do so. people love to how that they understand or know english and so they use it every now and then while speaking even in yoruba. it becomes alarming that even illiterates and semi-literates will do the same at any given opportunity to show knowledge and feel recognised. this is due to the prestige given english language in nigeria today. the truth is that code-mixing shows more of incompetence than competence. inability to get lexical items in a language to express oneself will make someone code-mix, so rather than show knowledge, sometimes it may be a pointer to incompetence on the part of the speaker. owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 27 yoruba-english code-mixing causes underdevelopment of yoruba language especially its ability to provide words for new concepts or foreign ideas. table 4: yoruba-english code-mixing and the effect on the yoruba language variable frequency percentage strongly agree 37 37% agree 50 50% strongly disagree 12 12% disagree 1 1% none 0 0 table 4 shows that 37% of respondents strongly agree that code-mixing can cause the underdevelopment of yoruba language, 50% agree, 12% strongly disagree while just 1% disagrees. languages can live as much as they can die, they reproduce; this is why there are new words for new concepts around the world, languages have the ability to birth new names for new or foreign ideas. languages develop and should not be static, if it is static it is only for a while; in less than no time, regression sets in. code-mixing will not allow for development of local languages; especially their ability to give names to new words, concepts or ideas (especially if they are foreign). it becomes very convenient to code-mix than to coin new words for such concepts. even if there are new words, it will be easier for people to code-mix rather than look for those words. yoruba-english code-mixing may lead to incompetence in both languages involved table 5: yoruba-english code-mixing and the effect of speaker’s competence in both languages variable frequency percentage strongly agree 47 47% agree 40 40% strongly disagree 5 5% disagree 6 6% none 2 2% table 5 shows that 47% of the respondents strongly agree that code-mixing may result to incompetence in both languages involved especially if the speaker does not have a proper mastery of both languages. 40% agree, 5% strongly disagree, 6% disagree while 2% are indifferent. when speakers know only bits of this language and bits of that and just augment them to cover up for deficiency, he/she may not be able to master either languages properly. an average educated yoruba speaker prefers speaking english to speaking yoruba. table 6: the linguistic preference of educated yoruba speakers of english variable frequency percentage strongly agree 20 20% agree 46 46% strongly disagree 21 21% disagree 12 12% none 1 1% table 6 shows 20% of the respondents strongly agree that educated yoruba people prefer to speak english than speak their indigenous language, 46% agree, 21 % strongly disagree, 12% disagree and 1% is indifferent. this is exactly the case with english and nigerian indigenous languages especially the yoruba language. people want to be associated with the english language; even illiterates want to be able to speak a word or two in the english language when the opportunity for it arises. parents are reluctant to transfer the ancestral language to their children, which lead to the gradual loss of the language. educated nigerians prefer to use english language for communication, it shows class and status; even illiterates or semi-literates who know only a couple of words want to use them at any given opportunity. people can control code-mixing. table 7: speakers’ control over code-mixing variable frequency percentage strongly agree 50 50% agree 34 34% strongly disagree 11 11% disagree 4 4% none 1 1% owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 28 table 7 shows that 50% of the people who responded strongly agree that people can actually control the urge to code-mix, 34% agree, 11% strongly disagree, 4% disagree and 1% didn’t respond. the implication of this is that it may be difficult but code-mixing can be controlled and minimized so that it is only used when there is a genuine use for it such as to aid communication, for clarity of speech, to quote another person verbatim and so on. consciously, speakers can minimize or control the rate of code-mixing. it should be noted that code-mixing is not an aberration to a sociolinguistic setting, but uncontrolled; it can damage a whole lot. code-mixing aids communication table 8: code-mixing and effect on communication variable frequency percentage strongly agree 30 30% agree 40 40% strongly disagree 21 21% disagree 9 9% none 0 0 table 8 shows that 30% strongly agree that code-mixing can aid communication, 40% agree, 21% strongly disagree and 9% disagree. in other words, at particular times, code-mixing makes communicating easier, especially when the interlocutors use different indigenous languages and one person doesn’t understand english well, code-mixing makes things easy. it is used for emphasis and also to exclude some other people from communication. if yoruba-english code-mixing is not controlled it can affect the yoruba language table 9: the need to control yoruba-english codemixing variable frequency percentage strongly agree 41 41% agree 50 50% strongly disagree 7 7% disagree 2 2% none 0 0 table 9 shows that 41% of respondents strongly agree that there is a need to control yoruba-english code-mixing for the good of yoruba language. 50% agree, 7% strongly disagree and 2% disagree. this means that if code-mixing is not controlled, and english remains a language of prestige and people feel safe using the english language because of its status, it will negatively affect the use and status of the yoruba language. words will gradually be lost and then gradual death may set in. the reasons given by respondents on why people code-mix a. incompetence in one’s native language and more exposure to english leads to code-mixing. they cannot find appropriate words for an expression, they code-mix. this way there is clarity of expression b. people code-mix to show others that they are educated, and they know how to speak the english language c. it is fashionable to code-mix, it has become a custom d. people code-mix so that people who do not understand their indigenous language can have an idea of what is been said e. some people code-mix to show they are educated and refined f. it has become a way of showing ‘levels’ or class among ‘big boys’ and ‘big girls’. g. social and technological developments make people code-mix because there will be new terms in the foreign language that the local languages may not be able to provide words for. iv. conclusion the effects of code-mixing on yoruba language can be both negative and positive. research has shown that uncontrolled codemixing is one slow killer of any language. it is very obvious that for reasons well known, nigerians cannot do without code-mixing, especially when they are exposed to the two languages and can speak both fairly well. it is not only the death of the speakers of a language that or their being swarm by a larger owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 29 or stronger language that can lead to language death, preference of one language over the other(s) can lead to the death of a language. death and decay of a language starts gradually, when speakers of the language starts replacing words in it with words from other languages, when words in yoruba are replaced with their english counterparts, for such words the speakers rarely remember they exist again and that word is gone. languages should develop and should not be static, it should be able to make available new words for new items, but code-mixing will not allow this because it is an available alternative. the language will not grow; it comes to a point of standstill, retrogression sets in and then the process of decaying starts. code-mixing should be consciously controlled and minimized, it is easier to deliberately decide to speak one language through a conversation; it helps, when mistakes are made, people notice and then correct, the process of learning continues. but when incompetence is covered up by codemixing, the inadequacies are not notices and it leads to incompetence. conscious efforts should be made to control this. language teachers should treat it as urgent, explaining the advantages and disadvantages of this phenomenon and helping students through correctly and efficiently using codemixing to their advantage and not allowing it affect their competence and performance. references adedimeji, m. 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(1998). bilingual conversation revisited(ed). in p. auer, code switching in conversation, languag interaction and identity. new york: routledge. ayeomoni, m. o. (2006). code-switching and code-mixing: style of language use in childhood in yoruba speech community. nordic journal of african studies, 15(1): 9099. bello, o. r. (2007). code-mixing or code mix-up: a sociolinguistic study of semi educated yoruba/ english bilinguals. in d. adeyanju, sociolinguistics in the nigerian context. ile ife: obafemi awolowo university press. bernstein, b. (1990). class, codes and control. london: routledge. crystal, d . (2000). language death . u.s.a: cambridge university press. hudson, r. a. (1996). sociolinguistics. cambridge: cambridge press. humairah, b. (2012). code switching and code mixing in english classroom. retrieved from http://www.humairahbima.blogspot.com idiagbon, m. s. (2007). code-mixing with english and the future of the nigerian languages. journal of nigerian english studies association. nigeria: devconsort publisher vol 3 no 4. owolola oluwaseun/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 30 kautman , d & aronoft, m. (1991). morphological disintegration and reconstruction in l1 attrition.(eds). in h. seliger, & v. rago, first language attrition. (pp. 175-188). new york: cambridge university press. meyerhoff, m. (2006). introducing sociolinguistics. london: routledge. wardhaugh, r. (2006). an introduction to sociolingustics. u.s.a: blackwell press. jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.53-58.2019 article the use of blended learning based media in improving student essay writing ability handoko1, rabbi antaridha2 1english department, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2 english department, universitas dharma andalas, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 20, 2019 final revision: may 24, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 the research focuses on the use of instructional media in the blended learning platform to improve students' ability in writing essays. the implementation of blended learning is carried out in three cycles: brainstorming, drafting, and final writing. at the end of each cycle, there is an evaluation to find out the progress of the learning. feedback is given from the evaluation results to overcome problems that arise in the previous cycle. the subjects of the research are students of universitas andalas who divided as control class and experimental class. the purpose of this study is (a) short-term; to help overcome student problems and improve their ability to write essays in english (b) long-term is to provide a basis for learning models of english writing essays at universities. the pretest indicates that 59% of participants from the control class have a low score (below 60) while in experimental class, about 60% of participants get a score below 60. the result of the research shows significant improvement in essay writing performance with an average score of post-test 76.35. by using the t-test can be seen the significance value of 0.06> 0.05, which indicates that the use of instructional media in the blended learning platform can improve students performance in writing an essay. keyword instructional design, essay writing, blended learning korespondensi e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id i. introduction writing competence is very important to be developed in learning english. writing essays in english is an essential ability for students in higher education (baghbadorani & roohani, 2014), both for academic purposes, such as continuing higher education studies, as well as for professional purposes (the national commission on writing, 2004). to develop the competence of writing essays for students, it is necessary to design a curriculum that is in line with the development of language learning. the problem occurs because students assume that writing skills are more complicated than listening and speaking skills (handoko, yanti, & antaridha, 2016). this is because the competence of writing is not only related to grammatical abilities and sufficient vocabulary but also related to emotional and http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.53-58.2019 handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 54 cognitive aspects (alluhaybi, 2015). there are several factors which affect students perception toward writing. among other, writings requires a formal language, free from errors and grammar. more over a good writing should be complete, clear, and order in locagical structures (wyrick, 2011). emotional aspects can be seen from students' perceptions of the difficulty of writing (alluhaybi, 2015; qashoa, 2014). it makes sense because the complexity of characteristics and elements with a series of interconnected ideas. the limited time writing courses also hinder students to write properly. in the traditional curriculum, at each meeting, students were asked to gather ideas, look for references, and then write them into an essay. consequently, it is time consuming and ineffective. in order to get maximum result, students must be exposed to a learning environment which enables them to to improve their writing experience (adas & bakir, 2013). time limitations also prevent students in the writing evaluation process, considering the number of lecturers and students is not balanced. if the lecturer gives feedback on the written draft of each student, it will take three to four face-to-face meetings. moreover, space limitations can also hinder students in thinking critically to gather ideas about what will be written. in the classroom, students will difficult to observe and find relevant references to support ideas that will be poured into their essays. many students tend to ignore the stages of writing an essay because they assume that it is a waste of time (alameddine & mirza, 2016). in fact, to write a good essay, of course, students must follow the stages of writing essays. there are at least four main stages in writing a good essay; research and gathering ideas (prewriting), planning, writing a draft, and improvement (revision) (manser, 2006). in other word, writing is not an instant process or a one-time process. students must revision and re-write the essay based on theby feedback from lecturers. to solve the writing problem, an alternative learning strategy or method is needed which allows students to do writing effectively and efficiently. among the straties is the use of blended learning methods. blended learning is a combination of face-to-face learning methods with online learning (stein & graham, 2014). with the online method, students can work anytime from any places. in addition to facilitating students in doing assignments, this method can also facilitate lecturers in examining essays with direct feedback through the online system. however, online methods are not completely separated from the role and direct interaction between lecturers and students. face-to-face meetings must also be maintained where students get knowledge, feedback, directly comment from the lecturer. moreover, faceto-face meeting is really needed to provide psychological support to the students. the synergy between traditional learning and online learning then is known as blended learning or hybrid learning. this research focuses at the application of blended learning methods to improve the ability to write an essay at andalas university. this study is limited to writing competence, especially essay writing. the current research that the researchers will do is different from the aspect of the research focus. besides, the research subjects were also different, where the researchers focused on students at the andalas university. ii. methods the object of this research is the effectiveness of the application of blended learning methods in the acceptance and understanding of learning material. the type of data includes qualitative data and quantitative data, while the data source consists of primary data and secondary data. primary data obtained from the results of tests conducted to see the ability to write essays that include pre-test (pre-test) and post-test (post-test). secondary data comes from the track record of evaluating the work of students and lecturer notes in both face-to-face and online learning activities. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 55 the data source consisted of respondents, test results, and learning document records. data were analyzed using quantitative analysis and descriptive analysis. quantitative analysis was carried out to find statistical values of the effectiveness of the application of blended learning. the statistical analysis performed is by using a ttest. the analysis using the t-test aims to see whether there is a difference between the conditions before and after the treatment of the subject. there are two types of t-tests, namely independent-sample t-test and paired-sample t-test (larson-hall, 2010: 241-242). in this study, a paired-sample t-test will be used where the study will compare the mean of the two non-independent data. this is because this research was conducted by comparing the results of the initial test (pretest) and the final test (post-test) conducted with different time frames. in this study, the subject will take the initial test to see the ability to write his essay, then after the application of blended learning is complete, it is estimated that in the next three months, the subject will take the final test to involve the significance of increasing the ability to write his essay. then, a statistical analysis will be carried out using the spss to describe the significance improvement of studetns’ ability in writeing after the implementation of the blended learning. iii. result this study was conducted on class control consisting of 44 students and an experimental class consisting of 36 students. to obtain data on the ability to write essays, two tests were conducted, namely the pre-test and post-test. then the test results were analyzed using ttest analysis to see the significance of the improvement in essay writing skills between the control class and the experimental class. the presentation of the results of the study begins with the results of the normality test of the data to see the distribution of data, then proceed with the presentation of the results of the pre-test of the control class and the experimental class. after that, the results of the post-test for each class were also explained. the results of the pre-test and post test were then compared to see the significance of the application of blended learning based learning media. the t-test test aims to determine the significance of the class given treatment (class experiment) and the class that is not given treatment (control class). after doing the pretest and posttest for both essay writing classes, the following results were obtained: table 1 shows that the average essay score of the control class for the pretest is 55.23, and for the post-test is 62.39. the t-test test for both scores showed a significance level of 0.00 with a significance tolerance of 5%. the figure is 0.00 <0.005, which means that there is no significant increase in the essay score in the control class. table 2 shows the average score of the pretest essay for the experimental class is 55.27 and for the post-test 76.35. by using the t-test can table 2. score for experimental class table 1. score for control class handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 56 be seen as the significance value of 0.06. value of 0.06> 0.05, which means that there are significant differences between the pretest and posttest scores for the experimental class. thus it can be concluded that the use of learning media based on blended learning in essay writing classes can improve students' ability to write essays. from table 3 it appears that the skill with the highest significance level is skill 1, which is equal to 0.2, while the skill that increases the score that is not too significant is skill 3, which is 0.06. from the results of statistical analysis using the t-test, it can be seen that the use of instructional media through blended learning can increase the ability of students to write essays. this can be seen from the level of significance of a significant increase in the score, which is equal to 0.06. these results also indicate that the ability to experience a very significant increase is the ability to write the introduction. iv. discussion the use of the blended learning model is very effective in increasing the ability to write essays because this model allows students to be able to access lecture material online, get direct feedback, and can make revisions easily. with the blended learning model, students have more time to develop their essays, look for reference sources, and also do editing. in addition, face-to-face meetings are also more effective because students have more time to discuss and get direct feedback. the use of learning media in the form of videos also helps students in mastering skills in writing essays. with instructional videos added to the blended learning platform, students get a deep understanding and can follow the steps of good writing. the results of the analysis also show that by using blended learning, students can improve their ability to write introductory sections. the introduction is a very important part of writing essays because, in this section, the writer can draw the attention of the reader to read the entire essay. mistakes in writing the introduction can make the essay uninteresting and boring. by using brainstorming techniques, students can make good and interesting essays to read. in addition to the introduction, other aspects that are also very important are aspects of cohesion and coherence. this aspect can be seen in skill 2 and skill 3. the use of the blended learning model allows students to create a cohesive and coherent essay because students have more time to do revisions and editing. in contrast to the traditional approach, the blended learning model allows students to easily arrange ideas logically and add conjunctions so that paragraphs become unified. blended learning emphasizes not only faceto-face systems but also uses computational instruments to facilitate learning. in other words, the use of blended learning models is a new way for both teaching and learning in a higher education environment. blended table 3. significance improvement for writing skills handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 57 learning allows students to gain hands-on experience through computer mediation or smartphone learner simulations (holt et al). the blended learning model consists of various learning activities, including face-toface learning, e-learning (online) learning, and independent learning. as a mixed model of learning with blended learning methods include synchronic (asynchronous) and online learning. in the synchronic learning model, lecturers or mentors provide opportunities for students to participate through various features, such as video conference, chat, and presentations that are bound at a certain time. meanwhile, in the asynchronous learning model lecturers or mentors provide a variety of task-based structured activities through media that are not bound by a certain time, such as discussion forums, e-mail, assignments, quizzes, and wikis (stein & graham, 2014). briefly, the purpose of applying the blended learning method is to combine face-to-face classroom learning experiences with online learning experiences. the blended learning model offers a collaborative learning method that allows students to communicate with each other between students. besides being able to share learning resources such as video, audio, text, web links, and other material, lecturers can also control and monitor student progress during the lesson, especially in essay writing. v. conclusion writing an essay in english is a difficult task for many students because not writing essays does not only require english proficiency but must also consider technical and psychological aspects. students need additional time to write their essays and learning media that can help them to improve their understanding of the technical aspects of essay writing. in addition, they also need psychological encouragement, such as motivation, encouragement, and praise, to keep them active and interested in the writing process. the blended learning platform offers the application of technical and psychological aspects of learning essay writing. students can access learning materials and conduct online writing processes without limited time and space. they can also benefit from face-toface meetings, including feedback and motivation from the lecturers. both online and face-to-face meetings can help students improve their skills in essay writing. from the results of the research that has been done, it can be seen that the use of blended learning based learning models can increase the competence of student essay writing with essay score enhancement which is significant when compared to traditional or face-to-face learning models. references adas, d., & bakir, a. 2013. writing difficulties and new solutions : blended learning as an approach to improve writing abilities phd in teaching english language methods , al-quds open university ,. international journal of humanities and social science, vol. 3 no. 9, 254–266. alameddine, m. m., & mirza, h. s. 2016. teaching academic writing for advanced level grade 10 english. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 232 (april), 209–216. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.048 alluhaybi, m. 2015. psychology and efl writing. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 192, 371–378. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.053 handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 58 baghbadorani, e. a., & roohani, a. 2014. the impact of strategy-based instruction on l2 learners’ persuasive writing. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 98, 235–241. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.412 handoko, yanti, r., & antaridha, r. 2016. kompetensi makrostruktur mahasiswa unidha dilihat dari fungsi hemisfer kanan. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3 no. 2. holt, dale, stephen segrave, jacob l. cybulski. 2012. professional education using esimulations: benefits of blended learning design. pennsylvania: igi global larson-hall, j. 2012. a guide to doing statistics in second language research using spss. routledge. new york: routledge. manser, m. h. 2006. the facts on file guide to good writing. new york: facts on file. qashoa, s. h. h. 2014. english writing anxiety: alleviating strategies. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 136, 59–65. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.288 stein, j., & graham, c. r. 2014. essentials for blended learning. new york: routledge. the national commission on writing. 2004. a ticket to work... or a ticket out. collage board. wyrick, j. 2011. steps to writing well. boston: cengage learning all. article handoko1, rabbi antaridha2 i. introduction ii. methods iii. result iv. discussion v. conclusion eli rustinar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 23, 2020 final revision: april 18, 2020 available online: april 25, 2020 the current study aims to describe the form and function of a phatic marker in bengkulu malay. the data were taken from the spoken language of bengkulu malay language, which consists of phatic utterances. the data were collected using the observational and conversational method. the analysis was done using contextual analysis, distributional method, and pragmatic identity method. the result shows there are two forms of phatic in bengkulu malay, they are particle form, including nah ‘nah’, yak ‘yah’, ay ‘ai’, way ‘wai’, awu ‘ya’, woy ‘woi’, wey ‘wei’, hoy ‘hoi’, and clitic form, including -lah and ‘lah’. keyword phatic category, swear markers, bengkulu malay language correspondence phone: e-mail: elirustinar@umb.ac.id article phatic marker in bengkulu malay language eli rustinar1, cece sobarna2, wahya3 1fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, umb, bengkulu, indonesia 2,3fakultas ilmu budaya universitas padjadjaran, bandung, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.1-7.2020 i. introduction every language has a system that consists of several markers. these markers are fixed combination of unit markers which have a system. this system will function socially when speakers use the language in communication. each language provides certain elements as a medium of communication so participants can communicate with one another. the form and elements vary as the uniqueness of each language. the form can be known through the structure of the language (speech act), the whole unified. every language has a certain function to indicate the purpose of speech and also function to express emotions. as a medium of communication, a language has a system that enables the participants to communicate for certain purposes. the communication can run as long as the participants can use specific words (word choices) to channel their idea. among elements of language that play an important role in communication is the phatic form, which frequently used in spoken language. the phatic form is used to initiate a conversation. it also uses to strengthen the relationship between the speakers. in other words, the phatic form is used to fulfill the social aspect to build a communicative conversation (kridalaksana, 1986). syntactically speaking, this form has a specific position in the sentence and considered as an affirmative particle (alwi, et al., 2003). in bahasa indonesia, there are several types of affirmative particles, including kah, -lah, -tah, -pun. the particle (1) kah is a clitic form which arbitrarily used in the interrogative sentence; (2). – lah is a clitic form; (3). tah is a clitic form which used in the interrogative sentence where the speaker does not expect an answer (rhetoric question); and (4) -pun is use in the declarative sentences (alwi, et al., 2003). these four affirmative particles have a clitic function since these four-particle affirmations have in common with the concept of clitics as a bound form, which phonologically has no stress. they also cannot be considered as morpheme bound since they can occupy the phrases or clauses. however, they cannot be considered as free morphemes since they have no word characteristics. the affirmative particles are categorized as a phatic category (kridalaksana, 1986: 113-116; 2010: 23). these particles have 19 types with their respective 1 eli rustinar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) functions, including: ah, ayo, deh, dong, ding, halo, kan, kek, kok, lah, lho, mari, nah, pun, selamat, sih, toh, ya, yah. each particle has specific function: (1) ah is used to emphasize rejections; (2) ayo is used to invite; (3) deh is used to insist by persuading, giving approval, guarantee; (4) dong is used to the to refine commands, emphasize the speaker’s mistakes; (5) ding is used to to emphasize the correction of mistakes; (6) halo is used to start and confirm conversations on the phone, and greeting; (7) kan is used to to emphasize proof or denial; (8) kek is used to emphasize the details, orders, and replaces words; (9) kok is used to emphasize denial and can be used as a interrogative and usually place in the beginning of a sentence; (10) -lah is used to to emphasize imperative sentences and designations; (11) lho is used as an interjection to express surprise or emphasizing certainty; (12) mari is used to emphasize an invitation; (13) nah is used to turn the topic of conversation; (14) pun is used to highlight as specific part; (15) selamat is used to congratulate someone; (16) sih is used to replace the particle -tah and -kan as a form to emphasize a reason; (17) toh is used to highlight intentions; sometimes it has similar meaning to tapi; (18) yah is used to affirm a statement; (19) yah is used to express hesitation or uncertainty. the phatic form is used to express the emotions of the speaker or the addressee as participants in the conversation (wahya, 2018: 296). conversations that start with a phatic form is used to open, develop, maintain, or strengthen conversations between participants. most of the phatic categories are found in oral communication or spoken language, especially in a non-standard language. this variety of non-standard languages (phatic) is not common in four situations, including official communication, technical discourse, public speaking, and conversations with the respected addressee. in any situation, the phatic category tends to include regional language or dialects. therefore, the use of the phatic category in a conversation can give a context and the situation of the utterance. in spoken language, the use of phatic form can bring specific functions. the phatic form can be used to initiate a conversation, to greet participants and to emphasize something, or to express surprised (hadi, 2017: 108). moreover, the phatic form also provides politeness function to utterances, which can be used to maintain social relations between participants. phatic also can be used to enhance the conversation, which is not merely focusing on the message to deliver but also to maintain social relations. it usually uses to express politeness in the conversation (faizah, 2012). on the other hand, the phatic form also has a negative function. they can be used as an impolite form, such as a curse, which can lead to conflict and violate social norms. rahardi (2014: 150) mentioned that among the way to express impoliteness is to used phatic form. therefore, a curse in a certain language can be identified by the impoliteness markers of phatic forms. cursing, as an impoliteness language, is considered as a negatively marked behavior. it is because it violates the social norms in the society. here is the example of the phatic form tak in javanese language: “tak jewer koe mengko nek ngeyel!” ‘i’ll tweak your ear if you are stubborn!’ the conversation happens when the speaker is difficult to load a bulk of grass to the motorbike, while the addressee is playing. the speaker tries to warn the addressee using threatening language. the speaker speaks harshly and loudly while pointing at the speaker with wide-eyed eyes. this shows that the phatic form tak in javanese is considered as impoliteness marker because it implies a threat. the impoliteness evokes in communication due to social disharmony (culpeper, 1996: 350). the social disharmony, for example, can be seen in communication strategies with which indicates face-threatening, which leads to disharmony. the concept of ‘face loss’ or ‘loss of face’ in the conversation is considered impolite if it makes someone lost his face. therefore, if someone intentionally threatens the face of his addressee, which will lead to a conflict, it is considered as impoliteness of language. the curse is a sign that someone is angry (wahya, 2018: 298). it indicates that anger comes as a result of disharmony and face-threatening. the face can be lost, and someone needs to maintain his face. all actions to threaten the face must be neutralized by using polite utterances (rahardi, 2008; 2017). impolite language can be a curse that contains dirty 2 eli rustinar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) words (profanity) or harsh words (ljung, 2011: 8). these harsh words elicit as an expression of anger or annoyance that can be in the form of cursing or blasphemy. this context shows that curse as impoliteness of language because of the existing speech in the form of swear, blasphemy, oaths, curses, or scavenging. curse as impoliteness of language violates the principle of politeness (leech, 1993: 206). this violation is because the center of the curse is the speaker’s self. according to politeness principles, the self should be humbled, succumbs, gives more to others, and respects to show politeness. in the politeness, the speakers should depict himself as the oppressed. the politeness in the utterance can be measured using maxim (leech 1993: 20062007). the more maxims used, the more polite the utterances could be. the six maxims of courtesy as a politeness principle reflect values. the maxim is in the form of a formula containing an order (which must be done) or a prohibition (which must not be done or must be avoided). phatic form had been a subject of research in different languages (wahya, et.at, 2017; susanti & agustini; 2017; rahardi, 2016; malik, 2015; isnaini; 2015; yuliana, et.al, 2015; rahardi, et.al, 2014; bachari, 2007; sutami 2005). even within the malay language, several researches focuses on phatic forms in the various dialect of malay (afifah, 2015; faizah, 2012; hadi, 2017). none of these studies focuses on the bengkulu malay language. although some researches had described the swearing-in bengkulu malay (rustinar, 2019; 2018; 2017a; 2017b; 2017c; 2017d; saleh & bsc; 2017; nande, 2012), they only provide a limited discussion on the phatic form. this study is to find out the form and function of the phatic curse in the bengkulu malay language. ii. method the data of this research are sworn conversations that have phatic words in bengkulu malay language. the data were collected using the observational method and conversational method (sudaryanto, 2015; mahsun, 2014). the techniques include recording, note-taking techniques, and interviews. the data were analyzed using a pragmatic identity method to describe the form and function of phatic form in the bengkulu malay curse. the analysis begins with a contextual discussion using the speaking theory by leech (1993). then, the analysis was continued by discussing the form and the function of the phatic. the result of analysis then presented in both formal (using table) and informal (using description) form. iii. results and discussion the result shows there is nine phatic forms in the bengkulu malay language, they are nah, yak, ay, way, awu, woy, wey, hoy, and -lah. phatic from in bengkulu malay as curse markers the results showed that there were 2 phatic categories for curse marker: lexical phatic, which consists of 8 forms: nah, yak, ay, way, awu, woy, wey, hoy. the phatic marker has a tendency to precede the clause (beginning position). table 1. lexical phatic category of cursing marker in bengkulu malay no phatic form 1 nah 2 yak 3 ay 4 way 5 awu 6 woy 7 wey 8 hoy clitical phatic. the clit in the form of the distribution of the phatic category is found at the end of the curse. table 3. clitic phatic of cursing marker in bengkulu malay no phatic form 1 -lah in a clause, a phatic form may do not occupied any syntactic functions of the clause (wahya and adji, 2017: 172). it is considered as external element or extraposition. it does not have any lexical meaning when they appear in the form of particles. however, a phatic form may provide extra meaning to the sentence, which makes the difference when it comes to the phatic forms. of course, the meaning 3 eli rustinar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) (3) “ay, ngapo anak orang itu masi kecik bengak nian?” ‘what a stupid child you are?’ phatic ‘way’, as in the curse ‘pantek’, has a function to emphasize the feeling of rejection. the conversation occurred when s2 was playing a game while s2 texting in his phones. s1 asked s2 to buy cigarettes and s2 declined the request. ignorance makes s1 angry. (4) “way, lah melawan nian kau, pantek!”. ‘how dare you ignoring me!’ phatic ‘awu’, in the curse ‘anjing’, has a function to emphasize. the context occurs when s2 sit on the motorbike while singing quietly after school. s1 slapped q2 on his shoulder. s2 was going to get angry, but s1 responded normally. (5) “awu anjing, biaso bae” ‘easy, man’ phatic ‘wey’, as in the curse ‘pirik nian’, has a function to show annoying. the conversation occurred when s1 accidentally knocks the soy sauce bottle, and it almost falls, then s1 screams. s2 saw the incident and immediately angry with cursing. (6) “mangkonyo pelan-pelan, wey ambo pirik nian kau ko kelak!” “slow down or i’ll hit you!” phatic ‘woy’, as in the curse ‘tino bunting’, is used to emphasize the state/condition of the speaker. the conversation occurs when s1 sit on the motorbike in front of the cafe while talking to her male friends. when s2 came, s1 was asking why she came. (7) “woy, tino bunting ngapo kau ke siko?” ‘hey, pregnant woman, why yo come here?’ phatic ‘hoy’, as in the curse ‘keparat’, is used tho strengthen the intention of the speaker. the conversation occurred when s1 and s2 were going to the market to buy a lot of kitchen supplies. s2 is a child. he was tired to follow and whined, asking to go home. s1 was angry because she had not finished shopping yet. she had told the child not to go with her before, but the child insisted on following her. s1 became angry and cursed the s2. (8) “hoy, lah dikecek dak usah ngikut tadi. keparat nian anak sorang ko!” “i told you before not to go me, you bastard! ’ of phatic form depends on the context of speaking. the position of the phatic category of the curse of bengkulu malay language is an enclitic which attached to the preceded elements. moreover, this phatic (-lah) has no syntactic functions in the clause. phatic as an impoliteness marker was reported by rustinar (2017: 176) that particle -lah in bengkulu malay has curse functions and it attached to other words, for example: “mati beranaklah kau!” ‘you died (while) giving birth!’ the function of the category of fatis markers curse malay language bengkulu the results showed that 9 phatic categories had different functions in use as curses in bengkulu malay language. the function of this phatic there are 9 categories, the explanation is as follows. phatic nah, as in the context of curse ‘kucing air’ which has a function to turn the addressee attention to something else. the context of the conversation occurs when speaker 1 (s1) shows speaker 2 (s2) in the market buying vegetables. s1 was angry because she could not find s2 at her home when she came to collect the debt. (1) “nah, iko adonya kucing air ko!” well, here is the sneaky girl!’ phatic ‘yak’, as in the curse ‘mati tegak’, is used to confirm the agreement which told by the speaker. the conversation occurs when s1 and s2 angry when they saw their neighbor’s daughter (s3). s1 argued that s3 had forced the mother to give her one million for traveling in the new year while they were poor. (2) ”yak, pikir ambo kalu mati tegak mak nyo” ‘yak, i think her mother will die soon.’ phatic ‘ay’, as in the curse ‘bengak nian’, has a function to express doubt or uncertainty about a situation. the conversation occurs when s1 watching the children swimming at the beach. then, s2 pointed to the sea and shouted to warn the children that the sea had started to tide. when s1 saw that the children ignored the warning, she cursed. 4 eli rustinar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) phatics form is used to express anger in the form of swearing. it indicates that the phatic form used as an effect of disharmony in social contact. this phatic form, as mentioned before, take a clitic form. kridalaksana (2008: 38) mentioned that the clitic form could be attached in the initial position (proclitic) or following the word (enclitic). bengkulu malay language can be categorized as an enclitic form since most of the clitic forms follow the word. the -lah form in bengkulu malay does not occupy any syntactic function since it has a phatic function and considered as a clitic form. from the analysis of bengkulu malay language used, there are 8 phatic forms which has a role as particles, including nah ‘nah’, yak ‘yah’, ay ‘ai’, way ‘wai’, awu ‘ya’, woy ‘woi’, wey ‘wei’, hoy ‘hoi’. meanwhile, there is only one clitic form of phatic form in bengkulu malay language, the -lah form. iv. conclusion based on the results of the analysis, it can be concluded that the phatic in curses as impoliteness in bengkulu malay language has several forms and functions. there are two general groups of phatic form as cursing in bengkulu malay language; they are 1) lexical phatic (nah, yak, ay, way, awu, woy, wey, hoy) which can be placed in front clauses. 2). clitic phatic (only one form -lah), which is attached to a word. moreover, the phatic category as curse markers has 9 different functions: (1) to ask the speaker to turn his attention to something else; (2). to affirm the speaker’s statement, (3) to show hesitant or uncertainty; (4) to emphasize refusal; (5) to emphasize; (6). faty wey’s function in the context of this invective is to emphasize resentment; (7). to shows annoyance (8) to emphasize the intention; and (9) to emphasize imperative meaning. phatic -lah, as in the curse ‘matilah’, is attached to another word and used as an affirmation. the particle mostly used with imperative sentences and strengthens the imperative meaning. the conversation occurred when s1 saw s2 buying candy at a food stall and asks for a treat. s2 rudely refused the request and made s1 angry. (9) “matilah cepek kau!” ’go to hell’ after analyzing the data, the phatic category as curse marker in bengkulu malay language has forms and functions, as indicated in table 3. table 3. the form and function of phatic as curse marker in bengkulu malay language no form function 1 nah to ask the speaker to turn his attention to something else 2 yak to affirm the speaker statement 3 ay to show hesitant or uncertainty 4 way to emphasize refusal 5 awu to emphasize 6 woy the emphasize the state or the condition. 7 wey to shows annoyance 8 hoy to emphasize the intention 9 -lah to emphasize the imperative meaning from the analysis, it can be inferred that phatic form in bengkulu malay has certain characteristics: (1) phatic for is not used to emphasize the content of the information, (2) phatic form is used to enhance and to maintain the communication, (3) the meaning of phatic of is not defined, it depends on the context of communication, (4) phatic form is used directly in during the conversation, (5) phatic form can be used as swearing to indicate impoliteness and to show anger. this is in line with several previous research (alwi, et.al, 2003; kridalaksana , 2008; 2010; faizah, 2012; rahardi, et.al, 2014; wahya, et.al, 2018). references afifah, r. 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(2015). penanda fatis dalam bahasa jawa yang digunakan oleh masyarakat madura di jember . jurnal semiotika vol.18 no.1, 81-93. 7 template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.94-100.2018 article ecology of flora and fauna in maninjau lake rona almos1, sonezza ladyanna2, dan pramono1 1minangkabau department, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2indonesian department, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 8, 2018 final revision: october 25, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 the maninjau lake have been poised several times which caused by the waste of commercial aquaculture feed. the situation resulted in a drastic reduction of several members of the ecosystem in the lake. the reduction of species in an ecosystem will result in the loss of the lexicon related to the species. the current research studies the lexicon of flora and fauna in lake maninjau, west sumatra province, indonesia in the context of ecolingusitis. the output of the current study is to provide documentation lexicon which have potential to be extinct due to ecological cases such as natural disasters and human intervention around the lake maninjau ecosystem. the data were collected by using observational method and interviews, then the data were analyzed using translational and referential identity method. the flora found in the waters are enceng gondok, lumuik, jaiia amun, sikajuik lauik, and pandan lauik. fauna found include ideh, kijing, pensi, rinyuak, bada, gariang, nila, majalaya, kolai, lele, patin, udang, lintah, bujang sambilan, asang, rutiang, langkitang, sipuik, lokan, and acek. some types of fauna such as rinyuak are difficult to find because they polluted by tubo. pollution as an enemy of the ecosystem caused by human greedy behavior is one of the major factors of the language extinction. keyword lexicon, lake, ecolinguistics correspondence e-mail: ronaalmos81@gmail.com i. introduction the use of lexicons in a language is determined by the referents of the lexicon, then the loss of a referent will result in the lost of the lexicon as well. lexicon related to the environment will depend on the preservation of the environment (nash & mühlhäusler, 2014). if there is damage to the environment, the lexicon may be affected, even disappear. this damage can occur due to natural disasters which are caused by the unfriendly attitude toward nature (chen, 2016). one of the living environment is a lake that has an aquatic environment and surrounding environments such as hills, forests, and other geographical forms. human ecosystems and activities in the environment will create a lot of lexicons, starting from the names of plants, animals, to the names of inanimate objects on the lakeside (bang & trampe, 2014; nash & mühlhäusler, 2014). the language in the community was developed and is passed on from generation to generation through oral and written form. however, if the referent is extinct, the lexicon will also not be http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.94-100.2018 rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 95 descended. lake maninjau, located in west sumatra, indonesia is one of the lakes with preservation problems. the waters of maninjau lake have frequently poisoned by the waste of commercial aquaculture feed. this situation resulted in a drastic reduction of several members of the ecosystem in the lake's waters. the reduction of the species in an ecosystem results in the loss of the species lexicon. language and environment are closely related because language also reflects the reality of human life in certain environments (kaelan, 2007). the loss of a lexicon will eventually result in the extinction of a language. therefore, this study focuses on the analysis of the lexicon of flora and fauna in the waters of lake maninjau, west sumatra province, indonesia in the context of ecolinguistic studies. the output of this study is the documentation of potential disappear lexicon due to ecological cases such as natural disasters and human behaviour which may damage the lake maninjau ecosystem. thus, the writing of this article aims to answer the problems regarding (1) lexicon of flora and fauna in the waters of lake maninjau and (2) the link between environmental change and the influence of ecology toward lexicon in lake maninjau waters. ecolinguistics is an interdisciplinary approach of ecology with linguistics (cowley, 2014; eliasson, 2015; kravchenko, 2016). in ecolinguistic studies, ecosystem links are seen as part of human life systems (ecology) with the language used by humans in communicating in their environment (linguistics). the environment is a physical environment which includes many languages in a society (eliasson, 2015). this multilingual situation encourages language interaction. the physical environment with various social conditions affects the psychological state of the speakers in using languages (al-goyoni, 2010: 31). ecolinguistics is closely related to some other studies (haugen, 1970), including 1) comparative historical linguistics, languages of the kingdom in a geographical environment as the focus of the study to find its historical genetic relation. 2. demographic linguistics is to study a particular language community in an area to describe the number of resources (and quality) the use of language-languages and their spheres and varieties and their registration (sociolect and function). 3) sociolinguistic studies between language structures and the structure of the speakers. 4) dialinguistics which studies dialects and languages used by language communities including new habitats or migration vernacular with their ecological dynamics. 5) dialectology which maps internal variations of the language system. 6) philology which examines the potential of culture and tradition of writing, its propositions and meaningful links with the study or fading of local writing culture and traditions. 7) prescriptive linguistics which examines the life force of certain languages in the area of standardization of spoken language and language of grammar writing (as local content which does require certainty of normative and pedagogical standard language). 8) glotopolytics studies empowering organizations or institutions to handle language problems (specifically in the era of regional autonomy, special ethnics and mentoring offices and/or language centres). 9) ethnolinguistics studies language choice, style, mindset and imagery in relation to the pattern of language use, the ritual languages of advertising discourse creations based on local languages. 10) typology dissects the degree of universality and the uniqueness of languages. prior to this study, research had been carried out in the area of lake maninjau concerning the lexicon in ecolinguistics perspective (almos and pramono, 2015). ecolinguistic studies related to water have been carried out on the kei language lexicon in the marine environment. this research was conducted by renjaan by using qualitative and quantitative methods on the marine lexicon in kei in the ohoi warbal community, kei islands, maluku province. the average knowledge of the language community of the marine rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 96 lexicon is 80% because the community ecological entity is still high due to the referents from the lexicon are still in existence and are still in use. while based on observations, ecolinguistic studies of the lexicon of flora and fauna in the waters of lake maninjau have not been found. lake maninjau is one of the famous tourist attractions in sumatra with the beauty and uniqueness of the environment. this lake is a caldera from past volcanic eruptions. the natural beauty of this lake that can be enjoyed through kelok 44, puncak lawang, ambun pagi, and other tourist attractions which is one of the tourist destinations that are always visited by local and international travellers. in addition, a lake is also a place for the livelihoods of local people and some businessmen around, including traditional fishermen and the management of commercial freshwater fish cages. the ecology hazard in lake maninjau frequently poisoned the lake and kill the lake habitant. around 20 species of 34 species of lake maninjau fish were no longer found (lipi.go.id, 2017). this is caused by overfishing, poisoned fisheries and household waste, and predatory fish. in addition to the problems caused by the waste of fisheries and household businesses in the lake maninjau area, the erosion may also aggravate the ecosystems. high rainfall often results in landslides around the lake. this erosion process occurs due to the transfer of land functions to agricultural land, plantations and settlements. previously, the land was a forest covered with trees with roots that could strengthen the soil so that erosion became minimal during the rainy season. however, population growth that requires settlements and livelihoods reduces the amount of forest so that erosion occurs easily. erosion that occurs around the lake results in reduced variations in ecosystems. this phenomenon, of course, has an impact on ecology and this ecological change is hypothesized to lead to linguistic changes, especially lexicons, in lake maninjau. ii. methods the data were collected using an observation method and interview. observational method is a method of obtaining data by listening to the use of language (sudaryanto, 1993: 133). meanwhile, the interview method is a method of obtaining data in the form of conversation and contact between researchers and informants (sudaryanto, 1993: 137; see also mahsun 2005). to obtain the data of this study, several data collection techniques were used; (1) conversational participant technique which carried out by listening to speakers in the events of the speech of the minangkabau speakers by engaging or participating when listening. researchers involved in dialogue, researchers only as observers, who listened to what was said. (2) elicitation, a technique of providing data which is characterized by the presence of researchers, playing an active role in filtering as much data as possible from informants by asking various questions, especially related to the topic they like. (3) recording, a technique of providing data by recording data. the researcher recorded the informant's speech, on the questions asked to the informant. this recording is done using a recording device. (4) note taking, this technique is used to overcome data loss or data blur from recording results. the data were analyzed using the identity method. the identity method used in this study is the translational identity method and referential identity method. the translational identity method is used to analyzed a language which differs from the delivering language. to explain the meaning of culture, the referential identity method is used. language reference is the fact or an external element of language designated by linguistic units (kridalaksana, 2008: 208). the analysis begins with immediate constituent analysis by sorting out linguistic units using linguistics competence of the speaker(sudaryanto, 1993: 21; kesuma, 2007: 51). the linguistic competence of the rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 97 researcher is is used to figure out the linguistic units align with the referents. iii. result lexicon of flora and fauna of lake maninjau in this section describes the lexicon of flora and fauna in the waters of lake maninjau. explanations will be classified in the lexicon of flora and mexican fauna. here's the next explanation. a. flora lexicon in lake maninjau waters flora is the entire plant species (almos, reniwati and pramono, 2014: 306). lexicon of flora in the waters of maninjau lake were found, including kalayau, lumuik, jaiia amun, sikajuik lauik, and pandan lauik. kalayua is water hyacinth (eichornia crassipes). this plant has lilac or lilac flowers. the leaves are green and shiny when exposed to sunlight. in addition, the leaves are round egg-shaped. this water plant lives on the surface of the water and propagates vegetatively. the process of breeding this plant is very high and has a great ability to adjust it to changes in environmental conditions. according to local people, sometimes this water hyacinth will grow and fill the lake, and as far as the eye can see only water hyacinth is visible. water hyacinths that grow on the surface of the lake are not cleaned. however, this plant will sink by itself. lumuik or moss (bryophyta); green and yellow plants are small. grow in groups to form pads or overlays. jaiaa amun is a plant like seaweed. then, sikajuik lauik and pandan lauik are plants that are similar to perennial flowering plant. because this plant is found inside the lake, people call it sikajuik lauik and pandan lauik. sikajuik in indonesian is called putri malu (perennial flowering plant). while lauik is a designation of lake waters by the community around the lake. therefore, sikajuik lauik is a ground plant which also found inside the lake. b. lexicon fauna in lake maninjau waters fauna is the whole life of animal habitat (almos, reniwati, and pramono; 2014). ideh, kijing, pensi, rinyuak, bada, gariang, nila, majalaya, kolai, lele, patin, udang, lintah, bujang sambilan, asang, rutiang, langkitang, sipuik, lokan, and acek.. a small fish in lake maninjau called ideh. kijing is a large freshwater mussel which is found around lake maninjau. the latin name for this type of shellfish is anodonta woodiana. pensi or corbiculamoltkiana is a type of freshwater shellfish that lives in the waters of lake maninjau. rinyuak or rinuak, is a very small fish that lives on lake maninjau. in the past, the population was very abundant in this lake, so it was easily captured. many types of food can be processed with the basic ingredients of these small fish. in fact, it has become one of the food ingredients for the famous souvenirs from lake maninjau. however, at this time, it was increasingly difficult to obtain so that the food made from palm oil became very expensive. this is caused by poisonous pollution which the community refer as tubo. bada is one type of fish in lake maninjau which according to the surrounding community can only be found in lake maninjau. this sweet and savory fish has the latin name rasbora argyrotaenia. this fish is also one of the fish whose processed is often used as souvenirs typical of lake maninjau. this fish breeds naturally in lake waters without being cultivated. gariang is one of the fish that can still be found around lake maninjau even though it is increasingly scarce due to pollution that occurs in the waters of the lake. the scientific name of this fish is neolissoschilus and this fish is also a native species of lake maninjau. tilapia is one of the fish cultivated in the waters of lake maninjau. tilapia is one of the economic commodities of the lake maninjau community. the latin name of this fish is tilapia nilotica. majalaya is one type of rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 98 goldfish that is cultivated around the waters of lake maninjau. kolai is a type of fish endemic to sumatra which can also be found in lake maninjau. in other minangkabau language isolates this fish is also called kalua or kalai. lele is one type of fish that is popular in indonesia. this fish is the main menu in various restaurants. the fish with the latin name clarius batrachus melanoderma is also a commercial fish in lake maninjau. in addition to living freely in nature, these live fish are also farmed by people in special ponds. patin with the latin name pangasius nasutus is also a fish that can be found in almost all of indonesia and is commonly consumed by the public. as with catfish, catfish is also cultivated by the lake maninjau community. udang is one of the commodities with high economic value in some of the vegetation farmed by the people of lake maninjau. udang that live on the lake is, of course, freshwater shrimp with the latin name crustacea. lintah is one of the aquatic animals that are shaped like worms. this animal has a blood suction at the end of its body. the latin name of this animal is hirudinae. bujang sambilan is a large type of fish (up to 2 meters) that will appear at certain times. according to the lake maninjau people, this fish is a form of nine young men who plunged into the crater which was the forerunner of lake maninjau and turned into a fish. this fish is related to the legend of lake maninjau which has been descended orally over generations in lake maninjau. asang is a type of fish that is a native species of lake maninjau and threatened with extinction due to pollution. rutiang is a type of freshwater fish which in indonesian is known as cork fish or its latin name is channidae striata. this fish is a predatory fish. langkitang is a soft bodied animal (molusca) with a size of up to 4 cm which lives in fresh water. this animal uses a stomach to move (gastropod). there are also another lexicons, such as sipuik or a snail and lokan, a shellfish that lives in fresh water. acek known as pacet in indonesian is a blood-sucking animal with the latin name haemadipsa teylandica. this animal is a family with earthworms. however, it has five pairs of eyes and a sucker on its head. ecolinguistic study of lake maninjau's lexicon of waters language cannot be separated from humans because language always follows every activity in its environment (almos and pramono, 2013: 1). in connection with that opinion, language and environment have a close connection. the environment will affect the language of the community around the environment. slow damage to the environment will damage the language. if the habitat or part of the environment extinct then the referent of a lexicon may extinct as well. when a lexicon is not frequently used, the inheritance process will be disrupted and it will disappear. the waters of lake maninjau have been poisoned several times by the community around the lake called kanai tubo (exposed to poisoned). as a result, the poisoned water becomes black and gives off a foul odor. the fish in the local farm die which lead to a big loss for the fish farmer. small fish and native lake fish that live freely in the lake also contribute to poisoning and death. these fish carcasses are very bad for the health of the community around the lake. because of the damage to this nature, some fish that are the original habitat of lake maninjau cannot be found anymore, such as batok, sidat and cide-cide. in addition to the types of fish that have not been found again, there are also fish that are hard to find because they are already on the verge of extinction, such as asang and rinyuak. meanwhile, this fish can only be found in maninjau lake or referred to as lake maninjau endemic fish. if this fish really does not exist, then the lexicon will be lost as well. as a result this lexicon inheritance process will stop and the next rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 99 generation will no longer recognize this lexicon. this damage was allegedly also caused by human activities that did not consider the balance of the ecosystem in action. the number of farming that are very large along the lake waters, besides resulting in less aesthetically pleasing lake views, also results in pollution. valley of fish feed that settles at the bottom of the lake in a certain time will rise to the middle and the surface of the lake which is loaded with habitat for various types of fish. this lake is a tectonic and volcanic lake. surrounding communities assume the blackening of lake water that has decayed and resulted in the death of fish caused by tubo which may also be due to the volcanic activity of the lake. the research in this article does not discuss the cause of the pollution of lake water, but the pollution of lake water causes disturbed ecology so that the language lexicon of the surrounding community will also be disturbed and even threatened with extinction. iv. conclusion based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that there are many lexicon of flora and fauna found in the waters of lake maninjau. the lexicon of flora found are among others kalayau, lumuik, jaiia amun, sikajuik lauik, and pandan lauik. meanwhile, the lexicon of fauna found in the waters of lake maninjau are ideh, kijing, pensi, rinyuak, bada, gariang, nila, majalaya, kolai, lele, patin, udang, lintah, bujang sambilan, asang, rutiang, langkitang, sipuik, lokan, and acek. the link between the change of the environment and the exposure on the ecology of the lexicon in the waters of lake maninjau is a manifestation a close relation between the language and the environment. the environment will affect the language of the community around the environment. environmental damage will gradually damage the language. some fish that are the original habitat of lake maninjau cannot be found anymore. if the fish really does not exist then the lexicon from the names of these fish will be increasingly used less frequently. as a result, the lexicon inheritance process will stop and the next generation will no longer recognize the lexicon again. references almos, rona., reniwati dan pramono. 2014. “pantun dan pepatah petitih minangkabau berleksikon flora dan fauna” dalam jurnal adabyyat olume xiii no 2, desember 2014. almos, rona dan pramono. 2013. “penyusunan ensiklopedia dalam pantun dan pepatah petitih minangkabau yang mengandung teks flora dan fauna dengan penjelasan etnobiosemantik. laporan penelitian. padang: universtia andalas. bang, j. c., & trampe, w. (2014). aspects of an ecological theory of language. language sciences, 41, 83–92. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2013.08.009 chen, s. (2016). language and ecology: a content analysis of ecolinguistics as an emerging research field. ampersand, 3, 108–116. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2016.06.002 cowley, s. j. (2014). bio-ecology and language: a necessary unity. language sciences, 41, 60–70. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2013.08.007 eliasson, s. (2015). the birth of language ecology: interdisciplinary influences in einar haugen’s “the ecology of language.” language sciences, 50, 78–92. rona almos / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 100 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2015.03.007 kravchenko, a. v. (2016). language as human ecology: a new agenda for linguistic education. new ideas in psychology, 42, 14–20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2015.05.002 lipi. 2017. “lipi: 20 spesies ikan danau maninjau punah” dalam http://lipi.go.id/lipimedia/lipi:-20-spesies-ikan-danau-maninjau-punah/18337 diunggah pada 26 mei 2017. diakses pada 21 februari 2018, 14.00 wib. mbete, aron mbeko. 2009. “selayang pandang tentang ekolinguistik: perspektif kelinguistikan yang prospektif.” bahan untuk berbagi pengalaman dalam matrikulasi magister linguistik program pascasarjana universitas udayana, 12 agustus 2009. mbete, aron mbeko. 2009. “refleksi ringan tentang problematika keetnikan dan kebahasaan dalam perspektif ekolinguitik.” makalah seminar nasional budaya etnik iii, usu medan, 25 april 2009. bang, j. c., & trampe, w. (2014). aspects of an ecological theory of language. language sciences, 41, 83–92. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2013.08.009 nash, j., & mühlhäusler, p. (2014). linking language and the environment: the case of norf’k and norfolk island. language sciences, 41, 26–33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2013.08.004 renjaan, meiksyana raynold. 2018. “leksikon bahasa kei dalam lingkungan kelautan: kajian ekolinguistik” dalam ojs.unud.ac.id. diakses melalui ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/linguistika/article/download/21891/14523 pada 21 februari 2018, 13.45 wib. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik bahasa. seri ildep. yogyakarta: duta wacana universitas press. anita 1 factors of success and failure in second language learning (faktor kesuksesan dan kegagalan dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua) oleh, anita master on tesol at victoria university of wellington email: anita.anas@yahoo.com abstrak kajian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti dan menguraikan faktor yang mempunyai kontribusi terhadap kesuksesan dan kegagalan penutur bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa kedua dalam mengusai bahasa ini di tiga aspek bahasa: kelancaran, struktur bahasa dan pengucapan. data untuk kajian ini diperoleh dengan melaksanakan wawancara semi terstruktur terhadap dua mahasiswa di universitas victoria di wellington, new zealand. analisa data secara kualitatif menunjukkan bahwa faktor seperti pembelajaran bahasa kedua pada periode prapuber, berada di lingkungan bahasa kedua, ekspos terhadap bahasa kedua, kemampuan berakulturasi, motivasi dan strategi pembelajaran berdampak terhadap penguasaan bahasa di tiga area tersebut di atas. analisa data juga menunjukkan bahwa keberadaan dan ketidakberadaan faktor tersebut dalam periode pembelajaran bahasa kedua berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap penguasaan bahasa di tiga area tersebut. 1. introduction literature in second language acquisition (sla) proposes the significance of factors such as age, the congruence of first and second language (l1 and l2), environment, exposure to the target language, cognition and motivation in l2 attainment (ortega, 2009, cook, 2008 & rogerson-revell, 2011). the salient contribution of each factor is different among learners because each learner acquires l2 through different learning experiences (cook, 2008). contrarily, the absence of some factors in learners’ learning experience may also prevent l2 attainment in aspects of a language. therefore, this study investigates and outlines factors that contribute to success and failure of two language learners of english (l2) in three areas of language: fluency, grammar and pronunciation. to collect the data for this study, semi– structured interviews were carried out with two students of victoria university of wellington, new zealand. the participants were selected using the convenience sampling technique in which the selection was based on the availability of the participants for the study (mackey & gass, 2005). both of the participants, journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 2 fatimah and nadia (pseudonyms), started to learn english at the age of eleven years old in two different learning environments. fatimah who was an immigrant from iraq learned english in an english speaking country, wellington. in contrast, nadia learned the language in her home country, indonesia, where english is used as a foreign language. furthermore, as the researcher and one of the participants did not speak the same l1, the interviews were conducted in english, the participants’ l2. the use of l2 was also intended to allow the researcher to obtain samples of the participants’ oral production to analyse their l2 attainment levels in the three areas. the results of this analysis were used to crosscheck the relevance of the factors mentioned in the interview to their l2 attainment. 2. factors of success and failure in second language learning the data analysis was carried out in two phases. the first phase was the analysis of the recording to determine the participants’ levels of attainment in three aspects: fluency, grammar and pronunciation. fluency was defined as the capacity to fill time with talk (nation & newton, 2009). according to nation and newton (2009), fluent speakers of l2 can express herself in the language in such a way that they do not stop many times to think. the fluency levels were rated according to ‘not fluent’, ‘fluent’ and ‘very fluent’ scales. furthermore, the participants’ levels of attainment of grammar and pronunciation were defined in five scales: ‘not accurate’, ‘less accurate’, ‘quite accurate’, almost accurate’ and ‘accurate’. the accurate attainment of grammar was defined when the participant made no grammar errors in her use of the tenses. in the area of pronunciation, it was determined by the participants’ ability to produce the english quality sounds and intonation. in these two areas, the number of errors that the participant made impacted his/her level of attainment. moreover, in the second phase of the data analysis, the data was transcribed and coded to categorize factors of success and failures in their second language learning. the data analysis of the participants’ speech in l2 (as seen in table 1) shows that both fatimah and nadia achieved slightly similar levels of attainment in the area of fluency. fatimah demonstrated ‘very fluent’ attainment in which she could express her ideas clearly without having hesitations, pauses, false starts and repeated words, a set of factors to indicate fluency in speech (wood, 2001). comparatively, nadia showed ‘fluent attainment’ in her l2 speech. she was still able to convey her ideas fluently but she made a few pauses between her utterances. in contrast, the two participants demonstrated significant differences in their levels of attainment in the areas of grammar and pronunciation. in the area of grammar, fatimah achieved ‘accurate’ attainment. she could keep the accuracy of her use of grammar in her anita 3 speech. conversely, nadia just achieved ‘less accurate attainment’. she kept transferring her first language ‘no-verb tense’ into the english ‘verb–tense’ systems. in the area of pronunciation, fatimah also obtained the highest attainment (accurate attainment). she could overcome all pronunciation difficulties commonly made by the native speakers of arabic, her first language, such as the substitutions of the sounds /p/ with /b/, /v/ with /f/ or /ı/ with /e/ (swan & smith, 2001). she could also maintain the quality of all english sounds and accents. contrarily, nadia only demonstrated ‘quite accurate’ level of attainment in l2. though her english is intelligible, she could not maintain the quality of the english sounds and accent. she, for example, kept pronouncing /feri/ instead of /veri/ for the word ‘very’. she also could not produce the sounds /p/, /t/ and /k/ with aspiration and differentiate between long and short vowels. table 1 name of particip ants age age of onset level of attainment in l2 (english) learning model factors of success factors of failure fluency gramm ar pronuncia tion fatimah 23 11 very fluent accurate accurate the mixture of natural and instructed learning approach early age of onset motivation environment intense exposure to l2 the ability to acculturate nadia 34 11 fluent less accurate quite accurate the mixture of natural and instructed learning approach motivation learning strategies lack of exposure to the target language at an early age journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 4 the distinctions between fatimah and nadia’s level of attainment in the three areas investigated: fluency, grammar and pronunciation, correspond to the factors of success and failure that they revealed in the interview. fatimah stated that although she experienced instructed learning approaches, her success was generated by the presence of six interrelated factors: age, motivation, environment, the ability to acculturate and intense exposure to the l2. the occurrence of these factors was facilitated by her immigration to new zealand, the l2 country, at the age of 11. she claimed that living in the l2 environment and her friendly nature in which she could acculturate easily allowed her to learn the language through real-life interaction with a great number of local people. from this interaction she received exposure to the l2 and opportunities to practise. literature in relevant fields also states that living in l2 environment promotes l2 acquisition because it allows learners to be actively involved in real-life interaction where they can obtain intense exposure to input along with opportunities for output, two important components for sla (ortega, 2009; ellis, 2009). input is a source of linguistic data that learners can process for meaning and use for hypotheses formation (krashen, 1985 cited in ortega). such hypotheses relate to what is possible in a language (krashen, 1985 cited in ortega). on the other hand, producing output helps learners notice gaps between what they want to say and can say as well as to test hypotheses that they have formed from input comprehension (swain 1985 cited in elllis & he, 1999). another importance of output is stated by nation and newton (2009). he claims that by being involved in real-life interaction, learners can produce much output which leads to improvement in their fluency. this explains why fatimah achieved the highest attainment in the area of fluency. fatimah also stated that an early age of learning the l2 was the factor which helped accelerate her acquisition and facilitated the formation of native like pronunciation (as seen in the table 1). unlike her mother, who still struggled with the l2 until the interview time, fatimah could speak fluently in the new zealand english accent within a few months. fatimah’s claim on the importance of the age factor to sla is supported by lenneberg (1967 cited in rogerson-revel 2011) who argues that ultimate attainment in l2 can only be achieved if learners start learning before puberty. learning l2 at an early age through the naturalistic approach facilitated the formation of implicit grammatical knowledge (ellis, 2009) and native-like pronunciation (rogersonrevell, 2011). the implicit knowledge which is intuitive and automatic (scheffler & cinciata, 2010) is the rationale why fatimah could maintain the accuracy of her grammar use in the interview. furthermore, fatimah stated that her motivation was a factor that pushed her to learn the language harder. she said that since the first day of schooling, she had anita 5 realized that the possession of l2 was the key factor to being accepted by friends and to being fully involved in school activities. the importance of motivation in l2 acquisition is also claimed by cook (2008) who states that a learner with motivation will find learning l2 much easier and will achieve higher attainment. nadia, on the other hand, stressed a different combination of factors which contributed to her l2 attainment. she claimed that her attainment was mostly facilitated by two factors: motivation and learning strategies. the contribution of the latter factor, learning strategies, to sla does not seem to appear frequently in the literature. however, cohen and macaro (2007) as well as oxford (1990 cited in zhang, 2012) do state that learning strategies help learners solve problems in learning and accelerate the progress of acquisition. nadia stated that her motivation of being able to master the l2 was the factor which triggered her to find effective strategies to compensate for the shortcomings of the instructed learning which dominated her initial l2 acquisition. the instructed learning model that she experienced did not allow her to obtain sufficient exposure to the l2 input and opportunities for output because the l2 was merely used as a tool for task completion. moreover, in indonesia, her home country, english (the l2) was rarely used for daily communication. according to nadia, there were two strategies that she utilised to promote her attainment: reading books in the l2 and having close friendship with a native speaker of the l2 from 18 years of age. she claimed that reading books helped her to acquire new vocabulary. this claim is supported by nation (2009) who states that meaningfocused reading activities facilitate intake in vocabulary. moreover, nadia stated that having good rapport with a native speaker of the l2 helped her improve her fluency because this provided her with exposure to input and opportunities for output. furthermore, according to nadia, this good rapport also made her feel more confident to practise talking in the l2. ortega (2009) also reveals the importance of communicative confidence to l2 attainment. he claims that the possession of communicative confidence promotes the willingness to communicate in l2. having frequent opportunities to communicate in l2 facilitates the development of l2 fluency (ortega, 2009). however, as seen in table 1, the strategies that nadia employed just impacted on her fluency attainment but failed to promote her attainment in the area of grammar and pronunciation. the absence of opportunities for l2 input and output at an early age prevented nadia from forming implicit grammatical knowledge and quality l2 pronunciation. nadia also reveals in the interview that she had problems with grammar especially in oral production. she also stated that she could not pronounce the sound /v/ in the automatic production as well as differentiate between long and short journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 6 vowels. acquiring l2 through an instructed learning model just facilitated the formation of explicit knowledge which is commonly accessible through controlled processing (ellis, 2009). moreover, the ability to achieve ultimate attainment in the area of pronunciation is impaired after puberty (lennerberg, 1967 cited in rogerson-revell, 2011) and grammar (ellis, 2008). 3. conclusion this study which investigated factors which contribute to success and failure of l2 learners’ attainment in three areas of language: fluency, grammar, and pronunciation results in two findings. first, the existence of factors such as prepuberty learning, l2 environment, exposure to l2, the ability to acculturate, motivation and learning strategies leads to attainment in the three areas of language. however, as the participants experience different learning approaches, the presence and the absence of these factors in their learning experience significantly impact the levels of attainment in each area. moreover, it is interesting that the second participant of this study stressed out the importance of learning strategies to her attainment. since there is not much research which investigates the contribution of learning strategies to sla, this finding emphasizes the need to conduct further research in this area. references cook, v. (2008). second language learning and language teaching (4th ed.). london, uk: hodder education. cohen, a., & macaro, e. (2007). language learner strategies: thirty years of research and practice. oxford, uk: oxford university press. ellis, r. (2008). investigating grammatical difficulty in second language learning: implications for second language acquisition research and language testing. international journal of applied linguistic, 18(1), 4 – 22. ellis, r. (2009). the study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). oxford, uk: oxford university press. ellis, r., & he, x. (1999). the roles of modified input and output in the incidental acquisition of word meanings. studies in second language acquisition, 21(02), 285 – 301. mackey, a., & gass, s. m. (2005). second language research: methodology and design. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates publisher. nation, i. s. p & newton, j. (2009). teaching esl/efl listening and speaking. new york: routledge. anita 7 ortega, l. (2009). understanding second language acquisition. london, uk: hodder education. rogerson–revell, p. (2011). english phonology and pronunciation teaching. london, uk: continuum. swan, m & smith, b. (2001). learner english: a teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (2nd ed.). cambridge, uk: cambridge university press scheffler, p., & cinciata, m. (2010). explicit grammar rules and l2 acquisition. elt journal, 65(1), 13 – 23. wood, d. (2001). in search of fluency: what is it and how can we teach? canadian modern language review, 57(4), 573 – 589. zhang, l. j. (2012). a dynamic metacognitive systems account of chinese university students’ knowledge about efl reading. tesol quarterly, 44(2), 320 – 353. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 68 bahasa yang membentuk jati diri dan karakter bangsa oleh oktavianus fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas email: okv_26@yahoo.com abstract this short article is an attempt to identify and discuss the types of language that can shape the identity and character of the nation. the analysis is done by looking at the relationship between language and culture. the result of the analysis indicates that language, both proverbs and nonproverbs, contains values. the values are transferred into attitude, behavior and habit to shape the identity and character of the nation. key words : language, proverbs, values, identity and character 1. pendahuluan jika ada pertanyaan, apakah bahasa itu ? kita sering mendapatkan jawaban yang beragam. ada yang mengatakan bahasa adalah alat komunikasi. mahasiswa jurusan bahasa yang sudah mulai mempelajari linguistik memberikan jawaban dengan mengemukakan defenisi bahasa secara teoritis dengan mengacu kepada buku-buku teks (linguistik) yang sampai ke tangan mereka. pada tingkatan yang lebih kompleks, para peneliti dan mahasiswa jurusan bahasa telah sampai kepada rumusan konsep bahasa secara lebih mendalam dan terperinci. mereka tidak hanya menyebut bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi tetapi analisisnya sudah mengalir sampai jauh. bahasa memiliki peran yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan manusia (oktavianus, 2013). bahasa dapat membentuk realitas dan bahkan melebihi realitas yang disebut hiperrealiatas. bahasa memiliki fungsi proteksi. bahasa dapat digunakan sebagai alat pencitraan. bahasa bahkan dapat mengubah situasi. kemunculan ferdinand de saussure sebagai bapak linguistik moderen telah memberikan kontribusi besar bagi perkembangan kajian bahasa. kajian bahasa berkembangan dengan pesat. cara pandang terhadap bahasa tumbuh dan berkembang pula secara dinamis. ini dibuktikan dengan munculnya berbagai bidang linguistik baik yang bersifat mikro maupun makro. beragam pola-pola dan sistem bahasa seperti struktur bunyi, struktur kata, struktur kalimat, dan oktavianus 69 struktur makna baik pada tataran mikro maupun makro sudah diungkapkan oleh para peneliti. fungsi bahasa bahkan sudah pula ditelaah secara mendalam. era global, perubahan konstelasi ekonomi, politik, soisial dan budaya tampaknya berpengaruh kepada sikap dan perilaku penutur bahasa. para ahli linguistik terutama sekali yang bergerak dalam bidang antropolinguistik dan sosiolinguistik mulai pula mengkaji hubungan bahasa dengan berbagai aspek social budaya penuturnya (duranti dan foley, 1997; chaika, 1989). pertanyaan pun muncul. dapatkah bahasa membentuk jati diri dan karakter suatu bangsa ? jika bahasa dapat membangun jati diri dan karakter bangsa, bagaimanakah caranya? tulisan singkat ini mencoba merumuskan jawaban pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut. jawaban yang diperoleh dan rumusan yang dihasilkan di sini diharapkan dapat memperlihatkan kontribusi linguistik sebagai sebuah ilmu bagi pengembangan peradaban manusia. 2. dapatkah bahasa membangun jati diri dan karakter bangsa ? para linguis melalui penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap berbagai bahasa di dunia boleh dikatakan sudah sampai kepada suatu kesepakatan bahwa bahasa dapat membentuk jati diri dan karakter penuturnya (bangsa). ini dimungkinkan terjadi karena bahasa mengandung nilai. lalu, pertanyaan berikutnya, apa pula yang dimaksud dengan nilai ? bagaimana nilai menjelma menjadi jati diri dan karakter bangsa ? 2.1 apakah yang dimaksud dengan nilai ? kajian terhadap nilai masuk kepada bidang filsafat. dari sudut pandang fisafat nilai, ada dua kata yang dapat memudahkan kita memahami pengertian nilai. nilai (value) adalah sesuatu yang berharga (worth) dan sesuatu yang mengandung kebaikan (goodness) terhadap sesuatu atau pihak lain. sebagai contoh, uang mengandung nilai karena uang dapat digunakan untuk membeli kebutuhan manusia. kebernilaian dan keberhargaan mobil terletak pada fungsinya sebagai alat transportasi. pakaian mengandung nilai karena pakaian dapat melindungi tubuh manusia. air menjadi bernilai karena dapat menghilangkan dahaga. telepon genggam menjadi bernilai karena dapat memudahkan komunikasi. dokter menjadi bernilai karena profesinya mengobati orang sakit. guru menjadi bernilai karena profesinya memberikan ilmu kepada orang lain. nilai yang terkandung pada benda atau manusia sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas hanyalah sebagian kecil dari keseluruhan nilai yang terkandung pada benda-benda tersebut. sesuatu atau sebuah benda mungkin saja memiliki nilai lebih dari satu tergantung pada sudut pandang melihatnya dan keperluan akan journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 70 benda tersebut. sebagai contoh, air menjadi bernilai tidak saja karena dapat menghilangkan rasa dahaga tetapi air juga menjadi bernilai karena kegunaan dan manfaat lainnya seperti untuk mandi, mencuci, mengairi sawah, obat dan lainlainnya. 2.2 kandungan nilai dalam bahasa seperti halnya contoh-contoh yang telah disebutkan di atas, bahasa juga mengandung nilai dan bahkan mencerminkan nilai. bahasa melalui konstruksi kata-kata dan kalimatkalimatnya mencerminkan sesuatu yang berharga dan mengandung kabaikan dari penuturnya, seperti pada pertuturan di bawah ini. 1. a: maaf ibu, boleh saya duduk di sini ? b: boleh, silakan. dengan senang hati…. 2. aduh manis, bangun sayang. sudah siang. 3. selamat datang prof. bambang. sudah lama kita tidak bertemu. terima kasih mau datang ke padang. 4. sabar ya ibuk. mudah-mudahan bapak mendapat tempat yang layak di sisi-nya. 5. kita mengucapkan terima kasih dan memberikan apresiasi yang tinggi kepada panitia yang telah bekerja keras mempersiapkan seminar ini. sesuatu yang berharga dan mengandung kebaikan yang tercermin dari ujaranujaran (1) sampai dengan (5) adalah kesantunan (lihat juga oktavianus, 2006 dan 2013). pada pertuturan (1), penanda kesantunan adalah penggunaan kata maaf dan boleh serta panggilan ibu yang digunakan oleh a. pada tuturan b, penanda kesantunan adalah penggunaan kata boleh, silakan, dan dengan senang hati. bahasa yang digunakan oleh a dan b pada pertuturan di atas dapat dikatakan sebagai bahasa yang mengandung nilai jika ujaran tersebut memiliki lokusi dan ilokusi yang sama. ujaran tersebut diucapkan dengan tulus sehingga dapat membangun suasana hati yang damai dan keakraban di antara keduanya. penanda kesantunan pada ujaran (2) adalah penggunaan kata manis dan sayang. penanda kesantunan pada ujaran (3) adalah ucapan selamat datang, sebutan prof, penggunaan pronomina kita dan ucapan terima kasih. penanda kesantunan pada ujaran (4) adalah penggunaan panggilan ibuk dan penguatan yang diberikan melalui kalimat tersebut. penanda kesantunan pada ujaran (5) adalah penggunaan pronominal kita dan terima kasih. bahasa melalui konstruksi kata-kata dan kalimat-kalimatnya menyampai-kan sesuatu yang berharga dan mengandung kebaikan bagi penuturnya sebagaimana tercermin dari peribahasa berikut. oktavianus 71 6. di mana bumi dipijak, di situ langit dijujung 7. berjalan pelihara kaki, berkata pelihara lidah 8. disangka panas sampai petang, kiranya hujan tengah hari. 9. tangan mencencang, bahu memikul 10. ke bukit sama mendaki, ke lurah sama menurun rangkaian kata-kata pada peribahasa di atas menyampaikan sesuatu yang berharga dan mengandung kebaikan kepada penuturnya. makna yang terkandung didalamnya tidak bisa ditafsirkan secara literal. makna yang sesungguhnya dari peribahasa tersebut tidak dibawa oleh kata-kata yang menyusun. dengan demikian, cara mengidentifikasi nilai yang terkandung di dalamnya juga berbeda dari ujaran (1-5) di atas. ungkapan (6) mengandung elemen nilai yang pada dasarnya akan merupakan pesan moral kepada penuturnya agar dapat melakukan adaptasi di manapun ia berada. adaptasi dapat dikatakan sebagai nilai karena kemampuan dan kemauan seseorang beradaptasi di manapun ia berada akan memberikan kabaikan kepadanya. ungkapan (7) mengandung elemen nilai yaitu kehati-hatian. kehatihatian menjadi sebuah nilai karena seseorang yang hati-hati dalam setiap tindakannya akan selamat dalam hidupnya. ungkapan (8) mengandung elemen nilai yaitu kewaspadaan. kewaspadaan dapat dikatakan sebagai nilai karena seseorang yang senantiasa waspada dalam kehidupannya akan terhindar dari sesuatu yang buruk yang mungkin terjadi pada dirinya. ungkapan (9) mengandung elemen nilai yaitu bertanggung jawab. ungkapan (10) mengandung elemen nilai yaitu kebersamaan atau senasib sepenanggungan. berkaitan dengan kandungan nilai dalam bahasa, para linguis baik di tingkat lokal, regional, nasional dan internasional telah melakukan penelitian pada berbagai bahasa di dunia. di indonesia, kajian terhadap nilai budaya baik terhadap bahasa indonesia maupun bahasa-bahasa daerah sudah banyak dilakukan. kajiankajian tersebut dilakukan oleh pusat/badan bahasa, para mahasiswa dari berbagai universitas untuk keperluan penyelesaian studi baik berupa skripsi, tesis maupun disertasi. tentu saja tidak tertutup pula kemungkinan peneliti asing melakukan penelitian terhadap bahasabahasa yang ada di indonesia. beberapa kajian di antaranya adalah djajasudarma (1997) menulis tentang nilai budaya dalam ungkapan dan peribahasa sunda; oktavianus dan lindawati (2008 dan 2011) dan fanany (2003) meneliti nilai budaya dalam peribahasa minangkabau; ida pedanda gede made gunung menulis, bahasa bali dan budi pekerti; roswita lumban tobing menulis, ungkapan metafora masyarakat batak toba. hasil-hasil kajian tersebut mengemukakan bahwa pada dasarnya bahasa mengandung journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 72 elemen-elemen nilai baik yang bersifat universal maupun kearifan lokal. kesantunan, disiplin, tangguh, adaptatif, waspada, sabar, kebersamaan, jujur, hatihati, dan bijaksana adalah sebagian di antara elemen-elemen nilai yang terkandung dalam bahasa. nilai-nilai tersebut adalah sesuatu yang berharga dan mengandung kebaikan bagi penutur bahasa. 3. bahasa yang membentuk jati diri dan karakter bangsa bahasa yang bagaimanakah yang dapat membangun jati diri dan karakter bangsa? bahasa yang membentuk jati diri dan karakter bangsa dapat dibagi menjadi dua kelompok. kelompok pertama adalah ujaran-ujaran yang dituturkan secara literal seperti pada contoh (1-5) di atas. ujaran-ujaran yang dituturkan secara literal tetapi dapat menunjukkan kesopanan, keakraban, memberikan penguatan, dan menciptakan kedamaian serta kegembiraan hati dapat membentuk jati diri dan karakter penuturnya (bangsa). kelompok kedua adalah bahasa yang mengandung pesan-pesan moral yang dikemas dalam bentuk peribahasa atau ungkapan seperti pada contoh (6-10) di atas. filsafat suatu etnik terletak dibalik berbagai bentuk ungkapannya (sumarjo, 2003). sebagaimana yang telah dikemukakan di atas, kesantunan, disiplin, tangguh, adaptatif, waspada, sabar, kebersamaan, jujur, hati-hati, dan bijaksana adalah sebagian dari nilai-nilai yang diungkapkan melalui ujaran-ujran kelompok kedua. kandungan nilai pada kelompok kedua ini tersusun sedemikian rupa secara berlapis seperti halnya nilainilai yang terkandung pada kata air sebagaimana dikemukakan pada contoh di atas. sebuah ungkapan dapat saja mengintegrasikan beberapa nilai ke dalamnya seperti terlihat pada contoh berikut. 4. bagaimana bahasa dapat membentuk jati diri dan karakter bangsa ? pertanyaan mendasar yang perlu dijawab adalah bagaimana bahasa dapat membentuk jati diri dan karakter penuturnya (bangsa). elemen-elemen nilai yang terkandung dalam bahasa ditransfer atau dijelmakan menjadi bagian dari sikap, perilaku, kebiasaan dan kebutuhan penutur suatu bahasa. jika elemen-elemen nilai kesantunan, disiplin, tangguh, adaptatif, waspada, sabar, kebersamaan, jujur, hati-hati, dan bijaksana telah ditransfer atau telah menjelma menjadi sikap, perilaku, kebiasaan dan kebutuhan penutur suatu bahasa, maka nilai-nilai tersebut dapat dikatakan sudah menjadi jati diri dan karakter seseorang penutur bahasa. dengan demikian, kita akan memiliki orang-orang yang santun, disiplin, tangguh, adaptatif, waspada, sabar, suka menolong, jujur, hati-hati dan bijaksana. pertanyaan berikutnya adalah bagaimana cara mentrasfer dan menjelmakan elemen oktavianus 73 elemen nilai tersebut menjadi bagian dari sikap, perilaku, kebiasaan dan kebutuhan penutur suatu bahasa ? pada anak usia dini, akuisisi adalah salah satu cara yang dianggap efektif. lingkungan baik lingkungan internal maupun eksternal harus memberikan contoh nyata sikap dan perilaku santun, disiplin, tangguh, adaptatif, waspada, sabar, suka menolong, jujur, hati-hati dan bijaksana. anak akan menirunya. sesuatu yang semula ditiru akan menjadi kebiasaan dan lama-lama akan menjadi kebutuhan. jika seseorang sudah beranjak dewasa, cara ini masih dapat dianggap efektif. akan tetapi, pada tahap ini pembelajaran baik secara formal maupun informal berkaitan dengan manfaat nilai-nilai positif dan resiko dari pengabaian nilai tersebut sudah harus pula diberikan dengan demikian, sumber daya manusia berkualitas akan tercipta. inilah yang dibutuhkan oleh setiap bangsa. 5. penutup demikian paparan singkat ini disampaikan. mudah-mudahan tulisan kecil ini dapat memberikan inspirasi bagi siapa saja yang membacanya untuk kemudian ditindaklanjuti ke dalam sebuah penelitian besar. tidak tertutup pula kemungkinannya, para peneliti atau kita yang hadir dalam ruangan ini terinspirasi pula untuk mencarikan atau merumuskan cara-cara yang tepat dan praktis untuk mentransfer dan menjelmakan elemenelemen nilai yang terkandung dalam bahasa menjadi bagian dari sikap, perilaku, kebiasaan dan kebutuhan penuturnya. referensi chaika, e. 1989. language: the social mirror. new york: newbury house publishers. djajasudarma, t. f. dkk, 1997. nilai budaya dalam ungkapan dan peribahasa sunda. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. duranti, a. 1997. linguistic anthropology. first published, cambridge: cambridge university press. fanany, ismed dan rebecca fanany, 2003. wisdom of the malay proverbs. kuala lumpur : dewan bahasa dan pustaka. foley, w. a. 1997. antrophological linguistics: an introduction. blackwell. oktavianus. 2006. analisis wacana lintas bahasa. padang: andalas university press. oktavianus dan lindawati. 2008. rekonstruksi nilai budaya dari peribahasa minangkabau dan pembudidayaannya dalam upaya memperkokoh filosofi adat basandi syarak-syarak basandi kitabullah. jurnal lingua didaktika universitas negeri padang. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 74 oktavianus. 2011. revitalisasi nilai-nilai dalam pepatah petitih minangkabau sebagai pengembangan jati diri dan karakter bangsa. penelitian pusat studi dan informasi kebudayaan minangkabau (psikm). oktavianus dan ike revita. 2013. kesantunan dalam bahasa minangkabau. padang: minangkabau press. sumardjo, j. 2003. filsafat etnik indonesia. pikiran rakyat 18 januari, halaman 3 kol 3-4. radhia elita 75 strategi menyampaikan keinginan dalam bahasa jepang: kajian hairyo hyougen oleh, radhia elita fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas email: radhiaelita2006@yahoo.co.jp abstract in interaction, there must be some variations occur due to the variation of social status or age. this might be brought about by situation and condition in communication process. for example is when delivering the desires to ask for time or to ask for dating. offering tea is one strategy to exprees the desire in japanesse culture. indirect speech act commonly well-known as indirect culture (kansetsusei) is a kind of distinctive way of japanesee people. this indirect speech act is also called kansetsuteki hatsuwa koui. the indirect speach act in airyo hyougen is a strategy used to save interlocutor's face. key words: kanyuubun (asking, kansetsuteki hatsuwa koui (indirect speech act, hairyo hyougen (saving act), contexts, pragmatics 1. pendahuluan bertindak tutur tentunya tidak pernah lepas dalam kehidupan masyarakat. apakah itu sekedar bertegur sapa, atau menyampaikan suatu informasi, keinginan, permintaan ataupun ajakan dan sebagainya. dalam bertutur hal-hal yang penting diperhatikan tidak saja tata bahasa atau kaidah-kaidah lainnya, tetapi juga ada hal yang tidak kalah pentingnya yaitu retorik atau gaya bahasa yang digunakan untuk kepentingan komunikasi yang baik serta budaya bertutur masyarakat pemilik bahasa yang digunakan ketika bertutur. seperti halnya budaya bertutur masyarakat minang kabau seperti yang dikatakan oleh revita (2008) dalam ike revita dan dhiant asri (2011:180) bahwa masyarakat minang selalu berhati-hati dalam berkata untuk tidak menyinggung perasaan orang lain, juga sangat memperhatikan strategi-strategi bertutur, agar hubungan dengan mitra tutur senantiasa harmonis. hal itu tergambar dari pilihan linguistik yang digunakan. strategi itu dihubungkan dengan aturan bertutur masyarakat minangkabau yang disebut dengan kato nan ampek ‘kata yang empat’, dalam budaya bertutur masyarakat jepangpun juga demikian. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 76 perbedaan pilihan linguistik dalam budaya bertutur masyarakat jepang dapat dilihat dari kesantunan yang unsur-unsurnya meliputi dua bagian, yaitu dari segi linguistik dan non linguistik. dari segi linguistik ada penggunaan bentuk sopan (teineitai), bentuk hormat (keigo), bahasa indah (bikago) dan sebagainya. dari segi non linguistik salah satunya adalah budaya atau kebiasaan bertutur dalam masyarakat. budaya atau kebiasaan bertutur dalam masyarakat jepang dalam menyampaikan sesuatu dengan strategi tidak lansung ke pokok permasalahan atau tujuan. strategi tidak lansung ini merupakan salah satu cara membentuk gaya ungkapan hairyo hyougen ‘ungkapan menimbang/ memperhatikan muka mitra tutur’ yang bertujuan untuk menciptakan komunikasi yang baik. kecendrungan bertutur dengan strategi tidak langsung menuju ke pokok permasalahan adalah salah satu kekhasan bertutur dalam masyarakat jepang yang disebut kansetsuteki hatsuwa koui, yang berkaitan dengan kajian pragmatik secara umum dan khususnya kajian hairyo hyougen dalam bahasa jepang. iori isao (2002) memberikan contoh kalimat seperti berikut, (1) この部屋はちょっ 暑いね。（ ＝ちょっと窓を開けて、 間接 (的発話行為） ) kono heya wa chotto atsui desu ne. (=chotto mado wo akete, (kansetsuteki hatsuwa koui) ) ‘ruangan ini sedikit panas ya.’ (=bukakan pintunya sedikit, (tindak tutur tidak lansung) ) kalimat ini diucapkan seorang yang telah berada beberapa saat di dalam ruang yang sedikit panas. untuk pelajar bahasa jepang level dasar, kalimat dalam konteks seperti ini hanya dipahami sebagai tuturan yang bermakna informatif atau tindak tutur lokusi saja bahwa ruangan tersebut panas. dalam tatanan pragmatik, kalimat seperti di atas akan/bisa berarti minta dihidupkan kipas angin atau dibukakan jendela agar panasnya berkurang dan sebagainya. dalam teramura (2010) dijelaskan kalimat berikut ini, (2) お茶でも飲みませんか ocha demo nomimasen ka bagaimana kalau kita minum teh keistimewaan yang pertama tampak dari kalimat di atas adalah, kalimat tersebut bisa menunjukkan bentuk teian ‘anjuran’, sasoi ‘ajakan’, meirei ‘perintah’, irai ‘permohonan’ atau chuukoku ‘nasehat’. adanya keinginan/maksud lain selain mengajak minum teh mitra tutur tidak disampaikan secara langsung oleh penutur. makna implisit yang terkandung dalam kalimat tersebut dapat dikaji radhia elita 77 dengan melihat konteks tuturannya. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat richards dkk. (1985:225) dan levinson (1983:9) bahwa pragmatik merupakan ilmu yang mempelajari tentang penggunaan bahasa dalam komunikasi, khususnya hubungan antara kalimat dan konteks dan situasi tempat kalimat itu digunakan. dalam gunarwan (2004:2) mengatakan bahawa, bila berbicara tentang pragmatik berarti berbicara tentang bagaimana penutur memilih bentuk-bentuk bahasa untuk mencapai tujuan bertutur. melihat kecendrungan bertutur seperti ini, penulis tertarik untuk meneliti tindak tutur tidak langsung dalam masyarakat jepang. agar penelitian lebih terfokus penulis membatasi data penelitian hanya pada konteks ‘mengajak minum teh mitra tutur’ sebagai sebuah strategi menyampaikan keinginan atau suatu maksud sesuai dengan konteks tuturannya. masalah pokok yang hendak dijabarkan dalam tulisan ini adalah bagaimana bentuk bentuk mengajak minum teh dan maksud apa yang terkandung dalam tindak tutur tersebut dengan melihat konteks tuturannya serta bagaimana ungkapan tersebut termasuk dalam kajian hairyo hyougen dalam bahasa jepang. 2. kalimat mengajak (kanyu bun) dalam bahasa jepang iori dkk (2000:151) menjelaskan bahwa, kalimat kanyubun adalah kalimat yang mengajak mitra tutur untuk melakukan apa yang dilakukan oleh penutur. adapun bentuk-bentuk kanyubun ini sebagai berikut : a. ishi no hyougen ‘ungkapan maksud/keinginan’ ungkapan ini disampaikan dengan pola perubahan verba ikoukei ‘bentuk mengajak’ : “ ~ v-mashou” (teineikei ‘bentuk sopan） “ ~ v-(yo)u “ (futsutakei ‘bentuk biasa) contoh : (1) いっしょに食事にいきましょう (teineikei ‘bentuk sopan） isshoni shokuji ni ikimashou ‘mari kita pergi makan’ (2) いっしょ に食事に行こう (futsukei ‘bentuk biasa) isshoni shokuji ni ikou ‘mari kita pergi makan’ b. ishi no hyougen ‘ungkapan maksud/keinginan’ dengan pola ikoukei bentuk pertanyaan : “ ~vmashou ka (teineikei ‘bentuk sopan） “ ~ v-(yo)u ka? “ (futsukei ‘bentuk biasa) contoh: (3) そろそろ出発しましょ うか。 (teineikei ‘bentuk sopan’) sorosoro shuppatsu shimashou ka. ‘ayo kita siap-siap berangkat ’. (4) そろそろ出発しようか。(futsuk ei ‘bentuk biasa) sorosoro shuppatsu shiyou ka. ‘ayo kita siap-siap berangkat . c. hitei gimon no katachi yaitu , bentuk kalimat pertanyaan negatif : journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 78 “ ~ masen ka ? “ (teineikei ‘bentuk sopan) “ ~ nai ka? “ (futsukei ‘bentuk biasa) (5) 研究会に参加しませんか。(tein eikei ‘bentuk sopan） kenkyuukai ni sanka shimasen ka?. ‘bagaimana kalau anda ikut kelompok riset?’. (6) 研究会に参加しないか。(futsuk ei ‘bentuk biasa) kenkyuukai ni sanka shinai ka?. ‘bagaimana kalau anda ikut kelompok riset?’. bentuk kelompok c ini digunakan untuk lebih menghargai kebebasan mitra tutur dalam memilih untuk ikut/ingin melakukan atau tidak suatu ajakan, dengan kata lain, lebih menonjolkan keinginan mitra tutur. sebaliknya bentuk a dan b lebih menonjolkan keinginan penutur. 3. ungkapan hairyo hyougen dalam bahasa jepang menurut ponfei (2004) hairyo hyougen dalam berkomunikasi akan tercipta bila ada 2 faktor penting dalam ungkapan yang digunakan, yaitu: 「 相手の心が傷つ かない」(aite no kokoro ga kizutsukanai) ‘tidak melukai perasaan mitra tutur dan「 相手に好ましい印象を与える」(aite ni konomashii inshou o ataeru) ‘memberikan kesan yg baik kepada mitra tutur’. yang dimaksud dengan tidak melukai perasaan mitra tutur adalah seperti kutipan berikut ini : 「相手の心が傷つかない」とは、 話者の意図を伝達する場合には、 より一層思いやりを込めて、相手 に不愉快な思いを与えないように 、気を悪くするような印象を与え ないように、相手に誤解されない ように、礼節失わないように、な どと意図するものである。相手の 尊厳、名誉、自尊心、面子、利益 ，感情、立場をなるべく守るよう に、損なわないように、などの心 配りも含める。 “aite no kokoro ga kizu tsukanai” to wa, washa no ito o dentatsu suru baai ni wa, yori issou omoiyari o komete, aite ni fuyukaina omoi o ataenai you ni, ki o waruku suru you na inshou o ataenai you ni, aite ni gokai sarenai you ni, reisetsu ushinawai you ni, nado to ito suru mono de aru.aite no songen, meiyo, jisonshin, mentsu, rieki, tachiba wo narubeku mamoru you ni, sokonawanai you ni, nado no kokorokubari mo fukumeru. ‘yang dimaksud ”tidak melukai perasaan lawan bicara” adalah, ketika menyampaikan suatu maksud hendaklah dengan penuh perasaan untuk menghindari pikiran tidak enak, kesan yang tidak baik, salah persepsi, kesan tidak bertatakrama dll.termasuk radhia elita 79 juga bertenggang rasa atau menjaga martabat, kehormatan, harga diri, muka, kepentingan, emosi, posisi lawan bicara.’ sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan “aite ni konomashii inshou o ataeru” ‘memberikan kesan yg baik kepada mitra tutur’ adalah seperti berikut ini : 「相手に好ましい印象を与える」 とは、相手を心地よい気分にさせ るように,相手の心地よさの状態を 保つことができるように、自分が 相手に誤解されないように、自分 が相手にとって喜ばしい存在であ るようにと、積極的に相手に快・ 喜の感情をもたらすこと、などを 意図するものである。 “aite ni konomashi inshou o ataeru“ to wa, aite o kokochi yoi kibun ni saseru you ni, aite no kokochi yosa no joutai o tamotsu koto ga dekiru you ni, jibun ga aite ni gokai sarenai you ni, jibun ga aite ni totte yorokobashi sonzai de aru you ni to, sekkyoku tekini aiteni kai, yorokobi no kanjo o motarasu koto, nado o ito suru mono de aru. ‘yang dimaksud memberikan kesan baik kepada lawan bicara adalah, membuat enak perasaan , suasana hati lawan bicara dan menjaga agar lawan bicara jangan sampai salah paham, berusaha dengan baik mendatangkan perasaan gembira, nyaman kepada mitra tutur agar bagi lawan bicara kita adalah sosok yang menyenangkan dan lain-lain’ ungkapan hairyo hyougen ini oleh ponfei dibagi menjadi 4 jenis hairyo hyougen yang masing-masingnya mempunyai cara dan strategi pembentukannya. 1) kanwa hyougen ‘ungkapan lembut’ ungkapan lembut dapat dibentuk dengan cara : a. pengubahan kata atau pola ungkapan b. penambahan sesuai situasi c. penghilangan sesuai situasi 2) jueki hyougen ‘ungkapan menerima kebaikan’ a. menerima kebaikan secara lansung b. menerima kebaikan dengan pola bentuk harapan 3) purasu kachi fuka hyougen ‘ungkapan menambahkan nilai plus’ yang dimaksud dengan ungkapan ini yaitu, penggunaan ungkapan yg berusaha menunjukkan citra baik kepada mitra tutur. ada tiga kelompok besar strategi ungkapan hairyo hyougen kelompok ini, yaitu : ungkapan yg memberikan efek tenang, menunjukkan keakraban dan kenyamanan kepada mitra tutur. 4) kokochi yoi hyougen ‘ungkapan menyenangkan hati’ yang dimaksud dengan ungkapan ini yaitu, ungkapan yang membuat perasaan mitra tutur nyaman, tidak menggangu kenyamanan mitra tutur atau ungkapan yang bisa mencairkan perasaan tegang mitra tutur. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 80 selain dari kesimpulan di atas, dari apa yang disampaikan oleh ponfei dapat juga ditarik suatu kesimpulan bahwa, situasi tutur sangat berpengaruh untuk memaknai sebuah tuturan yang digunakan dalam berkomunikasi. 4. kalimat mengajak minum teh sebagai sebuah strategi menyampaikan keinginan mengajak mitra tutur untuk bersama-sama melakukan suatu aktifitas pada dasarnya merupakan sebuah keuntungan bagi mitra tutur, tetapi dilihat dari segi bahwa penutur tidak tahu bagaimana mitra tutur menanggapi, menerima atau merespon ajakan tersebut serta bagaimana penerimaan mitra tutur terhadap bentuk kalimat yang digunakan, maka sangat perlu memperhatikan kata atau bentuk ungkapan yang digunakan agar tidak menyinggung perasaan mitra tutur sehingga tercapai tujuan yang diinginkan. berkomunikasi dalam bahasa jepang juga tidak bisa lepas dari tingkatan masyarakat dan tingkat keakraban, dimana bahasa jepang dikenal memiliki keigo ‘bahasa halus’. keigo yang digunakan masyarakat jepang yaitu tindak tutur yang dipengaruhi oleh posisi penutur dan mitra tutur. masyarakat jepang sangat terampil membaca lingkungan. umumnya dalam berkomunikasi mereka cenderung menggunakan gaya tuturan tidak lansung dan tidak eksplisit. bentuk ujaran “ ocha demo nomimashou ka” ‘ ayo kita minum teh’ hanya akan berarti mengajak mitra tutur minum teh ketika merupakan sebuah saran sebagai tanggapan dari pernyataan mitra tutur yang mengatakan “nodo ga kawakimashita” ‘kerongkongan saya kering’. namum makna atau tujuan yang ingin disampaikan akan berubah bila ujaran “ocha demo nomimasho ka” diujarkan dalam konteks berbeda. berikut beberapa contoh ujaran dalam konteks tertentu yang penulis analisa mempunyai tujuan tidak eksplisit. 4.1 menunjukkan keinginan beristirahat untuk menyatakan keinginan beristirahat ada beberapa kalimat yang bisa digunakan, misal dengan mengatakan: “saya lelah sekali, saya beristirahat dulu ya.” dll. gaya ujaran yang digunakan adalah ujaran lansung menyatakan keinginan beristirahat. beda dengan kalimat berikut ini, (7) 伸子は自信なげに言って、 「 社長の特権を使わせていただく わ」 「 という と？」 「 勤務時間中にお茶を一 杯飲んで来 るの。純子さんも来 きて」 radhia elita 81 「 じゃ、社長秘書の特権を利用 して、おともしますわ」 そう言って純子は笑った。 伸子と純子が社長室を出て、事務 所 の方へ姿を見せると 、一斉に拍手が 起こった。 「 どう して 」 …… 伸子は戸惑って立っていた。暖か い 笑顔と 、湧き上がるよ うな拍手。 伸子は、やっ とぎこちない微笑を浮 かべた。不意に目頭が熱く なって、純子を促して、 急いでエレベーター 向かった。 下の喫茶室で、伸子はゆっ く り と ミルクティ ーを飲んだ。 やっと 、 ―― 体のかたさがほ ぐれて来るよう だった。 （ 赤川次郎『 女社長に乾杯！ 1982』 ） nobuko wa jishin nage ni iite, “shachou no tokken o tsukawasete itadaku wa” “to iu to?” “kimmu jikan ni ocha o ippai nonde kuru no, junkosan mo kite” “ja,shacho hisho no tokken o riyou shite, otomoshimasu wa” sou itte, junko wa waratta. nobuko to junko ga shachoshitsu o dete, jimusho no hou e sugata o miseru to issei ni hakushu ga okotta. “doushite......” nobuko wa tomadotte tatte ita. atatakai egao to, wakiagaru you na hakushu. nobuko wa, yatto gikochinai bishou o ukabeta. fui ni megashira ga atsuku natte, junko o unagashite, isoide erebeetaa e mukatta. shita no kisshaten de, nobuko wa yukkuri to mirukutii o nonda. ...yatto, karada no katasa ga hogurete kuru you datta. ( onna shacho ni kanpai, 1982 ) nobuko berkata, “ saya memakai hak istemewa saya sebagai presiden direktur” “ maksudnya?” “ saya akan pergi minum teh di jam kerja ini, junko juga ikut ya” “ nah, kalau begitu saya akan gunakan hak istimewa sebagai sekretaris presiden direktur, jadi saya ikut” junko menjawab sambil tertawa. nobuko dan junko keluar dari ruang presiden direktur menuju kantor dan mereka serentak bertepuk. “kenapa...” nobuko berdiri bimbang. lalu bertepuk, wajahnya ceria. tetapi kemudian nobuko terlihat tersenyum aneh. tiba-tiba air matanya berlinang. lalu bergegas mengajak junko turun lewat elevator. di cafe bawah nobuko minum teh dengan santai. akhirnya ketegangannya mengendur. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 82 dari kalimat di atas penulis menganalisa bahwa, karena suatu hal nobuko dalam keadaan tegang sehingga dia perlu beristirahat merilekkan dirinya, dengan mengajak junko minum teh yang tergambar dari kalimat 「勤務時間中にお茶を一杯飲んで来る の。純子さんも き ,来て」“kimmu jikan ni ocha o ippai nonde kuru no, junkosan mo kite” (‘saya akan pergi minum teh di jam kerja ini, junko juga ikut ya’). sebenarnya mengajak minum teh dalam kalimat di atas selain meminta junko untuk sejenak beritirahat mengikuti dirinya bisa juga dianalisa bahwa nobuko juga memminta waktu junko untuk menemaninya. meminta ikut beristirahat atau meminta waktu mitra tutur dalam koteks di atas tidak menggunakan kalimat seperti “ ayo beristirahat dulu” atau “ayo temani saya” dll, merupakan gaya bahasa tidak lansung (enkyoku teki hatsuwa koui) merupakan gaya ungkapan yang mengandung nilai hairyo atau disebut ungkapan hairyo hyougen. 4.2 menunjukkan keinginan agar mita tutur menenangkan perasaannya (8) 「 父上 」 …… 「お、大治郎か。どうした？」 「 は、いささか、申しあげることの ございまして 」 …… 「 うん。何か、あったのか？」 「 はい」 「ふうん。ま、ゆっ く りして行け。 もうすぐにすむ。それから茶でもの みなが ら、お前のいう ことをゆっ く りきこう 」 「 はい」 「 おはる。まことに、よい気もちだ よ」 （ 池波正太郎 『 剣客商売』 昭和 ） 47 “chihi ue...” “o, ojirou ka. doushita?” “ha, isasaka, moushiageru koto no gozaimashite...” “fuun, nanika, atta no ka?” “hai” “fuun. ma, yukkuri shite ike. mou sugu ni sumu. sorekara ocha demo nominagara, omae no iu koto o yukkuri kikou. “hai” “oharu. makoto ni yoi kimochi da yo” (kenkyaku shoubai, showa 47) “ayah...” “o, ojiro. kenapa” “hmm, sebelumnya saya mohon maaf ayah...” “yaa, ada sesuatu yang terjadi?” “ya” radhia elita 83 “ya, begini saja, tunggu dulu, saya sebentar lagi selesai. setelah itu kita bicara santai sambil minum teh. “ya” “oharu. betul-betul perasaan jadi enak lho” dari konteks di atas, dapat diketahui bahwa ojiro ingin menyampaikan suatu hal yang kepada ayahnya. si ayah ingin membuat suasana hati ojiro tenang dalam menyampaikan maksudnya dengan mengajak minum teh dulu seperti tergambar dalam kalimat それから茶でものみながら、お前のい うことをゆっくりきこう 」sorekara ocha demo nominagara, omae no iu koto o yukkuri kikou. (‘....setelah itu kita bicara santai sambil minum teh.’) untuk meminta ojiro tenang dulu sebelum menyampaikan maksudnya si ayah tidak menggunakan bentuk permintaan lansung seperti「 話す前に落ち着いて」hanasu mae ni ochitsuite (tenangkan hati dulu), tetapi mengajak minum teh dengan maksud supaya anaknya ojiro bisa tenang sebelum menyampaikan maksudnya. penggunaan ujaran secara tidak lansung (enkyoku teki hatsuwa koui), merupakan budaya menciptakan komunikasi yang baik yang mengandung nilai hairyo. seandainya si ayah menggunakan kalimat lansung menyuruh tenang, kemungkinan si anak akan merasa tidak enak atau malu karena suasana hatinya sudah terbaca. dengan demikian peggunaan ujaran yang yang memikirkan muka mitra tutur eperti ini penulis analisa sebagai ujaran hairyo hyougen. 4.3 menunjukkan keinginan minta waktu mitra tutur (11)「 鍵ですか」 と云って立と う としたが、娘は膝をついたままさ ぶと栄二を見た、 「 あま やどりならここでもいい でしょ、あちらは閉めっきりでか び臭いでしょ うから」 「 でも、ご病人に悪いからね」 「父にご遠慮はいりません、 いまお茶でも淹れますから」 と云って娘は栄二に も頬笑みかけた、 「 あなたもどうぞ、ちょ っ と お掛け下さいまし」 栄二は黙って会釈をし、娘は立っ ていった。 （山本周五郎 8『 さぶ』 昭和 ） 新潮 100 冊 “kagi desuka” to itte tatou to shita ga, musume wa hiza tsuitamama sabu to eiji wo mita, “ayamadori nara koko demo ii desho, achira wa heimekkiri de demo,kabi nioi desho kara” “demo, gobyounin ni warui kara ne” journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 84 “chichi ni goenryo wa irimasen, ima ocha demo iremasu kara” to itte musume wa eiji ni mo hoemi kaketa, “ anata mo douzo, chotto okake kudasai” eiji wa damatte eshaku o shi, musume wa tatte itta. (sabu, showa 33) “o, kunci ya” katanya dan mau berdiri, tetapi gadis itu tetap duduk melihat sabu dan eiji. “kalau mau berteduh disini juga tidak apa-apa kan. karena disana lembab dan berbau jamur. “tapi akam mengganggu ayahmu yang lagi sakit” “tidak usah segan ke ayah, sekarang saya akan tuangkan teh” , katanya, dan dia juga tersenyum kepada eiji dan berkata, “ anda juga silahkan duduk disini” eiji hanya menganggukkan kepala dan si gadis pun berdiri. pada kalimat di atas seorang gadis yang bernama osei ingin berbicara dengan sabu sedikit lagi, untuk itu dia menggunakan strategi menawarkan teh. dengan demikian waktu untuk berbicara akan lebih lama lagi, karena seorang tamu akan segan pergi setelah tehnya habis. gaya ujaran untuk meminta waktu yang digunakan pada konteks ini tidak menggunakan ujaran lansung seperti「 も う少しあなたと話したいですが」”mo u sukoshi anata to hanashitai desuga” (saya ingin berbicara dengan anda sedikit lagi” atau「 もう少しここにいて 下さい」”mou sukoshi koko ni ite kudasai” (disinilah dulu beberapa waktu lagi) dll. menggunakan ujaran tidak langsung dengan menawarkan atau sekaligus berarti mengajak minum teh seperti「 父にご遠慮はいりません、いまお茶で も淹れますから」“chichi ni goenryo wa irimasen, ima ocha demo iremasu kara” . “tidak usah segan ke ayah, sekarang saya akan tuangkan teh” . dengan demikian ujaran di atas mengandung unsur hairyo hyougen. 4.4 menunjukkan keinginan kencan dengan mitra tutur (9) ヤア！」 楽屋へ坐っていると、下男風な丁 髷をのっけた男がはいっ て来た。「随分御無沙汰し ています。」「 元気でしたか。」 浅草の真中の劇場の中で久し振り に、私は別れた男の声を聞いた。 「 居でも見ていらっしゃい、一役 すむ すんだら私のは ,済む んだから お茶でも飲 みましょ う！」 「ええ、ありがとう 奥さんもいま 一緒に何か演っているんですか？ 」 「 あああれ！ radhia elita 85 死にましたよ、肺炎で。」 あんなにも憎しみを持って別れた 女 優の顔が、遠く に浮んで、 私はしばらくはあんなにも憎しみ を持って別れた女優の顔が、遠く に浮んで、私はしばらくは 信じられなかった。この男はとて も真面目な顔をして嘘をついたか ら……。 （林芙美子『 放浪記』 昭和3） “yaa!” gakuya e suwatte iru to, genanfuu no choomage o nokketa otoko ga haitte kita. “juubunn gobusata shite imasu” “ogenki deshita ka” asakusa no mannaka no gekijou no naka de hisashiburi ni, watashi wa wakareta otoko no koe o kiita. “shibai demo mite irasshai, hitoyasundara watashi no wa sumun dakara ocha demo nomimashou!” “ee, arigatou, okusan mo ima isshoni nanika enjitte irun desuka?” “aaare! shinimashita yo. haien de.” annani mo nikushimi o motte wakareta joyuu no kao ga, tooku ni ukande, watashi wa shibaraku wa shinjirarenakatta. kono otoko wa totemo majime na kao o shite uso o tsuita kara... (hourouki, showa 3) “hai” ketika saya sudah duduk di kamar rias, masuk seorang lelaki berjambul yang seperti bujangan dan berkata, “sudah lama kita tidak bertemua” “apa kabar?” dalam panggung asakusa ini aaya kembali mendengar suara lelaki yang pernah menjalin hubungan dengan saya. “datanglah melihat sandiwara kami. setelah istirahat, peranan saya sudah selesai, bagaimana kalau kita minum teh” “ya, terima kasih, apa kamu manggung dengan istrimu juga?” “aaaa tidak. dia sudah meninggal. karena radang paru-paru.” wajah lelaki yang dulu sangat saya benci ini terlihat nanar, dan saya tidak bisa mempercayainya. karena dia telah berbohong dengan wajah serius. dari alur ceritanya, diketahui bahwa kedua orang yang ada dalam cerita ini adalah sepasang kekasih yang telah berpisah. setelah beberapa waktu berlalu mereka bertemu lagi. si lelaki mengajak si perempuan untuk minum teh sama-sama. dari konteks cerita dapat diketahui bahwa tidak hanya semata-mata untuk mengajak minum teh, tapi juga untuk sebuah kencan. ini dapat diketahui dari kenapa lelaki itu sampai berbohong mengatakan istrinya sudah meninggal. menggunakan ujaran tidak langsung untuk menyatakan keinginan berbincang journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 86 bincang dan kencan seperti ujaran 「芝居で見ていらっしゃい、一役すん だら私のは すむ ,済む んだからお茶でも飲 みましょう！」“shibai demo mite irasshai, hitoyasundara watashi no wa sumun dakara ocha demo nomimashou!” “datanglah melihat sandiwara kami. setelah istirahat, peranan saya sudah selesai, bagaimana kalau kita minum teh” , untuk menunjukkan rasa sopan kepada lawan bicara, untuk mendapatkan kesan yang baik atau membuat suasana santai dll merupakan ungkapan hairyo hyougen. 5. penutup dari penelitian yang sudah dilakukan, dapat ditegaskan bahwa masyarakat jepang cenderung menggunakan uajran tidak lansung (kansetsu teki na hatsuwa koui). bentuk menawarkan teh yang digunakan mengandung maksud yang tidak ekplisit, seperti: menunjukkan keinginan beristirahat, keinginan agar mitra tutur menenangkan perasaan, keinginan minta waktu mitra tutur dan keinginan kencan dengan mitra tutur. referensi guruupu jamashii .1998. nihongo bunkei jiten. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan iori, isao dkk. 2001. shokyu o oshieru hito no tame no nihongo bunpou handobukku. tokyo : kabushiki suriiee nettowaaku iori, isao dkk. 2002. chuu jou kyu o oshieru hito no tame no nihongo bunpou handobukku. tokyo : kabushiki suriiee nettowaaku kindaichi, haruhiko . 1992. nihongo, shinpan (shita). iwanami shoten masato, takiura 2008. poraitonesu nyuumon. tokyo: kenkyuusha masuoka, takashi dan takubo, yukinori . 2010. kiso nihongo bunpou – kaiteipan-. tokyou : kuroshio shuuppan nihongo kijutsu bunpou kenkyuukai (yoshio, nitta). 2009. gendai nihongo bunpou 7. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan ponfei. (2005). nihongo no “hairyo hyougen” ni kansuru kenkyuu –nihongo to no hikaku kenkyuu ni okeru shomondai -”. tokyo: izumi shoin revita,ike dan asri, dhiant. 2011. “penolakan dalam situasi formal –studi awal tentang tindak tutur masyarakat minangkabau-“. melestarikan kearifan lokal melalui kajian kemanusiaan dan media baru. padang: univeritas andalas richard, jack c. 1982. on conversation. terjemahan oleh ismari. seameo egional language center radhia elita 87 tanaka, toshiko. 1993. nihon no bunpou. japan: kindaibungeisha teramura, hideo (1991). nihongo no sintakusu to imi ii. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan sumber data : kumpulan novel : 『新潮文庫の100冊』: (shinchou bunko no hyaku satsu) dengan pengarang dan judul sebagai berikut:  池波正太郎 『剣客商売』(ikenami shoutarou : kenkyaku shoubai)  赤川次郎『女社長に乾杯！』昭和57（akagawa jirou: shachou onna ni kanpai）  林芙美子『放浪記』(hayashi fumiko : hourouki)  山本周五郎『さぶ』(yamamoto shuugorou : sabu) jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.54-59.2018 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article foreignization and domestication ideology in cultural term translation of novel tuesday with morrie: category household goods and house surroundings nico harared english education, university of indraprasta pgri, jakarta, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 10, 2018 final revision: october 9, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 the research basically aims at identifying translation ideology in cultural term translation of novel tuesday with morrie: material culture written by (albom, 1997), translated by (widodo, 2009) into an indonesian language text. translation ideology classified into its ideology such as foreignization and domestication by (venuti, 2004) and its techniques of translation theory composed by (molina & hurtado albir, 2002). the research approach is a translation approach by using newmark’s perspective. the findings show that there are 9 material cultures especially house goods and household surroundings on tuesday with morrie translated into an indonesian language text. there are six techniques in the data, namely: adaptation, amplification, establish equivalentamplification-adaptation, pure borrowings, establish equivalent, and equivalent description. the ideology of the translation in cultural term category material culture using in this novel is domestication and foreignization. translation to tl (bahasa) in this novel gives a shift in the cultural environment of cultural elements category material culture in indonesia. keyword translation, ideologies, cultural element, material culture household goods and house surroundings correspondence phone: +628116602125 e-mail: nico.hrd@gmail.com i. introduction translation means an activity that converting written information, idea and thought expressed in one language or source of language (sl) to target language (tl). (larson, 1984) the ideal translation should be firstly is accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text. secondly, it must be natural: using natural forms of the receptor language in a way that is appropriate to the kind of text being translated. thirdly it must be communicative: expressing all aspects of the meaning in a way that is readily understandable to the intended audience. lately, the translation process is challenging. in line with (nida & charles, 1969) stated that there are four challenges in the translation process. the first challenge is the language. http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.54-59.2018 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ nico harared/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 55 the second challenge is social culture. the third challenge is a religious term. the last challenge is material culture. in summary, the challenge in the translation process is language and culture because one culture cannot be translated according to its word. in translating text, many texts in some sort of tl are translated. one of them is bahasa. texts must be translated by a native speaker from indonesia. one of the many texts that can be translated is novel. a novel which is written by the english language needs to be translated into tl, in this case, bahasa. as a reader, they need to understand the text from sl. it is because people who love literary works in indonesia such as novel may have little knowledge and experience about local culture in sl (aksyonova & akhtambaev, 2014; kuleli, 2014), in this case, english. one of the most difficult problems in translating is found in the differences between cultures in the sl culture and the tl because, as stated by (larson, 1984), different cultures have different focuses. therefore, the translator is very important and become an essential part in interpreting and translating, especially in translation for a novel from english into bahasa such as many aspects should be considered in translating text, one of them is the cultural term. translation and culture are a concept related to each other (aksyonova & akhtambaev, 2014). a translator needs to have a good knowledge of sl and tl, as stated by (newmark, 1988) that texts always engage the person, universal and culture. the notion of ‘cultural term’ is very common in translation, especially in literary translation. (newmark, 1988) for example, states that culture refers to the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. he further states that cultural focus leads to translation problems since there is a cultural gap or distance, between the sl and that of the tl. (venuti, 2004) coined two terms to describe these two methods: domesticating translation and foreignization translation. domestication and foreignization are two basic ideologies of translation which involve linguistic and cultural points of view. in the domesticating translation, a translator attempts to produce a target language translation as naturally as possible. she/he tries to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text in the sl for tl readers through a clear and fluent style of translation in the tl readers in order to feel like reading an original text. on the contrary, in foreignization translation, a translator attempts to take the tl readers to the foreign culture of the sl and make them feel cultural differences. here, the tl readers can recognize that they are not reading an original text but translated one. in many books and articles, the terms domestication and foreignization are often considered as ideologies, strategies, or methods of translation. when the translators believe that their translation is acceptable and correct, it means that domestication and foreignization are considered ideologies (burmakova & marugina, 2014; mansourabadi & karimnia, 2013; petrova & rodionova, 2016). according to (newmark, 1988) classifies culturespecific terms into five categories which include: 1) ecology which refers to particular cultural terms on flora, fauna, winds, plains, and hills; 2) material culture which is further sub-divided into sub-categories that refer to various types of national food, clothes, transport, houses and towns; 3) social culture which refers to cultural terms on work and leisure; 4) social organization which refers to national organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts (political, religious, and artistic); 5) gestures and habits which refer to gestures and habits closely related to culture. (molina & hurtado albir, 2002) states that translation method, strategies, and techniques are essentially different categories. (molina & hurtado albir, 2002) define the technique of translation which is based on two premises: 1) the need to distinguish between method, strategy, and technique; 2) the need for an analysis and functional concept of translation techniques. they further state that techniques of translation have five basic characteristics: they affect the result of the translation, they are classified by the comparison with the original, they affect microunits of text, they are by nature discursive and contextual, and they are functional. the word ‘technique’ itself refers to a way of doing an activity which needs skill and competence. in addition, technique of translation can be defined as the way used by translators in translating smaller units of language (words, phrases, or expressions) from the sl into the tl. (molina & hurtado albir, 2002) propose eighteen techniques of translation, which include: 1) nico harared/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 56 adaptation; 2) amplification; 3) borrowing; 4) calque; 5) compensation; 6) description; 7) discursive creation; 8) established equivalent; 9) generalization; 10) linguistic amplification; 11) linguistic compression; 12) literal translation; 13) modulation; 14) particularization; 15) reduction; 16) substitution (linguistic, paralinguistic); 17) transposition; 18) variation. the focus of this research is on viewing the ideology of translation applied in the translations of indonesian cultural terms into english in terms of material culture especially house goods and household surroundings in the novel tuesday with morrie translated into bahasa. this novel was written by (albom, 1997). tuesday with morrie is the true story novel about the final lesson between a college professor, morrie, and one of his longlost students and the author of the book, mitch albom. this novel already translated into many languages, one of them is indonesia. however, translation ideology phenomena appear in this novel such as foreignization and domestication in term of cultural element category material culture. a considerable amount of research has been conducted, but little research about this novel especially in the translation of cultural term category material cultures such as house goods and household surroundings. ii. methods the approach used for the current research is a translation approach by using newmark’s perspective. the research basically aims at identifying translation ideology in cultural term translation of novel tuesday with morrie: category material culture such as house goods and household surroundings written by (albom, 1997) translated by (widodo, 2009) into an indonesian language text. translation ideology classified into its ideology such as foreignization and domestication by (venuti, 2004) and its techniques of translation theory composed by (molina & hurtado albir, 2002). in this present research, the writer identifying translation ideology. the data analysis starts off by identifying in cultural term category house goods and household surroundings. the data of material culture is analyzed by describing translation ideology itself. lastly, the writer attempts to apply the techniques of translation on the appearance and the existence of material culture used in the novel. this research found translation ideology in cultural term category material culture especially for house goods and household surroundings that used in tuesday with morrie written by (albom, 1997), translated by (widodo, 2009) into an indonesian language text namely domestication; here is one example of them: iii. result and discussion there are many indonesian cultural terms identified in the novel in five categories as proposed by newmark in amininadji (2016). he classifies culture-specific terms into five categories which include 1) ecology (flora, fauna, winds, etc.); 2) material culture (artefacts; food, clothes, houses and towns, transport); 3) social culture (work and leisure); 4) social organization (political and administrative, religious, artistic); 5) gestures and habits. please have a look at table 1. table 1. indonesian cultural terms then, the analyses of each category of cultural terms, especially household goods and house surroundings are made by presenting some examples considered as representative data. only the interesting ones are prioritized to be presented. here are some examples of the analyses. household goods and house surroundings table 2. data 1 data sl tl 1 i remembered graduation day, the briefcase, his tears at my departure….. 29 aku teringat hari wisudaku, tas kantor yang kuberikan sebagai kenangkenangan, air matanya pada saat kami berpisah 30 in the data (1) above, the briefcase is translated into tas kantor by the translator through domestication ideology. here, he reveals the adaptation technique of translation. the translator adds the word kantor in the translation of the briefcase into tas kantor with the purpose of introducing and emphasizing what the term the no. category sub category/ element 1. household goods and house surroundings material culture 9 total 9 http://www.gradesaver.com/author/mitch-albom http://www.gradesaver.com/author/mitch-albom nico harared/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 57 briefcase is used for in the context of the situation. the briefcase actually means an exclusive bag for a leader or lecturer in the office or in the university. table 3. data 2 data sl tl 2 messages on his answering machine would go with out reply.97 pesan-pesan yang kuberikan kepada mesin penjawabnya tidak pernah mendapat balasan 102 in table 2, answering machine is translated into mesin penjawabnya with some details. it means that the translator applies the amplification technique of translation since he introduces details that are not formulated in the source text by explicative paraphrasing. the translator applies domestication ideology of translation. it is called amplification since the meaning for machine in target language is mesin and answering is penjawab by adding suffix –nya. table 4. data 3 data sl tl 3 morrie swallowed the pills, put down the paper cup, inhaled deeply, then let it out (29 morrie menelan pilpilnya, menaruh gelas kertasnya, kemudian menarik napas dalam sekali dan menghembuskannya keluar 31 in table 4, the paper cup is translated into gelas kertasnya. the paper cup is a glass made by paper. it is can be found in such a city town that used by people and easy to recycle. the translator applies domestication ideology in his translation. the translator renders it into gelas kertasnya because the paper cup is translated through establish the equivalent-amplification-adaptation technique of translation. here, clearly the translator also adds in suffix -nya as the identification as amplification of the term the paper cup into gelas kertasnya in target language and adaptation of the culture in indonesia on the term of the cup which translated as gelas instead of term cangkir. table 5. data 4 data sl tl 4 then lift him from the chair and support him as he …..kemudian mengangkatnya dari kursi dan urinate to the beaker 49 memenganginya sewaktu ia buang air kecil ke dalam sebuah pispot. 52 in table 5, to the beaker is translated into sebuah pispot. the original meaning for the beaker is the glass in chemistry. the translator applies domestication ideology for his translation. the beaker is a place for urine. it is available in a hospital that is served for people in hospitalized or especially for someone who cannot urinate in the toilet. the translator renders it into sebuah pispot because the beaker corresponds with urine. sebuah pispot are translated through adaptation technique of translation by using a shift in cultural environment. it happens to express the message using a different situation for its function from chemistry to hospitality especially for the elderly. according to this situation, morrie is elderly. clearly, the translator adapts the term to the beaker into sebuah pispot in the target language. table 6. data 5 data sl tl 5 a telegram came from the hospital73 sebuah telegram datang dari rumah sakit…77 in table 6 a telegram is translated into sebuah telegram. a telegram is a mailing service such as for letters or even money. here the translator applies foreignization ideology in his translation. sebuah telegram is translated through pure borrowing technique of translation by using its term in the target language. table 7. data 6 data sl tl 6 letters from around the world kept coming to morrie,….85 surat-surat dari seluruh dunia terus berdatangan ke alamat morrie 90 in table 7 letters is translated into surat-surat. here, the translator applies domestication ideology in his translation and surat-surat is also translated through established equivalent technique of translation because the term letters in kbbi means surat. here, clearly the translator translates the term letters into surat-surat in the target language. nico harared/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 58 table 8. data 7 data sl tl 7. there was an awkward moment of silence, then the two men where ushered into the study…. 19 suasana menjadi hening dan agak kikuk, namun kedua orang itu dengan tenang masuk ke dalam ruang baca 21 in table 8, the term of ushered into the study is called technique of equivalent description. it is translated by the translator as ruang baca and the translator clearly applied domestication ideology. this kind of translation appears because the translator replaces the term (7) with a description of its function. in this case, the function of the term (7) translated to its function as a place for reading. table 9. data 8 data sl tl 8. inside the house, we seat at a walnut dining room table near a window that looked out on the neighboar’s house 29. di dalam rumah, kami duduk di sebuah meja kayu walnut di ruang makan, dekat sebuah jendela yang menghadirkan pemandangan ke rumah tetangga. 31 in table 9 the term of walnut dining room table is called technique of amplification. since the translator translates the phrase word by word, therefore the translator applied domestication ideology in his translator. here, the translator introduces details that are not formulated in the sl such as to add new information and explicative paraphrasing. in this case, when translating (8) by adding the term kayu. table 10. data 9 data sl tl 9. inside the office, morrie mentioned for koppel to sit down 20 di ruang kerja, morrie menyilakan koppel duduk 22 in tsble 10, inside the office is translated into ruang kerja. here, the translator applies domestication ideology in his translation and ruang kerja is translated through equivalent description as the technique of translation. this translation appears in case that the translator replaces the term (9) with a description of its function. in this case, the function of the term (9) translated to its function as a place for working. iv. conclusion this present study focuses on translation ideology in cultural term category house goods and household surroundings using in this novel and the techniques of translation which it is used in novel tuesday with morrie according to the translation ideology and techniques of translation. this research presents the findings and suggestion of the study. based on the data analysis, the writer found translation ideology in cultural term category material culture using in this novel. according to analysis; they are foreignization and domestication. techniques of translation used in this novel in cultural term category house goods and household surroundings namely: adaptation, amplification, establish equivalent-amplificationadaptation, pure borrowings, establish equivalent, and equivalent description. the present research only stresses on the analysis of translation ideology in cultural term category households and household surrounding and techniques of translation where the identification of category material culture using in this novel become its main focus. this research is expected can help the readers to do next research and also referred to be learned by next writers. it is hoped that the next writers could investigate another from a different perspective. additionally, for suggestion of the following researchers, it would be interesting to investigate the classifies culture-specific terms into another category such as: 1) ecology which refers to particular cultural terms on flora, fauna, winds, plains, and hills; 2) social culture which refers to cultural terms on work and leisure; 3) social organization which refers to national organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts (political, religious, and artistic); and 4) gestures and habits which refer to gestures and habits closely related to culture. finally, the writer hopes that this study will give a contribution and become the reference for the following writer who will study more about translation ideology in the cultural term. nico harared/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 59 references aksyonova, e. y., & akhtambaev, r. (2014). literary translation learning as an aspect of intercultural communication. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 154, 333–339. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.159 albom, m. (1997). tuesday with morrie. michigan: doubleday. amininadji, o. (2016). a study of culture specific items and translation strategies in bahrām beyzā’ī’s play “marionettes.” université de montréal. burmakova, e. a., & marugina, n. i. (2014). cognitive approach to metaphor translation in literary discourse. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 154(october), 527–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.180 kuleli, m. (2014). intertextual allusions and evaluation of their translation in the novel silent house by orhan pamuk. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 158, 206–213. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.075 larson, m. l. (1984). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence. lanham md: university press of america. mansourabadi, f., & karimnia, a. (2013). the impact of ideology on lexical choices in literary translation: a case study of a thousand splendid suns. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 70, 777–786. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.123 molina, l., & hurtado albir, a. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta: journal des traducteurs, 47(4), 498. https://doi.org/10.7202/008033ar newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. nida, e. a., & charles, r. t. (1969). the history and practice of translation. leiden: e.j. brill. petrova, o., & rodionova, m. (2016). rendering emotional coloring in literary translation. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 231, 195–202. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.09.091 venuti, l. (2004). the translator‘s invisibility. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. widodo, a. t. k. (2009). selasa bersama morrie. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 2 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.86-92.2017 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article affixes of minangkabau language in the origin and rantau area: study of morphological variation noviatri, reniwati, gusti asnan faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: november 29, 2017 final revision: december 20, 2017 available online: december 27, 2017 the article aims to examine the similarities and differences between minangkabau languages in the origin regions 50 kota and pasaman west sumatra compared to rantau areas kampar and rokan hulu riau. the study is done by dialectology approach which focuses on affixes. the data are collected by using conversational observation method along with interview and record techniques. the data are analysed by using identity method along with immediate constituent analysis and advanced techniques, comparative and contrastive techniques. the result shows there similarities and differences of minangkabau affixes between both areas. keyword affix, dialectological, minangkabau, origin, rantau correspondence email: noviatriyat@yahoo.com i. introduction minangkabau people settled in malay peninsula (now malaysia) in the 15th century ad, formerly through trading. to arrive at their destination, they went through the forest, passed over the bukit barisan, and turned the streams that split the eastern part of central sumatra. rokan hulu and kampar riau are the closest rantau areas to the origin area 50 kota and pasaman west sumatra. in there region flows two major rivers, rokan and kampar. both rivers are upstream to the rivers the rokan hulu and kampar riau. they crossed the rivers as an alternative transportation at the time. during their trip, some of them settled in the area near the river before continuing the journey. some of them are also permanently settled there and built the village. in the rantau area, they live with the culture of origin. the sociocultural research and the history of the people of overseas have been studied by de josseline de yong (1969), naim (1979), kato (2005), and gusti asnan (2016). cultural activities of course also use the medium of the language of origin, the language minangkabau. the practice of minagkabau language in rantau area can be interpreted that the area of this language is widespread. omar (1985: 4) states that the spread of language applies in tandem with the spread of speakers as seasonal or migratory deployments. this article was written to show whether there are any original minangkabau languages in the language of the settlers or their descendants today after hundreds of years of communication with their former villagers. for that reason, the comparison between these two separates is done to track the trace of minangkabau in the language used by nomads. from this search will be obtained the fact of language there is or not the similarity between the two. of course no doubt there is a difference given the absence http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.86-92.2017 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 87 of communication with the village people of origin and the presence of language and dialect neighbors. one aspect of language that can provide the fact that the equation is the affix. according to the dialectology, variations of language can be seen in this element in addition to other language elements such as phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical (nadra and reniwati, 2009: 23). research on language of minangkabau community in the overseas in sumatra has been done by nadra, reniwati, efriyades (2006) as well as in jambi, bengkulu, and north sumatra. while dialectological research in riau rantau area, especially kampar has been done by reniwati, gusti asnan, noviatri (2016). research results have been reported in the form of articles (2016). the research in malaysia has also begun to be done as research aslinda, noviatri, reniwati (2015, 2016) in kuala lumpur, selangor, perak, kelantan, and kedah. research conducted in the first two areas has been published in the form of articles (2015). noviatri, reniwati, and midawati (2016) also conducted dialectological research in malaysia, precisely in pahang, negeri sembilan, and malaka. in the analysis, the data from this rantau area is compared with data from the origin, i.e. areas whose communities have historical relation with the rantau community. the comparative elements of language show differences or variations, i.e. phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical elements. the results show that the language used by the minangkabau descendants of the area is still included in the minangkabau language even though their minangkabau language has changed. this article is the result of research conducted in the rantau area surrounded by the origin. this rantau region became a passing area to wander to malaysia. dialectological research and the connection between minangkabau languages in the area of origin with the language of the nomads or their descendants have never been done. for this reason, this article was made to explain the similarities and at the same time the differences between the two isolect used by the community. ii. methods the method used in this research is the method proposed by sudaryanto (2015). the data are collected by observational method, followed up with basic techniques and advanced techniques. the basic technique is the trigger, while the advanced technique is recording. the research is conducted by an interview with face to face communicaton question and answer. during the interview the researcher recorded the answers given by the informant. the data are collected in kabupaten 50 kota, namely nagari simalanggang. this nagari was taken as a sample of the research area by reason of the historical connection between this nagari and the overseas in negeri sembilan and malacca state, malaysia. the historical evidence of migration of minangkabau people to the rantau area is still imprinted on the list of the tribe of the people in these two overseas countries. of the 12 tribes in negeri sembilan, nine of them are nagari and district names in west sumatra (norhalim hj ibrahim, 1995: 10). one of the tribe's names is seri malanggang (semelenggang). semelenggang tribal communities also exist in the state of malacca. the name of this tribe is one of the nagari name in payakumbuh district 50 kota regency. while rao pasaman district was selected as a sample of research areas by reason of the many communities in malaysia such as in pahang, negeri sembilan, and kuala lumpur. people of rao went to malaysia in mid 18th century ad. determination of both samples of origin areas also by reason of both located near the border of kampar and rokan hulu. in the data analysis was done by translational and articulatory method. the basic technique used is immidiate constituent. the advanced noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 88 technique is the varying appeal technique and the equalizing appeal technique. this technique is in accordance with the scope of this study, namely dialectology that evaluates and / or equations of isolation units to be compared.. iii. result this section describes the comparison of morphological variations between minangkabau languages of origin and rantau. the comparable elements are the minangkabau language appendix used between observation points (hereinafter abbreviated to tp) of origin with the tp rantau. comparison of the use of affixes is done at various points of observation. in the area of origin was taken the use of affixes at two points of observation, the reply is used in the district 50 kota with the observation point simalanggang village as the first observation point (tp1) and pasaman with the observation point rao village as the second observation point (tp2). while in the rantau area, the comparable versions were the affixes used by the people in rokan hulu district with three observation points, rokan ampek koto village as a three observation point (tp3), koto lamo village as the four observation point (tp4), and kapanuhan village as a five point observation (tp5). based on the data in the morphological field followed by the data classification, there were several morphologic variations in each tp. the data not merely show variations, but also the similarities between the languages used in the overseas and the origin. the differences and similarities are the difference and equation of affix and its parts. based on its location, the affixes used on each tp consist of several types, i.e. 1 prefix (prefix), 2) suffix (suffix), 3) combination of confixed, and 4) affixed join. 3.1 comparison of prefix (prefix) in analyzing the affixes used as the basis for comparison are the affixes used in the common minangkabau language (abbreviated to bmu). therefore, the explanation of each affix in this article compared to affixed bmu. there are some prefixes that are used in each tp (tp1, tp2, tp3, tp4, and tp5). the prefixes are the prefixes of man-, di-, ta-, and ba-. differences and similar use of prefixes between each tp. here is the explanation of each affix which is a prefix. 3.1.1 comparison prefix man based on the comparison of the use of prefixes in the form of the prefix manused between points of observation, there were variations in use. the variation is that the prefix in bmu, on tp1 and tp2 is consistently also used form man-, for example: manyusu, malulua, mamasak. meanwhile, in tp3, tp4, and tp5 the prefix varies with mon-, man-, and mөn-, for example: momasak, monyusu, monolan, malulua, mandapek, gypsum. the forms of momasak, monyusu, monolan, malulua, mandapek are used on tp3 and tp4. while the grip form is used on tp5. especially on tp4 koto lamo) the prefix manis very rarely used. speakers more often do not humiliate this prefix and are more likely to use basic or basic forms only. 3.1.2 comparison prefix in based on the comparison of the use of prefixes in the inter-observation point, there was no difference in the use of the form. that is, each tp uses the same form of affix, that is to use the di'form, for example: dijaik, dibaco, dikirim, diundang, dimokan, dibukak. all of these forms are used equally at all points of observation, both the in origin observation point and the rantau. similar to the use of prefixes to tp 4, the prefix diis also rarely used in tp4. usually speakers prefer to use the basic form only. example: dijaik, dibaco, dikirim, diundang, dimokan, and dibuka, pronounced as jaik, baco, kirim, undang, mokan, dan buka. 3.1.3 comparison prefix ta results of comparison the use of prefix between the observed points in the origin and the rantau shows the variation of use among noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 89 tps. this difference exists between tp1 and tp2 with tp3, tp4, and tp5. the effects of bmu, on tp1 and tp2 are also used in tshapes. examples: talalok, tabaka, tajago, tagantuang. however, in tp3, tp4, and tp5 the prefix tavaries with toand ta, for example: tololok, totidua, tokojuk, tajago, talipek, tajaik. 3.1.4 comparison of prefix ba the prefix bais quite similar to prefix ta-, the prefix was used throughout the study area. there are variations of ta prefix between observation points of origin and rantau. the prefix of the bmu, on tp1 and tp2 is also used in baconsistently. for example: batangka, basamo, baranang, bajalan, baburu. while in tp3, tp4, and tp5, the bavarian shape with the bo-form. this form is used consistently. examples are botongka, bogorak, baronang, bojolan, boburu. however, in tp4 this prefix is rarely used. 3.2 comparison of suffix based on the data analysis that has been done at each observation point (tp1, tp2, tp3, tp4, and tp5), there are three end forms which are endings used in each tp. these endings are -an, and -i. based on the comparison of the use within the observation points, there are also variations in use. the following descriptions of each of these endings. 3.2.1 comparison suffix -kan as in prefix, suffix also has similarities ans difference within the points of observation. the difference is that in tp4 and tp5, suffx – kan in bmu tend to be used consistently for all the words of with polymorphemic affix, as in itamkan, lopangkan, duduakkan, obihkan. the suffix -kan serves as an affix of the imperative marker, since all the words endings means the command. the word itamkan has the grammatical meaning of lexical 'make it more black' (command). similarly with the word lopangkan, duduakkan, and obihkan each of them has imperative meaning (order) 'make it more spacious', 'make him be seated', and 'make be finished'. in tp3 this suffix is rarely used. when used, the form used is the same form as tp3 and tp4, that is, the shape of the can. in tp1 and tp2, however, suffix –kan varies as –an as in examples: dudukan, itaman, lapangan, kaluaan, kiriman, and abihan. 3.2.2 comparison an after comparing the use of affix -an between the origin and rantau there is no affix use. each tp uses the same form, that is, it uses the same shape. the suffix –an in bmu, on each tp (tp1, p, tp3, tp4, and tp5) are also used in the suffix –an. in terms of behavior, there are similarities in behavior between affixes –an and –kan. the presence in word construction equally serves to change the word category and meaning of the word, which was originally an affirmative verb transformed into an imperative verb (command), because polymorphic words end in -an belong to the imperative verb. in addition to changing the word category, the use of this suffix also alters the meaning of the word that originally meant 'statement' after joining the suffix -an changed to the meaning of 'command' as follows: kaluaan, agiahan, abihan, masukan, tulihan, antaan, duduakan. each of these affixed words functions as command, such as: ‘tolong beri’, tolong habiskan’, tolong tuliskan’, ‘tolong antarkan’, ‘tolong didudukan’. 3.2.3 comparison of suffix -i the use of the suffix -i is rarely used in minangkabau languages overseas. each tp (tp3, tp4, let alone tp5) hardly ever uses this suffix. when there are ending words -i, the speaker tends to dissolve this suffix and utter the word without the -i suffix. an example is tangisi pronounced as tangih, kirimi pronounced kirim. nevertheless, there are some data found using this suffix, it even goes with suffix -kan. examples are abihi (tp1), abihkan (tp4), kiimi (tp3), kirimkan (tp5). however, in tp1 and tp2 the suffix -i is used as suffix -i. for example: kirimi, duduki, habisi, lupoi, guloi. the presence of this suffix in the polymorphemic word also serves to change the category of the word noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 90 attached which originally categorized affirmative verb meaningful statement, turned into an imperative verb meaning command or order. 3.3 confix comparison based on existing data, there are four confixes found in the minangkabau language of origin and rantau, i.e pan-an, ka-an, and ba-an. similarly to the use of other auxiliary forms, it is found that there are differences and similarities in the use of confix at each observation point. the differences and similarities can be seen in the following explanation. 3.3.1 comparison of constellations of the future based on comparison of confix pan-an between points of observation, there are variations in use. conflict in bmu, tp1 and tp2 are also used in the form of pan-an, for example: pangidupan, pandangaran, pambaokan. while on tp3 this form of pan is very rarely used. the shape of the pan's in bmu, on tp4 varies with the shape of pon's, and the pan's. for example: pangidupan, pandangaran pajalanan, pangidupan, pambaokan . in tp5, the shape of the pan's in bmu varies with the form of pan and peran. for example: pambaokan, pandangaran, permusuhan, pertemuan. 3.3.2 comparison of constancy ka-an after comparing the use of confixed ka-an on the five observation points of the research, there are differences in the use of confix between points of observation. the shape of ka-an in bmu, on tp1 and tp2 is also used form ka-an as in kaduduakan, katiduran, katakuikan, kasanangan. meanwhile, the shape of the ka-an in bmu, on tp3 and tp4 varies with the co-form as in koduduakan, kotiduran, kotakuikan, kosanangan. in tp5 bentk ka-an varies with the form of ko-an, kaan, and ke-an. for example: kodongaan, koduduakan, kaduduakan, katiduran, keadaan. kehujanan, keadaan. kehujanan. 3.3.3 comparison of the fixed constants unlike other affixes, the use of affixes is available only in the minangkabau language of origin (tp1 and tp2). the ba-a confix in bmu, on tp1 and t2 are also used ba-an, as in batangihan, baduoan, bapandangan, bassangan, and bapacaran. however, in the minangkabau languages of the rantau (tp3, tp4, and tp5) areas, these additions are not used. for example, the words with ba-an in minangkabau languages are (batangihan, baduoan, bapandangan, bapangan, and bapacaran) while in overseas (tp3, tp4, and tp5) maatok, baduo, mamandang, pasangan, and pacaran). 3.3.4 comparison comparison combined affixes there are several combinations used in the minangkabau language of origin and rantau. the additon of the join is me-kan, di-kan, meii, and di-i. 3.3.4.1 comparison comparison combined affixes me-kan based on the data classification, followed by comparing the increments of joining between points of observation, there are differences and similarities found. the combined ma-kan used in bmu, on tp1 and tp2 varies with the shape of the ma-an. examples for this are mamasua?an, mamandian, mandangaan, mambalian, mambacoan. the form of ma-kan in bmu, in minangkabau languages overseas areas (tp3 and tp5) varies with the form of mo-kan, for example, momborosihkan, mombolikan, moogiahkan, momondikan, maangekan, maagiahan. in tp4 (koto lamo) the form of ma-kan varies with the form mekan and zero -kan. for example mendengarkan, membelikan, menidurkan, membelikan, melempar, membaca. thus there are four variants of affix form join ma, kan mo, kan, and zero -kan. all words polymorphemic affixes. both the minangkabau language of origin and minangkabau languages of the rantau region are categorized equally, ie both are transitive active verbs. noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 91 3.3.4.2 comparison comparison combined affixes di-kan the combined di-kan is a counterweight or contrast of the me-kan additives. the additive is an active marker in a construction, in contrast, the affix is a passive marker in a construction. based on the comparison of the use of affixes on each point of observation, there are differences in the use of affixes. the additives were placed in bmu, in the minangkabau language of origin (tp1 and tp2) used in the di-an form. examples are dimandian, didongaan, dibalian, dibacoan, ditulihan. however, in rantau (tp3, tp4, and tp5) areas are used di-kan and di-an forms, samples are didongakan, dimandikan, dibalikan, dibacokan, diagiahan, ditulihan, diluruihan. 3.3.4.3 comparison combined affixes man-i the use of affixed man-i, almost never found its use in minangkabau language in the overseas area. however, in the minangkabau language of origin, these additives are relatively widely used. the combination of man-i in bmu is also pronounced as man-i at the origin (tp1 and tp2). for example: manyaki?i, manakui?i, malukoi, malupoi, maange?i, mambacoi, mangguloi. 3.3.4.4 comparison comparison combined affixes di-i the affix of di-i is also as a counterweight or contrast of the affixed ma-i. the ingestion of ma-i is an active marker in a construction. in contrast, affix di-i is also a passive marking in a construction. based on the comparison of ii in each observation point, it is also very rarely found in minangkabau language in overseas areas. however, in the minangkabau language of origin (tp1 and tp2), these additives are relatively widely used. the combined affixes in-i in bmu, also pronounced as di-i on tp1 and tp2. for example: disaki?i, ditakui?i, dilukoi, dilupoi, diange?i, dibacoi, diiguloi. iv. conclusions based on the comparison of morphological variations, especially the comparison of the use of affixes in minangkabau language within origin and rantau there are several things that can be concluded: 1. there are differences and similarities between the use of imbebut between tp1, tp2, tp3, tp4, and tp5. 2. differences and similarities are present in the prefix, suffix, confix, and affix. 3. the prefixes on tp1 and tp2 vary with mon-, man-, and mөn forms on tp3, tp4, and tp5. the prefixes taof tp1 and tp2 are used ta-. in tp3, tp4, and tp5, the prefix tavaries with toand ta. the prefixes of tp1 and tp2 run with bo and tp3, tp4, and tp5 forms. 4. there are not many different endings, except the suffix -an. the suffixes -an tp1 and tp2 vary with the form -kan and -an on tp3, tp4, and tp5). 5. the knock-on conflicts on tp1 and tp2 vary with the shape of the pon and ponan in the tp3 and tp4, and vary with peran in tp5. the shape of the ka-an on tp1 and tp2 varies with the ko-an. on tp3 and tp4. in tp5 the form ka-an bervriasi with the form ko-an, ka-an, and ke-an. 6. the combined affix of tp1 and tp2 vary with the form mo-kan and ma-kan on tp3 and tp5. in tp4, the form of ma-kan varies with the form me-kan and zero kan. noviatri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 92 references aslinda, noviatri dan reniwati. 2015. “melacak jejak keminangkabauan di kuala lumpur dan selangor dahrul ihsan malaysia : kajian dialektologis”. laporan penelitian fundamenal dikti. aslinda, noviatri dan reniwati. 2015. “the trace of minangkabau-wise in malaysian language”. dalam jurnal ilmiah ppm-ukm. vol.2 no.7. issn no.2356-2536. de josseline de yong, p.e. 1969. minangkabau and negeri sembilan:socio political structure in indonesia. djakarta: bharata. gusti asnan. 2016. sungai dan sejarah sumatra. yogyakarta: penerbit ombak. kato tsuyushi. 2005. adat minangkabau dan merantau dalam perspektif sejarah. terjemahan. jakarta: balai bahasa. nadra dan reniwati. 2009. dialektologi: teori dan metode. yogyakarta: cv elmatera publishing. nadra, reniwati dan efriyades. 2006. “daerah asal dan arah migrasi orang minangkabu di provinsi jambi, bengkulu, dan sumatera utara berdasarkan kajian variasi dialektal”. laporan penelitian rukk. nadra, reniwati dan efriyades. 2008. “daerah asal dan arah migrasi orang minangkabu di provinsi jambi, bengkulu, dan sumatera utara berdasarkan kajian variasi dialektal”. jurnal makara, seri sosial-humaniora volume 12, juli 2008, nomor 1, issn 16936701. naim, mokhtar. 1979. merantau: pola migrasi suku minangkabau. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. noviatri, reniwati dan midawati.2016. “menelusuri jejak keminangkabauan di daerah rantau negeri sembilan, malaka, dan pahang: kajian dialektologis”. laporan penelitian fundamental dikti. reniwati. 2011. “bahasa minangkabau dan dialek negeri sembilan dalam perbandingan fonologis”. makalah dalam persidangan antarabangsa hubungan malaysiaindonesia v (pahmi5) di university malaya, kuala lumpur. reniwati, gusti asnan dan noviatri. 2016. perbandingan dialektologis bahasa minangkabau di daerah asal dan daerah rantau di propinsi riau” dalam seminar internasional bahasa, sastra, dan pembelajarannya. bandung: upi. reniwati dkk. 2016. “bahasa minangkabau di daerah asal dengan bahasa minangkabau di daerah rantau malaysia: kajian doalektologis” dalam jurnal arbitrer, vol.3 no. 2, tahun 2016. sudaryanto.2015. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis.yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 8 wujud kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa terhadap dosen di stain kendari: kajian sosiopragmatik oleh, fahmi gunawan stain sultan qaimuddin kendari fgunawanp@gmail.com abstract this article aims at describing the forms of politeness of the stain kendari’s students and their lecturers in interaction. the data are any utterances uttered in campus by using descriptivequlaitative approach, it is afound that the students use some kinds of modes in implmenting politeness. they are declarative and interogative sentence to express the politeness and impretive for impoliteness. besides, the use of complete sentence with commonly chronological order is indicating the politeness. the less complete sentence with inverisive order reflects the impoliteness. key words: politeness, college students, lecturers, and stain kendari 1. pendahuluan bahasa adalah alat yang digunakan manusia untuk berkomunikasi. dengan bahasa, seorang dapat berinteraksi dengan seorang lainnya. hal ini senada dengan pandangan marjusman maksan bahwa bahasa adalah ucapan pikiran manusia yan dengan teratur memakai alat bunyi. ucapan pikiran yang disampaikan kepada lawan tutur tidak pernah terlepas dari persoalan sopan santun (nisja, 2009: 478) kesantunan berbahasa sangat perlu untuk dikaji, karena kegiatan berbahasa tidak luput dari kehidupan manusia. kesantunan merupakan sebuah istilah yang berkaitan dengan ’kesopanan’, ’rasa hormat’ ’sikap yang baik’, atau ’perilaku yang pantas’. dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, keterkaitan kesantunan dengan perilaku yang pantas mengisyaratkan bahwa kesantunan bukan hanya berkaitan dengan bahasa, melainkan juga dengan perilaku nonverbal. kesantunan menghubungkan bahasa dengan pelbagai aspek dalam struktur sosial sebagaimana hanya dengan aturan perilaku atau etika. sopan santun dalam bentuk tuturan atau kesantunan berbahasa setidaknya bukan semata-mata motivasi utama bagi penutur untuk berbicara, melainkan juga merupakan fahmi gunawan 9 faktor pengatur yang menjaga agar percakapan berlangsung dengan benar, menyenangkan, dan tidak sia-sia. leech (1993:38) mengatakan bahwa manusia pada umumnya lebih senang mengungkapkan pendapat-pendapat yang sopan daripada yang tidak sopan. secara umum, masalah kesantunan berbahasa sangat berhubungan dengan masalah menjaga harga diri. dalam bahasa bugis, istilah ini dikenal dengan sebutan jagai siri (gunawan, 2013: 65), sementara brown dan levinson (1987: 65) memopulerkannya dengan istilah tindakan mengancam muka (fta). menjaga keterancaman muka atau menjaga harga diri ini penting dilakukan baik penutur maupun mitra tuturnya. hal ini bertujuan untuk menghindari saling ketersinggungan yang diakibatkan oleh tutur kata dan berujung kepada konflik. hal ini dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut. (1) a: maaf pak, ada waktunya? b: ada apa? a: kalau bapak ada waktu, saya ingin meminta bimbingan skripsi konteks: seorang mahasiswa yang meminta kesedian dosennya untuk melakukan pembimbingan skripsi tuturan (1) dituturkan oleh seorang mahasiswa kepada dosennya. secara eksplisit, tuturan ini menggunakan modus kalimat interogatif yang secara konfensial berfungsi untuk bertanya mengenai ada atau tidak adanya waktu dari dosen pembimbingnya. tetapi secara implisit, modus kalimat ini mengisyaratkan permintaan secara tidak langsung kepada lawan tutur. tujuannya adalah untuk meminimalisir rasa malu penutur jika saja permintaannya tidak disetujui, apalagi jika ada orang lain yang juga berada di sana. selain itu, permintaan pada tuturan (1) itu ditujukan kepada dosennya, yang tentu lebih tua, status sosialnya lebih tinggi, dan hubungan kekerabatannya tidaklah dekat. dengan demikian, untuk memberikan efek kesantunan, mahasiswa itu menggunakan kalimat interogatif tidak langsung yang diawali dengan menggunakan penanda kesantunan, yaitu permohonan maaf yang menggunakan kata “maaf” dan kata sapaan “pak” atau “bapak”. hal ini tentu sangat berbeda dengan penggunaan modus kalimat imperatif yang seringkali dijumpai dalam percakapan antara mahasiswa dengan dosen. (2) pak, saya minta tanda tangannya, karena batas pendaftaran ujian munaqasyah hari ini. konteks: seorang mahasiswa yang meminta dosen pembimbingnya menandatangani skripsi yang telah dibuat untuk segera melakukan ujian munaqasyah. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 10 tuturan (2) dituturkan oleh seorang mahasiswa kepada dosennya. tuturan ini bermodus kalimat imperatif. jadi, perintah seorang mahasiswa kepada dosennya untuk segera menandatangani skripsinya karena waktu ujian skripsi sudah diambang pintu. padahal, skripsi itu belum layak ditandatangani karena masih ada beberapa hal yang harus direvisi. karena itu, si dosen itu mengatakan, (3) saya akan tanda tangan, tetapi jangan salahkan saya jika anda tidak lulus dalam ujian. konteks: tuturan seorang dosen pembimbing yang tersinggung dengan tuturan mahasiswa karena merasa tidak dihargai tuturan (2) merupakan contoh ketidaksantunan berbahasa seorang mahasiswa kepada dosennya. ketidaksantunan itu tergambar dari kalimat perintah atau imperatif langsung yang digunakan. padahal, tidak selayaknya seorang mahasiswa yang kelas sosialnya lebih rendah, lebih muda, dan duduk di bangku jurusan tarbiyah yang sudah mempelajari etika sopan santun melakukan tindak tutur imperatif semacam itu. karena merasa muka atau harga dirinya sebagai seorang dosen seakan tidak diakui, dengan nada yang agak kesal dan tersinggung, ia mengatakan “saya akan tanda tangan, tetapi jangan salahkan saya kalau anda tidak lulus ujian.” fakta kebahasaan ini hanya sebagian kecil dari fenomena kebahasaan yang seringkali terjadi. masih banyak fenomena lain yang dapat dilihat dalam aktifitas pertuturan itu. dengan demikian, tulisan yang membahas wujud kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa dalam berinteraksi dengan dosen di stain kendari amat mendesak untuk dilakukan. 2. wujud bahasa, tindak tutur, dan kesantunan secara formal berdasarkan modusnya, kalimat dibedakan menjadi kalimat berita (declarative), kalimat tanya (interogative) dan kalimat perintah (imperative) (wijana, 1996:4). secara konvensional, kalimat berita digunakan untuk memberitahukan sesuatu (informasi), kalimat tanya untuk menanyakan sesuatu, dan kalimat perintah untuk menyatakan perintah, ajakan, permintaaan atau permohonan. jika kalimat perintah difungsikan secara konvensional maka akan terbentuk tindak tutur langsung. tindak tutur langsung seringkali dikatakan sebagai tindak tutur yang kurang santun, terlebih jika diucapkan oleh orang lebih muda ke orang yang lebih tua, dan orang yang berstatus sosial lebih rendah kepada orang yang berstatus sosial tinggi. demikian pula halnya, jika kalimat berita dan kalimat tanya dimanfaatkan untuk memerintah seseorang, maka kalimat itu tergolong kalimat yang santun. hal ini karena orang yang diperintah tidak akan merasa dirinya fahmi gunawan 11 diperintah. wijana menyebut tindak tutur ini dengan tindak tutur tidak langsung. terkadang, modus kalimat semacam ini dimanfaatkan oleh orang yang lebih muda dan berstatus sosial rendah kepada orang yang lebih tua dan berstatus tinggi. demikian pula, sebuah tuturan dianggap santun jika disampaikan dengan kalimat lengkap. maksudnya, kalimat itu paling tidak memiliki subjek dan predikat. jika sebaliknya, maka tuturan itu dianggap sebagai tuturan yang kurang santun. sebuah tuturan juga akan dianggap santun ketika disampaikan dengan kalimat berpola urutan biasa, dan kurang santun jika berpola urutan inversi. 3. metode penelitian penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. berkaitan dengan hal itu, ada tiga langkah yang dilakukan, yaitu pengumpulan data, analisis data, dan penyajian hasil analisis (arikunto, 1993: 310). pengambilan data dilakukan di kampus stain sultan qaimuddin kendari. data berasal dari tuturan-tuturan mahasiswa dalam berinteraksi dengan dosennya di lingkup kampus stain kendari. data kemudian dijaring dengan metode simak tehnik rekam dan catat (sudaryanto, 1993: 133, mahsun, 2005: 90). mahasiswa yang dimaksud adalah semua mahasiswa tarbiyah program studi pendidikan agama islam jurusan tarbiyah. tuturan yang dijaring itu adalah tuturan permintaan yang terjadi baik di dalam kelas, maupun di luar kelas di wilayah kampus stain kendari. untuk mengetahui wujud kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa terhadap dosen digunakan teori wijana mengenai klasifikasi kalimat di dalam tuturan yang dianggap santun karena menggunakan modus kalimat deklaratif dan interogatif, dan dianggap kurang santun karena menggunakan modus kalimat imperatif. 4. hasil dan pembahasan wijana (1996: 4) mengatakan bahwa berdasarkan bentuk sintaksisnya, kalimat dibagi atas kalimat deklaratif, kalimat imperatif, kalimat interogatif, dan kalimat ekslamatif. dilihat dari kelengkapan unsurnya, kalimat dibagi atas kalimat lengkap dan kalimat tidak lengkap. dilihat dari pola urutan katanya, kalimat dibagi atas kalimat biasa dan kalimat inversi. wujud kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa terhadap dosen di stain kendari direalisasikan dalam beberapa modus kalimat. berdasarkan penelusuran data, realiasasi kalimat itu terbagi menjadi tiga, yaitu (1) kalimat berdasarkan bentuk sintaksisnya, (2) kalimat berdasarkan kelengkapan unsurnya, dan (3) kalimat berdasarkan pola urutannya. 4.1 kalimat berdasarkan bentuk sintaksis berdasarkan bentuk sintaksisnya, kalimat dibagi menjadi kalimat deklaratif, imperatif dan interogatif. kalimat deklaratif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 12 untuk menyampaikan informasi kepada orang lain. kalimat interogatif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk bertanya. kalimat imperatif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk menyatakan perintah. berdasarkan penelusuran data, modus kalimat deklaratif dan interogatif lebih banyak digunakan mahasiswa stain dalam berinteraksi dengan dosennya daripada modus kalimat imperatif. hal ini karena modus kalimat deklaratif dan interogatif tergolong tindak tutur tidak langsung yang dianggap santun, sementara modus kalimat imperatif tergolong tindak tutur langsung yang dianggap kurang santun digunakan dalam berinteraksi antara seorang mahasiswa dengan dosen. 4.1.1 kalimat deklaratif kalimat deklaratif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk menyampaikan berita atau informasi kepada orang lain. selain menyampaikan informasi, modus kalimat ini juga dapat dimanfaatkan untuk meminta sesuatu secara tidak langsung kepada orang lain untuk menyatakan kesantunan. hal ini dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut ini. (1) assalamu‘alaikum…ibu, saya mau konsul proposal… konteks: rino, seorang mahasiswa, yang meminta waktu kepada dosennya untuk mengonsultasikan proposal skripsi (2) hiiii pak dosen!!saya mau bertanya!! konteks: titin, mahasiswi, meminta waktu untuk menanyakan masalah mata kuliah hari itu kepada dosennya tuturan (1-2) bermodus kalimat deklaratif. tuturan (1) hendak menginformasikan rencana rino untuk mengonsultasikan proposal skripsiya. ia merasa bahwa ada hal-hal prinsipil yang tampaknya harus dikonsultasikan. namun demikian, untuk menyatakan hal itu, ia lebih memilih menggunakan modus kalimat deklaratif untuk meminta secara tidak langsung. hal ini selain untuk menunjukkan kesantunan berbahasanya juga untuk menghindari rasa ketersinggungan dosennya ketika diminta waktunya karena waktunya kurang tepat. selain itu, ia juga menggunakan penanda kesantunan lainnya yang berupa ucapan salam ‘assalamu ‘alaikum’ dan kata sapaan ‘ibu’. tuturan (2) juga bermodus kalimat deklaratif. tuturan ini hendak menginformasikan keinginan titin untuk menanyakan sesuatu yang belum dimengerti kepada dosennya. namun demikian, tuturan ini didahului oleh kata seruan refleks ‘hiii’ untuk menunjukkan keakraban kepada dosennya meskipun dianggap tidak sopan. kata seruan ini selanjutnya diikuti oleh penanda kesantunan yang berupa kata sapaan ‘pak dosen’. fahmi gunawan 13 (3) pak, ini kartu bimbingannya; kartu konsultasi skripsi konteks: halim yang hendak meminta pembimbingan skripsi dari dosennya dengan memberikan kartu bimbingan skripsinya. (4) pak, makalah saya masih ada sama teman konteks: rani hendak meminta penundaan waktu untuk presentasi karena makalahnya masih di tangan teman satu kelompoknya yang belum hadir. tuturan (3) juga tergolong kalimat deklaratif karena hendak memberitahukan bahwa kartu bimbingan atau kartu konsultasi skripsinya sudah ada. modus kalimat ini sengaja digunakan untuk menyatakan kesantunannya dan berharap maksud tuturannya dapat dipahami. dengan kalimat sederhana, halim mengatakan ‘ini kartu bimbingannya’. tuturan ini didahului oleh kata sapaan pak sebagai penanda kesantunan dan diikuti oleh kata penunjuk ini sebagai unsur pengisi fungsi subjek. tuturan (4) hendak menginformasikan bahwa makalah yang disusun rani masih digandakan oleh temannya yang belum sempat hadir ketika diskusi kelas hendak berlangsung. oleh karena itu, untuk meminta penundaan waktu berlangsungnya diskusi kelas, rani menggunakan modus kalimat deklaratif untuk menyatakan permintaannya secara tidak langsung kepada dosennya. (5) pak, ada jam tha, di tarbiyah pai ruangan b1 konteks: seorang ketua tingkat yang meminta dosennya untuk segera masuk ke kelas karena waktunya sudah tiba. tuturan (5) agak berbeda dengan tuturan sebelumnya. jika tuturan sebelumnya menggunakan bahasa formal, tuturan (5) menggunakan bahasa informal. penanda bahasa informal itu terletak pada kata tha pada kalimat ada jam tha. tha pada tuturan ini berarti kita yang tergolong kependekan dari ‘kita’ yang berarti anda. selain itu, kata tha juga digunakan untuk menghargai lawan bicara yang lebih tinggi status sosialnya dan lebih tua. dalam hal ini, kata tha merupakan penanda bahasa informal mahasiswa beretnis bugis. kalimat ini sepadan dengan kalimat, ada jam mengajar bapak. selain itu, modus kalimat ini bermaksud untuk meminta dosennya masuk kelas karena waktu mengajarnya sudah tiba. 4.1.2 kalimat introgatif kalimat interogatif adalah kalimat secara konvensional berfungsi untuk menanyakan sesuatu. jika modus kalimat ini dimanfaatkan untuk tujuan lain, seperti meminta, maka hal itu untuk menyatakan kesantunan seseorang kepada orang lain. modus kalimat ini terbagi menjadi tiga, yaitu yes-no question, wh question, dan modality question. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 14 berdasarkan penelusuran data, tuturan mahasiswa terhadap dosennya di stain kendari juga memanfaatkan yes-no question, wh-question, dan modality question untuk tujuan meminta secara tidak langsung a. yes-no question yes-no question adalah bentuk kalimat tanya yang jawaban adalah ya atau tidak. hal ini dapat dilihat sebagaimana contoh berikut. (6) pak, waktu ngajarnya sudah habis ya? konteks: seorang mahasiswa yang meminta dosennya menyelesaikan perkuliahan karena waktu sudah selesai. tuturan (6) bermodus kalimat interogatif. di dalam tuturan ini, mahasiswa kelas iia prodi pendidikan agama islam menanyakan dosennya mengenai waktu perkuliahan yang sudah selesai. b. wh question wh question adalah bentuk pertanyaan yang menggunakan kata tanya. kata tanya itu dapat berupa apa, siapa, mengapa, bagaimana, dimana, dan kapan. dalam bahasa inggris, dikenal istilah 5w dan 1h, yaitu what, who, why, where, when, dan how. kalimat tanya yang menggunakan kata tanya ini dapat dilihat sebagaimana contoh berikut. (7) assalamu alaikum warahmatullah wabarakatuh. saya jumran. saya dari kelompok smile. ada yang mau saya tanyakan, apa yang dimaksud dengan paralelisme kalimat? (8) dimana saya bisa ketemu kita pak? (9) tadi pertanyaan bapak itu bagaimana? (10) mengapa pola urutan kalimat harus semacam itu? (11) kapan saya bisa ikut ujian pak, soalnya saya sakit kepala minggu lalu. (12) siapa pemateri kuliah umum minggu lalu di auditorium pak? berdasarkan penelusuran data, kata tanya sebagaimana yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya relatif digunakan pada semua kalimat tanya. kata tanya itu berupa kata tanya apakah, dimana, bagaimana, mengapa, kapan, dan siapa. penggunaan kata tanya apakah digunakan untuk menanyakan sesuatu yang belum dipahami maksudnya. tuturan (7) menjelaskan bahwa si penanya, mahasiswa, belum mengerti dan memahami makna paralelisme kalimat. untuk itulah, ditanyakan maksudnya. tuturan (8) menggunakan kata tanya dimana. penggunaan kata tanya ini bermaksud untuk menanyakan sebuah tempat pertemuan yang bisa dilakukan antara seorang mahasiswa dan dosennya. tuturan (9) menggunakan kata tanya bagaimana untuk mengklarifikasi sesuatu yang masih diragukan. tuturan (10) menggunakan kata tanya mengapa untuk menanyakan sesuatu secara filosofis, atau fahmi gunawan 15 menanyakan sesuatu berdasarkan alasan yang dapat diterima akal sehat. mengapa harus seperti itu dan mengapa harus seperti ini. tuturan (11) menggunakan kata tanya ‘kapan’ untuk menanyakan waktu berlangsungnya sebuah kegiatan. dalam hal ini, kata tanya kapan ditujukan untuk mengetahui kapan waktunya seorang mahasiswa dapat melakukan ujian susulan. tuturan (12) menggunakan kata tanya ‘siapa’ untuk menanyakan subjek sebuah kegiatan atau aktivitas. c. modality question modality question adalah kalimat tanya yang didahului oleh kata tanya ‘dapat’, ‘boleh’, ‘akan’ dan ‘harus’. hal ini dapat dilihat pada data berikut. (13) pak, bisa saya ke rumahnya bapak? soalnya pak saya bisa batal untuk tidak ikut seminar hari selasa pak. bisa ya pak saya ke rumah bapak hari ini? penggunaan kata tanya modal ditemukan pada kata dapat. dalam bahasa tidak formal, kata dapat dapat diubah menjadi kata bisa sebagai bahasa sehari-hari. tuturan (13) memanfaatkan kata dapat untuk menanyakan kesediaan seorang dosen untuk didatangi rumahnya pada malam hari. 4.1.3 kalimat imperatif kalimat imperatif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk menyatakan perintah. jika modus kalimat ini digunakan untuk menyatakan perintah dari orang yang lebih muda kepada orang yang lebih tua, atau orang yang lebih rendah status sosialnya kepada orang yang lebih tinggi status sosialnya, maka tuturan itu dianggap sebagai tuturan yang kurang santun karena tidak sepantasnya orang yang lebih muda dan lebih rendah status sosialnya memerintah orang yang lebih tua dan lebih tinggi status sosialnya. berdasarkan penelusuran data, ada beberapa mahasiswa yang menggunakan modus kalimat ini ketika hendak meminta tanda tangan para dosen pembimbing skripsinya menjelang tiba waktu wisuda di akhir tahun. modus ini akhirnya mereka gunakan sebagai cara terakhir untuk menyelesaikan karya tulisnya yang sudah direvisi beberapa kali, sementara mereka sudah tidak dapat lagi untuk menyelesaikannya. hal ini dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut. (14) pak, tanda tanganpi saja skripsiku kasian. sudah selesaimi semua teman-temanku ujian. konteks: seorang mahasiswi, eva, yang meminta dosen pembimbing skripsinya untuk menandatangani form persetujuan untuk diuji. tuturan (14) bermodus kalimat imperatif. tuturan imperatif ini dapat dilihat dari frase ‘tanda tanganpi’ yang berarti ‘tanda tanganlah’. ini berarti bahwa eva sebagai seorang mahasiswi memerintah dosen pembimbingnya untuk menandatangani belangko persetujuan untuk diadakan journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 16 ujian skripsi, sementara masih ada banyak hal yang harus direvisi dan belum layak untuk diuji. hal ini tentu membuat dosen pembimbing eva tersinggung, geram, dan marah. akibatnya, form skripsi tidak ditandatangani dan eva terancam tidak diluluskan dalam ujian skripsi atau munaqsyah. modus kalimat ini banyak ditemukan ketika menjelang wisuda di akhir tahun. di stain kendari, wisuda hanya diadakan sekali dalam setahun. dengan demikian, jika mahasiswa atau mahasiswi tidak dapat menyelesaikan karya tulisnya, maka waktu wisudanya akan ditunda hingga tahun depan. itulah sebabnya mengapa ada beberapa mahasiswa, terutama mahasiswi, yang menggunakan modus kalimat imperatif kepada dosennya. 4.2 kalimat berdasarkan kelengkapan unsurnya berdasarkan unsur kelengkapannya, kalimat dibagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu kalimat lengkap dan kalimat tidak lengkap. kalimat lengkap adalah kalimat yang unsur pengisi fungsi subjek, predikat, dan objeknya ada, sementara kalimat tidak lengkap adalah kalimat yang unsur pengisi fungsi subjek, predikat, atau objek tidak ada. jika sebuah tuturan menggunakan kalimat lengkap, maka tuturan itu dianggap santun. sebaliknya, jika tuturan itu menggunakan kalimat tidak lengkap, maka tuturan itu dianggap kurang santun. 4.2.1 kalimat lengkap kalimat lengkap adalah kalimat yang unsur pengisi fungsi subjek atau predikatnya terpenuhi. ada atau tidaknya objek dalam sebuah kalimat tergantung tuntutan verbanya. sementara itu, ada verba yang selalu membutuhkan kehadiran objek, dan ada juga verba yang tidak membutuhkan kehadiran objek. hal ini dapat dilihat sebagaimana data berikut. (15) saya sudah di ruangan ketua jurusan menunggu bapak tuturan (15) menggunakan kalimat lengkap karena unsur pengisi fungsi subjek dan predikatnya terpenuhi. fungsi s diisi oleh pronominal persona, saya. fungsi p diisi oleh verba menunggu. fungsi o diisi oleh nama diri, bapak. fungsi o ini ada karena tuntutan prefiks mepada verba menunggu. unsur pengisi fungsi ket diisi oleh kata depan di yang diikuti anteseden ruangan ketua jurusan. 4.2.2 kalimat tidak lengkap kalimat tidak lengkap adalah kalimat yang tidak memenuhi salah satu unsur pengisi fungsi subjek dan predikat. hal ini dapat dilihat sebagaimana data berikut. (16) anu, kanda (17) sa tidak menger dari tadi (18) da pulang sebagian teman-temanku tuturan (16) tergolong kalimat tidak lengkap karena ketidakjelasan pengisi fahmi gunawan 17 fungsi s dan p. kata anu tidak dapat dipahami dengan baik karena merujuk kepada sesuatu yang tidak jelas dan harus menggunakan konteks. sementara itu, kata kanda merupakan nama diri yang tidak mungkin dapat mengisi fungsi p. hal ini karena pengisi fungsi p hanya dapat diisi oleh verba, nomina, adjektiva, dan kata depan. kalimat sa tidak menger pada tuturan (17) tergolong kalimat yang tidak jelas karena ketidaksempurnaan katanya. seharusnya, kata sa diubah menjadi saya dan menger diubah menjadi mengerti. kata saya dapat menjadi pengisi fungsi s dan mengerti dapat menjadi pengisi fungsi p. hal serupa juga terjadi pada kata da pada tuturan (18). kata da menjadi tidak jelas karena hanya merupakan kependekan dari kata yang seharusnya ditulis, yaitu dia. namun demikian, kata dia merupakan redundant dari frase sebagian teman-teman. penggunaan kalimat tidak lengkap dalam budaya kendari tidaklah sopan karena tidak menghargai seorang dosen dalam berinteraksi, meskipun dianggap santun karena tergolong dalam kesantunan positif. 4.3 kalimat berdasarkan pola urutan kata kalimat berdasarkan pola urutan kata dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu pola urutan kata biasa dan pola urutan kata inversi. pola urutan kata biasa adalah urutan kata yang sesuai dengan kebiasaan kepenulisan. maksudnya, urutan kata yang dimulai dari fungsi subjek, diikuti predikat dan objek. pola urutan kata inversi adalah pola urutan kata yang dibalik susunannya, yaitu urutan kata yang dimulai dengan predikat, diikuti subjek, dan objek. 4.3.1 pola urutan kata biasa yang dimaksud pola urutan biasa adalah urutan kata yang sesuai dengan kebiasaan penulisan, yaitu urutan kata yang dimulai dengan subjek kemudian diikuti oleh predikat. hal ini dapat dilihat pada data berikut. (19) saya mau mengonsultasikan proposal penelitian skripsi saya tuturan (19) disebut berpola urutan kata biasa karena dimulai dengan susunan kata subjek diikuti predikat dan objek. fungsi subjek diisi oleh pronominal persona, saya, fungsi predikat diisi oleh verba mengonsultasikan, dan fungsi objek diisi oleh frase nominal proposal penelitian skripsi saya. 4.3.2 pola urutan kata inversi pola urutan kata inversi adalah pola urutan kata yang tidak sesuai dengan urutan kata biasa, atau kebalikan dari urutan kata biasa. jika urutan kata biasa dimulai dengan subjek, urutan kata inversi dimulai dengan predikat. hal ini dapat dilihat pada data berikut. (20) bingung saya atas penjelasan itu tuturan (20) disebut urutan kata inversi karena dimulai urutan kata predikat yang journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 18 diikuti subjek dan pelengkap. fungsi predikat diisi verba bingung, sementara fungsi subjek diisi oleh pronominal persona saya. fungsi pelengkap diisi oleh frase preposisional atas penjelasan itu. 5. kesimpulan kesantunan berbahasa merupakan hal mutlak yang dibutuhkan dalam berkomunikasi, terutama antara seorang mahasiswa terhadap dosen. hal ini karena keduanya tergolong orang yang berpendidikan tinggi. tidaklah layak bagi orang yang berpendidikan dan berilmu pengetahuan untuk tidak menerapkan prinsip kesantunan dalam kehidupannya. termasuk di antaranya adalah kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa stain kendari terhadap dosennya. artikel yang membahas wujud kesantunan berbahasa mahasiswa terhadap dosen di stain kendari ini menemukan bahwa di dalam berinteraksi, mahasiswa stain kendari lebih memilih untuk menggunakan modus kalimat deklaratif dan interogatif untuk menyatakan kesantunannya daripada kalimat imperatif, kecuali dalam keadaan terdesak. selain itu, modus kalimat lengkap dan berpola urutan biasa juga menjadi pilihan untuk digunakan karena dianggap kebih santun daripada kalimat tidak lengkap dan berpola urutan inversi yang dianggap kurang santun. referensi arikunto, suharsimi. 1993. manajemen penelitian. jakarta: rineka cipta. brown, penelope dan stephen c. levinson. 1987. universal in language use: politeness phenomena. dalam esther n. goody (penyunting) question and politeness. cambridge: cambridge university press. gunawan, fahmi. (2013). politeness strategy on request speech act in bugis kendari language. proceedings the 1st international seminar on linguistics (isol-i), postgraduate programe on linguistics andalas university and linguistics society of indonesia universitas andalas. leech, geoffray (1993). prinsip-prinsip pragmatik. terjemahan oka, m.d.d. jakarta: universitas imdonesia mahsun. 2005. metode penelitian bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. nisja, indriani. (2009). ‘kesantunan berbahasa dalam berdiskusi mahasiswa jurusan bahasa indonesia semester iii tahun 2007-2008 ummy solok’. dalam jurnal ilmiah tambua, vol. viii, no. 3, september-desember. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta:duta wacana university press. wijana, dewa putu. (1996). dasar-dasar pragmatik. yogyakarta: andi offset. jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 27 article a phonological analysis on the english consonants of sundanese efl speakers faizal risdianto state institute of islamic studies (iain) salatiga, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: june 20, 2017 final revision: july 26, 2017 available online: july 27, 2017 this descriptive qualitative study focuses on the description of the english consonants systems spoken by speakers of sundanese backgrounds. this implies that such speakers of particular regional backgrounds speak unique and ideosyncratic native languages. this study will provide a description on the consonants production of english as foreign language (efl) speakers with sundanese native language in an experimental phonetic method to the students of islamic education department of state institute for islamic studies salatiga. in this study, the writer have two objectives: (1) to know the english consonants systems of efl sundanese speakers in islamic education department of state institute for islamic studies salatiga? and (2) to know the most frequent errors on pronouncing english consonants produced by efl sundanese speakers. from the result of the analysis, it can be seen that the efl sundanese students made 262 errors. it can also been seen that the greatest errors made by the efl sundanese students are mispronouncing the minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/, /s/ and /ө/ and /ð/ and /z/. the misuse of the sound “p” instead of “b” is common error for sundanese since there is not distinction between the sound “f”, “v” dan “p” in sundanese phonological system. keyword english consonants, phonological analysis , sundanese efl speakers correspondent e-mail: faizrisd@gmail.com i. introduction this study focuses on the description of the english consonants systems spoken by speakers of sundanese backgrounds. this implies that such speakers of particular regional backgrounds speak unique and ideosyncratic native languages according to corps (1989: 7), a language spoken by non-native speakers of english, is mainly taught in a school as one of the subjects and is not used commonly outside the class is called an english as a foreign language (efl). similarly, holisinska (2006:7) emphasizes that foreign languages are generally taught in a school. however, it is not possible that children in certain environment are introduced to speak a foreign language. a non-native speaker of english, while learning english, it is very likely that they will encounter http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 28 several difficulties. this is because the native language of the speakers is different from english. the differences include the structure, the functions, the systems, the pronunciation, the culture, etc. as a result of those differences, efl speakers need efforts to not only able to minimize the interference of their native languages while learning english. however, it is possible that some efl learners are successful to learn english as native-like english speakers, but some others are not. having this phenomenon, it sounds interesting to look further at how english is used by efl speakers. one interesting subject to look at dealing with efl is the sound system of the language. linguistically, there are two disciplines discussing sounds; they are phonetics and phonology. the first discipline deals with how the various accents are produced. in other words, it can be said that phonetics is a study about various sounds productions. on the other hand, phonology is not deal with the production but it is about how the sounds of a language are combined and patterned into a meaningful unit of sounds (mcmahon, 2001:1). in phonetics, different individual might produce different sounds. mcmahon exemplifies the case of language production for a baby living in an english-speaking family. she argues that such a baby will be able to produce english sounds after hearing and learning the language from the environment where he grows up. one thing to emphasize is that the sounds produced by that baby will change as his physical consonants organs develop. when the baby is still in the stage of babbling, he might only be able to produce /a/ for mama or papa. this is because the baby does not have teeth, a vocal organ, to produce /n/ or /t/. when he grows up with few teeth, he will start to learn /l/ but fail to produce /r/. finally, until all the vocal organs completed, the baby is a person an ability to produce the english sounds. however, when he learns another language, for example a javanese, he has to learn another sound system which is unlike the english. in javanese, there is a sound /ɳ/ which is absent in english. therefore, a native speaker of english, will find it is difficult to produce the /ɳ/ in bengi ‘night’. instead he will use two different sounds as /n/ and /g/. such an english native speaker, it is not easy for him to understand and master the sound system of other languages, especially languages from different family with large differences. realizing the phenomenon discussed previously, the writer is interested to look at the english consonant system which is produced by efl speakers with sundanese native language. according to roach (2000, cited in detering, 2004: 19-20), there are 26 consonants. on the other hand, sundanese has fewer consonants (23) than english. the details of this consonants system will discuss further in the next section. having these brief pictures of consonant sounds from the both english and sundanese, there is a high possibility that efl speakers of sundanese native language will find it is not easy to produce the english consonants correctly. thus, it is necessary to look at the description of how the efl sundanese speakers produce the english consonants. therefore, this study will provide a description on the consonants production of english as foreign language (efl) speakers with sundanese native language in an experimental phonetic method to the students of islamic education department of state institute for islamic studies salatiga. this study was conducted through a production experiment as zanten and heuven’ (1984) experiments on consonant production. in this study, the writer aims to answers 2 questions: how are the english consonants systems of efl sundanese speakers in islamic education department of state institute for islamic studies salatiga? what’s the most frequent errors on pronouncing english consonants of efl sundanese speakers in islamic education department of state institute for islamic studies salatiga? ii. methods the writer based the data from collection of phonetic experiment in a field research. following zanten and heuven (1984), the writer arranges an experiment for this study that faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 29 is a production experiment. the first experiment was conducted by asking the informants to read a set of english minimal pairs. the informants that the writer asked to help met the following criteria: 1. the informant is a native efl sundanese speaker and speaks no other regional languages. 2. the informant is a moderate efl speaker. 3. the informant is a student of islamic education in state institute for islamic studies achieving english score 3.0 out of 4.0. the data is collection by a tape-recording which is then transcribed using the phonetic transcription model. after the data is transcribed, the consonants produced by the efl speakers then are identified and classified according to the category of the english consonants system then compared to the sundanese consonants system. the results of the identification were used to describe the features of the consonants pronounced by the informants. underlying theory pronunciation is knowledge of how to say a word – that is how to pronounce it (harmer, 2001: 26). individuals may be possible to pronounce a word differently at different times. the reason is human of speech organs cannot produce and reproduce sounds with exactly in the same qualities. whereas, when the speaker pronounce a word inexactly, it will change the meaning or do not give the meaning and make confused and bring about misunderstanding to the hearer. they will face people that have different 14 pronunciation in speaking. they have to learn how people pronounce inevitably. according to ramelan (2003: 2), there are no two people who speak exactly alike. differences in pronunciation between one speaker and another are caused by geographical, social and historical factors; or they may also be caused by individual peculiarities such as stuttering, lisping, or other speech deficiencies. pronunciation problem the indonesian people learning foreign language especially english will find problem in many aspects. they will recognize new vocabulary, sound system and etc. one of problems that will interrupt them is pronunciation. not only for indonesian learner but also all of foreign learners face this condition. many problems that can be analyzed, are: a. nature of pronunciation problem it causes their first language or their mother tongue is different from target language. they produce new sound by their organs of speech that have been adapted with their mother tongue, whereas the way to produce the target language is different. moreover it has not uttered yet. this obstacle makes them learn to produce the sound as the native speaker. for 16 example, they hear or listen the native speaker pronounce which will stimulate them to imitate how their ways of moving speech organ. ramelan (2003: 8) states that this practice is a matter of training to move the organ of speech, or also called mouth-gymnastic. they have to concern the speaker when they utter a word. watching and listening carefully is the way to imitate. although, it is more difficult to make our mouth produce it. sometime it looks like strange, but after a long time, they will be familiarized and endeavor to pronounce it correctly. the habit that we make will make us better. in addition, the science dealing with such matters is called phonetics. it concerns the study of speech sound. another problem that interrupt is the identification of the foreign language sounds. before they produce sound they must know about articulatory quality that is the nature characteristic of speech sound. for example, consonants sound such as short /ɪ/ and long /i:/. when we pronounce pig /pɪg/, the consonants of /ɪ/ is uttered short consonants. beside that, if we say see /si:/, the consonants of /i:/ is pronounced long consonants. leaners must be able to identify directly when the word is uttered. this problem that burden them and make them try to learn the acoustic quality of alphabet that can have clear understanding of distinctive sound in english called phonetic faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 30 alphabet. after we know the theory, the phonetic transcription of the word from phonetic alphabet, the habit of hearing the speaker pronounce word. 17 the other problem appear when producing or trying to pronounce word is the way to utter word such as, stress, length, pitch, and intonation that are called suprasegmental features. it will influence the meaning if people pronounce a word with different stress or intonation. it will make the hearer misunderstood. b. speaking is a matter of habit many difficulties appear when learners study a foreign language. they recognize new sound system, vocabulary, and make a sentence that is different and unfamiliar. their acquisition of language is their mother tongue that the speech sound and organ of speech have set become habit. that is make them difficult to utter a foreign words. the different condition, when they move to place that the foreign language uses and active for communication. someone will become a new body that has second live in this place. it is potential that can change them to make new habit. according to ramelan (2003: 4), this potential ability is what called language acquisition device by transformational linguist. why he said that because we like reborn again and accept new language communication habit through imitating and practicing. continuing from the learning process someone that face lad have to resist or get strong opposition the old habit of speaking which called “habit interference”. producing a new sound, find the similar sound from the mother tongue, and replace it with their stock of sounds. factors contributing to students’ pronunciation although some researchers believe that all learners have the same capacity to learn a second or foreign language because they have learned their first language, a number of efl teachers have difficulties in improving the students’ pronunciation problems. as a result, in the past, several researchers have put great efforts, asserted and suggested many factors affecting students’ pronunciation (e.g., brown, 1994; celce-murcia et al., 2000; gillette, 1994; kenworthy, 1987). in this regard, these previous studies have been repeatedly substantiated that factors such as native language, age, exposure, innate phonetic ability, identity and language ego, and motivation and concern for good pronunciation ability, appeared to have an influence on teaching and learning pronunciation. iii. result the analysis on sundanese minimal pairs of consonant sounds minimal pairs /b/ and /v/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:rb/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rv/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rv/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/. respondent 3. mra made an error in pronouncing the word “verb” to be “/wȝ:rb/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rv/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/ respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rv/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/. respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/vɒn/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/ , the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:rp/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rv/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/. the misuse of the sound “p” instead of “b” is common error for sundanese since there is not distinction between the sound “f”, “v” dan “p” in sundanese phonological system. respondent 6.kh made an error in pronouncing the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:p/” (keliatan sundane disini ) whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rp/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v. this is also the proof that for sundanese since there is not distinction between the sound “f”, “v” dan “p” in sundanese faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 31 phonological system. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:p/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rve/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/ respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word ‘ban” to be “/bɒn/ whereas the correct one, it should be “/bæn/ , the word “van” was pronounced to be “/van/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/ , the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:rb/” (keliatan sundane disini ) whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rve/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/ respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “very” to be “/weri/ whereas the correct one, it should be “/veri/, the word “vest” to be “/pest/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vest/”, the word “verb” to be “/vȝ:rp/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/vȝ:b/ and pronouncing the word “verve” to be “/vȝ:rvp/ whereas the correct one is /vȝ:v/. minimal pairs /ʧ/ and /t/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/. (the word “eu” as an interjection in sundanese is not uncommon). respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/”, the word “notch” to be “/not∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt∫/” and the word “not” to be “/not/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt/” respondent 3. mra did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs/ʧ/ and /t/. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/” , the word “notch” to be “/not∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt∫/” and the word “not” to be “/not/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt/” respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/” , the word “notch” to be “/not∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt∫/” and the word “not” to be “/not/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt/” respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “catch” to be “/ket∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/kæt∫/” and the word “chew” to be “/kyu/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “catch” to be “/ket∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/kæt∫/” , the word “cat” to be “ /kɒt/ whereas the correct one, it should be “kæt”, the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/” , the word “notch” to be “/not∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt∫/” and the word “not” to be “/not/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt/” respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “chew” to be “/ceʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/t∫u:/” , the word “notch” to be “/not∫/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt∫/” and the word “not” to be “/not/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/nɒt/”. minimal pairs /s/ and /∫/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” .respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “sun” to be “/sʊn/ whereas the correct one, it should be “sᴧn”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/”whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/” , the word “show” to be “/∫o/ whereas the correct one should be “/∫ou/”. respondent 3. mra did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /s/ and /∫/. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “she” to be “/si:/” whereas the correct one is “/∫i:/”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 32 should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “she” to be “/si:/” whereas the correct one is “/∫i:/”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “she” to be “/si:/” whereas the correct one is “/∫i:/”, the word “sun” to be “/sʊn/ whereas the correct one, it should be “sᴧn”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “she” to be “/si:/” whereas the correct one is “/∫i:/”, the word “gas” to be “/gɒs/ whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “gash” to be “/gɒ∫/” whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “sun” to be “/sʊn/ whereas the correct one, it should be “sᴧn”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “gas” to be “/gɒs/ whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “gash” to be “/gɒ∫/” whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. respondent 9. afmade an error in pronouncing the word “gas” to be “/gɒs/ whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “gash” to be “/gɒ∫/” whereas the correct one is “/gæs/”, the word “sun” to be “/sʊn/ whereas the correct one, it should be “sᴧn”, the word “shun” to be “/∫un/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/∫ᴧn/” , the word “so” to be “/so/” whereas the correct one is “/soʊ/”. minimal pairs /f/ and /v/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/fæn/ “whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/ whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/fæn/ “whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlp/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlp/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v, the word “safe” to be “/sef/” whereas the correct one is “seif”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv” and the word “proof” to be “/prof/” whereas the correct one is “/pru:f/”. respondent 3. mra made an error in pronouncing the word “fan” to be “/fɒn/” whereas the correct one is “/fæn/” , the word “van” to be “/fæn/ “whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/” , the word “halve” to be “/hɒlv/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/fæn/ “whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlǝf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “safe” to be “/sef/” whereas the correct one is “seif”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv”. respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/wæn/ “whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlp/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlp/” whereas the faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 33 correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “safe” to be “/sef/” whereas the correct one is “seif”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “van” to be “/fæn/ “ whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlǝf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “safe” to be “/sef/” whereas the correct one is “seif”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv”. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “fan” to be “/fɑn/” whereas the correct one is “/fæn/ “, the word “van” to be “/fɑn/ “ whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlǝf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “safe” to be “/sef/” whereas the correct one is “seif”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv” and the word “proof” to be “/prof/” whereas the correct one is “/pru:f/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “fan” to be “/fɑn/” whereas the correct one is “/fæn/ “, the word “van” to be “/wɒn/ “ whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlve/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv” and the word “proof” to be “/prof/” whereas the correct one is “/pru:f/”. respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “fan” to be “/fɑn/” whereas the correct one is “/fæn/ “, the word “van” to be “/wɒn/ “ whereas the correct one, it should be “/væn/”, the word “off” to be “/of/” whereas the correct one is /ɑ:f/, the word “of” to be “/of/” instead of pronouncing “/ɑ:v/”, the word “half” to be “/hɒlf/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:f/”, the word “halve” to be “/hɒlve/” whereas the correct one is “/hɑ:v/”, the word “save” to be “/seif/” whereas the correct one is “seiv” and the word “proof” to be “/prof/” whereas the correct one is “/pru:f/”. minimal pairs /f/ and /h/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “fair” to be “/fɒır/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fer/ and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/hɒır/ whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “fed” to be “/fıd/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fed/” and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/heır/” whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 3. mra did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs f/ and /h/. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “fair” to be “/fɒer/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fer/ and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/heır/” whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 5. mifua did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /f/ and /h/. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “fair” to be “/fɒer/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fer/ and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/heır/ whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “fed” to be “/fıt/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fed/” and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/heır/” whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “fair” to be “/feir/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fer/ and pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/hɑır/ whereas the correct one is /her/. respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “fed” to be “/fıt/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/fed/” and faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 34 pronouncing the word “hair” to be “/heır/” whereas the correct one is /her/. minimal pairs /s/ and /θ/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “thing” to be “/dıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/θıŋ/”, the word “saw” to be “/sɒo/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” ,the word “thaw” to be “/dɒo/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/dınk/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “myth” to be “/mıt/” whereas the correct one is “/mıө/”, the word “pass” to be “/fɑ:s/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:s/”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “thaw” to be “/tɒʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”. respondent 3. mra made an error in pronouncing the word “saw” to be “/sɒʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” ,the word “thaw” to be “/θɒʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “thaw” to be “/tɑʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/өıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/өıŋk/”, the word “myth” to be “/mıt/” whereas the correct one is “/mıө/”, the word “pass” to be “/pes/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:s/”, the word “path” to be “/pet/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:θ/”. respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “saw” to be “/sɒʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” ,the word “thaw” to be “/tɑʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/θıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “myth” to be “/mıt/” whereas the correct one is “/mıө/”, the word “path” to be “/pet/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:θ/”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “thaw” to be “/tǝʊ/” (orang sunda biasa bilang euy ) whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/өıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “path” to be “/pet/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:θ/”. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “saw” to be “/sɑʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” , the word “thaw” to be “/tǝʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/θıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “pass” to be “/vɒs/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:s/”, the word “path” to be “/fɒθ/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:θ/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “saw” to be “/tɒo/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” ,the word “thaw” to be “/dɒo/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/өıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “myth” to be “/mıt/” whereas the correct one is “/mıө. respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “saw” to be “/sɒʊ/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/sɔ:/” ,the word “thaw” to be “/tɒʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/θɔ:/”, the word “sink” to be “/sıŋ/ whereas the correct one is “/sıŋk/”, the word “think” to be “/өıŋ/” whereas the correct one is “/θıŋk/”, the word “path” to be “/peθ/” whereas the correct one is “/pɑ:θ/”. minimal pairs /ð/ and /z/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/bri:t/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “breeze” to be “/brez/” whereas the correct one is /bri:z/, the word “bathe” to be “/bɒtǝ/” whereas the correct one is “/beıð/”, the word “bays” to be “/bɒıs/” whereas the correct one is “/beız/”, the word “lathe” to be “/lɒtǝ/” whereas the correct one is “/leið/”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/breð/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 35 and pronouncing the word “clothe” to be “/klot/” whereas the correct one is “/klǝʊð/”, the word “close” to be “/kloz/” whereas the correct one is “/klǝʊz/”, the word “lathe” to be “/lɒtǝ/” whereas the correct one is “/leið/”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 3. mra made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/bri:t/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “bathe” to be “/bɒt/” whereas the correct one is “/beıð/”, the word “bays” to be “/bɒıs/” whereas the correct one is “/beız/”, the word “lathe” to be “/let/” whereas the correct one is “/leið/”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “lathe” to be “/lɒıt/” whereas the correct one is “/leið/”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “clothe” to be “/klot/” whereas the correct one is “/klǝoð/”, the word “lathe” to be “/lɒıt/” whereas the correct one is “/leið/”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/bri:t/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “clothe” to be “/kloð/”, whereas the correct one is “/klǝoð/”, the word “close” to be “/kloz/” whereas the correct one is “/kloz/”, the word “bays” to be “/bɒıs/” whereas the correct one is “/beız/”, the word “lathe” to be “/lɒıt/” whereas the correct one is “/leið”. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/breð/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “bathe” to be “/bɒt/” whereas the correct one is “/beıð/”,the word “bays” to be “/bɒıs/” whereas the correct one is “/beız/”, the word “lathe” to be “/lɒıt/” whereas the correct one is “/leið”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/bri:t/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “bathe” to be “/bɒt/” whereas the correct one is “/beıð/”,the word “bays” to be “/bɒıs/” whereas the correct one is “/beız/”, the word “lathe” to be “/let/” whereas the correct one is “/leið”, the word “laze” to be “/lez/” whereas the correct one is “leiz”. respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “breathe” to be “/bret/” whereas the correct one, it should be “/bri:ð/ and pronouncing the word “breeze” to be “/brez/” whereas the correct one is “/bri:z/”. minimal pairs /ʤ/ and /z/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “jest” to be “ʤes” whereas the correct one is “/ʤest/” and pronouncing the word “zest” to be “/zes/’ whereas the correct one is “zest”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “stays” to be “/stɒız/” whereas the correct one is “/steiz/” and pronouncing the word “ways” to be “/wɒız/” whereas the correct one is “/weız/”. respondent 3. mra did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /ʤ/ and /z/.respondent 4. did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /ʤ/ and /z/.respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “pays” to be “/pɒız/” whereas the correct one is “/peız/”.respondent 6. kh did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /ʤ/ and /z/. respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “stays” to be “/stɒı/” whereas the correct one is “/steiz/”, the word “wage” to be “/wıg/” whereas the correct one is “/weıʤ/”, the word “ways” to be “/wɒız/” whereas the correct one is “/weız/” respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “stays” to be “/stɒı/” whereas the correct one is “/steiz/” and pronouncing the word “gip” to be “/gıp/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤıp/, “wage” to be “/wɒge/” whereas the correct one is “/weıʤ/”and pronouncing the word “zest” to be “/zes/’ whereas the correct one is “/zıst/”.respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “stage” to be “/steʤ/” whereas the correct one is “/steıʤ/” minimal pairs /d/ and /ʤ/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “badge” to be “/bɒdgǝ/” faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 36 whereas the correct one is “/bæʤ/” , the word “door” to be “/door/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/”, the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “deep” to be “/di:f/” whereas the correct one is “di:p/”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “wed” to be “/wıd/” whereas the correct one is “/wed/, the word “wedge” to be “/wıʤ/” whereas the correct one is “/weʤ/”. respondent 3. mra made an error in pronouncing the word “door” to be “/dor/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/” and pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”. respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “door” to be “/dʊr/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/”, the word “jaw” to be “/ʤeʊ” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/” .respondent 5. mifua made an error in pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤeʊ” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “wedge” to be “/wedge/” whereas the correct one is “/weʤ/”. respondent 6. kh made an error in pronouncing the word “door” to be “/dor/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/” and pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “ deep” to be “/di:f/” whereas the correct one is “/di:p/”, the word “jeep” to be “/ʤi:f/ whereas the correct one is “/ʤi:p/” respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “door” to be “/dor/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/” and pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤeʊ/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “wedge” to be “/wedge/” whereas the correct one is “/weʤ/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “badge” to be “/bɒdgǝ/” whereas the correct one is “/bæʤ/”, the word “door” to be “/dor/” whereas the correct one is “/dɔ:r/” and pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”, the word “wedge” to be “/wedge/” whereas the correct one is “/weʤ/”.respondent 9. af made an error in pronouncing the word “jaw” to be “/ʤɒw/” whereas the correct one is “/ʤɔ:/”. minimal pairs /f/ and /p/ respondent 1.tfm made an error in pronouncing the word “fast” to be “/pɒ:st/” whereas the correct one is “/fɑ:st/” and pronouncing the word “past” to be “/pest/” whereas the correct pronunciation is “/pɑ:st/”. respondent 2.saf made an error in pronouncing the word “fast” to be “/fes/” whereas the correct one is “/fɑ:st/” .respondent 3. mra did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /f/ and /p/.respondent 4. mf made an error in pronouncing the word “fast” to be “/fes/” whereas the correct one is “/fɑ:st/” and pronouncing the word “past” to be “/pes/” whereas the correct pronunciation is “/pɑ:st/”. respondent 5. mifua did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /f/ and /p/.respondent 6. kh did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /f/ and /p/.respondent 7. faf made an error in pronouncing the word “pool” to be “/pol/ whereas the correct one is “/pu:l/”. respondent 8. adn made an error in pronouncing the word “fast” to be “/fest/” whereas the correct one is “/fɑ:st/” and pronouncing the word “past” to be “/pest/” whereas the correct pronunciation is “/pɑ:st/”, the word “pool” to be “/pol/ whereas the correct one is “/pu:l/”.respondent 9. af kh did not make any error in the pronunciation of minimal pairs /f/ and /p/. iv. conclusion from the result of the analysis, it can be seen that the efl sundanese students made 262 errors. it can also been seen that the greatest errors made by the efl sundanese students are mispronouncing the minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/, /s/ and /ө/ and /ð/ and /z/. the sundanese efl speakers made 53 errors on pronouncing /f/ and /v/, 41 errors on pronouncing /s/ and /ө/ and 37 errors on pronouncing /ð/ and /z/. the misuse of the sound “p” instead of “b” is common error for sundanese efl speakers since there is no clear distinction between the sound “f”, “v” dan “p” in sundanese phonological system. faizal risdianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 37 references corps, p. 1989. tefl/tesl; teaching english as a foreign or second language. washington: information and collection exchange. holisinska, a. 2006. teaching english as a foreign language to students with learning difficulties. a bachelor thesis: masaryk university. katamba, f. 1989. an introduction to phonology. essex: addison wesley longman limited. mcmahon, a. 2002. phonetics and phonology. edinburgh: edinburgh university press. ltd. detering. 2004. how many consonants sounds are there in english?. stets language and communication review, vol. 3. no. 1. mardijono, j.j. 2003. english accemt evaluation: a study on indonesian efl learners’ perception. k@ta, vol. 5 no. 2, december 2003. jenkins, j. 2002. a sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation syllabus for english as an international language. applied linguistics 23, 1: 83–103. levis, j. 2005. changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. tesol quarterly 39, 3: 369–377.nation, i.s.p and newton, j. 2009. teaching esl/efl listening and speaking. newyork: routladge, taylor and francis. roach, p. 2000. english phonetics and phonology: a practical course, 3rd edition. cambridge: cambridge university press. deterding, d. 1997. the formants of monophthong consonantss in standard southern british english pronunciation. journal of the international phonetic association, 27: 47-55. crothers, j. 1978. 'typology and universale of consonants systems', in j h grcenberg (ed ), universals of human language, vol 2 phonology, pp 93-152, stanford, california stanford university press. van zanten, e , and v j van heuven. 1984 ά phonetic analysis of the indonesian consonants system a preliminary acoustic study', nusa, linguistic studies of indonesian and other languages m indonesia, 15 70-80 naskah jurnal arbitrer finish_3.pdf the effect of read-imagine-describe-evaluate-repeat (rider) strategy and reading motivation towar reading comprehension at grade viii of smp pertiwi 2 padang dwi anggreini waskito putri universitas negeri padang dwi2orchid@yahoo.com abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat pengaruh penggunaan rider strategi dan motivasi membaca guna memotivasi siswa dan meningkatkan kemampuan membaca siswa dalam memahami teks deskriptif pada satuan pendidikan sekolah menengah pertama (smp) di smp pertiwi 2 padang. rider strategi diharapkan dapat memberikan kontribusi yang lebih baik dalam pengajaran membaca teks deskriptif bagi siswa di smp. jenis penelitian ini adalah penelitian eksperimen dengan populasinya yaitu kelas viii smp pertiwi 2 padang tahun pelajaran 2014-2015. sampel penelitiannya yaitu kelas viii-2 sebagai kelas kontrol dan kelas viii-3 sebagai kelas eksperimen. instrumen yang digunakan adalah test membaca dan kuesioner. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan tidak adanya efek yang signifikan pada siswa yang memiliki motivasi tinggi. key words: teaching reading, rider strategy, teks descriptive vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 113 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ i. introduction reading is a very important activity to get information, knowledge, technology, and pleasure. the importance of reading activities make reading becomes an important part of the language skills that is developed in school. reading is a means for students to gather information and to get knowledge from printed material in which most of the knowledge and science are found. according to bowman (2001) reading is an appropriate means to promote a life-long learning. by reading, one can obtain information, and improve knowledge about the world. especially in educational aspect, the importance of reading has been claimed as one of the skills that can determine the students success in learning. basically, the main purpose of conducting reading activity at school is to get ideas and information. to achieve this purpose, it is necessary for the students to comprehend reading texts. conducting reading activity with deep comprehension is not easy, because reading is a complex process in which many factors can be involved. as a matter of fact, the students often feel unable to comprehend their text. they frequently feel hard to figure out ideas in the text that they have just read. from the interview with some students and observation conducted, there were several problems which caused the lack of motivation, lack of vocabulary and lack of imagination or prediction that make them got difficulties to identify the main idea of the text, determine topic sentence, and identify supporting detail. i addition, the teachers used the same teaching strategy almost all over teaching learning process. reading with deep comprehension is not easy because reading is a complex process in which many factors are involved. as a matter of fact, the students often feel unable to comprehend their text. they frequently feel hard to figure out ideas in the text that they have just read. reading comprehension is understanding a text that is read, or the process of constructing meaning from a text. lenz the process of construction meaning from ehension as a process not a state and it involves the message by the use of prior knowledge, the role of teacher is absolutely viewed necessary and required to guide the students and apply all techniques of reading toward the success of teaching reading. according to nunan (2003:68), there are two aspects of teaching reading, they are: teaching reading can refer to learners who are learning to read for the first time, and teacing learners who already have reading skill in their first language. it means that when we teach on reading is better to transfer the content of the text. in teaching reading, teachers have to know how to teach students comprehend the text that they have read. it must be a good idea that teachers can apply some strategies which make reading easier for that in teaching reading must include at least five components. they are a large number of reading, time in class to read, the right material that encourages students to read, direct teaching reading strategies and teachers skilled in matching material and reading strategies to students' interests and level of language skills. 114 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ based on the english syllabus of eighth grade of smp pertiwi 2 padang, students are expected able to comprehend descriptive, narrative, and recount texts. in this syllabus, the basic competence that should be acquired by the students in this level is comprehending the purpose, generic structure, and language features of the text. it means that the students are able to understand and produce the texts. however, many students had problem in comprehending the text, especially occurred in class viii of smp pertiwi 2 padang. the students got difficulty particularly on descriptive text. from the result of interview with the english teachers, it was found that many students did not pass minimum standard adequacy (skm) on descriptive text. this is supported by pre-test given to students which indicated that the students had some problems in comprehending descriptive text, especially on main idea, supporting details, reference, and inference. there were several problems which cau difficulties in comprehending the texts that was found from interview with the english teachers and many students. the problems were the vation, lack of vocabulary, and lack of imagination or prediction that make them got difficulties to identify the main idea of the text, determine topic sentence, and identify supporting detail. in addition, the teachers used the same teaching strategy almost all over teaching learning process. these problems need to solved immediately. visual imagery or visualisation is one of the key comprehension strategy to teach the low ability readers who have difficulty with comprehension, r.i.d.e.r strategy should be used for teaching and can overcome those problems. rider stands for readimage-describe-evaluate-repeat. according to mercer (1993), there are some steps of using rider strategy. it is explained as follow: read (reading the sentence), image (making an image or picture in your mind), describe (how the new image is different from the last sentence), evaluate (making sure that the image contains everything necessary), repeat (the step to rider as you read the text sentence). first, r.i.d.e.r strategy can make students active and skillful readers in the reading class since it provides many challenging activities. it activates the imagination or visualisation through the texts. second, by doing the activities, the students read more actively and enthusiastically because they are more interested in finding out what happened. in addition, they often remember more information, even after much time has passed third, a strategy can motivate students to read by imagination, what is coming to the them a text, the students predict what will happen in the text, then they want to know whether their imagination is true or not by reading then after reading they evaluate their imagination. it creates higher order thinking. the process of r.i.d.e.r strategy encourages students to be active and thoughtful readers, improving their comprehension. not only a strategy that is needed in reading comprehension but also reading motivation. the factors that influence students in reading comprehension is their motivation in reading, because reading is vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 115 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ an effortful activity that students often can choose to do or not to do. motivation is one of important factors that influence learning achievement. every student needs motivation in accomplishing his/her study during teaching learning process. brewster and fager (2000) states that students who are not motivated to engage in learning are unlikely to succed, with learning without getting bored and or giving up easily. motivation relies on reading comprehension, which fuels strategy development. students do reading for a particular purpose. reading by purpose provides motivation. teacher should think what factors make students to read. as harris make reading interesting. one is by employing material which is intrinsically capable of attracting and holding the readers interest. the other is by using the material that available in ways which foster interest. it means reading will become interesting if the teacher can combine these two alternatives. finding and creating appropriate material and procedure to teach it. motivation gives a great effect to the succes of learning. brown (2001:17) states that motivation is one of the most important factors in success in learning english. motivation means having a real purpose in learning english or really wanting to learn english for a reason. so, it is obvious that one also needs motivation in order to get success in reading english as one of the language skills. if he does not have motivation in reading, he will not read anything. as burnet (2001), state that motivation for reading is internalized reason for reading which active cognitive operation that enabled the individual such as acts as acquiring knowledge, enjoying aesthetic experiences, performing tasks, and parti-cipating in social contexts. the students should be motivated to read and reading itself can become their good habit. the students need internal and external motivational force. it may come from inside of individual himself or from the surrounding that can make reading becomes their habitual activity. therefore, the researcher implemented motivation toward stu reading comprehension in descriptive text. rider stands for read-image-describe-evaluate repeat. generally, the rider strategy helps the students to more easily understand the material given by the teacher, because this strategy uses imagination of students in thinking. considering the explanation above, the purpose of this research was to find out whether teaching reading a descriptive text to junior high school students by using rider strategy and reading motivation give significant result toward stu reading comprehension at grade viii of the smp pertiwi 2 padang. ii. method of the research the design of this research was experimental research because it tested the effect of twi independent variables (rider strategy and reading motivation) reading comprehension at grade viii of smp pertiwi 2 padang). it was quasi experimental research, this design was used because if randomly assigns the students to classes, it would disrupt classroom learning. 116 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ this research used post-test only design because this research only sees whether there is an effect of the treatment in experimental group or not, and the posttest score then compared with the control group to see the effect. the population of this research was the second grade students of viii at smp pertiwi 2 padang and the sample were 72 students who registered in two classes were viii-2 as experimental class and viii-3 as control class. the instrumentation of this research was reading comprehension test which consist of 30 items and questionnaire of reading motivation which consist of 40 items. the validity of reading test and reading motivation questionnaire was measured in the basic of content validity, construct validity and item validity. for reading motivation questionnaire, the construct, content and item validity of this questionnaire has already validated by the experts. as this research adapted a readymade questionnaire, the use of this questionnaire had been permitted by j.t. guthrie. for reading comprehension test, the test items were constructed by the researcher and it consult to the validator. the texts were are taken from an integrated course of english for smp viii (handbook). the procedure of this research is the experimental class was taught by using rider strategy in whilst-teaching. meanwhile, control class was taught by using conventional teaching. iii. findings and discussions comprehension post-test scores in the experimental and control class. experimental class control class number of students 36 36 max 100 97 min 47 40 sum 2910 2566 posttest scores in both experimental and control class from the table above, it can be seen that the highest reading comprehension score of students in experimental class is 100 and the lowest 47, while the total score is 2910. in con-trol class, the highest reading compre-hension score of students is 97 and the lowest 40, while the total score is 2566. table 2. recapitulation of post-test based on motivation of experimental and control group reading motiv ation group n x ma x x mi n x sd high experi mental 1 8 10 0 53. 33 80. 19 15. 10 control 1 8 86. 67 46. 67 74. 82 10. 37 low experi mental 1 8 96. 67 46. 67 81. 48 13. 68 control 1 8 86. 67 40. 00 67. 78 15. 30 reading motivation group n x ma x x mi n x sd high experi mental 1 8 10 0 53. 33 80. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 117 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 19 15. 10 control 1 8 86. 67 46. 67 74. 82 10. 37 low experi mental 1 8 96. 67 46. 67 81. 48 13. 68 control 1 8 86. 67 40. 00 67. 78 15. 30 based on the table above, it can be seen high reading motivation of experimental group was 100, the lowest score was 53.33 and the mean score was 80.19. on the other hand, the highest score of stucontrol group was 86.67, the lowest score was 46.67 and the mean score was 74.82. moreover, on the students with low reading motivation, it can be seen that the highest score of experimental group was 96.67, the lowest score was 46.67 and the mean score 81.48. on the other hand, the reading motivation of control group was 86.67, the lowest score was 40 and the mean score was 67.78. a. hypothesis 1 classification group experimental control n 36 36 x 80.83 71.30 1664 1437 tcalculated 2.935 ttable 1.667 table 3. result of hypothesis 1 it can be caused by the teaching strategy which is used by the researcher, as wang (2007:2) states that a good teaching strategy can motivate students and make them focus in the process of learning. it means that rider strategy can improve stu b. hypothesis 2 classification group experimental control n 18 18 x 80.19 74.82 850 777 tcalculated 1.246 ttable 1.691 table 4. result of hypothesis 2 the result of hypothesis testing shows that t-calculated is 2.935 which is 1.667 higher than ttable (tcalculated > ttable ), it means that the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted and h0 is rejected. it shows who was taught through rider strategy was better than students who was taught through conventional teaching. the result of hypothesis testing shows that tcalculated is 1.246 and ttable is 1.691 lower than ttable (tcalculated > ttable ), it means that the alternative hypothesis (h1) is rejected and null hypothesis (h0) is accepted. the average score of the high perimental group have the highest scores than students in the control group. furthermore, students with higher reading motivation payed more attention on text given by the teacher. they tended to be active in class and have more reading mo118 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ tivation because they have positive view toward reading activity. reading motivation will create interesting in read-ing. according to guthrie et. al (2006:284) interest in reading is a motivational construct that has been described as a personal investment. it means that, the students who have reading motivation, they will be interested in reading. so, the students who have reading motivation will want and willing to read and they will try to gain the meaning from the text that they read. c. hypothesis 3 classification group experimental control n 18 18 x 81.48 67.78 688 590 tcalculated 2.935 ttable 1.691 table 5. result of hypothesis 3 2.935 and ttable is 1.691 with df=34 igher than ttable (tcalculated > ttable ), it means that the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted and h0 is rejected. it shows that the taught through rider strategy was better than students who was taught through conventional teaching. it was influenced by some factors. first, students in the experimental group who were taught by rider strategy got more active to develop their imagine and thinking. this is in line with scevak and moore (1997:280) who state that strategy will improve the comprehension of a whole class of students, as opposed to then they discussed their ideas and share. it was different by the control class. classification group experimental control n 18 18 x 81.48 67.78 688 590 tcalculated 2.935 ttable 1.691 the result of hypothesis testing shows that tcalculated is d. hypothesis 4 table 5. result of hypothesis 4 source type iii sum of squar e s d f mean squar e fcalcu lat sig. ftab le inter 1637.25 1 1637.2 8.66 0.0 3.9 row 5 55 9 4 8 (strateg y) inter 148.264 1 148.26 0.78 0.3 3.9 column 4 5 79 8 (reading motivati on) interacti 312.500 1 312.50 1.65 0.2 3.9 on 0 5 03 8 error 12842.8 6 188.86 52 8 5 total 431527. 7 578 2 table anova above shows that score of fcalculated for interaction of strategy and reading motivation is 1.655 and signivalue of ftabel is 3.98 , because of fcalculated < ftable and sig value is higher it means that there is no interaction between both strategies of teaching reading and reading motivation toward stucriptive text. it means that null hypothesis (h0) is accepeted and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is rejected. the unexpected result of this study was caused by the meeting in this research was fewer than 12 meetings, and the researvol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 119 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ cher could not treat the students maximally. so, the result might not be as good as expected. moreover, the students participated activelly in experimental class, but in control class only few of students participated in teaching learning process. this is may be due to the fact that the researcher was not their real teacher. this is also could have affected the results. in conclusion, rider strategy that used in experimental group more effective than conventional strategy. moreover, the data showed that there was possibility for the students that have low motivation to improve their reading comprehension and get the high score of reading comprehension through rider strategy. and for the students that have high motivation, it is a change to maximalist their abiltiy in reading comprehension. iv. conclusions based on the results of the data analysis and findings of this research which was conducted at grade viii of smp pertiwi 2 padang, it can be conclude that the effect of using read-imagine describe-evaluate-repeat reading (rider) strategy and reading motivation give significant result toward reading comprehension at grade viii of smp pertiwi 2 padang. from that result, it was caused by the students with low reading motivation who were taught by read-imagine-describeevaluaterepeat reading (rider) strategy have significantly higher reading comprehension than the students with reading motivation who were taught by using conventional strategy. referring to the research findings and discussions of the research, some suggestions can be given. the suggestions are the teacher of smp pertiwi 2 padang and other teachers to apply rider strategy as one of the alternative way to hension. it can help the teacher have various activities in the classroom. it is suggested to other researcher to attempt to conduct a research about stukinds of the texts like narrative, report, review, and so on. this research is only limited reading comprehension, it is suggested to other researchers to attempt conducting a research on other skills like listening, speaking, and writing. the moderator variable in this research is reading motivation. it is suggested to the other researcher to conduct a research on other moderator variable like learning motivation, self-efficacy, selfconfident, participation, and so on. note: this article was written based on state university of padang supervised by prof. dr. m. zaim, m.hum and dra. yenni rozimela, m.ed, ph.d 120 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ references bowman, b. (2001). eager to learn: educating our pre-schoolers. report of committee on early childhood pedagogy, commission on behavioral and social sciences and education national research council. washington dc: national academy press. brewster, c., & fager, j. (2000). increasing student engagement and motivation: from time-on-task to homework. northwest regional educational. laboratory newsletter. retrieved: october, 9, 2005 from world wide web. http://www.nwrel.org/request/o ct00/textonly.html brown, h. d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approaches to language pedagogy. (2nd ed.) london: longman. burnett, p. preferences for teacher journal of classroom interaction, 36, 16 23 guthrie, j.t. 2006. tasks on reading motivation and journal of educational research, 232-245. retrieved on july 2012. http://www.elsevier. com/locate/cedpsychonlinejo urnals.com/pdfs/664.pdf harris, a. j. 1990. how to increase reading ability: a guide to development and remedial methods. new york: david mckey. lenz, k., 2005. an introduction to reading comprehension. http://www.specialconnections. ku.edu/cgibin/cgiwrap/speccon n solving skills". learning disability research & practice, 8, 169-174 moore, p. j. & scevak, j. j. (1997). learning from texts and visual aids: a developmental perspective. journal of research in reading, 20(3). 205-223. nunan, david. 2003. practical english language teaching. singapore: mc graw hill ance and portfolio assessment for language minority students. washington, dc: national clearinghouse for bilingual education. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 346747) wang. (2007). student-centered cooperative teaching. new college english teaching report. no. 5 vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 121 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ i dewa putu wijana 19 pemakaian bahasa dalam karya ilmiah populer oleh, i dewa putu wijana fakultas ilmu budaya universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta email: idp_wijana@yahoo.com abstract this article is intended to describe the characteristics of language used in popular scientific discourse, and its differences from ones usually found in pure scientific articles. a close and careful examination through some amount of data extracted from intisari, one of the most popular scientific megazines in indonesia, shows that the use of language in the popular megazine is considerably different from those generally exploited in more serious scientific articles. the differences include the use of long and short sentence combinations, reported speech, pronouns, simele and metaphor, diction, conjuction and other syntactic constituent ellipsis, and anecdotes and play on word. the popular style is important to master, especially by anyone who are involved and interested in popular writing activities. accordingly, the standard variation is not the only style to teach in langage learning. key words: popular, scientific, and style 1. pendahuluan dari berbagai pakar yang telah memaparkan karakteristik ragam bahasa ilmiah, pandangan poerwadarminta (1979, 18) agaknya cukup memadai digunakan sebagai acuan atau pegangan di dalam mengidentifikasikan variasi bahasa yang sering digunakan oleh para ilmuan dalam mengkomunikasikan pikiran-pikirannya dalam situasi dan lingkungan keilmuan. secara lengkap dikatakan bahwa: “ragam bahasa ilmiah adalah bahasa pikiran yang sesungguh-sungguhnya. yang disampaikan ialah kegiatankegiatan pikiran, ditujukan kepada pikiran, dan harus pula ditangkap dengan pikiran. ketepatan dan kesaksamaan penuturan memegang peranan penting dalam bahasa ilmiah. segala kemampuan yang yang ada dalam bahasa dikerahkan untuk mengkomunikasikan kebenaran, pengertian, pendapat, pengetahuan , keyakinan, dsb. seefisien-efisiennya. karena itu, digunakan kata-kata, ungkapan-ungkapan dan cara-cara penuturan yang khusus bagi satu bidang ilmiah dan teknik. tak sedikit kata-kata yang sengaja ditempa dan ditentukan pengertiannya, yaitu yang lazim disebut istilah keilmuan. katakata itu bagi orang luar tak ubahnya dengan kata-kata dewata. lain dari itu digunakan juga rumus-rumus dan kependekan-kependekan yang hanya journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 20 ada dalam suatu bidang ilmiah atau teknik” sementara itu, ramlan dkk. (1985, 10) mencatat sekurang-kurangnya 7 ciri yang mutlak dimiliki oleh bahasa ragam ilmu. adapun ketujuh ciri itu antara lain menyangkut kebakuan kaidah pengucapan dan penulisan dalam berbagai tataran kebahasaanya, kekhasan pemakaian istilah, kejelasan dan kehematan pemakaian unsur-unsur kebahasaannya, kekohesifan dan kekoherenan hubungan unsur-unsur pembentuk wacananya, serta ketidaktaksaan makna kata atau maksud penuturannya, kedominanan pemakaian kalimat pasif, dan keajegan pemakaian istilah, tanda baca, dan kata ganti diri. pendek kata, kalimat-kalimat dalam ragam tulisan lebih cermat sifatnya. hubungan unsur-unsur pembentuk kalimat, seperti subjek, predikat, dan objek harus nyata. di dalam ragam lisan nonformal salah satu atau beberapa di antaranya dapat ditanggalkan (moeliono, 1977, 6). sementara itu, dengan memfokuskan pada tataran-tataran yang lebih kecil kridalaksana (1975) merinci 11 ciri bahasa baku (periksa pula kushartanti, 2006, 1-2). kesebelas ciri itu adalah 1. adanya penggunaan afiks me dan ber secara eksplisit dan konsisten, 2. adanya penggunaan fungsi gramatikal (subjek, predikat, objek, keterangan, dan pelengkap) yang eksplisit dan konsisten, 3. adanya keterbatasan penggunaan elemen dialek dan daerah, 4. adanya penggunaan konjungsi bahwa dan karena secara konsisten dan eksplisit, 5. adanya penggunaan pola aspek plus pelaku plus verba secara konsisten, 6. adanya penggunaan konstruksi sintetis –nya dan me(n)-kan misalnya harganya dan meninggikan, alih-alih konstruksi analitis dia punya harga dan dibuat tinggi, 7. penggunaan klitika kah dan pun secara konsisten, 8. penggunaan elemen-elemen leksikal yang baku, 9. penggunaan bentuk sapaan yang konsisten, 10. penggunaan istilah-istilah formal, dan 11. penggunaan ejaan formal. sehubungan dengan batasan poerwadarmita dan ciri-ciri yang dikemukakan oleh ramlan dan kridalaksana di atas, maka wacana ilmiah hanya akan dinikmati oleh kalangan tertentu yang sangat terbatas jumlahnya, dan dalam suasana penikmatan yang khusus pula, yakni suasana penuh keseriusan. sementara itu, ada sekelompok kalangan yang ingin pula menikmati informasi-informasi ilmiah dalam situasi penikmatan yang agak santai dengan jenis ragam bahasa yang tidak terlalu ketat mematuhi norma-norma penggunaan yang terlalu formal. untuk mewadahi kebutuhan ini sejumlah penulis perlu mengkreasikan jenis wacana tertentu yang lazim disebut dengan wacana ilmiah i dewa putu wijana 21 populer. penggolongan brewer & lichtenstein, (1982, 437, periksa pula allan 1989, 118, wijana, 2004, 2) yang secara sederhana membagi wacana berdasarkan daya perlokusinya menjadi, wacana interaktif, wacana informatif, dan wacana persuasif agaknya terlalu sederhana. di dalam kenyataannya berbagai jenis wacana seringkali menggabungkan dua atau lebih fungsi perlokusioner bahasa. wacana iklan misalnya tidak semata-mata persuasif, tetapi di dalamnya terkandung pula maksud untuk memberi informasi tentang produk yang ditawarkan. wacana ilmiah populer yang menjadi kajian makalah ini jelas sekali secara dominan menampakkan sekurang-kurangnya 2 fungsi pragmatis, yakni fungsi informatif untuk menyampaikan fakta-fakta dan fungsi rekreatif untuk menghibur dan mempertahankan minat pembaca dalam menikmati fakta-fakta yang disajikan penulisnya. hanya saja permasalahannya bagaimanakah wujud bahasa ilmiah populer itu, dan aspek-aspek apa saja yang dimanfaatkan penulisnya untuk menciptakan tulisan yang memiliki daya pikat, sejauh ini belum ada pembahasan yang khusus dan bersifat mendalam. 2. tinjauan pustaka pembahasan mengenai bentuk atau wujud bahasa atau bagian-bagian yang membentuk sebuah wacana informatif dalam berbagai kepustakaan selama ini lebih banyak berhubungan dengan “wacana ilmiah murni”. beberapa di antaranya yang dapat disebutkan di sini misalnya kajian diakronis terhadap perkembangan wacana keilmuan yang dilakukan oleh gunarsson (1997, 99). dalam upaya memahami perkembangan historis wacana keilmuan atau wacana profesional harus diperhatikan isi teks dan berbagai variasinya. sehubungan dengan itu, perkembangan itu harus dipandang sebagai proses dinamis yang melibatkan tiga lapisan, yakni lapisan kognitif, lapisan sosietal, dan lapisan sosial. tulisan johns (1996, 102) yang berjudul the text and its message mengulas secara panjang lebar mengenai bagianbagian yang menyusun text, lalu menggambarkan penyusun teks itu dalam berbagai model, seperti model diagram pohon, matriks, atau bagian alir. rangkaian bagian-bagian yang menyusun sebuah teks disebut sebagai struktur informasi sebuah teks. sementara itu, tulisan coulthard (1996, 111) mengulas berbagai kesalahan yang sering dilakukan oleh orang-orang yang hendak memproduksi dan mengorganisasi sebuah teks sehingga produk yang dihasilkan sulit dipahami. tekstualisasi yang buruk dalam sebuah teks disebabkan oleh buruknya struktur retorika yang dibangun oleh penulisnya. teks dibangun tidak mempertimbangkan calon pembaca (imagined reader)-nya, dan tidak mengikuti prinsip-prinsip pola penyusunan struktur informasi teks, seperti pola umum-khusus (generalparticular pattern) dan pola problem dan solusi (problem-solution pattern). penelitian terhadap penggunaan elemenjournal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 22 elemen bahasa yang lebih kecil di dalam teks telah pula dilakukan oleh beberapa ahli. pagano (1996, 250) misalnya membahas pemakaian bentuk negatif dalam teks berbahasa inggris, dan penerapannya dalam bahasa indonesia dilakukan oleh triyoko. sementara itu, mccarthy (1996) dan fries (1996) secara berturut-turut membahas pemakaian it, this, dan that dan struktur tema (theme) dan rema (rheme) sebuah teks. tulisan yang paling lengkap menguraikan perihal wacana ilmiah populer dalam bahasa indonesia adalah karya soeseno (1995). dalam bukunya yang berjudul teknik penulisan ilmiah populer: kiat menulis nonfiksi untuk majalah dibahas berbagai hal teknis dan teoretis mengenai tulisan dan penulisan karya ilmiah populer, mulai dari batasan dan perbedaannya dengan jenis-jenis tulisan yang lain, persiapan penulisan, teknik menulisnya, struktur wacananya, termasuk pula penggunaan bahasanya yang khas. khusus berkaitan dengan bahasa karya ilmiah populer dikatakan bahwa bahasa itu harus cepat ditangkap (dipahami) karena bebas kata pemanis dan dituturkan dengan kalimat yang hemat kata. selain itu menurut soeseno bahasa tulisan ilmiah populer harus ringkas dan jelas, lengkap dan teliti, kalimat-kalimatnya pendek, alineanya beruntun dan memikat, dan nada penulisannya bersahabat. hanya saja yang belum diuraikan secara jelas dalam tulisan ini bagaimana kekhasan bahasa ilmiah populer itu bila dilihat dan dijelaskan secara linguistis. bagaimanakah ciri-ciri kalimat yang ringkas dan mudah ditangkap? apakah yang dimaksud dengan kata-kata pemanis dan ciri-ciri alinea beruntun yang memikat, serta nada penulisan yang bersahabat? kesemua ini masih memerlukan pembahasan yang lebih terinci. 3. landasan teori dalam berbagai teori kebahasaan yang mempertimbangkan konteks situasi, hampir tidak terbantah bahwa konteks ekstralingual merupakan faktor yang sangat penting yang mempengaruhi wujud bahasa seseorang. di antara sejumlah faktor yang disebutkan, dapat dipastikan bahwa faktor partisipan, khususnya lawan tutur merupakan salah satu faktor yang terpenting (periksa leech, 1983, hymes, 1974, wijana 1996). hymes dalam teori komponen tuturnya “speaking” memasukkan lawan tutur sebagai bagian dari partisipan. sementara itu, firth seperti yang dikutip oleh halliday & hasan (1985) menggolongkannya sebagai bagian dari pelibat. dalam teori ranah (domain), fishman secara tegas membatasi konsep ranah ini sebagai pemakaian bahasa yang kekhususannya dicirikan oleh berbagai faktor, dan salah satu faktor itu adalah orang-orang yang terlibat di dalam interaksi. sehubungan dengan itu, walaupun permasalahan atau topik yang hendak dikemukakan sama atau hampir sama dengan yang terdapat dalam wacana ilmiah murni, wacana ilmiah populer tentu akan memiliki i dewa putu wijana 23 bentuk-bentuk kebahasaan yang khas sebagai konsekuensi perbedaan tipe interaksinya, dan kekhususan bentukbentuk kebahasaannya merupakan ciri genrenya. di dalam aktivitas tulismenulis, pembaca yang secara tidak langsung berhadapan dengan penulis, selalu dibayangkan keberadaannya. pembaca-pembaca itu menurut konsepsi coulthard disebut imagined readers. untuk ini perhatikan kutipan berikut ini: “as i create (this) text i have no way of knowing anything about you, my current reader, nor of when or where you will read my text. thus, i cannot create my text with you in mind, i cannot take into account what you already know,and what you do not know, what you believe and what you disbelieve. […] the only strategy open to me, therefore, is to imagine a reader, and to create my text for that imagined reader.” secara teoretis memang mudah mengklasifikasikan ragam bahasa menjadi berbagai jenis, seperti halnya yang dilakukan oleh joss yang membagi ragam bahasa berdasarkan tingkat keformalannya menjadi ragam beku (frozen), ragam resmi (formal), ragam konsultatif (consultative), ragam informal (casual), dan ragam akrab (intimate). akan tetapi, dalam praktiknya kehadiran ciri-ciri masing-masing ragam dapat muncul di dalam sebuah wacana. di dalam wacana ilmiah populer dapat diasumsikan beberapa ciri ragam itu, yakni ragam formal, konsultatif, inormal, dan akrab, sering kali ditemui sehingga tidak mudah memposisikan genre wacana ini dengan kerangka teori joss tersebut. hal yang serua akan dialami bila seseorang hendak menerapkan teori fungsi bahasa yang dikemukakan oleh jakobson karena sering kali dalam kenyataannya sebuah teks menampakkan beberapa fungsi komunikatif (holmes, 1992) . 4. metode data-data yang disajikan dalam makalah ini diambilkan dari artikel-artikel ilmiah populer yang dimuat dalam majalah intisari, majalah yang selama ini cukup dikenal sebagai media yang banyak memuat karya-karya ilmiah populer mengenai berbagai topik, seperti pertanian, kedokteran, teknologi, sosial budaya, dsb. data-data yang menunjukkan kekhasan bentuk penuturan setelah dibandingkan secara intuitif dengan bagaimana umumnya wujud penuturannya secara ilmiah murni selanjutnya diklasifikasikan berdasarkan kekhasan ciri-ciri kebahasaannya. untuk menjelaskan perbedaan sejumlah data diubah wujudnya ke dalam ragam yang lain dengan tetap mempertahankan informasinya. selain itu, perbandingan juga dilakukan dengan bentuk-bentuk wacana yang terdapat di dalam beberapa karya ilmiah. 5. ciri-ciri kebahasaan dan penuturan wacana ilmiah populer journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 24 sejumlah ciri kebahasaan yang membedakan karya ilmiah populer dengan tulisan ilmiah murni berhasil diungkapkan setelah dilakukan pengamatan terhadap data yang terkumpul. dari hasil analisis itu dapat dibuktikan bahwa wacana ilmiah populer berbeda dengan karya ilmiah murni dalam hal-hal berikut ini: 1. kombinasi kalimat pendek dan kalimat panjang 2. pemakaian kutipan langsung 3. pemakaian kata ganti 4. penggunaan metafora dan simile 5. pemakaian kata-kata ragam percakapan 6. penghilangan kata penghubung dan unsur-unsur kalimat lain 7. pemanfaatan anekdot dan permainan bahasa 5.1 kombinasi kalimat pendek dan kalimat panjang karya ilmiah murni lazimnya mengungkapkan proposisi-proposisinya dengan gaya sintetis sehingga wacananya cenderung disusun dengan kalimatkalimat yang panjang. sehubungan dengan itu, kombinasi kalimat-kalimat majemuk sering mendominasi jenis wacana ini sehingga konjungsi antar klausa di manfaatkan secara maksimal di dalamnya. wacana (1) berikut misalnya terdiri dari sejumlah kalimat majemuk dengan memanfaatkan berbagai kata penghubung (yang demi kemudahan dituliskan dengan cetak miring). (1) istilah ilmu pengobatan dipakai di sini sebagai sinonim ilmu kedokteran (geneeskunde, heilkunde, medicine), yang di malaysia disebut ilmu perubatan. ketika membuat istilah-istilah ilmiah di indonesia di zaman pendudukan jepang, geneeskunde diterjemahkan menjadi ilmu ketabibab, yaitu ilmu yang mendidik mahasiswa menjadi tabib dan harus menguasai hal-hal yang bersangkutan dengan tabib. oleh karena tabib dalam masyarakat mempunyai arti khusus, maka istilah tersebut tidak populer dan pada awal kemerdekaan komisi istilah menggantinnya dengan ilmu kedokteran, sebab mahasiswa dididik menjadi dokter, dan kepadanya diajarkan hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan dokter. dengan perkataan lain nama sebuah ilmu dibuat berdasarkan nama pelakunya atyau karyawannya, akan tetapi teknik tidak disebut keinsinyuran, sedangkan di malaysia sebaliknya justru disebut ilmu kejuruteraan. cakupan pengobatan juga lebih luas daripada kedokteran, karena meliputi pengobatan tradisional, alternatif, komprehensif, integratif atau holistis (jacob, 1998, 1) walaupun tidak selamanya wacana ilmiah populer disusun dengan kalimat-kalimat pendek, tetapi pemanfaatan kalimatkalimat pendek jelas sekali terlihat untuk mengimbangi kalimat-kalimat yang lebih kompleks. untuk ini dapat diperhatikan i dewa putu wijana 25 wacana karya ilmiah populer (2) dan (3)berikut ini: (2) (a) saking harumnya buah carica bisa mengecoh. (b) mereka yang pertama mencium aromanya bakal tertipu dan menyangka daging buah ini pasti terasa manis menyegarkan. (c) nyatanya tidak. (d) meski sudah matang, daging buah bagian luarnya terasa hambar. (e) tidak seperti daging pepaya yang manis. (f) rasanya lebih mirip daging pepaya yang mentah (intisari, februari 2007). (3) (a) saat masih muda, warna buahnya hijau. (b) sedikit lebih gelap daripada hijau pepaya muda. (c) jika kulitnya dilukai, ia akan menghasilkan getah, sama seperti pepaya muda. (d) rasa daging buahnya pun sama dengan pepaya muda (intisari, februari 2007) dalam wacana (2) yang tersusun dari 5 penggal kalimat, hanya dua kalimat merupakan kalimat majemuk, yakni (b) dan (d), sedangkan yang lain merupakan kalimat tunggal. bahkan, kalimat (c) dan (e) adalah kalimat tunggal yang sangat pendek dibentuk dengan pelesapanpelesapan unsur-unsur yang diasumsikan telah diketahui oleh pembacanya, yakni daging buah ini terasa manis menyegarkan dan daging buah bagian luarnya. demikian juga halnya dengan wacana (3). wacana ini tersusun dari 4 kalimat, yakni 2 kalimat majemuk yakni (a) dan (c), dan 2 kalimat tunggal (b) dan (d). kalimat tunggal (b) dibentuk dengan menghilangkan subjek atau topik warna buahnya yang sudah disebutkan pada kalimat yang mendahuluinya. adapun perihal penghilangan satuan-satuan kalimat atau satuan-satuan lainya akan diuraikan dalam 4.6 di bawah. dari pengamatan yang dilakukan ternyata para penulis tulisan ilmiah populer seringkali sengaja meotong kalimatkalimat majemuk menjadi dua bagian, yakni dengan meletakkan klausa kedua (umumnya yang koordinatif atau setara) menjadi penggalan kalimat yang kedua. untuk ini dapat diperhatikan (4) dan (5) berikut ini: (4) batuk memang menjengkelkan. tapi batuk sesungguhnya mekanisme alami tubuh untuk mengeluarakan segala sesuatu yang mengganggu saluran pernafasan, seperti lendir atau benda asing lainnya (intisari februari 2007). (5) gejala sesak nafas biasa muncul pada penderita asma dan penyakit jantung koroner. namun, sebenarnya ada kemungkinan penyebab lain yang jarang diketahui oleh orang awam (intisari februari 2007). di dalam wacana-wacana yang lebih formal kata penghubung tetapi dan namun digunakan untuk merangkaikan klausa yang mendahului dan mengikutinya journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 26 sehingga (4) dan (5) diungkapkan menjadi (4a) dan (4b) berikut ini: (4a) batuk memang menjengkelkan, tetapi batuk sesungguhnya mekanisme alami tubuh untuk mengeluarakan segala sesuatu yang mengganggu saluran pernafasan, seperti lendir atau benda asing lainnya. (5a) gejala sesak nafas biasa muncul pada penderita asma dan penyakit jantung koroner, namun sebenarnya ada kemungkinan penyebab lain yang jarang diketahui oleh orang awam. berkaitan dengan ini seringkali ada anjuran untuk melarang pemakaian katakata penghubung sejenisnya, seperti sedangkan, dan, lalu, kemudian, bahkan, serta, dsb. untuk mengawali sebuah kalimat. bila disimak lebih lanjut besar kemungkinan ditemukan penggunaan konjungsi subordinatif. 5.2 pemakaian kutipan langsung di dalam wacana ilmiah yang mengutamakan objektivitas penuturan dapat dipastikan bahwa gaya pemaparan yang digunakan adalah gaya “pelaporan”, yakni penulis melaporkan atau mendeskripsikan hasil-hasil temuannya. adapun gaya bercerita dengan memanfaatkan kutipan langsung akan terasa aneh. dalam penulisan karya ilmiah populer terjadi hal yang sebaliknya. untuk mendekatkan pembaca dengan objek yang diamatinya, penulis seringkali menggunakan kutipan-kutipan langsung sehingga terasa lebih dekat dan ikut bersama peneliti di dalam proses penelitian. untuk ini perhatikan contoh (6) dan (7) berikut: (6) rasa manis dan harum carica akan semakin terganggu jika saat makan, getah carika ikut terkena bibir. “kalau kena tlutuh-nya, bibir bisa gatal, “kata pawit, petani kejajar mengingatkan (intisari, februari 2007). (7) bobot satu buah carica biasanya hanya satu ons. jauh lebih kecil daripada pepaya. satu kilogram carica bisa 10-15 buah. “jumlahnya tidak tentu, “kata mat halim, warga desa sikunang. “kalau buahnya kecil-kecil, satu kilo (gram) bisa berisi 15 buah, “katanmya dengan bahasa indonesia tertegun-tegun sambil tertawa di setiap akhir kalimat (intisari februari, 2007). dalam penuturan ilmiah wujud kalimat (6) dan (7) tampaknya akan seperti (6a) dan (7a) berikut: (6a) rasa manis dan harum buah carica mungkin akan tidak dapat dinikmati sepenuhnya jika sewaktu memakannya, getahnya terkena bibir. i dewa putu wijana 27 (7a) berat satu buah carica biasanya satu ons. bobot ini jauh lebih kecil daripada pepaya. ukuran buahnya berbeda-beda sehingga dalam satu kilogram dapat terdiri dari 10 samapai dengan 15 buah. adapun contoh lainnya adalah wacana (8) di bawah ini: (8) kini bibitnya bisa diperoleh di kebun-kebun pembibitan. salah satunya di taman wisata mekarsari. di sini bibit pohon tin setinggi 20-an cm dijual rp 150.000 perpot. “pohon tin yang itu pernah ditawar rp 30 juta,“ kata junaedi sambil menunjuk pohon itu yang tingginya sekitar 1 m, di dalam pot di depan kantornya. (intisari, oktober 2006) . seseorang yang akan menulis wacana ilmiah akan memnyusun wacana (8), seperti (8a) berikut ini (8a) bibit pohon ini dapat diperoleh di kebun-kebun pembibitan. di taman wisata mekarsari harga bibit pohon tin setinggi 20-an cm mencapai 150.000 perpot. menurut junaedi pohon tin yang tingginya sekitar 1 m dapat mencapai harga 30 juta. 5.3. pemakaian kata ganti sehubungan dengan pemakaian kata ganti, sekurang-kurangnya ada dua kekhasan yang dimiliki oleh wacana ilmiah populer. yang pertama berkaitan dengan pemakaian kata ganti untuk mengacu penulis dan pembaca dan pemakaian kata ganti untuk menunjuk objek yang dibicarakan. 5.3.1 pemakain kata ganti untuk mengacu penulis dan pembaca untuk mengakrabkan hubungan penulis dan pembaca tulisan ilmiah populer cukup lazim menggunakan kata ganti orang pertama jamak inklusif kita. pronomina persona ini digunakan untuk mengacu penulis dan pembaca. dengan pemakaian ini seolah-olah pembaca ikut serta dalam proses pengamatan, seperti terlihat dalam contoh (9) berikut: (9) di jakarta kita bisa melihat sosok tanaman ini di depan mesjid attin, taman mini indonesia indah (intisari, oktober 2006). dalam tulisan yang benar-benar ilmiah kalimat (9a) berikutlah yang lazimnya digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kaliumat (9). (9a) di jakarta (sosok) tanaman ini dapat dilihat di depan mesjid attin, taman mini indonesia indah. pemakaian kita di dalam wacana ilmiah populer juga ditemui di dalam kalimat pasif diri, yakni kalimat pasif yang pelakunya berupa kata ganti orang journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 28 pertama dan kedua. di dalam karya tulis ilimiah bentuk kalimat pasif ini dihindari. sebagai gantinya digunakan kalimat pasif bentuk diyang dianggap lebih netral. utuk ini perhatikan wacana (10) berikut: (10) sekilas pohon ini tampak seperti pepaya yang kita kenal. batangnya sama, daunnya tak beda, bunganya pun serupa. (intisari oktober 2006) dalam wacana ilmiah yang lebih serius kalimat (10) akan berbentuk seperti (10a) di bawah ini: (10a) sekilas pohon ini tampak seperti pepaya biasa. batangnya sama, daunnya tidak berbeda, bunganya pun serupa. contoh pemakian pronomina lainnya ada pada wacana (11) dan (12) berikut, sedangkan wacana (11a) dan (12a) kirakira wujudnya dalam pengungkapan yang benar-benar ilmiah. (11) mimba dan jamblang mungkin terdengar asing di telinga, terlebih kita yang tinggal di perkotaan (intisari, november 2006) (12) …tapi dari sekian banyak spesies itu, yang paling sering dipakai adalah mencit, tikus putih, dan kelinci. tak aneh jika kemudian kita mengenal idiom “kelinci percobaan” untuk menggambarkan segala sesuatu yang menjadi objek percobaan (intisari, november 2006). (11a) …tapi dari sekian banyak spesies itu, yang paling sering dipakai adalah mencit, tikus putih, dan kelinci. tak aneh jika kemudian kita mengenal idiom “kelinci percobaan” untuk menggambarkan segala sesuatu yang menjadi objek percobaan (intisari, november 2006). (12a) tapi dari sekian banyak spesies itu, yang paling sering dipakai adalah mencit, tikus putih, dan kelinci. tidaklah aneh jika kemudian dikenal idiom “kelinci percobaan” untuk menggambarkan segala sesuatu yang menjadi objek percobaan. 5.3.2 pemakaian kata ganti untuk mengacu objek nonpersona kekhasan lain yang dapat dicatat adalah pemakaian kata ganti persona untuk menggantikan objek nonpersona. misalnya kata ganti dia dan mereka kerap digunakan untuk menggantikan hewan dan tumbuhan. di dalam tulisan-tulisan ilmiah biasanya nama genus superordinatnyalah yang biasanya dipakai. untuk ini dapat dilihat contoh (13) s.d. (15) berikut ini: (13) di wonosobo, daerah asalnya, ia dikenal dengan tiga nama: kates, gandul (dengan bunyi “d” seperti pada dengkul), dan carica (baca: i dewa putu wijana 29 karia) (intisari februari 2007). (14) binatang-binatang ini menjadi “hewan terpilih” di antara jenisjenis yang lainkarena alasan fisiologis. kebetulan mereka bisa menjadi model simulasi yang bagus karena kondisi tubuh mereka mirip dengan manusia. (intisari, november 2006). (15) nasib kawanan hewan coba mereka punya jasa besar bagi kemaslahatan umat manusia. berkat jasa mereka. para ilmuwan bisa menemukan obat-obatan. dengan obat-obatan itu, manusia bisa melawan penyakit, memperpanjang usia harapan hidup, hingga mempercantik diri. semua itu tak mungkin terjadi tanpa pengorbanan mereka yang menanggung derita sakit di laboratorium percobaan (intisari november, 2006). dalam tulisan ilmiah bukan kata ia dan mereka yang digunakan tetapi kata yang lebih generik, yakni buah ini, binatang ini atau hewan ini. untuk jelasnya perhatikan (13a), (14a), dan (15a) di bawah ini: (13a) di wonosobo, daerah asalnya, buah ini dikenal dengan tiga nama: kates, gandul (dengan bunyi “d” seperti pada dengkul), dan carica (baca: karia) (intisari februari 2007).. (14a) binatang-binatang ini menjadi “hewan terpilih” di antara jenisjenis yang lainkarena alasan fisiologis. kebetulan binatangbinatang ini bisa menjadi model simulasi yang bagus karena kondisi tubuh mereka mirip dengan manusia. (intisari, november 2006). (15a) nasib kawanan hewan coba hewan-hewan ini punya jasa besar bagi kemaslahatan umat manusia. berkat jasanya para ilmuwan bisa menemukan obat-obatan. dengan obat-obatan itu, manusia bisa melawan penyakit, memperpanjang usia hartapan hidup, hingga mempercantik diri. semua itu tak mungkin terjadi tanpa pengorbanan hewan-hewan yang menanggung derita sakit di laboratorium percobaan (intisari november, 2006). 5.4 pemakaian metafora dan simile untuk memudahkan pembaca membayangkan masalah-masalah yang sedang dipaparkan, penulis karya ilmiah populer lazim sekali membentuk metafora dan simile yang kalau diperhatikan sangat khas sifatnya, dan sulit ditemukan pada karya ilimah biasa. misalnya dalam wacana (16) kista dan miyoma disamakan dengan tamu tak diudang, dan dalam (17) journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 30 kedua penyakit itu diibaratkan sebagai saudara sekandung. (16) ini kisah tentang kesabaran dan harapan bernadetha supartinah (45). di usianya yang 40 tahun ia baru menikah. bersama suaminya ia berharap segera mempunyai momongan. tak dinyana ada kista dan myoma di indung telur dan rahimnya. akankan para tamu tak diundang ini menghalangi datangnya sang buah hati? (intisari, oktober 2006) (17) myoma kerap dipertukarkan maknanya dengan kista. keduanya memang saudara sepupu, tapi sedikit berbeda. (intisari, oktober 2006) dalam ragam ilmiah, tamu tak diundang dan saudara sepupu dalam konteks (16) dan (17) biasanya diungkapkan dengan penyakit dan sejenis (16a) dan (17a) di bawah ini: (16a) ini kisah tentang kesabaran dan harapan bernadetha supartinah (45). di usianya yang 40 tahun ia baru menikah. bersama suaminya ia berharap segera mempunyai momongan. tak dinyana ada kista dan miyoma di indung telur dan rahimnya. akankan penyakit-penyakit ini menghalangi datangnya sang buah hati? (17a) myoma kerap dipertukarkan maknanya dengan kista. keduanya memang sejenis, tetapi memiliki sedikit perbedaan. adapun contoh lainnya adalah wacana (18) yang membandingkan kesegaran manisan carica dengan udara dataran tinggi dieng. (18) daging buahnya memang menjadi manis karena tambahan gula, tapi aroma manisan tidak seharum buahnya saat masih segar. meski demikian, manisan carica tetap terasa segar sesegar udara dieng saat cuaca cerah. (intisari, februari 2007) 5.5 pemakaian kata-kata percakapan suasana pertuturan yang akrab merupakan ciri yang cukup menonjol di dalam wacana ilmiah popuper. untuk menciptakan suasana ini sering kali para epenulisnya memanfaatkan penggunaan kata-kata ragam percakapan. dapat dikatakan pemakaian kata-kata percakapan ini merupakan ciri yang cukup menonjol di dalam penulisan ragam ilmiah populer. kata macam, sebisa, misalnya tidak digunakan di dalam situasi penuturan yang formal, alih-alih kata seperti, sedapat-lah yang lazim digunakan untuk kepentingan ini. untuk ini bandingkan (19) dan (20) dengan (19a) dan (20a). (19) untuk hewan kecil macam mencit atau tikus, eutanasia biasanya dilakukan dengan cara dislokasi i dewa putu wijana 31 tulang leher (intisari, november 2006). (20) kalaupun terpaksa menggunakan hewan coba, jumlahnya harus seminimal mungkin. perlakuan kepada mereka sebisa mungkin tidak menyakitkan (intisari november, 2006). (19a) untuk hewan kecil seperti mencit atau tikus, eutanasia biasanya dilakukan dengan cara dislokasi tulang leher (intisari, november 2006). (20a) kalaupun terpaksa menggunakan hewan coba, jumlahnya harus seminimal mungkin. perlakuan kepada mereka sedapat mungkin tidak menyakitkan (intisari november, 2006). berkaitan dengan ini di dalam wacana karya ilmiah populer seringkali diselipkan kata-kata yang diambilkan dari dialekdialek yang ada dalam wilayah pemakaian bahasa indonesia. contoh (21) berikut ini misalnya menggunakan kata dialek jakarta mengenyahkan yang di dalam situasi formal berpadanan dengan membasmi atau memberantas, atau mengobat. (21) ahli botani h. schumutterer menyebut mimba sebagai wonderful tree. ini tak lepas dari banyak peran yang disandangnya. daunnya yang pahit dapat mengenyahkan penyakit degenarif.rebusan daun mimba juga dapat menurunkan kandungan asam urat, selain memperbaiki jaringan hati yang sudah rusak (november 2006) 5.6 penghilangan kata penghubung dan unsur-unsur kalimat lain fenomena penghilangan kata penghubung merupakan bukti lain mengenai cukup informalnya hubungan yang hendak dibangun oleh penulis dengan khalayak pembacanya. adapun kata penghubung yang sering dilesapkan adalah kata penghubung bahwa dalam berbagai posisinya, baik sebagai penghubung penanda klausa subjek dalam kalimat inversi, seperti dalam (22) atau sebagai penghubung klausa subordinatif yang berfungsi sebagai objek (23). (22) dari hasil penelitian diketahui, minyak mimba tidak memberikan efek sampingan sebagai obat kontrasepsi (intisari, november 2006) (23) hasil penelitian lain menyebutkan, ekstrak daun mimba tidak mempengaruhi penggunaan glukosa pada jaringan atau glikogen pada hati (intaisari, november 2006) . dalam tulisan-tulisan yang lebih formal klausa-klausa kalimat (23) dan (24) dihubungkan dengan penghubung bahwa journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 32 untuk mengeksplisitkan pertalian makna yang ada di antara klausa-klausa itu. untuk ini perhatikan (24a) dan (24a) di bawah ini. (22a) dari hasil penelitian diketahui bahwa minyak mimba tidak memberikan efek sampingan sebagai obat kontrasepsi (intisari, november 2006) (23a) hasil penelitian lain menyebutkan bahwa ekstrak daun mimba tidak mempengaruhi penggunaan glukosa pada jaringan atau glkikogen pada hati (intisari, november 2006) . selain penghubung subjek atau bagian dari subjek atau predikat sering pula dihilangkan untuk menciptakan kalimatkalimat yang tidak terkesan terlalu formal, seperti terlihat dalam (24) dan (25) berikut ini. (24) lain lagi dengan red crayfish. tampilan lobster air tawar jenis ini menarikkarena warna tubuhnya yang merah merata. ukuran rata-ratanya 20 cm. ia suka hidup di air bersuhu 1820 derajat celcius. perkembangannya lebih optimal di daerah dingin (intisari september 2006). (25) capit lat jantan punya warna semu merah. sedangkan betinanya tidak. dalam (24) terdapat penghilangan bagian subjek halnya, sedangkan dalam (25) terdapat pelesapan bagian predikat dan sekaligus objek memiliki warna semu merah yang dalam usaha untuk menghindari perulangan mungkin dapat diungkapkan dengan bentuk lain, yakni memiliki corak seperti itu. wacana (24a) dan kalimat (24b) boleh jadi merupakan salah satu kemungkinan bentuknya di dalam situasi yang lebih formal: (24) lain lagi halnya dengan red crayfish. tampilan lobster air tawar jenis ini menarik karena warna tubuhnya yang merah merata. ukuran rata-ratanya 20 cm. ia suka hidup di air bersuhu 1820 derajat celcius. perkembangannya lebih optimal di daerah dingin (intisari september 2006). . (25) capit lobster air tawar jantan berwarna semu merah, sedangkan betinanya ti dak memiliki corak seperti itu. 5.7 pemanfaatan anekdot dan permainan bahasa untuk menciptakan suasana akrab dengan pembaca, para penulis seringkali membuat guyonan-guyonan. dalam kaitan ini, tak jarang dimanfaatkan anekdot-anekdot yang tentu saja telah dimodifikasi terlebih dahulu. misalnya perhatikan wacana (26) berikut yang digunakan sebagai pembuka i dewa putu wijana 33 sebelum menceritakan masalah “penyebaran pohon tin”. (26) ini sebuah anekdot (dengan sedikit modifikasi) yang berasal dari timur tengah, tempat pohon tin itu berasal. suatu hari nasruddin hoja pergi ke istana untuk menghadap raja. sebagai oleh-oleh, ia membawa sekeranjang buah kelapa. di tengah perjalanan menuju istana, ia bertemu dengan seorang penjual buah tin. kepada nasruddin, penjual buah tin itu bilang bahwa raja tidak suka kelapa. “ia lebih suka diberi oleholeh buah tin, karena dagiong buahnya lebih lunak,” katanya memberi alasan. “kau pasti menyesal membawa kelapa ke istana,” bujuk penjual yang sehari-hari dagangannya tidak laku. tanpa pikir panjang, nasruddin segera memborong buah tin dan memberikan kelapanya kepada penjual buah itusecara gratis. sesampai di istana, ia pun memberikan hadiahnya itu kepada raja. tapi, rupanya raja tidak berkenan. ia menganggap buah tin itu buah remeh yang tidak layak dipersembahkan kepada raja, raja murka, lalu melemparkan buah-buah tin iotu kemuka nasruddin. plok! tiap kali mengenai wajah nasruddin, buah tin itu bonyok. anehnya, tiap kali terkena satu lemparan buah, nasruddin amalah berujar lirih, “alhamdulillah!” pengawal raja yang mendengar heran dan bertanya bagaimana ia malah ia mengucap syukur. jawab nasruddin, “penjual buah tin itu benar. untung saja saya membawa buah yang lunak, saya tidak bisa membayangkan andaikata saya tadi membawa buah kelapa.” (intisari, oktober 2006) kutipan pantun jenaka sering pula menghiasi wacana populer, seperti pada wacana (27) berikut yang digunakan untuk mengantarkan lukisan keindahan kawasan ekowisata tangkahan, sumatera utara. (27) jalan-jalan ke kota medan jangan lupa mampir tangkahan naik gajah keliling hutan petik durian buat kerabat tuan siapa lagi kalau bukan orang utan itulah pantun yang menggambarkan betapa menariknya hutan tangkahan. tak berlebihan jika kawasan ekowisata ini bisa membuat pengunjung jatuh cinta dan enggan pulang (intisari, desember 2006) sehubungan dengan situasi jenaka yang hendak diciptakannya, tidak mengherankan bila di dalam tulisan ilmiah journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 34 populer sering ditemukan permainan bahasa yang berupa eksploitasi kata-kata yang memiliki kemiripan bunyi, seperti pada wacana (27) berikut ini. (27) “dulu saya nggak tahu apa itu rhesus. kok kayak nama pelawak (alm. lesus-red.) aja,” canda agus, seorang pemilik golongan darah b rhesus negatif. di ktp agus cuma tertulis bahwa golongan darahnya b. itu saja. tak ada embel-embel rhesus positif atau negatif. (intisari oktober 2006). 6. penutup penguasaan secara mendalam terhadap ciri-ciri bahasa indonesia ragam baku memang sangat penting. dengan menguasainya orang-orang secara relatif akan mampu menghasilkan tuturantuturan atau kalimat-kalimat berlaras baku di dalam berkomunikasi pada situasisituasi yang formal atau sangat formal. akan tetapi, perlu pula disadari bahwa di samping ragam yang formal itu, ada pula ragam lain yang sifatnya sedikit santai yang digunakan untuk mengkomunikasikan berbagai masalah yang sebenarnya cukup pelik atau dengan gaya yang tidak begitu terbelenggu oleh kaidah-kaidah penggunaan bahasa baku yang sangat kaku. tulisan-tulisan (ilmiah) populer lazimnya menggunakan ragam bahasa ini. gaya populer dalam hubungan ini harus dibedakan dengan ragam santai atau ragam informal pergaulan sehari-hari yang sangat longgar dalam menerapkan atau mematuhi kaidah-kaidah bahasa baku. hanya saja, dalam hal bagaimana secara kuantitatif perimbangan antara ciriciri bahasa baku dan tidak baku di dalam sebuah tulisan ilmiah populer belum dapat diungkapkan dalam tulisan ini. sejajar dengan betapa sentralnya tulisantulisan populer di dalam kancah tulismenulis, penuturan bergaya populer yang ciri-cirinya baru sedikit saja dipaparkan di atas agaknya merupakan salah satu ragam yang cukup penting untuk dikuasai oleh para calon penulis di samping pengetahuannya mengenai aturan-aturan bahasa baku. kesemuanya ini akhirnya akan semakin menyadarkan semua pihak yang berkepentingan dengan pengajaran bahasa indonesia bahwa ragam bahasa baku bukanlah satu-satunya ragam yang harus diajarkan kepada anak didik di dalam aktivitas pengajaran bahasa indonesia. referensi allan, keith. 1986, linguistic meaning, volume i, london: routledge & kegan paul. brewer, william & edward h. lichtenstein, 1982, “stories are to entertain: a structural affect theory of stories”, journal of pragmatics, 6, 473-468. i dewa putu wijana 35 coulthard, malcolm. 1994, “on analysing and eavaluating written text”, in advances in written text abalysis, malcolm coulthard (ed.), london: routledge fries, peter h. 1994, “on theme, rheme, and discourse goals”, in advances in written text abalysis, malcolm coulthard (ed.), london: routledge. gunnarsson, brittlouise, 1997, “on the sociohistorical construction of scientific discourse”, in the construction of professional discourse, (edited by brittlouise gunnarsson, per linnell & bengt nordberg), new york: addison wesley longman limited. halliday, m.a.k. & ruqaiya hasan. 1985, language, context, and text: aspects of language in social semiotic prespective, melbourne: deakin university. holmes, janet, 1992, an introduction to sociolinguistics, london: longman hymes, dell, 1974, foundations in sociolinguistics: an ethnographic approach, philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. johns, tim, 1994, “the text and its message”, in advances in written text abalysis, malcolm coulthard (ed.), london: routledge. joss, martin, 1967, the five clocks, new york: harcourt brace world inc. kridalaksana, harimurti, 1975, “beberapa ciri bahasa indonesia standar”, pengajaran bahasa dan sastra, i, 15-18. kushartanti, 2006, “bahasa indonesia baku dan tak baku pada percakapan anak jakarta”, linguistik indonesia, no. 1, tahun ke-24, 1-10, jakarta, masyarakat linguistik indonesia. leech, geoffrey n., 1983, principle of pragmatics, new york: longman. mccarthy, michael, 1994, “it, this and that”, in advances in written text abalysis, malcolm coulthard (ed.), london: routledge moeliono, anton m., 1977, “bahasa indonesia dan ragam-ragamnya, sebuah pengantar”, dalam kompas, 25-26 oktober 1977. pagano, adriana, 1994, “negatives in written text”, in advances in written text abalysis, malcolm coulthard (ed.), london: routledge. poerwadarminta, w.j.s., 1979, bahasa indonesia untuk karang-mengarang: petunjuk menggunakan bahasa indoenesia secara tepat-praktis, yogyakarta: up indonesia. ramlan, m., i dewa putu wijana, yohanes tri mastoyo, sunarso, 1985, inilah bahasa indonesia yang salah dan yang benar, yogyakarta: andi. soeseno, slamet, 1995, teknik penulisan ilimiah populer: kiat menulis nonfiksi untuk majalah, jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. triyoko, hanung, 2005, negasi dalam wacana tulis ilmiah berbahasa indonesia, tesis program pascasarjana universitas gadjah mada. wijana, i dewa putu, 1994, kartun: studi tentang permainan bahasa, yogyakarta: ombak. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 36 __________________, 1996, dasar-dasar pragmatik, yogyakarta: andi. sumber data intisari, september 2006, jakarta: gramedia. intisari, oktober 2006, jakarta: gramedia. intisari, november 2006, jakarta: gramedia. intisari, desember 2006, jakarta: gramedia. intisari, februari, 2007, jakarta: gramedia yacob, t., 1998, peran ilmu-ilmu lunak dalam ilmu pengobatan, program pascasarjana universitas gadjah mada. template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.60-66.2018 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article intransitive verb markers in balinese i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja linguistics program, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 24, 2018 final revision: october 11, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 this research investigated intransitive verb markers in balinese. the objectives of the research were: 1) to identify various markers of intransitive verb construction, and 2) to identify the syntactic behaviours of the markers in marking the intransitive verb. the research was conducted in three stages: data collection, data analysis, and data display. the data were collected by applying interview method. the data were obtained from balinese speakers, balinese literature, as well as the researcher as a native speaker of balinese. the data were analyzed by using the distributional method. the display of the results were done formally and informally. the results show that there are four intransitive verb markers consist of ma-, n(ny-, ng-, and m-), ma-an, and ma-in markers. the occurrence of intransitive verb markers as in maand nare located on the left of the verb while marker ma-an and ma-in are located on the left and right of the verb. the four markers categorize as bound morpheme and placed as a central marker. the marking direction of the entire markers is considered as markers of a central element that mark the verb itself in order to form intransitive verb construction. keyword marker, verb, intransitive verb, syntactic behaviours correspondence phone: +6287760231507 e-mail: wisnubt@gmail.com i. introduction markers in syntactic structures serve to mark syntactic or grammatical constructions of the marked units. markers have two forms, lexicon and affix. lexicon as a marker can stand alone in syntactic structure, while affix is embedded in an independent element or constituent. such markers in the form of affix bound together with grammatical categories in order to have its function. in balinese (austronesian language; more than 3 million speakers; majority spoke in bali, indonesia), this marker is encountered in various units and grammatical categories as in verb. verb, like in balinese, based on the occurrence of arguments can be classified into an intransitive and transitive verb (ramlan, 1991). in intransitive verb, there is only one argument appeared which takes a function as the subject (verhaar, 2008). intransitive verbs of balinese have their own marker as in sentence (1), but may also occurs without marker or zero (∅) as in (2). (1) beli-ne i ngurah makecog di tukad-e. brother-pos art ngurah intrjump in river-def ‘his/her brother ngurah is jumping in the river.’ http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.60-66.2018 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ mailto:wisnubt@gmail.com i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 61 (2) nuju libur, liu ada anak kayeh di pasih. during holiday many there people bath in beach ‘during the holiday, many people bathe in the beach.’ in sentence (1), the marked marker is in the form of bound morpheme that marks verb kecog on the left in order to form intransitive verb ma-kecog. in sentence (2), the intransitive verb kayeh is not marked by any marker. thus, it is naturally a basic-typed verb. there are several other intransitive markers in the balinese verbs that are interesting to trace as well as to acquire their syntactic behaviours. to be able to track the variety of markers and their syntactic behaviours hence this research was carried out. in order to conduct research in intransitive verb markers of balinese, problems of the research were drawn, consist of: 1) what are the intransitive verb markers in balinese? 2) what are the syntactic behaviours of the intransitive verb markers? to answer the research problems, two objectives of the research were formulated, consist of: 1) to identify the markers of intransitive verbs in balinese; and 2) to identify the syntactic behaviours of the markers in marking intransitive verbs. the syntactic behaviours of markers related to their location to the central element, the type/form of the marker, the place of the marker, and the direction of its marking system. since the objects of this research were intransitive verb markers, therefore any unmarked-typed or so-called basic-typed intransitive verbs were excluded. several studies related to this research had been carried out (artawa, 2013; shibatani & artawa, 2015). artawa (2013) in his research on the basic construction of balinese verb shows that intransitive verb only deals with two markers, namely maand m(n-). while shibatani and artawa (2015) examined the verb valence patterns of balinese that can be divided into a one-valence verb (intransitive), two-valence verb (transitive), and threevalence verb (bitransitive). the discussion of intransitive verbs in their research (shibatani & artawa, 2015) were limited to the elaboration of the presence of arguments and patterns in expanding and reducing the number of arguments. based on the two studies, it had not fully explained the intransitive verb markers in balinese, regardless to the research of artawa (2013) which has discussed both. therefore in order to find another intransitive verb markers then this research was carried out. to be able to carry out systematic analysis, adequate theories were needed to create profound exploration. the marker that marks construction of intransitive verbs has several forms. according to kridalaksana (2008: 180), markers are tools such as affixes, conjunctions, prepositions, and articles that express grammatical features, word functions, or constructs. specifically, the marker can be in the form of an affix or word according to kesuma (2007). the marker of intransitive verb toward verb causes the verb not to be followed by the object. carnie (2013) and schachter (1985) stated that intransitive verbs are a type of verb that is only followed by the subject's functional argument. hence, the object-functioning argument is not included in the syntax function (kridalaksana, 2008; sofyan, 2012). givon (2013) added that intransitive-grade verbs are generally verbs that express statements, events, and actions. verbs that functionally occupy predicate positions become central elements in balinese (winaya, 2016), especially in the construction of intransitive verbs. therefore, the location, place, and direction of the marker are determined by the position of the verb. ii. methods this research was conducted into three steps: data collection, data analysis, and data display. the data were collected by implementing the observational method through tapping, note-taking, and recording techniques (kesuma, 2007). the data were in the form of sentences that contain intransitive i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 62 verbs. the main data were obtained from tapping conversations between researchers and balinese informants, meanwhile supporting data were collected from balinese literatures and intuition of the researcher as a balinese native speaker. the research was conducted in the standard balinese-speaking region of bali province that included the whole lowland of bali, excluded the plateau region. such classification are based on the categorization of balinese dialects by denes (1982) and bawa (1983). the data were analyzed by applying the distributional method by means of dividingkey factors, marker-reading, and deletion techniques (kesuma, 2007). dividing-key factors technique is useful to divide sentences into several constituents in order to find constituents of intransitive verbs. intransitive verbs were then analyzed by using the marker-reading technique in order to determine the form of its marker. this technique was run by reading the mark (affix or word) that marks a particular verb which constructs an intransitive verb. to further reinforce that the marker is an intransitive verb marker, then deletion technique was applied. it was applied in order to determine the degree of insight of the marker in the construction of intransitive verb, so that if the marker is deleted from the verb which caused the construction to be ungrammatical and unacceptable, then it is ensured that the marker is a marker for intransitive construction. furthermore, the analysis results were displayed formally and informally. informal results display was conducted through descriptions by using words that can be readily understood when it is being read, while in formal way, the descriptions were included with table (kesuma, 2007). furthermore, in order to facilitate per-gloss translation of data, codifications covering the analysis were included, i.e., intransitive (intr), definite (def), possessive (pos), and masculine (mas), first person singular (1sg), second person singular (2sg), and third person singular (3sg) iii. result and discussion based on the objectives, this section is divided into two parts, i.e., intransitive verb markers and syntactic behaviours of the markers. intransitive verb markers four markers were found in balinese intransitive verb markers, i.e., ma-, n-, ma-an, and ma-in. marker ma this marker, ma-, is a bound morphemetyped marker attached to the verb in constructing intransitive verbs. such a marker is contained in the following data (3) and (4). (3) ketut ma-kaik. ketut intr-shout ‘ketut shouts.’ (4) cicing ci-ne ma-laib. dog 2sg-pos intr-run ‘your dog runs.’ the marker is a bound morpheme that appeared on the left of verbs kaik and laib. since the location of the marker is attached to the verb, it is clear that this marker marks the central element. the marking direction of the marker is the center for the central element itself or verb. if intransitive verb markers above are excluded, hence construction (5) and (6) may result in the loss of intransitive verb construction and the structure of the sentence becomes ungrammatical and unacceptable. other examples of intransitive verbs marks by maare ma-mucu 'cornering', ma-canda 'joking', ma-gending 'singing', and the like. (5) *ketut kaik. ketut shout (6) *cicing ci-ne laib. dog 2sg-def run i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 63 the status of marker ma-, in order to indicate the emergence of intransitive verb, as in (3) and (4), since balinese adopted typologically belong to svo word order, therefore, it can be tested by putting post-verbal object arguments on both of the data as can be seen on the following constructions (7) and (8). (7) *ketut ma-kaik munyi. ketut intr-shout voice (8) *cicing ci-ne ma-laib umah. dog 2sg-pos intr-run house both constructions of (7) and (8) are unaccepted grammatically in balinese. marker n marker n(nasal) is an affix that has four allomorphs, i.e., n-, m-, ng-, and ny (gitananda, 2017). since it is an affix, therefore it is considered as a bound morpheme that inherited in the construction of intransitive verbs. based on the data, this marker has three variations whose appearance depends on the initial sounds of the verb, including ny(9), ng(10), and m(11). (9) ada anak ny-[s]ilem. there people intr-drown ‘there is someone drowned.’ (10) adi-ne ng-eling. young brother/sister-pos intr-cry ‘his/her young brother/sister cries.’ (11) tiang m-uruk apang dueg. 1sg intr-learn for clever ‘i learn in order to be clever.’ as the preceding explanation that n-marker is a bound morpheme that is located to the left of the central element or verb silem, eling, and uruk. due to the location and the type that marks the verb, marker nis classified into a central marker. clearly, the presence of the n marker marks the center for the central element per se. it can be evidenced by the deletion of the markers, respectively as in (12) (14), which causes the intransitive construction to be lost, thus also causing the construction of the sentence unacceptable in grammar. there are other examples of intransitive verbs marked by nsuch as ny[s]ampat 'sweeping', m-[p]edem 'sleeping', ng[a]-roko 'smoking', and so on. (12) *ada anak silem. there people drown (13) *adi-ne eling. young brother/sister-pos cry (14) *tiang uruk apang dueg. 1sg learn for smart to strengthen the status of intransitive verb marked by n-, the data (9) (11) are inserted by post-verbal object arguments. hence, it made the constructions are ungrammatical and unacceptable as can be seen on the following constructions (15) (17). (15) *ada anak ny-[s]ilem tukad. there people intr-drown river (16) *adi-ne ng-eling yeh. young brother/sister-pos intr-cry water (17) *tiang m-uruk igel apang dueg. 1sg intr-learn dance for clever marker ma-an marker ma-an is a marker in the form of bound morpheme which consists of two separated markers which mark the construction of intransitive verbs simultaneously at the initial and final position. the appearance of the marker can be seen in the following sentences (18) and (19). (18) di suba-ne kelih, ia mara ma-pangen-an. when already-def grown up 3sg just intr-reflect-intr ‘when grown up, (s)he is sorry for him/herself.’ (19) made ma-sesel-an sabilang peteng. i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 64 made intr-sorry-intr every night ‘made feels sorry for himself every night.’ since this marker attached simultaneously to the initial and final positions of the verb, it can be classified as a marker located on the left and right, and the type of marker is a bound morpheme. it also makes this marker is located in the central element due to marking the verb. the direction of the marker classified as a central marker for the center because it marks the verb per se. if one or both of the markers are wiped out, the status of these intransitive verbs are also disappeared which also causes the two sentences (18) and (19) to be ungrammatical. it is shown by the sentence (18) that each one of the marker of the intransitive verb is wiped, as in the following deletion of -an (20), ma(21), and both maand -an (22). (20) *di suba-ne kelih, ia mara ma-pangen. when already-def grown up 3sg just intr-reflect (21) *di suba-ne kelih, ia mara pangen-an. when already-def grown up 3sg just reflect-intr (22) *di suba-ne kelih, ia mara pangen. when already-def grown up 3sg just reflect when sentences (18) and (19) are inserted by object arguments, it caused the sentences ungrammatical as in (23) and (24). it proved by the impassibleness of intransitive verb followed by object argument (kridalaksana, 2008; sofyan, 2012). (23) *di suba-ne kelih, ia mara ma-pangen-an panak. when already-def grown up 3sg just intr-reflect-intr child (24) *made ma-sesel-an panak sabilang peteng. made intr-sorry-intr child every night marker ma-in this marker marks the construction of intransitive verbs as in the data (25) and (26) below. (25) uli ibi, pa-n kaler ma-ririh-in teken gae. since yesterday father-pos kaler intr-smart-intr with work. ‘since yesterday, kaler’s father thinks of being smart with the work.’ (26) sari nagih ma-orah-in dogen indik punika. sari want intr-tell-intr just about that ‘sari wanted to be told about that.’ regarding to its position, marker ma-in is a bound morpheme attached on the both sides of the center element or verb as in ririh and orah. since the location of the marker marks verbs, therefore, it becomes a central marker. it is clear that the presence of marker ma-in is a central marker for the centre itself. it can be proven through the deletion of the marker so that the construction of its intransitive verbs disappeared as well as the following sentences (27) and (28) are ungrammatical. (27) *uli ibi, pa-n kaler ririh teken gae. since yesterday father-pos kaler smarts with work. (28) *sari nagih orah dogen indik punika. sari want tell just about that as in previous tests on intransitive verb marker status, data (25) and (26) cannot be inserted by post-verbal object arguments. the i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 65 objects placement caused their constructions ungrammatical as in (29) and (30). (29) *uli ibi, pa-n kaler ma-ririh-in gae. since yesterday father-pos kaler intr-smart-intr work. (30) *sari nagih ma-orah-in gae. sari want intr-tell-intr work syntactic behaviors of intransitive verb markers to facilitate the exploration of various balinese intransitive verb markers, this section provides their syntactic behaviours of the markers as the overall exploration which can be summarized in table 1 below. table 1: balinese intransitive verb markers and their syntactic behaviors marker position of marker type of marker place of marker direction of marker maleft bound morpheme center center for center nleft bound morpheme center center for centre ma-an left & right bound morpheme center center for centre ma-in left & right bound morpheme center center for centre the table presents that the entire markers were type bound morpheme or affixes. they were placed in the centre in which become the marker for the central element (verb). marker maand nare positioned on the left or prefixes meanwhile marker ma-an and ma-in placed on both left and right or conffix. for additional explanation, an intransitive sentence is unable to be derived into passive construction. if such construction is attempted, then it is not grammatical nor acceptable. it is due to argument object in the basic sentence construction (active sentence) that is not available which function as a subject when it is being derived into a passive sentence. iv. conclusion the exploration above answer the objectives of the study by illustrating a variety of markers that mark the construction of intransitive verbs and their syntactic behaviours in marking the elements of intransitive verbs. there are four intransitive verb markers found, i.e., ma-, n(ny-, ng-, and m-), ma-an, and ma-in. as for the syntactic behaviours of the intransitive verb markers, it can be specified that markers ma and nare located on the left of the central element while on the other hand marker maan and ma-in are located on the left and right of the centre. the four markers are bound morpheme and placed as a central marker. the direction of the intransitive verb marker is a marker of the verb or central element that marks the central element itself. references artawa, ketut. 2013. the basic verb construction in balinese. nusa, 54, 5-27. bawa, i wayan. 1983. bahasa bali di daerah propinsi bali: sebuah kajian geografi dialek. doctoral thesis for universitas indonesia. carnie, andrew. 2013. syntax: a generative introduction. oxford: wiley-blackwell. denes, i made. 1982. geografi dialek bahasa bali. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. i gede bagus wisnu bayu temaja / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 66 gitananda, w. a. sindhu. 2017. verba nasalisasi n(atau ng-?) dalam bahasa bali: analisis morfofonemik dan fungsi sintaksis. dharmasmrti, 16(1), 1-7. givon, talmy. 2001. syntax: volume i. philadelphia (pa): john benjamin publishing. kesuma, tri mastoyo jati. 2007. pengantar (metode) penelitian bahasa. yogyakarta: carasvatibooks. kridalaksana, harimurti. 2008. kamus linguistik. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. ramlan, m. 1991. penggolongan kata. yogyakarta: andi offset. schachter, paul. 1985. parts-of-speech systems. in shopen, timothy. (ed.), language typology and syntactic description (vol. i, pp. 3-61). cambridge: cambridge university press. shibatani, masayoshi and ketut artawa. 2015. balinese valency classes. in malchukov, andrej and bernard comrie (eds.), valency classes in the world’s languages (vol. 2, pp. 877940). berlin, germany: de gruyter mouton. sofyan, akhmad. 2012. perilaku dan makna verba dalam bahasa madura. humaniora, 24(3), 333-344. verhaar, j. w. m. 2008. asas-asas linguistik umum. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. winaya, made detrichyeni. 2016. jenis-jenis inkorporasi pelesapan verba dalam bahasa bali. retorika: jurnal ilmu bahasa, 2(1), 64-78. template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-non commercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.15-27.2019 article women’s speech in a state of anger: a neuropragmatic study rahmadani sabrian1 1linguistics department, faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 09, 2019 final revision: may 16, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 this research aims to describe and to translate the emotional prosody patterns through praat program and also to describe types of speech acts used by female characters in an emotional state in the film ‘7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita’. emotional prosody of speech is analyzed by using the praat program, which is then classified into types of particular speech acts. the emotional prosody patterns can be seen in the melodic accent and the temporal accent. in the melodic accent, speech that uses declarative and interrogative mode makes the tone flow increased, and the speech that uses imperative mode makes the tone flow decreased. in the temporal accent, the speeches with the longest and the shortest anger emotions are the ones that use declarative mode. next, the woman character is known to use four types of speech act when getting angry, which are; literal direct speech act, non-literal direct speech act, literal indirect speech act, non-literal indirect speech act. keyword women’s speech, emotional prosody, type of speech acts. korespondensi e-mail: nisasabrian8@gmail.com i. introduction language has a function as glasses to see socio-cultural phenomena in human life. moreover, language can also be a tool that humans can use to express their emotional state (handoko, et.al, 2015) . emotions are the most basic feelings experienced by someone, and this is described in the form of happiness and anger (atkinson, 2002). it can be interpreted that angry emotions are one of the primary emotions that exist in humans. according to the great dictionary of indonesian language, (2001), anger means being very unhappy (because of being insulted, treated inappropriately, etc.). davidoff (2013) also mentioned that anger is an emotion that has characteristics of high sympathetic nervous system activity and a powerful feeling of dislike caused by a mistake which may or may not be real. anger is an internal state that involves the emotional, cognitive, and physiological aspects of human (rahman, 2013). physiological changes can occur when a person is experiencing strong emotions such as fear or anger, so there are similarities in the physiological state when the emotion occurs (eggar et.at, 2019). when the emotions are present, humans will feel discomfort physically, such as heart beats fast, wheezing, the hair on the skin becomes erect that causes goosebumps, even the digestive system is http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.15-27.2019 rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 16 disturbed. this is characteristic of emotional states such as fear or anger, which someone must be prepared to take action such as fighting or running away (eggar et.at, 2019). cognitively, we will experience a reduction which cognitive processes become very selective and impartial, assessment becomes not objective, and rational considerations will be decreased. in addition, anger can also make us lose control and allow us to do something dangerous, both for ourselves and others. by seeing these anger characteristics, it cannot be denied that anger is a threat to the individual and social environment if allowed to develop into a wild (eggar et.at, 2019). anger is also a significant factor as a trigger for acts of aggression and also criminal acts (brennan et al., 2018; wang et al., 2018). the brain controls every action taken by someone who is in the emotional state of anger. parts of the brain called the limbic system plays an important role when an emotional state occurs. the limbic system consists of several subcortical nuclei (thalamus, hypothalamus, septum, and amygdala), the front part of the insula, several medial structures in the lobe (singular gyrus, hippocampus), and existing cortical regions beside it (anterior-temporal and orbitofrontal regions) (prins, 2004,. in the human brain, emotion moves the motoric system, and it causes the movement of muscles, which results in a change in posture, facial expression, and prosody. although the human brain has a typical work function in general, there are some significant differences according to gender. this difference can be seen from the function of the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere of the brain between men and women (literature et al., 2017). in the post-puberty period, localization of the two hemispheres has formed, and it makes the two hemispheres have different functions (megan, et.al, 2017; vijayakumar, et.al, 2018; wierenga, et.al, 2018). the difference is due to two factors, which are internal factors and external factors. internal factors are seen from the sex in which the male and female brains are indeed created differently in structure and size by the creator. in the female brain, the limbic system is bigger and broader than the male brain. this is what causes women tend to be more sensitive in feelings and easier when expressing their feelings. external factors are based on the environment and culture that shape their personality and character. this factor consists of parenting and socialization that forms the way people convey their emotions. this is what makes the difference in conveying emotional expressions between men and women. apart from using language, facial expressions, and posture, angry emotions can also be determined by listening to prosody. in some studies, prosody is always associated with syntactic and semantic characteristics of sentences. that intonation in indonesian could syntactically have several characteristics that relate to categories and functions of a sentence, which can provide categorical information, such as declarative intonation, interrogative intonation, and imperative intonation (siregar, 2000; muslich, 2014). nevertheless, it turns out that other characteristics are outside the syntactic and semantic characteristics, which are considered to be related to the intonation of sentences in indonesian. this feature is called the emotional function of intonation (alisjahbana, 1964; halim, 1974). in neurolinguistic theory, this function is the role of the right hemisphere called emotional prosody (prins, 2004). this was then confirmed by bambini and bara (2012), who said that prosody is included in one of the aspects studied by neuropragmatics as its role in speech acts and communication activities. prins (2004) explained that differences in motoric control also appear in prosody so that emotions will make changes in using the prosody. therefore, prosody will indicate the speaker's feelings for the subject issue which she is discussing. the prosody that signifies rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 17 the speaker's feelings is called emotional prosody, and it can be seen through melodic accent (intonation) and temporal accent (time) to find out. besides prosody, speech is also one of the ways to determine a person's emotional state. when expressing emotions in an angry state, the usual utterances are insults, scolding, innuendo, and so on. however, some exceptions depending on the type of each person character. if a woman is an introvert type, then when he expresses anger, she tends to cry, but if she is an extrovert type, she will use more uncontrolled anger speeches. the current research focuses on the angre speech of women as the object of this research. when we get angry, out body responds to a specific condition that results in the use of angre speech accompanied by specific prosody use, in which the prosodic speaker tends to be influenced by the speaker's emotions. this makes a difference in appearance between the prosody pattern of speakers who are in normal condition and speakers who are under emotional pressure. ii. methods the data in this study are all speeches indicated as angry speeches. the data are taken from a data source, which is an artwork in the form of an indonesian language film entitled 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita. in providing data, the researchers use the simak(observation) method, which data collection is done by listening (sudaryanto, 2015: 203). researchers conduct the simak method by listening to and scrutinizing to the entire contents of the film and then marking the time and duration of when the female characters began to use fiery speeches. it then proceeds with the use of note-taking techniques and recording techniques. the note-taking technique is a technique that is done by taking notes, which the researchers record angry speeches that have been marked earlier into the data card so that the data corpus is formed as speech transcription. data transcription is changed from spoken language into written language. then, the process is continued with the recording technique which is done by inserting the movie file into the wavepad sound editor program which aims to convert the audiovisual format into the soundwave format as an audio file in order to make it readable by the praat program. in analyzing the data, the method used to find the rules in the data analysis stage is the padan method. sudaryanto (2015: 15) explained that the padan method is a method in which the determiner come from the outside, separated, and not part of the language itself. the data is analyzed with the help of the praat program so that the emotional prosody form in the speeches can be seen; the data is then classified into the types of speech acts to determine the use variety. iii. result according to the problems presented in this research, this section presents the research results related to the emotional prosody patterns, and the types of speech act used by female characters in the state of anger in the film7 hari 7 cinta 7 wanita. the emotional prosody patterns of the female character in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita when humans are in a state of anger, one of the factors that mark the condition can be seen through the prosodic speech used. the prosody is emotional prosody, which is the role of the right hemisphere of the human brain. to identify it, emotional prosody is signified by two accents as parameters, which are melodic accent (intonation) and temporal accent (time). the two prosodic sections will be seen through the results of the praat program description. based on the visualization of praat along with the drawing output, two lines will be drawn, which are the black line that describes the sound spectrogram and the blue line that describes the audio frequency. the variable to see the rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 18 melodic accent is the frequency with blue lines and the variable to see the temporal accent is the timer listed in the lower right of the praat visualization. the results of the drawing output are the formation of frequency points that later determined by the researchers as the base point, endpoint, highest point, and lowest point. the researchers use the term point is to determine the boundary of the fall-rise tones. the base point is the starting point of a speech, and the end point is the point where the speech ends, which is useful to determine the flow of tones. the highest point and lowest point are useful to see how high and low the frequency of woman speech when in a state of anger. the sequence of data is determined based on the sequence of scenes from the beginning of the story in the film. each data will be given the context of events and dialogues that occurs among characters so that the emotions expressed by the cast can be felt. in one context, several dialogues are used as data and are marked by using bold letters in each dialogue. context: the scene occurs at 4:27 minutes between rara and acin. the setting of the place in the hospital parking lot where rara is going to check her condition and hope to be accompanied by acin. however, seeing acin's expression and gesture that does not get down from his motorcycle made rara angry. rara : kamu nggak nemenin aku? (don’t you accompany me?) acin : (menggelengkan kepala) (shook his head) rara : kalau aku hamil gimana? (what if i’m pregnant?) acin : aku nggak tau. eee, digugurin? (i have no idea. eee… abort it?) rara : setan. tunggu ya, awas kalau kabur! (shit! just wait, do not run away!) data 1 kamu nggak nemenin aku?(don’t you accompany me?) table 1. result of analysis data 1 point melodic accent (intonation) temporal accent (time) base point 349,9 hz 0,75 s end point 341,8 hz highest point 477,8 hz lowest point 244,9 hz data 2 is speech that uses interrogative mode and consists of four syllables. the highest point of the melodic accent is in the second fig. 1. drawing output of data 1 rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 19 syllable /nggak/ and the lowest point is at the beginning of the fourth syllable /aku/. the temporal accent of speech is 0.75 seconds. data 2 kalau aku hamil gimana?(what if i’m pregnant?) table 2. result of analysis data 2 point melodic accent (intonation) temporal accent (time) base point 415 hz 1,02 s end point 400,8 hz highest point 502,7 hz lowest point 400,8 hz data 2 is interrogative speech, which consists of four syllables. the highest melodic accent is at the end of the third syllable /hamil/ and the lowest point is at the end of the fourth syllable /gimana/. the temporal accent of the speech is in the range of 1.02 seconds. data 3 setan. tunggu ya, awas kalau kabur! (shit! just wait, do not run away!) table 3. result of analysis data 3 point melodic accent (intonation) temporal accent (time) base point 339,6 hz 4,80 s end point 211,9 hz highest point 352,8 hz lowest point 211,9 hz data 3 is imperative speech, which consists of six syllables. the utterance has an interjective word of invective /setan/at the beginning, which marks the anger of the speaker. the highest point of the melodic accent occurs in the third syllable /ya/ and the lowest point is at the end of the sixth syllable /kabur/. the temporal accent has a total time of 4.8 seconds; however there is a gap between the utterances, which is around 2.85 seconds. based on the total data of 51 speech data, it was found that the use of declarative mode as the highest speech mode used was 48%, which was equivalent to 24 data. then, the interrogative mode was 35%, which was equivalent to 18 data, and followed by imperative mode was 17%, which was equivalent to 9 data. each speech mode has a prosody pattern that can be seen based on the praat program analysis. the results of data analysis based on the speech spoken by the character in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita shows that when she was angry, the female character has a melodic accent pattern and a distinctive temporal accent. in general, the melodic accent has two tendencies in the variation pattern of intonation in angry speech (emotional intonation) from the three types of speech modes used. the first pattern is that the initial tone is lower than the final tone, and the fig. 2. drawing output of data 2 kalau aku hamil gimana time (s) 0 1.026 time (s) 0 1.026 0 500 f re q u en cy ( h z) rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 20 second pattern is the initial tone is higher than the final tone. the pattern is seen based on the point difference between the initial tone and the final tone. muslich (2014) stated that this is different from the variation of speech intonation without the emotional state, which the pattern has only one tendency. the researchers then compared the variation pattern of intonation, which the most used ones determined the pattern of emotional intonation. the explanation table can be seen as follows: table 4. comparison of intonation patterns (melodic accents) of female characters in 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita speech mode intonation pattern without emotion /normal intonation pattern of anger emotion declarative the initial tone is higher than the final tone (fall) the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise) interrogative the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise) the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise) imperative the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise) the initial tone is higher than the final tone (fall) it can be seen from the table above that the pattern of angry emotional intonation is not always the same as the pattern of intonation in the normal condition. in the state of angry, speakers turn out to be more often to show their emotions through intonation so that there is an incompatibility with the normal intonation that is usually used in daily conversation. it can be concluded that female characters in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita when they got angry, they will tend to use a melodic accent pattern, which are; (a) when using declarative modal speech, the flow of tone tends to rise, (b) when using interrogative modal speech, the flow of tone tends to rise, (c) when using imperative speech, the flow rate tends to fall. for temporal accents, the longest duration and shortest duration are used in declarative speech modes. the speech duration is known from the beginning of the speech until it ends. the following is the longest and shortest intermodal duration read from the praat program: table 5. temporal accents of female characters in film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita speech modes longest duration shortest duration declarative 17,17 s 0,22 s interogrative 5,43 s 0,31 s imperative 4,8 s 0,42 s based on the table above, both the longest and shortest duration are used in declarative fig. 3. drawing output of data 3 setan tunggu ya awas kalaukabur time (s) 0 4.805 time (s) 0 4.805 0 500 f re q ue nc y (h z) rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 21 speech. the use of speech duration is the same as the oral cavity opens when producing sounds in speech. based on each identified mode, speech time or duration has a variety of times because it indicates the length of a phonetic segment. this also depends on the number of syllables spoken and how quickly the speaker produces her speech. in addition, there is usually a pause for a few seconds in a long speech. speakers use the pause as a temporary resting time when the speaker experiences the peak emotions. sbatella (2014) explained that pauses give time for speakers to take a breath and can also be used to emphasize speech. from this point of view, pauses correspond to punctuation in written language. even so, pauses are more able to convey many different nuances than punctuation. it can be concluded that in the temporal accent, the longest speech time is in declarative speech mode. this can happen because declarative sentences are statement sentences that aim to state or declare the feelings of the speaker. this sentence contains explanations of the speaker's feelings so that there are more syllables spoken. the shortest duration is also in declarative speech mode which consists of only one syllable. this proves that prosody plays an important role in determining the speaker's intention. types of speech acts used by female characters in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita in this section, the research results related to the types of speech acts used by a female character in angry conditions in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 wanita are presented. the types of speech acts can be divided into four, such as: (a) literal direct speech acts, (b) nonliteral direct speech acts, (c) literal indirect speech acts, (d) non-literal indirect speech acts. literal direct speech acts literal direct speech act is a speech act spoken with the same speech mode and meaning as the speaker’s intention. for example, the speaker intention is to inform with statement sentences, to ask with question sentences, or to order with command sentences. it can be seen in the following data: (1) rara : kamu nggak nemenin aku? (don’t you accompany me?) context: when they arrived at the parking lot of hospital, acin did not get off from the motorcycle. rara then hit acin's back while asking with a high intonation whether he would accompany her or not. but acin answered rara's question by shaking of his head which meant he would not accompany rara. this made rara angry and she thought that acin did not care for her. data speech (1) is a direct speech act that uses interrogative mode, which is intended to ask something and expect a response from the participant. based on the structure of the words that compose it, the utterance has a literal meaning which means the speaker’s intention is in line with the meaning of the speech. rara asked the question in a high tone and angry face, this was because acin had shown signs that he did not want to accompany her by not getting off of his motorcycle. the question of rara is her expression to ask acin’s responsibility and also her statement that he should accompany her because he also has to take responsibility if she has actually become pregnant. (2) bambang : oke sekarang gini aja deh, kalau gua mau jadi suami lu, lu mau gue bilang apa? all right, now here is it, if i want to be your husband, what would you say? yanti : diem! diem! shut up! shut up! rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 22 context: bambang saw yanti sad and depressed because of her cancer. bambang then started giving yanti enthusiasm, but yanti still looked depressed. bambang then asked if he wanted to be her husband then what would her opinion be. yanti who heard the question became angry and then began to ask bambang to be quiet. data speech (2) is a direct speech with an imperative mode which aims to command. the speech mode used by yanti is in line with her intention so that the speech is direct. the type of speech meaning is literal in which the meaning and intention of speakers are mutually corresponded. yantiordered bambang to keep quiet because she did not want to hear the question anymore. bambang has liked yanti for a long time and wants to be her husband, but she seems to have never paid attention to his feelings. yanti's command to send bambang into silence is a way for him not to discuss his wishes again. yanti knows from the beginning that bambang likes her, but she does not feel the same way. (3) ningsih : hah, kamu tu nggak pernah bisa ngurus hidup kamu sendiri. harus aku semuanya. hah, you never can take care of your own life, should i do all of it? context: ningsih was getting ready to go to work in the morning. seeing adi who was relaxing watching tv in the living room without doing anything made her angry. she assumed that adi could not do anything as a husband and head of the household without her. data speech (3) is a direct speech that uses a declarative mode, which functions to give information. based on the meaning, the speech has a literal meaning, which in line to the speaker’s intention. ningsih intended to tell adi that he could not take care of his own life if she were not there. based on the structure of the words that compose it, the speech means to tell adi about ningsih's judgment of her husband. at the beginning of the speech, there is an interjection word in the form of a deep breath, which means that ningsih was complaining. this is a sign of fatigue and desperate, which in this context, for her husband's attitude as the trigger of her anger. non-literal direct speech acts non-literal direct speech acts are speech expressed in a sentence mode that corresponds to the purpose of the speech, but the words that are compose it do not have the same meaning as the speaker’s intention. this can be seen in the following data: (4) yanti: mana pacarnya kok nggak disuruh turun? where is your boyfriend, don’t you ask to come? rara : dia begok. he is a moron context: rara sat next to yanti while waiting for queue of consultation in front of doctor kartini’s room. yanti who had seen rara fight with acin in the parking lot asked where was rara's boyfriend, but rara answered with still feeling angry. data speech (4) is a declarative mode of direct speech that functions to tell the participant information. however, viewed from the structure of the words that compose the speech, the meaning is not in line with what the speaker wants to say so that this utterance is not literal. in this utterance, rara wants to say that her boyfriend is here, but he does not accompany her to check herself out. because rara is in a state of anger at her boyfriend, the word that comes out of her mouth is a swear word addressed to acin. (5) dr. rohana : iya. kemarin dia banyak sekali berbicara tentang dr. rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 23 kartini waktu bantu saya di ruang operasi. dr. kartini sendiri gimana? yes. yesterday he told many things about you when helping me in the operation room. how about you, doctor kartini? dr. kartini : dr. rohana, saya kira belum waktunya ya saya bicara soal love life saya dengan anda. doctor rohana, i do not think it’s the time for me to talk about my love life to you. context: the two doctors were walking in the hallway of the hospital while talking to each other. however, the topic of the conversation made doctorkartini became upset. doctor rohana is a new doctor from another hospital and has just become a partner with doctor kartini. the question from doctor rohana is considered inappropriate by doctor kartini. data speech (5) is a declarative mode of direct speech that aims to tell something to other people but the meaning of the speech is of a non-literal type in which the meaning of the utterance is not the same as the speaker’s intention. based on the speech, there are no words that have the meaning of anger or displeasure, but if we see from the context, the speech means the displeasure of doctor kartini toward the questions asked by doctor rohana. these speeches are uttered with a different meaning from what doctor kartini intends to convey. (6) dr. rohana : belum ada rencana untuk pensiun? are therea plan for retire? dr. kartini : dokter, saya memang suka dengan orang yang blak-blakan, terus terang, ramah tamah, tapi tidak berlebihan seperti ini. doctor, i do like outspoken people, frankly, friendly, but not excessive like this. context: the two doctors were talking in the hallway of the hospital. the conversation then makes doctor kartini unhappy because she thought that doctor rohana is too excessive for her curiosity about the personal life of doctor kartini. the feeling of displeasure grew stronger because their relationship was not close. data speech (5) is a direct speech with declarative modes that aim to say something. however, based on the structure of the words that compose it, the meaning of the speech is not in line with the intentions conveyed by the speaker so that the speech means non-literal. the statement above means that doctor kartini did not like doctor rohana. she tells her what personal character she likes and what she does not like about doctor rohana, but she wants to say that she does not like the character of doctor rohana whom she considers to be impolite. doctor kartini feels unhappy with the personality of doctor rohana, who is frank and does not consider the situation when speaking. the situation means the distance between the relationship between those who are not close and doctor kartini feels unhappy about saying something personal to someone she just knew. literal indirect speech acts literal indirect speech acts are speech act expressed in a sentence mode that does not correspond with the speaker’s intention, but the words that compose it have the same meaning as what the speaker intends to mean. this can be seen in the following data: (7) ningsih : bisa bawa pakaian aku ke laundry ngak? can you take my clothes to laundry or not? context: before leaving for work in the morning, ningsihsaw her husband just relaxed watching tv in the living room. ningsih then rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 24 felt angry about this and said that she was the only one who worked on and fulfilled all their household needs while her husband could not do anything. ningsih then asked her husband to deliver her clothes to the laundry. data speech (7) is an indirect speech that uses interrogative mode, but the purpose of the question sentence is not to ask but rather to instruct or command. it can be interpreted that the speech is imperative speech in the form of an interrogative sentence. meanwhile, the meaning of the utterance is literal, which means the meaning of the speech corresponds with the intention of the speaker to convey, which is to deliver dirty clothes to the laundry. ningsih, as a wife, who has more authority over her husband in the household, can freely order her husband without objection. she then orders her husband to deliver her clothes to the laundry, but she uses the interrogative mode to make it sound better. (8) bagas : yo yo yo dr. kartini. dr.kartini! oy. oy. oy. doctor kartini. doctor kartini! dr. kartini : bisa nggak jangan ribut-ribut di sini? can you not to make a fuss here? context: bagas came to the hospital to pick up his girlfriend, doctor rohana, but in the middle of the road, he met doctor kartini. when she looked at bagas, doctor kartini immediately turned her body away to dodge, but bagas kept calling her by shouting while chasing. the scream will certainly disturb the patient comfort, so doctor kartini got angry. data speech (8) is indirect speeches in the interrogative form, but the purpose of the question sentence is not to ask something but rather to give an order. the speech meaning is literal, which corresponds with the meaning of the speaker who means to instruct. doctor kartini, as a speaker, tells bagas not to make noise or shout at the hospital. since she first met, doctor kartini indeed seems not to like bagas. bagas is a long-haired man who always wears a leather jacket and black clothes. his appearance reflects the negative side felt by doctor kartini. (9) ningsih : makanya kalau bangun tu jangan kesiangan. tadi aja aku yang bangunin kamu. that is why if you wake up, do not wake up late. i was the one who woke you up this morning. context: ningsih told adi to deliver her dirty clothes to the laundry tomorrow before adi left for work in the morning. adi said he could do it, but there was an expression of objection by saying that tomorrow he will have to leave early in the morning. it seemed like he was afraid of oversleeping and arriving late at the office. data speech (9) is an indirect speech that uses a declarative mode which aims to inform the habits of adi who often wake up at noon. besides giving information, this speech also intends to order her husband not to wake up late again. the command can be seen from the meaning of the speech, which corresponds with the intention of ningsih as a speaker. ningsih gives order adi to get up early so that later he will not be late to go to the office and has time to deliver her dirty clothes to the laundry. non-literal indirect speech act non-literal indirect speech acts are speech acts expressed in which mode and meaning of the sentences do not correspond to be expressed. this can be seen in the following data: (10) acin : kalau gitu kamu hamil? then, are you pregnant? rara : udah, nanti aku terlambat. rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 25 just go, i will be late context: acin picked up rara to go to school together. acin who did not accompany rara when consulting to the doctor felt very curious about her condition. acin who had not received a definite answer from rara asked the question again whether she was pregnant or not. however, rara did not answer the question directly. data speech (10) is an indirect speech that uses the declarative sentence mode but the speech is intended to give the command. based on the structure of the words that compose it, the meaning of the speech also corresponds with rara's intention as a speaker. the speech is conveyed by rara to order acin to immediately starts his motorcycle and to make acin to not ask more about her pregnancy at the same time. she then makes her delay to school as an excuse to avoid acin's question. (11) acin : kamu hamil nggak? are you pregnant or not? rara : jalan nggak? go or not? context: acin still asked rara whether she was pregnant or not. however, she still did not want to tell acin the true situation. rara, who was angry finally threatened and punched him, so he stops asking questions and immediately rides his motorcycle. data speech (11) is an indirect speech that uses interrogative mode but has a commanding function. the speech meaning does not correspond with rara's intention as a speaker either. the point is that rara orders acin to immediately start his motorcycle because rara does not want any more questions from him. the utterance implies rara's command to acin without he feels being ruled. (12) bagas : lihat rohana? do you see rohana? dr. kartini : punya hp kan? don’t you have a phone? context: bagas shouted to greet doctor kartini is in the hallway of the hospital. this made the doctor kartini angry because he should not shout at the hospital. anger from doctor kartini added to her dislike of bagas, which was considered to have no manners. data speech (12) is an indirect speech with an interrogative mode but has a different purpose, which is to give the order. the words that compose the speech also have other meanings which do not correspond with what the speaker intends to convey, which means that the speech is not literal. the speech delivered by doctor kartini is intended to order bagas to search doctor rohana for himself by calling her via cellphone. through these speeches, it can be seen how doctorkartini dislikes bagas. iv. conclusion the results of the emotional prosody analysis of female characters in the film 7 hati 7 cinta 7 women based on the praat program have its patterns. in a melodic accent, the intonation pattern when the speaker uses the declarative mode is that the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise); when using the interrogative mode, the initial tone is lower than the final tone (rise), and when using the imperative mode, the initial tone is higher than the final tone (fall). besides, women also use indirect speech acts that have implicit meanings when they are in a state of anger. this speech act tends to be used if the speakers are confronted with the participants in which their relationship familiarity is not too close so that it feels more polite. it also happens if seen from the topic of conversation, if the speaker still thinks that rahmadani sabrian / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 26 the topic does not make her angry at the maximum level, then the speaker tends to use this type of speech act. references alisjahbana, s.t. 1953. tata bahasa baru bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pustaka rakyat. atkinson, d. 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https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.42-47.2018 article pragmatic failure in interpreting some proverbs found in sman 1 lubuk alung yeyep natrio faculty of education, muhammadiyah university of west sumatera, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: february 19, 2018 final revision: april 12, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 phenomenon of using proverb in academic environment particularly school is usual right now. not only using indonesian proverb but also using english proverb, students are interested to apply them. the trend to use english as the l2 in presenting good philosophy of life is one method to help students to master and acquaintance with english. in term of english proverb, it is usually used to present condition of school environment, students, and the regulation of school which are managed systematically. particularly, most of the english proverbs in sman 1 lubuk alung are applied to boost motivation of the students. in fact, there are some of them are misled in transferring the meaning from the real receptor language. the translation of the proverbs were dull and were not appropriate to english sense as receptor language. learners are unaware of the pragmatic knowledge that a proverb has because they do not recognize the purpose of the communicative act that a proverb has sociopragmatically. i conclude that the proverbs which were taken from senior high school no. 1 lubuk alung, west sumatera tends to the incorrect translation so that the students have a problem called pragmatic failure. the process of applying the english proverbs to represent the indonesian proverbs is not suitable in the receptor language (rl), english. there is misleading of choosing word and also the arrangement/ structure of those words. the effort of delivering similar message in another language was failed since they did not know how to transfer knowledge about linguistic, cultural, and social information about the target language. keyword pragmatic failure, proverb, translation correspondence e-mail: yeyepnatrio@gmail.com i. introduction in study area such as school, all things are arranged mannerly and fitly. it happens because school is the sacred place in order to teach, guide, and lead students in straight ways in term of education. there are so many regulation and requirement which must be obeyed by students. however, not only regulation but also some of motivation are provided by the authority`s person such as teachers. this motivation can be one of the boosts for students in developing their own http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.42-47.2018 yeyep natrio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 43 potential skill to be the best. sometimes, those positive words are implied in form of proverbs. a proverb is a short traditional saying in general use. it usually expresses some obvious truth or familiar experience. (candelaria: 2007). every countries has proverbs which reflected by cultural and social background of the society. a proverb usually presents in the form of phrase or clause which needs different approach in translating it. the most important aspect in translating phrase includes emotional expressiveness and conciseness of thought expression which reflect social and culture of the contextual situation (subbotina, 2013). translation, when practiced by relatively bilingual individuals but especially when by persons with limited proficiency in one or both languages, involves a risk of spillingover of idioms and usages from the source language into the target language (jepsen, 2010). the ideal translation should be firstly is accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text. secondly, it must be natural: using natural forms of the receptor language in a way that is appropriate to the kind of text being translated. thirdly it must be communicative: expressing all aspects of the meaning in a way that is readily understandable to the intended audience (larson, 1998). however, from those three ideal measurements, the translator in sman 1 lubuk alung did not meet them. there are several lack of doing translation. apart of the context, the main responsibility of english class is to improve the skill in communication. as it deals with context, the english teaching is not only focusing on form but also to provide the pragmatic understanding. in other wors, even if students can utter perfect english structure, it does not guarantee they can used it appropriately in the context of real life communication, such as ordering food or addressing question. bardovi-harlig and dörnyei (1997) conducted reaseach which indicates pragmatic competence in academic counseling sessions and concluded that pragmatic errors were worse than grammatical errors. in order to figure out the real meaning of a proverb, students have competence in pragmatic aspect. the terms pragmatic competence refers to those linguistic competence of the user which allow them to select appropriate utterences based on the context by means of participating in linguistic interactions. the failure of speakers in using contextually appropriate utterances is known as pragmalinguistics failure. homes & brown (, 1987, p.526) defined pragmalinguistic failure "a misunderstanding of the intended illocutionary, or pragmatic, force of an utterance". here, illocutionary force refers to the impact a linguistic form on the addressee or reader. in other word, the illocutionary force is the statement or information that speaker intens to deliver to the listener. for instance, when the speaker said "it's quite hot in here", semantically can be defined as a statement about the physical condition of the speaker, yet in illocutionary terms, the utterance it can be interprated as a request to the listener to open the window or to power on the air conditioner (richards, platt, & platt, 1999). indonesia language, as malay language, have unique collection of proverb (isam et.al: 2014). when addressing pragmalinguistic failure, one should take into consideration the cultural gap between the l1 and l2. many students, especally in indonesia has difficulties in translating proverb into english. the current research reflects the students difficulties in translating proverb in the contaxt of pragmatic approach. ii. methods the curent research focuses on the pragmatic failure in interpreting proverb. the subject are students of sman 1 lubuk alung. the research uses translation model by larson (1984). there are two models of translation, form-based and meaning-based. a formyeyep natrio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 44 based translation is usually referred to as a literal translation, in which translators are attempting to follow the form of the source language. secondly is the meaning-based translation. it is the one which is known as the idiomatic translation – the meaning of the source text is expressed in the natural form of the target language (larson, 1984: 15). translations fall on a continuum from very literal to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, to idiomatic, and may even move on to unduly free. the goal of a good translator is to translate idiomatically, by means of making many adjustments in the forms. in other words, the translator’s goal should be to reproduce a text in the target language which communicates the same message as the source language but using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the target language. iii. result the misconception of the transferring meaning can be happened. it can be seen in from the following data: figure 1: data 1 figure 1 shows the pragmatic failure in translating “do not for give up”. this data is taken from one of schools in lubuk alung, padang where hang on the ceiling of the school on may 2017. the proverb contains of five words and is intended as a wise words or motivation for all students in the school who read it. looking from the arrangement of the words, there is ungrammatical used of word. the use of preposition “for” is incorrect. in term of translating the meaning of indonesian language into english, the writer of this text is not aware of the concept of translation. translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (larson 1998, p. 3). what larson means in that statement is about the requirements which should have been followed by the translator. in doing translation, the process of transferring meaning from source language to receptor language is important. the social, culture, and society`s environment take the high position to determine the meaning and message of the proverbs. however from the above data, the proverb breaks the rule. analysis: rl: do not for give up (english language as the receptor language). * sl: tidak untuk menyerah (indonesian language as the source language). grammatically, the sense of indonesian language on this proverb is actually correct. however, in the term of english sense, the proverb is not appropriate grammatically. in english or western countries related when someone in struggling to catch something such a dream, this proverb appears as the background. however, in the right way, the proverb is said “do not give up”. nevertheless, the creator of the proverb changes it into different form that is slightly inaccurate in term of english sense. it is a kind of literal translation, where the form of indonesian language is transformed into the english language. unfortunately, the translations do not sound natural. in addition the process of translation is also not accurate although in the meaning in indonesian sense is correct. yeyep natrio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 45 this is because the translator’s thoughts and choices of words are too strongly influenced by the original text. a good way to avoid this is to set the text aside and translate a few sentences from memory in order to get the natural patterns of thought in the target language. in the rl that is shown in the picture is actually better to change into if at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again. this proverb is more suitable. it is taken from the concise oxford dictionary of proverbs 2003. it represents the purpose of the writer of this text who done the transferring concept of indonesian proverb into english sense. since, this writer in the very first place chooses english proverb to convey the message behind it. in addition this is the best way to express it. not only the essential message that is transferred but also the attempt to make an arrangement and choices of the word describe naturally into the receptor language. proverbs are important aspects of verbal discourse within the socio-cultural contexts in which knowledge, ideas and emotions are communicated. they reflect the people’s social and cultural orientations, philosophy, worldviews, as well as psychological and literary make-ups that generally depict the experience of life. foreign language speaker aware communicative difficulty with proverbs. however, it would be improper to know only the literal meaning of the words used in a proverb in order to explain what it means or what message it conveys. in addition, knowing the general meaning of proverbs would also be insufficient to understand what they mean. indeed, to know the meaning of a proverb in most cases relies heavily on the socio-pragmatic knowledge that a speaker and listener have. such knowledge includes the linguistic and sociocultural knowledge and this represents the socio-pragmatic knowledge. figure 2: data 2 figure 2 shows translation failure of expression“tell yourself: i am adequate. (katakan pada dirimu “saya bisa”). there are six words of english and 5 words of indonesian language. this proverb is also found in senior high school no. 1 lubuk alung. as like the first picture, this text seems has mission to encourage students in that school to be confident in their selves. it is little bit different from the previous picture; the writer puts the proverbs into two languages in line. rl: tell yourself “i am adequate” sl: katakan pada dirimu “saya bisa” however, in term of good translation, the writer makes a mistake here, in the receptor language the word “adequate” stands for “bisa” in indonesian language. this word becomes in appropriate since the word “adequate” means to express something enough or quite good in term of satisfactory for particular purpose. in contrary, this word represents the word “bisa” in bahasa which refers to “can” in english. in addition, the arrangement of words (form) of rl is actually literal translation. the form or structure is receptor language is similar as the target language. so, in more natural way, the proverb may in the form of “tell yourself, you can do it”. this seems more acceptable in the sense of receptor language. however, the translator failed to transfer the meaning into receptor language. he only focused on shifting the source text literally into receptor language. yeyep natrio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 46 moreover, according to nida (1982: 21), the focus of attention has shifted from emphasis on the starting point, namely, the source text, to the manner in which a text is understood by those who receive and interpret it. such a development is quite natural in view of the fact that all communication is goal oriented and moves from the source's intention to the receptor's interpretation. moreover, to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed (nida, 1982: 5). however, this proverb shows the contrary from what it should be. although in intention of the writer wants to present the motivation words in english is good, but the decision of putting the words is not befitting. the process of adjusting the context of its words drags the translation in form of unnatural in receptor language. the effort of borrowing english proverbs to provoke student to learn and understand english as well as motivate students are the purpose of this text. it is good, although there is misconception of applying it. the creator or translator of this text converts the context indonesian culture and adopts it to the english sense in order to produce it impressively. the better translation of this proverb might be like this “i know i can make it” or it can be say like “i can make it real”. so, it still has an english style. basically, in translating text from source language to receptor language is involved by transferring the meaning, culture, social context, and situational context. so that in the end, people who read it can understand clearly. there is a force from the translator to make the source language fits into receptor language (target language) in which it was english. if the idiom does not work in the target language; do not force it into the translation. the ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor language forms used. an intended audience who is unfamiliar with the source text will readily understand it. the success of a translation is measured by how closely it measures up to these ideals. consequently, it can be said that student`s in sma 1 lubuk alung as efl learners misinterpret proverbs and lack pragmatic knowledge required for the interpretation of such proverbs. moreover, they also seem to lack semantic and syntactic knowledge, that lead to pragmalinguistic failure. the influence of l1 pragmatic knowledge leads to misinterpret the proverbs concerned pragmatically. iv. conclusion references al-furaiji, abdulridha sholi. pragmalinguistic failure of iraqi efl fourth-year university students in interpreting some political proverbs. journal of social sciences, vol. 3 issue 2, july 2017, pages 127-138. retrieved 30th march 2018 from http://www.rroij.com/openaccess/pdfdownload.php?download=open-access/pragmalinguistic-failure-of-iraqi-eflfourthyear-university-students-in-interpreting-some-political-proverbs-.pdf&aid=86106 bardovi-harlig, k., & dörnyei, z. (1997, march). pragmatic awareness and instructed l2 learning: an empirical investigation. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american association for applied linguistics (aaal), orlando, fl, usa. candelaria, mercy l. (2007). correct english proverbs and their meaning. philippines: university of the east. taken from www.ue.edu.ph referring to above analysis, it can be concluded that the two proverbs which taken from senior high school no. 1 lubuk alung, west sumatera tends to the incorrect translation. the process of applying the english proverbs to represent the indonesian proverbs is not appropriate in the receptor language (rl), english. there is misleading of choosing word and also the structure of those words. the use of literal translation is still used by those two data. therefore from this fact, the cultural context of english is not fully transferred. yeyep natrio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 47 duff, allan. (1989). translation. london: oxford university press. larson, m. l. (1984). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence. lanham md: university press of america. homes, j., & brown, d. (1987). teachers and students learning about compliments. tesol quarterly, 21(3), 523-543. isam, hishamudin, mashetoh abd mutalib, norma saad, and nasariah mansor. domain changes in defining darah (blood): an analysis of communication style in malay proverbs, procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 155, 2014, pages 209-214, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.281. jepsen, christopher. bilingual education and english proficiency. education finance and policy vol. 5, no. 2 (spring 2010), pp. 200-227. nida, eugene a and taber, charles r. (1982). the theory of practice of translation. by brill leiden. united bible societies. richards, j., platt, j., & platt, h. (1999). dictionary of language and applied linguistics. london: longman. subbotina,victoria. (2013). challenges of translating phraseological units, procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 70, 2013, pages 1487-1492, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.216. tou, a.b. (1989). some insights from linguistic into the processes and problems of translation. teflin journal 1. p. 123-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.281 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.216 template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.75-80.2018 article the correlation between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal at stkip ydb lubuk alung siska oktawidya wati, irna wahyuni english department, stkip ydb, lubuk alung, west sumatera, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 27, 2018 final revision: october 26, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 this research was conducted to: (1) identify proficiency level of grammar mastery english department students, (2) identify proficiency level of writing thesis proposal english department students, (3) investigate the correlation between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal of english language education program at the sixth semester at stkip ydb lubuk alung. the research applied correlational research; the population of this research was the sixth-semester students in academic year 2017/2018. the samples of this research were 32 students chosen by using total sampling technique. the data were analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistic through spss 22.0 version. the research result showed that (1) the students’ grammar mastery was proven by mean score 73.84, it was classified as a moderate category, (2) the students writing proposal thesis was proven by mean score 74.75, which is categorized as moderate. (3) there was a correlation between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal of english language education program. it showed that the value of fcount= 0.837was greater than ftable= 0.349 (fcount > ftable), or p= 0.000 was lower than α= 0.05 (p <α). in other words, the alternative hypothesis that saying there is a significant relationship between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal is accepted. it can be concluded that grammatical mastery gives a significant contribution to the paper thesis writing. keyword grammar, mastery, ,writing, thesis proposal correspondence email: ciezzk_okta@yahoo.com i. introduction grammar and writing are a language component and skill that should be learned by language learners. grammar is the rule or a system that regulates the structure and the meaning of the sentence, while writing is communication in the written form. radford (1989:3) said that grammar is a model of native language ability that allows them to speak and speak their language fluently. grammatical competence of native speakers is reflected in the type of institution the speaker has about their native speakers. grammar is defined as the way language manipulates and combines words or pieces of words to form a longer unit of meaning (ur, 1996: 11). for example, in english, the present verb form in the third person has two different forms, and if the plural form is combined with a single subject, the result is usually unacceptable or unimportant. there is a set of rules that govern how the unit of meaning can be built in any language: we can say that a student who knows the grammar is one who has mastered and can apply this rule to express it in the form of acceptable language. http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.75-80.2018 siska oktawidya wati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 76 according to harmer (1987:4) grammatical rules are very important for mastering the language. people cannot use words unless they know how they should be put together. in addition, the grammatical aspect of a language determines the way the sentence in the language is built. for english students, many students are still confused about grammar and sometimes they find it difficult to express things they want to say (akbari, 2016). on the other hand, they are confused when they find english in written form, especially related to sentence structure because they do not understand or do not even know the form used in english (phoocharoensil, 2012). therefore, they must pay more attention to the rules in preparing the correct sentence. according to leech and svartvik (1973: 21) "to use language correctly, of course, we have to know the grammatical structure of language and its meaning". grammar studies by themselves will not make a person a better writer. but by getting a clearer understanding of how a language works, it should also gain greater control. writing is a complex process that reflects the communicative skills of the author. this is the most difficult skill of four skills. it requires a lot of work and concentration. richard and rhenandya (2002: 303) state that writing is the most difficult skill for second language students to master. the difficulty is not only in generating and managing ideas, but also changing this idea into readable text (alameddine and mirza, 2016). this means that the writer not only needs ideas for writing but also the skills to write ideas into written form. thus, the reader can understand what is meant by the author. in other words, the skills involved in writing are very complex. according to hyland (2003: 9) defines that writing is learned, not, so writing instructions are also not personal and the personal experience of the author. on the other hand, writing is a skilful activity that combines knowledge, ideas and experience. agreed by nunan (2003: 88) states that writing is a combination of processes and products. writing as a process of generating ideas, managing information and communicating meaning, the product is the author must be able to make the reader understand what he means through his sentences. therefore, in writing, they must be able to express their thoughts in sentences. in addition, writing is an action and interaction that in writing activities itself there is a response to both writers and readers. this is supported by straub in hyland (2003: 9), stating that writing is an action to find meaning, a willingness to engage with student statements is very important, and the response is the main means to start and guide ideas. this means that writing is an activity and process to express to express ideas and finds the meaning of the idea (wu dan zhang, 2017). the response is one of the important things to start and guide ideas. there is no interaction between the author and the reader does not give a response about what the author has written. furthermore, brown (2004: 218) states that writing is a convention for recording speech and to strengthen the language and lexical features of the language. now people understand the uniqueness of writing skills with their own features and conventions. people must know about grammar and text features and that will help them write well. from the above definition, it can be said that writing can be distinguished from other skills as the most difficult. there are many factors that influence writing to be good such as grammatical, vocabulary, and spelling knowledge that must be integrated into a paragraph. for the english language education program students at stkip ydb lubuk alung, writing is not only complicated but also challenging. these complications are related to the thinking process which involves the process of organizing and creating ideas and the process of translating these ideas into meaningful messages in the form of written language. in translating the idea into a siska oktawidya wati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 77 message that means in the form of written language, it takes a larger vocabulary and a better understanding of grammar. they will not be able to express what is in their minds without knowing the words that will represent their ideas and without knowing what rules are used in constructing sentences. in order to arrange words into sentences, one must better understand grammar. this is important because if someone does not use the right grammar, there is a possibility that the meaning of the transferred idea will fail to understand. the english students of the sixth semester have been taught the structure and writing courses. grammar (structure) is taught from (structure 1) to (structure 4). in writing, ranging from writing 1 to paper thesis writing. students are taught about the first step to writing; like learning about sentences, punctuation, writing paragraphs, outlining essays, to making essays and research papers. the most common problem arises when students write a research proposal (paper thesis writing), there are still many grammatical errors, students cannot write well if they do not have good grammar competence. this happened because they lacked confidence so they made it difficult to write. in addition, students sometimes get stuck in developing topics in their writing. conversely, students who have competence in grammar, they can be more confident than those who don't, because they know how to make good and right sentences ii. methods the research applied correlational research; sudjana (2005) stated that correlation research is the study of the relationship between two or more variables. the population of this research was the sixthsemester students at stkip ydb lubuk alung in academic year 2017/2018. the samples of this research were 32 students chosen by using total sampling technique, the reason for taking total sampling is because according to (sugiono, 2007) the population of less than 100, all the population is sampled. the researcher utilized two instruments. they were grammar test and documentation. grammar test was used to get data about student’s grammar mastery and documentation was used to get data about student’s writing thesis proposal, especially in the final task of paper thesis writing course. iii. result the students’ grammar mastery the first independent variable (x) is grammar mastery. the grammar test ware 30 multiple choice questions. the highest score was 93 and the lowest score was 57, the mean score was 73.84, (md) was 75 and (mo) was 77 and the standard deviation was 9.07. the students’ results were tabulated in table 1. table 1. frequency distribution of grammar mastery based on the table above shows that the group that has the most frequency in the interval 7177 with the absolute frequency of 10 or 31.25 %. the 67-71 intervals were the lowest at 0% because there is not student's score at this interval. after being identified, the averages of the students’ score were interpreted into three categories; they were low category use, moderate category use, and high category use. table 2 category of students grammar mastery interval category f f% >82.91 high 5 15.61 63.77-82.91 moderate 20 62.51 <63.77 low 7 21.88 based on table 2, it is known that students who have grammar mastery level with high categories are 5 students (15.61%). students interval frequency percentage 57 63 7 21,875 64 70 5 15,625 71 77 10 31.25 78 84 8 25 85 91 0 0 92 98 2 6.25 32 100 siska oktawidya wati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 78 who have grammar mastery in the moderate category are 20 students (62.51%), and students who have low grammar mastery are 7 students (21.88%). thus, it can be concluded that the student’s grammar mastery was a moderate category in the intervals of 63.77-82.91. according to harmer (1987: 4) grammatical mastery is very important in a language. grammatical aspects determine the rules of sentences in the language built. therefore, the english department program has attempted to improve students' knowledge and skills in using language not only smoothly and acceptable but accurately, including accuracy in the use of grammar. the student’s writing thesis proposal the data collected from the result of paper thesis writing the final task in this course. the writing thesis proposal score by english department students is presented in figure 1. fig. 1 frequency distribution of writing proposal figure 1 shows that the group that has the most frequency in the interval 77-81 with the absolute frequency of 10 or 31.25 %. the 6771 intervals are the lowest at 0% because there is a student's score at this interval. after being identified, the averages of the students’ score were interpreted into three categories; they were low category use, moderate category use, and high category use. in pie 2. fig. 2 category of writing thesis proposal based on pie chart above, it is known that students who have the writing thesis proposal of a high category were 5 students (15,625%), students who have the writing thesis proposal of moderate categories were 20 students (62.5%), and students who have the writing thesis proposal of low categories were 7 students (21.87%). thus, it can be concluded that the student’s writing thesis proposal was the medium category at the interval of 66.84-82.65. brown (2004: 218) states that writing is a convention of recording speech and to strengthen the language and lexical features of the language. someone must know about grammar and text features that will help them write well. it can be concluded that the student’s ability to write a thesis proposal with grammar understanding has a very strong relationship. the correlation between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal the researcher used inferential statistic to investigate the correlation between students’ grammar mastery and students writing thesis proposal. its result proved the hypothesis of the research. the result of the correlation between two variables can be seen in the tables: the correlation analysis using ibm spss version 22.0 of english department students showed in table 3 0 10 20 30 40 frekuensi persentase >82.65 high 66.84-82.65 moderate <66.84 low siska oktawidya wati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 79 table 3 : correlations student’s grammar mastery student’s writing thesis proposal student’s grammar mastery pearson correlation 1 .837 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 32 32 student’s writing thesis proposal pearson correlation .837 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 32 32 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). based on the table 3, it showed that the value of fcount= 0.837was greater than ftable= 0.349 (fcount > ftable), or p= 0.000 was lower than α= 0.05 (p <α). in other words, the alternative hypothesis that saying there is a significant relationship between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal is accepted. it can be concluded that grammatical mastery gives a significant contribution to the writing thesis proposal at the english department students of stkip ydb lubuk alung. iv. conclusion the students’ grammar mastery was proven by mean score 73.84, it was classified as a moderate category, (2) the students writing proposal thesis was proven by mean score 74.75, which is categorized as moderate and (3) there was a correlation between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal of english language education program. it showed that the value of fcount= 0.837was greater than ftable= 0.349 (fcount > ftable), or p= 0.000 was lower than α= 0.05 (p <α). in other words, the alternative hypothesis that saying there is a significant relationship between grammar mastery and writing thesis proposal is accepted. it can be concluded that grammatical mastery gives a significant contribution to the paper thesis writing. acknowledgements we would like to thank direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat (drpm) from mistery of research, technology and higher education (ristek dikti) for funding this research through the “skim hibah bersaing” (practical products) program. the researchers would like to express their deepest gratitude to stkip ydb institution and the people who have helped and guided in successfully accomplishing this research. references akbari, zahra.the study of efl students perceptions of their problems, needs and concerns over learning english: the case of ma paramedical students. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 232, 2016. pages 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.006. alameddine, mira m., hanadi s. mirza. teaching academic writing for advanced level grade 10 english. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 232, 2016, pages 209-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.048. brown, h. douglas. 2004. language assessment principles and classroom practices. usa: longman. harmer, j. 1987. teaching and learning grammar. new york: longman. leech, g. and svartvik, j. (1973). a communicative grammar of english. london: longman group limited. nunan, david. 2003. practical english languange teaching. singapore: hill company https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.048 siska oktawidya wati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 80 phoocharoensil, supakorn. language corpora for efl teachers: an exploration of english grammar through concordance lines. procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 64, 2012, pages 507-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.060 radford a. 1989. transformational grammar. new york: cambridge university press. sudjana. 2005. metoda statistika. bandung: tarsito. ur, penny. 1996. a course in language teaching: practice and theory. cambridge: cambridge university press. richards, j. c. & renandya, w. a. 2002. methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. new york: cambridge, sugiyono. (2007). metode penelitian pendidikan, pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alphabeta. wu, hongyun, lawrence jun zhang. effects of different language environments on chinese graduate students' perceptions of english writing and their writing performance. system. volume 65, 2017, pages 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.02.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.060 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.02.001 template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 2 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.81-93.2018 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article the framework of cooperative problem-based learning (co-pbl) to promote verbal creativity in efl writing: is it feasible? m. ali ghufron, siti ermawati english education department, ikip pgri bojonegoro, east java, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: august 27, 2018 final revision: october 4, 2018 available online: october 29, 2018 one of the influential factors that could affect students’ writing skill is verbal creativity (vc). as an attempt to promote vc in efl writing, two learning models i.e. cooperative learning and problem-based learning are incorporated and modified. this study was aimed at: (1) describing the structure of the framework of co-pbl in order to promote vc in efl writing; and (2) evaluating the feasibility of the framework of co-pbl in efl writing class. to achieve the goals of this study, a descriptive explanatory research was applied. it involves the efl writing teachers and the first and second-grade students of english education department of a private university in east java, indonesia. the data were gathered through focus group discussion (fgd), observation, semi-structured interview, and questionnaire. incorporating cooperative learning (cl) and problem-based learning (pbl) results in the co-pbl framework to guide the students through pbl cycles based on cl principles. the co-pbl framework was also modified by inserting learning activities which could promote vc in efl writing in each phase or cycle of pbl. further, it was also confirmed that the co-pbl framework is feasible to be implemented in efl writing class. these findings, then, might have significant implications for efl writing teachers and students. keyword cooperative learning, problem-based learning, co-pbl, verbal creativity, efl writing correspondence e-mail: ali.ghufron@ikippgribojonegoro.ac.id i. introduction education in the 21st century should pay attention to the development of human civilization, prosperity, and well-being. one of the ways that could be implemented is through the integration of creative thinking skill into teaching and learning process. zhu et al., (2017) argue that creatvity is extremely important for human life. it is urgently needed not only for the progression of human civilization, but also for human prosperity. runco (2004) even argued that creativity is more important due to the rapidly increasing complexity of the world around us, and it can be used as a useful and effective response to evolutionary changes. due to the importance of creativity, some efforts had been done by many researchers in http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.2.81-93.2018 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 82 order to stimulate students’ creativity, including verbal creativity. verbal creativity is an ability to think creatively and to measure one’s fluency, flexibility, and originality of a verbal form, which deals with words and sentences. moreover, verbal creativity is an ability to form and create new ideas and then combine them into something new referring to the existing information. the new ideas reflect fluency, flexibility, and originality that can be seen in divergent thought revealed verbally (munandar, 2009). dealing with this verbal creativity, some studies had revealed that verbal creativity plays a critical role in efl writing skill (see al-jarf, 2015; izadi, mehri; khoshsima, 2015; pishghadam & mehr, 2011; rababah, luqman; melhem, 2014; rababah, halim, mohamed, & jdaitawi, 2013; rababah, alshehab, & melhem, 2017; weisi & khaksar, 2015). in order to improve students’ efl writing skill, they must have a high level of verbal creativity. unfortunately, not every student has high level of verbal creativity. however, verbal creativity can be trained and stimulated through several activities in learning. one of the efforts that can be implemented to promote verbal creativity in efl learning is by integrating cooperative learning (cl) and problem-based learning (pbl). cooperative learning is a learning model where students are working together in small groups to help each other (roger & johnson, 1994). further, roger & johnson (1994), argue that in a cooperative learning situation, interaction among students is characterized by positive goal interdependence with individual accountability. positive goal interdependence requires acceptance by a group that they “sink or swim together”. meanwhile, problem-based learning (pbl) is a learning model which starts with an unstructured problem that has more than one answer. students have to collaboratively learn together through the pbl cycle (mohd-yusof, helmi, jamaludin, & harun, 2011; yusof; hassan; jamaludin; harun, 2012). the unstructured problems are used as the starting point of learning, creating deep interests among students to learn new knowledge and integrate existing ones, and forcing them to think critically and creatively to solve the problem (boud & feletti, 1997; tan, 2003; woods, felder, rugarcia, & stice, 2000; woods, 1996). some studies had revealed that cl and pbl indirectly could stimulate verbal creativity skill, and later it also affects on efl writing skills. some of the studies (see atkinson, 2003; chen, 2004; cole, 2012; elola & oskoz, 2010; mahmoud, 2014; wong, chin, chen, & gao, 2009) revealed that cl could help students develop their english language skills, including efl writing skills. furthermore, thare also a number of studies that support the argument which pbl has a powerful effect in efl learning, including efl writing (see also dastgeer, 2015; iswandari, 2017; kusmawati & purwati, 2015; lin, 2012, 2015; ng chin leong, 2009). however, there is still no study which investigated the integration of cooperative learning and problem-based learning by adding and inserting some pedagogical attempts which directly could influence the improvement of verbal creativity in efl writing. further, there is still no study which focused on integrating cooperative learning and problem-based learning (developing copbl) for promoting verbal creativity in efl writing. based on the explanation above, this study was focused on the modification and integration of cl and pbl in efl writing course. the modification and integration of the two learning models was inteded to develop new learning actvitities which could optimally stimulate verbal creativity skill, and later on, it will also affect on efl writing skills. the novelty of this study lays not only on the integration of the principles of cooperative learning and problem-based learning, but also on the addition and insertion of pedagogical attempts (i.e. vocabulary boosting, remembering english structures, questions-answers, etc), in which those m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 83 pedagogical attempts could directly promote verbal creativity in efl writing. ii. methods research design to achieve the goals of this study, a descriptive explanatory research was applied. descriptive explanatory research is appropriate to provide a picture of an event, condition or situation, or to answer the question of how and why. by making use of this design, the researcher was basically challenged to explain the framework of the modification and the integration of cl and pbl (hereafter: co-pbl) in a more accurate way and about how feasible the framewok of the new model to be implemented in efl writing course to stimulate students’verbal creativity. participants of the study this study involved the efl writing teachers and the first and second-grade students of english education department of ikip pgri bojonegoro (institute of teacher training and education of pgri bojonegoro) in east java, indonesia at the even semester in the academic year of 2017/2018. the participants in this study were chosen by using two types of purposive sampling technique i.e. criterion and intensity sampling. criterion sampling was used to choose the participant from teachers. according to patton (2002), criterion sampling involves the cases that meet some predetermined criterion of importance. the pre-determined criteria in selecting paticipant from teachers are that he/she must have experience in conducting cl and pbl tutorial in efl writing class; and he/she is still in progress of teaching efl writing. from these criteria, there were only 2 teachers who were selected in this study. besides, there were 120 students who took efl writing course from the first and second grade. in selecting the participant from students, the researchers used intensity purposive sampling which involves selecting cases that are informationrich manifesting the phenomena of interest intensely but not extremely (patton, 2002). at last, 20 students from the first and secondgrade students were selected. from the 20 students, it was selected 10 students representing each grade level of high, low, and medium cumulative grade points to participate in this study. data collection technique focus group discussion (fgd) focus group discussion (fgd) was condected between selected teachers and students. this fgd was done after the implementation of the framework in efl writing class (after tryout 2). it was intended to evaluate the feasibility of the framework of co-pbl to be implemented in efl writing class. observation the observation process was done simultaneously with the implementation process. the field-notes was made whether the practice had followed the rules stated in the lesson plan or not. theefore, in this phase, some related documents such as syllabus and lesson plan are needed. besides, it was also used to note some improvisation done during the implementation process in which it will be used as a reference in second fgd. semi-structured interview semi-structured interview was also conducted with the teachers and some students who were chosen purposively. data from the interviews were recorded and collected. the responses from interview sessions were transcribed in ms word for analysis by using the coding processes. coding process was used as it is more practical for the researcher to classify the data into specific categories and terms, related to the study. questionnaire at the end of learning, the students were also given a questionnaire in order to evaluate the implementation of co-pbl. the questionnaire uses the likert scale for scoring. the students should mark the numbers between 1 to 5 (1 = very poor, 5 = excellent). the results of the questionnaire were, then, compared with the results of m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 84 qualitative data. according to patton (2002), methods of triangulation often involves comparing and integrating data collected through some kind of qualitative methods with data collected through some kind of quantitative methods. therefore, in order to test the consistency of the data obtained qualitatively from observations and interviews, some questionnaires were selected according to their relevance to the research questions (see creswell & miller, 2000; creswell, 2012). data analysis the process of qualitative data analysis was inductive and simultaneously conducted with the process of collecting data in the form of reflection through various techniques of reflection. every collected data was interacted or compared with other units of data to crosscheck or develop the validity as well as to categorize the data in accordance with the formulated problems. the analysis process was conducted by applying a modified model which is originally developed by dey (1993) in which the data analysis is a circular process including the activities of describing, classifying, and connecting. the model was modified by adding one more step, it is evaluating. the reason is without evaluating step, it is impossible for the researcher to be able to make the final decision for the data gathered. besides, descriptive statistics were also used to analyze quantitative data gained from the questionnaires. iii. result and discussion the structure of the framework of co-pbl to promote verbal creativity in efl writing the arrangement of the framework of copbl in this study was modified and integrated based on the basic principles of cl and pbl. the basic basic principles of cooperatie learning are positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, interpersonal skills, and group function assessment (yusof et al., 2012). meanwhile, the basic principles of pbl are divided into 3 phases, i.e. phase 1, phase 2, and phase 3 (yusof et al., 2012). in phase 1, there are 2 principles, i.e. introducing the problem (topics and scope of writing) and identifying and analyzing the topics (through discussion or research). in phase 2, there is only 1 principle, it is synthesizing and applying related information with the topics in essay writing. then, in phase 3, there are 2 principles, i.e. presenting and reflecting the essay writing (evaluation & assessment) and closure (giving feedback and scoring). for more detail, see the following figure of pbl framework. fig 1: the original framework of pbl m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 85 from the framework shown in figure 1, the model evolves to the framework shown in figure 2 to emphasize the importance of ensuring cooperative work among students in the small groups and the whole class. besides, it was also modified by adding some activities that specifically can stimulate students’ verbal creativity in efl writing. those activities were pedagogical attempts that were introduced by avila (2015). those learning steps are remembering english grammar and structure, creating a fictional story, promoting creative writing, boosting vocabulary through screenwriting, sharing a speech, circle of life, drawing and speaking, asking and answering questions, and asking the students to create their own activities. referring to figure 2, there are 3 phases in the co-pbl cycle for efl writing class. phase 1 consists of introduction, identification and analysis. phase 2 is the application and solution. phase 3 is evaluation, assessment, and feedback. this modification to the co-pbl framework shown in figure 2 is necessary to ensure the learning activities and assessment tasks throughout the co-pbl cycle is aligned and support all the learning outcomes. fig 2: the framework of co-pbl with vc in efl writing the learning activities throughout the copbl cycle are aligned to ensure fulfilment of the basic principles of cooperative learning, as illustrated in table 1, because ensuring cooperation and functional teams for students to learn together is crucial. m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 86 table 1: teaching and learning activities and assessment tasks aligned to promote vc and cl principles in co-pbl cl principles positive interdependence individual accountability face-to-face interaction interpersonal skills group function assessment phase 1: introduction, identification, & analysis introduction of topic and scope of writing to students (by teacher) explain the topic and the scope of writing individual identification of topic and analysis preparing to discuss the topic with team understanding the topic and take notes in-class interaction with teacher (q&a about the topic given) team discussion by comparing and contrasting the results of topic identification and analysis assigning learning task to each team member; sharing a speech; vocabulary boosting by each team member; comparing and contrasting the topic identification and analysis starting discussion based on individual answer; sharing a speech based on individual perspective; providing the results of topic identification and analysis in-class discussion; assigning roles for each team member; comparing and contrasting the topic identification and analysis reach consensus of topic identification and analysis within a given time overall observation on each team member participation overall class discussion about topic identification and analysis (guided by the teacher) each team provides the results of topic identification and analysis some students may be randomly called individually; remembering english grammar and structure; question and answer in-class discussion; remembering english grammar and structure; question and answer proper etiquette in discussion, q&a to reach overall consensus overall observation on participation of all students phase 2: application & solution team synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing taking notes of the summary of concepts understood and questions on hazy points to help learning in team; making an outline; findings important points for thesis statement; peer reviewing the first draft individually prepare peer learning/teaching notes for team; submit individual peer learning notes; arranging an outline; writing the thesis statement in a complete sentence; writing the first draft; revising the first draft learning in team; explaining concepts to understand and asking on hazy points; overall class discussion led by designated team reach consensus of topic identification and analysis within a given time overall observation on each team member participation individual synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing writing an outline, writing the first draft, revising the first draft individually writing an outline, writing the first draft, and revising the first draft in-class and out-of class session in-class and outof class session progress checking phase 3: evaluation, assessment, & feedback presenting & reflecting the essay writing (assessment & evaluation) comparing and contrasting the final draft individual feedback from team member on writing performances presenting the final feedback and discussion led by designated team sincere comments and feedbacks to improve writing performances peer rating and feedback on writing performances closure (giving feedback and scoring) giving feedback and comments on writing performances revising the final draft based on comments and feedbacks in-class closure motivation on team working & conflict management in-class session on improvement to be made m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 87 the feasibility of the framework of co-pbl in efl writing class to analyze and evaluate the feasibility of the co-pbl framework in efl writing class, the implementation to the first and second grade students who took efl writing course in english education department of ikip pgri bojonegoro (institute of teacher training and education) at the even semester in the academic year of 2017/2018 was studied. in this part, the implementation of the tryout is described. trying out was done by implementing the model of co-pbl in efl writing class. the tryout was conducted to get the feasibility of the product. the result of the tryout was the data about the feasibility of model framework of co-pbl. there were four techniques in collecting data, i.e. observation, fgd, semi-structured interview, and questionnaire. the data of teaching learning process was collected by using passive participant technique. during the implementation, the researcher simultaneously observed the classroom activities. the teaching-learning process was observed and analysed to be evaluated. a fgd with the teachers and students was conducted to reflect the implementation of the tryout. this discussion was aimed at evaluating the implementation of the model framework of co-pbl in the class. the tryout implementation for this model framework of co-pbl was done for a month (four weeks and four meetings). each tryout was completed in two meetings. a fgd was done at the end of the second tryout. however, after each tryout the students were given questionnaire and inerviewed to reveal their feedback towards the tryout implementation. tryout 1 the tryout 1 was done on april 4, 2018. it was wednesday. the teacher firstly explained the topic that was going to be discussed. it was about argumentative essay. the teacher raised a problem about the controversial issue dealing with the governement policy of taking the results of national examination as the major consideration of students’ passing grade. then, the students in team and indvidually identify and analyse the topic. after that, the teacher led the overall class discussion. the activities were continued to the team synthesis and application of what the students gained from individual, team, and inclass discussion about the topic into essay writing. since the time was over, the teacher closed the meeting at that day. in the second meeting of the tryout 1, the teacher continued the learning activities. the students were asked to apply the results of their team discussion, synthesis, and application of topic into individual writing. they started writing from the first (rough) draft until the final draft. when the students had met their final draft, they submitted it to the teacher. after all papers were submitted, the teacher took several papers randomly. the selected ones must be presented by the writer in front of the class. then, the other students read the paper carefully to find some improper words and/or phrases, incorrect grammar, spelling, and punctuation. the mistakes were corrected together. the last acivity was the teacher assessed and evaluated the papers one by one. however, since this activity needs much time, this was done outside the class by the teacher. the results of teacher’s feedbacks and evaluation towards the papers were distributed in another meeting. during the implementation of tryout 1, the researcher took notes and observed the class. the following is the results of the observation in tryout 1. m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 88 table 2: observation checklist and field-notes of tryout 1 no. learning activities yes partially no 1 introducing the topic and scope of writing √ 2 the students individually identify and analyze the topic √ 3 team discussion by comparing and contrasting the results of topic identification and analysis √ 4 overall class discussion about topic identification and analysis (guided by the teacher) √ 5 team synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing √ 6 individual synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing √ 7 presenting & reflecting the essay writing (assessment & evaluation) √ 8 closure (giving feedback and scoring) √ 9 activities to promote vc: vocabulary boosting, questions and answers, remembering english grammar & structure, creating a fictional story, promoting creative writing, sharing a speech, etc. √ notes: 1. the learning outcomes are suitable with syllabus 2. the teaching and learning activities were in line (suitable) with lesson plan 3. team working analysis need to be improved 4. group function assessment was not optimally implemented 5. closure (giving feedback and scoring) was not completely done in-class activity due to the lack of the time tryout 2 the tryout 2 was started on april 18, 2018. the problem raised was about the government policy that university should implement blended learning for all subjects in teaching and learning process. the activities were mostly the same as the explanation in tryout 1. however, the tryout 2 were more wellprepared. after the tryout 1 had finished, the teacher and the researcher took a reflection on the process of tryout 1. based on the reflection, it was found some parts that need to be improved in tryout 2. the parts that need to be improved were the team working analysis, group function assessment, and activities that could promote students’ verbal creativity. after the tryout 2 had finished, selected participants were interviewed regarding their opinion about the feasibility of the co-pbl model. most of them expressed their exicitement during the implementation of the framework of co-pbl. besides, they also admitted that the learning was challenging, motivating, a bit frustrating in certain part, for example when they had to individually synthesize apply the information about the topic in essay writing. however, for overall, they responded positively to the new framework of co-pbl. the following is the transcript of the interview: question: what is your opinion about the teaching and learning process using the framework of co-pbl which you’ve already done? is it applicable in efl writing class? student 1: ummm... in my opinion, it was very challenging. we were challenged to work both in group and individual. for me myself, working in a group is a difficult thing to do. frankly speaking, i am an introvert student. but, through this kind of activities, i realized that working in a group is very important. the hardest thing for me is when we had to write what we had discussed into essay writing individually. but, so far, i can enjoy the learning activities. it is applicable in efl writing class. student 2: ya, i think, it really motivates me. i was m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 89 motivated to learn english writing. i also really enjoyed the activites such as remembering english grammar, vocabulary boosting, and so on. it makes me remember the english structures and also memorize a lot of vocabularies. however, the thing that makes me a bit frustrating is writing the essay individually... (chuckled...) student 3: of course, it is applicable and feasible. to me, it was challenging and motivating. we were given an unstructured problem, in this case is a controversial issue or topic, than we had to look for the solution by giving our arguments and we had to persuade other people in order to have the same opinion with us. then, working in a group is really nice and joyful. the data gained from the interview above, was also triangulated with the results of questionnaire distribution. the following is the results of questionnaires distribution after the implementation of tryout 2. table 3: the results of questionnaire distribution excellent good average poor very poor no. learning activities 5 4 3 2 1 1 introducing the topic and scope of writing 75,0% 20,8% 4,2% 2 the students individually identify and analyze the topic 95,8% 4,0% 3 team discussion by comparing and contrasting the results of topic identification and analysis 62,5% 37,5% 4 overall class discussion about topic identification and analysis (guided by the teacher) 81,7% 18,3% 5 team synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing 65,0% 18,3% 16,7% 6 individual synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing 73,3% 23,3% 3,3% 7 presenting & reflecting the essay writing (assessment & evaluation) 94,2% 5,8% 8 closure (giving feedback and scoring) 74,2% 25,8% 9 activities to promote vc: vocabulary boosting, questions and answers, remembering english grammar & structure, creating a fictional story, promoting creative writing, sharing a speech, etc. 46,7% 28,3% 25,0% m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 90 table 4: observation checklist and field-notes of tryout 3 no. learning activities yes partially no 1 introducing the topic and scope of writing √ 2 the students individually identify and analyze the topic √ 3 team discussion by comparing and contrasting the results of topic identification and analysis √ 4 overall class discussion about topic identification and analysis (guided by the teacher) √ 5 team synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing √ 6 individual synthesis & application to the information related to the topic in essay writing √ 7 presenting & reflecting the essay writing (assessment & evaluation) √ 8 closure (giving feedback and scoring) √ 9 activities to promote vc: vocabulary boosting, questions and answers, remembering english grammar & structure, creating a fictional story, promoting creative writing, sharing a speech, etc. √ notes: 1. the learning outcomes are suitable with syllabus 2. the teaching and learning activities were in line (suitable) with lesson plan 3. team working analysis worked good 4. group function assessment was well-implemented 5. closure (giving feedback and scoring) was not completely done in-class activity due to the lack of the time to gain more comprehensive results of evaluating the feasibility of the implementation of co-pbl framework in efl writing class, a fgd was also implemented after tryout 2 had finished. from the fgd, it was concluded that the framework of co-pbl is feasible. it can be implemented in efl writing class to promote students’ verbal creativity. the verbal creativity can be stimulated through some activities that are integrated into co-pbl framework, such as: remembering english grammar and structure, promoting creative writing, boosting vocabulary through screenwriting, sharing a speech, and asking & answering questions. these findings is supported by avila (2015), who argued that by implementing some pedagogical attempts, such as remembering english grammar and structure, creating a fictional story, promoting creative writing, boosting vocabulary through screenwriting, sharing a speech, circle of life, drawing and speaking, asking and answering questions, and asking the students to create their own activities, the verbal creativity can be stimulated well. this study might have significant implication especially for efl writing teachers and students. for efl writing teachers, this study can be used as a reference in developing or modifying certain teaching technique which could improve students’ verbal creativity since it plays a pivotal role in students’ mastery of efl writing. the teachers may also use this modification of co-pbl in their teaching and learning process of efl writing course. for the students, they could be more aware of their verbal creativity skills which affect their efl writing skills. iv. conclusion to sum up, it is concluded that integrating cooperative learning (cl) and problem-based learning (pbl) resulted in the co-pbl framework to guide the students through pbl cycles based on cl principles. the co-pbl framework was also modified by inserting learning activities or pedagogical attempts which could promote vc in efl writing in m. ali ghufron / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 2 (2018) 91 each phase or cycle of pbl. further, it was also confirmed that the co-pbl framework is feasible to be implemented in efl writing class. the strong emphasis on cooperative learning in co-pbl drives students to learn together with their teammates, as well as the whole class. this is a very influential activity since through teamwork, the students will not only try to solve the problem, but also stimulate their verbal creativity. it is also suggested to efl teachers to implement this framework of co-pbl to stimulate their students’ verbal creativity. having a high verbal creativity will affect students’ efl writing skill (rababah & melhem, 2014; rababah et al., 2013; rababah et al., 2017). however, this study might be merely suitable for those are learning in higher education context. acknowledgement this research is partly funded by indonesian ministry of research, technology, and higher education on penelitian dosen pemula (pdp) research scheme of the year 2018 with the contract number: 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creativity. human brain mapping, 30, 2017, 2094–2111. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23507 biography m. ali ghufron is an english lecturer in english education department, faculty of languages and arts education, institute of teacher training & education (ikip) of pgri bojonegoro, east java, indonesia. he received his undergraduate degree from the same department at the same university, his master degree was from sebelas maret university, and his doctoral degree was from semarang state university, indonesia. he has experience in teaching english in some schools, english courses, and universities. his research interests include efl teaching methodology, elt materials development, efl pre-service and/or in-service teacher’s professional development, and ict in efl classroom. any queries, please contact him at: ali.ghufron@ikippgribojonegoro.ac.id siti ermawati is a lecturer in english education department, faculty of languages and arts education, ikip pgri bojonegoro. she got her undergraduate degree from universitas islam negeri (uin) maulana malik ibrahim, malang. then, she continued pursuing her master degree in universitas islam negeri (uin) sunan kalijaga, yogyakarta. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 58 peranan bahasa dalam berkesenian: pemberdayaan lirik lagu sebagai sarana pembentukan karakter bangsa oleh, nurhaida nuri fakultas seni pertunjukan, institut seni indonesia padangpanjang e-mail: nurhaida_nuri@yahoo.com abstract language has important role in supporting the activities of art of music.this support can be seen from the lyrics composing the song.language is used as the media to express the artisticness of the music.the harmonious esthetical lyrics with the rhyme give certain meaning to the music lovers. without proper lyrics, the music composed will lose their soul, except instrumentalities which have no lyrics. the language in this lyric is categorized as literary words because it is ambiguous and full of expression. this kind of language may be used for several purposes, like persuading, to unite, to separate, and to provoke. though the language is guaranteed by poetical license, as the literary work, such language is supposed to fulfill the esthetical aspects reflected in the intrinsic and extrinsic ones. as the lyric composer, a musician is bound the values and the socialideology in society. no matter how, the lyric composer is part of the society. so, what happens in the society is part of his experience. the indonesian proficiency as the media to express lyrics in indonesian popular songs is undoubted. however, the quality is questioned. this worry comes up due to many lyrics-vulgarly expressed impacts negatively to the developing of national character. the success on building the character can be used through the role of indonesian language, the model, especially the artists and musicians. they are forced to use the distinctive language bearing the character of honesty, politeness, and responsibility. key words: language, music, song lyrics, national character 1. pendahuluan bahasa memiliki kedudukan dan peran penting dalam mendukung aktivitas musik yang terus berkembang. dukungan bahasa terhadap eksistensi musik sudah tidak diragukan lagi. bahasa tampil sebagai alat untuk mengekspresikan keindahan musik. perpaduan kata-kata dalam lirik sebuah lagu ditambah dengan alunan nada-nada musik yang serasi telah memberi makna tersendiri bagi penikmat musik. melalui musik, bahasa seakan memiliki kekuatan makna yang dahsyat. tidak mengherankan jika pencipta lagu yang juga disebut musisi adalah pekerja seni. pasalnya, untuk menciptakan sebuah lirik lagu yang sesuai dengan harmoni, nada, dan iramanya, mereka harus bekerja keras. nurhaida nuri 59 tanpa lirik yang tepat, musik yang diciptakan seakan kehilangan nyawa, kecuali untuk musik instrumentalia yang tidak memerlukan lirik di dalamnya. musik atau lagu merupakan ekspresi seorang pencipta tentang suatu hal yang dilihat, didengar, atau dialaminya. dalam mengekspresikan musik, pencipta lagu melakukan permainan kata-kata guna menciptakan daya tarik terhadap lirik lagunya. karena itu, bahasa yang digunakan tidak sama dengan bahasa sehari-hari atau bahasa ilmiah. bahasa dalam lirik lagu, tergolong laras bahasa sastra. kata-kata dalam laras bahasa sastra bersifat ambigu dan penuh ekspresi. hal inilah yang menyebabkan bahasanya cenderung mempengaruhi, membujuk, bahkan mengubah sikap penikmatnya. di samping itu, karya sastra, pada dasarnya, adalah sebuah simulasi mengenai kehidupan bukan abstraksi kehidupan. sastra ibarat sihir yang terus-menerus memberikan semangat magis bagi revolusi fisik. jika dilihat peran bahasa indonesia dalam mewadahi lirik lagu, dalam hal ini lirik lagu populer indonesia, tidak diragukan lagi bahwa bahasa indonesia telah membuktikan kemampuannya sebagai pengungkap pikiran dan perasaan pencipta lagunya. unsur perbendaharaan kata, misalnya, mampu menuangkan ekpresi para pencipta lirik lagu dalam berbagai gaya bahasa atau majas. artinya, bahasa indonesia dalam lirik lagu populer indonesia sudah memenuhi fungsinya sebagai sarana seni ekpresi. akan tetapi, suatu hal yang perlu dipertanyakan lagi adalah mutu bahasa indonesia, terutama pada ketepatan dan kesesuaian pilihan kata dengan konteks sosial budaya masyarakat yang digambarkannya. meskipun laras bahasa sastra yang terlindungi oleh lisensi puitika, namun sebagai suatu karya seni, bahasa tersebut harus mengandung nilai-nilai seni. sumarjo (2000) mengungkapkan nilainilai dasar dalam karya seni mencakup, nilai penampilan, nilai isi, dan nilai pengungkapan. nilai-nilai tersebut terwujud dalam aspek intrinsik dan aspek ekstrinsik. aspek intrinsik pada karya seni merupakan ciri khas seni yang bersifat otonom, sedangkan aspek ekstrinsik bersifat kontekstual. setiap pencipta lagu harus memenuhi nilai-nilai tersebut yang merupakan ideologi sosial masyarakatnya. pencipta lirik lagu adalah seorang seniman yang terikat dan terstruktur dalam masyarakatnya. bagaimana pun pencipta lirik lagu adalah anggota dari masyarakatnya sehingga apa yang dialami masyarakatnya juga menjadi bagian dari pengalamannya. terkait penggunaan bahasa melalui kegiatan musik, yakni lirik lagu yang dinyanyikan merupakan salah contoh komunikasi lisan atau tradisi lisan. ada anggapan yang keliru dalam masyarakat memahami bentuk komunikasi ini, yakni tradisi lisan identik dengan masa lalu, kurang terjamin akurasinya, dan mempunyi jarak dengan generasi muda. menanggapi hal ini, st. sularto (2011) journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 60 menyatakan bahwa tradisi lisan perlu ditempatkan secara profersional. tradisi lisan memang identik dengan masa lalu, tetapi cukup banyak aktivitas masyarakat saat ini yang menggunakan tradisi lisan, di antaranya kegiatan seni musik. jadi, kegiatan seni musik atau tradisi lisan dengan wadah bahasa merupakan kekayaan budaya yang tidak saja perlu dilestarikan, tetapi juga perlu dibina dan dikembangkan. untuk itu, perlu dilakukan pendekatan multikultural agar diperoleh pemahaman komprehensif sehingga hasilnya bisa dipakai sebagai sumber belajar bagi pengembangan kesatuan dan persatuan bangsa indonesia, sekaligus menjadi sumber pembentukan karakter bangsa. 2. bahasa dan karakter bangsa ungkapan “bahasa menyatakan bangsa” mempunyai makna filosofi yang dalam. artinya, bahasa yang digunakan seseorang atau suatu bangsa dapat dijadikan salah satu parameter untuk mengetahui karakter seseorang atau suatu bangsa. menurut kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2008) karakter merupakan sifat-sifat kejiwaan, akhlak atau budi pekerti yang membedakan seseorang dari yang lain. karakter menurut saragih (2010) diinterpretasikan sebagai realisasi operasional jati diri dan identitas seseorang. lebih lanjut dikatakan bahwa jati diri bersifat konseptual, sedangkan karakter bersifat operasional; jati diri merupakan kapasitas, sedangkan karakter merupakan realitas; jati diri bersifat statis, sedangkan karakter bersifat dinamis. dengan kata lain, karakter dapat dipahami sebagai sikap, tingkah laku, dan perbuatan baik atau buruk yang berhubungan dengan norma–norma sosial. armando dkk. mengungkapkan bahwa karakter bangsa dipandang sebagai tata nilai budaya dan keyakinan yang mengejawantah dalam kebudayaan suatu masyarakat dan memancarkan ciri-ciri khas ke luar sehingga dapat ditanggapi orang luar sebagai kepribadian masyarakat tersebut. dengan demikian, karakter bangsa indonesia adalah kepribadian bangsa yang mengandung muatan-muatan yang berlandaskan falsafah pancasila sebagai jati diri mutlak bangsa indonesia. jati diri bangsa indonesia itu, mencerminkan nilai-nilai luhur yang digali dari kehidupan nyata bangsa indonesia dan dirumuskan dalam suatu tata nilai pancasila yang menampilkan tiga fungsi, yakni: (1) penanda keberadaan atau eksistensinya, (2) pencerminan kondisi bangsa yang menampilkan kematangan jiwa, daya juang, dan kekuatan bangsa, dan (3) pembeda dengan bangsa lain di dunia. dalam hal ini, karakter bangsa indonesia harus mencerminkan makna pancasila sebagai nilai-nilai yang bisa dibanggakan dan diunggulkan, sekali gus merupakan pembeda dari bangsa-bangsa lain di dunia. di era globalisasi sekarang ini, sedang terjadi kecenderungan melebur semua identitas menjadi satu, yaitu tatanan dunia baru. jika hal ini terealisasi di indonesia, maka bangsa indonesia akan kehilangan jati diri sebagai bangsa yang merdeka dan nurhaida nuri 61 berdaulat berdasarkan pancasila. hal ini menimbulkan suatu kecemasan bagi bangsa indonesia dengan bermunculan perbincangan mengenai karakter bangsa indonesia di berbagai media massa. urgensi masalahnya tampak di dunia pendidikan yang lekat dengan terminologi pendidikan berkarakter. dalam konteks itu, tentu saja karakter yang diinginkan adalah karakter bangsa yang positif, yakni karakter yang dapat membantu percepatan pembangunan manusia indonesia seutuhnya. bahasa, dalam hal ini baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, memberikan kontribusi dalam pembangunan, khususnya yang berkenaan dengan pembangunan karakter bangsa. keberhasilan pembinaan karakter melalui bahasa akan sangat bergantung kepada keteladanan yang diberikan oleh lingkungan pengguna dan penggunaan bahasa itu sendiri. peran aktif tokoh-tokoh panutan, baik itu pemimpin formal maupun informal, seniman atau pun karyawan, menjadi sangat sentral dan instrumental. para penguasa, para penegak hukum, para penyair, dan para tokoh masyarakat lainnya harus sama-sama memiliki tekad untuk menggunakan bahasa yang berkarakter, yakni bahasa yang menunjukkan sikap santun, jujur, dan bertanggung jawab. bukanlah bahasa yang mengandung maksud menghasut, merayu, atau pun meninabobokan. sejarah mencatat bahwa perjuangan bangsa indonesia tidak lepas dari peran seniman. misalnya, seniman besar wr supratman, pencipta lagu indonesia raya, telah mewujudkan semangat arti kemerdekaan, jauh sebelum indonesia menjadi negara yang merdeka dan berdaulat. kenyataan ini menunjukkan bahwa peran kesenian, termasuk seni musik, tidak dapat dianggap remeh dalam kehidupan. seperti dikatakan filsuf plato, kejayaan atau keruntuhan suatu negara dapat disebabkan oleh musik. dari musik pula watak, karakter, moralitas, identitas, dan jati diri suatu masyarakat atau suatu bangsa dapat dipelajari. untuk itu perlu dipikirkan bersama, bagaimana memberdayakan musik, terutama lirik lagu (lagu populer indonesia), sebagai kekuatan dalam pembentukan karakter dan pengukuhan jati diri bangsa indonesia. 3. bahasa, lirik lagu, dan masyarakat musik, yang pada awalnya, merupakan kegiatan mengolah nada dan irama untuk menghasilkan komposisi suara yang harmonis (instrumentalia), memerlukan media bahasa untuk menyatakan ekspresi penciptanya. ekspresi yang diungkapkan melalui wadah bahasa ini disebut lirik lagu atau syair lagu. jadi, musik atau lagu terbentuk dari unsur melodi dan lirik lagu. secara idealnya, musik yang dilahirkan dalam nada dan kata merupakan jembatan untuk mempertemukan pencipta musik dengan penikmat musik. dengan demikian, peran yang cukup menonjol pada seni musik yaitu sebagai mediator bagi masyarakat. pada konteks ini seni musik merupakan bahasa universal yang diekspresikan lewat simbol-simbol estetis. journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 62 sebagai alat komunikasi, musik menjelma secara substansial menjadi sarana aktivitas interaktif antara pencipta musik dan masyarakat penikmatnya. pada tingkat inilah seni musik menunjukkan peran yang cukup luas mencakup kehidupan sosial, budaya, politik, ekonomi dan kehidupan religius (keagamaan). bahasa yang digunakan dalam lirik lagu tidak sama dengan bahasa ilmiah atau bahasa sehari-hari. kata-katanya bersifat ambigu dan penuh ekspresi. hal ini menyebabkan bahasa dalam lirik lagu cenderung untuk mempengaruhi, membujuk, merayu, dan pada akhirnya mengubah sikap penikmatnya. perwujudan bahasa yang tertuang dalam lirik lagu erat kaitannya sebagai media penyampaian pesan atau aspirasi dari perasaan penciptanya. pesan atau aspirasi tertentu yang ingin disampaikan si pencipta bisa berdampak positif, juga bisa berdampak negatif terhadap penikmatnya. karena itu, pencipta lirik lagu harus lebih berhati-hati dan memiliki rasa tanggung jawab sosial yang tinggi terhadap publik dan terhadap bahasa yang digunakannya. dengan kata lain, pesan-pesan yang tertuang dalam lirik lagu seorang pencipta, baik secara tersirat maupun tersurat, bisa mempengaruhi dan membawa dampak bagi orang lain. dalam hal ini, peran bahasa akan menentukan keberhasilan seorang pencipta lirik lagu, sekaligus akan membentuk sikap dan karakter bangsa. pada masa orde baru, ada beberapa jadwal acara konser iwan fals yang dilarang dan dibatalkan oleh aparat pemerintah, karena lirik-lirik lagunya dianggap dapat memancing kerusuhan. malahan, beberapa perusahaan rekaman tidak berani memasukkan lagu-lagunya yang dikategorikan terlalu keras pada masa itu. iwan fals juga pernah menyanyikan lagu-lagu tersebut dalam beberapa konser musik, yang mengakibatkan dia berulang kali harus berurusan dengan pihak keamanan dengan alasan lirik lagu yang dinyanyikannya dapat mengganggu stabilitas negara. beberapa konser musiknya pada tahun '80-an juga sempat disabotase dengan cara memadamkan aliran listrik dan pernah juga dibubarkan secara paksa hanya karena membawakan lirik lagu yang menyindir penguasa saat itu. pada bulan april tahun 1984, iwan fals harus berurusan dengan aparat keamanan dan sempat ditahan dan diinterogasi selama 2 minggu terkait lirik lagu yang berjudul demokrasi nasi, yang dinyanyikannya, saat konser di pekanbaru, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “ada lagi sebuah perkara / tentang nyawa manusia / kisah ini memang sudah lama / tapi benar terjadi. anak seorang menteri / membuat onar lagi / menembak sampai mati / kok ngak ada sangsi?” berdasarkan apa yang dialami musisi yang juga penyanyi tersebut, dapat dibenarkan bahwa melalui lirik lagu, pencipta musik dapat mempengaruhi masyarakat penikmatnya. nurhaida nuri 63 peristiwa sosial yang sama, juga pernah terjadi pada lagu ciptaan chossy pratama yang berjudul takdir dinyanyikan oleh desy ratnasari, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “memang kita berbeda / aku orang biasa / mungkin takdir enggan menyapa / akhirnya cintaku kandas juga. takdir memang kejam / tak mengenal perasaan / bersimpuh kugenggam / harapan yang jadi arang.” pada wacana lagu tersebut, kata ‘takdir’ diberi makna kejam, pada hal, allah swt. bersifat maha pengasih dan maha penyayang. diksi atau pilihan kata ‘takdir’ ini dianggap tidak tepat dan tidak sesuai dengan konteks sosial masyarakatnya. hal inilah yang menimbulkan kegelisahan sosial pada masyarakat, malahan, universitas muhamadiyah jakarta –saat itu menggelar seminar yang bertemakan, “takdir dari perspektif teologis.” akhirnya, pada 12 september 1998 pukul 09. 50, melalui siaran televisi swasta (indosiar), tampil sekjen mui, pencipta lagu, serta penyanyinya membicarakan masalah lirik lagu tersebut. momentun ini dimanfaatkan pencipta lagunya untuk menyampaikan pemberitahuan kepada masyarakat penikmat musik bahwa lirik lagu tersebut diganti, yakni tidak memakai istilah ‘takdir’ sama sekali. cossy dan desy ratnasari meminta maaf kepada masyarakat indonesia karena menurut sekjen mui, lirik lagu yang memakai istilah ‘takdir’ tersebut, jika ditinjau dari pandangan islam memberi gambaran yang tidak sesuai dengan konsep dan konteks pemakaiannya. dari beberapa contoh yang digambarkan di atas, semakin jelas bahwa lirik lagu yang memakai media bahasa sangat erat hubungannya dengan masyarakat. lirik lagu, pada dasarnya, mengandung pesan yang ingin disampaikan pencipta kepada penikmatnya (masyarakat). pesan yang disampaikan dengan wadah bahasa itu yang dikemas dalam bentuk musik akan mudah dicerna dan diterima oleh berbagai lapisan masyarakat. misalnya, lirik lagu halo-halo bandung yang diciptakan ismail marzuki telah membakar semangat juang masyarakat indonesia di zaman revolusi. ismail marzuki, sebagai seorang seniman, berhasil menggambarkan kehidupan bangsa indonesia saat itu. penderitaan dan perang kemerdekaan yang menyebabkan timbulnya rasa nasionalisme dan rasa patriotisme bangsa indonesia diangkatnya menjadi tema lagu tersebut dan melalui lirik lagunya, terkandung pesan agar bangsa indonesia merebut kembali haknya atas kota bandung. ajakan yang membakar semangat juang bangsa indonesia ini disampaikan dengan kata-kata yang santun tetapi bersemangat, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “sudah lama beta / tidak bertemu dengan kau / sekarang telah menjadi lautan api / mari bung rebut kembali.” journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 64 pemakaian kata bung untuk sapaan para pemuda indonesia terasa santun dan menyentuh hati, begitu juga kata rebut kembali mangandung makna kebulatan tekad. lirik lagu yang serasi dengan melodinya ini ternyata mempengaruhi sikap positif bangsa terhadap negara kesatuan republik indonesia. lirik lagu mempunyai ciri tersendiri. musisi ebiet g. ade menciptakan lirik lagu dari tema yang beragam, meliputi religi, sosial, cinta, dan lingkungan hidup. dari tema yang beragam ini, masalah sosial paling menonjol dalam lirik lagunya. lirik lagu yang berjudul berita kepada kawan yang menggambarkan bencana alam mengandung pesan kemanusiaan serta meningkatkan rasa ketaqwaan kepada yang maha kuasa, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “bapak ibunya telah lama mati / ditelan bencana tanah ini . mungkin tuhan mulai bosan / melihat tingkah kita / yang selalu salah dan bangga / dengan dosa-dosa / atau alam mulai enggan / bersahabat dengan kita / coba kita bertanya pada / rumput yang bergoyang”. bila direnungkan kata-kata yang digunakan pada lirik lagu ini, kata mati, sebenarnya, tidak cocok dipakai untuk manusia, namun pada kata ini tersirat kekesalan yang dirasakan penciptanya. akan tetapi, bait berikutnya memperlihatkan kesadaran yang dirasakan penciptanya akan kekuasaan tuhan. jadi, lirik lagu ebiet ini, mengangkat tema masalah kehidupan manusia yang tidak luput dari dosa dan selalu mengejar kehidupan dunia tanpa menghiraukan kehidupan akhirat. melalui lirik lagu ini, pencipta menyampaikan pesan agar manusia meningkatkan ketaqwaannya serta menyadari akan kekuasaan allah. musisi ini dapat dikatakan salah satu legenda musik di indonesia yang lagulagunya melegenda sampai sekarang. satu hal yang membuat masyarakat tidak bisa melewatkan lagu-lagunya adalah musik, lirik, dan suaranya yang khas, bahkan sampai gaya menyanyinya pun sangat khas, yaitu duduk di kursi bulat dan memangku gitar. dewasa ini, banyak grup band musik indonesia bermunculan, seperti noah, ungu, st 12, kotak, wali, dan sebagainya. mereka memiliki gaya dan ciri khas masing-masing sehingga lebih dikenal oleh masyarakat. tidak sedikit dari masyarakat yang membentuk ”fans club” atau penggemar dari setiap band tersebut. misalnya, lirik lagu-lagu wali, pada umumnya, bernuansa religius. melalui lagu yang berjudul satus hamba, pencipta/ penyanyi berhasil memikat penikmatnya untuk hanyut dengan rintihan hatinya, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “wahai allah wahai tuhanku / ampuni semua dosa-dosaku / dosa ibu dan bapakku / dan dosa-dosa semua hambamu. wahai allah wahai tuhanku / berikan kabaikan dunia-mu / kabaikan akhirat-mu / jauhkanlah api neraka-mu. nurhaida nuri 65 buatlah untuk duniamu kawan / seakan hidup selamanya / buatlah untuk akhiratmu teman / seakan esok tiada” kata-kata yang dipilih wali terasa memiliki kekuatan bagi semua orang agar menyadari kelemahannya, untuk selanjutnya mengakui kekuasaan allah. wali berhasil mengangkat tema-tema kemanusiaan dengan nilai-nilai religius. di samping maraknya musik dengan lirik lagu bernuansa religius, juga marak musik yang tampil dengan lirik lagu yang memancing emosi negatif. sehubungan dengan indikasi ini, tidak mengherankan bila tema musik yang berkembang saat ini lebih didominasi oleh tema-tema cinta, putus cinta, ataupun tema keseharian yang bersifat individualistis. tidak urung, hal ini menghasilkan individu masyarakat yang berkarakter individualistik pula. kebersamaan dan persatuan seolah menjadi hal yang sangat langka. hal ini makin terbukti dengan banyaknya tawuran antar siswa, perkelahian antar warga, termasuk kisruh pada banyak konser. dengan demikian, musik yang selama ini dianggap penenang pikiran, terkesan hanya menciptakan kekacauan. lebih dari itu, karakter individualistis musik pun makin berani tampil dengan tema-tema liriknya yang terkesan vulgar, misalnya lirik lagu yang berjudul wanita lubang buaya, dinyanyikan oleh minati dewi, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “wanita lubang buaya / wanita kamu harus tahu / mengapa lelaki buaya / mau tahu jawabnya / wanita punya lubang buaya”. penggunaan kata ‘lubang buaya’ yang mengandung makna ambigu dapat menimbulkan konotasi atau inteprestasi negatif bagi penikmatnya. bila hal ini terjadi, tidak dimungkiri kaum perempuan akan merasa dilecehkan. begitu juga lirik lagu, hamil duluan yang dinyanyikan tuti wibowo, berikut petikan lirik lagunya: “ku hamil duluan / sudah tiga bulan / gara-gara pacaran / tidurnya berduaan /ku hamil duluan / sudah tiga bulan / gara-gara pacaran / suka gelapgelapan”. jika dikatakan lirik lagu mengandung aspirasi atau ungkapan perasaan, pikiran, dan pengalaman penciptanya, tidak mustahil lirik lagu tersebut menyatakan telah terjadi hubungan pranikah yang dilarang dalam agama. jadi, lirik-lirik lagu tersebut, melanggar norma agama dan tidak mendidik. terhadap lirik lagu yang terkesan vulgar dan akan berdampak negatif bagi masyarakat itu, badrun a. m., ketua komisi penyiaran indonesia daerah (kpid) nusa tenggara barat, 16 februari 2012 menyatakan bahwa pihaknya telah melakukan pencekalan terhadap lirik lagu yang dianggap melanggar hukum. pencekalan ini dilakukan setelah melakukan pemantauan terhadap 300 lirik lagu populer indonesia dari berbagai versi. dari hasil pantauan, yang dilaksanakan 25 januari – 14 februari 2012, terdapat journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 66 beberapa lirik lagu yang melanggar undang-undang no. 32 tahun 2002 tentang penyiaran, yakni pasal 36 ayat 5 dan ayat 6. undang-undang tersebut menegaskan agar isi siaran dilarang menonjolkan hal-hal yang bermuatan cabul, dilarang memperolok, merendahkan, melecehkan, dan/ atau mengabaikan nilai-nilai agama dan martabat manusia. materi lagu tersebut juga bertentangan dengan pedoman perilaku penyiaran dan standar program siaran (p3/ sps) tahun 2009, yakni pasal 9 tentang penghormatan terhadap norma kesopanan dan kesusilaan, pasal 17 tentang pelarangan adegan seksual, pasal 18 tentang seks di luar nikah, dan pasal 19 tentang muatan seks dalam lagu dan video klip. mengingat musik dinikmati oleh semua orang, wajarlah jika aktivis peduli anak, seto mulyadi ikut angkat bicara terhadap lirik lagu-lagu vulgar itu. dia mengkhawatirkan dampak negatif yang timbul pada anak-anak, apalagi apresiasinya terhadap sebuah lagu. anakanak tentu saja tidak mengerti makna lirik lagu tersebut. jika mereka menyanyikannya dan ditanya apa maknanya, mereka tidak bisa menjawabnya, atau bisa saja mendapat ejekan dari lingkungannya. hal inilah yang akan berdampak pada pribadi anak. ine febriyanti (2013), artis yang juga penggiat seni, juga mengkhawatirkan hal ini. dia menyatakan bahwa anak-anak akan lebih mudah mengingat sesuatu yang didengar atau dialaminya dengan bantuan lagu. bahkan, mereka bisa terus mengingatnya hingga usia dewasa. julia tampubolon (2013), seorang guru musik anak, menyatakan "bagi saya, masa anakanak adalah masa yang penting. anak menyerap begitu banyak ilmu dari luar, dan musik menjadi media efektif untuk anak menyerap ilmu tersebut, untuk belajar, membangun karakter, dan membangun kepribadian." dia meyakini bahwa lagu memiliki pengaruh kuat terhadap perkembangan anak, baik secara fisik maupun mental. ditambahkannya bahwa lagu anak dapat mengembangkan pola pikir, kepribadian, dan karakter anak. semua hal itu bisa menjadi bekal atau fondasi bagi anak untuk bergaul dan bersosialisasi dengan sesama. jadi, lagu anak bukan sekadar membicarakan ilmu menyanyi, tetapi juga menyiapkan generasi berikutnya. muaranya adalah kreativitas, kepribadian, dan karakter anak sangat berpengaruh pada kualitas hidup anak nantinya. 4. penutup bahasa indonesia sebagai wahana pembentukan karakter bangsa perlu dibina dan dikembangkan. salah satu strategi yang dapat dilakukan adalah menjadikan bahasa indonesia sebagai sarana komunikasi yang mantap untuk segala lapisan masyarakat. di kalangan seniman, misalnya, kelompok musisi atau pencipta lirik lagu adalah pihak yang berperan aktif dalam mempengaruhi perilaku masyarakat. dalam hal ini, mereka dapat memberdayakan lirik lagu-lagu populer nurhaida nuri 67 indonesia sebagai sarana dan wadah pengembangan nilai-nilai yang potensial dan luwes. penyampaian ekpresi dan pesan melalui lirik lagu akan lebih mudah dicerna dan dipahami oleh penikmatnya. musik berfungsi sebagai mediator antara pencipta lagu atau musisi dan penikmat musik. pencipta lagu melahirkan ide, gagasan, dan pesan ke dalam sebuah ciptaan yang arahnya untuk mempengaruhi emosi, sehingga apa yang dimaksud oleh musisi dapat dipahami penikmatnya. perasaan yang ditransfer kepada masyarakat penikmat itu dapat berupa perasaan duka, haru, gembira, cemas, sugesti, dan lain sebagainya. lirik lagu memberi pengaruh posif dan negatif bagi penikmatnya. untuk itu, pencipta lirik lagu dituntut untuk dapat memilih kata-kata yang tepat sesuai dengan nilai-nilai moral bangsa yang menjadi penikmatnya. menghadapi krisis identitas bangsa, saat ini, seharusnya pencipta lagu atau musisi menunjukkan jati dirinya, sekali gus jati diri bangsanya dalam lirik lagunya. jati diri bangsa indonesia adalah kualitas perilaku bangsa indonesia dalam berbangsa dan bernegara yang didasari oleh nilai-nilai luhur pancasila, norma uud 1945, keberagaman dengan prinsip bhineka tunggal ika, dan komitmen terhadap negara kesatuan republik indonesia. referensi armando, ade. dkk. 2008. “refleksi karakter bangasa” dalam forum kajian antropologi indonesia, jakarta: fisip ui. tampubolon, yulia. “membangun karakter anak melalui lagu,” dalam koran jakrta, 6 september 2013. saragih, amrin. 2011 “peran bahasa dalam pembangunan jati diri dan karakter bangsa,” makalah seminar dengan tema peran kearifan lokal dalam pembentukan karakter bangsa, 30 november. medan: universitas sumatera utara. utara.sularto, st. “sumber pembentukan karakter bangsa,” edukasi.kompas.com/red/2011/01/07 sumardjo, jakob. 2000. filsafat seni. bandung: itb 71 penanda gender, jumlah dan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis ria yuliati staf pengajar bahasa prancis di fib universitas brawijaya email: lia_lia_princessus@yahoo.co.id abstrak nomina merupakan salah satu jenis kata yang biasanya dapat berfungsi sebagai subyek atau obyek dari klausa, sering berpadanan dengan orang, benda atau hal lain yang dibendakan dalam alam di luar bahasa. sebagai salah satu bahasa yang masuk dalam rumpun bahasa indo-eropa, bahasa prancis mempunyai kaidah nomina yang khas. makalah ini akan membahas mengenai bagaimana sistem nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bagaimana bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) dalam nomina bahasa prancis, bagaimana bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) dalam nomina bahasa prancis, dan bagaimana penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. makalah ini ditujukan untuk mengungkapkan bentuk nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) nomina bahasa prancis, bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina bahasa prancis, serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. dengan adanya makalah ini diharapkan dapat membantu para pembaca untuk lebih mengenal karakteristik bahasa indo-eropa secara umum. dengan adanya makalah ini, para pembaca juga diharapan dapat memahami mengenai bentuk nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) nomina bahasa prancis, bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina bahasa prancis, serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. selain itu, dengan adanya makalah ini juga diharapkan dapat membantu para pembelajar agar lebih mudah dalam mempelajari bahasa prancis. dari pengamatan yang telah dilakukan, terdapat beberapa penanda gender (maskula-femina) serta penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) pada nomina bahasa prancis. dalam bahasa prancis juga terdapat beberapa artikel pendamping nomina, yaitu artikel indefini, artikel defini dan artikel partitif. kata kunci: penanda gender, jumlah, artikel, nomina, bahasa prancis abstract noun is one of class of words that can be functioned as a subject or object of the clause, it is often same with the person, thing or the others that is nominalized out of the language. as one of language that is included in indo-europe language group, french has a special noun system. this paper will discuss about french noun system in general, form of noun gender sign (masculinfeminin), form of noun quantity sign, and the use of the article of noun modifying in french. this paper is aimed to explain form of noun french in general, form of noun gender sign, (masculinfeminin), form of noun quantity sign (singulier-pluriel), and noun modifying article in french. this paper is expected to help the learners to know the characteristic of indo-europe language in general. in this paper, the learners are expected to understand french noun in general, form of noun gender sign, form of noun quantity sign, and noun modifying article of french. besides, this paper is expected to help the learners in learning french easily. from the observation, there are some of gender signs (masculin-feminin) and quantity signs (singulier-pluriel) of noun in french. there are also some of noun modifying articles, including indefini article, defini article and partitif article. keywords: gender sign, quantity, noun, article, french issn 2339-1162 72 pendahuluan nomina atau sering disebut dengan kata benda merupakan salah satu jenis kata yang biasanya dapat berfungsi sebagai subyek atau obyek dari klausa. kelas kata ini sering berpadanan dengan orang, benda atau hal lain yang dibendakan dalam alam di luar bahasa (kridalaksana, 2001: 145). dalam klasifikasi genetis atau genealogis, bahasa prancis merupakan bagian dari rumpun bahasa indo-eropa (keraf, 1996: 25). sebagai salah satu rumpun bahasa indo-eropa, bahasa prancis mempunyai kaidah nomina yang khas yang bisa jadi berbeda dengan bahasa lain. salah satu kaidah nomina bahasa prancis antara lain adalah adanya pembagian gender nomina maskula-femina dalam bahasa prancis. bahasa prancis mengenal adanya nomin maskula dan femina yang tidak ada dalam bahasa indonesia. penetapan nomina maskula-femina ini bersifat arbitrer dan konvensional. selain adanya kaidah gender nomina maskulafemina, bahasa prancis juga mengenal adanya aturan jumlah tunggal-jamak pada nominanya. bentuk tunggal dan jamak pada nomina bahasa prancis ini mempunyai aturan tersendiri yang harus kita pelajari dengan seksama. selain kaidah gender (maskula-femina) dan jumlah (tunggal-jamak) tersebut, nomina bahasa prancis juga mempunyai artikel pendamping nomina. artikel pendamping nomina ini mempunyai fungsinya masing-masing serta menyesuaikan dengan jenis (maskula-femina) dan jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina tersebut. dari sedikit pengantar mengenai nomina bahasa prancis di atas dapat diketahui bahwa nomina bahasa prancis menganut beberapa kaidah khas yang mungkin berbeda dengan bahasa lain termasuk tidak sama pula dengan kaidah nomina dalam bahasa indonesia. kaidah nomina bahasa prancis mengenal pembagian gender (maskula-femina), aturan jumlah (tunggaljamak) serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina. aturan-aturan pembentukan nomina yang khas ini menuntut kita sebagai pembelajar bahasa prancis untuk lebih seksama dalam mempelajarinya. oleh karena itu, dalam tulisan ini penulis ingin memberikan sedikit penjelasan mengenai aturan-aturan penggunaan nomina bahasa prancis. dengan tulisan ini diharapkan dapat membantu para pembelajar bahasa prancis agar lebih mudah memahami bahasa prancis khususnya dalam sistem pembentukan nomina bahasa prancis. ada beberapa masalah yang dirumuskan dalam makalah ini yaitu: bagaimana sistem nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bagaimana bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) pada nomina bahasa prancis, bagaimana bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) pada nomina bahasa prancis, dan bagaimana penggunaan artikel pendamping pada nomina bahasa prancis. makalah ini ditujukan untuk mengungkapkan bentuk nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) nomina bahasa prancis, bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina bahasa prancis, serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. dengan adanya makalah ini diharapkan dapat membantu para pembaca agar lebih mengenal karakteristik bahasa indo-eropa secara umum. dengan adanya makalah ini, para pembaca juga diharapkan dapat memahami mengenai bentuk nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bentuk penanda gender (maskulafemina) nomina bahasa prancis, bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina bahasa prancis, serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. selain itu, dengan adanya makalah ini juga diharapkan dapat membantu para pembelajar agar lebih mudah dalam mempelajari bahasa prancis. makalah ini terdiri atas enam bagian. bagian 1 berisi pendahuluan. bagian 2 menggambarkan secara ringkas mengenai nomina bahasa prancis secara umum. bagian 3 membahas mengenai bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) pada nomina bahasa prancis. bagian 4 menjelaskan mengenai bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggaljamak) pada nomina bahasa prancis. bagian 5 jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 73 membahas mengenai artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. bagian 6 berisikan kesimpulan. nomina bahasa prancis 1. nomina nomina sering disebut dengan kata benda. nomina dapat dilihat dari segi semantis dan sintaksis. dari segi semantis, nomina merupakan kata yang mengacu pada manusia, binatang, benda dan konsep pengertian. dari segi sintaksis, nomina cenderung menduduki fungsi subyek, obyek atau pelengkap (moeliono, 1988: 152). mathews dalam the concise oxford dictionary of linguistics menyatakan bahwa nomina merupakan salah satu kelas kata yang mempunyai peran karakteristik sebagai argumen kata kerja, mempunyai karakteristik sebagai kata yang memiliki perwujudan benda konkrit (seperti anjing, pohon dan lain-lain) maupun tidak konkrit (seperti kepercayaan, kebijaksanaan dan lain-lain) (1997: 248). 2. nomina konkrit dan nomina abstrak bahasa prancis seperti halnya dalam bahasa indonesia, bahasa prancis juga mengenal adanya nomina konkrit dan nomina abstrak. nomina konkrit bahasa prancis adalah nomina bahasa prancis yang mempunyai rujukan benda konkrit atau benda nyata. contoh nomina konkrit dalam bahasa prancis yaitu table ‘meja’, chaise ‘kursi’, maison ‘rumah’, stylo ‘pulpen’, livre ‘buku’ dan lain-lain. nomina-nomina tersebut merupakan nomina konkrit bahasa prancis karena merupakan nomina bahasa prancis yang mempunyai rujukan benda konkrit (benda nyata). nomina abstrak bahasa prancis merupakan nomina bahasa prancis yang bersifat abstrak dan tidak mempunyai rujukan benda konkrit (benda nyata). contoh nomina abstrak dalam bahasa prancis yaitu la croyance ‘kepercayaan’, la patience ‘kesabaran’, le calme ‘ketenangan’, la justice ‘keadilan’, la sagesse ‘kebijaksanaan’ dan lain-lain. nomina-nomina tersebut merupakan nomina abstrak bahasa prancis karena merupakan nomina bahasa prancis yang bersifat abstrak dan tidak mempunyai rujukan benda konkrit (benda nyata). 3. nomina umum dan nomina diri bahasa prancis dalam bahasa prancis juga mengenal adanya nomina umum dan nomina diri. nomina umum bahasa prancis adalah nomina bahasa prancis yang bersifat umum, misalnya le pays ‘negara’, la ville ‘kota’, l’université ‘kampus’, le film ‘film’, la chanson ‘lagu’, la canteur ‘penyanyi’ dan lain-lain. sedangkan nomina diri adalah nomina yang merujuk khusus pada nama seseorang, nama tempat, nama instansi atau nama sesuatu secara khusus. contoh nomina diri dalam bahasa prancis yaitu l’indonésie ‘indonesia’, la france ‘prancis’, paris ‘paris’, marseille ‘marseille’, l’université de brawijaya ‘universitas brawijaya’, harry potter ‘film harry potter’, céline dion ‘celine dion’ dan lain-lain. penanda gender pada nomina bahasa prancis bahasa prancis sebagai salah satu rumpun bahasa indo-eropa mengenal adanya gender pada nomina. nomina bahasa prancis dibedakan atas nomina maskula dan nomina femina. gender maskula-femina pada nomina bahasa prancis ini bersifat arbitrer dan konvensional. contoh nomina maskula bahasa prancis yaitu un livre ‘sebuah buku’, un dictionnaire ‘sebuah kamus’, un sac ‘sebuah tas’, un crayon ‘sebuah pensil’ dan lain-lain. contoh nomina femina bahasa prancis yaitu une table ‘sebuah meja’, une maison ‘sebuah rumah’, une chaise ‘sebuah kursi’, une voiture ‘sebuah mobil’ dan lain-lain. pembentukan nomina femina bahasa prancis ini mempunyai aturan tertentu. ada proses pembentukan nomina femina yang beraturan maupun nomina femina yang tak beraturan. berikut merupakan macam-macam aturan pembentukan nomina femina bahasa prancis. issn 2339-1162 74 tabel 1. aturan pembentukan nomina femina bahasa prancis pembentukan nomina femina bahasa prancis nomina maskula bahasa prancis nomina femina bahasa prancis aturan umum dengan penambahan –e ami étudiant habitant amie ‘teman’ étudiante ‘mahasiswa’ habitante ‘penduduk’ konsonan ganda dan penambahan –e technicien musicien chat technicienne ‘teknisi’ musicienne ‘musisi’ chatte ‘kucing’ penambahan aksen tinggi dan penambahan -e infirmier étranger boulanger infirmière ‘perawat’ étrangère ‘orang asing’ boulangère ‘pengusaha roti’ perubahan –x menjadi -se epoux epouse ‘suami-istri’ perubahan –eur menjadi -euse chanteur danseur vendeur chanteuse ‘penyanyi’ danseuse ‘penari’ vendeuse ‘penjual’ perubahan –teur menjadi –trice directeur acteur iniciateur directrice ‘direktur’ actrice ‘aktor/aktris’ iniciatrice ‘pelopor’ perubahan dengan sufiks – esse prince maître hôte princesse ‘pangeran/putri’ maîtresse ‘penguasa’ hôtesse ‘tuan/nyonya rumah’ bentuk perubahan lainnya fils frère oncle fille ‘anak lelaki/perempuan’ sœur ‘saudara lelaki/perempuan’ tante ‘paman/bibi’ penanda jumlah pada nomina bahasa prancis selain mengenal gender maskula-femina, nomina bahasa prancis juga mengenal aturan jumlah, yaitu nomina tunggal dan nomina jamak. secara umum, nomina jamak bahasa prancis dibentuk dengan menambahkan akhiran –s pada nomina tunggal, misalnya des étudiants ‘para mahasiswa’, des livres ‘buku-buku’, chats ‘kucing-kucing’, voisins ‘para tetangga’ dan lain-lain. ada pula nomina jamak yang dibentuk dengan menambahkan akhiran –x pada nomina tunggal, misalnya cheveux ‘rambut’, eaux ‘air’ dan lain-lain. berikut macam-macam aturan pembentukan nomina jamak dalam bahasa prancis. tabel 2. aturan pembentukan nomina jamak bahasa prancis pembentukan nomina femina bahasa prancis nomina maskula bahasa prancis nomina femina bahasa prancis aturan umum dengan penambahan –s ami étudiant habitant amis ‘teman-teman’ étudiants ‘para mahasiswa’ habitants ‘para penduduk’ penambahan –x -eau eau bateau -au affûtiau tuyau -eu cheveu pneu -ou bijou genou eaux ‘air’ bateaux ‘kapal-kapal’ affûtiaux ‘perhiasan imitasi’ tuyaux ‘pipa’ cheveux ‘rambut’ pneux ‘ban’ bijoux ‘perhiasan-perhiasan’ genoux ‘lutut’ perubahan – al/-ail menjadi –aux amiral animal bocal bail amiraux ‘laksamana’ animaux ‘binatang’ bocaux ‘toples’ baux ‘perjanjian sewa’ jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 75 artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis selain mengenal bentuk penanda gender dan jumlah, nomina bahasa prancis juga mempunyai artikel pendamping. artikel pendamping ini mempunyai beberapa fungsi. artikel nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi sebagai penanda nomina yang belum jelas atau tak tentu disebut artikel indefini. artikel nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi sebagai penanda nomina yang sudah jelas atau tertentu disebut artikel defini. sedangkan artikel nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi untuk menyatakan nomina yang jumlahnya sebagian (biasanya dalam bentuk makanan atau minuman) disebut sebagai artikel partitif. artikel-artikel ini bentuknya berbedabeda mengikuti gender (maskula-femina) dan jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nominanya. 1. artikel indefini bahasa prancis, yaitu artikel nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi sebagai penanda nomina yang belum jelas atau tak tentu. artikel indefini bahasa prancis berjenis tunggal maskula adalah un, artikel indefini nomina tunggal maskula adalah une, dan artikel indefini nomina jamak maskula atau femina adalah des. tabel 3. artikel indefini nomina bahasa prancis maskula femina arti tunggal un une seorang, seekor, seikat, setangkai, sebatang, sebuah, sebutir, sehelai, … (belum jelas/tak tentu) jamak des des beberapa, … (belum jelas/tak tentu) jean a un dictionnaire. ‘jean mempunyai sebuah kamus.’ marie a une belle voiture. ‘marie mempunyai sebuah mobil yang bagus.’ nous avons des chiens. ‘kami mempunyai beberapa anjing.’ 2. artikel defini bahasa prancis, yaitu artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi sebagai penanda nomina yang sudah jelas atau tertentu. artikel defini untuk nomina tunggal maskula bahasa prancis adalah le, artikel defini untuk nomina tunggal femina bahasa prancis adalah la, artikel defini untuk nomina tunggal berawalan vokal atau h bahasa prancis adalah l’, artikel defini bahasa prancis untuk nomina jamak maskula maupun femina adalah les. tabel 4. artikel defini nomina bahasa prancis maskula femina arti tunggal le l’ la l’ orang itu, hewan itu, bunga itu, tanaman itu, benda itu, … (sudah jelas/tertentu) jamak les les orang-orang itu, hewanhewan itu, bunga-bunga itu, tanamantanaman itu, benda-benda itu, … (sudah jelas/tertentu) jacques voit le garcon. ‘jacques melihat anak laiki-laki itu’. nadine achète la belle maison. ‘nadine membeli rumah cantik itu.’ issn 2339-1162 76 mon frère aime l’avion. ‘saudara laki-lakiku suka pesawat itu.’ ils regardent les bons films. ‘mereka menonton film-film yang bagus itu.’ 3. artikel partitif bahasa prancis, yaitu artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis yang berfungsi sebagai penanda nomina sebagian (biasanya makanan atau minuman). artikel partitif bahasa prancis untuk nomina sebagian tunggal maskula yaitu du, artikel partitif bahasa prancis untuk nomina sebagian tunggal femina yaitu de la, artikel partitif untuk nomina tunggal maskula maupun femina berawalan vokal atau h yaitu de l’, artikel partitif untuk nomina sebagian jamak yaitu des. tabel 5. artikel partitif nomina bahasa prancis maskula femina arti tunggal du de l’ de la de l’ sepotong, sehelai, sedikit, … (makanan atau minuman) jamak des des (makanan jamak) bernard mange de la viande. ‘bernard makan daging.’ sylvie boit du café. ‘sylvie minum kopi.’ ma mère achète de l’huile. ‘ibu saya membeli minyak.’ nous achetons des fruits. ‘kami membeli buah-buahan.’ kesimpulan nomina merupakan salah satu jenis kata yang biasanya dapat berfungsi sebagai subyek atau obyek dari klausa, sering berpadanan dengan orang, benda atau hal lain yang dibendakan dalam alam di luar bahasa. sebagai salah satu bahasa yang masuk dalam rumpun bahasa indoeropa, bahasa prancis mempunyai kaidah nomina yang khas. dari pengamatan yang telah dilakukan, terdapat beberapa penanda gender (maskula-femina) serta penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) pada nomina bahasa prancis. dalam bahasa prancis juga terdapat beberapa artikel pendamping nomina, yaitu artikel indefini (artikel tak tentu), artikel defini (artikel tertentu) dan artikel partitif (artikel sebagian). dengan adanya makalah ini diharapkan dapat membantu para pembaca dalam mengenal karakteristik bahasa indo-eropa secara umum. dengan adanya makalah ini, para pembaca juga diharapan dapat memahami mengenai bentuk nomina bahasa prancis secara umum, bentuk penanda gender (maskula-femina) nomina bahasa prancis, bentuk penanda jumlah (tunggal-jamak) nomina bahasa prancis, serta penggunaan artikel pendamping nomina bahasa prancis. selain itu, dengan adanya makalah ini juga diharapkan dapat membantu para pembelajar agar lebih mudah dalam mempelajari bahasa prancis. daftar pustaka arifin, winarsih dan farida soemargono. 1996. kamus perancis indonesia. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. keraf, gorys. 1996. linguistik bandingan historis. jakarta: pt gramedia. kridalaksana, harimurti. 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. matthews, p.h. 1997. the concise oxford dictionary of linguistics. new york: oxford university press. moeliono, anton m. dan dardjowidjojo, soenjono. 1988. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. robert, paul. 2003. le petit robert. paris: dictionnaires le robert. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 77 subroto, edi. 2007. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret press. microsoft word 99-106 dayo akanmu .edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.99-106.2019 article communicative and stylistic potential of new yoruba idioms and idiomatic expressions on the label of alcoholic drinks dayo akanmu school of languages, adeniran ogunsanya college of education, otto/ijanikin, lagos state, nigeria submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 27, 2019 final revision: september 30, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this paper investigated issues expressed with these idioms as well as the strategy for using them for various modern alcoholic drinks in yoruba land. the paper adopted mukarovsky's theory of standard language based on its ability to explain the deviant nature of the new yoruba idioms as well as explaining 'differencia specifica' between the language of everyday conversation and literary language. data were collected from different beer joints in lagos state and ògùn state respectively as states where most of these drinks are produced. eventually, data were subjected to stylistic analysis. in all, sex is the only issue that was expressed. sex, which was peculiar to all the alcoholic drinks, occurred in the context of 'eroticism', 'vulgarity', 'sexual style', and 'sexual positioning'. only the metaphorisation linguistic strategy was employed for the coining of the idioms and was differentially derived from nominalizations, phonaesthetic coinages, and compositions. nominalisations, compositions, and phonaesthetic coinages occurred in almost all the labels, and they were contextualized in eroticism ('ọ̀ṣọmọ', 'alọmọ', 'ògidigà' and 'o ̣́ ríjìn (ọ rí i jìn?); sexual style (kòbókò, kerewa, pakurumo) while dadubule revealed sexual positioning. new yorùbá idioms, used to express-socio economic and emotive issues in routine communication, occurred in mediated and non-mediated contexts and were conveyed through metaphorisations. these idioms rethe flect dynamism and modernity-constrained stylistic choices in yorùbá discourses. keyword language variation, minang, millennial citizen, colloquial. correspondence e-mail: condra@polibatam.ac.id i. introduction this paper p arojects certain vital aspect of language that is either not taking very serious or misconstrued to be ghetto language by some purists in this 21st century. whereas, outside the borders of what is the called language of everyday usage in every dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 100 conversation and other domains, are other useful forms of expressions. for instance, there are special instances of jargon of various trades,, sports and occupations; there are also the veritable vocabularies of imprecatiand of ribaldry and the new idioms under discussion, all of which are full of vitality, interest and far rethe aching area of study. this p,aper is however, motivated based on the fact that new idioms and idiomatic expressions are tools in the hand of the users who are always anxious to educate their people about new development in every area of human ndeavours. users of language cannot but faced with certain linguistic challenges imposed on them by their language, specifically difficulty in getting the right lexical items and terminologies to express new ideas. the way out of these linguistic constraints according to babalọlá (1972), awóbùlúyì (1992: 26), ọláte ̣́jú (2005, 2008, 2012, 2016) and akanmu (2018, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014) lies in the use of new idioms and idiomatic expressions derived by coining new words or new idioms and by giving new meanings to those that have been in existence. new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions are modern stockexpressions, formed in response to the needs of the moment arising based on the linguistic constraints ,of the users which consequently nthe ecessitates creation of new words and expressions. new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions are called not only because of the,ir complexity which necessitates the overlapping tendencies of their semanticrealizations, but also because of their distinctive difference from the old traditional idioms. indeed, they straddle metaphor and euphemism and also serve as replication of the established yorùbá idioms, both in form and meaning. they are in spoken and written forms, and mainly operate at the lexical and phrasal levels. they are also multi-functional because of their semantic unity. they may equally function a,s nouns, verbs and adjectives. new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions are created by members of the society or language community either through coining (creating recreating of new words and expressions) or by investing old words and expressions with new meanings. new yorùbá idioms are new,, strange, fresh and creative by nature and structure. they are not v,ague expressions and their origins are also familiar to the users who are always dazzled whenever they come across them in any context and, they hardly disappear after creeping into the language as new idioms. new yorùbá idioms are used in literadiscourse and in daily conversation by a sizeable number of people, especially youths, and by extension, elderly ones who always hear them on radio, telev,ision, home video and in buses. generally speaking, apart from the few scholars who have turned their attention on new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions which include ọlátéj̣ú (2005) and àkànmú (2014; 2015), only a considerable amount of effort seemed to have been devoted to the old or traditional yorùbá idioms even though in passing, as no direct or specific study of the yorùbá traditional idioms has been carried out in yorùbá studies. however, some scholars have described idioms as expressions or words whose meanings cannot be established or predicted from the individual elements in them (àkànmú 2014; ọláte ̣́jú 2005; babalola 1972). in this discussion of idioms and coinages, babalọlá (1972 ) asserts that neologism is used for expressing new items and ideas brought into yorùbá culture by foreigners. his assertion bears direct relevance to this paper because neologism is one of the linguistic strategies employed in the formation of new idioms. ọlátéj̣ú (2005) and àkànmú (2014; 2015) are remarkable contributions on new yorùbá idioms, issues expressed with them, their formation and interpretation. these scholars examined idioms and idiomatic expressions from both dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 101 the linguistic and literary points of view. ọláte ̣́jú (2005) adopted chomskyan transformational generative grammar (tgg) while àkànmú (2014) and (2015) employed mukarovsky theory of standard language. both scholars embraced stylistic and some socthe iolinguistic variables to bring out aesthetic and communicative ability of the new idioms and idiomatic expressions. this paper is predominantly concerned with the task of analyzing and interpreting idioms and idiomatic expressions found on the labels of the bottle of alcoholic drinks purposively selected for analysis. this analysisthe is to facilitate illumination into communicative and stylistic relevance of the idioms. based on the fact that new idioms and idiomatic expressions are ambiguous and their meanine realized through their individual lexical constituents, this quintessential phenomenon is better studied and analyzed holistihe stylisticerspective with a view to determining their communicative and stylistic effects even, on the labels of alcoholic drinks. these idioms are becoming popu. tyorùbá speakers in such a way that they are getting attenuated into the routine utterances of both the sellers and consumers of alcoholic drinks among the yorùbá at a significant rate. this is made possible because of the impact of globalisation which eventually broadened the creative ingenuity of the manufacturers of some of the alcoholic drinks under study. finally, this paper is preoccupied with the effort of subjecting new idioms on the labels of some selected alcoholic drinks to critical analysis in order to determine the stylistic and communicative relevance of the new idioms and idiomatic expressions. ii. methods data for this paper were collected from different joints or bars of alcoholi,c drinks in l,agos state and ògùn state respectively being the two states where most of these alcoholic drinks are produced. these alcoholic drinks whose labels exemplified glaring use of new idioms and idiomatic expressions include 'ọ̀ṣọmọ, alọmọ', 'ògidigà', 'kerewà', 'kòbókò', 'pakurumọ', 'dadùbúlè'̣ and 'ọ́ríjìn'. in all of these, only the issue of sex was expressed and contextualized in 'sexual style', 'sexual positioning', 'eroticism' and 'vulgarity'. the nez idioms and idiomatic expressions were analysed contextually, mainly at the stylistic levels using stylistic apparatus. as said earlier, this paper adopted mukarovsky's theory of standard language formulated in 1970. its consideration is b anased on the fact that it is capable of giving adequate explanation on the 'differencia specifica' between the language of ordinary usage and literary expressions as well as using it to explain and interpret the deviant and inventive nature of the new idioms and idiomatic expressions. according to mukarovsky (1970), standard language (sl) is the language of everyday discourse. its purpose is the underste the speer and the audience with the aim of enhancingthe leffective communication (crystal 1997: 68). language of everyday conversation or ordinary discourse is casual and devoid of ornamentation. it is unexamined and uncritical; it does not draw attention to itself or open up provocative questions to the nature of its coding. it is often used in ,schools, on radio, during political campaigns and preac,hing. its priori thety is effective communication which calls for employment of words and phrases that can be fully comprehended. therefore, to enhance undistorted communication in standard language (sl), language must conform to the entire linguistic norms. iii. result and discussion as discussed earlier, eight different types of alcoholic drinks that were purposively selected for having new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions are o ̣̀ ṣomọ, kerewà, pakurumọ, dadùbúlè,̣ ògidigaz, ọ́ríjìn, kòbókò and alọmọ all of which are analysed using stylistic apparatus.the dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 102 1. òṣ̣ọmọ the above is a new yorùbá idiom used as inscription of a heavily concentrated herbal and alcoholic content produced and marketed by yem-kem international igando, lasu ojo road, lagos, nigeria. 'o ̣̀ ṣọmọ', which literally means 'producer or manufacturer of child' is formed through nominalisation 'ò + ṣe + ọmọ' (pre + v + n) and can be interpreted idiomatically as 'a flirt', 'humanizer' or 'a philanderer' respectively. ọ̀ṣọmọ, according to some of the consumers, is a libido booster, especially man's libido in a manner that the man in question cannot get tired of having sex to the full satisfaction of any woman. based on this, it can be said that 'o ̣̀ ṣọmọ' expresses sex even in the context of eroticism. apart from the fact that 'ọ̀sọmọ' can be found in virtually every beer joint in nigeria, its use as idiom is not limited to alcoholic drink alone, it is also used by other members of the society to mean 'a flirt', sex freak, humanizer or 'libido booster' as the case may be. it should be added here that 'ọmọ' (child), in 'ọ̀ṣọmọ' is not 'child' in the real sense of its contemporary meaning among the yorùbá; it is simply interpreted as a beautiful lady' irrespective of age. 2. kerewà the above is also used as an inscription on the label of the alcoholic herbal drink produced by the timberland nigeria limited, 2i old road, ̀jèbú-igbó, ogun state, nigeria. ,kerewà is a phonaesthetic coinage derived from the sound, gesture and description of a farmer weeding the grass or making ridges in an up and down movement in the farm. it is used to portray 'sexual style' or 'love making' depending on the context of usage. in this context, the use of semantic transfer is involved, especially in view of the sound (kerewa) and the observed gesture (up and down movement of the body) displayed by the farmer in the course of weeding the grass or making ridges in the farm. this up and down movement connotes sexual style in the act of love making. most sellers and consumers of 'kerewà' are of the views that idiom of this nature, being stylistically created, markets their products in a way that iarouses curiosity as teconsumers will want to know why it is so called 'kerewà' and having discovered that the name 'kerewà' corroborates its potency as libido booster or a gin with sexual innuendo, it becomes a routine option for sexual purposes even at the expense of other types of beer or alcoholic dri,nks. 3. pakurumọ the above is an existing expression in the language whi thech literally means 'aggressive effort at doing something'' now used as inscription on the label of alcoholic herbal drink produced at no. 24 oshinowo crescent, ijebu ode, ògùn state, nigeria for enhancement of one's libido. this expression expresses 'sex' in the act of love making, especially when the woman is being touched in the sensitive places of the inner sexual region; it prompts her to reinforce and put more effort. in other words, it can also be simply interpret,ed as rigorous love making. 'pakurumọ', as believed by some cosumers also helps in making one to 'get closely knitted' to one's girl friend or wife (sexual style) in the act of love making. this expression has g. i beyond its usage as an inscription on the label of alcoholic drinks, it ialso used as title of hip up songs, films and even, in yorùbá programmes on radio and television for different meanings like 'be serious' and 'let's get serious'. 4. dadùbúlè ̣ dadùbúlè ̣is another instance of an inscription on the label of alcoholic herbal gin which expresses sex. it is produced and marketed by chubby-zion industrial limited, no. 62, shagamu road, ogun state, nigeria. the idiom, 'dadùbúlè'̣, which can be interpreted literally as 'lay her down' is also an existing word in the yorùbá language used connotatively to mean 'sexual positioning' or 'make love with her' respectively. 'dadùbúlè'̣ dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 103 is a product-of expression coined through ''composition (sentence) dá (verb), -a (third person singular pronoun),-dùbúlè ̣ (verb phrase), meaning 'dá a dùbúlè ̣' 'lay-her-down'. in the act of love making, when a man lays down his lover, it is believed that 'sexual positioning' is achieved. today, the expression is he tso pervasive and wel,l embraced by the youtto the extent that it features as title of films, songs and different programmes on radio an ad television, especially where issues of pornography or sex are presented using euphemism. the context or usage like this makes interpretation comprehensible even without mentioning the word sex. 5. ògidigà ògidigà is another alcoholic herbal drink produced in kuku avenue, ìjèbú-òde, ògùn state, nigeria by òkúfúnwá yèádé nigeria limited. 'ògidigà' is a phonaesthetic coinage created through the use of heavy consonants like 'g' and ’d’ as seen in 'gidi' and 'gà' as components which formed the expression calà'. the implication of the heavy consonants such as 'g' and 'd' in, ògidigà is that it portrays 'tur,gidity' or something 'hard' and 'solid'. this, however is suggestive of the male genital which becoan mes naturally 'strong' 'solid' and elastic after taking the herbal drink for it to have impact and meet the expectation of the female partner during love making except the man involved is having health issues. stylistically speaking, 'ògidigà’ also expresses sex in the context of eroticism going by the use of 'elasticity', 'turgidity'' and 'erectness' of the male genita al in love making. instead of calling the male genital its real name, ògidigà is used as euphemism. 6. alọmọ the above is equally in the class of òṣọmọ in term of the linguistic strategy for its formation. a 'alọmọ' which is produced at kilometer 8, nkruma way, accra, ghana by kasapreko company has huge market for its sales in nigeria, especially among the yorùbá. 'alomo', a ghanaian expression is however domesticated in yorùbá languaze as 'alọmọ', the coinage of which is a linguistic co-incidence made possible through nominalisationa + lo + ọmọ (prefix + v + n). 'alọmọ' li,terally means 'user of child' can be interpreted connotatively to mean 'a flirt', 'a philanderer' and 'humanizer'. going by the function of this alcoholic drink, which is enhancement of libido and rejuvenating of malethe genital organ for sexual activities, it can be said that 'alomo' also expresses sex as it helps user to consummate lovers/ladies sexually at a time without getting tired. eroticism is equal aly at play here. it should be stressed here that, 'ọmọ' (child) in a-loọmọ is not referred to a tdat but 'a beautiful lady' in this context. 7. orijin orijin is another alcoholic herbal drinks which expresses sex in the context of eroticism. it is produced and marketed by the guinness nigeria plc. ikeja industrial estate, in order to survive stringent competition and challenges from all other local producers of alcoholic herbal drinks. it is observed that 'alomo', 'o ̣̀ ṣọmọ, 'kerewà' and other local alcoholic herbal drinks have drastically changen irconsumer's pattern of consumption of beer in such a way that guinness products are jettisoned completely for the local herbal drinks by some consumers who are fon of taking many bottles before, but now reduced it to little or nothing, because it is believed that, it is of no economic use or personal satisfaction to buy many beers at the expense of mixing the local alcoholic herbal drinks with little content of beer which is cheaper tnd at the same time g enough satisfaction. this invariably challenged t-e nigeria guinness plc. to come up with their own alcoholic herbal drink called 'orijin' in a better refined form. stylistically speaking, 'orijin' is not an english expression but it has similar phonological sound with the english word dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 104 'origin' (source) and the yorùbá expression 'ọ rí i jìn', coined through 'composition' (sentence), literally mean ''were you able to punch/press/consummate her?' if a question tag is added. 'ọ' is used as oyo dialect in replacement of 'o' which is the standard form while the second vowel 'i' is an extension of the verb 'ri' (i) as 'a third person pronoun' representing the receiver of the action performed in the expression. the receiver is no other person than 'the female counterpart' in the act of love making. finally, the expression 'ọrijin' (ọ rí i jìn?) can be ,interpreted connotatively as 'were you able to have sex with her?'. eroticism is absolutely at play here and that is what orijin does. 8. kòbókò kòbókò is also another alcoholic herbal drink produced in 13, ogijo road, ìkòròdú, lagos state by xty2 nigeria enterprise. 'kòbókò' is a hausa expression loan,ed into the yorùbá language, literarily mean 'whip'. it is made of the animal skin. it stands straight, tall and very hard no matter the extent of usage. all these attributes are transferred (semantic ,shift) into the 'kòbókò' herbal drink' as a drink that has the potency for making male genital straight, tall and very hard from the beginning of love making to the end without getting tired. the implication of this is that, when used, the male genital can navi agate anywhere and anyhow until his female counterpart gets whipped. by and large, navigation of this nature is manifestation of 'sexual style' which 'kòbókò' portrays. it should be stressed from the foregoing, that new yorùbá idioms in this paper expressed sexual issues using euphemism without being puritanical. some of these idioms undergo a sifting process being stylistically created and not meant to define a thing but to say something funny about it, keep as a rule their idiomatic attitude, while those among the standard terms, which are genuine and useful definitions, lose little by little their vulgar associations. it can also be mentioned here that, those new idioms that are situated in their social contexts are gaining entrance into the lexicon of the language in an appreciable quantity owning to their fr,equent use in literary and i,nformal communication. sex or sexually related issues are seen as part of human life and human beings, by nature are pornographic (mackinnon, 1996: 220). therefore, the explicit sexual issues expressed with the use of new idioms on the labels of the alcoholic herbal drinks in this paper only serves as a reinforcement to the sellers, consumers and users of the language to carry them along to the fact that the society, especially the youths, are willing to embrace anything that discusses sex and those that are exhaustive with the new yoruba idioms on sex such as the foregoing. in this paper, it has been established that the new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions were used as inscriptions on the label of the alczholic herbal drinks for both stylistic and communicative effects. the new idioms and idiomatic expressions analysed in this paper were found to be ,used to express sex and sexually related issues and were differentially contextualized in eroticism, sexual style and sexual positioning. the paper equally revealed the various linguistic tec,hniques involved in the creation of new yorùbá idioms and zdiomatic expressions used by the consumers, the youths and manufacturers of all the alcoho,lic herbal drinks analysed. these include neologism through prefixation and nominalization, borrowing, compounding and phonaesthetic coinages. some of which were conveyed through metaphorisation. the paper also revealed that the new yorùbá idioms were not in any way puritanical or dangerous to the moral values of the society because some of them undergone a sifting process. they were not meant to define thing but to say something funning about it, keep as a rule their idiomatic attitude, while those among the standard terms, which arthe e genuine and useful definitions, lose little by little their vulgar associations. it was finally established that utilization of new yorùbá dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 105 idioms and idiomatic expressions in this paper invar paper has established communicative and stylistic potentialities of the new yorùbá idioms and idiomatic expressions used as inscriptions on the label of alcoholic herbal drinks indiffers th west nigeria and by extension in nigeria. the issues expressed with them, structure, linguistic strategies for their formation, and vheirocal opretation were critically executed. for thmplpaper, e, tstandard language (sl) model known for its ability to explain deviant and inventive nature of the new yoruba idioms and idiomatic expressions, and the 'esting paia specifica' between the language of everyday conversation and language of littrhe souwas adopted. as said earlier, this paper has shown that yorùbá language has the necessary mechanism to cope with the linguistic constraints necessitated by the global communicative economy. the coping strategies were discovered in the wordformation capacity of the yorùbátinguishabin which the new yorùbá idioms are inclusive. finally, students, teachers, and other userared the to other are implored to key into the potentialities of the yorùbá language as manifested in this paper for future execution in other areas of endeavors. nguage diversity among speakers. besides, it may also help us identify to which part of group the speakers belong to. references akanmu, d. 2018. ‘’the phenomenon of new idioms and idiomatic expressions in football matches : communicative and stylistic approach ” in logos and littera , faculty of philology, university of montenegro akanmu, d. 2017. “new yoruba idioms and idiomatic expressions: a new mode of expression in political arena” in dialectogia, university of barcelona, spain. akanmu, d. 2016. ''communicative and stylistic utilization of new yoruba idioms among students of higher institutions,'' argotica,1(15), university of craiova. akanmu , d. 2015 . ''language and culture among the yorùbá : a study of argot , cant , jargons and slang as forerunners of new idioms and idiomatic expressions in the 12st century'' international journal of innovation and applied studies 12(3). akanmu, d. 2014. ''new idioms and idiomatic expressions in yorùbá literary and routine communication'', thesis, linguistics, arts university of ìbàdàn. awóbùlúyì, o. 1992. ''lexical expansion in yorùbá techniques and principles''. research in yorùbá language and literature. technicians of the sacred, burbark. babalọlá, a. 1972. ''the growth of the yorùbá language: problems encountered and solutions''. essayed staff seminar papers and subsequent discussions. bámgbóṣé, a. 1975. ''relative clauses and nominalised sentences in yorùbá'' in proceedings of the sixth conference on african linguistics, osu wpl 20. 202-209 ed, robert, k. herbert. crystal, d. 1997. the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language, italy, cambridge university press. dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 106 mukarovsky, j. 1970. "standard language and poetic language" in freeman, d.c (ed), linguistic and literary style, massachusett, h.r.w. mackinnon. 1996 towards a feminist theory of the state, cambridge, omywords cambridge. ògúnbò ̣wálé, j. 1967. essentials of the yorùbá language, ìbàdàn i ̀̀bàdàn university press. ọláte ̣ ́jú, m.o.a. 2016. ''language and style (-listics) in literary and routine communication: the yorùbá example'' an inaugural lecture, 2015/2016, university press. ọláte ̣ ́jú, m.o.a. 2012, current issues and trends in african verbal stylistics: the yorùbá example'' in style in african literature (eds) makokha, j.k.s obiero, o.j and west pavlov. r. amsterdam-new york: radopi pp. 59-70. ọláte ̣ ́jú, m.o.a. 2008. '' je ̣̀ dí ò makò ̣wé'': a socio-linguistic analysis of the languag style of the yorùbá herbal medicine practitioners'', proceedings linguistics (acal), university of georgia, athens, u.s.a. ọláte ̣ ́jú, m.o.a. 2005. ''the phenomenon of new idioms in yorùbá literary and routine communication'' in yorùbá creativity, fiction, language, life and songs, fálọlá, t. and ann jenova, p.c (eds) pp. 273-287. ọláte ̣ ́jú, m.o.a. 1989. ''a structuralist study of the sound pattern in yorùbá poetic discourse'' dissertation, linguistics, arts, university of ìbàdàn. owólabí, k. 1976. ''noun noun constructions in yorùbá language'', thesis, linguistics, arts, university of ìbàdàn. rowland. 1969. teach yourself yorùbá, london: english university press. ruwet. 1973. an introduction to generative grammar, amsterdam: north holland. naskah jurnal arbitrer finish_3.pdf pembuatan model pembelajaran bahasa jepang melalui implementasi scl berbasis multimedia ariani tanjung politeknik negeri padang email: niniamrin@yahoo.com abstrak perguruan tinggi politeknik negeri padang merupakan salah satu wadah yang memberikan pengajaran bahasa asing. dalam hal ini, bahasa jepang, yang berperan dalam mengembangkan potensi sdm untuk membina mahasiswa yang mampu berkomunikasi dengan bahasa asing yang bertujuan untuk memperkenalkan, serta mempromosikan objek wisata dan kebudayaan sumatera barat khususnya dan indonesia pada umumnya kepada wisatawan. pembinaan bahasa asing kepada mahasiswa dilakukan dengan cara yang mudah dicerna oleh siswa maupun mahasiswa. oleh sebab itu, dengan adanya program scl yang berbasis multimedia (it) sangat diharapkan dapat memudahkan, memotivasi, serta menumbuhkan minat mahasiswa, sehingga mendapatkan hasil yang optimal. politeknik sebagai lembaga pendidikan vokasional merupakan wadah yang tepat untuk mengimplementasikan program scl yang berbasis multimedia karena sistem pengajaran yang dirancang melalui scl memberikan metode pengajaran praktik 80% dan teori 20%. metode ini akan lebih menarik apabila diimprovisasikan dengan program it berbasis multimedia tersebut. kata kunci: flash mx, adobe premiere, adobe photoshoptm, proses pembelajaran belajar mengajar i. pendahuluan sebagaimana yang kita ketahui bahwa definisi media berasal dari bahasa latin yaitu merupakan bentuk jamak dari medium yang secara harfiah berarti perantara atau pengantar, yaitu perantara atau pengantar sumber pesan dengan penerima pesan. beberapa ahli memberikan definisi tentang media pembelajaran. schramm (1977) mengemukakan bahwa media pembelajaran adalah teknologi pembawa pesan yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk keperluan pembelajaran. sementara itu, briggs (1977) berpendapat bahwa media pembelajaran adalah sarana fisik untuk jurnal arbitrer 88 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ menyampaikan isi atau materi pembelajaran seperti buku, film, dan video. national education associaton (1969) mengungkapkan bahwa media pembelajaran adalah sarana komunikasi dalam bentuk cetak maupun pandang-dengar, termasuk teknologi perangkat keras. dari ketiga pendapat di atas, disimpulkan bahwa media pembelajaran adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat menyalurkan pesan, dapat merangsang pikiran, perasaan, dan kemauan peserta didik sehingga dapat mendorong terciptanya proses belajar pada diri peserta didik. brown (1973) mengungkapkan bahwa media pembelajaran yang digunakan dalam kegiatan pembelajaran dapat memengaruhi efektivitas pembelajaran. pada mulanya, media pembelajaran hanya berfungsi sebagai alat bantu guru untuk mengajar, yaitu berupa alat bantu visual. sekitar pertengahan abad ke 20, usaha pemanfaatan visual dilengkapi dengan digunakannya alat audio, sehingga lahirlah alat bantu audio-visual. sejalan dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi (iptek), khususnya dalam bidang pendidikan, saat ini penggunaan alat bantu atau media pembelajaran menjadi semakin luas dan interaktif, seperti adanya komputer dan internet. metode yang dilakukan adalah memberikan materi pelajaran melalui it berbasis multimedia. metode scl dan metode pengajaran it memotivasi saya untuk membuat sebuah program perancangan model ajar scl yang dipadukan dengan metode pengajaran it berbasis multimedia guna memudahkan sarana pengajaran dan pelajaran dengan judul pembuatan model pembelajaran bahasa jepang melalui implementasi scl berbasis multimedia. permasalahan dari uraian di atas, saya mencoba sistem pengajaran yang memadukan teori dengan praktik melalui multimedia dengan objek lebih terlihat, yaitu dengan menggunakan program adobe premiere, sehingga perkuliahan terasa lebih dinamis. tujuan sulitnya mahasiswa memahami apa yang digambarkan oleh pengajar dalam belajar bahasa membuat saya ingin mencoba mengajar dengan pola pengajaran yang berbeda. salah satunya adalah mengajar dengan cara membuat objek menjadi lebih mudah dicerna oleh mahasiswa, dengan cara membuat gambar menjadi bergerak sehingga pembelajar lebih tertarik dengan materi yang diajarkan. ii. metode penelitian rancangan metodologi penelitian ini bersifat kualitatif dan kuantitatif. untuk membuktikan penelitian ini, dibutuhkan waktu selama dua tahun. tahap awal untuk kemajuan proses belajar-mengajar tersebut, serta melihat hasil kemampuan, baik sebagai pendidik maupun peserta didik dalam melihat sisi minat, bakat, serta motivasi. sementara itu, tahap kedua untuk pengaplikasian program multimedia (it). oleh sebab itu, dirancang metodologi penelitian tahap kedua sebagai berikut: tahapan penelitian tahapan penelitian sesuai dengan tujuan penelitian, yaitu merancang serta mengimplementasikan metode scl yang dipadukan dengan kurikulum yang ditetapkan dikti dan instansi. perancangan mengacu pada rkpps dan sap pada program pengajaran bahasa jepang dengan menggunakan program it berupa macromedia flash yang dapat merancang pengajaran bahasa jepang yang berbasis vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 89 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ pada sistem pendidikan vokasional sehingga menghasilkan cd interaktif. populasi dan sampel penelitian tahap ii pada tahun kedua penelitian, populasi penelitian yang menjadi sampel mahasiswa bertambah, yaitu mahasiswa jurusan administrasi niaga yang terdiri atas program studi administrasi bisnis dan usaha perjalanan wisata politeknik negeri padang tahun akademik 2015/2016. untuk tahun yang terdiri atas tingkat i, dan ii program studi upw, serta tingkat iii program studi administrasi bisnis memiliki jumlah mahasiswa kurang lebih 160 orang. keseluruhan mahasiswa diambil sebagai sampel (total sampling) karena sesuai dengan implementasi penelitian, mahasiswa ini telah mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa jepang. teknik pengumpulan data setelah satu tahun, output bahan ajar berdasarkan metode scl tersebut dinyatakan jelas kurikulumnya dan berhasil dijalankan, kemudian dicoba untuk dipadupadankan dengan metode scl berbasis multimedia (it) dan telah dioperasikan oleh pengajar. kemudian, pengajar mengumpulkan data serta mengamati ketertarikan mahasiswa dengan metode scl yang berbasis multimedia, serta melihat kemampuan dalam mengimplementasikan program it berupa macromedia flash demi tercapainya rancangan pengajaran bahasa jepang yang berbasis pada sistem pendidikan vokasional tersebut melalui kuisioner. akibatnya, terciptanya buku panduan serta cd interaktif untuk sarana pembelajaran bahasa jepang. analisis data analisis data dilakukan dengan pengevaluasian instrumen dan pencatatan kemajuan program yang telah dirancang berdasarkan multimedia it berupa macromedia flash demi tercapainya rancangan pengajaran bahasa jepang yang berbasis pada sistem pendidikan vokasional melalui kuisioner. metodologi pengajaran berdasarkan rancangan iptek a. flash mx merupakan bagian dari keluarga macromedia yang digunakan sebagai aplikasi pembuat animasi berupa game dan gambar bergerak. b. adobe premiere adalah salah satu software yang populer dan digunakan secara luas dalam pengeditan video. adanya kesamaan interface adobe premiere dengan adobe photoshop dan adobe after effect memberikan kemudahaan dalam pemakaiannya. image dapat disiapkan dengan adobe photoshop dan effect khusus juga dapat disiapkan dari adobe after effect. c. adobe photoshoptm merupakan salah satu program pengolah gambar standar profesional. hasil penelitian menunjukkan minat belajar anak didik dengan menggunakan program tersebut lebih tinggi daripada minat anak didik yang diajar dengan metode ceramah (wijaksono, 2012). iii. pembahasan hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan media macromedia flash memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap hasil belajar mahasiswa, serta menunjukkan bahwa hasil belajar serta motivasi mahasiswa yang belajar menggunakan macromedia flash tersebut lebih tinggi daripada mahasiswa yang belajar tanpa menggunakan media tersebut. jurnal arbitrer 90 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ kompetensi utama a. mahasiswa belajar dapat berkomunikasi dan membuat kalimat dengan kata sifat gol i. b. mahasiswa dapat membuat kalimat kata sifat gol ii c. s+ + d. kompetensi penunjang e. mahasiswa mempelajari kata sifat ikeyoushi f. mahasiswa mempelajari kata sifat nakeyoushi. untuk materi pelajaran ini memerlukan waktu 2 minggu yaitu minggu i dan minggu ii. dainikka pelajaran 2 kompetensi utama g. mahasiswa belajar dapat berkomuniksi dan membuat kalimat dengan kata keinginan atau kemauan diiringi dengan verba. h. mahasiswa dapat membuat kalimat dengan mengubah kata kerja menjadi kalimat kata sifat keingi-nan. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 91 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ kompetensi penunjang i. mahasiswa mempelajari kata keinginan. s +objek+ untuk materi pelajaran ini memerlukan waktu 3 minggu yaitu minggu iii, iv sampai minggu v. daisanka pelajaran 3 kompetensi utama j. mahasiswa belajar dapat berkomuniksi dan membuat kalimat dengan kata keinginan atau kemauan diiringi dengan verba. k. mahasiswa dapat membuat kalimat dengan mengubah kata kerja menjadi kalimat kata sifat keinginan. kompetensi penunjang l. mahasiswa mempelajari perubahan kata kerja menjadi kata sifat. objek + k.keja untuk materi pelajaran ini memerlukan waktu 3 minggu yaitu minggu vi sampai minggu viii. jurnal arbitrer 92 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ pelajaran 4 kompetensi utama m. mahasiswa belajar dapat berkomuniksi dan membuat kalimat dengan pola kalimat ~ ~ . n. mahasiswa dapat membuat kalimat dengan mengubah kata kerja menjadi bentuk tekei. kompetensi penunjang o. mahasiswa mempelajari perubahan kata kerja menjadi bentuk teikei. objek + k.keja (aktivitas sedang berlangsung) objek + k.keja (silakan/tolong) untuk materi pelajaran ini memerlukan waktu 3 minggu yaitu minggu x sampai minggu xii. iv. kesimpulan dengan menggunakan pengajaran yang menggunakan macromedia flash proses media pembelajaran akan lebih dinamis dan lebih efektif sehingga maha-siswa merasa sistem pelajaran yang dina-mis tidak monoton. dengan adanya prog-ram pembuatan pengajaran melalui multimedia ini diharapkan menjadi acuan bagi guru-guru pada umumnya, staf pengajar bahasa jepang khususnya untuk mempermudah media pembelajaran dan pengajaran yang lebih efektif dan efisien. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 93 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ daftar pustaka denny mulyadi t, 1995, percakapan da-sar jepang, jakarta: kesaint blanc. doni judian pribadi, 2005, bahasa je-pang untuk hotel dan pariwisata, ja-karta: kesaint blanc. minna nihongo, 2000, japan foundation. mulyana adimihardja, 2002, nichijoo kaiwa, bandung: pustaka grafika. ohadi, 2003, bentuk ungkapan dari kata sifat dan kata kerja, jakarta: kesaint blanc. shin nihongo no kiso i, 1999, japan fo-undation. singgih santoso, 1998, aplikasi excel da-lam statistik bisnis, jakarta: pt elex media komputindo. yung, kok. 2005. 161 teknik profesional flash mx 2004. jakarta: pt elex me-dia komputindo. jurnal arbitrer 94 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ analysing the improper pronunciation of diphthongs by iraqi efl learners jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.17-22.2018 article analysing the improper pronunciation of diphthongs by iraqi efl learners mukhalad malik yousif, aras abdalkarim ameen department of english, cihan university, slemani, iraq submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: february 26, 2018 final revision: april 12, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 the current study aims at analysing the improper pronunciation of iraqi efl learners concerning the pronunciation of diphthongs in words of various syllables. it describes and identifies thoroughly the mispronunciations of such important sounds in english language. the study attempts at analysing such mispronunciations by clarifying and assigning the phonetic deviations of iraqi efl learners when they pronounce diphthongs. so the main objective of the study is to analyse the errors committed by iraqi learners in the pronunciation of diphthongs grouping each error into its specific category. to verify the objective of the paper, 25 iraqi efl learners from the department of english at cihan university/ slemani are chosen to be the main participants of the study. the test which was conducted in the laboratory of the department of english contained 10 words comprising various diphthongs. the results clearly revealed that mispronouncing english diphthongs by iraqi efl were mostly observed by replacing the required diphthong with another improper one and they also tended to use simple vowels instead of the correct required diphthongs. keyword pronunciation, vowel(s), iraqi efl learners, diphthong(s), improper. correspondence e-mail: mukhalad72@yahoo.com i. introduction language is by no means the most important system used in communication as part of human social interaction and behaviour. the entire communicative process is achieved through oral activities and interactions, that is, through speaking. when learning a second language, learners will have exposure to different levels of linguistic knowledge including how to pronounce the sounds of words so as to be able to communicate in that language. it is beyond dispute an axiomatic manifestation that pronunciation is the essential vehicle for communication that learners should highly take into consideration if an efficient and successful communication is the goal. in addition acceptable and accurate pronunciation of the target language makes communication fully understandable, smooth and purposeful. pronunciation is a vital part of fruitful communication. schmitt (2002:219) defines it as “a term used to capture all aspects of how we employ speech sounds for communication”. celce-murcia et, al. (2010:8) claim that efl learners need a http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.17-22.2018 mukhalad malik yousif / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 18 “threshold level of pronunciation” for understandable and comprehensible level of interaction represented by communication. otherwise, as hinofotis and baily (1980:124-125) notes, “up to a certain proficiency standard, the fault which most severely impairs the communication process in efl/esl learners is pronunciation”. a great part of mastering an efficient pronunciation is mastering the vowel of the target language due to its significance in making meanings clear and understandable and also due to the fact that improper pronunciation of vowels will definitely results into vague, unintelligible and awkward communication. in case of english, vowels play a major role in defining the main characteristics of a clear, acceptable and an efficient process of communication due to the attribute that their precise and efficient pronunciations are largely involved in distinguishing meanings of words which are otherwise similar in all other related aspects except for the occurring vowels which distinguish a word from the other as in 'pit', 'pet', 'pat', 'put', 'pot' where their definite articulations inherently expose the feature of closeness. simultaneously, learning english vowels is not an easy task as mcmahon (2002) states that vowels particularly cause difficulty in both perception and production since the features which are used to classify and understand consonants are not helpful in distinguishing between vowels. vowel awareness is no easy task because vowels are subject to change in speech rhythm (mccully, 2009). yet, the difficulty that efl learners may encounter when attempting at getting efficient acquaintance with the vowel system of english may extend to a further kind of vowels usually termed diphthongs. in the broadest sense, diphthongs are described by ladefoged and johnson (2011) as a sound that involves a change within one single vowel. for all diphthongs, they consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another (roach, 2009). the first part of a diphthong is longer and more prominent than the second (mcmahon, 2002). to illustrate, a careful pronunciation of the word ‘how’ will involve the closing diphthong /aʊ/. on the other hand, the second part of the diphthong will be pronounced shorter and weaker. the tongue glides toward the second vowel but does not quite get there. what such illustration implies about diphthongs is that they involve high level of precision as far as tongue movement and lip position are concerned. as far as efl learners are concerned, there are a number of difficulties that arise when they pronounce diphthongs. most importantly, they are unaware of the precise diphthong that should be pronounced in the given word due to their awkward phonetic input. additionally, practicing the pronunciation of english, particularly diphthongs, is often a marginal process to which little attention is given. nadeem and rehman (2013:578) state that the speech of non-native english speakers may reveal pronunciation inefficiency resulting from such speakers imperfectly learning the pronunciation of english, either by transferring the phonological rules from their mother tongue into their english speech ("interference") or by implementing strategies similar to those used in primary language acquisition. for iraqi efl learners, many other impediments arise since most of the english diphthongs are rarely found in iraqi accent and usually replaced by improper sounds found in their native sound system. ii. methods the test of the current study was conducted on 25 iraqi efl learners at the thirst stage majoring english as a foreign language from the department of english at cihan university/ slemani for the academic year 2017-2018. the test contained words taken from the o'connor's book 'better english pronunciation (1980). the main reason behind choosing words which contained different diphthongs was due to the fact that mukhalad malik yousif / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 19 learners finished this book in the first and second semesters when they were at the first stage. this would verify if learners were still having efficient competent about the pronunciation of diphthongs which they studied before two years or not. the test was conducted in the laboratory of the department of english where learners were instructed to read a list of words which was divided into groups. the first group contained five words with one vowel only representing the diphthong. the second group contained five words which contained two vowels where one was a diphthong and the other was a simple vowel as in the following table 1: table 1: test material words first group second group word transcription word transcription boat /bəʊt/ compose /kəmpəʊz/ doubt /daʊt/ arouse /əraʊz/ race /reɪs/ sailor /seɪlə/ rice /raɪs/ pilot /paɪlət/ join /dʒɔɪn/ annoy /ənɔɪ/ the transcriptions of the words are entirely in accordance with the british accent so called r.p as it is the basic transcription throughout the book. it should be mentioned that the analysis of the pronunciation of those words would take into consideration the improper pronunciation of the diphthongs only. so when learners commit other mistakes concerning simple vowels or consonants, they are disregarded. the procedure used to analyse the pronunciations of the learners for those words was recording what they read and then they were also instructed to transcribe each word. the reason of transcribing the words was to secure and ensure an objective and an authentic analysis. the data was then analysed identifying the improper pronunciation of each word grouping such inappropriateness in accordance with the committed mistakes in the pronunciation of diphthongs. percentage of each improper pronunciation along with identifying its phonetic failure was given to estimate the large percentages which mostly influence learners in their mispronunciations. iii. result and discussion the results of the current paper are divided into two parts for a better and a comprehensive analysis of the improper pronunciation of diphthongs by iraqi efl learners. the first is concerned with the first group of words which contained only a diphthong as the only vowel of the word and the second part is concerned with the second group. first group analysis in the first group of the words, iraqi efl learners tended to replace the required vowel with an improper long simple vowel and this what the data analysis clearly revealed through both the pronunciation and the transcription of the learners. but the improper replacement of the long simple vowel varied from a learner to another. in other words, some learners used an improper long simple vowel and others used another one for the same word. thus, for instance, the word 'boat' was once pronounced as /bɔːt/ by some learners whereas it was pronounced as /bu:t/ by the others. this clearly reflects that the mispronunciation of the same word was not systematic; learners' committed mistakes were different. in any case, the resulting pronunciation due to this factor was entirely an improper one where sometimes the meanings of the words became unclear and sometimes new different words appeared due to such mispronunciations as in the table 2. table 2: improper vowel replacement-first group word improper vowel replacement frequency percentage boat /ɔː/ + /u:/ 16+ 5=21 47.72% doubt /ɔː/ + /ɒ/ 5+5=10 22.72% race /i:/+ /æ/ 6+2=8 18.18% rice /i:/ 3 6.8% join /u:/ 2 4.5% total 44 99.92% the data analysis explicitly elaborates that learners failed to pronounce the words with their precise diphthong. in the first word, learners excessively replaced the diphthong with the long vowel /ɔː/ so the transcription mukhalad malik yousif / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 20 became /bɔːt/ which is improper (as the correct transcription is given in table 1). here, the meaning of the word 'boat' changed into 'bought' due to such mispronunciation. out of the 25 learners, 16 pronounced it as a long simple vowel/ɔː/ which indicates a high percentage reflecting their incompetence. in some cases, learners used the vowel /u:/ resulting into /bu:t/ which is the transcription of the word 'boot' and not 'boat'. the second word was improperly pronounced /dɔːt/ and /dɒt/ respectively by 10 learners both of which were incorrect. for the former transcription, it is very hard to find any word with such transcription in english language whereas as the latter improper transcription /dɒt/ suggest the word 'dot' and not doubt. the word 'race' was once pronounced /ri:s/ by 6 learners and once as /ræs/ by 2 learners. in both cases, such improper pronunciations do not have matching counterpart suggesting that the learners were confused with the pronunciation of other words. the word 'rise' was also pronounced /ri:s/ by 3 learners suggesting improper and unmatchable pronunciation. finally, the word 'join' was pronounced as /dʒu:n/ by 2 learners suggesting that this word might be the lest problematic for iraqi efl learners. in all cases, the replacement of the required diphthong with an improper simple vowel reflected inefficient phonetic competent and may have revealed the fact that learner' longterm memory concerning the precise diphthong pronunciation was weakened and interfered. in some cases, the data analysis revealed that learners realized that the required sound was a diphthong only they failed in identifying which one was required. once again, the data analysis revealed that the improper replacement of diphthong by iraqi efl learners resulted into pronouncing words other than the required and, in some cases, the words were pronounced as not belonging to any english word as in the table 3. table 3: improper diphthong replacement-first group word improper vowel replacement frequency percentage boat /aʊ/ 2 7.69% doubt /əʊ/ 10 38.46% race /ai/ 9 34.61% rice /ei/ 5 19.23% total 26 99.99% therefor, learners were confused in identifying the precise diphthong which the word must be pronounced with and this might be highly attributed to the poor and ineffective strategies used in teaching diphthongs along with assigning specific period for teaching them. as such, learners' phonetic competent gradually rusted and largely reflected the fact that learners were inefficient in the proper pronunciation of diphthongs within english words. the first word was pronounced /baʊt/ which indeed had no correspondent word meaning in english; it is neither 'boat', 'bought' nor 'boot'. the second word witnessed the highest error frequency where it was pronounced /dəʊt/ by 10 learners. similarly, the word 'race' was pronounced /rais/ by 9 learners which was the precise diphthong for the next word 'rise' which was also mispronounced /reis/ fitting the previous one. it is great significance to state the fact that, relying on the data analysis, that learners committed other mistakes but not were related to diphthongs and hence, were disregarded. what this shows is that in addition to diphthong mispronunciations, leaners also had other inefficiency concerning other aspects like simple vowels and to a certain extent consonants. in tables 2 and 3, the entire frequency of mispronunciation was 70 which were about 56% of the entire percentage of the first group's responses. as can be noticed from the results, the frequency of vowel replacement was higher than that of the diphthong which suggests that iraqi efl learners were really incompetent in being aware of the occurrence of diphthong so they mostly used vowels improperly. mukhalad malik yousif / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 21 second group analysis the results of this group revealed a high percentage of inefficiency as learners were excessively mispronouncing the diphthongs of the second group words. this group characterized with the occurrence of two vowels; one was simple and the other was diphthong. the point which was surprisingly obvious while pronouncing the words was that when the diphthong occurred as the second vowel of the word, it was pronounced as a long simple vowel whereas it was pronounced as a short simple vowel when it occurred as the first one. in addition, there was improper diphthong-diphthong replacement but to a lesser extent. most importantly, learners tended to replace the diphthong with two kinds of vowels systematically; a diphthong occurring as the second sound was replaced with long simple vowel and a diphthong occurring as the first was replaced with short simple vowel as in table 4: table 4: improper vowel replacement-second group word improper vowel replacement frequency percentage compose /ɔː/ 20 37.73% arouse /ɔː/ 7 13.20% sailor /e/ 11 20.75% pilot /i/ 13 24.52% annoy /ɔː/ 2 3.77% total 32 99.97% the results explicitly demonstrated the severe lack of diphthongal knowledge by iraqi efl learners. on the one hand, it might be plausible to state that having two vowels within the same word caused more confusion and difficulty and resulted into many mispronunciations. on the other hand, such inappropriateness might reflect a systematic deviation in such phonological traits; learners tend to lengthen the vowel in the second syllable of the word whereas shortening it in the first. the first word of the group was excessively replaced by the long vowel /ɔː/ resulting into pronouncing it as /kəmpɔːz/ by 20 learners. the diphthong of the second word was also replaced by the same vowel being pronounced as /arɔːz/ by 7 learners. hence, the third and fourth words respectively were replaced with short simple vowel; /selər/ and /pilət/. the last word was the less problematic but in many cases, it was not pronounced efficiently as a whole. the replacement of the improper diphthong was also observed in the data analysis but to a lesser extent than the first deviation as in the table 4: table 5: improper diphthong replacement-second group word improper vowel replacement frequency percentage compose /aʊ/ 5 17.24% arouse /ɔɪ/ 12 41.37 % sailor /ai/ 12 41.37 % total 29 99.98% the percentages illustrates that learners were unable to assign the precise diphthong in words containing two vowels. the first word was pronounced /kəmpaʊz/. the second and third words respectively witnessed the highest percentages of deviations, 24 learners, where they mispronounced them as /arɔɪz/ and /sailər/. this percentage showed a tendency to use both diphthongs improperly due to interference and incompetent knowledge. though the other two words did not appear in the table, pilot' and 'annoy', they were also pronounced improperly, as the data revealed but not due to diphthongal attribute. whether using improper simple vowels or improper diphthong instead of the required ones, learners' inefficient competent was so clear when pronouncing the words. the use of simple vowels excessively was an inevitable outcome due to the poor strategies of vowel input process. learners tended to use simple vowels because of being unaware of how sounds should be produced. partially, this incompetent knowledge due the poor and inefficient strategies of teaching pronunciation led iraqi learners used english vowels which also exist in iraqi l1 accent mukhalad malik yousif / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 22 especially /ɔː/ ,/i:/,/æ/ and /e/. that might be empirically plausible when considering, for instance, that the percentage of using /ɔː/ was the highest reflecting both inefficient competence and the excessive resort to a correspondent native vowel, that is, negative li sound transfer. iv. conclusion taking into consideration the results of both groups, learners were excessively replacing the precise diphthongs with simple vowels whether short or long where the frequency of such mispronunciation was 97 which was about 38% of the entire responses. as for the frequency of improper diphthong pronunciation in the two groups, it was 54 which, about 21% of the entire responses. considering both percentages, the total frequency of mispronunciation was 151 which was about 60% of the entire responses. whether due to the first or second improper attribute, iraqi efl learners showed awkward and inefficient pronunciation of diphthongs mainly due to ineffective, inefficient and short-term strategies of phonetic teaching process. the ongoing strategies of teaching pronunciation in general and diphthongs in particular are to be reconsidered taking into account all the negative factors to eliminate them and the possible positive factors to consolidate them such as the presence of a native modal, extending the length of teaching pronunciation and the continuous engagement of activities and practices of pronunciations at various levels of teaching. references celce-murcia, m., brinton, d., and goodwin, j. (2010). teaching pronunciation: a course book and reference guide (2nd ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. hinofotis, f., & bailey, k. (1980). american undergraduates’ reactions to the communication skills of foreign teaching assistants. on tesol, 80, 120-133. ladefoged, p., & johnson, k. (2011). a course in phonetics wadsworth. cengage learning, scarborough. mccully, c. (2009). the sound structure of english: an introduction. (cambridge introductions to the english language). cambridge, new york: cambridge university press. mcmahon, a. (2002). an introduction to english phonology. oxford: oxford university press. nadeem, m.,& rahman, a. (2013). stress out of stress: stressing unaccented syllables dilemma. asian journal of social sciences & humanities, 2(2), 577-586. o'connor, j., d. (1980). better english pronunciation. cambridge: cambridge university press. roach, p. (2009). english phonetics and phonology. cambridge: cambridge university press. schmitt, n. (2002). an introduction to applied linguistics. london: oxford university press. vitanova, g. and miller, a. (2002) "reflective practice in pronunciation learning". in: the internet tesl journal, vol. viii, no. 1. template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 10 article a pragmatic analysis of speech acts used by english lecturers in languange teaching at stkip ydb lubuk alung sisca okta widya english department of stkip ydb lubuk alung, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 12, 2017 final revision: may 05, 2017 available online: may 16, 2017 the research was intended to describe types of speech acts performed by english lecturers in learning process at stkip ydb lubuk alung. this research was descriptive qualitative. the data of this research were the english utterances performed by english lecturers. the researcher obtained the data by means of note-taking technique. first, the researcher recorded the english teaching in the class using a video camera. next, the researcher made transcripts of the dialogues. then, the transcribed dialogues were recorded into the data sheet. finally the data were classified according to searle’s classification of speech acts. in the data analysis the researcher applied interactive qualitative method and applied coding system. the research findings show that there were four types of speech acts performed by the english lecturers, namely representatives, directives, expressive and commissives, whereas declarations were not utilized by the english lecturer. the most frequently used illocutionary acts were directives (53%), while the least frequent illocutionary acts went to commissives (5%). the frequent use of directives indicates that the lecturer seemed to be aware of their status as a lecturer which was believed to be more powerful than her students. in such restricted context like classroom setting, it is common that the lecturer status is higher than her students since the relation between them is inherently asymmetrical. it was through directives the lecturers exerted her power over the students. keyword pragmatics, speech acts, english language teaching correspondent e-mail: ciezzk_okta@yahoo.com i. introduction pragmatics is a part of linguistics which deals with meaning in context. in other words, pragmatics can also be defined as the study of the relationship between the linguistic form (structure) and the user of that form (yule, 1996: 4). pragmatics essentially deals with the use of the language in the context. in english http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 11 teaching and learning, it is clearly realized by the implementation of the language function in the materials. learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. the interaction of the experience and environment takes a role in developing the content of learning and instruction. understanding language implies the understanding of pragmatics. even the young children have to learn the pragmatics of language if they want to communicate effectively (curtis and o’hagan, 2005: 47-48). in addition, wrench, et al. (2009) maintains that teaching is about establishing effective and affective communication relationships between lecturers and students. furthermore, the implementation of language function is not only directly realized in the materials because the teaching and learning of english in campus involves the use of english in the classroom. the lecturer not only teaches the language through the material but he or she also uses the language directly in the classroom. the lecturer’s instruction itself is also realized by means of language functions such as greeting, sequencing, giving instructions, asking questions, and replying to questions (hughes, 1984: 6-8). the language functions themselves are essentially the speakers accomplished with language. the speaker may use the language for stating, requesting, responding, greeting, thanking and so on. under the discussion of pragmatics, the language function is studied in speech acts (mccarthy, 1991: 9-10) speech acts deals with the utterance to perform a specific action. in simple words, speech acts is often said as language in action (kreidler, 2002). if we refer to other concept of speech acts, every utterance essentially contains three dimensions: locution, illocution, and perlocution. locution is what the speaker says, illocution is the purpose of what speaker says, and perlocution is the effect of what the speaker says (cutting, 2002: 16). from those three acts, yule (1996: 49) states that the illocution are the most often discussed acts in pragmatics. even, the concept of speech acts is narrowed down to the illocutionary acts. stkip ydb lubuk alung is one of university level in padang pariaman regency. the english teaching-learning process in that campus is conducted by seven english lecturers, to make the students familiar with the use of english. it is expected that the students practice the english language at least at the campus during the english lesson. in the classroom, the english lecturers give various instructions to ask the college students to open the textbook, do the task, to collect the homework, and so on. all the instructions are mostly in english. those lecturers’ instructions are in the form of language functions. in pragmatic study, it is related to the concept of speech acts, or narrowly, illocutionary acts. therefore, the researcher is interested to investigate the speech acts implemented in classroom conversation. speech acts are vitally important to the teaching and learning process. it is justified since the acts of transmitting knowledge, organizing activities, controlling classroom, and giving instructions are done through lecturers’ talks that contain the speech acts. the categories proposed by searle (1969), instead are: representatives (asserting, concluding, describing), directives (requesting, questioning, ordering), commissive (promising, offering), expressive (thanking, apologizing) and declarations (excommunicating, declaring war). searle maintains that directive is a speech act that is frequently used in a classroom interaction. the lecturers use it to make the students do something. the types of speech act used are command, order, advice, request, warning, and so forth. the first is need statement. it is a declarative statement that is used to make the addressee (students) do whatever request of the speaker. the second is bald imperative. it occurs from a person who has higher status or superior to the addressee. that is, the addressee is a person who has lower status or subordinate sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 12 status. the third is the speech act with polite directions that is known as embedded imperative. this is indicated by an interrogative form and modals. the fourth is permission directives which occur in an interrogative sentence. this is used by the children and subordinate people. the fifth is question directives. the primary moves that occur in classroom are question and answer moves. question directives is treated as the tool of turn taking mechanism in the classroom run well. the question directives usually occur in an interrogative structure form. the last of lecturer’s directives is hint directives that are formed in a declarative statement. this involves a meaning that is implied the statement used by the teacher. it can be said that the teacher implicitly makes a request and so on. ii. methods this research is done by qualitative and descriptive method. according to sudaryanto (1993:620) descriptive research is based on the fact or phenomena of the speakers’ speech in one area. in line with this, selvilia (1993:71) argues that the descriptive research is analyzed the data based on material obtained without adding or reducing the data and this research tries to describe and analyze the data from the phases of collecting data, the preparation of data, and analysis. qualitative research is used to describe analysis by using statistic analysis. however, in the qualitative research, the data is all the information whether oral and written, which contribute to answer the research problem as stated in research question. data is research of materials. this is in line with the opinion of sudaryanto (1993:3) who says that the data is not as the object of the research, but this is a material of the research. furthermore, sudaryanto (1993:3) also added about the limitations of the data as material research, that is the final data. the final data is done, because of selection of speeches. thus, the data is object of research plus context. in this research, the data are speech act by english lecturer. they are seven english lecturers of stkip ydb lubuk alung. the source of substantive data is similar to sample. in this research, data of substantive is uttered by english lecturer ‘utterances. data is collected by observational method. the data were largely collected through observation (in which recording and note taking were done). the data were analyzed using interactive model of data analysis. that is, the data were analyzed through three cyclical steps, namely, data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing/verification. before selecting and reducing the utterances, the researcher, transcribed the utterances occurring in the conversation or interaction of the lecturers in the classroom. each of the selected utterances was entered into a profile in which all of its relevant characteristics are specified. the data were then classified and categorized based on specified characteristics. iii. result these data findings are related to the types of speech acts performed by the english lecturer during the english teaching and learning process at stkip ydb lubuk alung. searle’s (1979) classifies speech acts into five categories: representatives, directives, expressives, commisives, and declarations. however, the findings show that there were only four types of speech acts performed by the english lecturer, namely representatives, directives, expressives, and commisives. the distribution of each speech act performed by the english lecturer is illustrated in table 1: table 1 types of searle’s speech acts performed by the english lecturer no. speech acts frequency percentage (%) 1 declaratives 0 0 2 representatives 63 30 % 3 expressives 23 11 % 4 directives 111 53 % 5 commissives 11 5 % total 208 100 table 1 show that there are four types of searle’s speech acts performed by the english lecturer during the english teaching and sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 13 learning process. they were representatives, directives, expressives, and commisives whereas declarations were not utilized by the lecturer. furthermore, the table points out that the most dominant speech acts used by the lecturer was directives with 101 instances which represent 48% out of the total number of utterances. representative speech acts occupied the second place among the other types. they appeared in 63 utterances representing 30% out of the total utterances. the occurrence of expressives was revealed in 23 instances with the percentage of 11% out of the whole speech acts. meanwhile, the least speech acts produced by the english lecturer during the process of english teaching and commisives. they were revealed only in 11 utterances with 5% out of the total utterances. throughout the analysis of the data, there were no instances of declarations produced by the english lecturer. directives are those kinds of speech act which are used to get the hearer to take certain actions. the illocutionary forces performed by the lecturer were reminding, warning, suggesting, requesting, asking and ordering. the table shows that there were 111 instances of asking with the percentage 53% out of the total occurrence. the frequency shows that asking or questioning was the most dominant directives produced by the lecturer. iv. discussion based on the findings, there were four kinds of speech acts performed by the english lecturer during four meetings of the english teaching and learning process. they were representatives, directives, expressives and commisives. these types of speech acts are proposed by searle who puts emphasis on the speech acts. directives became the most dominant speech acts utilized by the lecturer because during the process of english teaching and learning, the teacher often asked the students to do something. it is in line with the notion of directive speech acts which are concerned with getting hearers to undertake some actions for speakers. on the other hand, commisives were the least frequently used speech acts performed by the lecturer throughout the research. meanwhile, declaratives were not performed at all by the lecturer. representatives representative acts deal with the lecturer’s statement whether it is true or false. in classroom conversation, lecturers deliver their teaching materials. the teaching materials contain factual or nonfactual statements. pragmatically, those true and false statements, of course, belong to representative acts. there are types of representative functions found in the data. they are stating an opinion, stating a fact, informing, explaining, and agreeing. informing is expressed by the lecturer to give the students information what the students are going to do in relation with the teaching and learning process. datum (l2.31) and (l4.9) are an example of informing function performed by the english lecturer. data l2. 31 l : o.k. class. we have finished our first topic or basic competence that is about politeness. right? now our agenda is that we will learn about utterances implicature. perhaps you find it in your daily life even when you converse with your friend. let me take example i see you wear your new glasses; then i say something. ayu, oh what a new glasses? s : thank you as presented in the bold expression. the lecturer informed the students that they had finished their previous materials about the politeness in english. now the lecturer was willing to continue the topic about expressing implicature or language function in speaking english. those bold expressions are informing because they contain information related to the past and future activities done by the students in teaching-learning process. data l4.9 l : next chapter, we will discuss your exercise about noun phrases. please read, for you that have book. there are six sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 14 types of noun phrases. read, nurjani. number one. s : i saw a bird fly high.‟ the bold expression is classified as informing because it contains information for the students concerning what the class would do. that they were going to discuss the exercise about noun phrase are the information. expressives expressive acts deal with the statements of speaker’s feeling or attitude of particular situation. based on the research results, expressives are in the third rank of speech act frequency found in classroom communication in english teaching-learning process. there are five types of expressive functions found in the data. they are greeting, thanking, complimenting, joking, apologizing, and stating surprise. greeting is an expression used to welcome someone. in classroom situation it is commonly found when a teacher starts the process of teaching and learning. an example of greeting is shown in datum (l5:16). data l5.16 l : good morning, everybody. s : good morning, miss. t : how are you today? s : so far so good, miss as shown by the bold utterance in datum (l5.16), the lecturer applied expression, good morning, students. this expression is a greeting used to greet people in the morning, from 00.00 to 12.00. as the english lesson started at 10.00, the lecturer applied this greeting expression. the students responded the lecturer with the same expression “good morning.‟ leave-taking is expressed by the speaker to close a conversation. in teaching-learning process, the lecturer applies this function in the end of the lesson to close the lesson. the datum (l4:26) is one of the examples. data l4:26 t : you may continue it at home. don’t forget friday you will have a middle test and next tuesday you perform your group. o.k. thank you. good bye. s : good bye in datum (l4:26), as presented by the bold expression, the lecturer applied an expressive function “good bye‟. the lecturer closed the lesson by saying “good bye.‟ and the students replied with the similar expression, “good bye.‟ since the lecturer used that expression to close the conversation it is classified as leavetaking. directives directives are speech acts used by the speaker to get something done. these acts is the highest rank frequency because in classroom discourse, the english lecturer use a lot of instructions for the students to do a particular thing, such as asking the students to do the task, to collect the assignment, to open the textbook, or to erase the whiteboard. nine types of directives function are found in the data. they are commanding, requesting, suggesting, forbidding, warning, questioning, permitting, and encouraging. commanding is the function used to ask or order someone to do something in direct way. an example of commanding performed by the english lecturer is shown in the datum (l7:37). data l7:37 t : look at the example. i am hoping for good weather tomorrow.‟ hope plus for plus noun phrases. good weather tomorrow. number two i’m hoping for a good grade in english. good grade? s : good grade the bold expression in datum (l7:37) is obviously a commanding function. the expression look at the example is created by means of imperative form: verb 1 + object / adverb. that is the basic formula in performing a commanding function. the reason of the lecturer performed this function was to order the students to look at the example shown in the textbook. requesting is a speech act function which is used to ask or order someone to do something sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 15 in indirect or polite way. request can also be defined as polite or indirect command. an example of directive function of requesting performed by english lecturer in classroom communication is presented in datum (l1:152). data l1:152 l : alright. o.k. i think i gave you some assignments to collect to make a home recording. have you finished doing? s : no l : why not? s : nothing. busy. l : very, very busy. so would you please collect it if you are finishing? you can revise you can record if you have. you haven’t? datum (l1:152) contains an example of requesting function. the bold expression so would you please collect it if you are finishing? requesting because it is in interrogative mood and it has auxiliary verb, would and exclamation please. construction would + subject + verb + please in interrogative form is a way to express a requesting function. the lecturer’s purpose of those expressions is to politely order the students to collect the recording commissives commisives are those kinds of speech acts performed by speakers to commit themselves to future actions. in this study. the commissives found in this study were offering, promising and granting. offering was the most used commissives utilized by the lecturer during the english teaching and learning process. offering is performed to ask someone whether they would like to do or to have something. an example of the act of offering is shown in the following utterances (l6:200): data l6:200 l : understand? dimas, do you understand? s : yes. l : or should i change into indonesian? lecturer expression in the bold form above indicates that the lecturer performed an act of offering. in performing the act, she used interrogative mood. this is similar to the case of request but in the case of offering it is the speaker who will undertake the action. in this case, the teacher offered to change her utterances into indonesian. she also operated preparatory condition, content condition, sincerity condition and essential condition to indicate that she was serious about her intention of making an offer. v. conclusion this research is concerned with the pragmatic analysis of speech acts used by the english lecturer in the teaching-learning process at stkip ydb lubuk alung to identify speech acts used by the english lecturer in classroom conversation. the research results can be concluded as follow. there are four types of speech acts used by the english lecturer. they are representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives. the declaratives did not find. the directives are the most frequent speech acts, while the commissives are the fewest. directives were used by the lecturer to get the students to undertake some actions. asking or questioning became the most dominant directives produced by the lecturer which was realized in 111 instances (53%). the frequent use of directives indicates that the lecturer seemed to be aware of her status as a lecturer which was believed to be more powerful than her students. in such restricted context like classroom setting, it is common that the lecturer status is higher than her students since the relation between them is inherently asymmetrical. it was through directives the lecturers exerted her power over the students. sisca okta widya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 16 references curtis, o’hagan, care and education in early childhood: a student’s guide to theory and practice. new york. routledge falmer, 2005. cutting, j. pragmatics and discourse: a resource book for students. london and new york: routledge. 2002. hughes, glyn, the handbook of classroom english. oxford: oxford university press. 1984 kreidler, charles, introducing english semantics. london: taylor and francis e-library. 2002 mccarthy, michael. discourse analysis for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1991 searle, john r. expressing and meaning: studies in the theory of speech acts. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1979. sevillia. c. g, dkk.. pengantar metode penelitian. jakarta; universias indonesia press. 1993 sudaryanto, metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. 1993. yule, g. pragmatics.oxford: oxford university press. 1996. biography she was born in padang panjang on october 22th 1989. she completed her bachelor’s in english education from state institute for islamic studies (iain) imam bonjol padang in 2011. in 2014 she took her master’s degree linguistics program at andalas university padang. for her master’s thesis, she wrote on the relationship sociololinguistics and education issue. she has been serving as a lecturer of english department at stkip ydb lubuk alung since 2015. she has been teaching phonology, morphology, sociolinguistics and semantics pramatics. she has conducted several researches in linguistics in the area of sociolinguistics and pragmatics. she has presented some linguistics paper in international seminars. her publications are “code switching by english teachers at senior high school 3 padang panjang” (a paper on international seminar isol-ii andalas university 2015, proceeding), “politeness strategies in classroom interation in elt at man 3 padang panjang ( a paper on international conference on culture jambi university 2016, proceeding) and “an analysis of code mixing used by english department students 2016/2017 academic year in stkip ydb lubuk alung ( a paper on international conference (adri), model terapi perilaku penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing yessy prima putri stmik indonesia email: eci.prima@gmail.com abstrak seorang manusia yang normal fungsi otak dan alat bicaranya, relatif dapat berbahasa dengan baik. namun, mereka yang memiliki kelainan fungsi otak dan alat bicaranya, sering mempunyai kesulitan dalam berbahasa. dengan kata lain, kemampuan berbahasanya mengalami gangguan. gangguan berbicara dapat disebabkan oleh karena terjadinya kerusakan pada alat-alat artikulasi, juga karena terjadinya kerusakan pada otak. maloklusi adalah suatu kelainan susunan gigi geligi atas dan bawah yang berhubungan dengan bentuk rongga mulut serta fungsinya. maloklusi yang parah dapat mempengaruhi semua aspek fungsi mulut antara lain pengunyahan, penelanan, dan bicara. maloklusi juga terjadi pada penderita bibir sumbing yaitu suatu kelainan bawaan yang terdapat pada bibir dan langit-langit yang mengakibatkan komplikasi gangguan berbicara. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kesilapan fonologis penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing dan penerapan model terapi perilaku pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. penelitian ini adalah penelitian diskriptif yang analisisnya secara kualitatif dan kuantitatif. pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan metode cakap, simak, dan padan, sedangkan teknik yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data adalah teknik pancing, cakap semuka, rekam, dan catat. data yang digunakan berupa daftar kata, cerita bergambar, dan membaca teks untuk penerapan model terapi perilaku terhadap penderita. dari penelitian ini, ditemukan beberapa kesilapan fonologis pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing, yaitu verba penggantian bunyi [t], [k], [b], [p], [c], [m], [z], [s], [j], [d], [g], [f], [r], [ɂ], [x], verba penghilangan bunyi [k], [t], [g], [p], verba penambahan bunyi [ɂ] yang hanya terjadi pada subjek 1 pada setiap suku kata, dan verba ketidakteraturan juga hanya terjadi pada subjek 1. model terapi perilaku yang telah dilakukan pada subjek 3, dalam waktu 5 minggu, dapat merubah kesilapan bunyi [c] yang awalnya diucapkan dengan bunyi [ɂ]. kata kunciː maloklusi, bibir sumbing, model terapi perilaku. jurnal arbitrer 166 gangguan dalam berbicara, yang keba penyebab kesulitan dalam berkomunikasi nyakan huruf-huruf alphabet memerlukan yang disebut dengan gangguan berbahasa bantuan gigi untuk pelafalan yang jelas. dan gangguan berbicara sangat banyak. hasil penelitian tellervo tahun 1992 di gangguan berbicara dapat disebabkan eropa yang dikutip dari penelitian fonte karena terjadinya kerusakan pada alat-alat dan kawan-kawan tentang hubungan artikulasi, juga karena terjadinya kerumaloklusi dengan gangguan bicara pada sakan pada otak. secara medis, menurut remaja dengan rata-rata umur 18 tahun sidharta 1989 (dalam sastra, 2011: 153) bahwa terjadi gangguan sebanyak 33,8% gangguan komunikasi itu dapat dibedakan siswa dengan oklusi mesial, 27,8% dengan atas tiga golongan, yaitu (1) gangguan overjet mandibula, 25.6% dengan open berbicara, (2) gangguan berbahasa, (3) bite insisal, dan 12,8 % dengan crossbite dan gangguan berpikir. gangguan berbilateral. cara dapat dikelompokkan atas tiga manusia yang normal alat ucapnya tentu kategori. pertama, gangguan mekanisme berbicara yang berimplikasi pada gangdapat menghasilkan bunyi-bunyi bahasa guan organik. kedua, adalah gangguan dengan baik, sedangkan orang yang tidak multi faktor. ketiga adalah gangguan normal alat ucapnya tidak dapat berfungsi berbicara psikogenik. layaknya orang normal, salah satu con tohnya penderita bibir sumbing. bibir fieldman (2005: 132) menjelaskan bahwa sumbing (labioschisis) biasa timbul seba gangguan berbicara adalah penundaan gai cacat bawaan sejak lahir. kelainan ini dalam perkembangan kemampuan berbiakibat gangguan dalam proses penyatuan cara dan pengurangan kualitas suara yang bibir atas pada masa embrio awal. bibir mencakup masalah produksi suara, gangsumbing yang ringan hanya tampak guan pada aliran atau ritme suara, alunan sebagai celah kecil di atas bibir atas dan suara, volume, kualitas dan sulit dimetidak terlihat jelas. sumbing yang berat ngerti. ditinjau dari segi klinis, gejala dapat terjadi di kedua sisi bibir atas dan gangguan bicara dalam hubungannya membentuk celah sampai ke lubang dengan penyebab kelainannya, salah satuhidung dan langitlangit (republika, nya adalah gangguan berbicara disglosia. 2001). seorang yang menderita bibir sum gangguan berbicara disglosia yaitu kelaibing akan mengalami gangguan mengu nan bicara yang terjadi karena adanya nyah, menggigit, merobek makanan,dan kelainan bentuk struktur dari organ bicara. juga berbicara akibat cacat di kedua sisi gangguan yang terjadi akibat adanya bibir atas dan membentuk celah sampai ke kelainan bentuk dan struktur organ artilubang langitlangit (labiopalatoschisis). kulasi, salah satunya adalah maloklusi. pendekatan terhadap penderita yang mengalami disfungsi bahasa pertama maloklusi adalah suatu kelainan susunan sekali dilakukan oleh alajouane (dalam gigi geligi atas dan bawah yang berhusastra, 2012: 9) tentang afasia, yaitu bungan dengan bentuk rongga mulut serta penyederhanaan pola bunyi pada penderita fungsinya, (dewayanto, 1993: 37). malokafasia. sampai sekarang penelitian ten lusi dapat mempengaruhi kejelasan bicara tang hubungan otak manusia dengan seseorang. apabila ciri maloklusinya berupa kemampuan linguistik penderita terus distooklusi, akan terjadi hambatan mengdilakukan, termasuk terhadap penderita ucapkan huruf p dan b. apabila ciri malokyang mengalami gangguan berbicara. se lusinya berupa mesiooklusi akan terjadi ham lain itu, penerapan model terapi perilaku batan mengucapkan huruf s, z, t, dan n. 1. pendahuluan maloklusi dapat mengakibatkan terjadinya vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 167 berdasarkan pendekatan linguistik, khususnya neuorolinguistik, dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki kemampuan berbicara, serta dapat meningkatkan kemampuan komunikasi penderita maloklusi. oleh sebab itu, model terapi tersebut diterapkan dalam penelitian ini. tahap penerapan terapi dalam penelitian ini adalah menganalisis data fonologi penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. kemudian menerapkan model terapi perilaku untuk meningkatkan kemampuan komunikasi penderita melalui penguasaan fonologis, leksikal, sintaksis, dan semantik berdasarkan pendekatan teoritik pins (dalam sastra, 2008), yaitu menerapkan hasil data lingual penderita untuk kemampuan berbicara penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. hasil dari penerapan model terapi perilaku akan diuji dengan software pratt. bakker (2001) mengatakan praat yang dalam bahasa belanda berarti ‗suara‘, merupakan sebuah freeware yang diciptakan oleh paul boersman & david weenink dari phonetic sciences department university of amsterdam (www.praat.org). dengan slogannya ‗doing phonetics with computer’, praat merupakan software untuk melakukan analisis dan rekonstruksi suara secara fleksibel. praat dapat digunakan untuk melakukan banyak hal, mulai dari analisis spectrogram hingga rekonstruksi (tambah, potong, dan lain-lain) suara itu sendiri. program praat ini dapat digunakan untuk menganalisis, mensintesis dan memanipulasi data akustik dan membuat diagram atau gambar yang dapat digunakan dan disertakan pada karya ilmiah. mampu mengoperasikan program praat sangat dibutuhkan oleh para peneliti yang menggunakan data akustik. informasi akustik yang akurat dan lengkap dapat dihasilkan dengan memberdayakan program praat. maloklusi adalah suatu kelainan susunan gigi geligi atas dan bawah yang berhubungan dengan bentuk rongga mulut serta fungsinya, (dewayanto, 1993: 37). maloklusi yang parah dapat mempengaruhi semua aspek fungsi mulut antara lain pengunyahan, penelanan, dan bicara. maloklusi dapat mempengaruhi kejelasan bicara seseorang. apabila ciri maloklusinya berupa distooklusi, akan terjadi hambatan mengucapkan huruf p dan b. apabila ciri maloklusinya berupa mesiooklusi akan terjadi hambatan mengucapkan huruf s, z, t, dan n. menurut bruggeman anomali dental yang mengakibatkan gangguan bicara adalah: 1. ruang antar gigi (spaces) yaitu terjadi kelainan bunyi saat mengucapkan semua huruf terutama s, sh, z, zh kecuali huruf n dan y. 2. lebar lengkung, yaitu terjadi kelainan saat mengucapkan huruf s, z, th. 3. open bite, yaitu terjadinya kelainan bunyi saat mengucapkan huruf s, sh, z, zh, th, dan kadang-kadang pada huruf t dan d. 4. derajat protrusi, yaitu terjadi kelainan bunyi saat mengucapkan huruf s, sh,z, zh. 5. pada gigi yang rotasi kelainan bunyi yang terjadi sama dengan kelainan pada ruang antar gigi. bibir sumbing adalah suatu kelainan bawaan di mana terdapat cacat atau celah pada bibir dan langit-langit (paitum) akibat terganggunya fusi selama masa pertumbuhan intra uterine (kandungan). gangguan fusi tersebut terutama terjadi pada trimester pertama kehamilan yang bisa disebabkan olah faktor gizi terutama kekurangan asam folat, maupun karena konsumsi beberapa macam obat dalam jangka panjang atau faktor hereditec. 2. metode jurnal arbitrer 168 aziz (2005:167) menjelaskan bahwa bibir sumbing adalah kelainan kongenital yang berupa adanya kelainan bentuk pada struktur wajah. sedangkan menurut wong (2001:911) bibir sumbing adalah malformasi yang disebabkan oleh gagalnya prosesus nasal median dan maksilaris untuk menyatu selama perkembangan embrionik. aziz (2005:28) menjelaskan bahwa komplikasi yang sering dijumpai pada anak dengan bibir sumbing adalah: 1. kesulitan makan 2. gangguan dental, anak yang lahir dengan labioschisis mungkin mempunyai masalah tertetu yang berhubungan dengan kehilangan, maloklusi, dan malposisi dari gigi geligi pada area dari celah bibir yang terbentuk. gigi tidak akan tumbuh secara normal, dan pada umumnya diperlukan perawatan khusus untuk mengatasi hal ini. 3. gangguan bicara, pada anak yang dilahirkan dengan labioschisis biasanya juga memiliki abnormalitas pada otot-otot yang mengurus palatum mole. saat palatum mole tidak dapat menutup ruang / rongga nasal pada saat biccara, maka didapatkan suara dengan kualitas yang lebih tinggi (hyper nasal quality of 6 speech). penderita palatum memiliki kesulitan bicara, sehingga palatum lunak cenderung pendek dan kurang bergerak sehingga dalam berbicara udara keluar dari hidung. anak mungkin memiliki kesulitan untuk memproduksi bunyi [p], [b], [d], [t], [h], [k], [g], [s], [ʃ], [ch]. 4. infeksi telinga. 5. gangguan psikologis tahap penerapan terapi perilaku berbicara dalam penelitian ini adalah menganalisis data fonologi penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. kemudian menerapkan model terapi untuk meningkatkan kemampuan komunikasi penderita melalui penguasaan fonologis, leksikal, sintaksis, dan semantik berdasarkan pendekatan teoritik pins (2004), yaitu menganalisis data lingual penderita maloklusi. proses pengumpulan data sebagai berikut: sumber: sastra (2008) subjek penelitian penelitian ini penulis lakukan di daerah padang. sumber data yang penulis gunakan sebagai objek penelitian ini adalah data lisan. penulis mengambil 3 orang subjek. semua subjek adalah penderita bibir sumbing (labioschizis). subjek 1 adalah penderita labioschizis murni karena tidak pernah dilakukan tindakan operasi. sedangkan pada subjek 2 dan 3, masingmasing subjek telah mendapatkan perlakukan operasi sebanyak 3 kali sejak umur 1 tahun. penulis melalukan tindakan model terapi pada subjek 3. semua subjek dalam penelitian ini menggunakan bahasa minang sebagai bahasa pertamanya. manfaat penelitian penelitian ini diharapkan mampu memberikan informasi mengenai segala hal yang berkaitan dengan gangguan berbicara pada penderita maloklusi bibir sum vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 169 bing. secara teoretis, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat mengembangkan penelitian di bidang neurolingustik dan ilmu yang berhubungan dengan kedokteran gigi karena masih sedikit penelitian lintas ilmu yang penggabungkan ilmu linguistik dengan ilmu kedokteran gigi. hasil penelitian ini pada akhirnya dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan referensi bagi para peneliti sejenis lebih mendalam lagi mengenai gangguan berbicara pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. secara praktis, penelitian ini bermanfaat bagi penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing untuk dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berkomunikasinya dengan menerapkan model terapi perilaku. pada tahap penerapan model terapi perilaku terhadap penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing dilakukan selama 5 minggu. seperti pada bab sebelumnya telah penulis uraikan, pemilihan subjek 3 disebabkan karena subjek 3 paling sedikit melakukan kesalahan fonologis di dalam pengambilan data. kerja sama dan komunikasi yang baik, sehingga pengambilan data dan penerapan model terapi perilaku bisa berjalan dengan sempurna. terdapat perubahan bunyi [c] yang awalnya terjadi penggantian pada awal kata menjadi [ɲ]. apabila semakin panjang waktu penelitian, berkemungkinan banyak perubahan yang bisa terjadi. hal ini dibuktikan dengan lafal bunyi [c] yang awalnya diucapkan dengan [ɲ] melalui software pratt sebelum dilakukan terapi, pada bagan berikut: kata [ɲumi] [ɲ] [u] [m] [i] bunyi [ɲ] adalah bunyi tidak bersuara, maka terdapat getaran yang reguler pada waveform dan spectrogram, terlihat pada garis-garis biru yang muncul bunyi [ɲ] itu amplitud-nya lebih tinggi sebagaimana ditampilkan pada display waveform. tidak terdapat ‗burst‘ (pelepasan udara) pada saat pelepasan bunyi [ɲ]. setelah mendapat terapi, bunyi [c] dapat diucapkan dengan benar, hal ini dapat dilihat dari bagan di bawah ini: gambar 28ː kata[cumi] 3. hasil dan pembahasan jurnal arbitrer 170 [c] [u] [m] [i] bunyi [c] yang merupakan bunyi yang berasal dari tempat artikulasi lamino-palatal, dan tak bersuara maka tidak ter-dapat getaran yang reguler pada spek-trogram. bunyi [u] yang merupakan vokal yang merupakan bunyi belakang tinggi bundar, dan bunyi [i] yang merupakan vokal depan tinggi tak bundar, terdapat garis berulang dan rapat pada spek-trogram. [c] adalah bunyi voiceless, maka tidak terdapat getaran yang reguler pada waveform maupun spektrogram [c] adalah bunyi oral stop (artikulasi oral dan nasal tutup). oleh karena rongga oral serta rongga hidung tertutup saat mengucapkan bunyi [c], maka tekanan udara itu lebih tinggi di dalam mulut pada saat artikulasi [c] dilepas. sebab itu terdapat ‗burst‘ (pelepasan udara) pada spektrogram & waveform pada pelepasan [c]. perbedaan kemampuan pelafalan antara subjek 1 yang tidak dioperasi dengan subjek 2 dan 3 begitu signifikan, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa tindakan operasi pada penderita malokusi bibir sumbing dapat meningkatkan pelafalan. penelitian ini diharapkan mampu memberikan informasi mengenai segala hal yang berkaitan dengan gangguan berbi cara pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. secara teoretis, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat mengembangkan penelitian di bidang neurolingustik dan ilmu yang berhubungan dengan kedokteran gigi karena masih sedikit penelitian lintas ilmu yang penggabungkan ilmu linguistik dengan ilmu kedokteran gigi. penulis harapkan kepada peneliti-peneliti selanjutnya untuk dapat meneruskan penelitian ini. melakukan penelitian pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing dengan waktu penelitian yang lebih lama dari penelitian ini, untuk mengetahui hasil terapi pada lebih banyak bunyi, bukan hanya bunyi [c]. penelitian jangka panjang juga dapat digunakan untuk memperhalus terapi yang diterapkan, karena ada kemungkinan diperlukan pendekatan terapi yang berbeda pada bunyi yang berbeda-beda. penelitian jangka panjang ditunjukan pada jumlah subjek yang lebih besar untuk merangkul lebih banyak kasus yang bermacam-macam kerumitan sehingga hasilnya valid dipertahankan sebagai hasil umum. untuk rumah sakit atau klinik terapi model terapi perilaku bisa dilakukan bagi penderita maloklusi dari berbagai kasus. bagi penderita maloklusi atau bibir sumbing, bisa juga menerapkan model terapi perilaku agar dapat memperbaiki kualitas bicaranya yang terganggu. mengembangkan keahlian dan penelitian khusus mengenai pelafalan dan bidang lain yang bersangkutan. menjalin bekerja sama antara linguistik dan kesehatan untuk lebih mengerti dan mengembangkan bidang ini. hasil penelitian ini pada akhirnya dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan referensi bagi para peneliti sejenis lebih mendalam lagi mengenai gangguan berbicara pada penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing. secara praktis, penelitian ini bermanfaat bagi penderita maloklusi bibir sumbing 4. penutup vol. 3 no. 2 oktober 2016 171 daftar pustaka aziz , hidayat alimul. 2006. pengantar ilmu keperawatan anak . jakarta : salemba boersma, paul dan david (1995). praat: doing phonetics by computer diakses 24 january 2014 dari http://www.praat.org/ dewayanto, harkati. 1993. aspek-aspek epidemioilogi maloklusi. gadjah mada university press. yogyakarta. untuk dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berkomunikasinya dengan menerapkan model terapi perilaku. sastra, gusdi. 2008. penerapan model terapi wicara untuk penderita berbagai jenis gangguan berbahasa dan gangguan berbicara. usul penelitian. padang: universitas andalas. sastra, gusdi. 2011. neurolinguistik suatu pengantar. bandung. alfabeta http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/manual/faq__how_to_cite_praat.html jurnal arbitrer 172 english lecturer’s attitude toward english variety in english learning jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.31-36.2018 article english lecturer’s attitude toward english variety in english learning rahma yanti, handoko, rabbi antaridha english department, dharma andalas universit, west sumatera, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 12, 2018 final revision: april 17, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 this research investigates english lecturers’ attitude toward the variation of english in the process of english learning. the purpose of this study is to discuss the types of english variations uttered by english lecturers who are considered as respondents in this study and their attitudes toward the variations of language that appear to their own speech during the teaching-learning process. this research is descriptive by using qualitative approach. the data to be presented in this research is taken from several words of indonesian lecturers at several universities in padang west sumatra by distributing some questionnaires and also interviews. the method of data analysis is divided into two types, first, methods which related to the correlation of external language objects with a nonlinguistic element called correlation method or method of matching, and secondly, methods which related to surgical, processing or internal verbal tampering called the method of operation or distribution method. keyword english variations, lecturer’s attitude, english learning correspondence e-mail: rahma.yanti83@gmail.com i. introduction sociolinguistics is the study of language with the dimension of society. when we study the language without referring to a society that uses it the same as removing the possibility of finding a social explanation for the structure used. from a sociolinguistic perspective, the phenomenon of language attitudes in multilingual societies is an interesting phenomenon to be studied, because through language attitudes are able to determine the survival of a language. in addition, english currently used by the various backgrounds of speakers which emerge the variation or diversity in the use of english. qi zhang (2013) examines the attitudes of hong kong students towards hong kong english (hke) and mandarin-accented english (hong kong students' attitude of hong kong english variations and english with mandarin accents). from this study, it was discovered that informants prefer received pronunciation (rp) / american pronunciation and general american (ame) / american english rather than hke. in addition, these informants also did not receive a positive mandarin accent. they prefer american english because the socioeconomic status of these english speakers tends to be professionals or professionalminded people in hong kong. http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.31-36.2018 rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 32 julie m. groves (2011) done the which discuss the complex issues of hke status. this is more specified to the analysis of english-speaking local attitudes toward the original existence and variation of local speakers, the perception of linguistic behavior and attitudes toward the prevailing norms. the results of this study were evaluated based on the kachru (1983) and schneider (2003, 2007) theories about the three phases of nativization. it is hoped that the results of this study can discuss more in-depth english variation for future research. hsuan-yau tony lai (2008) investigates the perception of english lecturer on the role of english in taiwan today was viewed from two aspects, namely the ownership aspect of english and how to learn the culture of the target language that was english in english class. using the group interview method of five english lecturers who had been five years teaching, it was found that teachers in taiwan faced a dilemma and struggle in following the role of eil and elf in class. it can be seen that the english variation is already there and spread in the world with different forms of variation in each country and found the attitude of rejecting and accepting to the emergence of variations or variations of english by the foreigners who are not native english speakers. this phenomenon is very interesting to discuss for long-term research associated with the use of language as a symbol of the identity of a speaker or language and identity. according to crystal (2002), the number of speakers of l1 (english as the first language) now is more than 400 million people, 400 speakers of l2 (english as a second language), and l3 speakers (english as a foreign language) of 700 million people. so a quarter of the world's population speaks and writes in english. kachru (1992) divides english variation into with three concentric circles: inner circle (usa, uk, canada, australia, new zealand), outer circle (bangladesh, india, kenya, malaysia, etc.) and expanding circle (china, egypt, indonesia, japan, etc). while graddol (1997) classifies the distribution of english based on its speakers into three categories: first english speaker (l1), second english speaker (l2), english speaker as efl speakers. however, the divisions described by kachru are criticized by jenkins (2000) who say that there is a so-called gray area between inner circle and outer circle where english speakers from outer circle use english as their first language. in addition, many emerging bilingual (multilingual) and multilingual english speakers make it difficult to determine whether they are l1 or l2. english is referred to as an international language resulting in intercultural communication (sharifian, 2009). the central theme of eil as a paradigm is its recognition of the world englishes regardless of which language it belongs to which circles are as kachru (1986, 1992) considers three concentric circles. although the reseach on english as international communication have been done by many reseachers, yet it is quite rare in indonesia. as propose by kachru (1992) that every country has diffferent respond to english teaching and the attitude of the lecturers or teachers may vary as well. this this research focuses on the english variation used by the indonesian lecturers and their attitudes toward the language they used during teaching process. ii. methods the type of this research is descriptive qualitative. the research cycle is based on the opinion of mukhtar (2013: 43) that research is viewed from the point of the process consists of three parts, (1) research planning, (2) research implementation or operational research process and, (3) research reporting. this research is expected to reveal the variation of speech acts of english lecturers at andalas university and their attitude toward the english variation. rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 33 the data in this study is the variation of the language spoken by indonesian lecturers in the teaching and learning process in the classroom as well as their attitudes toward their language variations. the locational data source of this research comes from english lecturers who teach english in the classroom. while the substantive data from this research are some employees who successfully observe his speech to his lecturer. this research takes place at the university of andalas padang and university of dharma andalas padang. the reason for taking the place of this research is because the writer is a lecturer in those universities. the study was conducted for six months starting from september 2017 to february 2018. iii. result and discusson in conducting this research, the writer distributed several questionnaires to respondents by giving ten questions. in addtion, after the data collected, the writer did depth interview to some of the respondents. several questions on the questionnaire will be analyzed below. table 1. responce of question 1 standar bahasa inggris menurut anda american english (ame) 37,5% british english (bre) 25% keduanya (ame dan bre) 31,25% lainnya 6,25% from the table 1, the writer gives two answers, american english (ame) and british english (bre). this is because both english language still becomes as standard english by several english speakers (l3). on the questionnaire, it is discovered some additional answers by respondents i.e. both and other answers. from the above table it is seen that respondents apply ame variation in the class as much as 37,5% and followed by both ame and bre 31,25% and bre variation in the third position. it indicates that both ame and bre are still a standard english for some english lecturers in padang. as for the reason why ame is the most variations used by english teachers at the university in padang will be answered in the next questions. table 2. responce of question 2 menurut anda, standar bahasa inggris yang seharusnya diajarkan ke mahasiswa adalah: american english (ame) 43,75% british english (bre) 12,5% keduanya 31,25% table 2 indicates that american english is a standard english that should be taught to students. according to flora (2010), english speakers (l3) who do not understand english as a global language prefer british english or american english as standard english. therefore, different languages from these two standards are considered wrong languages. this is different from what the writer discovered on respondents' opinions in this study. respondents understand and are aware of other english variations such as australian english, chinese english, singapore english, etc. but they still consider ame and bre as standard english. awareness of the respondents is seen in the next question on the questionnaire that the authors describe in the table below. table 3. responce of question 3 bahasa inggris sudah berkembang menjadi bahasa internasional sehingga menimbulkan variasi dalam bahasa inggris itu sendiri. apakah anda setuju dengan kalimat di atas? setuju 87,5% tidak setuju 12,5% table 3 indicates that english lecturers in padang are already aware of english variations other than ame and bre, as indicated by the data agreement 87.5% and disagreement12.5%. table 4. responce of question 4 menurut anda, apakah variasi bahasa inggris ini perlu diperkenalkan kepada mahasiswa? tolong sebutkan alasan anda ya 75% tidak 25% in table 4 the writer discovered two backgrounds of the respondents, i.e. rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 34 respondents who taught english as compulsory subjects and participants who taught english as elective courses. the subject is mandatory, the students taught by the respondents are students who come from the english department where the students already understand the variations of english itself. while students who study english as elective courses do not really need detailed knowledge about english variations because in general, they only learn the basic vocabulary of the english language itself. table 5. responce of question 5 apakah variasi bahasa inggris tersebut mempengaruhi penggunaan bahasa inggris anda di dalam kelas? ya 43,75% tidak 37,5% kadang-kadang 18,75% in general, indonesians are able to use more than one language. they master the first language and the second language. both languages have potential to be used interchangeably by the public in daily conversations and in class conversations. that is, people who use both languages are seen in the situation of bilingualism. bilingual is the habit of using two languages in interaction with others (nababan, 1986: 27). the table above indicates that english variation influences the use of participant's language in teaching english so that the name of bilingualism arises. bilingualism is a habit of using two or more languages in rotation (samsuri, 1994: 55). table 6. responce of question 6 menurut anda, variasi bahasa inggris apakah yang anda gunakan dalam proses belajar mengajar di kelas? american english 56,25% british english 6,25% keduanya 18,75% others 18,75% table 6 indicates that american english greatly affects the variations in the use of respondents’ english. this is as mentioned by one of the respondents who said, "because i am exposed to ame from many media. just like most indonesians are more exposed to ame than hollywood movies circulating in indonesia. "this answer is supported by other respondents' answers," because teaching materials use more american english ". so, because all the learning facilities such as books and electronic media such as television are also filled with american english broadcasting, indonesian people are used to listen as well as study the variations of english. table 7. responce of question 7 bagaimana sikap anda terhadap variasi bahasa inggris yang anda gunakan tersebut? menerima 100% tidak menerima table 7 indicates that 100% of the respondents of this study received the english variation they use in teaching english in the classroom. refer to figure no. 6, the respondents mostly used ame 56.25% in the class and followed by the use of ame and bre as much as 18.75%. form the result, it can be seen that 56,25% respondents claim their english variety is american english, but in fact, while doing indepth interview, the writer discovered that the english used is not exactly american english. it is identified from the accent, the stress of the sentence and the pronunciation. unfortunately, the respondents do not aware its distiinction. thus, they just assume that their english is already a standard english.. iv. conclusion the general objective of teaching english is to develop students' english proficiency in english speaking skills that resemble native speakers such as american english and british english as both are considered standard english for english speakers as foreign languages or l3 speakers. but keep in mind that the english standard is not a language, but a variation in english. secondly, in today's globalized world, english speakers need to be aware that english variations other than ame and bre will always emerge as english has now rahma yanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 35 become an international language. from some of the theories that have been presented and from the questionnaires that have been filled out by the respondents, the writers concluded that english lecturers in padang have realized and accepted their own variations of english. most of them use the standard language variations in classes, they are american english and british english. references alwi, hasan,dkk. 2003. kamus besar bahasa indonesia, jakarta: balai pustaka. asher, r.e. 1994. the encyclopedy of language and linguistics. oxford: pergam. bolton, k. & lim, s. 2000. ‘futures for hong kong english.’ world englishes, 19, 429–43. chaer, abdul, dan leonie agustina. 2004. sosiolinguitik perkenalan awal. jakarta: rineka cipta. chaika, elaine. 1982. language the social mirror. massachussetts. new burry house publishers, inc. creswell, john w. 2002. research design: qualitative and quantitative approaches. london: sage publications. crystal, d. 2002. the english language: a guided tour of the language. london: penguin books graddol, d. 1997. the future of english. london: the british council jenkins, j. 2000. the phonology of english as an international language: new models, new norms, new goals. oxford: oxford university press. joseph, j. e. 1996. ‘english in hong kong: emergence and decline.’ current issues in language and society, 3, 166–79. julie, m. groves (2011). ‘linguistics schizophrenia’ in hong kong. uk: cambridge university press kachru, b. b. 1983. ‘models for non-native englishes.’ in k. bolton & b. b. kachru (eds), world englishes: critical concepts in linguistics, volume 4. london: routledge, pp. 108–30. kartomiharjo, soeseno. 1988. bahasa cermin kehidupan masyarakat. jakarta: depdikbud, dirjen dikti, proyek pengembangan lembaga pendidikan tenaga pendidikan luk, j. c. m. 1998. ‘hong kong students’ awareness of and reactions to accent differences.’ multilingua, 17, 93–106. moleong, lexy j. 2007. metodologi penelitan kualitatif. bandung: remaja rosda karya maleong, l. j. 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(cetakan ke 4). oxford. oxford university press. stibbard, r. 2004. ‘the spoken english of hong kong: a study of co-occurring segmental errors.’ language, culture and curriculum, 17, 127–42 sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. sugiyono, 2008. metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung:alfabeta zhang, qi. 2011. the attitudes of hong kong students towards hong kong english (hke) and mandarin-accented english. uk: cambridge university press jurnal arbitrer 73 cara mudah menyiapkan materi pembelajaran berbasis web dan cd untuk bahasa indonesia oleh, yusring sanusi baso universitas hasanuddin makasar abstrak revolusi teknologi komunikasi dan informasi (tki) telah merubah berbagai bidang kehidupan manusia, termasuk dalam revolusi dalam pendidikan. revolusi pendidikan karena tki telah mengubah cara pembelajaran konvensional menjadi digital, tatap muka pada tempat dan waktu tertentu menjadi pertemuan di mana dan kapan saja. dulu kita menggunakan paper, sekarang era sudah menuju ke paperless. beberapa waktu yang lalu, guru dan dosen adalah sumber ilmu, sekarang sumber ilmu dapat melalui berbagai media, misalnya cd-rom dan internet. cara belajar kita pun berubah yaitu belajar jarak jauh dengan waktu belajar bebas. munculllah istilah e-learning, knowledge server dan knowledge based society. artikel ini membahas tentang cara simpel menyiapkan materi elearning (web and cd based) bahasa indonesia. program yang dipilih untuk dielaborasi dan dimodifikasi adalah program hot potatoes yang dipublikasikan oleh universitas victoria dan half-baked sofware. materi bahasa indonesia yang dimuat dalam program ini adalah kumpulan soalsoal pada seleksi penerimaan mahasiswa baru (spmb). soal-soal tersebut akan berbentuk materi multimedia interaktif, khususnya berbasis web dan cd. modul yang dibahas dalam artikel ini di antaranya adalah input data (pertanyaan, jawaban, dll), konfigurasi output (modifikasi tampilan dan perwajahannya), serta teknik menampilkan pada website. di samping itu, akan dibahas pula cara menyimpan materi tersebut dalam web dan cd. hasil akhir (output) atau materi output dari program ini adalah materi yang dapat digunakan sebagai bahan pembelajaran bahasa indonesia, khususnya untuk latihan mandiri dan test. ouputnya dalam bentuk file web dan cd. kata kunci: e-learning, hot potatoes, web, dan cd. vol. 2, april 2015 74 i. pendahuluan komputer interaktif berbagai terminologi sering digunakan untuk mengungkapkan penggunaan komputer dalam pembelajaran, khususnya pembelajaran bahasa. masingmasing terminologi memiliki arti berbeda. computer assisted learning (cal) adalah terminologi umum untuk segala pembelajaran yang menggunakan komputer. jenis penggunanaan komputer dalam lingkup cal (brown, 2006) dapat dibagi atas tiga jenis, yaitu (1) komputer sebagai alat, misalnya word processor dan spreadsheet; (2) pembelajar mengajar atau memberi perintah kepada komputer dengan menggunakan sederetan perintah menggunakan bahasa pemograman, misalnya logo; dan (3) komputer berfungsi sebagai alat yang memberi instruksi dan materi pelajaran (baso, 2006). jenis ketiga tersebut saat ini lebih populer dengan istilah computer based instruction (cbi) atau computer assisted instruction (cai). cbi umumnya terdiri atas empat komponen, yaitu drill and practices, tutorial, games, dan modelling. saat ini, cbi diperkaya dengan hypertext, hypermedia, dan multimedia. komponen drill and practices dalam cbi merupakan latihan dari materi yang telah diajarkan. siswa, mahasiswa atau pelajar diberi tugas lewat komputer. tugas tersebut diambil secara acak dari materi yang diberikan sebelumnya. program yang dirancang dengan baik bercirikan dapat memberikan umpan balik. program jenis ini sedapat mungkin memberikan peluang kepada mahasiswa untuk berpindah dari level rendah sampai level lanjutan. komponen drill and practices sebaiknya merupakan bentuk instruction yang memberi ruang bagi para pembelajar pemula yang mengalami masalah. komponen berikutnya adalah tutorial yang cenderung mengajarkan materi baru. komponen ini biasanya memberikan informasi diikuti dengan pertanyaan kepada para pembelajar dengan maksud mengecek level pelajaran yang diperoleh selama tutorial berlangsung. komponen ini seharusnya memonitoring kemajuan pembelajar untuk menentukan level pembelajar nantinya. sebenarnya, kemampuan komponen tutorial komputer yang digunakan pembelajaran bahasa sangat terbatas. kemampuan ini terbatas dalam menilai skill yang diperoleh para pembelajar bahasa. sebagai bahan perbandingan, di ruang kelas misalnya, seorang guru yang mengajukan pertanyaan kepada pelajar/pembelajar dapat menilai kadar kemampuan mereka. para jurnal arbitrer 75 pengajar tidak hanya mendengarkan jawaban, tetapi juga dapat menilai tingkat kecepatan menjawab, tingkat keragu raguan, bahasa tubuh mahasiswa, dan semacamnya. di sisi lain, komputer hanya mampu menanggapi jawaban yang diberikan lewat peran keyboard. seorang guru bisa membenarkan jawaban yang salah hurufnya. sedangkan komputer hanya mampu menanggapi segelintir jawaban yang mungkin dan sering tidak bisa menanggulangi jawaban yang agak salah; misalnya, jika jawaban yang diharapkan adalah table dan mahasiswa menginput tabel, maka komputer akan menolaknya. hal ini akan mengakibatkan mahasiswa atau pembelajar frustrasi. terkait dengan hal ini, penelitian telah dilaksanakan untuk memperoduksi sistem mengajar yang cerdas dengan komputer untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. namun hal ini tergantung pada kecerdasan artifisial itu (ai) sendiri. bahkan beberapa pakar cbi mengatakan bahwa arti sebenarnya ai selalu mustahil. pengajaran bahasa dengan yang menggunakan komponen komputer game membutuhkan kelompok. pengajaran bahasa dengan model komponen komputer game ini seringkali sulit dibedakan dari drill and practice dan atau simulasi. kemungkinan penggunanaan keduanya, antara game dan drill and practice, dapat terjadi. pada sisi lain, antara game dan simulasi terkadang sulit dibedakan. komputer game adalah gambaran imajinasi sedangkan simulasi merupakan model normal dari kenyataan yang sesungguhnya. namun demikian, komputer game memerlukan tempat untuk dimainkan dalam pengajaran bahasa. komputer game ini dimaksudkan untuk memberi motivasi para pembelajar. fungsi lainnya adalah agar para pembelajar tidak bosan belajar bahasa secara monoton. yang perlu diperhatian adalah banyak pembelajar, khususnya laki-laki, menghabiskan banyak waktu dengan komputer game ini. karenanya perlu dihindari agar komputer game dalam kelas tidak berubah menjadi komputer game yang biasa pembelajar dapatkan di playstation. komponen terakhir yang tercakup dalam program pengajaran bahasa berbasis komputer adalah simulasi. simulasi komputer dalam pengajaran bahasa merupakan model dari kehidupan normal. dengan simulasi komputer ini, kehidupan nyata dapat dimanipulasi. alasannya pengajaran bahasa berbasis komputer simulasi adalah kehidupan nyata terkadang sangat mahal, sangat berbahaya, dan membutuhkan banyak waktu. sebagai contoh, pelajar yang hendak mempelajari kereta api, tidak perlu ke pulau jawa untuk melihat langsung. namun, mereka vol. 2, april 2015 76 dapat melihat kereta api dan bagianbagaiannya dalam simulasi. komponen simulasi komputer ini sangat efisien dalam pengajaran bahasa dalam kelas. berdasarkan hal tersebut di atas, maka pengajaran bahasa indonesia dengan menggunakan komputer interkatif sebaiknya mengandung empat hal seperti yang terdapat dalam cbi. saat ini, program hot potatoes dianggap dapat mewakili program komputer pengajaran bahasa dengan empat komponen yang dimaksud. ii. pembahasan dalam presentasi ini, program hot potatoes akan dibahas dalam hubungannya dengan teknik membuat materi interaktif bahasa indonesia. program hot potatoes untuk pengajaran bahasa indonesia program hot potatoes adalah software pengajaran bahasa yang terdiri atas enam program yang dapat digunakan untuk membuat materi pengajaran bahasa interaktif berbasis web. software ini dibuat oleh universitas victoria di canada. software ini dapat digunakan secara bebas oleh institusi pendidikan. program ini dapat diperoleh melalui homepage di http://www.halfbakedsoftware.com. versi sekarang ialah versi 6. keenam program yang terdapat dalam software ini, adalah: 1. jbc: program untuk membuat materi latihan pilihan ganda (multiple choice) 2. jquiz: program untuk menyusun materi latihan pilihan ganda dan short answer 3. jmix: program untuk membuat latihan menyusun kalimat 4. jcross: program untuk menyusun materi dalam bentuk teka-teki silang 5. jmatch: program untuk membuat latihan dengan model menjodohkan. 6. jcloze: program untuk menyusun latihan dalam bentuk “essai ompong” (fill in the blanks exercise) penggunaan program hot potatoes secara umum, keenam program yang terdapat dalam software ini memiliki format berikut: 1. membuat dan menulis materi 2. mendesain konfigurasi output 3. menyimpan (save) master 4. meng-export file atau menyimpan file dalam web document (html) jurnal arbitrer 77 cara membuat soal pilihan ganda dengan hot potatoes 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes 2. klik ikon jquiz 3. klik dalam title box dan tulis nama latihan yang dimaksud 4. dalam kotak pertnyaan, the question box, tulislah pertanyaan anda 5. dalm kotak jawaban, answer box, tulislah jawaban yang mungkin secara berurutan dari a, b, c, d, dst serta berilah tanda silang jawaban yang paling benar dalam kotak yang disediakan. 6. tulis pula feedback untuk setiap jawaban, baik yang benar atau pun yang salah. feedback ini sangat berguna untuk mengarahkan pengguna mengenali jawaban, baik salah maupun yang benar. feedback dapat berupa frase pendek, misalnya ”jawaban anda benar”, atau ”maaf, ulangi lagi”, dll. 7. pertanyaan berikutnya dapat dibuat dengan meng-klik tanda panah ke atas yang terletak di sebelah kiri nomor pertanyaan. 8. masukkan pertanyaan yang dikehendaki 9. soal-soal yang telah dibuat dapat dikonfigurasi tampilannya dengan mengklik menu ”option” kemudian memilih ”configure output”. pilihan ini akan menampilkan kotak dialog baru dengan beberapa pilihan, di antaranya: a. titles/instructions untuk meng-konfigurasi atau merubah bentuk dan jenis judul b. prompt/feedback menyiapkan fasiltas feedback (tanggapan) yang akan ditampilkan c. buttons dapat digunakan untuk membuat hiperlink ke quiz berikutnya atau ke halaman lain dalam web d. appearance fasilitas ini disiapkan untuk merubah tampilan quiz, misalnya dengan merubah tampilan warna. 10. simpan data atau file ini pada lokasi yang anda inginkan. data tersebut dapat disimpan di hardisk pc/laptob anda atau pada external lainnya, misalnya flashdisk, cd, atau pun disket. 11. terakhir, data atau file tersebut dapat di export ke html atau dalam format web dengan cara meng-klik ikon spider’s web button yang terletak pada salah tool bar. hal ini menjadikan data atau file anda tersimpan dalam bentuk web page yang vol. 2, april 2015 78 dapat dilihat lewat browser (misalnya explorer, dll). short answer question 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes 2. klik ikon jquiz 3. klik dalam title box dan tulis nama latihan yang dimaksud 4. dalam kotak pertanyaan, the question box, tulislah pertanyaan anda 5. dalm kotak jawaban, the answer box, tulislah jawaban yang memiliki kemungkinan benar. 6. konfigurasi data/file ini seperti pada multiple choice. 7. kirim (export) data/file yang telah selesai menjadi format web dengan meng-klik ikon spider’s web button pada toolbar. jumbled sentence exercise program ini disiapkan sebagai latihan menyusun kalimat. biasanya digunakan untuk membantu pemula yang sedang mempelajari suatu bahasa. dalam hubungannya dengan bahasa indonesia, pembelajar asing dapat dibantu dengan berbagai variasi susunan atau struktur kalimat bahasa indonesia melalui program ini. 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes 2. klik ikon jmix 3. klik dalam title box dan tulis nama latihan yang dimaksud 4. dalam kotak kalimat, the sentence box, tulislah kalimat dengan tanda baca. setiap kata dan tanda baca harus ditulis pada baris baru (on a new line) 5. konfigurasi data/file ini seperti pada multiple choice. 6. kirim (export) data/file yang telah selesai menjadi format web dengan meng-klik ikon spider’s web button pada toolbar. crosswords 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes 2. klik ikon jcross 3. klik dalam title box dan tulis nama latihan yang dikehendaki. 4. ada dua pilihan untuk memasukkan ”kata/frase” ke dalam teka-teki silang, yaitu (a) kata/frase langsung diinput ke dalam kotak tekateki silang atau (b) memanfaatkan menu ’manage grid’ dan memilih ’automatically grid maker’ 5. jika memilih (b) pada poin 4 tersebut, maka akan tebruka jendela baru. masukkan kata-kata yang akan ditampilkan dalam teka-teki silang. klik ukuran teka-teki silang yang anda inginkan lalu pilih tombol ’make the grid”. 6. pilih tombol ”add clues”. jurnal arbitrer 79 7. pilih kata-kata yang akan diberi penjelasan (clues) lalu beri tanda (tik). 8. ulangi masukkan setiap clues. 9. konfigurasi data/file ini seperti pada multiple choice. 10. kirim (export) data/file yang telah selesai menjadi format web dengan meng-klik ikon spider’s web button pada toolbar. 8. macthing exercises 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes dan klik jmatch 2. klik dalam kotak judul (title box) lalu tulis nama latihan anda 3. pada kolom kiri, masukkan pertanyaan atau objek atau kalimat yang akan dijadikan patokan/jawaban 4. pada kolom sebelah kanan, masukan jawaban yang benar 5. konfigurasi data/file ini seperti pada multiple choice. 6. save file yang telah anda kerjakan. file ini dapat disimpan dalam bentuk format web dengan cara mengklik ikon web pada toolbar. 9. fill in the blank 1. aktifkan program hot potatoes dan klik jcloze 2. klik pada ‘title box’ dan tuliskan nama latihan anda 3. pada kotak utama ‘main box’ masukkan teks yang akan digunakan. teks ini dapat diambil dari ms word atau file lainnya. dengan demikian anda dapat menghemat waktu. 4. blok (hitami/highlight) kata yang akan dijadikan ‘lubang/ompong’ dalm teks lalu klik tombol ‘gab button’. setelah itu akan muncul jendela baru yang disiapkan untuk membuat penjelasan (clue) yang membantu pengguna menjawab kata yang disipakan dalam bentuk ‘lubang/ompong’ tersebut. 5. lanjutkan langkah keempat untuk kata-kata yang akan dijadikan ‘ompong’ 6. pilihan lain unruk membuat essai ompong (gab) adalah dengan mengklik tombol ‘auto-gab’. dengan demikian, komputer akan memblok atau memilih katakata dalam teks secara otomatis. 7. konfigurasi data/file ini seperti pada multiple choice. 8. save file yang telah anda kerjakan. file ini dapat disimpan dalam bentuk format web dengan cara mengklik ikon web pada toolbar. 9. vol. 2, april 2015 80 iii. penutup program hot potatoes tersebut dapat dimodifikasi bentuknnya. tergantung kapasitas pengguna melakukan elaborasi dan inovasi terhadap program ini. disarnkan kepada bapak/ibu yang berminat menggunkaan program hot potatoes ini untuk mengunjungi website www.halfbakedsoftware.com. dalam website ini telah disiapkan contoh-contoh latihan yang telah dibuat oleh dosen dan pengajar bahasa asing, khususnya bahasa inggris. penayangan berbagai model program hot potatoes ini dimaksudkan agar para pengguna lain dapat melihat ide-ide yang mungkin dapat ditiru. di antara contoh-contoh yang disiapkan berupa video, audio, gambar, dan berbagai latihan imajinatif dan interaktif lainnya. semoga paparan ini dapat menarik minat para dosen dan pengajar bahasa indonesia atau bahasa asing lainnya. semoga hasil karya interkatif dan imajinatif tersebut dapat menggugah generasi muda bangsa melayu dalam memajukan dan meningkatkan pehaman bahasa indonesia/melayu. referensi brown, tony. 2006. multimedia in education. the university of new england asutralia. baso, yusring sanusi. 2006. pemanfaatan multimedia dalam pengajaran bahasa arab. paper dalam seminar nasional bahasa aran yang dilaksanakan oleh politeknik ujungpandang pada bula juli 2006. baso, yusring sanusi. 2006. menggunakan program nero waveeditor untuk membuat materi interkatif istima’ bahasa arab. jurnal alaraby, vol 1 juni 2006, universitas negeri malang. baso, yusring sanusi. 2005. teknik dasar penggunaan multimedia dalam pengajaran bahasa arab. jurnal nady al-adab, volume 1, pebruari 2006. jurusan sastra asia barat univ. hasanuddin. jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 2 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.76-85.2017 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article illumination and calligraphy in malay letters ab. razak ab. karim1, reniwati 2, 1 academy of malay studies university malaya, malaysia 2minangkabau department, faculty of humanities university andalas, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 02, 20117 final revision: november 12, 2017 available online: december 27, 2017 malay manuscripts contain all kinds of knowledge. the manuscripts not only tell stories, they also depict various knowledge within the minds of past generations. in this paper discuss elements of illumination and the use of calligraphy in malay letters on past malay letters. i limited the discussion to malay letters in social letters in the period 1521-1899. malay society in the olden days practiced very fine arts as shown in the malay letters through illumination and through the use of various types and designs of calligraphy. they used the world of nature to express their feelings. this paper will reveal that the traditional malay society was not impoverished of art, that they had the highest aesthetic value in art, even beyond comparison with the present. keyword letters, illumination, calligraphy, malay correspondence email: abrazak@um.edu.my reniwati.fsua@gmail.com i. introduction malay manuscripts represent our national treasure and they contain all kinds of knowledge. the manuscripts not only tell stories, they also depict various knowledge within the minds of past generations. these include knowledge on islamic jurisprudence, medicine, laws, contracts etc. thereby the effort of the malaysian national library, through its malay manuscripts division in trying to unearth these national heritage should be lauded. they represent a most creditable effort and should thereby be pursued in the interests of malay society, race and the nation. in this paper, i intend to discuss two basic issues, and they are elements of illumination and secondly, the use of calligraphy in malay letters. but my focus would be on malay letters of the olden days mainly because of the widespread use of illumination in the letters and a lot can be said on this. i limit my discussion to malay letters, i.e. social letters only1, and letters under scrutiny covered the 1521-1899 period. within this time span, hundreds of social letters were dispatched by the authorities, rulers or by westerners. meanwhile contract letters were confined to specific areas or parties, mainly between the rulers and the west, i.e. the dutch2. ii. result and discussion illumination in malay letters illuminations are regarded as most vital to malay letters. this importance is illustrated in the presence of attractive illumination representing the personality of the sender of a letter. illumination is an art of decorating letters from a sender to the receiver. the artistic elements evident in malay letters also testify to the popularity of using colored http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 77 drawings in letters. this delightful practice has been handed down from the past and has found popularity in malay letters3. an interesting feature of the malay decorative arts is the absence of fauna, i.e. the rare use of animal figures in the drawings. somehow this seems appropriate with islamic teachings which forbid the use of animals in any kind of decoration4. for that reason, writers and decorators turn to coloured pictures with leaves and flora as the motif. geometric patterns were also popular. there is also an abundance of flowers such as flowers of the clove, frangipani, water lily, jasmine and other common malay flowers. this aspect of decorating has immense appeal, especially if one looks at the ‘golden letters’5 which display the highest quality in decorative arts. those letters with illuminations serve to reflect the senders high standard and elevated status compared to other folks. thus in malay letters, a sender would use a certain type of illumination to symbolize the sender’s person. in truth, the receiver of a letter, upon examining the illuminations enclosed in a letter would be able to guess the identity of the sender. generally, illuminations present in malay letters can be divided into two categories. the first is letter with full illumination, and the second is letter with partial illumination. full illumination letters have decorations covering the entire page. flowery patterns are most commonly used. whereas, in partial illumination letters, only a small section of the page is decorated. examples of illuminated letters are shown below. the sender of this letter is sultan iskandar muda, the ruler of acheh from 1607-1636. upon examination, this particular letter is a most impressive golden letter that comes beautifully decorated. the decoration displays ottoman turkish influence, especially in the use of the poppy flower to fill in the section to the left, right, above and below the letter6. one could see an arch with decorative traditional patterns given a blue colour combination with white, yellow and red flowers. the oldest letter with this kind of illumination happens to be one of the letters from acheh to the english monarch in the 17th century. figure 1. a letter from sultan acheh iskandar muda to king james i of england in 1615. (source: gallop, a.t. & arps,b. (1991:35) figure 2. de klerk’s letter to sultan muhammad bahauddin palembang dated 1779. (source: gallop, a.t. (1994:36) ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 78 with regards to example 2, the letter was sent by a dutch official, i.e. the governor general r. de klerk to sultan muhammad bahauddin. this letter is fully illuminated, with vertical strips, with different illumination in between the strips. the first strip, whether from the right or left, is decorated with flowers with leaves joined together. the second strip is decorated with upright fern leaves with the shoot at the top most. the frame is decorated with rows of leaves inclined to the right. six bold lines run between the strips also as separators between the flowers and the fern leaves. it could be seen that the illumination used in de klerk’s letter is very fine with the flowers and fern leaves clearly displayed. the unique and beautiful illumination thus is clear evidence that the writer was a highly skilled person, while the very attractive illumination indicates the high status of the sender of the letter. this fact is not to be overstated because the dutch would not want their status to be downplayed especially by the receiver sultan muhammad bahauddin of palembang. in the 3rd example, the illumination displayed happens to be one of the most attractive ever known. according to gallop (1994:38) “…to convey one of the most attractive malay letters ever known, with the most beautiful decorations. this letter is from sultan ahmad of trengganu to the dutch governor general in batavia, baron von der capellen dated 1824.” figure 3. a letter from sultan ahmad of trengganu to van der capellen dated 1824 (source: gallop, a.t. (1994:39) it is evident that the unique decorations in the letter from the trengganu sultan appeared remarkably outstanding when compared to other malay letters. the illumination was given heavy emphasis appropriate with the sultan’s rank and also in accordance with the relations between trengganu and the dutch of that time. in this letter, only a third of the page contains writing while the other two thirds are filled with golden decorations. two decorative patterns are used in this letter. the frame and the top section above the arch are decorated with flowers and a curved shoot. the bottom section beneath the arch has a different pattern. here we have fourpetalled flowers joined together and within each petal can be found three smaller flowers with three petals and leaves. the main content of the letter is confined to the left section while the right section is given entirely to illumination. in example 5 and 6, the illuminations used are different although they came from the same sender i.e. sultan sharif kassim. in example 4, the sender, sultan syarif uthman used a square to demarcate the content of the letter from other decorations used. the lines on the right and left side are smaller than the lines at the top which are bigger. the decorative patterns in both sections appear as small plants separated by flowers which are arranged in an incline – while the small trees are upright. this letterhead is formed in a triangle and could be found at the center of the top section of the letter. in example 5, sultan syarif kassim dispatched a letter to raffles declaring that pontianak, mempawah and sambas were at peace after the pirates have been defeated. however his enemy, pangeran anom was still alive and operating in the interior. the decorations in this letter are most impressive. the pattern is in the form of semi-circles with branches at the top and bottom sections, forming the overall decoration for the letter. ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 79 figure 4. a letter from sultan syarif uthman of pontianak to raffles dated 1825 (source: gallop, a.t. & arps,b. (1991:43) figure 5. a letter from syarif kassim of pontianak to raffles dated 1811. (source: gallop, a.t. & arps,b. (1991:43) figure 6. a letter from sultan syarif kassim of pontianak to raffles dated 1811. (source: gallop, a.t. & arps,b. (1991:42) this pattern is then joined filling up the space except in the actual section for the content. in each pattern, we have three clove flowers with two leaves in an upright position there is a difference in the decorations between example 5 and example 6. in example 6, the frames of the letter on both sides are decorated with flower shoots extending from top to bottom and from left to right on the frame that appear above and below the letter. the flower shoots have flowers with three petals with several leaves. the shoot ends at each corner of the letter frame to be replaced with a four-petalled flower. meanwhile the middle section of the letter, taking up ninety percent of the space, is decorated with a clove tree with three or four flowers. the two flowers on the left and right side are inclined while the center one is upright. these plants are arranged some distance apart, inclined slightly, and occupying the space available. there are many more examples of letters with illumination produced in the olden days, ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 80 however, in this limited space, only a few letters could be examined. below we have a few samples of letters with their illuminations. nevertheless, these illuminations are not utilized in letters from rulers or chieftains to the west, but the reverse is also true. this demonstrates that the art of decorating letters was also practiced by western society operating in the east at the time. this is the normal practice for someone to maintain his status among the local society and was also true with the western visitors. figure 7. a letter from sultan mahmud shah of johor and pahang to raffles dated 1811. (source: gallop, a.t. (1994:2) figure 8. a letter from sultan ismail from bima to van der capellen dated 1823. (source: gallop, a.t. (1994:57) figure 9: a letter from raja jaafar of riau to elout in batavia dated 1820. (source: gallop, a.t. (1994:40) figure 10. a letter from panembahan nata kusuma of sumenep madura to raffles dated 1816. (source: gallop, a.t. & arps,b. (1991:48) calligraphy in malay letters calligraphy is the art of writing arabic scripts in various styles and it is often used to display certain objects created by the writer7. it is achieved to impress the reader or receiver of ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 81 the letter. calligraphy has existed since long ago and it carries certain functions in islam since islam forbids its believers from using objects or human or animal figures in any art form including malay letters. this situation has encouraged scholars to devote more attention to the art of calligraphy to depict beauty or decorations which extol god’s greatness. some basic issues must be understood when we talk about the usage of calligraphy in malay letters. among them is the type receiving popular acceptance in the malay world. according to the history of the development of calligraphy, kufi writing is regarded as the oldest form of arabic script, and it could be found in kufah, iraq. the script is circular in form, and is upright, besides there is also the horizontal form. there are two types of kufi scripts i.e. kufi with leaves and kufi with flowers9. kufi script has developed further and later on emerged other types of calligraphy like nask, thuluth and other derivatives. in malay letters, elements of calligraphy are clearly displayed in certain parts of the letter, namely the heading, salutations, and at the closing section of the letter. let us examine the use of calligraphy in the following letterhead. in figure 11, the letter-head reads sidq qawluh alhaqq wa kalamuh alsidq (his words are true and his speech sincere). this letter was dispatched by de klerk in 1779 to sultan of palembang. it was written in two lines using the thuluth calligraphy. in this type, certain letters are bold, and recording marks are included such as in front, beneath and above to facilitate reading and pronunciation. figure 11 in figure 12, the sender of the letter is pengiran temenggung hasyim sahibul bahar of brunei to governor of kimanis, joseph wheelwright dated 1869. in his letter-head the naskh calligraphy is used with the scripts appearing fine and inclined to the left. it reads al-syam wa-al-qamar meaning with the sun and the moon. figure 12 the letter-head in figure 13 is even more interesting. its sender, sultan ahmad salleh of bone in south east celebes in 1975 used the figure of a sailing ship with the words “ qawluh al-haqq wa kalamuh al-sidq”, meaning “his words are true and his saying sincere.” the calligraphy type used is the naskh type – appearing straight and fine, but bold for certain letters with specific motifs. although this type of calligraphy was commonly used at that time, the design carrying a picture of an object with specific motif was really striking. the letters are scripted to depict a sailing ship and at the same time function as a letter-head. figure 13 figure 14 and 15 demonstrate the use of calligraphy type rihan. with this type, certain letters like wau, ra, sin and others are thickened and given tails. in example 4, the sender is sultan abdul jalil khaliluddin of ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 82 siak to lord minto in 1811. the unique letterhead is in the shape of an orange, with a branch and a stalk. the letters are arranged in three tiers and should be read from the bottom upwards, and not from top downwards. the letter-head reads nur al-syam wa-al qamar (light of the sun and the moon). figure 14 in figure 15, the letters are thickened but arranged in a compact manner in two tiers in a small space. thus, even though suspended in a small space the design and arrangement form a specific object. the letter-head reads ya rur al-syams waalqamar – meaning oh light of the sun and the moon. figure 15 figure 16 demonstrates the use of calligraphy type thuluth. it is arranged in three tiers in the shape of an arch with a curved bottom section. the letters are arranged far apart and the space filled with dots. this letter-head is used by sultan muhammad bahauddin of palembang to raffles in 1811. the letter head reads qawluh al-haqq wakalamuh al-sidq meaning his words are true and his speech is sincere. figure 16 letter-head in figure 7 and 8 utilize calligraphy type rihan with the letters thickened to form the shape of model ships in two and three tiers. in example 7, the letter was sent by sultanah siti fatimah pammanah, to william farquhar in 1822 whereas in figure 8, the letter was dispatched by william farquhar to yang dipertuan muda riau in 1821. the object depicted resembles the english merchant ship used in the 18th and 19th century. figure 17 we can also find remarkable use of calligraphy in the salutations section. in most letters, whether carrying illuminations or not, the use of calligraphy in this section appealed to the readers. some creative writers resort to the use of various shapes and objects. these objects are then filled with arabic scripts using calligraphy style attractive to readers. in figure 18, the writer, temenggung abdul rahman of johor employed the thuluth type of calligraphy with four tiers in the domed section, while in the semi-domed section, can be found three tiered letters. the letters are suspended and in the spaces between the letters we can find decorations resembling v ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 83 and i. this makes the full domes and semidomes appear even clearer. figure 18 the second example of salutations demonstrates the use of type rihan. this is a letter sent by sultan abdul jalil khaliluddin in 1811 to lord minto. the letters are arranged in three tiers, also in suspension, and letters like wau, ra, ya and others with tails are stretched and thickened at the bottom. this type of calligraphy leaves clear space in between the letters, but the space is filled with dots. figure 19 figure 20 figure 21 figure 22 figure 23 in figure 19, 20, 21 and 22 the calligraphy type used is naskh. but it is refashioned in different styles. this demonstrates that one calligraphy type could be used in different ways. in example 19, the salutations are written in a single line even though in certain sections the writer uses two tiers15. but generally the calligraphic style employs a single line. the salutations used in figure 20 and 21 appear more attractive because the khat letters are in 2 and 3 tiers and they are suspended. in figure 20 the letters are of bigger size, but not thickened. the spaces in between are filled with marks of fathah, kasrah, dhammah, sukun and syaddah16. the letters used in figure 21 appear thicker than those in figure 22 but both appear similar in style. the spaces in between scripts are left empty to highlight the bold letters used in the writing. figure 23 displays the same calligraphic style but written in a single line only. figure 24 the thuluth type of calligraphy is seldom used in malay letters. a few examples could be found employing this calligraphic style as indicated in figure 24 above. this letter is sent by sultanah pammana to w. farquhar in 1882. the words are arranged in two tiers. the scripts are thicker from other scripts and the empty spaces in between are left untouched. figure 25 the use of the dawani jali type of calligraphy is rarely found in malay letters. the above is one of the few samples available. in this calligraphy the letters are thickened in certain areas, especially the tail section, and given further decoration of leaves to provide beauty and attraction. calligraphy is also used in the closing section of letters. in this section the sender states the time the letter is dispatched using the islamic calendar. the writer would normally use the same calligraphy as in the salutations section. in short, there is only one type of calligraphy used in a letter. the use of calligraphy in the closing section of letters is shown below. ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 84 figure 25 iii. conclusions from the brief discussion, it is evident that malay society in the olden days practiced very fine arts as shown in the malay letters through illumination and through the use of various types and designs of calligraphy. what is significant is their use of the world of nature to express their feelings. this study is only confined to one aspect found in malay letters, more research needs to be carried out. however, it is hoped that this brief research would reveal to the present generation that the traditional malay society was not impoverished of art, that they had the highest aesthetic value in art, even beyond comparison with the present. references ab. razak bin ab. karim, 2006. warkah-melayu lama. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. ab. razak bin ab. karim, 2002. aspek penggunaan bahasa dalam warkah melayu lama: suatu kajian .kuala lumpur: akademi pengajian melayu, universiti malaya. ab. razak bin ab. karim, 2004. “nilai estetika dalam warkah -warkah melayu ” dlm. jurnal antarabangsa dunia melayu jilid 2. kuala lumput: dewan bahasa danpustaka. ab. razak bin ab. karim, 1999. “penggunaan kaligrafi dalam warkah -warkah melayu lama: satu kajian” dlm. jurnal filologi melayu. kuala lumpur: perpustakaan negara malaysia. azahari ibrahim, 2000. kitab pelajaran tajwid. kuala lumpur: darul nu’man. fatimi, s,q., 1963. islam comes to malaysia. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. gallop, annabel teh & arps, bernad, 1991. golden latters : writing traditions of indonesia. london: the british library. gallop, annabel teh & arp. bernad, 1994. the legacy of malay letters. london: the british library. mahayudin hj.yahya, 1987. ensiklopedia sejarah islam. jilid iii l-o. bangi: universiti kebangsaan malaysia. othman mohd yatim, 1980. warisan kesenian dalam tamadun islam. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. ab. razak ab. karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 85 pameran seni khat anjuran universiti malaya, 26 september-8 oktober1975. syed ahmad jamal, 1992. rupa & jiwa. kuala lumpur. . template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.45-52.2019 article computational linguistics models and language technologies for indonesian dian noviani syafar1, ria febrina2 1 english education department, stkip pgri sumatera barat, indonesia 2 indonesian department, universitas andalas, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 28, 2017 final revision: may 03, 2017 available online: may 15, 2017 the purpose of this research is to describe computational linguistics as a study of science that should pay full attention to linguistics researches improvement. the type of research is literature review and experimental research by designing a software model for bahasa. the result of the research shows that computational linguistics is a field of linguistics that can be used as a solution to overcome a problem related with the spelling correction and grammar for language users. this field of linguistics is related to software engineering designed to educate the public in producing languages, it can be bahasa, regional language, and english language as the foreign language for indonesian. the public can know the standardization of writing a language and equivalence translation between the target language and the source language that can be also precisely acquired. in addition, the writer provides several practical examples on how computational linguistics can be applied to the development of writing skills. for instance, the concordance enables to see any word or phrase in context so that one can see what sort of company it keeps. thus, the users can, for example, see the correct form based on bahasa indonesia rules between the words which they often confuse (e.g., gadget vs. gawai). keyword computational linguistics, indonesian, spelling, translation. korespondensi e-mail: author@email.com i. introduction with the advances of globalization and technology, it has been estimated that over a billion people are learning several languages in various parts of the world and the numbers are growing, not only for english but for other languages as well. spoken by over a quarter of the world’s population and enhanced by the presence of internet, it has become the operating system of the global communication. indeed, there is estimated 375 million english as a second langguage (esl) and 750 million english as a foreign language (efl) learners around the world (graddol, 2006). moreover, there are many researchers have done projects on translation strategies as a tool for teaching future translation process by adapting computer assisted translation tools. some of them also develop computerized http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.45-52.2019 dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 46 databases that provide translators with textool reference and consultation material in order to maintain coherence and consistency in their decision making during the translation process (candal-mora & vargas-sierra, 2013). klimova (2013) reveals how corpus linguistics can be applied in the development of writing skills by carrying out specialized software programmes on a computer. wordsmith tools is one of program mentioned for checking at how words behave in english texts. for foreign language teachers and learners, this program gives many advantages to see any word or phrase in context since they see the diffrences between difficult words (e.g. excited vs exciting) then disecover the most appropriate to use. meanwhile, related problem in bahasa, the correction toward social media texts and data collection corpus that come from conversation subtitles in the movies are also recently presented (kusumawardani, r. p, et.al, 2018, chowanda, a, 2018) chowanda a also collects 1961 movies with indonesia subtitles were collected dan precessed, leaving 1678320 unique words from more than 24m words in bahasa in the dataset. then, another rsearch creates a neural word embeddings using word2vec trained on over million social media messages representing a mix of domains and degrees of linguistic deviations from standard bahasa. for indonesian language or bahasa indonesia, english seems to give influence indonesian with a great deal, especially with its loanwords due to indonesians tends to associate the paradigm of high status and prestige. with the prominent role of indonesian, the indonesian government has made various efforts to maintain the language, especially through its national center for language planning (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa). it also affects the development of indonesian, so that it makes “increasingly less room” for the use of national language (badan bahasa kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2015). such a sociolinguistic factor, english is considered to be a symbol of social pride. this factor seems to encourage the unneeded use of english in indonesian advertisements and media despite their frequent inaccuracies, for example, a well-known fast-food franchise in indonesia wrote safety your hunger to mean satisfy your hunger. although english is only a foreign language in the country, this increasing use of the language is often seen as a threat to the maintenance of indonesian as the country’s national language and symbol. the government has made rules to control the pervasive effect of english loanwords on the national language, but they do not seem to work well because indonesian people may not be aware of or simply ignore the rules. these language users provide a burgeoning market for tools that help identify and correct learners' writing errors. unfortunately, the errors targeted by typical commercial proofreading tools do not include those aspects of a second language that are hardest to be learnt. evidently, automatic grammar checkers are much needed to help learners improve their writing. however, typical english proofreading tools do not target specifically the most common errors made by second language learners. the concern here is apparently beyond how much english terms are used by indonesian users and communities from various aspects. in addition, the use of english is not only restrictively applied in the realm of education, but also broadly spread to become a major factor in the development of language industry nowadays. every industry player consciously uses language to promote each activity that carried out, either on banners, billboards, pamphlet, or other commercial service advertisements. the promotion is done to influence the community to choose their own products and ignore other similar products of equal quality. this paper gives an overview of scientific program computational linguistic models and language technologies for indonesian. it dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 47 also presents the role of computational linguistics in constructing the english forms that find difficult language users find most difficult -constructions containing correct spelling of words or phrases. it provides an overview of the automated approaches that have been developed to identify and correct these learner errors in a number of languages. furthermore, related to the importance of foreign languages in publishing scientific works, indonesian also have experienced difficult things. the ability of indonesian to acquire foreign languages is very limited. meanwhile, the need for translation is very high. therefore, a number of indonesian rely on translation machines to translate bahasa scientific works into english scientific works. however, the existing of translator machine apparently has limited translation so the results that achieved through the machine do not match with the source language. one of the cause of discrepancies is the lack of involvement of linguists in determining translation models that are suitable for both languages, source language and target language. based on this case, an appropriate strategy is needed to overcome the problems in the language industry in indonesia related to bahasa, regional languages, and foreign languages. one strategy that can be used is using technology in which the technology itself influences community in carrying out an action quickly. second, people can receive information simultaneously from one sender. this broad dissemination of information can be used to overcome the problems for language users. indonesian need systematic language education to overcome the errors in producing the language itself. ii. methods the problems solving in the language will be done by conducting literature studies related to language research conducted by a number of experts. the language research focused on language research related to computational linguistics. a number of language studies in the field of computational linguistics will be described, then it will be analyzed to find the right formula in producing solutions for the language users. since computational lingusitics focuses n the study of language uses aided by computers, there exists a link to library and information science. in this research, the literature studies will be assisted with a simple research on computational linguistics, specifically related to the presence of applications that can help the community in overcoming the writing errors in bahasa. the application is generated through a software engineering process that has gone through analysis tests and has been applied in a simple prototype. the methods used in this study are divided into three stages, namely the method of collecting data, the stage of data analysis, and the stage of presenting the results of the analysis. at the stage of data collection, the data are collected by applying library techniques, using written sources that taken from computational linguistic journals. as stated by zaim (2014: 95), there are three articles relating with computationall inguistics are conducted in this study which deal with english translation, javanese translation, and indonesian spelling correction. next, domain analysis is used by spradely (1980) at the stage of data analysis. at this stage, the data collection are analyzed by sorting data related with the use of computational linguistics in language research, then connect and explain the importance of computational linguistics for indonesian users, especially in using mother tongue, national language, and foreign languages according to the correct rules . at the stage of presenting the results of data analysis, informal presentation methods are used, the data are explained descriptively by using sentences. dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 48 iii. result as a manifestation of community involvement in producing language as an economic product, it can be seen in an economic vehicle belonging to the microeconomic community. the various kind of communities need for fast food marketing causes the micro-economic community mobilize their business in this field. to fulfill market’s needs, microeconomic communities produce the food products and produce languages to attract the buyers. because of the low level of education, the community relies on the sound of language to produce products that come from foreign languages. consider, sandwich is pronounced [senwic] were finally produced as sunwich on their operational vehicles. as well, the nuggets that were heard [nagget] were produced as negget on their operational vehicles. at this stage, the community is trying to become an international community by producing english words. in other micro-businesses sector, a number of communities also rely on the sound of language to produce bahasa products. public service advertisements that invite people to consume local fruits then move the micro business community to sell local fruits. because of the community's needs for fruits are getting higher, the micro business community provides all kinds of fruits from their own agricultural products and from overseas agricultural products. to promote and increase the number of buyers, the micro business community compensates for economic products by providing advertisements or billboards. with the local fruit campaign, the micro business community then produced billboards with the writing that they provided buah lokal and buah interlokal. at this stage, the language community seeks to present word pairs for their economic products. however, the limitedness understanding of language causes that they produce the wrong language. the pair of words for buah lokal that should be buah impor, it is actually written with buah interlokal. related to the language production, it is not only weak economic people who produce it, middle-class society and upper class society also make mistakes in producing language. one of them is language production on a doctor's billboard. every doctor does not check the language produced on the billboard so that a nameplate is found in the form of a praktik dokter and a nameplate in the form of a praktek dokter. from the two signboards, only one signboard is in accordance with the rules of writing in bahasa, namely praktik dokter. not only that, for the writing of each doctor's degree, they also varied in producing language, namely dr., dr., and dr. in bahasa, the writing of the three has different functions. the only billboard that became the correct language production was written in dr. language production in the industrial world carried out by various layers of community certainly it can affect the use of language by the community itself. the errors in producing language will also affect the community in using wrong language in an ongoing. in fact, in article 36 of the 1945 the constitution, it has been stated that "state language is bahasa" (ahmad, 2007). thus, using the correct bahasa is a must for indonesian. the use of the correct bahasa has been standardized by badan bahasa republik indonesia through two things, namely law no. 50 of 2015 concerning pedoman umum ejaan bahasa indonesia (puebi) and kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi). however, not many people use the standardization in producing bahasa. in fact, the presence of editors and linguists in various companies move in the language industry was also eliminated. this is a major cause in the emergence of many language errors in various public facilities nowadays. in the next stage, related to the importance of foreign languages in publishing scientific works, indonesian also experienced difficult things. the ability of indonesian to acquire dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 49 foreign languages is very limited. meanwhile, the need for translation is very high. therefore, a number of indonesian rely on translation machines to translate bahasa scientific works into english scientific works. however, the existing of translator machine apparently has limited translation so the results that achieved through the machine do not match with the source language. one of the cause of discrepancies is the lack of involvement of linguists in determining translation models that are suitable for both languages, source language and target language. based on this case, an appropriate strategy is needed to overcome the problems in the language industry in indonesia related to bahasa, regional languages, and foreign languages. one strategy that can be used is using technology. technology influences community in carrying out an action quickly. in seconds, people can receive information simultaneously from one sender. this broad dissemination of information can be used to overcome the problems for language users. indonesian need systematic language education to overcome the errors in producing the language itself. computational linguistics is concerned with a system of words or symbols that can be communicated to a computer, especially to enter computer instructions through words that are easily understood and then translated into machine code. computational linguistics can be a field of science used to help solve the problems in the language industry nowadays. the use of information systems in the form of software engineering in helping the field of linguistics is the only way to reach people who are now in contact with cyberspace. technology access that can reach all levels of community quickly, especially people who are literate. integration of authoring tools and translation memory system the application of computational linguistics to overcome the problems in the language industry is done through software engineering. according to sommerville (2011, 7–8), software engineering is a scientific discipline that discusses all aspects of software production, from the beginning stage of system specifications to system maintenance after it is used. software engineering must be designed to work to overcome problems for language users. software engineering in the field of linguistics is not only related to the technical processes of software development, but also related to the activities, such as software project management and the development of linguistic theory to support the production of software. related to software management, software evaluation and improvement will be carried out to help to create effective and efficient software. systematic and organized software engineers can produce high-quality software. related to that case, sommerville (2011, 36--41) stated that it is needed to do some software processes. the software process is a series of activities and the relevant results that produce software. there are four basic process activities that are common to all software processes, namely (1) specifying software and limiting its operation, (2) designing and implementing software, (3) validating software so that it can be known that the software works in accordance with customer’s needs, and (4) evolving software so that it can develop to deal with the changing of customer’s needs. rösener (2010: 1) stated that computational linguistics can be used to solve language translation problems. in his research, rösener (2010) integrates a tool into a database-based translation system. this system allows the translators to maintain the terminology of the two languages because in the tool stored the specific information about vocabulary, gender, and structure. the system developed by rösener (2010), it is not only allow the users to translate the dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 50 languages, such as grammar and language styles in the source language and target language, but it also can help in writing according to the source language and target language. this translation is used to maintain the quality of the text so that the translation language matches with the language of the original document. transliterator : jawatex utami et al. (2013: 78) built a transliteration model named jawatex to translate latin text documents into javanese characters. from the results of the tests, utami et al. (2013) prove that the users can write every word or term correctly, including absorption words according to the original pronunciation. in fact, users can write or rearrange the latin spelling in the source text utami et al. (2013: 92) described a number of capabilities of jawatex in translating latin text into javanese characters, namely (1) can translate more than one sentence, even paragraphs; (2) can translate latin string based on the pattern of decapitation of latin string that search without transcription; (3) can search for word similarity to correct word spelling errors using two english and bahasa vocabulary lists; (4) can do writing formatting; (5) can handle the use of latin characters that do not have alphabetical equivalents in javanese script; (6) can handle the use of diphthongs; (7) can handle the use of roman numbers; (8) can handle the ambiguity of the use of dots as word end markers, abbreviated markers, and decimal markers; (9) can handle the ambiguity of the use of spaces, quotation marks (`), and hyphens (-); (10) can handle the use of more than three consonant characters; (11) can encode the mapping pattern and produce a transliteration pattern in accordance with the list of model mapping patterns that have been compiled; (12) can carry out transactions with the placement of javanese script in accordance with the writing scheme that has been designed; (13) can make various changes in the form of javanese characters depending on their position in a sentence, as well as other characters who follow and follow it; (14) can be implemented on several operating systems, and has been tested on windows and linux; and (15) can be implemented through the website, and tested at http://www.jawatex.org. looking at the javatex design to help translate the latin text into javanese script, the concept that is built can be used as a basis to be developed on any type of language script. spelling correction in indonesian : ejaan.id febrina, hilman, and abilowo (2018) also use computational linguistics to produce bahasa writing models to produce the bahasa rules. they created the ejaan.id page to help indonesian improve their scientific work in bahasa. the results of the research conducted showed that every bahasa scientific work contains non-standard words that are not in accordance with the kbbi. therefore, the ejaan.id page is designed automatically to correct the non-standard words into standard words. fig 1: ejaan.id febrina, hilman, and abilowo (2018) explained that when a user put a number of words, sentences, paragraphs, or discourses into the box provided on the ejaan.id page, non-standard words immediately turn red. under the box, a box is provided which has presented the results of the improvement from the non-standard word, as well as incorrect data and correct data are presented. dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 51 through the improvement of non-standard words through technology-based applications using the ejaan.id page, bahasa users will be notified that the word used in the paper is not in accordance with the rules for using bahasa. furthermore, through the page, the users are also notified of words that are in accordance with the rules of use of the bahasa. with this application, indonesian users are expected to be able to limit the use of non-standard words or words that are not in accordance with bahasa standards, both in written and in oral variety. furthermore, the users can take the results of these improvements as scientific papers that have been edited by technologybased editors. editing is done by using standardization in the form of law no. 50 of 2015, namely puebi and also adapted to the kkbi. through the development is done through computational linguistics, it is expected that bahasa users amount to 183 million working age population (more than15 years) can use it to produce the correct language in accordance with the rules and grammar. according to the badan pusat statistik (2016), angka melek huruf (amh) of the indonesian population aged more than 15 years is 92.37 percent. so, every 100 people aged more than 15 years, 92 are literate. the literate population certainly needs to know the standardization of writing a language and translating from the source language to the target language. iv. conclusion based on the research that has been done with computational linguistics, it can be concluded that the field of computational linguistics is a field of linguistics that can be used as a solution to overcome the problems for language users. the field of linguistics and the field of information system science can be collaborated to produce engineering products in educating the community related to the production of languages among bahasa, regional languages, and foreign languages. grammatical and spelling error detection for language users has been an area of active research which involves pinpointing some words in a given sentence as grammatically erroneous and possibly offering correction. therefore, language users or communities the standardization of writing a language and it can get the translation of the target language according to the source language. to conclude, a new method for correcting serial errors in a given words or phrase in learner’s writing has been introduced. references a ahmad, sabri. 2007. "undang-undang dasar 1945 pasal 36". jakarta: quantum teaching, ciputat. badan bahasa. 2017. ejaan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan indonesia. badan pusat statistik. 2016. "angka melek huruf", https://sirusa.bps.go.id/index.php?r=indikator/view&id=313, retrieved on september 11, 2018 at 02.36 pm. bolshakov, igor, alexander gelbukh. 2004. computational linguistics : models, resources, application. mexico: instituto politecnico nacional. febrina, ria, et.al. 2018. "ejaan.id sebagai inovasi pengeditan naskah berbasis komputerisasi". makalah untuk prosiding kongres bahasa xi badan bahasa republik indonesia. https://sirusa.bps.go.id/index.php?r=indikator/view&id=313 http://www.gelbukh.com/ dian noviani syafar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 52 gamon, michelle. using mostly native data to correct errors in learners’ writing. in proceedings of the eleventh annual conference of the north american chapter of the association for computational linguistics (naacl), los angeles, 2010. graddol, david, 2006. english next: why global english may mean the end of ‘english as a foreign language.’ uk: british council. rachele de felice and stephen g. pulman. automatic detection of preposition errors in learner writing. calico journal, 26(3):512–528, 2009 rösener, christoph. 2010. "computational linguistics in the translator’s workflow". proceedings of the naacl hlt. los angeles, california. sommerville, ian. 2011. software engineering (rekayasa perangkat lunak). jakarta: erlangga. utami, dkk. 2013. "penerapan rule based dalam membangun transliterator jawatex", jurnal berkala mipa no. 23 vol. 1 edisi januari. wibisono, setyawan. 2013. "aplikasi pengolah bahasa alami untuk query basis data akademik dengan format data xml". jurnal teknologi informasi dinamik volume 18, no.1, edisi januari. article dian noviani syafar1, ria febrina2 i. introduction ii. methods iii. result iv. conclusion jurnal arbitrer 1 language competence of student toward right hemispher brain function : a neuropragmatic study handoko dharma andalas university email: handzain@yahoo.co.id gusdi sastra, ike revita faculty of humanities andalas university e-mail: sastra_budaya1990@yahoo.com abstract it has been known that the right hemisphere is contributed to language processing, especially in macro level, including macrostructure or discourse processing. this research is aimed at evaluating the students’ ability in language processing concerning macrostructure and the right hemispher brain function. this research is based on dharmaperwira-prins method “right hemisphere communication assessment” (pemeriksaan komunikasi hemisfer kanan/pkhk). research on students’ ability in macrostructure processing is important to conduct since students nowadays are regarded lack of ability in well being communication. the research is conducted toward 38 students of english department of andalas university. the data are taken by paper test which is designed to evaluate the students’ ability in macrostructure. the result of research shows that most students have problems in providing important information, adjective, and feeling. by this result, it can be assumed that the participants have problem in right hemisphere competence concerning to language processing. these problems evoke not by accident or lesion in right hemisphere, yet it is caused by brain development which is focused on left hemisphere only. keyword: right hemisphere, language assessment, lexical semantic, macrostructure, pragmatic i. introduction the term macrostructure was firstly used by bierwisch (1965) which then being used by kintsch and van dijk (1978) to define the characteristic of text or discourse. they discussed about cohesion and coherence in text, as well as topic or main idea. brown and yule (1983) then developed the characteristic of text by mentioned more comprehensive aspects, including topic (sentencial topic and textual topic), theme, relevance, information structure (new information and ol information), complateness, cohesion and vol. 2, april 2015 2 coherence, and message or moral value of text. in general, macrostructure can be used to evaluate various levels of language. it is possible because macrostructure provide two-way process, bottom-up and top-down. bottom-up includes single information or proposition which related to semantic of text. in other hand, top-down includes inferential process which involves cognitive and linguistic aspect. this inferential process enables people to use macrostructure to 1) summarizing, 2) figure out the main idea, and 3) lesson or moral value of certain text (ulatowska, et.al., 1999). macrostructure is processed in right hemisphere, especially around anterior of gyrus cingulate, temporo-parieto-occipital, medial pre-frontal, and precuneus (fonseca dkk, 2009). lately the study of macrostructure has been conducted by several clinician in order to describe communication skill toward patient with brain injury, such as from geerman neurolinguist huber (1990) and neuropsychologist glosser (1993), malloy, brownell and gardner (1990) in united state; joanette dan goulet (1990) in canada; and speech therapist myers (1993), and brookshire and nicholas (1993). it is because macrostructure provides more comphrensive aspect which can be model for understanding and producing discourse or text, incuding problem solving, providing solution, or critical analysis. hence, the problem in macrostructure aspect may provide bad impact in communication. this research is aimed at observing right hemisphere competence in respect to perception of macrostructure in englsih department students of andalas university. therefore, the research requires quantitative approach to evaluate perception competence of macrostructure in form of statistic value and qualitative approach to provide brief description of students’ competence. the current research is conducted toward english department students of andalas university. the subjects are selected based on their knowladge in macrostructure and discourse analysis. the research then being conducted toward pragmatic class year 2013/2014 which consist of 38 students. the current research provides language battery and quistioner which have been developed based on language competence assessment in right hemisphere function. the initial part of the instrument consists of general information about participant, such as name, age, and sex. then, the medical history is recorded in the next part, especially information about brain health. the research instrument is also jurnal arbitrer 3 equiped by language battery for diagnosing and classifies communication impairment which consists of two parts: observation: consist of evaluation of general aspect which affect communication and motoric. anamnesis: consist of recapitulation of communication impairment in certain patient. language battery is developed based on research objective, practicality in scoring, and ease of interpretation. for each aspect of competence is provided with objective and instruction for assessment. the language battery is also equipped with instruction for scoring and how to decide whether the participant has impairment in certain aspect or not. for advance scoring, the battery is also provided with qualitative scale (normal, impaired, and seriously impaired) and third scale (good, moderate, and bad). the development of right hemisphere communication assessment was initiated by the idea of questioner which can be used as an instrument to evaluate right hemisphere dysfunction. dhramaperwira-prins (2004) developed the method of right hemisphere communication assessment by enhancing the some initial methods, such as right hemisphere language battery. these methods ware being evaluated regarding to more complex variable and various types of task (dharmaperwira-prins, 2004:99). right hemisphere communication assessment (rhca) consist of a battery and questioner. it also provides an instruction, a summary of right hemisphere dysfunction, and assasement report. the questioner is developed based on reliability, validity, and practicality (dharmaperwira-prins, 2004:101). the development of communication battery begins with diagnosis and identification of dysfunction concerning to lexico-semantic, macrostructure, pragmatic, prosodic, and writing. the dysfunctions then being put into a battery by considering the characteristics which has been mention earlier (dharmaperwiraprins, 2004:102). the battery should be developed as effective as possible in order to achive the objective of assessment in short time (around 1 hour). moreover, the battery should be easy to score and to interpret. the current research employes this method because its practicality, comprehensiveness, and validity. the practicality of this method is reflected on the instrument of assessment which provides questioner, assessment list, and summary of dysfunction. the comprehensiveness of the method is vol. 2, april 2015 4 indicated by the aspects of competence which can be evaluated by using questioner of rhca. this method is also has high level of validity since it had been applied to speech therapist, patient with right hemisphere brain injury, and normal people. the data are collected by using observational method (sudaryanto, 1993: 133-137) through right hemisphere communication battery and right hemisphere communication questioner. the questioner consists of 5 tasks with several questions which are designed to evaluate macrostructure competence. the analysis of data is based on referential and pragmatic identity method (sudaryanto, 1993: 15). by this means, the key factor of the analysis is based on the fact that the language refer (referential identity method) and the hearer (pragmatic identity). ii. discussion macrostructure’s competence can be evaluated through retelling a story. it includes both perception and production competence. perception’s competence of macrostructure depends on the function of posterior areas and some other areas od the brain. therefore, dysfunction in these posterior area may distract people in comprehend and produce a story (dharmaperwira-prins, 2004: 54). in interptating a story, right hemisphere will process input diachronically and then being synthesize to figure out whole story (rehak et.al. in dharmaperwiraprins, 2004:55). 1. understanding theme of a story competence in understanding theme is important in order to understand the whole story. the result of macrostructure competence test toward english department students shows that there are 7 (18,42%) students have difficulties in understanding theme. these students provide answer with certain event in the story which may not represent a whole story. moreover, around 7 (18,42%) have not answer the question which indicate neglecting and ignorance toward the task. this ignorance may indicate that the participants have problem in focusing and obeying instruction which related to posterior area of the brain. the story tells about patient and tolerance which can be inferred from whole story. it tells about a man who gets angry with a little girl. he is angry because the girl takes a long time to count her money. the man reaction makes the girl afraid. long story short, the man lost his wallet and the girl found it. she could take revenge to this man, but she decides to go to the man house and give his wallet back. jurnal arbitrer 5 the impairment in understanding theme makes the patient hard to figure out the main idea of the story. theme usually reflected in the title of the text or story. van dijk (1988:248) defined title as a unit of cohesion or semantic unit of a text or discourse, and also the most memorable information for the reader. dharmaperwira-prins (2004:54) stated in interpreting a story, patient with right hemisphere dysfunction tends to focus on time or chronically sequent which is part of left hemisphere function. the patient is barely able to draw conclusion or general idea of a whole story. hough (1990) also stated that patient with right hemisphere dysfunction barely understand delayed-theme rather than originaltheme or initial-theme. 2. memory the current research shows that many students have problem in memorizing, especially directmemory. direct-memory is a memory which is set periodically based on the time it being stored, while delayed-memory is set nonperiodically. among 38 participants, 9 (23,68%) participants are categorized as moderate impaired, and 4 (10,5%) participants are considered as serious impaired in processing direct-memory. direct-memory competence can be infered from the story that the participant re-write. in rewriting a story, memory can be inferred from the unit of information that the participant provides in his/her writing. educational factor plays important role in this aspect which may indicates different levels of impairment: 1. for participant with elementary school degree requires 10 correct units of information 2. for participant with high school degree requires 12 correct units of information. 3. for participant with higher education (university degree) requires 14 correct units of information. by this standard, among 9 participants with direct-memory impairment, 4 of them are considered seriously impaired. it can be inferred from the unit of information they provide in rewriting the story which less than 10 units. regarding to information processing and analysis, prefrontal area plays an important role. left hemisphere will be more active when the input is related to microstructure (such as lexical or clause), while right hemisphere will be more active when the input is related to visual information processing (such as story or text). therefore, dysfunction in right vol. 2, april 2015 6 hemisphere brain may cause memory impairment. memory is important aspect in human life which related to learning. learning is a process of information gathering, while memorization is a process of storing information which can be expressed in certain time (squire in dharmaperwiraprins, 2004: 18). 3. understanding important information perception competence of understanding important information can be inferred from rewriting a story. the story is summarized into the following information: 1. seorang lelaki belanja dan kehilangan dompetnya (a man go shoping and lost his wallet) 2. baru di kassa ia mengetahuinya dan ia pulang tanpa belanja. (he relalizes when he want to pay in cashier and back home without any groceries) 3. seorang anak perempuan menemukan dompetnya dan mengantarnya ke rumahnya.(a girl found his wallet and takes the wallet to the man house) 4. anak perempuan itu diberikan buku. (the girl is given a book) the information above are the main information which should be mention in the participant’s rewriting which develop the whole story. the assessment toward english department students shows there are number of students who have difficulty in grabbing the information. about 23 (60,52%) participants cannot provide all required information in their writing while 3 (7,89%) participants cannot complete their story. generally, the participants at least miss one information, especially information number 4. this information is closing part or resolution of the story. as van dijk (1988) stated that the resolution in narrative structure provides consequent of entire story. by neglecting this information, the participant tends to ignore the unity of the story. bloom (in dharmaperwira-prins, 2004: 58) stated that people with grabbing information impairment tend to use same amount of words as complete story but with more vague and useless word. the impairment of this perception competence may cause the patient has problem in selecting the information to store in his/her memory. in procedural task, people with this impairment cannot execute the procedure correctly. roman et.al. (in dharmaperwira-prins, 2004:54) argued that people with right hemisphere function basically uses same amount of words or even more than the complete story. they may add their opinion, joke, or unrelated statement to the story. practically, this competence has an jurnal arbitrer 7 important role in summarizing information or story. van dijk (1988:14-16) mentioned that narrative structure (story or text) consists of general information (title and topic), plot (sequent of events and background), and consequence (comment and summary). general information is usually provided in title and main idea/topic. according to van dijk, this information is the most memorable information which will be recall when the people are asked to tell the story. 4. understanding emotional word emotional word has an important role in leading the emotion and pace of a story. the result of test toward english department students shows that there 7 (18,42%) participants who cannot grab emotional state of a character in the story. when the participants are asked to mention the feeling of the man when the girl takes his wallet back, they give incorrect answer. instead of providing the answer with malu (ashamed), they provide the answer with senang (happy). the answer of these 7 participants indicates that the participants ignore the sequent of events which leads the reader to understanding the man feeling or emotional state when his wallet is taking back, that is ashamed. the incompetence in figuring emotional word may distract communication, especially interpersonal communication, which evoke conflict in social communication. emotional word deals with psychological aspect of the story. the competence in figuring emotional word is very helpful in understanding the hearer intention in conversation or character in a story. bloom (in dharmaperwiraprins, 2004:54) provided example of patient who unable to figure out emotional word, when he was asked to re-telling a story, he was neglected emotional state of the character, such as happy, sad, mad, etc. this incompetence is regarded as impairment since it may make people consider that the patient is less thoughtful. 5. figuring implicit relation (coherence) coherence is related to the unity of the idea in a text. the assessment toward students of english department shows that the students who unable to figure out emotional state also unable to provide implicit relationship (coherence) of the story. 8 of 38 participants (21,05%) are unable to figure out the implicit relationship in which 7 of them are those who are unable to figure out emotional word. this result shows that the participants tend to figure the information explicitly. they are unable to process whole information as a unit of idea of holistic processing. the ability to process holistic information deals with the vol. 2, april 2015 8 right hemisphere brain function. coherence deals with logical relation which can be drawn from sequent of narrative of story. among the logical aspect of the story are implicit information and the consequent of information. people with right hemisphere dysfunction are unable to process logical relation when it being implied (beeman in dharmaperwira-prins, 2004: 56). they tend to process information as a single idea which has no relation to other idea. the distraction in figuring implicit relationship may affect the interpersonal communication. people with lack ability of this competence may be considered as a plain, dull, or ignorant. this is because they fail to connect information one another in correct manner. in other word, coherence deals with ability to holistic or global processing which relates whole information in a text (albrecht & o’brien, 1993; lehman & schraw, 2002). 6. figuring emotional state language competence assessment toward english department students shows great number of incompetency in figuring emotional state. 27 (71,02%) participants are fail in figuring emotional state which 5 (13,57%) of them are with serious impaired. in real life communication, this result indicates that students are unable to figure out the emotion of their hearer which may consider them as thoughtless. the ability to figure out emotional state can be evaluated by the emotional word. it can be seen in rewriting a story. as the story given to the participant of assessment, the unit of information number 11, 12, 14, 26, and 27 provide feeling or emotional state. this information is about 17% of whole information (30 units of information). to evaluate this competence, the number of information that the participant provided is being compared with the total number of information. the result will be in percentage. if it is less than 15%, then the participantnts is considered as impaired. serious impaired is reflected by the result which is less than 10% of emotional information. furthermore, in the level of word, people with right hemisphere dysfunction are also difficult in identifying emotional state through language (borod, et.al. in dharmaperwira-prins, 2004: 57). they also difficult to identify emotional in short sentence. for instance, the expression “i am so ...............................” , they cannot figure out whether it sad, mad, or ............... in real life, the emotional state of people can be inferred from their face expression, body language, and voice intonation. yet, linguistic aspect, especially written expression, is also can be a basis of emotional interpretation. it is jurnal arbitrer 9 possible if the emotional written expression is relegated to the context of the story. the ability to interpreted emotional state in a story deals with the right hemisphere function which relates whole information in the story and then interprets it as a fact or an idea. 7. figuring adjective assessment toward english department students also indicates impairment in figuring adverb. among 38 participant, only 8 participants are aware of adjective while the rest (30 participant of 78,94%) are ignore it. the participants tend to neglect the adjective and only keep the noun. adjective is regarded to detail information or description of a noun. in the task, the adjective can be found the phrase perempuan kecil (little girl) in unit of information 9 and buku bagus (good book) in unit of information 30. these both adjectives take 7% of the entire story. the impairment is indicated by the percentage of competence less than 5%. the ability to figure out the adjective is important in communication since it provides detail information of an object of noun. in real life, this impairment may not subtle, but it affects communication. people with this impairment are considered as careless and reckless. this impairment is caused by the attention deficit which make people tend to ignore, delete, or generalize the detail information. chomsky (1957) defined that based on model of thought, people store information in three ways, deletion, distortion, and generalization. these processes deal with right hemisphere function to decide whether the information is important or not. people with right hemisphere dysfunction will consider the adjective as unimportant information or unaware of the adjective. the competencies above are related to linguistic perception of ability to integrate the entire parts of a story in order to be logic based on macrostructure aspect. moreover, the ability to gain and figure out all important information is also related to memory and attention. over all, the result of language assessment toward english department students is mention in the table below: vol. 2, april 2015 10 perception competence of macrostructure toward english department students of unand n o competence level of impairment impaired savere 1 understanding theme (18,42%) (18,42%) 2 direct-memory (23,68%) (10,5%) 3 delay-memory 4 grabbing all important information (60,52%) (7,89%) 6 grabbing emotional word (18,42%) 7 figuring implicit relation (coherence) (21,05%) 8 figuring emotional state (71,02%) (13,57%) 9 figuring adjective (78,94%) (7,89%) the table above shows s that the students of english department have various impairments related to right hemisphere function. the impairment may affect students’ ability in communication, especially in macro level. the result shows that several competencies are impaired in high number of participants, including grabbing important information, figuring emotional state, and figuring adjective. it also can be inferred from the result of analysis toward students’ assessment in macrostructure competence that the students’ nowadays have problem in social communication. the problems such as reckless, thoughtless, inconsiderate, arrogant, illogical thought, neglecting, and impolite, can be effects of right hemisphere dysfunction. the impairment can be caused either by brain injury such as lesion or clot or brain development which focuses only on left hemisphere function. regarding to brain development, brain functions whether left or right hemisphere are depend on stimulus or expose. the more it exposes, the more it develops. in real life, brain development is related to educational system, especially formal education. since the educational system in indonesia focuses on intelligence then it only exposes left hemisphere. yet, the right hemisphere which deals with emotional, sense, logical thought is tend to be neglected. jurnal arbitrer 11 iii. summary the analysis toward students’ competence in perception of macrostructure shows that there are problem in several competencies, including understanding theme, memorization, grabbing important information, grabbing emotional word, figuring implicit relation, figuring emotional state, and figuring adjective. these problems can be problems in communication especially in performing well communication and can be consider as impairment. since language is computerized in the brain, it can be inferred that these problems are related to brain function, in this context is right hemisphere function. beside brain injury, brain impairment can be caused by brain development which regarding to brain exposing. brain development is closely related to education which exposes brain function. the dysfunction of right hemisphere can be caused by the educational system which only focuses on intellectual competence in left hemisphere. references albrecht, j. e., & o'brien, e. j. 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(2002). effects of coherence and relevance on shallow and deep text processing. journal of educational psychology, 94, 738-750. malloy, r., brownell, h. h. & gardner, h. (1990). discourse comprehension by right-hemispherestroke patients: deficits of prediction and revision. in y. joanette & h. h. brownell (eds.),discourse ability and brain damage: theoretical and empirical perspectives (hal. 113-125).new york: springer-verlag. myers, p. (1993). narrative expressive deficits associated with righthemisphere damage. in h. h.brownell & y. joanette (eds.), narrative discourse in neurologically impaired and normal aging adults (hal. 279-296). san diego, ca: singular publishing group, inc. sudaryanto. (1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana univ. press. ulatowska, hanna k, dkk. (1999). macrostructure and inferential processing in discourse of aphasic patients. psychology of language and communication (vol. 3 no 2, hal. 3-20). van dijk, tuen. (1988). news as discourse. lawrance erlbaum ssociation: hillsdale. 46 variasi leksikal bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten pesisir selatan meksi rahma nesti program studi pascasarjana program linguistik universitas andalas abstrak secara umum, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menambah hasil penelitian dalam bidang dialektologi dan menginventarisasikan bahasa minangkabau. secara khusus, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: 1) mendeskripsikan variasi leksikal yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di daerah perbatasan kabupaten pesisir selatan. 2) memetakan variasi leksikal yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di daerah perbatasan kabupaten pesisir selatan. 3) menghitung persentase variasi leksikal yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di perbatasan kabupaten pesisir selatan. berdasarkan analisis data yang dilakukan, disimpulkan bahwa terdapat 271 peta variasi leksikal dalam bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten pesisir selatan, dari 530 daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan. selanjutnya, berdasarkan peta segitiga antartitik pengamatan didapat delapan hubungan antartitik pengamatan. dari hasil penghitungan dialektometri, disimpulkan bahwa terdapat 3 bagian wilayah yang termasuk kategori beda subdialek, yaitu tp 1 (kecamatan koto xi tarusan) dan tp 3 (kecamatan lengayang) tergolong tidak ada perbedaan, tetapi termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 2, tp 4, dan tp 5. untuk tp 2 (kecamatan iv nagari bayang utara) termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 1, tp 3, tp 4, dan tp 5. selanjutnya, tp 4 (kecamatan basa iv balai tapan) dan tp 5 (kecamatan silaut) termasuk kategori beda wicara, tetapi termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 1, tp 2, dan tp3. tingkat variasi kebahasaan antartitik pengamatan yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten pesisir selatan termasuk kategori beda subdialek, beda wicara, dan tidak ada perbedaan. kata kunci: variasi bahasa, bahasa minangkabau, leksikal pengantar penelitian geografi dialek tidak bisa terlepas dari pemetaan atau memetakan data, agar penelitian tersebut terlihat jelas. data didapatkan dari lokasi tp yang ditanyakan secara langsung pada informan. daftar pertanyaan tersebut terdiri atas beberapa kategori, yakni: bilangan dan ukuran, waktu dan musim serta arah, bagian tubuh manusia, kata ganti orang dan istilah kekerabatan, pakaian dan perhiasan, jabatan dan pekerjaan, binatang dan bagian tubuhnya, tumbuhan serta bagian-bagian buah dan hasil olahannya, alam, bau dan rasa, sifat serta keadaan dan warna, rumah dan bagian-bagiannya, alat, kehidupan masyarakat nagari dan bercocok tanam, makanan dan minuman, kesenian dan permainan, penyakit dan obat, aktivitas, dan yang terakhir kategori nama hari. sebanyak 530 konsep leksikal yang ditanyakan pada informan, terdapat 271 beda berian di tp. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 47 variasi leksikal tersebut diperoleh dengan cara mengamati tuturan yang diucapkan oleh informan yang berbeda secara leksikal tetapi tidak membedakan makna. setelah didapatkan variasi leksikal, dilakukanlah penghitungan dialektometri. penghitungan dialektometri dilakukan agar dapat mempersentasekan dan membandingkan sejumlah unsur yang terkumpul di tp, sehingga bisa menentukan batas-batas yang tergolong dalam kategori tidak ada perbedaan, beda wicara, beda subdialek, dialek, atau perbedaan bahasa. variasi leksikal penelitian di daerah perbatasan kabupaten ps hanya memusatkan penelitian pada variasi leksikal saja. akan tetapi, sebagai gambaran umum, di perbatasan kabupaten ps ini juga terdapat variasi fonologis, morfologis, dan semantik, serta tidak tertutup kemungkinan terdapat variasi sintaksis di daerah tersebut. walaupun demikian, penelitian ini hanya memusatkan pada perbedaan leksikon. dalam perbedaan leksikon, perbedaan yang muncul dalam bidang fonologi dan morfologi dianggap tidak ada atau diabaikan. oleh sebab itu, data yang merupakan variasi fonologis maupun morfologis dianggap sebagai varian saja dan dikelompokkan ke dalam satu variasi leksikal. penelitian yang dilakukan di lima tp ditemukan sebanyak 271 data berian yang bervariasi. semua variasi leksikal tersebut dapat ditemukan pada semua kategori yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya. variasi leksikal tersebut diuraikan berdasarkan pengelompokkan konsep maknanya, seperti berikut: bilangan dan ukuran bahasa minangkabau mempunyai beberapa variasi leksikal, pada kategori bilangan dan ukuran ditemukan 5 variasi leksikal. ada 2 konsep makna yang memiliki 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu ‘satu’ yang bervariasi menjadi [ciye?] (dengan varian [ciye?]) dan [suwah], ‘sedepa’ yang bervariasi menjadi [sadapo] (dengan varian [sadepo]) dan [sa eto]. konsep makna ‘terakhir’ memiliki 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu [kudian], [paηabisan] dan [kicit] dan konsep makna ‘semuanya’ juga memiliki 3 variasi leksikal, yakni menjadi [basamo-samo], [sadosadoe] (dengan varian [kasado]), dan [galogaloa] (dengan varian [galu-galua]). namun konsep makna ‘sedikit’ memiliki 4 variasi leksikal yang bervariasi menjadi [saηeniyaη], [katia?], [sakete?], dan [dikit]. kategori waktu dan musim serta arah dari 43 daftar pertanyaan pada kategori waktu dan musim serta arah ditemukan 29 variasi leksikal. ada 10 konsep makna yang memiliki 2 variasi leksikal, yakni: 1) ‘senja’ berubah menjadi [sanjo] (dengan varian [senja]) dan [magari?] 2) ‘nanti’ berubah menjadi [baiko] (dengan varian [beko]) dan [kela?] 3) ‘besok’ berubah menjadi [barisua?] (dengan varian [bisuwa?] dan [bisu?]) dan [pagi] 4) ‘sehari semalam’ berubah menjadi [taηah duo malam] dan [sa ari samalam] (dengan varian [sari samalam] dan [sari samalam]) 5) ‘seratus tahun’ berubah menjadi [saratui taun] (dengan varian [saratui taun]) dan [sabad] 6) ‘musim hujan’ berubah menjadi [musim ujan] (dengan varian [musim paujan]) dan [paηujan] 7) ‘kanan’ berubah menjadi [suo?] (dengan varian [suwo?]) dan [kanan] issn 2339-1162 48 8) ‘kesini’ berubah menjadi [kaniya?] (dengan varian [keña?]) dan [kamari] 9) ‘di depan’ berubah menjadi [di depan] dan [muko] (dengan varian [di muko]) 10) ‘ini’ berubah menjadi [koñoa] dan [iko] dengan varian [ika] ada 8 konsep makna yang memiliki 3 variasi leksikal, yakni: 1) ‘siang’ bervariasi menjadi [matohari taga?], [siyaη], dan [teηah ari] 2) ‘pagi’ bervariasi menjadi [siyaη], [pagi], dan [posiyaη kabua] 3) ‘petang’ bervariasi menjadi [magrib], [para? petaη], dan [petaη] dengan varian [pataη] 4) ‘nanti malam’ bervariasi menjadi [baiko malam] (dengan varian [beko malam]), [taηah malam], dan [malam kela?] 5) ‘tengah malam’ bervariasi menjadi [taηah malam piria?], [saparoh malam], dan [taŋa malam] dengan varian [teŋah malam] 6) ‘tengah hari’ bervariasi menjadi [matohari taga?], [luwa], dan [taηa ari] dengan varian [teηah ari] 7) ‘musim kemarau’ bervariasi menjadi [musim masie?], [musim paneh], dan [musim keriyaη] 8) ‘itu’ bervariasi menjadi [tu ha], [tu] (dengan varian [ituη] dan [itu]), dan [sinan] konsep makna ’sore’, ‘kemarin’, ‘begini’, dan ‘begitu’, mempunyai 4 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘sore’ yang bervariasi menjadi [malaki? pataη] pada tp 1, [sore] pada tp 2 dan tp 4, [sanjo] pada tp 3, dan [po? petaη] pada tp 5, sedangkan konsep makna ‘kemarin’ bervariasi menjadi [hari kapataη], [para? petaη], [pakan], dan [petaη]. konsep makna ‘begini’ dan ‘begitu’ bervariasi menjadi [mode iko], [co iko], [betu], dan [ghoman koa] dan [mode tu], [co itu], [betu], dan [ghoman tua]. selanjutnya, pada tiap tp terjadi variasi leksikal, yaitu pada konsep makna ‘tadi pagi’, ‘kemarin dulu’, ‘minggu depan’, ‘tiga hari yang lalu’, ‘sebentar’, ‘ke sana’, dan ‘ke sini’. konsep makna ‘tadi pagi’ bervariasi menjadi [para? siyaη], [tu subuah], [tadi pagi], [siyaη tadiη], dan [po siyaη tadi], sedangkan konsep makna ‘kemarin dulu’ yang bervariasi menjadi [barisua? cie? lai], [kulu mari], [ari patang], [petaη cie? lai], dan [petaη suwah gi]. selanjutnya konsep makna ‘minggu depan’ bervariasi menjadi [miηgu cie? lai], [miηgu dataη], [pakan bisuwa?], [minggu cie? gi], dan [akad muko]. untuk konsep makna ‘tiga hari yang lalu’ barvariasi menjadi [tigo ari nan lalu], [tigo ari lalu], [tigo ari nan kali], [tigo ariη ne lapau], dan [tigo ari lah balalu], sedangkan konsep makna ‘sebentar’ yang bervariasi menjadi [siηkek], [cecah], [sagañek], [stagiη], dan [cahnet]. konsep makna ‘ke sana’ yang bervariasi menjadi [kaniin], [ken], [pai ken], [sinan], dan [lukiyun] dan yang terakhir konspe makna ‘ke situ’ bervariasi menjadi [kaniin], [ken], [pai ken], [kiyun], dan [sayup]. kategori bagian tubuh manusia kategori bagian tubuh manusia adalah daftar pertanyaan yang paling banyak dipertanyakan, yakni sebanyak 73 pertanyaan. dari 73 daftar pertanyaan terdapat 30 variasi leksikal. namun yang mendominasi pada tiap konsep makna pada kategori ini 17 konsep makna yang mempunyai 2 variasi leksikal. selebihnya konsep makna yang mempunyai 3, 4 dan 5 variasi leksikal. konsep makna yang mempunyai variasi leksikal ditiap tp adalah konsep makna ‘kelamin jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 49 perempuan’ yang bervariasi menjadi [nona], [pante?], [ame], [cepet], dan [bet]. sedangkan untuk 4 variasi leksikal yang ditemukan di tp adalah konsep makna ‘gigi yang bertumpuk tumbuhnya’ yang berariasi menjadi [balempet] di tp 1, [mañotoη] di tp 2, [balampi] di tp 3 dan [gigiη salapit] dengan varian [gigi salapit] di tp 4 dan 5. untuk konsep makna ‘gigi yang menonjol keluar’ yang bervariasi menjadi [taηgiaη], [mancokeh] (dengan varian [cokeh]), [gigi tacoke], dan [soηe]. pada konsep makna ‘gigi yang menonjol keluar’ terjadi 4 variasi leksikal dan juga terjadi variasi morfologi, yaitu pada varian [mancokeh] bervariasi menjadi [cokeh], karena [mancokeh] dan [cokeh] adalah berasal dari etimon yang sama, maka dalam penelitian ini variasi konsep makna ‘gigi yang menonjol keluar’ disatukan. selanjutnya konsep makna ‘garis-garis pada telapak tangan’ yang bervariasi menjadi [garis taηan], [garis tapa? taηan]), [suratan taηan], dan [geta? taηan]. untuk konsep makna ‘tempurung lutut’ juga ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yaitu [tulaη tampuruaη lutui?], [tampuruaη lutui?] (dengan varian [timpuwaη lutui?]), [tulaη puηuwaη], dan [puruη lutut]. terakhir yang mempunyai 4 variasi leksikal adalah konsep makna ‘rambut ikal’ yang bervariasi menjadi [abua? karitiaη], [karitiaη] (dengan varian [karitiη]), [rambut karitiaη], dan [ikal]. selanjutnya, konsep makna yang mempunyai 3 variasi leksikal yaitu yang pertama konsep makna ‘pelipis’ dengan varian [mantagiah], [kaniyaη] (dengan varian [kañiyaη], [kenniyaη]), dan [sudut kәniη]. kedua konsep makna ‘lubang telinga pada wanita’ bervariasi menjadi [tindia? taliηo] (dengan varian [tindi? liηo]), [tindiya?] (dengan varian [tindiye?]), dan [sapiη taliηo]. ketiga ‘jakun’ yang bervariasi menjadi [jakunjakun] (dengan varian (jakun]), [qoldi], dan [buwah sakuaη]. keempat konsep makna ‘kelamin laki-laki’ yang bervariasi menjadi [cinono?], [uηgeh] (dengan varian [uηge]), dan [semah] (dengan varian [smah]). kelima ‘alis’ yang bervariasi menjadi [alis] (dengan varian [alis mato]), [sayo? mato], dan [bulu masuη] (dengan varian [bulu masu]). keenam konsep makna ‘bulu tangan’ yang bervariasi menjadi [bulu ramaη] (dengan varian [bulu ramaη]), [bulu taηan], dan [bulu-bulu]. ketujuh konsep makna ‘warna hitam (sebagian) pada kulit sejak lahir’ dengan varian [tando layie], [tando] (dengan varian [tando]), dan [ciri]. pada konsep makna ‘jakun’ yang bervariasi menjadi [jakun] dengan varian [jakun-jakun], terjadi pengulangan kata. pada konsep makna ‘kelamin laki-laki’ juga terdapat variasi fonologis yaitu [uηgeh] dengan varian [uηge] terjadi penghilangan huruf h, dan pada [semah] dengan varian [smah] terjadi penghilangan huruf e. variasi konsep makna ‘alis’ yang bervariasi menjadi [alis] dengan varian [alis mato] terjadi penambahan kata mata dan [bulu masuη] dengan varian [bulu masu] terjadi penghilangan ng. bentuk konsep makna ‘bulu tangan’ juga ditemukan variasi fonologis dan pengulangan kata, yaitu [bulu ramaη] dengan varian [bulu ramaη], sedangkan pengulangan kata adalah pada [bulu-bulu]. selanjutnya, yang mempunyai 2 variasi leksikal pada beberapa konsep makna, sebagai berikut: 1) ‘dahi’ bervariasi menjadi [kaniaη] (dengan varian [kenniyaη], [kәniη], dan [kaniyaη]) dan [mantagi] 2) ‘mulut’ bervariasi menjadi [muncuaη] (dengan varian [muncuwaη]) dan [mulut] 3) ‘tulang rahang’ bervariasi menjadi [tulaη haraη] (dengan varian [tulaη rahaη]) dan [rahaη] 4) ‘kerongkongan’ bervariasi menjadi [raηkuaηan] (dengan varian issn 2339-1162 50 [aηkuwaηan] dan [gekuwaη]) dan [kokuη 5) ‘susu’ bervariasi menjadi [meme] dan [susu] dengan varian [susuη] 6) ‘lengan’ bervariasi menjadi [paηka laηan] dan [laηan] dengan varian [leηan] 7) ‘pergelangan tangan’ bervariasi menjadi [galaη taηan] (dengan varian [pargalaηan taηan], [pagalaηan taηan], dan [gelaη taηan]) dan [paηelaη] 8) ‘ibu jari’ bervariasi menjadi [ampu taηan] (dengan varian [ampu]) dan [indu? taηan] 9) ‘jari tengah’ bervariasi menjadi [jari taηah] dan [jari mati] (dengan varian [jari mati], [jariη matiη], dan [jari matih]) 10) ‘panggul’ bervariasi menjadi [pameηga?] (dengan varian [pameηku] dan [piηgua] (dengan varaian [piηgu]) 11) ‘lutut’ bervariasi menjadi [lutui?] (dengan varian [lutut]) dan [palo lutut] 12) ‘usus’ bervariasi menjadi [usus] (dengan varian [usuih]) dan [galaηgalaη] 13) ‘rambut di kepala’ bervariasi menjadi [abua?] (dengan varian [abuwa?]) dan [rambut] (dengan varian [ambut]) 14) ‘jambang’ bervariasi menjadi [garembeh] (dengan varian [garembe]) dan [jambaη] 15) ‘kulit’ bervariasi menjadi [kuli?] (dengan varian [kulit]) dan [jaηe?] 16) ‘nafas’ bervariasi menjadi [aηo?] dan [ηap] 17) ‘(air) ludah’ bervariasi menjadi [aie liyua] (dengan varian [ai liyu] dan [ai liyuwa]) dan [ai salero ] (dengan varian [ayie salero]). kategori kata ganti orang dan istilah kekerabatan bahasa minangkabau mempunyai istilah kekerabatan antara sesama keluarga, istilah tersebut dipakai dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dalam bermasyarakat. pada kategori kata ganti orang dan istilah kekerabatan terdapat 37 variasi leksikal dari 48 daftar pertanyaan. kategori kata ganti orang dan istilah kekerabatan merupakan paling banyak terdapat variasi leksikal dibandingkan dengan kategori-kategori lain. konsep makna ‘kita’ ditemukan variasi leksikal di tiap-tiap tp, yaitu [kami basamo], [kami], [kito], [awa?], dan [wa? basamo], sedangkan konsep makna ‘mereka’ juga ditemukan 5 variasi leksikal, yaitu [na? uraη], [iño-iño], [paja-paja], [uraη ne], dan [kamuka]. sebutan untuk ‘ayah dari orang tua’ juga mempunyai 5 variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps, yaitu [ayah gae?], [ayah], [aye? aki], [pa? gae?], dan [daη]. selanjutnya, sebutan untuk ‘ibu dari orang tua’ juga memiliki 5 variasi pada kabupaten ps, yaitu [iyek], [uak], [ayek usi], [mak gaek], dan [nun]. pada konsep makna ‘ayah dari kakek/nenek’ juga ditemukan 5 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [uñaη], [aηku], [aye?], [nduaη], dan [puyaη]. sebutan untuk ‘kakek dari kakek/nenek’ di daerah tp juga bervariasi tiaptiap daerah, variasi tersebut yaitu [buyui] di tp 1, [anduwaη] di tp 2, [gae?] di tp 3, [nene? puyaη] di tp 4, dan [puyaη] di tp 5. penyebutan kepada diri sendiri juga mempunyai variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps, yaitu konsep makna ‘saya’ yang bervariasi menjadi [ambo] dan [den]. leksikal ambo terdapat pada tp 1, 4 dan 5, sedangkan leksikal den ditemukan pada tp 2 dan 3. konsep makna ‘kamu’ bervariasi menjadi [kau] pada tp 1, 2 dan 3, sedangkan jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 51 [kabaan] dengan varian [kaban] ditemukan pada tp 4 dan 5. variasi leksikal [kasado-sado], [kasado], [sadoe], [galo-galo], dan [galu-galua] muncul pada konsep makna ‘kamu sekalian’ yang hanya ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal. sebab kasado-sado, kasado dan sadoe berasal dari satu etimon bahasa dan hanya ditemukan variasi fonologis dan morfologis, sedangkan galo-galo dan galu-galua merupakan etimon yang sama dan hanya terdapat variasi fonologis. konsep makna ‘beliau’ bervariasi menjadi [baliau] (dengan varian [liyau], [liau], dan [beliyau]) dan [alau] pada tp 2. ayah adalah seorang pemimpin dalam sebuah keluarga dan sangat dihormati oleh istri dan anak-anaknya. sebutan untuk ‘ayah’ di kabupaten ps bervariasi menjadi [aba?] (dengan varian [ba?], [apa?], dan [pa?]) dan [ayah]. untuk konsep makna ‘anak kandung’ ditemukan dua variasi leksikal, yaitu [ana? kanduwaη] (dengan varian [ana? kanduaη] dan [ana? kanduη]) dan [ana? ambo]. sedangkan konsep makna untuk ‘anak yang tertua’ bervariasi menjadi [ana? nan tua] (dengan varian [ana? na tuo]) dan [ana? tuo] (dengan varian [ana? tuwo]). untuk konsep makna ‘anak yang termuda’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ana? nan kacie?] pada tp 1, [ana? buηsu] (dengan varian [ana? bosoη] dan [ana? busu]) pada tp 2, 4, dan 5, dan [bonsu] pada tp 3. seorang adik hendaknya menghormati kakak laki-lakinya, sebutan ‘kakak laki-laki’ di kabupaten ps ditemukan 2 variasi, yaitu uda dan uwo. uda ditemukan di daerah siguntur, pancuang taba, kambang dan di bukit puai, sedangkan sebutan ‘kakak laki-laki’ di daerah silaut adalah uwo. untuk penyebutan ‘kakak perempuan’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah penelitian. uni ditemukan di tp 1, 2 dan 3, sedangkan onen ditemukan di tp 4 dan uwo adalah sebutan dari tp 5 yaitu di daerah silaut. konsep makna ‘adik laki-laki’ di kabupaten ps ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal. sebutan [adia?] (dengan varian [adiye?]) ditemukan pada tp 1, 2, dan 3, sedangkan di tp 4 adik laki-laki disebut dengan [buyuwaη], selanjutnya di tp 5 disebut dengan [ηah]. sebutan untuk ‘adik perempuan’ yang bervariasi menjadi [adia?] dengan varian [adiye?], [supi?] dan [ηah]. adiak ditemukan di tp 1, 2 dan 3, supik adalah sebutan ‘adik perempuan’ di daerah bukit puai dan ngah adalah sebutan di daerah silaut untuk adik perempuan maupun adik laki-laki. selanjutnya, sebutan untuk ‘kakak laki-laki dari ibu’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yakni [ucu], [uwan], [aciye?] dan [con]. angah, apak dan pak cik merupakan sebutan untuk ‘adik lakilaki dari ayah’, angah ditemukan di tp 1, apak ditemukan di tp 2 dan 3, dan pak cik ditemukan di tp 4 dan 5. konsep makna ‘adik laki-laki dari ibu’ disebut dengan uwan (dengan varian wan dan uan) di tp 1, 2, 3 dan 4, sedangkan cu ditemukan di tp 5. sebutan untuk ‘kakak perempuan dari ibu’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ema?] dan [ma? wo] dengan varian [ma? tuo]. etek adalah sebutan untuk adik perempuan ayah dan adik perempuan ibu yang ditemukan di tp 1, 2, 3, dan 4, sedangkan di tp 5 disebut dengan mak cik. untuk menyebutkan kata ganti orang ketiga di silaut disebut dengan [uraη], di daerah bukit puai disebut dengan [iño], sedangkan di daerah pancuang taba, siguntur disebut [paja tu] dan kambang disebut dengan [paja]. konsep makna ‘kami’ mempunyai 3 variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps, yang bervariasi menjadi [kami], [basamo], dan [awa?]. issn 2339-1162 52 cici (dengan varian cicik), cucuang dan piyut adalah konsep makna dari ’anak dari cucu’. konsep makna ‘cucu dari cucu’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal yang bervariasi menjadi [cucuaη], [pewi?] (dengan varian [pewi]), dan [cicit]. untuk konsep makna ‘suami dari saudara’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ipa] dan [sumandan]. ipa ditemukan di tp 1, 2, 4,dan 5, sedangkan sumandan ditemukan di tp 3. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘istri dari saudara’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu [ipa], [mayan], dan [sumandan]. sebutan untuk ‘suami/istri saudara suami’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ipa], [sumando], dan [ma? uma]. selanjutnya sebutan untuk ‘suami/istri saudara istri’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ipa] di tp 4 dan 5, [sumandan] di tp 1 dan 2, dan [ma? uma] di tp 3. orang yang berjenis kelamin laki-laki disebut dengan [laki-laki] di tp 1 dan 2 (dengan varian [kilaki] di tp 3) dan [jatan] disebut di tp 4 dan 5. selanjutnya ‘orang perempuan’ disebut dengan [padusi] pada tp 1, 2 dan 3 dan [tino] pada tp 4 dan 5. untuk konsep makna ‘nenek moyang (yang sudah mati)’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal di daerah penelitian, yakni [uraη nan lamo-lamo], [uraη nan bai], [ñiñiye?], dan [nene? puyaη] (dengan varian [ne? puyaη]). selanjutnya ‘ibu dari kakek/nenek’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yakni [uñaη] di tp 1, [puyaη] di tp 2 (dengan varian [muyaη] di tp 4), [aye?] di tp 3, dan [ne?] di tp 5. untuk konsep makna ‘orang tua dari suami/istri’ bervariasi menjadi min tuo di tp 2 dan mak tuo (dengan varian ma tuwo) di tp 1, 3, 4, dan 5. kategori pakaian dan perhiasan anting merupakan perhiasan yang dipakai oleh kaum perempuan. anting di kabupaten ps ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [subaη] dan [tatiη]. subang ditemukan di daerah siguntur, pancuang taba, kambang dan bukit puai, sedangkan tating ditemukan di daerah silaut. konsep makna ‘kalung’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu [dukuah] (dengan varian [lukuah]), [antai], dan [kaluη]. dukuah dan lukuah ditemukan di tp 1 dan 2, antai ditemukan di tp 3, dan kalung ditemukan di tp 4 dan 5. pada kategori pakaian dan perhiasan hanya ditemukan 7 variasi leksikal dari 17 daftar pertanyaan. kategori ini hanya menemukan satu konsep makna yang bervariasi menjadi 4 variasi leksikal, yakni konsep makna ‘kebaya’ yang bervariasi menjadi [gebaya] (dengan varian [kabaya]), [baju pende?], [oki] dan [baju kuruη]. konsep makna ‘kain sarung’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu kain sawuang dan saruang. untuk konsep makna ‘selendang’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal yang bervariasi menjadi [salendaη] (dengan varian [slendaη]) dan [kain kuluwa?]. tarompa ditemukan di tp 1, 2 dan 3 yang konsep maknanya ‘alas kaki’, sedangkan pada tp 4 dan 5 ‘alas kaki’ disebut slop. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘celana’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal yang bervariasi menjadi sirawa di tp 1 dan 2 (dengan varian siawa di tp 3) dan sowa di tp 4 (dengan varian suwa di tp 5). kategori jabatan dan pekerjaan kategori jabatan dan pekerjaan terdapat 8 variasi leksikal dari 9 daftar pertanyaan. konsep makna ‘penghulu’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [datua?] (dengan varian [datu?]) dan [paηulu]. ulamo, kiyai dan urang malin merupakan konsep makna dari ‘kyai’, ulamo ditemukan di tp 2 dan 3, kiyai ditemukan di tp 1 dan 4, sedangkan urang malin ditemukan di tp 5. sebutan untuk orang yang berprofesi ‘pedagang’ di kabupaten ps adalah [maηaleh] (dengan varian [paηaleh]) di jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 53 tp 1, 2 dan 3, [balepau] di tp 4, dan [bajojo] di tp 5. sebuah nagari dipimpin oleh seorang ‘wali nagari’, penyebutan untuk ‘wali nagari’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di tp. variasivariasi tersebut adalah [aηku palo nagari] di tp 1, [wali nagari] di tp 2 dan 5, [wali nagari] di tp 3, dan [waliη neriη] di tp 4. wali nagari, waling nering dan wali nagari berasal dari satu bahasa yang sama, jadi variasi leksikal untuk ‘wali nagari’ hanya ditemukan 2 variasi. konsep makna ‘pengembala’ ditemukan 4 variasi lekikal di daerah tp, yang bervariasi menjadi [paηkubalo] (dengan varian [paηumbalo]), [uraη kubalo], [tukaη kubalo], dan [tukaη inaη]. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘petani’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah tp, yang bervariasi menjadi [karajo sawah], [basawah] dengan varian [kasawa], dan [petani] (dengan varian [patani]). untuk konsep makna ‘nelayan’ dan ‘tukang kayu’ berbeda-beda penyebutannya di setiap tp. konsep makna ‘nelayan’ bervariasi menjadi [mancolo?], [uraη palawi?], [kalawi?], [uraη kalaut] dan [nelayan]. selanjutnya, untuk konsep makna ‘tukang kayu’ yang bervariasi menjadi [mancari kayu] di tp1, [uraη mari?] di tp 2, [patani] di tp 3, [uraη gese?] di tp 4, dan [tukaη gese?]) di tp 5. kategori binatang dan bagian tubuhnya konsep makna ‘nyamuk’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di daerah tp, yang bervariasi menjadi [raηi?] (dengan varian [aηi?]) dan [ñamu?], (dengan varian [ñamo?]). selanjutnya ‘kecoa’ juga terdapat 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu lipeh dan kapuyuak. kedek dan cankrit merupakan variasi leksikal dari konsep makna ‘jengkrit’. lintah dan litah berasal dari etimon yang sama, hanya pada litah terjadi penghilangan huruf n serta lintah dan litah merupakan satu variasi leksikal yang berasal dari konsep makna ‘lintah’. kata lintah dan litah ditemukan di tp 1, 3, 4, dan 5, sedangkan untuk tp 2 konsep makna ‘lintah’disebut dengan acek. di tp 1, 4 dan 5 untuk konsep makna ‘lipan’ disebut dengan lipan, selanjutnya untuk tp 2 dan 3 konsep makna ‘lipan’ bervariasi menjadi sipansan di tp 2 dan kapasan di tp 3. kata sipansan dan kapasan hanya terjadi variasi fonologis, jadi untuk konsep makna ‘lipan’ hanya ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal. sebab dalam menentukan perbedaan leksikon, perbedaan yang muncul dalam bidang fonologis dan morfologis diangap tidak ada. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘rayap’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [anaianai] dan [bubua?]. lebah adalah binatang yang menghasilkan madu. konsep makna ‘lebah’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah penelitian, yang bervariasi menjadi [labah] (dengan varian [laba]), [pañeηe?], dan [solaη]. kubin, mingkaruang, dan ulek supah merupakan konsep makna ‘kadal’ yang ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah penelitian. untuk konsep makna ‘kura-kura’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi katuang di tp 1 dan 3 dan kuro-kuro ditemukan di tp 2, 4 dan 5. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘siput’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu [keyoη] (dengan variasi [kuyuaη]) dan [cupui?]. selain itu, konsep makna ‘ikan’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [lawua?] di tp 1, 2 dan 3 (dengan varian [lau?] di tp 4) dan [ikan] ditemukan di tp 5. pada kategori binatang dan bagian tubuhnya ditemukan 2 konsep makna yang memiliki 5 variasi leksikal. konsep makna tersebut adalah ‘ikan asin’ dan ‘ayam jantan dewasa’. untuk konsep makna ‘ikan asin’ bervariasi menjadi [lawua? balah], [lawua? asin], [caηkua? asin], issn 2339-1162 54 [gasa? asin], dan [ikan keriη]. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘ayam jantan dewasa’ yang bervariasi menjadi ayam bangkok, ayam gadang, bapak ayam, ayam jatan, dan ayam sabung. konsep makna ‘burung’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di tp, yang bervariasi menjadi [buruaη] di tp 1, 2, 3, dan 4 dan [uηgeh] di tp 5. untuk konsep makna ‘katak besar’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi mingkatak di daerah siguntur, kangkuang di daerah pancuang taba, dan kongkek di daerah kambang dengan varian kokek di daerah bukit puai dan silaut. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘pantat (kerbau, sapi dll)’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal. 4 variasi leksikal tersebut adalah [lancirit] di tp 1, [puηguaη cirit] di tp 4, [iku] di tp 2 dan 3, dan [gadepoη] di tp 5. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘ayam betina dewasa’, ‘tupai’, ‘harimau’, dan ‘monyet/kera’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps. konsep makna ‘ayam betina dewasa’ yang bervariasi menjadi [ayam baηko?] dan [induwa? ayam] (dengan varian [indua? ayam] dan [indu? ayam]). untuk konsep makna ‘tupai’ yang bervariasi menjadi [cupiyaη] dan [tupai], sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘harimau’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu [inia?] dan [rimau]. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘monyet/kera’ yang bervariasi menjadi [karo] dan [barua?], sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘anak katak’ dan ‘bangkai manusia’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di tp. kongkek, anak kokek dan dudu adalah yang konsep maknanya samasama ‘anak katak’ dan yang terakhir konsep makna ‘bangkai manusia’ bervariasi menjadi [mayie?], [baηkai mayi?], dan [takora?]. kategori tumbuhan, bagian-bagian buah, dan hasil olahannya kategori ini ditemukan 20 variasi leksikal dari 45 daftar pertanyaan dan setiap variasi tersebut rata-rata ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘ketan’ bervariasi menjadi [katan], [sipului?], dan [bareh pului?]. konsep makna ‘jambu biji’ dan ‘cabe kecil/cabe rawit’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal. untuk konsep makna ‘jambu biji’ yang bervariasi menjadi [jambu piraweh], [piyawe], [jambu jalemo], dan [jambu tuka]. selanjutnya, untuk konsep makna ‘cabe kecil/cabe rawit’ yang bervariasi menjadi [lado pipi?] di tp 1, [lado kutu] di tp 2, [lado pinjai?] di tp 3, dan [lado jintan] di tp 4 dan 5. konsep makna ‘dahan’ bervariasi menjadi [capaη kayu], [bacapaη], dan [dahan]. untuk konsep makna ‘ubi jalar’ dan ‘ubi kayu’ samasama ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu pelo, ubi pelo dan ubi jala barasal dari konsep makna ‘ubi jalar’, sedangkan konsep makna ‘ubi kayu’ bervariasi menjadi [ubi pirancih], [purancih], dan [ubi kayu] dengan varian [ubiη kayu]. selanjutnya, untuk konsep makna yang ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal pada kategori ini, sebagai berikut: 1) ‘durian’ bervariasi menjadi [durian] dan [duyan] (dengan varian [giyan] dan [doyan] 2) ‘jerami’ bervariasi menjadi [jerami] (dengan varian [jiyami], [jaramiη], dan [jami]) dan [ruman] 3) ‘cabe merah’ bervariasi menjadi [lado sirah] (dengan varian [lado sira]) dan [lado merah] 4) ‘cabe hijau’ bervariasi menjadi [lado mudo] dan [lado ijau] 5) ‘setandan’ bervariasi menjadi [satandan] (dengan varian [tandan], [tandu?], [satanduk?) dan [satajaη] 6) ‘jeruk’ bervariasi menjadi [limau mani] dan [limau] 7) ‘pepaya’ bervariasi menjadi [sintuka] (dengan varian [intuka]) dan [sapelo] jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 55 8) ‘mentimun’ bervariasi menjadi [antimun] (dengan varian [intimun] dan [mentimun]) dan [lepaη] 9) ‘kulit kayu’ bervariasi menjadi [kuli? kayu] (dengan varian [kulit kayuη]) dan [kuli?] (dengan varian [kulit]) 10) ‘dedak’ bervariasi menjadi [dada?] dan [skam] 11) ‘ruas’ bervariasi menjadi [buku-buku] dan [ruwe-ruwe] (dengan varian [uwe], [rueh], dan [ruweh]) 12) ‘semangka’ bervariasi menjadi [simaηko] (dengan varian [cumaηko]) dan [karamojo] (dengan varian [kamojo]) 13) ‘buah kelapa’ bervariasi menjadi [karambiye] (dengan varian [karambi] dan [kiyambiye]) dan [kalapo] 14) ‘mangga’ bervariasi menjadi [maηga] dan [kuini] kategori alam dari 17 daftar pertanyaan pada kategori ini ditemukan 10 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘angin ribut’ disebut dengan angin kancang di daerah siguntur, sedangkan untuk daerah pancuang taba, kambang, bukit puai dan silaut disebut dengan badai. bukit merupakan tanah yang tinggi dari tempat sekelilingnya, namun lebih rendah daripada gunung. konsep makna ‘bukit’ di tp ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [gunuaη] (dengan varian [gunuwaη]) dan [buki?]. untuk konsep makna ‘pasir’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu pasi ditemukan di tp 2 dan 4 dengan varian pasie ditemukan di tp 1 dan 5, sedangkan di tp 3 konsep makna ‘pasir’ disebut dengan kasiyek. batang aie gadang , batang aie dan tambayang merupakan bentuk variasi leksikal dari konsep makna ‘sungai besar’. untuk konsep makna ‘sungai kecil’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yang bervarisi menjadi [banda], [bataη aie], [bataη ai keci?], dan [suηai]. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘jalan sempit’ dan ‘pelangi’ juga ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘jalan sempit’ yang bervariasi menjadi [jalan karusua?] di tp 1, [jalan satapa?] di tp 2, [jalan kampuaη] di tp 3, dan [jalan keci?] di tp 4 (dengan varian [jalan kәci?] di tp 5). konsep makna ‘pelangi’ bervariasi menjadi ulang geyong di tp 1, bangun di tp 2, opong di tp 3, dan ula danau di tp 4 dan 5. konsep makna ‘jalan raya’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah penelitian, yaitu [jalan gadaη] di tp 1, 3 (dengan varian [jalan gәdaη] di tp 5), [jalan luwe] di tp 4, dan [jalan raya] di tp 2. untuk konsep makna ‘mendung’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi gabak dengan varian gabu, dan gelok dengan varian gelap. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘guruh (akan hujan)’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps, yang bervariasi menjadi [guruah] di tp 1 dan 2 (dengan varian [gurua] di tp 3 dan [guruh] di tp 4) dan [mbru?] di tp 5. kategori bau dan rasa pada kategori bau dan rasa ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps. konsep makna ‘apek’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [apiye?] di tp 1 dan 3, [aηi?] di tp 2, dan [masam] di tp 4 dan 5. selebihnya pada ketegori ini hanya ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal dari daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan. variasi tersebut dari konsep makna ‘busuk’, ‘mentah’ dan ‘lapar’, untuk konsep makna ‘busuk’ yang bervariasi menjadi [busua?] (dengan varian (busu?]) dan [baun]. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘mentah’ bervariasi menjadi mudo di tp 1 dan 2, dan matah di tp 3, 4, dan 5. terakhir konsep makna ‘lapar’ yang bervariasi menjadi lapa dan issn 2339-1162 56 litak. lapa ditemukan di tp 1, 3, 4, dan 5, sedangkan litak ditemukan di tp 2. kategori sifat, keadaan dan warna bahasa minangkabau di daerah kabupaten ps ditemukan beberapa variasi leksikal. pada kategori ini, ditemukan 19 variasi leksikal dari 22 daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan. konsep makna ‘tua’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu gaek di tp 1 daan 3 dan tuo di tp 2, 4 dan 5 . untuk konsep makna ‘debu’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [abuabu] (dengan varian [debu]) dan [kabui?] (dengan varian [kabut]). selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘lebar’ dan ‘pendek’ di temukan 3 variasi leksikal di daerah tp. konsep makna ‘lebar’ bervariasi menjadi laweh (dengan varian luweh), lapang, dan leba, sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘pendek’ bervariasi menjadi singkek, randah, dan pendek. konsep makna ‘kecil’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi kacie? (dengan varian kecik dan kәcik) dan ketek. selanjutnya, yang mempunyai 2 variasi leksikal di tp adalah konsep makna ‘sempit’ yang bervariasi menjadi sampik di tp 1, 2, dan 3 dan spit di tp 4 dan 5. untuk konsep makna ‘tinggi’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu panjang di tp 1, 3, 4, dan 5 dan tenggih di tp 2. konsep makna ‘cantik’ mempunyai 2 variasi leksikal di tp, yaitu rancak (dengan varian ancak dan racak) dan elok. baik merupakan sifat dari manusia, kebaikan itu ditentukan dari tingkahlaku manusia itu sendiri. untuk konsep makna ‘baik’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [sawulah], [elo?] dan [bai? baso]. konsep makna ‘bodoh’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu [paka?] di tp 1, [pandih] di tp 2 (dengan varian [pandiye] di tp 5), dan [bodo] di tp 3 (dengan varian [bodoh]) di tp 4. pada konssep makna ‘kikir’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal,yang bervariasi menjadi pidiah, pangikik (dengan varian kisik), cekeh dan kikit. selanjutnya, pada konsep makna ‘panas’, ‘pintar’, ‘marah’, ‘hijau’ dan ‘biru’ masing-masing ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal di daerah tp. untuk konsep makna ‘panas’ bervariasi menjadi paneh dan angek. konsep makna ‘pintar’ bervariasi menjadi cadiek dan pandai sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘marah’ bervariasi menjadi berang di tp 1 dan bangih (dengan varian bangi, beηih, dan mengih) di tp 2, 3, 4, dan 5. pada konsep makna ‘sombong’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi powak di tp 1, sombong di tp 2, 3, dan 5, dan geduk di tp 4. kategori warna di kabupaetn ps ditemukan beberapa variasi leksikal. variasi tersebut ada 2 variasi leksikal dan ada 3 variasi leksikal. untuk konsep makna ‘hijau’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ijau] dan [ijau pucu?], sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘biru’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [ijau] dan [ijau lawui?]. warna hijau dan warna biru dalam penyebutannya di kabupaten ps hampir sama, yaitu pada tp 2 dan tp 5 warna biru dan hijau sama-sama disebut dengan ijau. selanjutnya, pada tp 1 dan tp 3 pada konsep makna ‘biru’ disebut dengan ijau lawuik. kata ijau tidak dihilangkan, hanya saja ada penambahan kata, yaitu lawuik yang berarti ‘laut’. kebanyakan masyarakat di kabupaten ps menganggap laut berwarna biru. maka dalam penyebutan konsep makna ‘biru’ mereka manambahkan dengan kata lawuik, sebab masyarakat ps tidak mengenal warna biru. untuk konsep makna ‘ungu’ dan ‘pink/merah muda’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘ungu’ yang bervariasi menjadi bungo taruang (dengan varian bungo terung), ijau tawuang, dan balung. selanjutnya, ‘pink/merah muda’ bervariasi menjadi jambu aie di tp 1 dan 3, merah jambu di tp 2, dan jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 57 sirah jambung ai di tp 4 (dengan varian sirah jambu aie di tp 5). kategori rumah dan bagiannya kategori rumah dan bagiannya ditemukan variasi leksikal di kabupaten ps, dari 12 daftar pertanyaan ditemukan 9 variasi leksikal. konsep makna ‘lobang angin’ ditemukan variasi leksikal ditiap-tiap tp, variasi tersebut yaitu lusi angin, pentilasi, dropon, jelusing dan gawung. untuk konsep makna ‘jendela’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi jandela di tp 1 (dengan varian janela di tp 4 dan 5), pintu di tp 2 dan tingkok di tp 3. selanjutnya, yang mempunyai 3 variasi leksikal tiap-tiap satu konsep makna yaitu ‘pagar’, ‘pondok’, ‘loteng/pagu’, dan ‘tiang’. konsep makna ‘pagar’ bervariasi menjadi paga, parik, dan kandang. untuk konsep makna ‘pondok’ yang bervariasi menjadi sarongkok di tp 1, pondok di tp 2 dan 3, dan maghuang di tp 4 (dengan varian mamaghung di tp 5). selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘loteng/pagu’ bervariasi menjadi [lotiyaη] (dengan varian [loteaη]), [pagu] dan [pәteh], sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘tiang’ bervariasi menjadi tongak, tandan dindieng dan tiang. mesjid merupakan tempat beribadah umat muslim. penyebutan untuk konsep ‘mesjid’ di kabupaten ps ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi masajik dan surau. konsep makna ‘tangga’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervarisi menjadi janjang di tp 1, 2 dan 3 dan tanggo di tp 4 dan 5. terakhir konsep makna ‘atap’ di daerah penelitian ini ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi atok di tp 1, 2, 3, dan 4 dan bubung di tp 5. kategori alat kategori alat ditemukan 17 variasi leksikal dari 29 daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan pada informan. konsep makna yang pertama bervariasi adalah ‘batu pipisan’ yang bervariasi menjadi batu lado di tp 1, 2, 3, dan 4 dan batu ipih di tp 5. konsep makna ‘gayung’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal di tp, yang bervariasi menjadi [panimbo aie], [dayuwaη] (dengan varian [gayuwaη] dan [gayuaη]), dan [galu?]. untuk konsep makna ‘mangkok’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu cambuang di tp 1 dan 3 (dengan varian cembuang di tp 4), salada di tp 2, dan cawan di tp 5. konsep makna ‘cangkul’ bervariasi menjadi tabak, (dengan varian tajak), buduak, dan paku (dengan varian pakuwa), sedangkan konsep makna ‘mukenah’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal di daerah tp, yang bervariasi menjadi kain telakuang, jubah, kain kana, dan makәnah (dengan varian makenah). selanjutnya, untuk konsep makna ‘katapel’, yang bervariasi menjadi [palatiaη] di tp 1 (dengan varian [latiaη-latiaη] di tp 2), [patieη kacai] di tp 3, dan [pәtiyaη] di tp 4 (dengan varian [ptiη]). untuk konsep makna ‘tempat basuh’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal yaitu [aleh basua] (dengan varian [aleh basuh]), [tampek ai basu], dan [pek basuh] (dengan varian [tampek basua]). selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘sirih’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi sirieh (dengan varian sirie dan sirih) dan sugih. konsep makna ‘rantang’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [rantaη] di tp 1, [renciyaη] di tp 2, dan [onjo?] di tp 3 (dengan varian [ronjo?] di tp 4 dan [ronjoa?] di tp 5). untuk konsep makna ‘uang’ bervariasi menjadi [pitih], [kepiyaη] dengan varian fonologis [kepeyaη], dan [mago]. selain itu konsep makna ‘tempat tidur’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi issn 2339-1162 58 menjadi kowe (dengan varian kowi), tampek tidu (dengan varian mpek tidua) dan kero. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘pisau’ bervariasi menjadi 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu pisau dan sekin dengan varian fonologis sәkin dan skin. konsep makna ‘pensil’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, dengan variasi menjadi pituluik dan pitlot. untuk konsep makna ‘sajadah’, bervariasi menjadi sajadah di tp 1, 2 dan 5 dan lapiek sumbayaη di tp 3 dengan varian fonologis lapiek sambayang di tp 4. selanjutnya untuk konsep makna yang mempunyai 3 variasi leksikal adalah ‘korek api’, ‘plastik’, dan ‘lampu minyak tanah’; ‘korek api’ bervariasi menjadi piyapi, catuih dan peping (dengan varian pepi); ‘plastik’ bervariasi menjadi plastik, karate minyak, dan asoi; ‘lampu minyak tanah’ bervariasi menjadi lampu cogok (dengan varian lampu togok dan lapung togok), pada maram, dan lapu tekong. kategori kehidupan masyarakat nagari dan bercocok tanam kehidupan masyarakat nagari dan bercocok tanam ditemukan 5 variasi leksikal dari 11 daftar pertanyaan. konsep makna ‘kenduri’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [kenduri], [barale?] (dengan varian [buwale?]), dan [bimbaη]. selain itu, konsep makna ‘berpacaran’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, dengan variasi bacewek, bapacar, dan sakire. dari kategori ini juga ditemukan konsep makna yang memiliki 2 variasi leksikal diantaranya: konsep makna ‘pasar’ dengan variasi pasa dan balai, konsep makna ‘mencangkul’ dengan variasi mamangkua (dengan varian maku dan makua) dan mambaduak, konsep makna ‘maangin’ dengan variasi bakipeh (dengan varian kipeh) dan maangin. kategori makanan dan minuman pada kategori ini hanya ditemukan 7 variasi leksikal dari 11 pertanyaan yang diajukan. konsep makna ‘daging’ terjadi 2 variasi leksikal yang bervariasi menjadi dagiang (dengan varian dagiyang dan daging) dan bantai. selanjutnya pada konsep makna ‘gomok’ yang bervariasi menjadi gomok di tp 1 dan 4 (dengan varian ghamek-ghamek di tp 5) dan lamak-lamak di tp 3 (dengan varian lemak di tp 2). selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘palai/singgang’ ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi apik, palai, dan lampa. konsep makna ‘air teh’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu aie teh dan teh manyi. lapek di kabupaten ps ditemukan di tp 1, 2, 3, dan 4 untuk konsep makna ‘lepat’, sedangkan di tp 5 konsep makna ‘lepat’ disebut dengan lapek pendek. untuk konsep makna ‘kapur sirih/sadah’ bervariasi menjadi kapur sadah, kapu, dan sada, yang terakhir untuk kategori ini yang bervariasi adalah konsep makna ’telur mato sapi’ yang bervariasi menjadi [talua mato sapi] (dengan varian [talu mato sapi] dan [telu mato sapiη]) dan [mato sapi]. kategori kesenian dan permainan bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten ps ditemukan variasi leksikal pada kategori kesenian dan permainan. pada konsep makna ‘judi’ terjadi 3 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi maampok, bacoki dan bajudi (dengan variasi fonologis juding). konsep makna ‘nyanyi’ juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal, yaitu balagu, dendang (dengan varian badendang) dan nyanying. selain itu, ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal pada konsep makna ‘talempong’, ‘suling’, dan ‘ rebab’. konsep makna ‘talempong’ bervariasi menjadi canang dan talempong (dengan varian talepong). selanjutnya [saluaη] di tp 1 (dengan varian [suliyaη] di tp 4, [saluη] di tp 5, dan [suliaη] di tp 2) dan [sonai] di tp3 dengan konsep makna jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 59 ‘suling’, sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘rebab’ bervariasi menjadi rabab dan biola dengan variasi morfologis babola dan variasi fonologis bola. terakhir pada kategori ini yang bervariasi leksikal adalah konsep makna ‘sipak takraw’ yang bervariasi menjadi cakraw, main takrau dan sipak takrau. kategori penyakit dan obat kategori penyakit dan obat ditemukan 9 variasi leksikal dari 15 daftar pertanyaan. variasi tersebut terdiri dari 2 sampai 5 variasi leksikal dalam satu konsep makna. konsep makna ‘demam’ bervariasi menjadi damam dan damam paneh. pada konsep makna ‘buta’ ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi [rabun] (dengan varian [abun] dan [gabun]) dan [buto]. selanjutnya, pada konsep ‘bekas luka’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu jajak luko di tp 1 dan 3 (dengan varian jejak luko di tp 2) dan pughut ditemukan di tp 4 dan 5. selain itu, pada konsep ‘sehat’ dan ‘bengkak’ juga ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal; ‘sehat’ dengan variasi sehat dan segeh; sedangkan ‘bengkak’ bervariasi menjadi bangkak dan gembang (dengan varian gembung). pada konsep makna ‘sembuh’ ditemukan variasi pada tiap-tiap daerah tp, yang bervariasi menjadi cegak, segeh, pilaro, sehat dan lah ungai. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘mual’, ‘bengkak di leher’ dan ‘flu’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yaitu mual, kaloyo, mabuak (dengan varian mabuk), dan mutah adalah variasi dari konsep makna ‘mual’, sedangkan pada konsep makna ‘bengkak di leher’ bervariasi menjadi gondok, baguak, kuwok, dan buwuk (dengan varian bughuk). terakhir, pada konsep makna ‘flu’ yang bervariasi menjadi [damam], [damam salemo], [basin], dan [aηek diηin]. kategori aktivitas kehidupan dalam bermasyarakat tidak bisa terlepas dari aktivitas berinteraksi sesama manusia. kategori aktivitas ditemukan 26 variasi leksikal dari 40 daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan. untuk konsep makna ‘membersihkan’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yang bervariasi menjadi mambarasian (dengan varian mambarasien), maabehan, mersih-mersih, dan spai. konsep makna ‘barkelahi (tangan)’ juga ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yaitu bacakak, balameh, batenjung dan balago. selanjutnya, pada konsep makna ‘tarik’ ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, dengan variasi ejang, dijujuik, elo, dan narik. konsep makna ‘lempar’ juga ditemukan 4 variasi leksikal, yaitu [baoncean], [ampo?], [lantiyaη] (dengan varian [latiyaη]), dan [maimbe?]. konsep makna yang terakhir yang memiliki 4 variasi leksikal di daerah tp adalah ‘menendang’, dengan variasi baacuang, simbek, sipak (dengan varian cipak) dan najang. berikut ini adalah konsep makna yang memilki 2 variasi leksikal, yaitu ‘menelan’ dengan variasi [malulu] dan [negu?] (dengan varian [nәgo?]); ‘tersedak’ bervariasi menjadi kasadakan (dengan varian kasadatan) dan sadu (dengan varian sadua dan sdua); ‘melihat’ bervariasi menjadi mancaliek (dengan varian mencelik) dan nengok; ‘dengar’ bervariasi menjadi mandanga (dengan varian danga, tadanga dan denga) dan ngeneng. konsep makna ‘tidur’ bervariasi menjadi lalok dan tidua dengan variasi fonologis tidu. konsep makna ‘berkelahi (mulut)’ bervariasi menjadi bagaduah (dengan varian fonologis bagaduh) dan bacakak. selanjutnya, konsep-konsep yang ditemukan 2 variasi leksikal yaitu ‘dorong’ dengan variasi tunduoan (dengan varian tundon) dan tulaan (dengan varian tulak); ‘pegang’ bervariasi menjadi macik (dengan variasi pacik) issn 2339-1162 60 dan pәgang (dengan varian megang); ‘pukul’ dengan variasi mambae (dengan variasi bae dan baeh) dan pukul; ‘hitung’ bervariasi menjadi [barituaη] dan [maetoη] (dengan varian [baretoη] dan [baetoη]); ‘buang air kecil’ bervariasi menjadi [takuyuah] (dengan varian [takuyuwa]) dan [kәciη]; ‘kentut’ bervariasi menjadi [kantui?] (dengan varian [takantuik?) dan [ketut] (dengan varian [kәtut]); ‘tukar’ bervariasi menjadi manuka dengan variasi fonologis tuka dan batimbang; ‘keramas’ bervariasi menjadi balimau dan nyelam; dan yang terkahir ‘mengintip’ bervariasi menjadi [mañibuan] (dengan varian [sibuakan] dan [disibuan]) dan [ηino?] (dengan varian[ηinap]). selanjutnya, kategori ini juga ditemukan 3 variasi leksikal pada konsep makna yang diajukan. konsep makna ‘cium’ bervariasi menjadi [manciyum], [upa] dan [ηiduη] (dengan varian [ηidu]), sedangkan untuk konsep makna ‘mimpi’ bervariasi menjadi parasian (dengan varian barasian), buwasian dan miping (dengan varian mipi). untuk konsep makna ‘potong’ bervariasi menjadi mambalah, dikarek (dengan varian karek dan kәret) dan ngighek. selanjutnya, konsep makna ‘bakar’ yang bervariasi menjadi baka di tp 1, mamanggang di tp 2 (dengan varian panggang di tp 3 dan 4) dan nyondo di tp 5. selain itu, untuk konsep makna ‘peras’ bervariasi menjadi piyuah, rameh (dengan varian ame dan gameh) dan mera dan yang terakhir untuk kategori ini yang mempunyai 3 variasi leksikal adalah konsep makna ‘terjatuh’ bervariasi menjadi tajatuah dengan variasi fonologis jatuh, dabuak, dan are. kategori nama hari kategori nama hari hanya ditemukan satu variasi leksikal. konsep makna tersebut adalah ‘minggu’ yang bervariasi menjadi minggu dan akad. minggu ditemukan di daerah siguntur dan akad ditemukan di daerah pancuang taba, kambang, bukit puai dan silaut. dari penjelasan yang dipaparkan sebelumnya, terlihat semua variasi leksikal yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten ps. dari 530 pertanyaan yang diajukan pada informan ditemukan 271 variasi leksikal. kesimpulan berdasarkan analisis data yang dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut: 1) di kabupaten pesisir selatan ditemukan variasi leksikal bahasa minangkabau. dari 530 daftar pertanyaan yang diajukan, ditemukan 271 konsep makna yang memiliki variasi leksikal di daerah titik pengamatan. 2) tingkat variasi kebahasaan antartitik pengamatan yang terdapat dalam bahasa minangkabau di kecamatan pesisir selatan adalah kategori beda subdialek, beda wicara dan tidak ada perbedaan. 3) berdasarkan penghitungan dialektometri, disimpulkan bahwa terdapat 3 bagian wilayah yang termasuk kategori beda subdialek, yaitu tp 1 (kecamatan koto xi tarusan) dan tp 3 (kecamatan lengayang) tergolong tidak ada perbedaan, tetapi termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 2, tp 4, dan tp 5. untuk tp 2 (kecamatan iv nagari bayang utara) termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 1, tp 3, tp 4, dan tp 5. selanjutnya, tp 4 (kecamatan basa iv balai tapan) dan tp 5 (kecamatan silaut) termasuk kategori beda wicara, tetapi termasuk kategori beda subdialek dengan tp 1, tp 2, dan tp3. daftar pustaka jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 61 ayatrohaedi. 1983. dialektologi sebuah pengantar. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. ayatrohaedi. 2003. pedoman praktis penelitian dialektologi. jakarta: pusat bahasa. badan pusat statistik kabupaten pesisir selatan. 2013. pesisir selatan dalam angka 2013. painan: bappeda kabupaten pesisir selatan. chaer, abdul. 2007. leksikologi dan leksikografi indonesia. jakarta: rineka cipta. djajasudarma, fatimah. 2010. metode linguistik: ancangan metode penelitian dan kajian. bandung: pt refika aditama. hastuti, putri. 2007. “variasi bahasa minangkabau dialek muaro sakai inderapura kecamatan pancung soal kabupaten pesisir selatan”. skripsi sarjana fakultas pendidikan bahasa dan seni universitas bung hatta. padang. ikhsan, teguh al. 2013. “pemetaan bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten 50 kota bagian barat”. skripsi sarjana fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. padang. keraf, gorys. 1991. linguistik banding historis. jakarta. pt. gramedia pustaka utama. kridalaksana, harimurti. 2008. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. mahsun. 1995. dialektologi diakronis: sebuah pengantar. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university pres. maksan, marjusman dkk. 1984. geografi dialek bahasa minangkabau. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. muslich, masnur. 2009. fonologi bahasa indonesia: tinjauan deskriptif sistem bunyi bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt bumi aksara. nadra. 2006. rekonstruksi bahasa minangkabau. padang: andalas university press. nadra dan reniwati. 2009. dialektologi: teori dan metode. yogyakarta: cv almatera publishing. nofria, mega. 2013. “variasi fonologis dan leksikal bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten 50 kota bagian timur”. skripsi sarjana fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. padang. oktaviani, novia. 2014. “bahasa minangkabau di kecamatan pulau punjung kabupaten dharmasraya (tinjauan geografi dialek)”. skripsi sarjana fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. padang. soeparno. 2002. dasar-dasar linguistik umum. yogyakarta: tiara wacana yogya. sudaryanto. 1992. metode linguistik: ke arah memahami metode linguistik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university perss. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. sudaryanto. 1990. aneka konsep kedataan lingual dalam linguistik. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. usman, fajri. 1991. “dialek geografis bahasa minangkabau di perbatasan pasaman timur dengan tapanuli selatan”. skripsi sarjana fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. padang. http://www.pesisirselatankab.go.id diakses pada 20 september 2014, pukul 15:02 wib http://www.geografis-dan-topografi pessel.html.go.id diakses pada 20 september 2014, pukul 15.26 wib. http://www.kecamatan-kabupaten-pesisirselatan.htm.go.id diakses pada 20 september 2014, pukul 15.35 wib. http://www.asalusuldan perkembangan masyarakat inderapura _ pacopaco.htm diakses pada 19 februari 2014, pukul 12.10 wib. phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.8-16.2018 article phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese in kota manna, south bengkulu. lydia gustina, nadra, rina marnita universitas andalas, west sumatera, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 21, 2018 final revision: april 23, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 this research aims to describe the phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese.this research is a descriptive research with a qualitative approach. the method that used in this research is method that proposed by sudaryanto. the data are collected by using observational method, the technique applied in collecting data are interview, recording and taking field notes. in analyzing data, the researcher used a distributional method. the presenting the result is by using formal (signs and symbols) and informal method (descriptive of ordinary word). the result of this research is the phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese consist of 8 differential. they are 4 vocoid variations and 4 contoid variations. the vocoid variations are [ə]~[e], [i]~[e], [u]~[o], and [a:]~[a]. the contoid variations are [w]~[ø], [y]~[ø], [b]~[ø], and [ɤ]~r]. there are phonologycal variations in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese because there are sounds that unusual used in minangkabau language, for example [ə] and [ɤ]. furthemore, the variation is not change the meaning at all. keyword variation, phonological, serawai language, minangkabaunese, serawainese correspondence e-mail: lydia_gustina@yahoo.com i. introduction serawai language is one of the languages that used by serawai ethnic that locates in bengkulu province. it is used in three ditricsts, they are seluma regency, south bengkulu regency, and kaur regency (aliana et, 1992). serawai language is still used and kept by the native speakers as a communication tool in their daily life. the serawaineses are very proud of their language. it can be seen through their way to communicate. they usually do not use another languages even bahasa to communicate in their hometown. moreover, the speakers keep speaking serawai language wherever they live. they do it when they meet up with their own relatives in abroad. the comers that come from west sumatera has a big numbers to dominate in trading in south bengkulu. most of them live in kota http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.8-16.2018 lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 9 manna, a capital of south bengkulu regency. they live around traditional market and shopping center, and also strategic places to make a business. they usually choose appropriate places that have a good transportation access. a couple of years ago, the comers were just being merchants. in the other hand, for now minangkabaunese who live in kota manna have got many professions, for example a teacher, parliamentarians, civil servant, doctor, and etc. minangkabaunese is known as a migrate society. according to chandra, et al. (2000:51) migration is a tradition of minangkabau society. the main purpose they move to the other place is for trading. minangkabaunese has been known as a reliable trader. the life’s philosophy about migration that exposed in minangkabaunese proverb “di ma bumi dipijak, di sinan langik dijunjuang” that is a value of life that inspire minangkabaunese to live in the other region. there are interesting phenomenon that occurred in field about this study. first is a fact that a lack of research about serawai language, if it is compared with the other language in indonesia, for example java language and minangkabau language. second, both serawainese and minangkabaunese are conservative speakers. it means both of them equally strong to maintain their mother language wherever they live. but, the uniqueness in this case, when minangkabaunese come to serawai region, they use serawai language for their daily communication. third, although minangkabaunese in kota manna use serawai language as their daily language, but serawai language that their used is different with serawai language that used by serawainese itself. the language differences or language variation is occurred differences to say a language. the differences can be seen with compare lingustic elements in a language or more. it is consist of phonological, morphologycal, lexicon, syntax, and semantic, zulaeha (2010) and nadra and reniwati (2006). the comparison linguistic element based on consideration of time of use and speakers from language that study. language distinction can be seen from the speaker also. speakers that have a social group (social dialect) and region place (geography of dialect) that differences can be seen by the ways to speak. social group has related with class or status, and communities in society. an educated group has different language with worker group, farm labor, and the other social community. base on a user group of language, dialect can divided into three types, such as: (1) regional dialect, is a language variation base on difference local (place) in a language; (2) social dialect, is a language variation that used by a community or group in a language; and (3) temporal dialect is a language variation that used by group language that live in one time (nadra, 2006:30―31). this research is a social dialect that study about language variation that used by a community or group in a language. in this case serawai language variation that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese that live in kota manna, south bengkulu. in this research language variation will be discused on synchronic, and the differences will be focused on phonological variation. as synchronically, language variation research is seen to compare between variation observation point with the other observation point in a period of time. nadra (1997: 22) states that there is no language in the world that has no variation or differences. these variations are like different utterances by someone from time by time or the differences that occured in a place to other place. that utterance differences consist of sound, phone, phoneme, morpheme, or lexical. keraf (1984: 143) states that language variation can be started by placing same region of language. there is a group of people lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 10 that has different and similar characteristic. a set of utterances that has characteristic that same in phonemic structure, vocabularies, morphology, and syntax that owned by each group called dialect. on the other hand, a group of people also has differences individu. every one utters the language by bringing his own unique. the uniqueness is owned someone that that is habitual that based on inclination or impression to use language. keraf (1996:144) and nadra and reniwati (2009:3) declare that uniqueness or characteristic that owned by someone in the ways he speaks called idiolect. parera (1991:26) also states every single language has those variations. the variations are identified by geographical location, social status, or decided by the profession of each group in understanding limit. language variation that decided by geographical location is called dialect. if it is decided by social status is called sosiolect; and if it is decided by function and profession called functiolect or proffesiolect. phonological variation is a language variation in phonological aspects consist of sound variation and phoneme variation ( nadra and reniwati, 2009:23). for example, it can be seen through phonological variation in sasak language that quoted by nadra (2009:25), that is variation of sound [i] at the end position. that variation are -i, -e, -ie, and -iz. mahsun (1995:33) explains that sound differences are not occured in phonetic context requirements, but it is an allophone. this reaserchthe theory that used in this research is proposed by nadra and reniwati (2009) which has been explained before. there several reseach deal with serawain language which have difference approach (nopriansyah, 2015; yukrawan, 2008; and ponirah, 2014). the researches that have relevation with this research related with similarity of language phenomenon that is a language that used by other language speakers are the researches that studied (prihatini, 2014; anindya, 2016; and leimgruber, 2011). therea are also several research done with phonological variation which have difference object to the current research (febrina, 2014; rahman, 2014; yusman, 2014). in her research febrina (2014) the current research has a substansial differences with those researches. it focuses on phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese. this issue is not yet discuss in any of the previous research. ii. methods this reaseach is conducted by using descriptive method and qualitative aproach. according to nida (1963:1) there are four fundamentalist principles of descriptive analysis, firstly descriptive analysis must be based upon what people say. second, the forms are primary and the usages secondary. third, no parts of language can be adequately described without reference to all other parts. fourth, languages are constantly in the process of change. the data are collected by using observational method, the technique applied in collecting data are interview, recording technique and taking field notes technique. to analyze of the data used distributional method. furthemore, the method that used for presented the result of data analysis are formal(signs and symbols) and informal method (descriftive of ordinary word). iii. result and discussion phonological variation is appear of phonetic differences in serawai language that used by serawainese and minangkabaunese. the differences consist of one, two, or more phon or phoneme from lexicons that come from one etimon. data show phonological variation are 8 variation, they are 4 sound vocoid and 4 sound contoid. phonological variation can be seen from sound differences of symbol that lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 11 have transcribed. for example, there is differences sound of symbol to realizing lexicon aɤi~ari that mean ‘hari’ and butul~botol that mean ‘botol’. the sounds that have variation in two lexicon above are [ɤ]~[r] and [u]~[o]. the variations and the forms of sounds are explained below.the meaning and glosss below are written in bahasa. variation of vocoid variation of vocoid in serawai language that used by serawainese and minangkabaunese ada 4 variation. that variation are [ə]~[e], [i]~[e], [u]~[o], [a:]~[a]. here are the complete explanation: 1) variation of [ə]~ [e] sound [ə]~[e] appear in open ultima position (variation [ə]~[e] ̸_#), in word kə~ke mean ‘ke’. selanjutnya, variation [ə]~[e] appear between sound contoid in posisi penultima and antepenultima (variation [ə]~[e]/ k_k). in word kəmaɤi~kemaren mean ‘kemarin’, also in word ,bəŋkulu~beŋkulu ‘bengkulu’,pəsisir~pesisir’pesisir’,səmistir~ semester semester’, kəcəmasan~kecemasan ‘kecemasan’ bəɤat-berat ‘berat’, səbada~sebada ‘place thatsame’, ləbaran~lebaran ‘lebaran’, kedondong ‘buah kedondong’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 1: tabel 1: variation [ə]~[e]/ k_k serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [kəmaɤi] [kemaren] kemarin [bəŋkulu] [beŋkulu] bengkulu [pəsisir] [pesisir] pesisir [səmistir] [semester] semester [bəɤat] [berat] berat [kəcəmasan] [kecemasan] kecemasan [səbada] [sebada] tempat yang sama [ləbaran] [lebaran] lebaran [kədondoŋ] [kedondoŋ] buah kedondong variation [ə]~[e] that appear between sound contoid in starting position after consonan (variation [ə]~[e]/k_) in word that has meaning ‘kecemasan’ kəcəmasan~kecemasan and ‘smp that same’ seesempe~seesempe. 2) variation [i]~[e] variation of sound [i]~[e] that appears before contoid sound in ultima position(variation [i]~[e]/_k#), in word muɲit~moɲet that mean ‘monyet’, uinm~udem ‘sudah’,səmistir~semester ‘semester’ and ujik~ojek‘ojek’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 2: tabel 2: variation [i]~[e]/_k# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [muɲit] [moɲet] monyet [uinm] [udem] sudah [səmistir] [semester] semester [ujik] [ojek] ojek moreover, variation [i]~[e] appear between contoid in penultima position (variation [i]~[e]/ k_k) is appear in libaɤ~lebar that mean ‘lebar’, kika~keka ‘aqiqah’, niniaɂ~neneɂ ’nenek’, bisan~besan ‘besan’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 3: tabel 3: variation [i]~[e]/ k_k serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [libaɤ] [lebar] lebar [kika] [keka] aqiqah [niniaɂ] [neneɂ] nenek [bisan] [besan] besan variation[i]~[e] appear before nasal [ŋ] in ultima position (variation [i]~[e]/_ŋ#) can be seen in word siŋ~seŋ mean‘seng’, guriŋ~goreŋ‘goreng’, uliŋ~oleŋ‘tidak seimbang’ , ubiŋ~obeŋ‘obeng’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 4: tabel 4: variation [i]~[e]/_ ŋ# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [siŋ] [seŋ] seng [guriŋ] [goreŋ] goreng [uliŋ] [oleŋ] tidak seimbang [ubiŋ] [obeŋ] obeng variation [i]~[e] also appear after sound of nasal [ŋ] in penultima position (variation [i]~[e]/ŋ_) can be seen in word ŋiciak~ŋeceɂ mean ‘bicara’. lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 12 3). variation [u]~[o] variation of sound [u]~[o] appear in between sound of contoid in ultima position (variation [u]~[o]/k_k#), in word ŋubrul~ŋobrol mean ‘berbincang’, butul~botol ‘botol’, mutur~motor ‘motor’, punduk~pondo ɂ‘pondok’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 5: tabel 5: variation [u]~[o]/k_k# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [ŋubrul] [ŋobrol] berbincang [butul] [botol] botol [mutur] [motor] motor [punduk] [pondoɂ] pondok [muguɂ] [mogoɂ] mogok furthermore, variation [u]~[o] appear between contoid in penultima position (variation [u]~[o]/ k_k) can be seen in word butul~botol mean ‘botol’, mutur~motor ‘motor’, mubil~mobil ‘mobil’, lugat~logat ‘logat’ , lupis-lopis ‘lopis’, punduk~pondoɂ ‘pondok’, bulaɂ-baliɂ~bolaɂ-baliɂ ‘bolakbalik’, guriŋ~goreŋ ‘goreng’, kupi~kopi ‘kopi’, rumbuŋan~rombongan ‘rombongan’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 6: tabel. 6: variation [u]~[o]/ k_k) serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [butul] [botol] botol [mutur] [motor] motor [mubil, sətum] [mobil] mobil [lugat] [logat] logat [lupis] [lopis] lopis [punduɂ] [pondoɂ] pondok [muguɂ] [mogoɂ] mogok [bulaɂ-baliaɂ] [bolaɂ-baliaɂ] bolak-balik [guriŋ] [goreŋ] goreng [kupi] [kopi] kopi [rumbuŋan] [romboŋan] rombongan variation [u]~[o] appear before sound [ɲ] in penultima position (variation [u]~[o]/_ŋ) can be seen in word muɲit~moɲet that mean ‘monyet’. 4). variation [a:]~[a] variation of sound [a:]~[a] appear before diphtong in open ultima position (variation [a:]~[a]/_#), in word nida:w~nidaw that mean ‘tidak’, ngapa:w~ ngapaw‘mengapa’, gala:w~galaw ‘semua’, kuda:y~kuday‘nanti’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 7: tabel 7. variation [a:]~[a]/_# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [nida:w] [nidaw] tidak [ngapa:w] [ngapaw] mengapa [gala:w] [galaw] semua [kuda:y] [kuday] nanti next, variation [a:]~[a] appear in close ultima position (variation [u]~[o]/ _k#) can be seen in word bisa:n~besan that mean ‘besan’, lita:ɂ~litak‘capek’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 8: tabel 8: variation [a:]~[a]/_k# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [bisa:n] [besan] besan [lita:ɂ] [litaɂ] capek b. variation of sound contoid contoid that have variation in serawai language that used by serawainese and minangkabaunese are [w]~[ø], [y]~[ø],[b]~[ø], and [ɤ]~[r]. the condition can be seen below: 1). variation [w]~[ø] variation [w]~[ø] appear in centre position between vocoid [a] and [u] (variation [w]~[ø]/a_u) can be seen in word awu~au that have meaning ‘iya’, in word tawun~taun that mean ‘tahun’, dawun~ daun‘daun’, jawua~jaua‘jauh’, sətawun~ setaun that mean ‘setahun’. those are can be seen in tabel 9. tabel 9: variation [w]~[ø]/a_u serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [awu] [au] iya [tawun] [taun] tahun [dawun] [daun] daun [jawua] [jaua] jauh [sətawun] [setaun] setahun next, variation [w]~[ø] also appear in centre position between sound [u] and [a], (variation [w]~[ø]/u_a] can be seen in word luwas~luas that mean ‘luas’, luwaɂ~luaɂ‘like’, luwaɤ~luar‘luar’, and taɤuwaɂ~ taɤuaɂ‘sayur’, ɤuwas~ruas ‘ruas’, lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 13 duwaw~twow that mean ‘two’, tujuwa~tujua ‘tujuh’, sepuluwa~sepulua ‘ten’, tuwaw~tuaw‘ tua’, tuwapaw~tuapaw‘ada apa’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 10: tabel 10: variation [w]~[ø]/u_a serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [luwas] [luas] luas [duwaw] [twow] two [tujuwa] [tujua] tujuh [sepuluwa] [sepulua] ten [tuwaw] [tuaw] tua [luwaʔ] [luaʔ] like [tuwapaw] [tuapaw] ada apa [luwaɤ] [luar] luar [taɤuwaʔ] [taɤuaʔ] sayur [ɤuwas] [ruas] ruas 2.variation [y]~[ø] variation [y]~[ø] appear in centre position between vocoid [a] and [i] (variation [y]~[ø]/a_i) can be seen in word payit~pait that mean ‘pahit’, jayit~jait ‘jahit’, kayin~kain ‘kain’, layin-lain ‘lain’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 11: tabel 11: variation [y]~[ø]/a_i serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [payit] [pait] pahit [jayit] [jait] jahit [kayin] [kain] kain [layin] [lain] lain 1.variation [b]~ [ø] variation of sound [b]~[ø] appear after contoid [m] and before vocoid in penultima position (variation [b]~[ø] ̸m_v) can be seen in word mbakini~maɂinithat mean ‘sekarang’, mbataɂ~mataɂ‘bawa’, mbubus~mubus‘mengeringkan’, mbəli~məli‘beli’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 12: tabel 12: variation [b]~[ø] serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [mbaɂini] [maɂini] sekarang [mbataɂ] [mataɂ] bawa [mbubus] [mubus] mengeringkan [mbəli] [məli] membeli 2). variation [ɤ]~[r] variation of sound [ɤ]~[r] appear before vocoid in begining (variation [ɤ]~[r]/_v), in word ɤuma~ruma mean ‘rumah’, ɤumbaɂ~rumbaɂ‘rambut’, ɤumput~rumput‘rumput’, ɤantiŋ~rantiŋ ‘ranting’, ɤusaw~rusaw ‘rusa’, ɤəbuŋ~rebuŋ ‘rebung’, ɤindu~rindu ‘rindu’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 13: tabel 13: variation [ɤ]~[r]/_v serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [ɤuma] [ruma] rumah [ɤumbaɂ] [rumbak] rambut [ɤumput] [rumput rumput [ɤantiŋ] [ranting] ranting [ɤusaw] [rusaw] rusa [ɤəbuŋ] [rebuŋ] rebung [ɤindu] [rindu] rindu furthermore, variation [ɤ]~[r] appears after vocoid in last posisition (variation [ɤ]~[r]/ v_#) can be seen in word libaɤ~lebarthat mean ‘lebar’, ulaɤ~ular ‘ular’,luaɤ~luar ‘luar’, ipaɤ~ipar‘ipar’, ajaɤ~ajar‘ajar’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 14: tabel 14: variation [ɤ]~[r]/ v_# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [libaɤ] [lebar] lebar [ulaɤ] [ular] ular [luaɤ] [luar] luar [ipaɤ] [ipar] ipar [ajaɤ] [ajar] ajar variation[ɤ]~[r] appears after vocoid in penultima position (variation [ɤ]~[r]/v_), can be seen in word bəɤapaw~bərapawthat mean ‘berapa’, pəɤainŋan~perainŋan‘saudara’, məɤumput~merumput‘merumput’, beɤuba~beroba‘berubah’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 15: tabel 15: variation [ɤ]~[r]/v_ serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [bəɤapaw] [bərapaw] berapa [pəɤainŋan] [pərainŋan] saudara [məɤumput] [mərumput] merumput [beɤuba] [beroba] berubah variation[ɤ]~[r] also appears in ultima position (variation[ɤ]~[r]/_#). the rule is found in aɤi~ari ‘hari’, saɤi~sehari ‘sehari’, laɤi~lari ’lari’. then, variation[ɤ]~[r] found before vocoid in closed ultima position (variation [ɤ]~[r]/_vk#), namely gaɤam~garam ‘garam’, kəɤaɂ~keraɂ ‘kerak’, lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 14 dəɤas~deras ‘deras’, uɤat~urat ‘urat’, bəɤas~bəras ‘beras’. the data show this variation is seen in the tabel 16: tabel 16: variation [ɤ]~[r]/_vk# serawainese minangkabaunese gloss [gaɤam] [garam] garam [kəɤaɂ] [kəraɂ] kerak [dəɤas] [dəras] deras [uɤat] [urat] urat [beɤas] [bəras] beras discussion it is a discussion about variation that found in this research. the phonological variation occured in this study are [ə]~[e], [i]~[e], [u]~[o], [a:]~[a], [w]~[ø], [y]~[ø], [b]~[ø], and [ɤ]~[r]. this is hapened because there are sound that unusual used in minangkabau language for example in variation [ə]~[e], sound [ə] unsual in minangkabau language. sebaliknya sound [e] is very usual used in minangkabau language sehingga many sounds [ə] in serawai language become [e] in minangkabaunese utterance. but, of course the variation is not change the meaning at all. the same thing is happened with variation of sound [i]~[e],there is no sound [e] in serawai language in kota manna, south bengkulu makes serawainese said sound [e] become sound [i]. for example, in word səmester ‘semester’ and seng ‘seng’ serawainese is said [səmistir] and [siŋ], on the other hand minangkabaunese more chose to say [semester] and [seŋ]. once again, the variation is not change the meaning at all. there is variation [u]~[o] in this research,because there is no vocoid sound [o] in serawai language, that is why serawainese is said words that use sound [o] become sound [u], for example in word that mean ‘motor’ and ‘botol’. serawainese say that words [mutur] and [butul], on the other hand minangkabaunese more choose to say [motor] and [botol]. morover, there is variation [a:]~[a] in serawai language that used serawainese and minangkabaunese is caused by ada suprasegmental sound [a] that used by serawainese, and become [a:].serawainese call this [lugat] ‘logat’. actually, serawainese itself not reliaze that theiy used suprasegmental sound when they use sound [a], on the other hand minangkabaunese say [a] just [a], not[a:]. in this research is also found variation of contoid sound [w]~[ø]. in some words for examples awu that mean ‘iya’ and tawun that mean ‘tahun’, serawainese say consonan [w] clearly, on the other hand minangkabaunese is not says contoid [w]. that is make minangkabaunese says word awu become au and tawun become taun. in result this research is also found variation [y]~[ø]. in some words for example payit that mean ‘pahit’ and kayin that mean ‘kain’, serawainese say consonan [y] clearly, on the other hand minangkabaunese is not say sound contoid [y]. that is make minangkabaunese says word payit become pait and kayin become kain. furthermore, this research is also found variation of sound contoid [b]~[ø], in some words , minangkabaunese miss sound contoid [b], for example in word mbakini that mean ‘sekarang’, unusual to minangkabaunese says cluster in beginning of word so mbakini, they says maɂini. in this research is also found the contoid variation that is [ɤ]~[r]. there is contoid sound that seldom find in indonesia, that is [ɤ] but this is very often used by serawainese. on the other hand, minangkabaunese is also unusual to said [ɤ], that is why they are substitude sound [ɤ] become [r] when they speaking in serawai language, so that [ɤumbaɂ] ‘rambut’ become [rumbaɂ], [libaɤ] ‘lebar’ become [lebar], etc. iv. conclusion based on data analysis can be concluded that phonological variation occured in serawai language used by minangkabaunese and serawainese in kota manna, south bengkulu has 8 differences. those differences consist of lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 15 4 differences vocoid namely [ə]~[e], [i]~[e], [u]~[o],and [a:]~[a] and 4 differences contoid namely [w]~[ø], [y]~[ø], [b]~[ø], and [ɤ]~r]. the phonological variations are occured in serawai language used by minangkabaunese and serawainese because there are sounds that unusual used in minagkabau language, for example sound [ə] and sound [ɤ]. references aliana, dkk. 1982. sistem kata kerja bahasa serawai. jakarta: depdikbud, pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. ayatrohaedi. 1979. dialektologi. jakarta: depdikbud. chaer, abdul. 2009. fonologi: bahasa indonesia. jakarta : rineka cipta. chaer, abdul. 2007. linguistik umum. jakarta: rineka cipta. chandra, ade dkk. 2000. minangkabau dalam perubahan. padang: yasmin akbar. chambers, j.k. dan peter trudgill. 2009. dialectology. new 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umum. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. lydia gustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 16 yukrawan, iin. 2008. sistem sapaan bahasa serawai (skripsi). yogyakarta: pbsaip universitas sanata darma. yusman, el. 2014. variasi isolek bahasa minangkabau di kabupaten solok (tesis magister). padang: program pascasarjana universitas andalas. zulaeha, ida. 2010. dialektologi: dialek geografi dan dialek sosial. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. www.dapo.dikdasmen.kemdikbud.go.id www.bengkuluselatan.go.id www.bengkuluselatan.bps.go.id template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article code switching used by english lecturers during teaching as found in padang state university widya fhitri english department, universitas dharma andalas, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 28, 2017 final revision: may 03, 2017 available online: may 15, 2017 this research focuses on the study of the types of code switching and the reasons for lecturers to use the code switching that is based on wardaugh’s theory and supported by gumperz. the data was collected by using field method, with several steps, namely: following the lecturer, recording techniques, field recording, and interviews. from several data were examined, it was found three types of code switching. conversations type is a type of code switching that often appear, followed by the type of situational and metaphorical. in addition, it was found seven reasons for the use of code switching in teaching and learning, namely the influence of students who first use the indonesian language, ignorance of the students to the lecturers’ explanation , the emphasis on the previous statement, search the attention of the students because they make noise in the classroom, liquefaction the tense atmosphere with a little joke, forgetfulness some of the terms in english, and no equivalent word in english when giving an example of a lesson. keyword code, code-mixing, code switching korespondensi phone: e-mail: widya_fhitri@yahoo.com i. introduction nowadays, the phenomenon of code switching is not a strange thing for indonesian people, especially for those who live in urban area. it is caused by the progress of era and human being’s life, including the language that people use. recently, it can be seen that indonesian people not only speak their own language, but also foreign languages such as french, japanese, and particularly english. it is proven when people mix or switch their language into another language such as in certain places, like: trading market, work place, business place, and even at school or campus. this phenomenon happens of some motivations. some of them are: to express his / her feeling in order to compensate for deficiency, to express solidarity with a particular social group, and to convey his/her attitude to the listener (crystal (1987) in skiba, 1997: p.1). the phenomenon of using two languages in their conversation can be defined as bilingualism and the person who involves in it is considered as bilingual. this idea is supported by mackey in hoffman’s book http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 2 (1996:p.16), “bilingualism is considered as an alternative of using two languages by the same individual.” he also confirms that anyone who has ability to use two languages in his/her conversational is called bilingual. related to this phenomenon, kachru (1982: p.26) states that bilingualism can be distinguished on the basis of code switching and code mixing. both of them are the branches of bilingualism which are often considered overlapped. it is proven by a definition proposed by hoffman (1996: p. 112-113). he states that, “switches occurring at the lexical level within a sentence (intra-sentential) are referred to as ‘code mixes’ or ‘code mixing’, meanwhile, if the changes occur over phrases or sentences (inter-sentential), including tags and exclamations at the end of the sentence, they are called ‘code-switches’ or code switching’.” it means that intra-sentential code switching similar with code mixing in which it occurs within a sentence. the phenomenon of code switching mostly happens in daily conversation such as in advertisement, broadcasts, tv programs and even in teaching processes. mostly, the phenomenon of code switching in indonesian happens between english-indonesia. in this case, the writer investigates the code switching phenomenon between english-indonesian which is found in teaching process of the third year students of english department of padang state university. the focus is given to the teaching process of sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cross cultural understanding, and history of british and american civilization. those subjects are taken based on the observation in which there are about ten lecturers who teach in the third year students. some of the lecturers teach two or three subjects, thus the writer only takes four lecturers who teach different subject to represent the data. in this case, the writer chooses padang state university because this university is one of the universities with the best accreditation in west sumatera. the writer also chooses english department because in english department the lecturers are expected to use english when they are talking to their students. of course, the lecturers have certain motivations to do code switching during teaching. therefore, in this research the writer investigate the types of code switching uttered by the lecturers and the motivations of using it. actually, the importance of this study is to disclose or to investigate the lecturers’ motivations to use code switching. the focuses of this research are formulated in the following question, they are (1) what are the types of code switching phenomenon found in the teaching process of the third year students of english department of padang state university?; (2) what are the motivations of the lecturers to use code switching during teaching? actually, the purposes of this research are to identify the types of code switching which are found in the teaching process of the third year students of english department of padang state university and also to uncover the motivations of the lecturers in using code switching during teaching. ii. result this chapter deals with the analysis of the data, which have already been collected by conducting field research in english department of padang state university. data 1 description: the lecturer is explaining the lesson. the situation is quite serious because most of the students pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation. lecturer : what about novelty? one of the students comes late. student : misi pak. boleh saya masuk? lecturer :silahkan, nggak apaapa. jangankan terlambat, tidak masuk aja boleh. widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 3 [okay, please! never mind. you may come late and even you are allowed to miss this class.] other students laugh. after that, the lecturer continues the lesson by giving the next explanation. lecturer : okay, lets come to our topic. baharu itu adalah sesuatu yang menunjukkan sifat. [renewed is something that indicates adjective. novelty is creating a new thing] the utterance silahkan... nggak apa-apa. jangankan terlambat, tidak masuk aja boleh is uttered by the lecturer after the first statement comes from a student who comes late. the situational change is caused by the end of the lecturer’s utterance. in this case, the situation change from formal to informal one. the formal situation occurs when the lecturer explains the lesson to the students and the students pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation. meanwhile, the informal situation happens when the students laugh after the lecturer utters jangankan terlambat, tidak masuk aja boleh to the student who comes late. that utterance makes the students are not serious to study anymore. besides, another posibility may happen. if the lecturer only said silahkan... nggak apa-apa to the student who comes late, it would not make the other students laugh. it means that, if it happened, the situation would still bbe the same that is explaining the lesson in fromal situation. meanwhile, the topic changes from explaining the lesson to answering the student’s question. in this case, the arrival and the utterance of the student who comes late are considered as an interuption for the lecturer. in addition, the interference disturbs the lecturer’s concentration in using english when explaining the lesson. thus, suddenly the lecturer switches his language and gives a response to the student by using indonesian language because indonesian language is his mother tounge. based on the explanation above, the type of this switch is metaphorical code switching. as wardaugh (1988, p. 106) confirms that if the switches occur when there is a topic and situational change, then it requires the change of language, it can be categorized as metaphorical code switching. in this case, the change of topic occurs from explaining the lesson to giving the answer for the student’s question. then, the situation changes from serrious to rlaxed one in which the students firstly are so serious with the lesson, then suddenly they are disturbed by the lecturer’s utterances that makes them laugh. the occurrence of indonesian sentence baharu itu sesuatu yang menunjukkan sifat is uttered by the lecturer when there is no topic and situational change. it can be seen in the situation iin which the utterances happens. the situation keeps in the same situation that is the formal one. the formal situation happens when the students are so serious with their lesson and they are paying attention to lecturer’s explanation. meanwhile, the topic is also the same topic that is the lecturer is exxplaining the lesson to the students. in this case, this switch happens because the lecturer’s consideration on the subject. he considers that this subject (psycholinguistics) is a subject which is full of the important concept that must be understood by the students. thus, he switches his language spontaneously without being influence by any topic and situational change. therefore, it can be said that the kind of this switch is conversational code switching. as gumperz (1976) in hudson’s book (1980, p. 57) explains that if the swithches occur without topic and situational change, it means that this switch refers to conversational switching. in this case, the topic keeps focusing on one thing, that is the explanation of the lecturer about the lesson to the students in the classroom and the situation is still the same (formal) that is the seriousness of the students during the study. widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 4 after interviewing the lecturer, personally, the lecturer switches his language because the arrival of the late students is considers as interference for the lecturer’s concentration. it means that the late student breaks up the lecturer’s concentration in using english during lecturing. thus, when the lecturer wants to answer the student’s question, he directly speaks indonesian language as his mother tongue. switching in the level of indonesian sentence baharu itu sesuatu yang menunjukkan sifat is personally done by the lecturer when he considers that the subject that he teaches is conceptual one. he confirms that, psycholinguistics is the subject that full of concept in which the students must understand it. he also considers that every student has different intelligence in catching the lesson that the lecturer explains. therefore, he switches his language during lecturing in order to make the students more understand the lesson. data 2 description: the lecturer is giving an explanation about the fundamental language abilities in speaking. the students pay attention to his explanation. they enjoy studying with him. lecturer: okay. let’s come to adequacy. adequacy is fair, enough. as i said before we have four fundamental language abilities in speaking. jadi, kita punya empat dasar kemampuan dalam berbahasa. [therefore, we have four fundamental language abilities in speaking]. the students nod. the utterance jadi, kita punya empat dasar kemampuan dalam berbahasa is uttered by the lecturer when the topic and situation at the time are still the same with the first condition. it can be seen from the setting of the utterance. the lecturer switches his language without any topic and situational change. actually, the topic is still about the lecturer’s explanation about the lesson to the students and the situation is also still formal situation because since the class begins until the lecturer switches his language, the students keep their attention to the lecturer’s explanation. the lecturer switches his language in order to repeat his previous sentence. most of the students nod after that switch. it means, they understand after the language switched by the lecturer. based on the case above, this switch can be categorized as conversational code switching. as gumperz (1976) in hudson’s book (1980, p. 57) states that when there is no topic and situational change in the utterance but requiring the language change, it refers to as conversational code switching. as she explains before, in this case, the topic is still about the lecturing process and the situation also keeps infromal situation because the seriousness of the students still can be seen though the lecturer switches his language into indonesian. after interviewing the lecturer, the switch in the level of indonesian sentence jadi, kita punya empat dasar kemampuan dalam berbahasa happens because the lecturer wants to restate the previous sentence in order do make thee previous explanation clearer. it can be proven by the students’ reaction after the lecturer switches his language, the student’s nod which indicates that they understand the lecturer’s explanation. it means that, he expects that all of his students understand the concept of that lesson. data 3 description: firstly, the situation in the classroom is in formal situation. the lecturer is explaining the lesson about psycholinguistics and the students pay attention to him. but, a few minutes later some of the students make noise and disturb the situation at the time. lecturer : once again. the problem of the watson’s theory is.... widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 5 some students make noise lecturer : okay, lihat halaman lima! (okay, see page five!). the problem of watson’s theory is that he does not enough in explaining the length of number. the students re pay attention to the lecturer the imperative sentence oke, liat halaman lima! is uttered by the lecturer after the situation changes from formal to informal one which is caused by the students. formal situation can be described, when the lecturer gives explanation about watson’s theory to the students, and most of the students pay attention to him at the time. meanwhile, a few minutes later, the situation become informal one. it is proven by the noise was created by the students in the classroom and it gives influence to the lecturer to switch his language into indonesian language. this switch commonly happens to get the attention from the students. in this case, though the situation at the time changes, but the topic is still about explaining the lesson taht is explaining watson’s theory. therefore, based on the explanation above, the kind of this switch refers to situational code switching. as wardaugh (1988, p. 106) states that when the language changes according to the situation in which the participants find themselves it refers to as situational code switching. it means that when the lecturer and students are in formal situation (the students pay attention to the lesson) at the time and a few minutes later the lecturer finds a new situation (informal situation in which some of the students make noise during lecturing) and it requires the lecturer to change the language into indonesian. the occurrence of code switching in the form of indonesian imperative sentence okay, lihat halaman lima! is uttered by the lecturer, when the lecturer losess the attention from the students. personally, the lecturer switches his language into indonesian language during lecturing when some of the students distturb the situation in the classroom. he switches his languages in order to get the full attention from his sudents. in fact, the students pay their attention to the lecturer after the switch happens. data 4 description: the lecturer and students are discussing the lesson. the lecturer gives some questions and the students should answer it. the questions are in psycholinguistics’ book which most of the students keep it. lecturer: number one, is it right or wrong? students: wrong. lecturer: iya, nggak ada yang salah. (yes, there is no something wrong in that sentence). this sentence grammatically correct but the sentence is not relevant. the indonesian statement of the lecturer ‘iya, nggak ada yang salah is uttered when there is no topic and situational change on that utterances. in this case, the topic before and after the lecturer switches his language is still about discussing the lesson. it is obvious that nothing changes in the topic of the discussion. the situation still in formal situation as well as the students’ attitude. the still pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation from the beginning till the end of the class. it is proven that the most of the students can answer the lecturer’s question. although there is no topic and situational change, it does not mean that it requires the change of language that the lecturer uses. based on the case above, the kind of this switch refers to as conversational code switching. as gumperz (1976)in hudson’s book (1980, p. 57) explains that the change of language is not caused by the change of the topic and situation at the time. it means that the lecturer switches his language is not caused by the topic and situational change but it tends to his consideration toward the students’ answer. as widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 6 we see that, the topic is still about the discussion of the psycholinguistics subject and the situation keeps in formal situation in which the students pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation. after interviewing the lecturer, he confirms that the reason of this switch is because the lecturer wants to emphasize the student’s answer and makes the answer clearer. he makes the students know that they are smart students. by doing so, indirectly, the lecturer gives a new spirit to the student in order to answer the next question seriously. data 5 description: the lecturer gives an explanation to the students about skinner’s theory. the students keep their attention to the lesson although the switch occurs. lecturer: okay, we come to skinner’s theory. skinner may have a good theory about our habit in speaking. tetapi, ada beberapa hal yang skinner tidak bisa ungkap. [but there are several things that he can not explain] you can see the explanation on page... students still pay attention to the lesson the utterance tetapi, ada beberapa hal yang skinner tidak bisa ungkap which is uttered by the lecturer still have relevant with the previous sentences. the topic is about the explanation of skinner theory. the lecturer explains the lesson by using english and the students keep their attention to the lesson until the lecturer switches his language into indonesian. however, the switch does not influence the students’ concentration. they are still serious in listened the lesson. it means that, the situation before and after the switch happens is formal one. although the language changes, the topic does not change because the topic is till about the explanation of skinner’s theory. therefore, based on the case above, it can be said that the conversational code switching happens. since gumperz (1982) states that if the switch occurs when the topic and situation do not change, it refers to as conversational code switching. in this case, the situation before and after the lecturer switches his language is still the same in which it still occurs in the formal situation. in this case, the students keep their attention to the lecturer’s explanation in which it talks about the same topic that is discussing the skinner’s theory. the common reason that the lecturer uses to do code switching during lecturing is that he wants to make the explanation clearer thus, the student will understand the lesson. it also happens to the lecturer who teaches the psycholinguistic class. personally, he often uses code switching especially in this case, because he wants his students to be able to catch the main point of this lesson easier without getting confused, though this class in an english class. he also considers that psycholinguistics is one of the subjects which is conceptual one, thus he should be fair to his students by switching his language from english to indonesian language during lecturing. (data 6-8 is sociolinguistics subject) data 6 description: students have presentation about every topic in sociolinguistics’ book. one of the students has already presented his material in front of his friend and the lecturer. and it is time to have the discussion session. presenter : okay, that’s all about my presentation today. thanks for your attention. assalammu’alaikum wr. wb. (wa’alaikumsalam wr.wb.) the lecturer and the students give applause to the first presenter widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 7 lectururer : okay, any question so far? students keep silent lecturer: jadi yang tidak ngomong rugi betul, ya! [so for those who do not speak are the loser]. you should be more active in every presentation class. well, no more question? a few minutes later, some of the students raise their hand and ask question to the presenter related to the topic that he has presented. the occurrence of indonesian sentence jadi yang tidak ngomong rugi betul, ya! is done by the lecturer when he gets an influence from the students who keep silent when the discussion session occurs. the switch of the language changes according to the change situation. the situation changes from the seriousness of the students to the silent discussion. we can see from the dialogue above, firstly, the situation is good enough when one of the students has a presentation. suddenly, the students keep silent when the lecturer invites them to produce a question and asks it to the presenter. then, after the switch is uttered by the lecturer, the situation changes soon to be a situation which is full of spirit. step by step, the students compete to produce a question and ask it to the presenter. however, the topic is still about discussing of the sociolinguistics subject. it means that, the indonesian sentence does not require the change of topic. therefore, this switch can be categorized as situational code switching. as wardaugh (1988:p. 106) confirms that situational code switching occurs when the language used by the conversant changes according to the situation. in this case, the situation changes from a class with a quite good situation to the silent class. meanwhile, the switch occurs without requiring the change of the topic because the topic is still about discussing the lesson (presentation). the personal reason that the lecturer uses to switch his language during lecturing is that he wants to get the attention from the students in order to produce a question and gives it to the presenter. he considers that the indonesian utterance can stimulate the students to be more active than keep being silent during the discussion time. in fact, most of the students give question after the utterance uttered. data 7 description: the lecturer gives an explanation about the tradition of every province. he gives an example of the old tradition in west sumatera. lecturer: what happens in west sumatera? it is strongly old tradition. seorang laki-laki setelah menikah itu punya gelar. [after getting married a man has a title]. thanks meidi for your presentation the students keep their understanding about the example given by the lecturer. the utterance seorang laki-laki setelah menikah itu punya gelar is uttered by the lecturer without getting an influence from the student or the situation at that time. in this case, the change of languages does not require the change of topic or even the situation. we can see that the situation is still in a formal one. it happens because before and after the switch occurs, the students still pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation. then, the topic at the time is still the same. the topic is still about the discussing the example of west sumatera’s tradition. it means that whether the switch happens or not the situation and the topic will be still the same. widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 8 it it obvious that the kind of this switch refers to the conversational code switching. since gumperz (1976) in hudson’s book (1980:p. 57) confirms that there is no change in the situation even in the topic happens in conversational code switching. for this case, the topic does not change and it is still about the discussion of the lesson. similar with the topic, the situation also keep their attention to the lecturer’s explanation. after interviewing the lecturer, the personal reason of the lecturer to use code switching during lecturing is that he wants to make the students more understand and able to catch the main point of the lesson easier. he also consider that using indonesian language when giving the example to the students, will give more sense for the students to understand the lesson than using english. data 8 description: the lecturer finishes the study. he feels so happy at the time because most of his students are active in discussion session. then, next week will be held an examination. he explains the form of examination that he usually conducts. lecturer: the examination with me is oral. i need you to do the improvisation. i believe you are the best. students smile and see each other. lecturer: saya bangga dengan kelompok ini. (this group makes me proud). there is no group like this before. not in majority. students laugh and some of them make noise the utterence saya bangga dengan kelompok ini occurs when the lecturer feels so proud of to his students. he feels so proud because the students could be the best in the discussion time. in this case, different situation makes the lecturer use different language. it means that the switch happens because there is a situational change at the time. it can be seen from the datum above. firstly, the situation happens in a formal situation in which the lecturer explains the way the examination with him with him will be conducted and gives suggestion to the students how to be the best one and the students pay attention to him. after that, the situation changes become informal one in which the students smile and see each other, then make the class crowded because they talk each other. the situation requires the change of language that the lecturer uses. he repeats his praise to the students so that the situation becomes noisy. although, the situation changes, the topic is still about discussing the way the exam will be held. based on the case above, the kind of this refers to the situational code switching. as wardaugh (1988: p.106) confirms that situational code switching happens when there is situational change without requiring the change of topic. in this case, the language changes because the situation changes from formal to informal one. formal situation describes the situation when the students pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation and informal situation occurs after the lecturer praises the students who can be the best in the class. meanwhile, some of the students make some conversation to each other and the other still pay attention to him. the personal reason to do code switching that the writer gets after interviewing the lecturer is that the lecturer wants to make the sense of humor and to express his feeling by giving applause to his students. he is very proud of his students because they are different from others. they are more active and smarter than the others. therefore, he switches his language into indonesian language. iii. discussion in this study, the writer has analyzed the types of code switching used by the english lecturers of padang state university. as the result of the analysis, the writer finds twenty data which are classified into three types of code switching, widya fhitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 9 they are: metaphorical, situational and conversational code switching. based on the result, it is found that the common types of code switching that the lecturers used during teaching is conversational code switching. it happens because most of the lecturers switch their language without changing the topic and the situation at that time. besides, the lecturers use this switch in order to reiterate his message or to make the explanation clearer. then, it is followed by situational code switching that is caused by the language used change according to the situation that the lecturers find, and the last type is metaphorical code switching which caused by the topic and the situational change requires the change of language used by the lecturers. meanwhile, there are some motivations which cause the switch of the language that used by the lecturers. firstly, the lecturer has been influenced by the student. the lecturer switches his language because the student has switched his/her language to another language first. thus, the student is considered as interruption to the lecturer. in addition, the interruption disturbs the lecturer’s concentration in using english when thee lecturer is explaining something. secondly, the lecturer wants to give a clearer explanation to the students, because the students seems confused about what the lecturer has explained before. besides, the switch occurs because there is no equivalent for the english term. then, the lecturer switches his language because he wants to make a joke or sense of humor in order to make the situation in the class become informal one. thus, the students can relax and enjoy studying. lastly, the lecturer switches his language because he wants to get the attention from the students and the students make noise when the lecturer is explaining the lesson. iv. conclusion there are many other possible reasons why the english lecturers use code switching during teaching. basically, the occurrence of the switch depends on his/her own motivation and the situation at that time. among the common motivation are inluenced by the addresee (students), no equivalent term in bahsa indonesia, and to get students attention. references bhatia, tej. k and william c. ritchie. (2006). the handbook of bilingualism. oxford: blackwell publishing. gumperz, j.j. (1982). discourse strategies. cambridge: cambridge university press. hoffman, charlotte. (1996). an introduction to bilingualism 4th impression. uk: longman ltd. holmes, janet. (2000). an introduction to sociolinguistics. new zealand: longman. hudson, r.a. (1980). sociolinguistics. london: cambridge university press. hudson, r.a. (1996). sociolinguistics. (2nd ed). cambridge university press. mahsun. (2005). metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan strategi metode dan tekniknya. jakarta: pt. raja grafindo persada. milroy, lesley and mathew gordon. (2003). sociolinguistics methods and interpretation. oxford: blackwell publishing. sudaryanto. (1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisa bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. wardaugh, ronald.(1988). an introduction to sociolinguistics. great britain: basil blackwell ltd. wei, li. (2000). the bilingualism reader. london and new york: routledge. jurnal arbitrer 81 bahasa ancaman dalam teks kaba sabai nan aluih berbasis pendekatan linguistik forensik oleh wahyudi rahmat, stkip pgri padang e-mail: wahyu_juni19@yahoo.co.id sawirman, fajri usman fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas abstract this thesis is focused on the analysis threat language in kaba sabai nan aluih text. the aims of this thesis are to explain the form, meaning and motive of threaten language by employing several theory, including searle (1969) and wijana (1996), aminuddin (2008) to figure out the meaning, while the motive form used the theory stated by maslow (1943). the research is conducted by using observational method along with the techniques. in analyzing the data use distributional and identity method. identity method that employs including reference and pragmatic identity method while in distributional method employs marker identification techniques. the result of analysis is presented in informal method. these method and techniques are identical with proposed by sudaryanto (1993) and mastoyo (2007). the result of the analysis shows that there are four types of language threat form; (1) direct speech act, (2) indirect speech act, (3) literal speech act, and (4) non literal speech act. the meaning of threaten language in ksna are (1) think in every act, because if it is not doing so would cause harm to themselves; (2) pride and arrogance will lead to the destruction of those who have the attitude; (3) every person should have a sense of caring so that the people closest to us are not wrong in its attitude and decisions; (4) a form of error should be fixed even if the truth is painful; (5) is a selfesteem is everything, (6) to save themselves with a threats speech can be used if someone was in danger of being defeated; (7) not all forms of threat is a detrimental thing; (8) awaken the nearest fault has been done is a form of responsibility; (9) threatening to a motivation not an adverse thing; (10) awaken people closest guilt is a form of right action; (11) fixed price for an appropriate fee for the self-esteem that has been tarnished, and (12) very uncontrolled emotion can cause harm. vol. 2, april 2015 82 the motive of threat language in ksna are (1) dissatisfaction, (2) test of the intelligence, (3) pain, (4) displeasure of the attitude of a person, (5) self-esteem, (6) revenge, (7) self defended mechanism by using threat, (8) motivation, (9) mocking in order to direct people to do something, (10) sarcasme to boost spirit, (11) revenged, (12) motif of self defended, (13) grief. keywords: ksna , threats form, threats meaning, threats motive i. pendahuluan bahasa minangkabau tidak hanya ditemukan dalam percakapan sehari-hari (lisan), namun juga ditemukan dalam beberapa bentuk kesusastraan (tulisan) yang berkembang di minangkabau. salah satu bentuk kesusastraan minangkabau tersebut adalah kaba. kaba adalah sebuah bentuk karya sastra yang berkembang di tengahtengah masyarakat minangkabau. kaba awalnya berupa bentuk tuturan atau lisan. pernyataan ini diperkuat oleh rahmat (2012:1) yang menyatakan bahwa kata kaba sama dengan kabar, sehingga boleh juga berarti berita, tetapi sebagai istilah ia merujuk pada suatu jenis sastra tradisional lisan minangkabau. hal ini dikarenakan pada saat awal berkembangnya kesusastraan, masyarakat minangkabau tidak mengenal tulisan. setelah masyarakat minangkabau mengenal tulisan, maka dituangkanlah kaba tersebut dalam bentuk buku agar salah satu bentuk tradisi ini tidak hilang begitu saja ditelan zaman. oleh sebab itu kaba bertahan dengan dua bentuk yakni dengan lisan dan tulisan, kaba banyak mengandung nilainilai kehidupan, pendidikan dan pengajaran baik untuk kaum muda maupun kaum tua. kaba juga berisi tentang adat, pergaulan, nasehatnasehat, tanggung jawab, kewajiban sosial, adat dalam berumah tangga serta persoalan kehidupan sosial masyarakat minangkabau secara umum, yang bertugas untuk mendidik pendengar atau pembaca bagaimana hidup bermasyarakat dan berbudaya. kaba sabai nan aluih merupakan salah satu kaba yang ada di minangkabau, selanjutnya disingkat dengan ksna. ksna yang ditulis oleh m. rasyid manggis dt. rajo penghulu ini adalah kaba yang diangkat dari kejadian sebenarnya di daerah padang tarok (agam) dan daerah situjuah (50 koto). ksna ini menjadi menarik karena di dalam kaba ini berisi nilai-nilai kehidupan sosial budaya minangkabau, seperti nilai pendidikan atau pengajaran untuk kaum muda dan kaum tua, nilainilai religi untuk semua kalangan masyarakat, eksistensi perempuan jurnal arbitrer 83 di minangkabau, peran anak dalam keluarga dan lain lain. nilai-nilai tersebut dapat terlihat dari cerita dan bentuk-bentuk tuturan yang digunakan dalam ksna. di dalam ksna tidak hanya nilai yang positif saja ditemukan, namun juga ada terdapat nilai-nilai negatifnya. nilai-nilai negatif dalam ksna tersebut yaitu bentuk-bentuk kriminalitas yang bermotif kekerasan dan hal ini belum terpikirkan sebelumnyabagi para pembaca dan penikmatnya. sebuah karya sastra dapat mempengaruhi realita karena karya sastra itu mempunyai daya untuk mempengaruhi pembaca dan penikmatnya. begitupun sebaliknya, realita juga dapat mempengaruhi sebuah bentuk karya sastra yang dihasilkan oleh pengarangnya. sebuah karya sastra, tidak hanya mengandung nilai-nilai kehidupan yang positif saja, namun juga menghadirkan nilai-nilai negatif secara tidak langsung. nilainilai negatif tersebut bisa berupa kejahatan verbal seperti yang hadir dalam ksna ini yaitu banyaknya tuturan bernada ancaman dari para tokohnya. dari sudut pandang inilah linguistik forensik bisa digunakan untuk menganalisis teks karya sastra. hal ini dipertegas oleh olsson yang menyatakan bahwa untuk melihat sebuah kasus linguistik forensik, dapat dipakai klasifikasi teks untuk mengetahui bentuk linguistik sebagai bukti investigasi dari pesan teks tersebut (2008:94). ii. metode penelitian penelitian adalah suatu kegiatan yang mempunyai banyak ragam yang telah ditentukan oleh peneliti untuk dipelajari dan dicari informasinya untuk ditarik kesimpulannya. menurut endraswara (2006:2) penelitian adalah langkah-langkah yang menjelaskan fonomena budaya yang menggunakan kelengkapan dan langkah-langkah strategis atau usaha yang sistematis. pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan kualitatif deskriptif. menurut sugiyono (2005:1) penelitian yang menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif deskriptif adalah penelitian yang digunakan untuk meneliti pada kondisi obyek yang alamiah (sebagai lawannya adalah eksperimen) dimana peneliti adalah sebagai instrument kunci, teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan secara triangulasi (gabungan) analisis data bersifat induktif dan hasil penelitian lebih menekankan makna daripada generalisasi. menurut mahsun (2005:233) penelitian kualitatif deskriptif adalah penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata bertujuan untuk memahami fenomena sosial termasuk fenomena kebahasaan. metode yang akan digunakan dalam pengumpulan penelitian ini adalah vol. 2, april 2015 84 metode simak dengan beberapa tekniknya. metode dan teknik ini menggunakan metode membaca secara cermat, memahami setiap isi dengan teknik membaca secara keseluruhan, menyimak setiap bacaan dengan mencatat ujaranujuran yang berhubungan dengan penelitian ini. metode dan teknik dalam pengumpulan data ini identik dengan pernyataan yang telah disarankan oleh sudaryanto (1993) dan mastoyo (2007). data yang telah didapat selanjutnya dianalisis. tahap analisis data merupakan upaya peneliti menangani atau terjun langsung dalam masalah yang terdapat di dalam data. dalam menganalisis data ini penulis menggunakan metode padan dan metode agih. metode padan adalah metode yang bertujuan untuk menentukan identitas objek penelitian, sedangkan metode agih menurut sudaryanto adalah metode analisis yang alat penentunya ada di dalam dan merupakan bagian dari bahasa yang diteliti (mastoyo,2007:47,54). metode padan yang digunakan yaitu referensial dan pragmatis sedangkan dalam metode agih teknik yang digunakan adalah teknik bagi unsur langsung, teknik lesap, teknik ganti dan teknik baca markah. iii. pembahasan 1. a. bapikialah tuan sakutiko, jan manyasa kamudian, ‘berpikirlah tuan dahulu, jangan menyesal kemudian’ b. lorong kapado diri denai, indak si buyuang ka manangih, indak si upiak ka mangeak !” ‘bagi diri saya, apakah tuan tidak takut mati.’ (ksna:43) jika dilihat dari konteks tuturannya, maka tuturan tersebut terjadi antara rajo nan panjang dengan rajo babandiang di padang pahunan. pada cerita sebelumnya diceritakan bahwa rajo nan panjang dan rajo babandiang berunding mengenai lamaran yang disampaikan oleh rajo nan panjang. berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), tuturan lokusi dari data 1 adalah sebuah tuturan ancaman (komisif) yang membentuk tindak tutur langsung dikarenakan modus penggunaan kalimat perintah dalam data 1 memang digunakan untuk memerintahkan lawan tutur berpikir. hal ini ditandai dalam data 1.a dengan penggunaan partikel – lah yang mengikuti frase bapikia. tuturan 1.a bapikialah tuan sakutiko, jan manyasa kamudian mempunyai bentuk tuturan ancaman berupa perintah. partikel – lah dalam kalimat bapikialah jika dilesapkan maka akan terjadi perubahan makna. jika partikel –lah dihilangkan maka tuturan tersebut berubah menjadi kalimat berita. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi jurnal arbitrer 85 peringatan akan bahayanya jika rajo babandiang melawan rajo nan panjang dalam pertarungan. efek atau perlokusi dari tuturan rajo nan panjang kepada rajo babandiang dalam data 1 ini adalah rajo babandiang merespon ancaman rajo nan panjang itu dengan melawan. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari isi teks di atas adalah berpikirlah sebelum bertindak. motif dari tuturan ancaman data 1 adalah motif atau kebutuhan aktualisasi diri karena penutur tidak puas akan kebutuhan yang dia harapkan sedangkan dia mempunyai potensi. motif seperti ini dapat mengganggu kenyamanan seseorang atau motif ini bisa mengakibatkan seseorang itu melanggar norma-norma sosial dalam masyarakat. 2. “indak habih jo kato-kato, kito sudahi jo kapandaian, mari dicubo agak sajamang, kito bapasiah-pasiah langkah, mari diuji ameh mutu, nak tantu merah kuniangnyo! ‘tidak cukup dengan kata-kata saja, kita sudahi dengan kemampuan kita sebentar, kita bersungguh-sungguh dalam melangkah, mari kita uji kemampuan, agar tau siapa yang hebat!’(ksna:43) jika dilihat dari konteksnya, data 2 adalah tuturan yang terjadi antara rajo nan panjang dengan rajo babandiang. pada cerita ini diceritakan bahwa ketika hasil keputusan lamaran telah ditolak, rajo nan panjang telah menyatakan siap untuk berkelahi dengan rajo babandiang. data 2 adalah tuturan komisif ancaman berbentuk tuturan langsung dikarenakan modus penggunaan kalimat perintah dalam data 2 memang digunakan untuk memerintahkan lawan tutur untuk beradu kepandaian yakni yang terdapat dalam tuturan mari dicubo agak sajamang dan mari diuji ameh mutu. jika leksikal mari dilesapkan, maka makna tuturan data 2 ini berubah menjadi kalimat berita. berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle, tuturan lokusi dari kutipan ksna adalah tuturan ancaman berbentuk gertakan. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ajakan beradu silat serta kepandaian dalam bela diri agar jelas siapa yang lebih hebat serta mahir dalam bersilat. perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh rajo nan panjang kepada rajo babandiang ini adalah rajo babandiang menyetujui untuk beradu kepandaian (basilek) dan terjadi pertarungan diantara mereka berdua. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas bisa dikatakan sebagai bentuk vol. 2, april 2015 86 kesombongan atau keangkuhan seseorang dapat membuat kehancuran bagi orang yang menggunakannya. motif data 2 seperti ini merupakan motif atau kebutuhan pengakuan yakni melihat kemampuan siapa yang lebih baik dalam hal ini adalah menguji-nguji kepandaian lawan dengan cara menantangnya dalam perkelahian. motif seperti ini adalah sebuah motif yang berbentuk menggertak lawan agar lawan tersebut menjadi takut atau malah melawan. hal ini bisa juga berarti sebagai bentuk penyelamatan diri agar seorang yang mengancam mendapatkan kesempatan yang besar untuk melumpuhkan petuturnya hanya dengan menggunakan bahasa ancamannya. 3. karajo ringan di ang kini, caraikan kapalo dari badannyo !!” ‘kerja ringan bagimu, pisahkan kepala dari badannya!!’ (ksna:71) konteks dari cerita ini menjelaskan bahwasanya rajo nan panjang telah berhasil ditembak mati oleh sabai nan aluih di padang pahunan. jika dilihat berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), tuturan lokusi dari data 3 adalah tuturan ancaman berbentuk tindak tutur langsung dari sabai nan aluih kepada adiknya mangkutak alam. tuturan ancaman ini ditandai dengan akhiran –kan yang melakat pada caraikan yang bermodus perintah untuk melakukan sesuatu. akhiran –kan yang melekat pada caraikan ini jika dilesapkan akan merubah makna menjadi kalimat berita. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman agar mangkutak alam menghabisi rajo nan panjang dengan cara memisahkan kepala dari badannya. efek atau perlokusi dari tuturan yang telah disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih kepada mangkutak alam ini adalah mangkutak alam menjadi semakin ketakutan. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah hendaknya setiap insan memiliki sikap peduli agar orang terdekat tidak salah dalam melangkah. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif motif sakit hati dengan bentuk ancaman yang sadis. motif seperti perintah pemisahan kepala dari jasad pada ksna ini adalah sebuah bentuk kebencian yang luar biasa. 4. jantan nan geneng tangah padang, adat hiduik baleh mambaleh, tahanlah tembak anak gadih!! ‘laki yang manja di tempat ini, adat hidup balas membalas, jurnal arbitrer 87 tahanlah tembakan anak gadis ini !!’ (ksna:65) konteks tuturan dalam data 4 adalah tuturan yang masih berlangsung antara rajo nan panjang dengan sabai nan aluih. pada cerita sebelumnya keduanya bersiap untuk melakukan pertarungan kembali. tuturan lokusi dari kutipan ini adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis langsung karena secara harfiah modus dari tuturan ancaman ini jelas tergambar untuk mengancam lawan tuturnya dengan kalimat perintah. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman sindiran. tahanlah tembak anak gadih!! adalah bentuk ancamannya, sedangkan jantan nan geneng tangah padang adalah bentuk sindiran yang dituturkan oleh sabai nan aluih kepada rajo nan panjang. sindiran seperti ini menurut oktavianus (2012:135) adalah sindiran berupa sarkasme dan sinisme. sindiran ini berupa sarkasme dan sinisme dikarenakan sindiran ini mengandung sindiran kasar yang muncul dalam keadaan emosi. efek dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih kepada rajo nan panjang adalah kematian bagi rajo nan panjang. kematian ini terjadi ketika rajo nan panjang bersiap-siap untuk melawan sabai, namun tiba-tiba ia ditembak oleh sabai nan aluih. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah emosi yang berlebihan dapat menyebabkan sebuah bentuk kerugian seperti kematian beberapa tokoh dalam ksna ini. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif sakit hati karena sebelumnya rajo nan panjang telah menembak sabai nan aluih terlebih dahulu atau curang. 5. a. ambo datang ka munggu nangko, ‘saya datang ke tempat ini’ b. satapak bapantang suruik, langkah saimbang jo nyawo” ‘takkan mundur walaupun selangkah, mundur sama dengan mati’. (ksna:43) konteks dalam data 5 terjadi antara rajo babandiang dengan rajo nan panjang. pada cerita ini disebutkan bahwa hasil dari lamaran rajo nan panjang tersebut ditolak oleh rajo babandiang. setelah itu, rajo nan panjang menyatakan siap untuk bertarung dengan rajo babandiang karena keputusan rajo babandiang tersebut. secara umum, tuturan ini adalah tuturan tidak langsung, namun pada tuturan data 5.a adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis tuturan langsung karena tuturan ini menyatakan atau memberitakan bahwa rajo babandiang hanya hadir saja yang ditandai dengan ambo datang ka munggu nangko, namun juga secara tidak langsung mengancam atau memerintah rajo vol. 2, april 2015 88 nan panjang yang ditandai dalam data 5.b dengan satapak bapantang suruik, langkah saimbang jo nyawo. jika digunakan teknik ganti pada tuturan satapak bapantang suruik, langkah saimbang jo nyawo dengan denai indak takuik mati, tidak akan merubah makna yakni tetap menjadi sebuah tuturan ancaman. respon atau perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh rajo babandiang ini adalah rajo nan panjang emosi dan mengajak rajo babandiang untuk berkelahi. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah harga diri di atas segala-galanya. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif harga diri seseorang (rajo babandiang) karena ia telah jauh-jauh datang ke tempat yang telah dijanjikan sebelumnya dan ia telah siap dengan resiko yang akan dihadapi. dapat diartikan pula bahwa harga diri di dalam tuturan ini menggambarkan sejauh mana individu tersebut menilai dirinya sebagai orang yang memiliki kemampuan, keberartian, berharga, dan kompeten. 6. a. denai datang ka munggu nangko, mancari rajo nan panjang, nak manuntuik malu bapak, uji di tuan ameh mudo, ‘…saya datang ke tempat ini, mencari rajo nan panjang hendak menuntut malu bapak, coba tuan uji kemampuan saya’ b. namun si sabai na surang iko, satapak bapantang suruik, denai lalai sampai ka pucuak, baru tahapuih arang di kaniang!! ‘setapak tidak akan mundur, saya berantas sampai habis, baru terhapus malu di pada diri saya!!’ (ksna:62) konteks dari data 6 terjadi antara sabai nan aluih dengan rajo nan panjang. sabai nan aluih dalam cerita ini sebelumnya bertutur dengan cara menyindir kepada rajo nan panjang. sindiran ini membuat rajo nan panjang marah. secara umum, data 6 adalah tuturan tidak langsung karena sebagian besarnya adalah tuturan ancaman. data 6.a dan 6.b menjadi berbeda karena terjadi pembagian unsur dalam tuturan tersebut. data 6.a berbentuk tuturan langsung dikarenakan adanya penggunaan awalan ma dalam manuntuik. jika awalan ma ini dilesapkan maka ia tidak akan berubah makna dan tetap menjadi kalimat ancaman langsung. data 6.b adalah tuturan tidak langsung sabai nan aluih kepada rajo nan panjang ini semata-mata tidak hanya menyampaikan atau memberitakan bahwasanya sabai datang ke tempat ini, namun ada maksud lain dari kedatangannya yakni sebuah ancaman. jika digunakan teknik jurnal arbitrer 89 ganti pada tuturan satapak bapantang suruik, denai lalai sampai ka pucuak, baru tahapuih arang di kaniang dengan denai indak takuik mati sampai malu bapak denai hilang juga tidak akan merubah makna yaitu tetap menjadi sebuah ancaman. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman harga diri sabai nan aluih sebagai seorang anak yang bapaknya telah dibunuh oleh rajo nan panjang dan kawankawan. bentuk ancaman nak manuntuik malu bapak secara idealis dianggap sebuah harga diri yang paling tinggi seperti dalam kutipan baru tahapuih arang di kaniang. perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih kepada rajo nan panjang pada data 6 ini adalah rajo nan panjang menjadi emosi dan naik pitam. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah harga diri adalah sebuah harga mati. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif balas dendam dari sebuah kegiatan yang telah menyebabkan seseorang merasa dirugikan. 7. a. “akibat manjo sajak kaciak, lakek deta mambalah banak, geleang bak geleang cupak hanyuik... ‘akibat manja sejak kecil, memasang deta membelah benak, geleng kepala seperti geleng cupak hanyut..’ b. anak indak tau mambaleh guno, awak jantuang hati bapak, tabu saruweh untuak mangkutak, buku-bukunyo untuak si sabai ‘anak yang tidak tahu membalas guna, kamu jantung hati bapak, tebu satu ruas untuk mangkutak, sisa-sisanya untuk si sabai’ (ksna:70) jika dilihat dari konteksnya, tuturan data 7 adalah tuturan yang terjadi antara sabai nan aluih dengan mangkutak alam. pada cerita ini diceritakan bahwa ketika mangkutak telah sampai di padang pahunan dan bertemu dengan sabai nan aluih yakni di tempat bapaknya rajo babandiang tewas dibunuh rajo nan panjang. pada waktu itu mangkutak bertutur bahwa percuma melawan rajo nan panjang karena dia adalah orang berani dan berilmu. berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), maka tuturan lokusi dari 7 adalah tuturan ancaman berbentuk tuturan literal, yang mana maksud tuturan sabai ini secara harfiah tergambar dari makna semantik elemen penyusun tuturan baik itu 7.a dan 7.b. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan akibat manjo sajak kaciak dek bapak, sampai kini indak pandai mambaleh budi, maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu vol. 2, april 2015 90 tetap menyatakan ketidaksenangan sabai nan aluih kepada adiknya mangkutak alam. ilokusi tuturan ini, berisi ancaman sindiran yang menyebabkan ketidaknyamanan mangkutak alam atas tuturan sabai nan aluih. perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih ini adalah munculnya rasa bersalah mangkutak alam. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah kesalahan yang telah diperbuat oleh seseorang itu harus disampaikan walaupun itu menyakitkan. motif dari tuturan ini adalah motif ketidak senangan atas sikap dan sifat seseorang sebagai bentuk keharusan untuk menyadarkan seseorang yang memiliki kedekatan rasa terhadap petuturnya. 8. “tuanku rajo babandiang, elok langkah diganjua suruik, antah indak ibo nyawo malayang ‘tuanku rajo babandiang!!! sebaiknya engkau mundur, atau kamu tidak kasihan dengan nyawamu’ (ksna:39) data di atas merupakan konteks percakapan yang berlangsung antara rajo nan kongkong dengan rajo babandiang di padang pahunan. sebelum terjadinya percakapan ini, dalam kaba diceritakan bahwa rajo nan kongkong, rajo nan panjang dan lompong batuah telah menunggu kedatangan rajo babandiang di padang pahunan. pertemuan tersebut adalah untuk membicarakan keputusan lamaran yang telah disampaikan oleh rajo nan panjang kepada keluarga rajo babandiang yang telah terjadi sebelumnya. jika dilihat dari tuturan rajo nan kongkong ini, maka tuturan lokusinya adalah tuturan ancaman literal yang mana maksud tuturan ini secara harfiah tergambar sama dengan makna semantik elemen penyusun tuturan. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan lai indak takuik mati, maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yakni tetap menyatakan peringatan jika tetap melawan. ancaman ini merupakan sebuah tuturan yang berisi (ilokusi) peringatan akan bahayanya jika rajo babandiang melawan rajo nan kongkong. efek atau perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh rajo nan kongkong kepada rajo babandiang pada data 8 adalah tidak adanya respon dari rajo babandiang. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah suatu bentuk penyelamatan diri yang benar jika kita dalam keadaan tersudut, namun penyelamatan diri seperti ini bisa mempunyai makna yang tidak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan karena penyelamatan diri seperti ini merupakan suatu jurnal arbitrer 91 bentuk tindakan yang merusak suatu bentuk kenyamanan seseorang. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif penyelamatan diri. penyelamatan diri ini digunakan agar orang yang mengancam mendapatkan kesempatan yang besar untuk melumpuhkan petuturnya hanya dengan bahasa ancamannya. dalam linguistik forensik, motif seperti ini merupakan bentuk kriminalitas yang menganggu kenyamanan seseorang atau telah melanggar norma-norma sosial dalam masyarakat. 9. “mano palimo padang tarok, jan takuik tanah tasirah, sagantang indak ka sasukek !! ‘wahai palimo padang tarok, jangan takut tanah akan menjadi merah, satu gantang tidak akan menjadi sasukek’ (ksna:44) konteks tuturan ini menjelaskan tentang sengitnya pertarungan antara rajo nan panjang dengan rajo babandiang. jika dilihat berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), tuturan lokusi dari data 9 adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis tindak tutur literal karena secara harfiah maksud ancaman jelas tergambar dari makna semantik elemen penyusun ujarannya. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan mano palimo padang tarok, jan takuik lo mati maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu tetap menyatakan sindiran agar padang tarok terus semangat untuk bertarung. ilokusinya berisi agar palimo padang tarok menjadi berani atau bisa jadi membuat lawannya (palimo banda dalam) menjadi takut dan gentar. efek atau perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh rajo babandiang dalam ksna ini adalah palimo banda dalam dan palimo padang tarok kembali bertarung dan rajo nan panjang kembali mengajak rajo babandiang bersilat, tetapi ketika pertarungan itu berlangsung rajo nan kongkong menembak mati rajo babandiang. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah tidak selamanya bentuk ancaman itu merugikan, namun ada juga ancaman itu berupa sebuah motifasi kepada diri agar tidak takut dengan musuh yang dihadapi. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif penyemangat atau motivasi agar tidak takut dengan lawan yang sedang dihadapi. 10. jikok indak nan baitu, jan banamo laki-laki, luluih pakaian kasadonyo, lakekkan kodek panjangkan rambuik…. vol. 2, april 2015 92 ‘jika tidak seperti itu, janganlah menjadi laki-laki, bukak baju semuanya, pakai kodek panjangkan rambut ….’(ksna:71) konteks cerita ini terjadi antara sabai nan aluih dengan mangkutak alam. cerita sebelumnya diceritakan bahwa setelah sabai nan aluih membunuh rajo nan panjang, kemudian datanglah menyusul adiknya mangkutak alam. pada pertemuan ini, sabai nan aluih marah-marah kepada mangkutak alam karena mengapa mangkutak alam tidak ikut bersama bapaknya. mangkutak alam terlalu sibuk bermain alangalang. tuturan lokusi dari data 10 adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis tuturan literal. tuturan ini literal karena terdapat kesesuaian maksud antara tuturan ancaman ini sama dengan kata-kata yang menyusunnya yakni kata-kata memerintah untuk berganti jenis kelamin menjadi perempuan. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan barubah sajolah lai jadi padusi, maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu tetap menyatakan ketidaksenangan sabai nan aluih terhadap adiknya mangkutak alam. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman sindiran sabai nan aluih tentang harkat dan martabat mangkutak alam sebagai seorang laki-laki. sindiran seperti ini merupakan sindiran emosi seseorang yang telah mempertanyakan harkat dan martabat seseorang laki-laki. sindiran semacam ini merupakan sebuah ancaman yang nantinya dapat mengakibatkan efek jera atau setidaknya merubah pola tingkah laku lawan tutur. menurut oktavianus (2012:132) sindiran seperti ini merupakan sindiran berupa semipersonifikasi. semipersonifikasi ini biasanya digunakan seseorang dalam keadaan emosi dan biasanya terjadi dalam suatu keluarga (oktavianus, 2012:132). jika dilihat dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih ini, efek yang ditimbulkan adalah mangkutak alam merasa bersalah dan ia masih dalam keadaan ketakutan. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah menyadarkan orang terdekat merupakan sebuah tanggung jawab yang besar dan tindakan yang benar. jika dilihat dari motif dari tuturan ancaman ini, maka motif atau kebutuhannya adalah motif menyindir agar adanya perubahan sifat dan sikap pada orang terdekat yang disindir. akan tetapi motif seperti ini merupakan motif sindiran berupa aksi dari seseorang terhadap orang lain dimana orang tersebut terlalu penakut dan lemah. jurnal arbitrer 93 11. mano palimo banda dalam, alah tapapeh lompong batuah, jan pabiaan buruan lapeh ‘wahai palimo banda dalam, lompong batuah sudah terkena serangan, jangan dibiarkan buruan lepas’ (ksna:44) konteks tuturan ini menjelaskan tentang panasnya situasi pertarungan antara kelompok rajo nan panjang dengan kelompok rajo babandiang. ancaman data 11 dituturkan oleh rajo nan kongkong kepada palimo banda dalam. ancaman ini terjadi ketika lompong batuah basilek dengan rajo babandiang, rajo nan panjang terkena serangan rajo babandiang. bentuk sindiran sekaligus ancaman rajo nan panjang dalam data 11 ditandai dengan ancaman jan pabiaan bururan lapeh „jangan dibiarkan buruan lepas!‟, sedangkan sindirannya adalah alah tapapeh lompong batuah „telah dapat olehnya lompong batuah‟. tapapeh pada tuturan di atas adalam lambang kias. tapapeh adalah bentuk pekerjaan yang biasanya diberikan kepada binatang tangkapan seperti ikan, belut dan lain-lain. kiasan seperti ini menurut oktavianus (2012:131), adalah kiasan berupa metafora, karena ungkapan kias seperti ini mengalami pemindahan fitur semantis dari makna literal ke nonliteral. jika dilihat berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), tuturan lokusi data 11 adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis tindak tutur literal karena terdapat kesesuaian maksud ancaman ini dengan kata-kata yang menyusun tuturan tersebut yaitu merupakan sebuah motivasi agar lawan tutur menjadi berani dan tidak takut. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan mano palimo banda dalam, alah tapapeh lompong batuah, bunuah sajo lah lai maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu tetap menyatakan sindiran ancaman. ilokusinya berisi agar palimo banda dalam menjadi berani atau bisa jadi membuat lawannya (palimo padang tarok) menjadi takut dan gentar walaupun sebenarnya motivasi ini bisa mengakibatkan kerugian bagi orang yang dimotifasi. efek yang ditimbulkan dari tuturan yang disampaikan ini adalah rajo babandiang juga memotivasi palimo padang tarok untuk tidak takut melawan lawannya. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah tidak selamanya bentuk ancaman itu merugikan, namun ada juga ancaman itu berupa sebuah motifasi kepada diri agar tidak takut dengan musuh yang dihadapi. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif penyemangat atau motivasi agar vol. 2, april 2015 94 tidak takut dengan lawan yang sedang dihadapi. sindiran motivasi ini sangat berpengaruh dalam memberikan semangat kepada seseorang untuk bisa menjalani kehidupannya dan bisa meraih sukses. 12. kok iyo waang laki-laki, di siko malu dituntuik, ‘kalau memang benar kamu laki-laki, di sini malu dituntut’ (ksna:68) konteks cerita ini terjadi antara sabai nan aluih dengan mangkutak alam. cerita sebelumnya menceritakan bahwa setelah sabai nan aluih membunuh rajo nan panjang, kemudian datanglah menyusul adiknya mangkutak alam. pada pertemuan ini, sabai nan aluih marah-marah kepada mangkutak alam karena mengapa mangkutak alam tidak ikut bersama bapaknya. mangkutak alam terlalu sibuk bermain alangalang. semua data 12 memiliki tuturan literal karena secara harfiah maksud dari tuturan ancaman ini jelas tergambar sama dengan kata-kata yang menyusunnya yakni maksud dari tuturan ini memang mengancam lawan tuturnya dengan kata-kata sindiran yang digunakan oleh penutur. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan jikok iyo lai indak waang padusi, disiko malu dituntuik maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu tetap menyatakan ketidaksenangan sabai nan aluih kepada adiknya mangkutak alam. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman sindiran sabai nan aluih tentang harkat dan martabat mangkutak alam sebagai seorang laki-laki. pada konteks sindiran kok iyo waang laki-laki, di siko malu dituntuik, menyatakan bahwa jika memang berjenis kelamin laki-laki, maka disuruh untuk menuntut malu orang tuanya. sindiran ini merupakan sindiran berupa semipersonifikasi. semipersonifikasi ini biasanya digunakan seseorang dalam keadaan emosi dan biasanya terjadi dalam suatu keluarga (oktavianus, 2012:132). jika dilihat dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh sabai nan aluih ini, efek yang ditimbulkan adalah mangkutak alam takut dan menangis. jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, maka makna atau nilai tuturan dari teks di atas adalah menyadarkan orang terdekat merupakan sebuah tanggung jawab yang besar dan tindakan yang benar. jika dilihat motif dari tuturan ancaman ini, maka motifnya adalah motif mendesak seseorang itu melakukan sesuatu yaitu berupa motif menuntut malu dengan menyindir (mangkutak alam) agar adanya perubahan sifat dan sikap. jurnal arbitrer 95 13. hai upiak nan bijak muluik, lah tasingguang karuntuang miang, gadih nan geneng di tangah padang, iko nan elok di hati kau, tahan lah tembak basitumpu! ‘hei upiak yang nyinyir, telah tersinggung hati orang lain oleh perkataanmu, gadis kecil di daerah ini, ini yang baik untukmu, tahanlah tembakan ini!’ (ksna:64-65) konteks dari tuturan ini terjadi antara sabai nan aluih dengan rajo nan panjang. dalam cerita ini, sabai nan aluih mulai menyindir rajo nan panjang dengan kieh. sindiran-sindiran ini membuat rajo nan panjang marah. berdasarkan teori yang dikemukakan oleh searle (1969) dan wijana (1996), tuturan lokusi data 13 adalah tuturan ancaman berjenis tidak literal karena bentuk tuturannya bukan untuk memuji sabai nan aluih. jika dikenakan teknik ganti pada tuturan tersebut dengan lah sakik ati den, den bunuah kau !, maka bentuk tuturan tersebut tetap berbentuk tindak tutur literal yaitu tetap menyatakan ketidaksenangan sabai nan aluih kepada adiknya mangkutak alam. sindiran ini bertolak belakang maknanya dengan apa yang disampaikannya, yakni menyindir sabai nan aluih dengan bijak muluik dan mengiaskan dirinya dengan miang. sindiran atau kiasan bijak muluik adalah kiasan berupa metafora, sedangkan sindiran atau kiasan miang adalah kiasan berupa depersonifikasi. dikatakan sebagai metafora karena bijak muluik dikiaskan karena prilaku seseorang yang mulutnya terlalu pedas atau sakit untuk didengar, sedangkan depersonifikasi karena dalam keadaan emosi, seseorang (rajo nan kongkong) mengias dengan tumbuhan miang. pada konteks tuturan ini, miang dianggap sebagai bentuk tingkah laku atau sikap manusia yang apabila seseorang itu telah tersinggung, maka balasan dari orang tersebut akan dirasakan oleh orang yang telah menyinggungnya. hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat oktavianus (2012:131-133) bahwa metafora mengalami pemindahan fitur semantis dari makna literal ke makna nonliteral dan depersonifikasi yaitu memindahkan sifat-sifat benda tertentu ke dalam perilaku manusia. ilokusi dari tuturan ini berisi ancaman dan sindiran rajo nan panjang kepada sabai nan aluih yang telah menyindirnya terlebih dahulu secara berlebihan. efek atau perlokusi dari tuturan yang disampaikan oleh rajo nan panjang kepada sabai nan aluih adalah terjadinya pertarungan antara rajo nan panjang dengan sabai nan aluih. vol. 2, april 2015 96 jika dilihat dari makna ideasionalnya, adalah harga diri sebagai sebuah harga mati. motif dari tuturan ancaman ini adalah motif keamanan atau motif pertahanan diri. bagaimanapun bentuk tindakan yang diambil oleh seseorang yang dirugikan akan menjadi sebuah hal yang benar di mata orang yang telah merasa dirugikan, tetapi tidak di dalam dunia hukum yang berlaku. balas dendam akan menjadi sebuah kejahatan kriminal, jika balas dendam tersebut menyebabkan seseorang itu merasa dirugikan. iv. kesimpulan bentuk bahasa ancaman dalam teks ksna yang ditemukan ada empat, yakni tindak tutur langsung (direct speech act), tindak tutur tidak langsung (indirect speech act),tindak tutur literal (literal speech act) dan tindak tutur tidak literal (nonliteral speech act). makna bahasa ancaman yang ditemukan adalah (1) selalu berpikir dalam setiap bertindak; (2) kesombongan dan keangkuhan akan menyebabkan kehancuran; (3) memiliki rasa peduli agar orangorang terdekat tidak salah dalam mengambil sikap atau keputusan; (4) kesalahan harus tetap disampaikan walaupun menyakitkan; (5) harga diri adalah segala-galanya, (7) menyelamatkan diri dengan sebuah tuturan ancaman dapat digunakan jika sesorang itu dalam keadaan tersudut; (8) tidak semua bentuk ancaman itu merupakan sebuah hal yang merugikan; (9) menyadarkan orang terdekat akan kesalahan merupakan sebuah bentuk tangguang jawab; (10) mengancam untuk sebuah motivasi bukan merupakan hal yang merugikan; (11) menyadarkan orang terdekat akan kesalahannya adalah sebuah bentuk tindakan yang benar; (12) harga mati bagi sebuah bayaran yang pantas bagi harga diri; dan (13) emosi yang tidak terkontrol sangat bisa menyebabkan kerugian. motif bahasa ancaman dalam teks ksna ini berdasarkan bentukbentuk bahasa ancaman yang didapat, yaitu (1) ketidakpuasan, (2) menguji-nguji kepandaian, (3) sakit hati, (4) ketidaksenangan atas sikap seseorang (5) harga diri, (6) balas dendam, (7) menyalamatkan diri dengan sebuah ancaman, (8) motivasi, (9) menyindir agar orang sadar dan segara bertindak, (10) sindiran agar muncul semangat, (11) menuntut malu, (12) motif pertahanan diri, dan (13) motif sakit hati. jurnal arbitrer 97 referensi endraswara, suwardi. 2006. metode, teori, teknik penelitian kebudayaan. yogyakarta: pustaka widyatama halliday, m.a.k. & hasan, r. 1992. bahasa, konteks, dan teks : aspekaspek bahasa dalam pandangan semiotik sosial. terjemahan oleh barori tou. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. mahsun. 2005. metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan, strategi, metode, dan tekniknya. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. maslow. abraham. h. 1943. “a theory of human motivation”. jurnal: psychological review vol 50 no 4 july. diakses dalam https://docs.google.com/file/d/0b5jeca2z7hnjzlndnhotetmwnyi00ymfhlwi3yjutmdeymdj kzdexnwrm/edit?pli=1 pada tanggal 25/6/2014 pukul 17.59 wib mcmenamin, g. 2002. forensic linguistics advances in forensic stylistics. florida: crc press mulyana. 2005. kajian wacana (teori, metode, dan aplikasi prinsipprinsip analisis wacana) yogyakarta: tiara wacana. oktavianus. 2006. analisis wacana: lintas bahasa. padang: andalas university press oktavianus. 2013. bertutur berkias dalam bahasa minangkabau. fib unand: minangkabau press. oktavinus & revita. 2013. kesantunan dalam bahasa minangkabau. fib unand: minangkabau press. olsson, jhon. 2008. forensic linguistics: second edition. london: continuum international publishing group rahmat, wahyudi. 2012 . “sosial budaya cina dalam kaba siti kalasun tinjauan sosiologi sastra”. skripsi. padang: fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas searle, john r. 1969. speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. cambridge: cambridge university press sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. sugiyono. 2005. memahami penelitian kualitatif. bandung: alfabeta wijana. i dewa putu. 1996. dasar-dasar pragmatik. yogyakarta: andi vol. 2, april 2015 44 leksikon etnomedisin dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau oleh: rona almos dan pramono fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas limau manis, padang, sumatra barat 25163 abstract system of traditional medicine to this day is still alive, although the practices of modern medicine is growing rapidly with the emergence of centers of government and private health services. the phenomenon back to nature (back to nature) are increasingly intensified by the developed countries have a positive impact on the flourishing of the traditional medical systems. the method used to analyze the data are unified method. unified method used is equivalent translational methods and methods of unified referential. in this study lexicon minangkabau traditional medicine can be classified into three groups: the types of diseases, types of herbs and treatment process. keywords: traditional medicine, minangkabau, lexicon a. pengantar sistem pengobatan tradisional minangkabau dapat kita ketahui secara lisan dan tulisan. sistem pengobatan tradisional yang dilaksanakan secara lisan (folklor) lama-kelamaan akan terlupakan. sedangkan, dalam bentuk tulisan dapat kita lihat pada naskah-naskah kuno. agar pengobatan tradisional minangkabau yang dilaksanakan secara lisan tidak hilang maka perlu dilakukan pendokumentasian folklor dan penyuntingan teks. hal ini sangatlah penting untuk dilakukan mengingat masih minimnya kajian mengenai istilah pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. istilah pengobatan tradisional minangkabau dapat dijelaskan berdasarkan perspektif antropolinguistik. sehingga perlu dilakukan infentarisasi pemaknaan secara kebudayaan. sejauh pengamatan peneliti hasil penelitian teks dan suntingan teks masih menjadi data mentah terutama orang yang berada di luar minangkabau. oleh karena itu, jurnal arbitrer 45 dengan dilakukannya penelitian ini akan disusunlah istilah pengobatan tradisional minangkabau dalam sebuah kamus berdasarkan kontek budaya minangkabau. sistem pengobatan tradisional hingga hari ini masih tetap hidup, meskipun praktik-praktik pengobatan moderen makin berkembang pesat dengan munculnya pusat-pusat layanan kesehatan pemerintah maupun swasta. fenomena back to nature (kembali ke alam) yang semakin digencarkan oleh negara-negara maju berdampak positif terhadap tumbuh suburnya sistem-sistem medis tradisional. sebagai warisan budaya tertulis yang merekam pengetahuan masyarakat masa lampau tentang pengobatan tradisional, naskahnaskah kuno merupakan khazanah budaya yang penting baik secara akademis maupun sosial budaya. secara akademis melalui naskahnaskah itu dapat diungkap nilai-nilai yang relevan dengan kehidupan sekarang. secara sosial budaya, naskah-naskah itu merupakan identitas, kebanggaan dan warisan yang berharga. naskah merupakan hasil kegiatan intelektual dalam masyarakat tradisional (local genius). naskah merupakan warisan budaya yang berisi beraneka ragam teks karya cipta masyarakat lama yang dapat digunakan untuk berbagai pemenuhan kebutuhan masa sekarang, seperti pengobatan tradisional. naskah-naskah kuno yang berisi pengetahuan masa lalu merupakan sumber penting yang tidak bisa diabaikan dalam kehidupan hari ini. sayangnya perhatian, penelitian dan pemanfaatan naskah-naskah kuno khususnya oleh peneliti lokal masih sangat minim. padahal, naskahnaskah kuno itu adalah bukti bagaimana orang-orang masa dahulu memecahan masalah hidup, salah satunya tentang masalah kesehatan masyarakat. b. antropolinguistik dan etnomedisin ada empat konsep yang penting untuk dijelaskan dalam penelitian ini, yakni antropolingistik, etnomedisin, dan leksikogi. pertama, antropolinguistik adalah disiplin ilmu yang bersifat interpretatif yang lebih jauh mengupas bahasa untuk menemukan pemahaman budaya (cultural understanding). sementara itu, menurut duranti, antropologi linguistik (terjemahan dari istilah yang digunakan linguistic anthropology) adalah kajian atas bahasa sebagai sumber daya budaya dan tuturan sebagai praktik budaya (study of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice). artinya, kebudayaan yang tersimpan dalam pikiran manusia vol. 2, april 2015 46 sebagai pengetahuan bersama berfungsi untuk menjelaskan makna tuturan sebagai praktik budaya itu. bahasa secara tersurat dipahami sebagai kekayaan rohani milik manusia dan gayub tutur (speech commmunity) tertentu, yaitu sumber daya kekayaan dan digunakan dalam wujud tuturan (speaking) di sisi tulisan yang merupakan realisasi kebudayaan itu. beberapa pemikiran yang relevan dengan konsep di atas adalah sebagai berikut. palmer (1996), yang mengatakan bahwa antropolinguistik adalah sebuah nama yang cenderung mengandung pengertian luas dalam kaitan bahasa dengan kebudayaan. lebih lanjut dikatakan bahwa antropolinguistik telah berkembang melalui tiga tradisi, yaitu tradisi boas, etnosemantik, dan etnografi berbicara. pendekatan boas lebih menekankan pada penjelasanpenjelasan tata bahasa. etnosemantik adalah ilmu tentang cara-cara mengelompokkan ranahranah ilmu pengetahuan berdasarkan kebudayaan yang berbeda-beda. etnografi wicara merupakan sebuah pelukisan mengenai penutur yang memiliki tujuan-tujuan tertentu dalam pemakaian bahasanya dilihat dari konteks sosialnya (palmer, 1996: 10-19). istilah linguistik kebudayaan digunakan oleh alisjahbana (1977) yang memperlihatkan keterkaitan antara bahasa dan kebudayaan dengan mengatakan bahwa bahasa merupakan penjelmaan budaya. selanjutnya, suharno (1982) mengatakan bahwa istilah linguistik kultural sama pengertiannya dengan linguistik kebudayaan yang digagaskan oleh alisjahbana. lebih lanjut, suharno mengatakan bahwa istilah linguistik kultural menunjukkan adanya sesuatu yang baru, yaitu adanya perhatian serta harapan tentang dilakukannya perintisan tentang cakrawala baru telaah bahasa yang berlandaskan kebudayaan. kedua, konsep etnomedisin, yakni cabang antropologi kesehatan yang membahas tentang asal mula penyakit, sebab-sebab, dan cara pengobatan menurut kelompok masyarakat tertentu. aspek etnomedisin merupakan aspek yang muncul seiring perkembangan kebudayaan manusia. di bidang antropologi kesehatan, etnomedisin memunculkan termonologi yang beragam. cabang ini sering disebut pengobatan tradisional, pengobatan primitif, tetapi etnomedisin terasa lebih netral (foster dan anderson, 1986:62). studi tentang etnomedisin pada dasarnya untuk memahami budaya kesehatan dari sudut pandang masyarakat, terutama sistem medis yang telah menjadi tradisi masyarakat secara turun temurun. jurnal arbitrer 47 menurut kerangka etnomedisin, penyakit dapat disebabkan oleh dua faktor. pertama penyakit yang disebabkan oleh agen (tokoh) seperti dewa, lelembut, makhluk halus, manusia, dan sebagainya. pandangan ini disebut pandangan personalistik. penyakit juga dapat disebabkan karena terganggunya keseimbangan tubuh karena unsur-unsur tetap dalam tubuh seperti panas dingin dan sebagainya. kajian tentang ini disebut kajian natural atau nonsupranatural. di dalam realitas, kedua prinsip tersebut saling tumpang tindih, tetapi sangat berguna untuk mengenai mengenai konsep-konsep dalam etnomedisin (foster dan anderson, 1986:63-64). khusus untuk pengobatan penyakit naturalistik, biasanya digunakan bahan-bahan dari tumbuhan (herbalmedicine) dan hewan (animalmedicine), atau gabungan kedua. sementara untuk penyakit personalitik banyak digunakan pengobatan dengan ritual dan magis. salah satu cabang etnomedisin adalah animalmedicine. model pengobatan ini dapat dibagi menjadi dua jenis. pertama, pengobatan dengan memanfaatkan bagian tubuh hewan, seperti mengambil empedu kobra, penis kuda, cula badak, fetus (bayi) kijang, dan sebagainya. kedua, pengobatan dengan memanfaatkan aktivitas atau produksi hewan, misalnya menggunakan susu, madu, telur, lintah untuk menyedot darah, sengatan labah. pengobatan ini tidak menyakitkan hewan. kajian model pengobatan ini di indonesia masih sangat langka. kajian ini pernah menjadi bagian dari kajian folkor yang termasuk dalam konteks pembicaraan mengenai hewan sebagai makanaan manusia (bukan obat) (danandjaya, 1996:185-187). oleh karena langkanya kajian tentang animalmedicine ini, maka perlu kirannya hal tersebut segera diteliti sehingga informasi tentang animalmedicine yang terdapat dalam naskah tidak hilang begitu saja. ketiga, leksikologi yakni ilmu yang mempelajari seluk-beluk kata, menyelidiki kosa kata suatu bahasa, baik mengenai pemakaian maupun maknanya seperti yang dipakai oleh masyarakat bahasa bersangkutan (usman, 1979: 1). dalam leksikologi butir-butir leksikal suatu bahan dikaji asal-usulnya, bentuk dan pembentukannya, maknanya, penggunaannya aspek bunyi dan ejaannya, serta aspek lainnya. lalu kalau kemudian hasil kajian leksikologi ini ditulis dan disusun secara alfabet, maka bidang kegiatannya sudah termasuk dalam kegiatan leksikografi. hasil penulisan atau kerja leksikografi akan diwujudkan dalam sebuah vol. 2, april 2015 48 kamus. begitu juga dengan hasil penelitian yang akan dilakukan ini juga akan menghasilkan (luaran) kamus istilah pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. sebagaimana yang dijelaskan pada latar belakang kosa-kata yang digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau bersumber dari naskah. kajian naskah-naskah kuno minangkabau yang mengandung teks pengobatan tradisional masih minim dilakukan. padahal naskah kuno jenis ini sangat bernilai guna dan relevan dengan kehidupan saat ini. naskahnaskah tersebut merupakan pengetahuan masyarakat tradisional (local genius) minangkabau pada masa lampau. dalam dunia melayu ditemukan penelitian pengobatan tradisional yang menggunakan naskah sebagai sumbernya, yakni yang dilakukan oleh a samad said (2005). penelitian tersebut berjudul warisan perubatan melayu yang menyajikan suntingan teks pengobatan tradisional dari naskahnaskah melayu. selain edisi teks, penelitinya juga membuat klasifikasi jenis penyakit dan obat yang digunakan. penelitian yang lain terkait dengan naskah pengobatan tradisional dan studi tentang filologi serta etnomedisin, seperti penelitian yang dilakukan asep yudha wirajaya (2007) yang berjudul ”fitoterapi dalam khazanah naskah melayu: sebuah kajian antropologi kesehatan”. di dalam penelitian ini ia hanya membahas tentang pengobatan tradisional yang menggunakan tumbuhan yang terdapat dalam naskah kuno. metode yang digunakan untuk menganalisis data adalah metode padan. metode padan yang digunakan adalah metode padan translasional dan metode padan referensial. metode padan translasional digunakan karena alat penentunya berupa bahasa lain. bahasa lain yang dimaksudkan adalah bahasa di luar bahasa yang diteliti. untuk menjelaskan pemaknaan secara kebudayaan dipakai metode padan referensial, yaitu metode padan yang alat penentunya berupa referen bahasa. referen bahasa adalah kenyataan atau unsur luar bahasa yang ditunjuk satuan kebahasaan (kridalaksana, 2008:208). c. leksikon etnomedisin setelah dilakukan pengkalsifikasian data, leksikon etnomedisin dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau dapat dikelompokan menjadi 1) jenis-jenis penyakit, 2) jenis-jenis ramuan, dan 3) proses pengobatan. masing-masing pengelompokan tersebut dijelaskan sebagai berikut. jurnal arbitrer 49 1. jenis-jenis penyakit ada banyak jenis penyakit yag dikenal di minangkabau. diantaranya adalah biriang, tinggam dan sijundai. biriang merupakan santet perusak kulit. santet biriang ini memiliki beberapa tinggakat. mulai dari yang teringan sampai pada yang terberat. santet biriang yang paling ringan adalah koban akan merasa gatal pada kulitnya. semakin digarut korban akan merasa semakin gatal. bekas kulit yang digarut akan memutih. santet biriang sedikit berat adalah korban akan merasa gatal pada kulit. namun, apa bila digarut kulit akan terkelupas dan perih. santet biriang yang paling berat adalah kulit korban bentolbentol seperti jerawat. bentolan pada kulit tersebut berisi cairan. santet biriang ini membuat kulit korban sangat gatal. apa bila digarut bentolan tersebut akan pecah dan mengeluarkan cairan berbau yang sangat amis. cairan yang menempel pada kulit yang lain akan membuat proses penyebaran yang sangat cepat. tinggam adalah sejenis santet yang sangat mematikan. bagi korban yang kena santet ini santet tinggam tidak membuat korban langsung tewas namun secara perlahan dan pasti. biasanya korban akan menderita kesakitan. santet tinggam ini akan membuat leher korban bengkak dan lama kelamaan leher yang bengkak tersebut akan meletus, berlobang dan mengeluarakan cairan yang busuk. proses dari santet ini menggunakan media tulang ikan pari. setelah tulang ikan tersebut diambil kemudian ikan tersebut dilepaskan ke laut. tulang ikan pari tersebut ditancapkan ke pohan yang bergetah seperti pohon nangka. proses ini terntu saja menggunakan ritual. bertepatan dengan pemakuan tulang ikan ke pohon yang bergetah korban akan merasakan sakit yang luar biasa. sijundai merupakan jenis gunaguna dimana korbannya hanya perempuan. perempuan yang kena guna-guna ini seperti orang gila. kejadian ini biasanya disebabkan oleh masalah kasih sayang yang terganggu. seorang laki-laki yang sakit hati karena cintanya ditolak ataupun ditinggal menikah oleh seorang perempuan maka laki-laki tersebut akan melakukan ritual ini. 2. jenis-jenis ramuan ramuan di minangkabau dinamakan juga dengan panawa. ramuan ini dapat dikempokan lagi menjadi dua yaitu tumbuhan, binatang dan benda-benda lainnya. tumbuhan adalah obat yang sering digunakan dalam pengobatan. tumbuhan yang sering digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau diantaranya adalah limau, injuang, pisang vol. 2, april 2015 50 limau merupakan ramuan yang paling sering digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. ada banyak jenis limau yang digunakan dalam ramuan pengobatan diantaranya limau kapeh, limau puruik, limau kambiang, limau kuci, dan limau lunggo. limau adalah pembuang karat yang ada pada sipenderita baik manusia, rumah, warung dan hewan. injuang adalah sejenis tanaman yang hidup tanah belantara. tanaman ini digunakan sebagai pagar rumah. sering kita melihat tanaman ini tumbuh sebagai pagar pada rumah gadang. tidak akan ada setan dan roh-roh jahat yang berani mendekat karena daun injuang tersebut. binatang yang digunakan dalam pengobatan adalah ayam. ayam yang sering digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau adalah ayam jantan hitam. selain sebagai ramuan, binatang yang memiliki nama latin gallus gallus bankiva ini juga digunakan sebagai media untuk melihat penyakit. dengan menggunakan ayam orang pintar akan mengetahui si penderita sedang mengalami penyakit apa. selain tumbuhan dan binatang ada benda-benda lain yang digunakan dalam pengobatan. benda-benda tersebut adalah batu dan aia ’air’. batu digunakan juga sebagai ramuan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. batu yang dimaksud adalah batu kilok. batu kilok adalah batu yang becahaya terlihat dari kejauhan kena matahari pada siang hari. batu ini merupakan salah satu ramuan yang digunakan sebagai ramuan untuk pengobatan warung. selain batu, air digunakan juga sebagai ramuan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. air yang digunakan adalah aia musajik tujuah abang maksudnya adalah air yang diambil di kamar mandi masjid ketika adzan magrib berkumandang. cara mengambil air ini ketika adzan magrib berkumandang dimasukan air tersebut ke dalam wadah, lalu jalan lurus ke depan dan tidak boleh menoleh kebelakang. air ini diambil dari tujuh masjid yang berbeda. biasanya ini digunakan sebagai ramuan pengobatan orang yang kena pelet. 3. proses pengobatan ada banyak leksikon yang digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. leksikon yang digunakan tidak hanya berhubungan dengan ramuan dan penyakit, namun ada leksikon lainnya yang digunakan. leksikon tersebut contohnya adalah manyilau dan paureh. jurnal arbitrer 51 manyilau dalam pengobatan tradisional minangkabau merupakan hal yang selalu dilakukan oleh orang pintar. manyilau adalah proses melihat penyakit. ada banyak media yang digunakan oleh orang pintar dalam manyilau penyakit seseorang seperti limau, air, ayam dan lain-lain paureh merupakan proses terakhir yang dilaksanakan dalam pengobatan. paureh adalah cara memasang obat yang diberikan oleh orang pintar. dalam kepercayaan orang minangkabau yang sakit itu tidak hanya manusia tetapi rumah, warung dan binatang (anjing) juga bisa sakit. kata paureh digunakan untuk manusia, rumah dan warung. paureh selalu menggunakan air dan ramuan lain. pada orang yang sakit paureh dinamakan juga dengan palimau. paureh pada orang yang sakit prosesnya adalah dengan memasukan ramuan yang diberikan orang pintar kedalam air mandi. pada rumah dan warung paureh dilakukan dengan cara memercikkan air yang berisi ramuan dan yang telah dimantrai oleh orang pintar mulai dari bagian kiri depan rumah hingga kebelakang dan bertemu lagi ke depan bagian kiri rumah. proses pemercikan ramuan ini sesuai arah jarum jam. pada binatang seperti anjing paureh dinamakan mamandikan ’memandikan’. d. penutup ada banyak leksikon pengobatan tradisional minangkabau. leksikon pengobatan tradisional minangkabau dapat dikelompokan menjadi tiga kelompok yaitu jenisjenis penyakit, jenis-jenis ramuan dan leksikon lainnya. pada kelompok jenis-jenis penyakit contoh leksikon yang ditemukan adalah biriang, tinggam dan sijundai. dikelompok jenis-jenis ramuan leksikon yang digunakan diantaranya adalah limau, injuang, ayam, air dan batu. pada kelompok terakhir yaitu proses pengobatan ditemukan leksikon manyilau dan paureh. referensi andri, wirma. 2012. “pengobatan tradisional dalam naskah kuno koleksi surau tarekat syattariyah di pariangan: transliterasi dan analisis etnomedisin”. 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(terjemahan a. b. tou, dari judul asli language, context, and text: aspect of language in a social semiotic perspective). yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. halliday, m. a. k. 1978. language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold. kridalaksana, h. 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: gramedia. kridalaksana, h. 1988. beberapa prinsip perpaduan leksem dalam bahasa indonesia. yogyakarta: kanisius. mahsun. 2005. metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan strategi, metode dan tekniknya. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. matthews, p. h. 1991. morphology. cambridge: cambridge university press. mulyadi, sri wulan rujiati. 1994. kodikologi melayu di indonesia. lembaran sastra, edisi khusus no. 24. depok : fakultas sastra universitas indonesia. palmer, g b. 1996. toward a theory of cultural linguistics. austin: university of texas press. pike, k. l. dan e. g. pike. 1982. grammatical analysis. texas: the university of texas at arlington dan the summer institute of linguistics pramono. 2009. “teks mantra dalam naskah-naskah minangkabau”. persidangan antar bangsa manuskrip melayu jabatan sejarah fakulti sastra dan sain sosial jabatan kesusastraan melayu, akademi kajian melayu, university malaya. pada 23-15 november 2009. jurnal arbitrer 53 sibarani, r. 2004. antropolinguistik. medan: poda. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik bahasa. seri ildep. yogyakarta: duta wacana universitas press. soejoeti, sunanti z. konsep sehat. sakit dan penyakit dalam konteks sosial budaya.http://www.kalbe.co.id./files/cdk/files/14_149_sehatsakit.pd f/14_149_sehatsakit.html usman, amir hakim dkk. 1979. pengantar ilmu kosa kata (leksikologi). padang: fpbs-ikip. usman, fajri. 2005. “metafora dalam mantra minangkabau” (tesis). denpasar: universitas udayana. wirajaya, asep yudha dan miftah nugroho. 2007. ”konsep fitoterapi dalam hikmat obat melayu: sebuah kajian filologis”. artikel dalam http://abdiredja.blogspot.com/2010/02/fitoterapi-dalamkhazanah-naskah-melayu.html diakses tanggal 3 oktober 2010. yasir, ahmad. 2010. ”pengumpulan dan pengarsipan obat-obat tradisional kenagarian baruah gunuang kecamatan bukit barisan kabupaten 50 kota”. (skripsi). padang: fakultas sastra universitas andalas. yusuf, m. (penyunting). 2006. katalogus manuskrip dan skriptorium minangkabau. tokyo : centre for documentation and areatranscultural studies, tokyo university of foreign studies. jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 2 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.4.2.58-64.2017 attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved article language error analysis on verified twitter timeline fajar kurniadi economic education of social science faculty, universitas indraprasta pgri, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 31, 2017 final revision: november 27, 2017 available online: december 5, 2017 human is a part of language development. human use language in every aspects of life, including in cyberspace. cyberspace give a lot of ease in interaction and expressing yourself that sometimes people didn’t realize breaking the rules of language use. twitter is one of social media that provided in cyberspace. verified twitter account is an account that is consider to have part or influence in the society. the owner of the account can be individual or institution. the objective of this research is to get information about language error in verified twitter account, explain the error and correct it. the research method that used is descriptive analysis. the researcher collect evidences as much as possible and then analyze them. the result of the research is that there are language errors in verified twitter posts, especially in the use of standardized indonesian language. keyword error, language, twitter, verified korespondensi e-mail: fajar.kurniadi@unindra.ac.id i. introduction human live with language, this is strengthen that one of the characteristic of language is humane. since they came into this world until died, human can’t leave it. human use language in two ways, spoken and written. both have weakness and strength. weakness in both ways are the error in the use of punctuation and intonation that can caused misunderstanding in meaning. introductory language in media has also develop into digital media, not only focused in speaking and writing, nowadays digital media also can be an alternative for human. digital media or in particular social media is the most lovable platform to use by modern people today. this is accordance with (listiyorini, 2017) expressing opinion, idea, or other thing can be done by using speaking and writing communication. but, writing communication, often used to express opinion and self-sentiment for now. it is caused by the easy access to communicate with writing on internet or online media, through blogging, sites, or any certain social media. the use of this kind of way for communicate expanded to all aspect in society. why this can happen? because digital media offer new and fresh information that is not limited by time or space. plus, the device that is used to access digital media offer effortless and sophistication that may cause an addiction to the users. this addiction experienced by the users because social media give connectivity without limit upon many people from http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 59 different countries. exchanging news is not difficult using social media, no need to move but you can exchange news, picture, video, even money. at beginning social media is a media for socializing trough post or opinion, but now it changes into information media replacing its’ pioneer. analog digitization starts to happen since social media era squirm. at the beginning, information is accepted from mass media using paper, now it is change with digital media. beside it is cheaper, the speed to access information using digital media is considered to be effective. however, sometimes, many news social media post something that is not “ripe”. it means that it posted news only a part of it or not complete. occasionally, media ignore the substances of news frame, namely is to answer 5w + 1h. ambarwati stated (2017) that the exceeding variation and sophisticated of communication media development give a lot of easiness in life in particular it is the interaction with others. one of the rapid communication phenomenon is the more social media that arise. the development is surely will cause various changes, fluctuation, and new phenomenon, one of it is language phenomenon. since 2000, social media start to grounded in indonesian society. start from the launching of facebook, wechat, youtube, whatsapp, instagram, linkedin, twitter, pinterest, myspace, and other applications. the users are various in number, the most user is facebook with the amount of 1,65 billion(syafar,2016). next is wechat as a social media based on chats, youtube with its video, and instagram alongside its picture. among these social medias, only istagram and twitter that have verified accounts for a product or public figure in media, politics, art, sport and business. verified account usually have many followers in social media, which the followers will know all the activities of the account user. commonly, the followers will respond like leaving comments or share the activity to their timeline. the followers activity towards the verified account indicate how active the activity of exchanging information in social media. the more the followers, the more is the activity. it will cause plenty of language and information spread. whatever the verified account activities, it will create a domino effects to the followers. the user of verified accounts activities will become a trend and inspiration for the followers. this can be good or bad impact. good impact will happen if the verified account spread something qualified and have benefit for the followers. for example, the activities of the leader in one region that held an interaction with his or her followers for the interest of the region. there are a lot of region leader active in social media just to say hello up to discuss important problem that cannot be reached by mass media. some of the leader are ganjar pranowo, ridwan kamil, basuki tjahja purnama, ahmad heryawan, and many more. every activity that they do will cause various reaction, like comments, questions and reshared. beside the verified accounts of the officials, twitter also do verification for digital news page. some of the news page are koran tempo, tempo.co, harian sindo, harian kompas, liputan6, detikcom, vivacoid, media indonesia, cnn indonesia, and many more. the use of verified twitter account as a news net expansion considered the easiest and cheapest way. there are no need for a lot of people and position from various expertise. most of the reporter also write their news on the spot so that the event is fresh and new. but unfortunately, some of the news are that spread on time line have not fill news elements 5w+1h. several of the verified timeline often use the wrong language, it is concerned to have impact to the language pattern of the followers. based on this problem, researcher want to research regarding language error analysis of timeline verified twitter. this research will not stop here, there will be a fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 60 continuation research about language pattern of the verified twitter account follower.. ii. methods the method that is used in this research is descriptive analytics. researcher follows the verified account twitter and identify every post then tracing language error in the posts. the error that intended are errors in punctuation, vocabularies, meaning, and ambiguity. after the researcher finds the errors on the verified accounts, the researcher discuss and try to straighten it. the researcher use indonesian dictionary fifth edition, indonesia spelling guidelines, indonesian semantics, and indonesian for journalism as the benchmark for correction. the researcher hopes, with the benchmarks, it will not cause any dispute later in the future. the verified account that followed by the researcher are the accounts of the leader of a region and news service which have many follower. iii. result before the researcher discuss about the finding, the researcher will start with theory that is used in this research. language error analysis (markhamah & a, 2010) in the association with language error, it distinguish between language error and mistake. language error is a divergence that systematic, consistence, and picture the ability of a person in particular phase (usually not completed phase). while mistake is an aberration that not systematically, in performance field or language behavior. language error in status writing or publication object in verified account timeline must be minimize because these account have many followers. language error in using the punctuation, for example. many can be found in posted status or publication object that does not concern about punctuation. the simplest punctuation in writing a sentence is full stop (.), people often forget about it. also comma (,), it make the meaning of the sentence is not clear, including the reading. the next language error is the use of not standardized language. standardized language is language that is use in formal situations. standardized language considered as a benchmark for using the exact vocabulary. indonesian dictionary (kkbi) is used as the measurement of standardized vocabulary. however, it need to remember that not all word in indonesian dictionary (kkbi) is standardized word. one of the feature of standardized language is not influenced by foreign and local language, including language style pleonasm. the next language error is the use of ambiguous words. ambiguous is having more than one possible meaning from a word or sentence. as for example, phrase father picture (foto ayah), it can have meaning a picture of father (foto gambar ayah) or a picture that belong to father (foto kepunyaan ayah). it has similar statement with aminuddin (2011) in (nisa & suyitno, 2017) ambiguity related with the characteristic of ambivalent meaning form of a language. following, setyowati in (hasanudin,2017) the use of language either in speaking or writing that bend from determining communication factors or society norms and indonesian grammar rules. twitter (susanti, 2016) the presence of social media ((facebook, twitter, youtube, flickr, path, instagram, blog, skype, snapchat) and messangging apps (whatsapp, line, blackberry messanger, yahoo messanger, google talk, and others) is a history that bring changes to the human communication process. so far communication process is done by doing face to face, group, and mass communication, change completely with the development of virtual communication fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 61 technology, mainly internet. the changes are able to be seen in the public places where people are more absorbed to communicate through their gadget rather than communicate with people near them. according to renkema in (jaya, 2012) someone’s communication pattern is so huge until someone create a new kind of text, that is called electronic text (e-text). (prakoso, 2015) twitter is one of social networking service implied in microblogging category or short blogging in one paragraph (maximum 140 letter) in one post. if facebook is like playing football, twitter is playing futsal. assuming that blogging makes a house, micro blogging makes a chicken coop. next willian in (prakoso, 2015) said that twitter is an information network that give the latest news from everybody and share it all over the world. figure 1 error in the use of preferred standardized word source: https://twitter.com/bbcindonesia/status /915220923678158851 standardized language is mandatory in the use of language, especially in mass media. one of the ways to determine the standardized word is to search it in indonesian dictionary (kbbi). it is important to take note that to determine the standardized language can be searched in indonesian dictionary (kbbi), but not all words in indonesian dictionary (kbbi) is a standardized word. for that reason, it is essential to observe, read, and administer the procedure of using dictionary. figure 2, error in the use of preferred standardized word source: https://twitter.com/kemnakerri/status/ 916626552288194560 conditioning in the use of standardized language in community take part in determine success or failure in initiating standardized indonesian language. occasionally, a word that considered common and used by many people, is not a standardized word. using the unstandardized word is difficult to straightened because of habit and accustom in using the word. finally, the language that accustom spread out and “forced” to become “standard”. fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 62 figure 3, error in the use of preferred word source: https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/ 913327428340027392 as in the error in figure 2, figure 3 also make the error in the use of preferred word (diction), it contains pleonasm language style. this kind of language style used by most people so it considered a common thing. as for example, the word “naik” has a meaning move upward or to a place that higher, occasionally paired with the word “ke atas”. figure 4, error in the use of punctuation source: https://twitter.com/humasjateng/status/ 912914210669162497 error in punctuation and preposition are commonly found. the writing of preposition is not supposed to be linked with the word that follow. as for example, preposition “di” it supposed to be written separately with the word “kampus”. the error in punctuation in particular if linked with prefix and suffix that bracket the basic word. as for example, the word “tanggung “ and “jawab”, if give affix penand suffix -an, the writing must be “pertanggungjawaban” (without hyphen) figure 5, error in the use of preferred word source: https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/ 920519582246408192 the error that quite often encountered is mixing up language or code –mixing. ironically, this error considered to be funny and common. for an example in speaking, when someone asked “apa kabar?”, and answered “oiya, fine-fine aja.” fine is an english word that have a meaning “baik” but it does not mean if we mention it consecutive, the meaning will be changed into “baik – baik”. english and indonesian have different language system, in this point is reduplication or repeated words. in indonesian, there is “reduplikasi sempurna” that have a meaning plural, such as “rumah-rumah, kawan-kawan, and makan-makan”. we cannot find this system in english. https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/913327428340027392 https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/913327428340027392 https://twitter.com/humasjateng/status/912914210669162497 https://twitter.com/humasjateng/status/912914210669162497 https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/920519582246408192 https://twitter.com/kemdikbud_ri/status/920519582246408192 fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 63 iv. discussion seen in fugure 1, sourced from bbc indonesia time line which is news service. in the post, bbc wrote “jean-michel basquiat: siapa jenius yang disia-siakan ini?” there is a language error that is not using standardized indonesian language. in the word “jenius”, it is supposed to be “genius”. it has a meaning that someone who has exceptional intellectual ability and originality. this language error influenced by people’s pronunciation habit when they pronounce the word genius. source in figure 2 derived from twitter account of the ministry of manpower that was posted on 7th october 2017. ministry of manpower through its posts writes “rekanaker #pejuangcpns @kemnakerri mana suaranya? daripd galau, absen yuk! kamu saat ini berdomisili dan menentukan lokasi seleksi dimana?”. in this post, there is a language error that is choosing the incorrect word of “absen” and it should be “presensi”. “absen” mean did not come (to school, to work, and so on) or did not presence while the post leads to attendance. it may seem or sound strange, the use of “presensi” replace the word “absen”. still in the same post, there is also an error on word “di mana”. this word shouldn’t be written separately because it shows adverb of place. in figure 3, ministry of education and culture wrote “bermain peran dapat membangun kepercayaan diri anak. saat bermain peran, anak2 seakan masuk ke dlm dunia yang penuh keajaiban dan petualangan.” let skip the problem of abbreviation that is not appropriate based on the rule of indonesian language (because twitter only allowed 160 character) and focused on words “masuk ke dalam” which is not a standardized indonesian language because it contains pleonasm language style. pleonasm is using more words than necessary. the word “masuk” means inside (ke dalam). so when the both word is side by side, what happen is the post used more words than it needs. it is not suppose using the word “ke dalam”. last but not least, public relations of central java province write “tmmd memberikan manfaat besar bagi desa. tidak hanya dibidang infrastruktur namun juga lebih kepada penguatan kegotong-royongan masyarakat.”. there is a language error in the writing of “kegotong-royongan”, this word doesn’t need to be separated and use hyphen (-) in the middle of it. you just need to write it together, like this “kegotongroyongan”. on figure 5, ministry of education and culture account is talking about a developing phenomenon, it is a jargon “kids jaman now”. unfortunately, it become a blunder in improvement which the account tries to do. ministry of education and culture account asks us to use puebi and revise the word “jaman” to “zaman” but did not change the words “kids” and “now”. it looks like ministry of education and culture account allowed the use of that two words. it supposed to change a whole sentence to “anak zaman sekarang”. v. conclusion based on findings and discussion above, the researcher made conclusions: a. that not all of verified twitter accounts provide the correct use of language in their posts, therefore, it needs carefulness and understanding from social media users in interpreting the posts. b. the most language error happen because the posts do not using the standardized indonesian language. since the benchmark is clear, that is indonesian dictionary (kkbi) that was made by the language development and fostering agency (pusat pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa). fajar kurniadi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 4. no. 2 (2017) 64 references ambarwati, r. (2017). harmoni dan solidaritas perempuan di jejaring sosial facebook. linguista, 36-46. hasanudin, c. (2017). analisis kesalahan berbahasa pada penulisan media luar ruang di kabupaten bojonegoro. jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra, 117-126. jaya, d. (2012). ketidakefektifan sebuah pesan melalui fitur "pesan" pada situs jejaring sosial facebook. ranah, 21-39. listiyorini, a. (2017). wacana humor dalam meme di media online sebagai potret kehidupan sebagian masyarakat indonesia. litera, 64-77. markhamah, & a, s. (2010). analsis kesalahan dan karakteristik bentuk pasif. surakarta: jagat abjad. nisa, k., & suyitno, i. (2017). kesalahan penggunaan bahasa indonesia dalam teks terjemahan mahasiswa. jurnal kajian bahasa, sastra indonesia, dan pembelajarannya, 1-13. prakoso, t. (2015, 2 11). apa itu twitter dan tips cara menggunakannya. retrieved 08 20, 2017, from motivasee: http://motivasee.com/twitter/ susanti, e. (2016). glosarium kosakata bahasa indonesia dalam ragam media sosial. dialektika, 229-250. syafar, s. (2016, 09 08). 10 media sosial dengan pengguna terbanyak di dunia. retrieved 10 08, 2017, from tribunnews kaltim: http://kaltim.tribunnews.com/2016/09/08/10-mediasosial-dengan-pengguna-terbanyak-di-dunia biography fajar kurniadi was born in remote village of kulon progo yogyakarta a moment before call for prayer at dawn (adzan subuh). a few months later, he has to move to bumi parahyangan closer to the capital city. besides finishing his formal education in depok city, he also finished his college in indraprasta pgri university. husband of anita sari completed his college with concentration in indonesian language education and literature in 2011. accomplished his master degree when his son, mas shiddiq is only eight months old in 2014. they are researcher sources of inspiration and enthusiasm. at present, he is active as a lecturer in economic education study in indraprasta pgri university focused in lecturing indonesian language and scientific writings. microsoft word 92-98 condra antoni.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.92-98.2019 article language variation in minang colloquial language spoken in kabun region: sociolinguistic study on millennial citizens condra antoni1, irham2, gusna ronsi3 1politeknik negeri batam, batam, indonesia 2universitas islam negeri maulana malik ibrahim malang, indonesia 3 yayasan kabun institute, jorong, kabun nagari sisawah, sumatra barat, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 27, 2019 final revision: september 30, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 despite the endless discussion on standard and non-standard language, minangkabau and its dialect have less attention from scholars to study. this paper, therefore, aims to elaborate and compare the variation of minang colloquial language and sijunjung dialect spoken in kabun region. sociolinguistic theory on language variation and contact were employed to reveal such differences. in terms of data collection, we make use of buffalo trophy" as the data source and transcribe some potential words that fit the criteria. afterward, we ask sijunjung speakers to respond to those words. this process is recorded in a way to get sufficient interpretation of the possible variation among speakers. this study revealed that minang and sijunjung have several prominent dissimilarities in terms of phonological aspects. the changes occur from alveolar /r/ to voiced velar fricative /gh/, from /r/-/w/, from /a/-/o/, and /a//aw/. the findings confirmed that minang as a standard language has phonological variations in sijunjung dialect. some of them may carry out new meanings, but the rest may not. keyword language variation, minang, millennial citizen, colloquial. correspondence e-mail: condra@polibatam.ac.id i. introduction since decades, minangkabau has been deemed as the standard language of ‘baso' minang. other variations surrounding minang lands are considered non-standard, including sijunjung variation. sijujung is often called as a dialect of standard minang. the present paper does not attempt to discuss standard and non-standard language of minang but to investigate dialect variation in minangkabau. here the word minangkabau is used interchangeably with minang. it is worth noting that variation can occur on a lexical, syntactic, or phonological level. the current research focuses on the latter in the sense that sound change has greater potential to cause deviation from a standard variety. auer & schmidt (2010) that "sound material is never passed on exactly as it is received, so ultimately a much stronger differentiation can arise". to that point, the phonological condra antoni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 93 variation would serve as the central focus of this study. in short, this paper emphasizes the discussion upon three main topics; phonological divergence between the sijunjung dialect and standard minangkabau, distinctive phonological differences of the sijunjung dialect compared to other dialects of minangkabau. afterward, we explicate such phenomena by employing the sociolinguistic approach to language contact and variation theory. minangkabau is an austronesian language spoken by approximately 6 million speakers (ethnologue, while gordon (2005) in crouch said 7 million). the minangkabau vernacular, bahasa minangkabau (‘minangkabau language’), is considered to be an old dialect of malay (moussay 1981 as cited by suryadi, 2014). based on ethnologue (2015), there are about 12 dialects spoken of minangkabau; agam, aneuk jamee (jamee), batu sangkarpariangan, kerinci-minangkabau, orang mamak, payakumbuh, pancuang soal (muko-muko), penghulu, si junjung (officially known as sijunjung), singkarak, and tanah, ulu. fig 1: sijunjung map (source: https://doniaries.wordpress.com) it is also interesting to note that minangkabau is spoken through indonesia due to marantau tradition (drakkart 1999 in crouch 2009). ethnologue displays about 500 of them reside in jakarta. sijunjung, on the one hand, is the region in west sumatra where the people speak a different dialect from other residents. though its geographical factor, which is surrounded by numerous varieties of dialects, sijunjung has a unique phonological characteristic. hence, inhabitants of this region can be identified from the sound they produce. in the following chapter, we are going to explore this distinct feature. the minangkabau were first studied by van der toorn (1899, cited in crouch 2009) in collecting folktales, minang word lists, and dictionary, william (1961) in phonology and morphology, moussay (1998) in minangkabau grammar. besides, the study of minangkabau and its dialect was initiated by kǟhler (1965) who compared the dialect of tepa (t.), simalur (si.), and liken (l.) spoken in agam, payakumbuh, tanah datar, solok, and pariaman region. in his finding, it is stated that the changes occur in a single phoneme such as lenggal (si) > linggal (l), and two vowels in the final position as in alimao (si) > alimo (l) (kǟhler, 1965: 501). furthermore, yandra & refnaldi (2013) did a comparative study on minangkabau and labuah dialect. they found some phonological and lexical dissimilarities in minang and labuah dialects. correspondingly, they also found some words that are different in each dialect but have the same meaning. the study of the minangkabau dialect is extended by the work of yulis, yufrizal, & ardi (2013), who delineate some dead languages of minangkabau in koto padang-pariaman region. the respondents are divided into two groups; old and young. interestingly, some minangkabau languages are no longer comprehended either used by the young generation due to several reasons, including prestige. based on the previous research, we try to draw our novelty of this present study in the phonological variation between baso minang and dialect sijunjung. it is still worth doing since it can build the study of dialects in the minang language and specifically meticulously identify phonological divergence as a distinct feature of the sijunjung dialect. condra antoni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 94 ii. methods regarding the characteristics of the data, this study is designed in terms of descriptivequalitative, which later attempts to analyze words, phrases, sentences, and expressions from both informants and video (miles & huberman 1994). besides, the standard minang and minangkabau dialects are distinguished following crouch's (2009) definition that standard minang is spoken in a formal situation or written in a newspaper or magazine, while colloquial is used in informal communication (crouch, 2009: 10). this comparative analysis of sijunjung dialect and colloquial minangkabau is the pivotal tenet in the present study to shed light differences and uniqueness, be it a phonological aspect or morphological one. the data collection process is as follows. the first is transcribing data from minangkabau language from "trophy buffalo" retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgdhq x0gyp0 . second is listing potential words that are suspected of having the variation extracted from the transcription. thirdly, those collected data were then sent to sijunjung speakers and had them make a recording. then, the last step is data transcription. the analysis encompasses data from sijunjung dialect spoken speakers from kabun sub-village (jorong kabun). administratively, the sub-village is a part of sisawah village (kenagarian sisawah), the lowest administrative government in west sumatera province, indonesia. there are approximately 1000 speakers of kabunsisawah sub-dialect of sijunjung (kabun institute, 2013). the speakers are roughly 3.500 villagers in sisawah village in 2010 (bps, 2015). sisawah belongs to sumpur kudus sub-district. the location can be seen from the map we have mentioned earlier. it shows sumpur kudus sub-district (kec. sumpur kudus), which is bounded by muaro sijunjung sub-district, koto vii sub-district, as well as 50 kota regency. furthermore, several ipa references such as indonesian native phonetic inventory for indonesia (as adapted from maddieson, i. (1984) by george mason university), the phonetic chart from omnigot.com, and arabic ipa for a specific phonetic transcription like /gh/. was also employed in analyzing the data. iii. result the study reveals some phonological, as well as the morphological difference of the understudied dialects. the sound /r/ in minang, for instance, can change into sound /gh/ in kabun dialect. here is the result of our study. table 1: phonemic changing from /r/ to /gh/ words meaning bufalo tropy kabun regency dari from [dari] [daɣi] diri self [diri] [diɣi] mancari search [mancari] [mancaɣi] caro way [caro] [caɣo] table 1 shows that there is a change from alveolar /r/ to voiced velar fricative /gh/. the change occurs when /r/ is in the middle position and preceded and followed by a vowel. the possible explanation is that for every /r/ in colloquial minang language, which occurs in the middle position, before, and followed by a single vowel, it is changed into /gh/ in kabun speaker. for example, ronsi (2012) reveals the following case for the word ‘lemari’ meaning ‘cupboard’, and ‘perut’ meaning ‘stomach’. in addition, we presented the consecutive results of phonological differences found in those dialects; /r/ to /w/, /a/ to /o/, /a/ to /aw/, and /s/ to /h/. condra antoni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 95 table 2: phonemic changing from /r/ to /w/ words meaning bufalo tropy kabun regency katurunan descendent [katurunan] [katuwunan] taruhan bet [taruhan] [batawua] taruih continue [taruih] [towi] turuik follow [turuiy?] [tuwi?] the table shows phonemic changing from alveolar /r/ to bilabial /w/. it occurs in the middle position. the change from [katurunan] into [katuwunan] is similar to the change from /r/ to /gh/ in table 1. it occurs when preceded and followed but a single vowel. hence, the question remain whether or not the variation of the individual speaker in kabun is also possible to be uttered as [katughunan] besides [katuwunan]. the rest of the words in table 2 are just identified in terms of changing from /r/ to /w/ regardless it follows or preceded the sound. table 3: phonemic changing from /a/ to /o/ words meaning bufalo tropy kabun regency alah finish [alah] [ola] baa how [ba a] [ba apo] bajanji promise [bajanji] [bajonji] cameh worry [cameh] [come] the change from /a/ to /o/ occurs in initial position like from [alah] to [ola], in middle position like from [bajanji] to [bajonji], from [cameh] to [comeh], from [kabau] to [kobau], but not [kobou], etc. besides, there is an additional /po/ prior to changing from /a/ to /o/ like in the changes from [manga] to [mangapo] and from [baa] to [baapo]. table 4: phonemic changing from /a/ to /aw/ words meaning bufalo tropy kabun regency bana true [bana] [bonaw] baraja learn [baraja] [baajaw] manjua sell [manjuwa] [manjuwaw] subananyo actually [subanaɲo] [habonaw bonawɲo] takana remember [takana] [takonaw] the change from /a/ to /aw/ occurs in final position. the variation of /a/ changes to /aw/ when it places the final letter such as [bana], to [bonaw]. the sound of /a/ in minang changes to /aw/ in sijunjung dialect. thus, such feature enriches the discrepancy of vernacular minang and sijunjung dialect in phonology level. table 5: phonemic changing from /s/ to /h/ words meaning bufalo tropy kabun regency saketek a little [sakete?] [haɳene?] sakik sick [saki?] [haki?] salamo during [salamo] [halamo] salamoko all this time [salamoko] [halamoko] salanjuiknyo further [salanjuy?ɲo] [halanjuy?ɲo] salasai finish [salasai] [halosay] sambie a little [sambi:e] [hambi:e] table 5 shows the change from /s/ to /h/ in which it occurs in the initial position. this variation only occurs in kabun, and thus make it distinct from other vernacular minang. for this reason, we count the change of sound /s/ in the initial position to /h/ as the distinct feature of sijunjung dialect in kabun region. condra antoni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 96 iv. discussion as we stated in the background of this paper, we are going to deal with the following cases; phonological discrepancies of sijunjung dialect and its standard minangkabau, distinctive phonological difference of the sijunjung dialect compared to other dialects of minangkabau, and lastly the explication of such phenomena. the changes from colloquial minangkabau to sijunjung dialect spoken in kabun can be categorized into three: /r/, /a/, and /s/ changes. the /r/ in middle changes to either /gh/ or /w/ whenever it is flanked by a single vowel as in table 1. however, it will change to /ow/ when it is followed by double vowels such as in the word /paruik/ to [poʷiy?]. in addition, the /a/ may change to /o/ in initial or middle position (table 3) and /aw/ in final position (table 4). consequently, the /s/ in initial position changes to /h/. the last variation shows the distinct feature of kabun dialect, where it does not occur in other areas either in villages sumpur kudus sub-regency or other regions. moreover, the dialect is not specific to kabun-sisawah village but also the case in other regions both inside and outside sijunjung dialect. still, we need to find more literature and research to justify the proposition. since several scholars come with several terms to pick the notion of dialect, such as language variation (appel & muysken, 2005; hinsken, auer, and kerswill, 2005), individual dissimilarity (paul in murray 2010), regional variant (wieling, 2007), social and geographical of language variation (trudgill, 2004), and individual speakers’ repertoire (murray, 2010), we count dialect as language variation spoken in a speech community. the occurrence may be due to the existence of “standard language”, geographical, or social. furthermore, the idea of “lect(al)” also attributes such variation to gender. minangkabau as the standard language has several phonological variations in its regional dialect. in the case of sijunjung, especially in kabun, we find that the change from /s/ to /h/ as its distinctive feature, a clear discrepancy from other minang colloquial. consequently, the speakers from kabun can be identified from the way they pronounce /s/, whether they will change the sound to /h/ or not. as we have mentioned, the variation in kabun region presumably as the contribution of minang as standard language and geographical location. in the final remark, we realize that, indeed, it needs further and more comprehensive research to support that claim. yet, variation of individual speaker in /r/ to /gh/ or /w/ such as [katughunan] or [katuwunan] can be taken into a primary consideration for future research. v. conclusion this study revealed that sijunjung dialect differs from minang language. the phonemic change occurs in several sounds of either vocal or consonant. for example, the sound /r/ in minang changes into sound /gh/ or /w/ in sijunjung dialect. the most interesting part to note is the evidence that the sound /s/ in minang may be pronounced as /h/ by sijunjung speakers. the difference is the only distinguishable feature of sijunjung dialect compared to other regions in minang islands. dialect and language variation may lead to the awareness of language diversity among speakers. besides, it may also help us identify which part of the group the speakers belong to. condra antoni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 97 references ager, s., 2017. shorthand. omniglot: the online encyclopedia of writing systems and languages. accessed 15 january 2015. appel, r., & muysken, p. 2005. language contact and bilingualism. amsterdam, amsterdam university press aslinda, a., noviatri, n. and reniwati, r., 2015. the trace of minangkabau-wise in malaysian language. scientific journal of ppi-ukm, 2(7), pp.291-295. auer, p., hinskens, f., & kerswill, p. 2005. dialect change: convergence and divergence in european languages. cambridge, uk, cambridge university press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511486623. auer, p., & schmidt, j. e. 2010. language and space: theories and methods: an international handbook of linguistic variation. berlin, de gruyter mouton crouch, s.e., 2009. voice and verb morphology in minangkabau, a language of west sumatra, indonesia(doctoral dissertation, external organizations). suryadi, s. 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jufrizal, h.a., 2013. an analysis of dead words of minangkabaunese in koto tabang-pariaman dialect. e-journal english language and literature, 2(1). ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 15, 2020 final revision: march 20, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this research is aimed at describing the maxims of politeness used by female sellers in a traditional market in sumatera barat. the research was conducted in one tradititonal market in sumatera barat, namely batu sangkar. the data are any utterances produced by female sellers in a traditional market in a traditional market in batu sangkar. the data were taken by the observational method with note-taking, recording, and interviewing techniques. the analysis was done by using the concept proposed by (oktavianus & revita, 2013; leech, 1983). the result of the analysis was descriptively done and used the chart. the percentage was also used to identify the number of maxims that occurred. having analyzed the data, it is found that the female sellers used four maxims in their interaction with the buyers. they are 1) tact, 2) agreement, and 3) modesty. there are two types of agreement between the sellers and the buyers, namely using 1) verbal and 2) non-verbal agreement. the nonverbal agreement is the indication of the insincerity of the sellers of the price bargained by the buyers. the sellers do not get much profit from the price offered by the buyers. keyword female sellers, maxims of politeness, traditional market correspondence phone: e-mail: ikerevita@hum.unand.ac.id article maxims of politeness performed by female sellers at traditional market in sumatera barat ike revita1, sofia marwati2, ainun mardiah3, ayumi4 1,2,3,4faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.8-15.2020 i. introduction politeness is a kind of strategy to make the communication smooth. through politeness, what the speaker wants can be gained (oktavianus & revita, 2013; revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017a). it can bee seen in the process of communication involving the sellers and the buyers. the polite way of the sellers will influence the buyers. even some buyers will buy things even though the price is high. it is only because of the politeness (revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017a). this proves how being polite is important in order the communication can run very well. politeness is taught by parents to their children (revita, trioclarise, & gunawan, 2017). the politeness is believed to be one of the good traits everyone should have (kramsch, 2011). thus, parents and adults are expected to show politeness as it is culturally transmitted over generations. these people will become the model for the youth to be imitated in interaction and communication. revita (2017) stated that the norms and traditions of a certain community in speaking must be inherited through daily activities. the youth will imitate and do what they see. there is no reason to say when the youth cannot fully apply the norms of a society without any model to be emulated (sifianou, 2012). minangkabau is one of few cultures that still practice good teaching of politeness in behaving around people, talking to elders and market transactions as a buyer or seller, and many more. the dominance of minangkabau culture in west sumatera meant that these politeness forms play a central role in the area (hastuti, julianti, erlangga, & oswari, 2013). a woman, for example, is considered polite when she talks in a low tone and behave ladylike (aminifard, safaei, & askari, 2014). even 8 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) in minangkabau, when educating the daughters, parents often remind them that they are girls who must behave as the girls must be. it will be different from the education to the son that is never treated in such away. for example, when a daughter and a son behaves wrongly, the response of their parents tend to be like in data 1-2. 1) kalau anak padusi ndak buliah co itu do. awak harus baetika. ‘as a girl, you may not behave like that. you must have ethics.’ 2) ondee, baa anak ibu ko. elok-elok kalau duduak tu yo. ‘oh my god, what is my son. sit politely!’ there are two different forms of education daughter and son for a similar intention. it is caused by the mindset of the society that females must behave politely but not males (beeching, 2002). in utterance 1, the speaker explicitly stated that the hearer is a girl, and as a girl, she must have a good attitude. the way of parents teaching since early age made minangkabau women tend to be careful in speaking. they try to be polite in speaking on every occasion. being polite is regarded as very important because it has something to do with others’ faces (brown, 2015). it is in line with the role of language as a means of communication that involve at least two participants, the speaker, and the hearer. in communication, there is a possibility to hurt others due to language use. people must know how to use language politely such as in making the request, refusing, promising, or expressing the feeling (& tanto, 2018; ogiermann, 2009; sifianou, 2012) the aspect of politeness is not only taught by parents to their children but also for language learners. english, for instance, as the international language is studied by many people from various parts of the world. this english can become a 2nd language or foreign language for these learners. so, when learning english, this politeness must be transferred (chiravate, 2011; ilmiani, dwi ; wijayanto, agus ; hikmat, 2016; rahmat, revita, & fitriyah, 2019). they must know the concept of politeness from the english point of view. therefore, being impolite can be avoided (culpeper, 2013; suci erza & hamzah, 2018), especially in the society that concerns much on politeness. minangkabau, for example, puts politeness as the most crucial point in communication. because of this, the phenomenon of trafficking occurs because of the ability of panders in communication. the politeness becomes the tools for these panders to camouflage the fact. consequently, many women became the victims of this polite way in persuading (revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017a). politeness is something regarded as positive and usually used to indicate a sincerely good attitude. the politeness may influence the way people view something, even in trading activity. the high price is ignored as the sellers offer their merchandise politely. many women omit that they prefer buying things to those who give good service event the price is higher. moreover, politeness can be viewed differently from the gender perspective in which a particular society regulates that females must behave politely but very loose of men (aydınoğlu, 2013; beeching, 2002). it created a different attitude of males and females in viewing the world (revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017b). it is similar to the domain of the politics that hypocrisy is conducted covered by the politeness. many people have been deceived the politicians due to the very polite way of persuasion (davidson, 2004). the above phenomena display that politeness occurs in every domain, and being polite might give several impacts toward the response of the hearer. it is closely related to how to speak pragmatically. as the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (reader) (yule et al., 2010), pragmatics also deals with context (ike revita, 2013; revita, 2008, 2018). context can be everything (bublitz & norrick, 2011; revita, 2010; revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017c). with the help of context, communication can run smoothly because there is shared knowledge and common ground among the participants (revita, trioclarise, & anggreiny, 2017b). to be polite in conversational exchange, leech (1983) proposed six maxims of politeness. they are maxim of tact, generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement, and sympathy. tact maxim requires 9 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the participants to minimize the cost to others and maximize the benefit to others. it is implemented in directive/not positive and commissive utterances. generosity maxim requires the participants to minimize benefits to self and maximize cost to self. it is expressed in directive/not positive and commissive utterances. approbation maxim requires the speaker to minimize dispraise to others and maximize praise to others. it is expressed in expressive and assertive utterances. in modesty maxim, the participants must minimize praise of self and maximize the dispraise of self. it is applied in assertive/ representatives and expressive like the approbation maxim. both the approbation maxim and the modesty maxim concern the degree of good or bad evaluation of others or self that is uttered by the speaker. the approbation maxim is exampled by courtesy of congratulation. on the other hand, the modesty maxim usually occurs in apologies. the sample of the modesty maxim is below. agreement maxim is considered as minimizing disagreement to other and maximizing agreement to others. it applies in symbolic speech acts. sympathy maxim requires the speaker to maximize sympathy and minimize antipathy between them. it is expressed in the representative speech acts proposed by searle. these maxims vary from culture to culture. what may be considered polite in one culture may be strange or rude in another. the article is describing the politeness of the traders in selling the merchandise in the traditional market in west sumatera. each market has its own uniqueness related to the politeness of the sellers. the maxims of politeness implemented are under the objective of the research. ii. method the appropriate choice of the strategy to have polite speaking is very important. the intention to speak politely can be interpreted impolite because of the wrong choice of the use of language in conversation. this research is aimed at analyzing the politeness used by the female sellers in selling their things in the traditional market in sumatera barat. the objective of the research is to identify the maxims used by the female sellers in the interaction with the buyers at the traditional market. the research was conducted in a traditional market in sumatera barat, batu sangkar. this market is located at the capital district of tanah datar regency. the visitors of the traditional market of batusangkar are those from tanah datar and the area around tanah datar like payakumbuh and padang panjang city. besides, domestic tourists also shop in this traditional market for traditional food. the sellers are mostly minangkabau people. the uniqueness of the sellers in this market is that they sometimes offer their merchandise by singing songs. so, they communicate rhythmically. female sellers mostly do it. the data were any utterances containing politeness uttered by the female sellers when having interaction with the buyers at a traditional market in batu sangkar. to collect the data, observational method (sudaryanto, 2015) with note-taking and recording technique was used. the open-ended survey was also conducted to dig information about the use of politeness in the conversation. there were around 23 females interviewed. the analysis was done by using the concept proposed by (oktavianus & revita, 2013) and (leech, 1983). the result of the analysis was descriptively done. the tables and charts were used to clarify information about the findings. besides, there was a percentage involved in order for the number of certain maxims, and other aspects can be displayed. iii. result and discussion being polite is expected by many people in society. being polite is closely related to very good behavior (kecskes & kecskes, 2014). in the interaction, speaking in a polite way is appealed in the sense that others will criticize those who are impolite. thus, in every domain, human beings try to communicate politely, such as in the interaction in the traditional market at batu sangkar, sumatera barat. in this traditional market, females sell their merchandise different from other traditional markets. it is due to the female consideration of politeness when having interaction with the buyers. this can be seen from the maxims used by these females. there are four maxims of politeness used by female sellers at the traditional market in batu sangkar. they are maxim of tact, generosity, 10 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) seller : 45, uni. (went to the backroom and came back) mode itu ciek tingga nyo, ni. ‘fourty five thousand rupiahs, sist. this is the only model left, sist.’ buyer : examined the product and realized they were not in good condition) ndak ado stok lain, un? ‘are there any other stocks, sist.’ seller : uni kan langganan awak. ko ado nan labiah rancak, ni. bali se lah 40. (handed the buyer a box with higher price). ‘you are my customer. this is a better one, sist. just pay 40 thousand rupiahs.’ in conversation 2, the seller tried to assure the buyer that the product she offered was qualified. she even stressed that the buyer is her customer that must be given a better one. thus, she proposed a lower price than offered previously. what she had done is fulfilling the tact maxim in which she minimized the cost to the hearer. by saying uni kan langganan awak. ko ado nan labiah rancak, ni, the speaker is actually maximizing the benefit to the hearer. the tact maxim does not only occur in directive intention but also in the form of assertiveness. this assertive means to highlight and emphasize the information in order the buyers are interested in buying the merchandise offered. 3) buyer : bara tomat sakilo, mak?? ‘how much is the price of tomatoes?’ seller : 6 ribu, diak. ‘six thousand rupiahs, sist.’ buyer : 4 lah, ni. ambiak duo . ‘is it possible to be decreased, mom. i want to buy two kiloes.’ seller : 11 ribulah! ‘i can only sell eleven thousand rupiahs.’ buyer : tambah beko yo, mak. ‘give the extra, will you?’ approbation, and agreement. tact maxim tact maxim requires the participants to minimize the cost to others and maximize the benefit to others. it means that in implementing the tact maxim, the speakers make the benefit and decrease the cost for the hearers. for example, 1) buyer : bara 1 kg? ‘how much is the price?’ seller : sakilo 35 ribu. ‘thirty five thousand rupiahs per kilogram’. buyer : tigo puluah se lah 1 kg, buk. ‘is it possible to be 30.000 rupiahs?’ seller : ndak bisa do, nak. payah carinyo. ladonyo rancakrancak, baru-baru. ndak rugi gai anak mambali sarago iko do. ‘i cannot sell at that price. it is difficult to find such good chili. the chili is good. you will not get loose buying them at this price.’ the conversation involves the female seller about 40 years old with a buyer around 50 years old. the buyer wanted to buy a kilogram of chili. the seller offered idr 35000 for each kg. the buyer regarded such a price expensive. she then tried to have a bargain, but the seller explained why she could not give the same price as the buyer wanted. the seller has her own argument, not for giving the price as the buyer asked. in refusing the request of the buyer, the seller used tact maxim that she tried to maximize the benefit to the hearer by saying that she will be fortunate to buy her chili with the quality and the price. using informative utterance, the speaker applied tact maxim to maximize. 2) buyer : galeh ko bara salusin, ni? (pointed at a box) ‘how much is the price of the glasses?’ 11 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) and beans. a buyer around 30 came to buy a half kilo of tomatoes. she bargained the price offered by the seller into 2.000 idr. the seller gave that price and asked the buyer to take the tomatoes by herself. even the quantity was enough ( a half kilo), the seller still asked the buyer to take more tomatoes by saying tambahlah ciek lai. kurang. this utterance intended to praise the hearer and avoiding the dispraise. the praise is explicitly stated in the proposition tuak urang co adiak ko bia lah balabiah pado kurang. the speaker wanted to praise the hearer for persuading her to buy other things. agreement maxim agreement maxim relates to the agreement of the speakers toward the hearers. they avoid disagreement in the conversation. in the conversation involving the seller and the buyer. this agreement maxim often occurs. this is due to the final conversation in this process is the commitment of the price (brown, 2015). both the seller and the buyer commit to a certain price. for example, 5) buyer : wortel bara, buk? ‘how much is the price of carrot?’ seller : wortel 10. ‘ten thousand rupiahs.’ buyer : sakilo? ‘one kilo?’ seller : iyo. ‘yes.’ buyer : ndak lapan se, buk? ‘is it possible to be 8.000 idr, mam?’ seller : jan. ka langganan co adiak ma nio amak maha-maha. ‘no. to such a customer, i will not sell at a high price.’ buyer : sabana ko, buk? ‘is it true?’ seller : iyo, diak. sabananyo. ‘yes, sist. it is true.’ the seller is around 40 years old that was selling vegetables. the buyer is around 25 years old who looked beautiful. when the buyer bargained the price of the carrot into 8.000 from 10.000 per kilo, seller : adiak lah langganan. amak labiahan beko. ‘you are my customer. i will add the extra.’ the participants were two women around 50 years old. the buyer wanted to buy the tomatoes. the price offered by the seller was 6 thousand per kilos. however, the buyer asked for a decrease because she planned to buy two kilos. the seller then proposed 11 thousand for two kilos, which means 5.500 idr per kilo. finally, the buyer agreed with that price, but she asked for the extra tomatoes. the seller committed by saying that would give that extra because the buyer is her customer. this proposition is a kind of politeness with tact maxim because the speaker is maximizing the benefit of the hearer with the utterance adiak kan lah langganan. modesty maxim the approbation maxim requires the speaker to minimize dispraise to others and maximize praise to others. it is commonly delivered in expressive and assertive utterances such as: 4) buyer : tomat bara sakilo, buk? ‘how much is the price of tomatoes?’ seller : tomat 6, diak. ‘six thousand rupiah, sist.’ buyer : satangah 2 ribu bisa, buk?. ‘is it possible to be 2 thousand for a half kilo, mom?’ seller : ambiaklah surang! ‘please take by yourself!’ buyer : satangah, buk. ‘a half kilo, mam.’ seller : tambahlah ciek lai. kurang. tuak urang co adiak ko bia lah balabiah pado kurang. apo lai? lado? ‘please add more. it is still lesser than half kilo. more, please. for such a lady, i will give more and never lesser than it must be. what do you want else? chily?’ the seller was a woman around 60 years old. she was selling vegetables, like tomatoes, potatoes, 12 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the seller refused. she then said that she would not sell a very expensive carrot, especially to her customer like that lady. that lady wanted to assure that and directly replied by the seller by saying iyo, diak. sabananyo. what the seller stated is a kind of agreement. she did not say any disagreement in her utterance. thus, the politeness being conducted is an agreement maxim. the politeness is kept being implemented by minangkabau females. even the interaction occurs in the traditional market. such politeness is realized by the use of three maxims of politeness. they are tact, modesty, and agreement. maxim. the occurrence of the maxim is various in the sense that the agreement maxim occurs at the most, which is 52.5% followed by tact maxim, 27.5%, and modesty maxim, 20 %. this occurrence can be seen in the following chart 1. fig. 1. the occurrence of maxim of politeness by female sellers at traditional market the other three maxims, like sympathy, generosity, and approbation, were not used by the female sellers in the traditional market yet. it is interpreted that the speakers need to focus on the agreement by using persuasion through the previous three. thus, the buyers will buy their merchandise. the highest occurrence of agreement maxim indicates it. the agreement maxim is also divided into two. the first is indicated by the use of verbal utterance like yo¸jadih, dih, or ndak baa do. the second is the nonverbal agreement marked by nodding the head or other body gestures, like just silent or say nothing. the non-verbal agreement is commonly used when the sellers think that they did not get many benefits from the transaction. still, they get profit but not as many as they expect. in the minangkabau language, non-verbal communication plays a very important role in delivering the message and emphasizing the intention of the speakers (revita, 2013). it is in line with one feature of minangkabau people in communication is delivering something indirectly and implicitly (munir, 2016). iv conclusion being polite does not recognize the class of speakers. every human being must be polite in every situation. it even does not care about the status or other social variables. however, being polite is commonly emphasized to females. even in minangkabau, women are expected to be more polite than men. it is implanted from an early age. the girls are taught how to behave politely and strictly but not to the boy. it is then continued till they get older. wherever they are, these women consider being polite, including in selling in the traditional market. the female sellers in the traditional market still use the polite way of speaking. it is reflected in the implementation of the maxim of politeness. at least, there are three maxims of politeness used by the female sellers in the process of transaction in the traditional market. they are tact, modesty, and agreement. the other three maxims, as proposed by leech (1983), is not found yet. a limited number of data might cause it. when the research is conducted longer, there possibly other maxims found. moreover, the research about politeness is not only limited to being conducted to the female sellers but also the male ones in the transaction. the maxims could be different when being used by the sellers in the modern market. thus, further research related to politeness can be continued. the object must be very various in the language use.13 ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) references jeanyfer, j., & tanto, t. 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(2010). the study of language ( 4th edition ) study guide. 1–97. 15 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 18, 2020 final revision: march 26, 2021 available online: april 25, 2021 to be able to conduct smooth communication has been the focus of teaching and learning l2. since the late 1970s, developing language learners’ communicative competence has become the center of l2 teaching. this paper is part of a study investigating how elementary-level english learners at an english course in surakarta-indonesia conduct english conversations. it particularly observes how they use communication strategies. the data was obtained through recording the conversations between instructors and the learners in teaching and learning activities. this study revealed that the learners frequently used stalling or time gaining when communicating their ideas or opinions. assertive was the dominant speech act used by the learners, whereas expressive was the least. this could be because during the learning process, the learners were the ones who answered questions and expressed ideas in response to the instructors’ questions. keyword communication strategies, speaking ability, communicative competence correspondence e-mail: aw213@ums.ac.id articles communication strategies by indonesian efl learners in english conversation class agus wijayanto1, diyah murti hastuti2 1,2english department, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.72-81.2021 i. introduction english has been used massively by people around the globe. since the 19th century, it has become the official language in many countries. it has become the dominant language in many sectors such as commerce, education, politics, social, and many others. the demand for english proficiency has recently correlated directly or indirectly to the global economy’s current trend and business opportunities with internet technology as the platform. with the emergence of e-commerce and the global market system, where the customers are from worldwide, companies require qualified personnel to communicate in the international language. countries having qualified human sources with high english language proficiency tend to earn high export revenue, such as singapore, south korea, china, and many others. a similar trend occurs in indonesia being one of the members of asean economic community and other economic pacts. almost all national and foreign companies in business sectors prioritize high english proficiency staff. this implies important roles of formal and informal schools (i.e., english courses) to enhance indonesians’ english communicative competence so that they can understand spoken and written messages, initiate and conclude conversations, and produce texts according to their needs. concerning communicative competence, speaking is the most important skill among the four language abilities. although people do almost all their communication orally on a daily basis, speaking l2 is very challenging. studies have pointed out that one of the biggest obstacles of speaking l2 is lacking of self-confidence (hasibuan, 2013). hasibuan further reported that most indonesian efl learners were shy to speak during english class as they were afraid of making mistakes either in grammar or pronunciation. a study by sayuri (2016) reported that internal factors such as confusion, worries, embarrassment, shyness, and lack of selfconfidence as well as misunderstanding contributed greatly to indonesian efl learners’ poor speaking ability. as nijat, atifnigar, chandran, selvan, and subramonic (2019) reported, most malaysian 72 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) primary school pupils became the victims of common physiological factors such as shyness and anxiety. most of them were less confident in communicating their ideas since they were afraid of making mistakes. some others were shy and anxious when they had to speak up. another study by souriyavongsa, rany, abidin, and mei (2013) has revealed that external and internal factors induced efl learners’ poor speaking ability. the external factors include the local teachers’ less capability to teach english, inappropriate curriculum to help students improve their english proficiency, and an unfavorable class environment. the internal factors include low motivation and lack of self-confidence. a study by nakhalah (2016) reported similarly that many efl learners were very nervous, shy, and unconfident when they were asked to communicate in english. hosni (2014) reported some factors causing efl learners’ poor speaking ability, such as limited vocabulary, inadequate syntactic rules, and anxiety. the study also reported that the learners were shy to speak english. they were afraid of making mistakes as it was very embarrassing to make mistakes in front of others. unlike the studies above that reported that l2 learners’ internal factors greatly affected their speaking performance, khan (2011) reported that some unfavorable factors relating to both teachers and learners were similarly very discouraging for target language learning. the teachers ran into pedagogic challenges such as qualification, training as efl teachers, experience as bilingual teachers, their cultural perception towards l2 teaching, language policy, the status of the target language, teaching techniques and methods, language assessments, etc.. in contrast, the learners stumbled upon grammar difficulties, received insufficient teaching techniques, had low motivation, and exhibited a negative attitude towards the target language. some teaching strategies have been implemented to develop efl learners’ speaking skills, and the results are rewarding. for example, combining oral conversation, interview, dialogue, and presentation could highly improve efl learners’ confidence in speaking (muslem, mustafa, usman, and rahman, 2017). performing hand puppet shows could encourage high motivation and improve efl learners’ speaking ability (fauza, usman, and muslem, 2018). storytelling could significantly improve efl learners’ speaking ability than conventional techniques such as asking learners to practice simple dialogues (bin, 2016). other studies have pointed out that learning technology plays an important role in fostering learners’ speaking ability. for example, a study by sun, lin, you, shen, qi, and luo (2017) used mobile social networking to improve efl learners’ english-speaking ability. the study reported that there was an improvement in the learners’ speaking ability between pre-test and post-test. they gained substaninogress in fluency, accuracy, and pronunciation. a study by parmawati and inayah (2019) reported that watching a movie was an effective technique to improve speaking abilities as learners could learn how native speakers in the movies communicate in different social situations. a study by samad, bustari, and ahmad (2017) reported that efl learners’ speaking performance could be improved significantly by applying podcasts. another study pointed out that communicative games positively applied learners’ self-confidence and fluency (dewi, kultsum, and gamesdi, 2017). many studies have reported the efficacies of teaching strategies and learning technology in advancing efl learners’ speaking ability. despite this, very little has been known about efl learners’ communication strategies to cope with communication difficulties. the present research explores communication strategies employed by young indonesian efl learners to overcome communication difficulties in english speaking activities. the communication strategies provide crucial information for teachers about the learners’ struggles to tackle complications in l2 communication. by knowing the mismatch between the learners’ linguistic knowledge and their communicative intentions, teachers could select relevant teaching methods to overcome l2 communication problems. communication strategies in l2 are concerned with learners’ techniques to convey meaning or ideas with their present knowledge of the target language. communication strategies in conversation relate to interlocutors’ efforts to comprehensible their messages to one another 73 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) (tarone in wei 2011). they may include the ability to relate linguistic knowledge to its appropriate context to achieve communication goals (bachman, 1990). they also concern tricks employed by speakers to tackle communication difficulties (dörnyei, 1995). dörnyei and scott (1997) view communication strategies as linguistic devices to overcome communication glitches such as something conveyed is incorrect or partly correct, the speaker’s speech is perceived as problematic, and the speaker’s need for more time to process and plan l2 communication. even though communication strategies have been the rich field of study in l2 learning, they have been scarcely studied in indonesia’s efl learning context. one important study that is relevant to the present research is that of cita (2018). the study investigated types of communication strategies employed by adult efl learners in formal schools in indonesia. the study found that the learners’ most dominant type of communication strategies was stalling or time gaining. they used the strategy to prevent communication from interruptions, keep the communication going, and make it more understandable. to the best of our knowledge, there have been limited studies that investigate young learners’ communication strategies in informal schools and the types of speech acts they use in english learning activities. speech acts concern the acts of doing things through language. the theory was firstly proposed by austin (1962) in his book entitled “how to do things with words”. it states that every time someone says something simultaneously, the person is doing what was said. in other words, saying something means doing something. austin (1962) classified speech acts into three levels. locutionary act is the presentation of an utterance or the actual utterance and its apparent meaning. illocutionary act, that is the intended meaning of the utterance. through this act, people do something via words, for instance, apologizing, promising, requesting, complaining, thanking, etc. perlocutionary act is the effects of other speakers’ utterances such as enlightening, inspiring, shocking, misleading, and getting someone to perform something. searle (1975) classified speech acts into five categories, namely: (a) assertives: acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition such as informing, explaining, swearing, concluding, and boasting. (b) directives: acts that cause others to take a particular action, such as requesting, commanding, ordering, and advising. (c) commissives: acts that commit a speaker to some future actions such as promising, offering, betting, and vowing. (d) expressive: acts that express speakers’ attitudes and emotions towards proposition such as congratulating, apologizing, and thanking. (e) declarations: acts that change the reality according to the declaration’s proposition, such as baptizing, electing, pronouncing someone’s husband and wife. the present study explores efl learners’ communication strategies to overcome communication difficulties and the types of speech acts they use in english language learning activities. two research questions are raised: (1) what types of communication strategies do young indonesian efl learners apply to overcome their speaking difficulties?, and (2) what types of speech acts do they frequently use in speaking activities? ii. methods the present study was qualitative research observing communication strategies employed by young indonesian efl learners to overcome communication difficulties. fifteen english learners took part in the study. they studied english at an english course with fourth and fifth levels (cefr: a1 and a2 respectively) in surakarta, indonesia. the data was 5 hours 45 minutes of conversations that contained communication strategies used by both english learners and instructors in the language learning activities. the data were obtained through recording and was analyzed according to the taxonomy of communication strategies proposed by dörnyei (1995). the taxonomy was chosen as it offers a more operational and comprehensive list of communication strategies commonly employed by l2 or foreign language learners. the taxonomy is provided in the appendix. iii. results communication strategies used by learners avoidance strategies to overcome communication difficulties, the efl learners in the present study used two types of 74 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) avoidance strategies: message abandonment and topic avoidance. the former was a strategy to leave the message unfinished due to language difficulties. the strategy often provided them more time to recall or find appropriate words. the following excerpt shows a learner used the former strategy. she tried to say a word, but she did not know what to say. she stopped speaking and left the utterance unfinished to overcome the communication difficulty. the strategy gave her time to recall or find appropriate words. for example: student 1: yes student 2: do you like… teacher : [looks at her eyes and mentions the name of the food]… meatball student 2: do you like to eat meatball? student 1: no i don’t in the excerpt above, student 1 and student 2 were practicing a conversation on which was favorite food. in turn 2, student 2 lost the name of the food (meatball) and stopped speaking until the teacher (in line 3) gave her a clue of the food name. topic avoidance was a strategy of avoiding a topic of a conversation as the learners lacked linguistic resources. they reduced messages to avoid problematic language. for example: teacher : did you go to school today? student : no.. teacher : why? student : no... teacher : no. ok, why didn’t you go to school?... why? is it a holiday? holiday? libur? student : yes teacher : oh,, hari ini libur ya? ok, so you didn’t go to school. the learner in the excerpt above understood the teacher’s question, however, in turn 4 she avoided answering it. the utterance “no...” after the question “why” in turn 3 suggests that she did not know how to tell the reasons or she could not find words to tell the reasons. however, after the teacher gave her a clue in l1, she agreed with the teacher by saying “yes” which means that she did not go to school as it was a holiday. figure 1 shows the frequencies of the two types of avoidance strategies to overcome communication difficulties. the learners used message abandonment considerably more frequently than did topic avoidance. fig. 1. the frequency of avoidance strategies 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% message abandonment topic avoidance avoidance strategies compensatory strategies through compensatory strategies, the learners tried to maintain the conversation running to achieve communicative goals. the learners employed three sub-types of compensatory strategy: nonlinguistic signals, stalling, and appeal for help. using nonlinguistic signals means that they used gestures or facial expressions as the cue to ask for help. for example: teacher : ok. // why don’t you use a pencil? student : heh?.... (nodding his head) teacher : kenapa kamu gak pake pensil? (‘why don’t you write with a pencil?’) student : aku sukanya pake pulpen (‘i like to use my ballpoint’.) in the excerpt above, the expression oh heh?.... (nodding head) signaled that the student did not understand what the teacher had said. such kind of a nonlinguistic cue often implied that students needed help to understand the intended meanings. stalling or time gaining is a trick by which speakers try to go on speaking by inserting fillers. it is a spontaneous pause occurring when they get stuck on some words and lost ideas. through the strategy, they could have more time to think. for example: teacher : okay and then what’s your hobby? student : my hobbies are ehm..err.. singing and then riding bike swimming and many more. in the excerpt above, the fillers ehm---err was a strategy to find out suitable words that the learner 75 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) wanted to say. by using it, the learner could produce the intended words and he finally could continue the conversation. appeal for help is a strategy of asking for help directly or indirectly. through the strategy, speakers show either verbal or nonverbal expressions to ask for help. the present research learners used the strategy when they asked for help from either other learners or the teacher. they often utilized the strategy as they did not understand the meaning of words or expressions. for example, in the following extract, a learner asked the meaning of what the teacher had said in l1, apa ? (what?). teacher : ok, let’s continue it. where is my glasses? do you see it caca? student : apa? (‘what?’) teacher : my glasses for eyes. (touching eyes) i forgot it. student : o, kacamata?. ini.. (‘oh your glasses?, here you are’). the word apa? (what?) in the conversation above indicates that the learner did not understand what the teacher had said. since she could not tell it in the target language, she said it in l1 instead. this implied that the learner asked the teacher to translate what was said. this kind of strategy was commonly employed by learners when they really did not know what to say in the target language (english). figure 2 shows the frequency of three sub-types of compensatory strategies used by the learners. stalling was the most dominant strategy. this indicates that they frequently used fillers such as ehh, err.., and emm to get more time to recall or find words they wanted to say. the learners rarely used nonlinguistic signals. table 1 shows two types and five subtypes of communication strategies frequently used by the present study learners. stalling or time gaining was the most dominant subtype of the efl learners’ communication strategy, followed by message abandonment, appeal for help, and nonlinguistics signals. meanwhile, topic avoidance was rarely used by the learners. table 1. summary of communication strategies type of communication strategies subtype of communication strategies frequency (%) total (%) avoidance message abandonment 20,40 % 30,6% topic avoidance 10,20 % compensatory non-linguistic signals 12,40% 26,1% appeal for help 13,65 % stalling or time gaining fillers 43,35% 43,3% speech acts used by the efl learners speech acts are verbal actions to accomplish some communicative goals, for example, complimenting, insulting, informing, etc. the study found three types of speech acts that the research participants used, namely assertives, directives, and expressives. fig. 2. sub-types of compensatory strategies. 51%46% 3% assertive directive expressive fig. 3. the application of speech acts figure 3 shows that they mostly used assertives and directives, and they used expressives the least often. this could be because, during the english learning, the learners were the ones who answered questions and expressed ideas in accordance with the instructor’s instruction and questions. the application of assertives the types of assertives mostly used by the research participants were declaring and informing. the act of declaring can be described by the following 76 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) excerpt. when the instructor asked a learner whether she liked cooking she replied to the instructor’s question assertively by saying “yaa of course”. teacher : do you like going out for dinner or lunch? student : yes teacher : how often? everyday? student : ahmm it’s not really every month every day it sometimes if i have time to eat and … eee in zona steak munmun and many more teacher : okay so, do you love cooking? student : yaaa of course the following excerpt shows one of the english learners employed an informing act. when the instructor asked the learner who messed the toys out from the basket, the young learner informed the instructor by briefly saying “jojo” which means that it was jojo who messed out the toys. teacher: before going home, let’s tidy it all. who messes the toys out from the basket? student: jojo! gantian. you give me instruction. student: ok // oh..eh, miss, aku lupa, apa miss? (‘i have forgotten, what is it miss?’) teacher: say, close your eyes student: iya (‘yes’), close your eyes// dah..(‘done’) teacher: [closing eyes] student: say it the conversation occurred when students and the instructor played a game. firstly the instructor introduced the game. after that, the instructor started the game by instructing the students to play. there was a turn in which a student became the one who instructed the instructor. however, in the midst of the game, the student did not know what to say. the teacher gave a clue for the words, and the student started the game. the directive act “ apa miss?” (‘what is it miss?’) expressed the learner’s direct request for information. the following excerpt shows the act of questioning that was observed during english learning. firstly, the instructor asked the students whether they had homework. one of them answered it properly. however, in the midst of the conversation, the student asked for clarification to the teacher’s intention. teacher: do you have homework? student: yes, miss. aku bingung soal ini (pointing the topic in the handbook). teacher: ok, it is about grammar. let’s learn it. caca please take the eraser. student: yang mana? (‘which one?’) teacher: in front of you student: yang buat papan tulis atau buku? (‘the one for whiteboard or book?’) teacher: whiteboard the question “yang mana?” (‘which one?’) indicated that the student asked the instructor for more specific information. for the second time, the student used l1 to ask the instructor for more specific information “yang buat buat papan tulis atau buku?” (‘the one for whiteboard or book?’). figure 5 shows the frequency of directive acts employed by the learners. requesting was used more frequently than questioning in most of their conversation. 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 declaring informing figure 4 shows the frequency of assertive acts used by the learners in english classroom activity. informing was employed more frequently than declaring. the application of directives directive acts are intended to make other interlocutors take certain actions. requesting and questioning were the directives commonly used by the learners in the present study. the following excerpt is an example of requesting by the learner. teacher: let’s play a game. ok, in the first time. awalnya kamu gak tau samase kali and then you try to say it. next, take turn, fig. 4. types of assertives used by the learners 77 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the application of expressives it is a speech act in which the words convey what the speakers feel towards others for example apologizing, praising, congratulating, etc. the present study found some expressive acts conducted by the learners, although it was not as many as the other acts. the following is an example of thanking. student 1 : do you like drink a glass of tea? student 2 : yes, i do. student 1 : ok, finish. teacher : say what? student 2 : thank you so much. student 1 : you’r welcome the conversation was conducted during the teaching-learning activity where the teacher asked students to do a role play and did an interview about favorite food and drink to their friends. the data shows that one of the learners expressed gratitude in the dialogue. the expressive act thank you said by student 2 conveys her thankfulness to the other student. as an expressive act, it showed the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the proposition. iv. discussion speaking is very challenging, and many efl learners spend a long time using it in authentic communication. even though many learners have spent so many years studying english, they cannot speak it appropriately and understandably (bueno, madrid and mclaren, 2006). communication strategies are aspects that could cope with l2 learners’ speaking difficulties. the present study has observed communication strategies used by young efl learners and the types of speech act they used in english conversations. the study found four common strategies applied by the efl learners: message abandonment, topic avoidance, stalling, and appeal for help. in line with previous research (e.g., cita, 2018), the result of the present research has revealed that to overcome the issue of fluency, the learners dominantly used stalling or time gaining strategy. they made use of the strategy when they could not instantaneously find out the right words, terms, or expressions. in line with novitasari (2016), the finding has shown that the learners often inserted long-fillers to keep the conversation going. the fillers were mostly used to gain pauses to have more time to think some ideas and construct the right utterances. the strategy has made them more confident to engage in simple conversations. they rarely employed the topic avoidance strategy. they tended to use it when they lacked target language resources. some of the learners stated that when they did not have ideas to answer the tutor’s questions, they felt very nervous. keeping silent or stop talking about the topic was what they commonly did. all in all, the findings confirm dörnye’s (1995) assertion that exercising communication strategies could bring positive impacts on the learners’ speech fluency or rate. the present study has disclosed that although the young learners had the basic speaking ability, they were eager to speak up by answering every question asked by the instructors. they often mixed their broken english with l1 to cater to their communicative goals. by teaching them to do simple exercises such as answering questions and conducting short dialogues, the tutors could train them to express their ideas in simple english. the learners commonly used three types of speech acts: assertives, directives, and expressives to express their ideas. the finding has indicated that they tended to inform or give opinions to the topics assigned by the tutors in the speaking activities. this was indicated by their recurrent use of assertive acts. by contrast, the teachers mostly produced directive acts in the teaching activities. this could be because the teachers, as the center of teaching activities, mostly instructed the learners with basic english level reported similarly by merdana, seken, and putra (2013). the finding further implies that the low-level (basic level) learners could not directly perform or initiate speaking activities without their teacher’s instruction. 0 5 10 15 questioning requesting figure 5. the types of directives used by the learners 78 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) v. conclusion the present study shows that young l2 learners or beginners have similar problems when learning to speak in the target language. they would use communication strategies to bridge between their limited linguistic knowledge and communication needs. some different communication strategies are employed by young english learners who have limited l2 linguistic knowledge. the strategies could help them overcome speaking complications so that they would keep conversations going. the strategies may also be used as the ways to prevent misunderstanding between the students and the teacher. in other words, they are employed to make utterances understandable or meaningful to other learners and teachers. in this sense, the strategies function as attempts to make a deal on important communication. the finding has revealed that l2 learners with low or basic competence could convey their ideas through some speech acts. however, the performance of the speech acts depended largely on the help of the tutors’ instruction. to cater to communication needs, they frequently mixed l1 and the target language. interestingly, to convey a complete illocutionary force, they could do it through limited or simple utterances consisting of one or two words. this informs us crucial information that the ability to express meanings in l2 could develop well before the learners master the perfect grammar of l2. in other words, limited grammar does not limit them to express themselves in l2. references austin, j. l. 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(2011). communicative strategies in second language acquisition: a study of chinese english learners’ attitude and reported frequency of communicative strategies (unpublished thesis). kristianstad university, stockholm. 80 agus wijayanto/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) avoidance strategies 1. message abandonment: leaving a message unfinished due to language difficulties. 2. topic avoidance: avoiding topic or concepts that cause language complications. compensatory strategies 3. circumlocution: describing the target objects of action. 4. approximation: using an alternative term which expresses similar meaning of the target terms. 5. use of all-purpose words: extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking. 6. word coinage: creating a nonexisting l2 word by eneralizing. 7. nonlinguistic means: mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation. 8. literal translation: translating literally a lexical item, idiom, compound word, or structure from l1 to l2. 9. foreignizing: using a l1 word by adjusting it to l2 phonology and/or morphology. 10. code-switching: using l1 while speaking in l2. 11. appeal for help: asking for aid from the interlocutor either directly or indirectly. stalling or time-gaining strategies 12. using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think. appendix taxonomy of communication strategies by dornyei (1995, p.58) 81 jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.8-14.2019 article wordplay and world-play: the minima visibilia in the construction of linguistic sciences emad abd elkareem alqadumi1 1 assistant professor of english literature in the department of languages and translation, taibah university, saudi arabia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: januari 12, 2019 final revision: may 17, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 this paper aims to illustrate, by using a single sentence as the focus of the study, the inseparability of wordplay and worldplay. it intends to illustrate how playing with a sentence like wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently can help us understand the very complex and fascinating phenomena of language, endless play. at first glance, the sentence may appear to be giving a piece of information on the english elizabethan dramatist. however, this same sentence can also be used to illustrate the countless possible interpretations of any discourse. in addition, the sentence can be used to illustrate how linguistic sciences such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, stylistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, comparative linguistics and discourse analysis separate some properties as representative of the entire science while suppressing all the others as insignificant in order to control the playfulness of language. keyword discourse analysis, linguistics, phonetics, play, shakespeare. korespondensi e-mail: al_kadumi78@yahoo.com i. introduction wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently. endless are the ways in which such a sentence could be approached. although at first glance the sentence may appear to be stable, in reality the opposite is the case. the sentence is as playful and dynamic as the writer it describes and the medium, language, in which it is expressed. furthermore, this sentence is inseparable from play at the cosmic level. for instance, the sentence can be used as a statement on shakespeare's ability to play, in his plays, with words and language in order to entertain and instruct. it can be amended to refer to any writer who has a comparable power as in wordplay was a game christopher marlowe played competently; the sentence can be used to refer to an age where play with language was an important characteristic as in wordplay was a game the victorians played competently. in addition, this sentence can be used to illustrate how linguistic sciences such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, stylistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, comparative linguistics, and discourse analysis are constructed by separating some properties as representative of the entire science while suppressing all the others as insignificant to control the playfulness of language. http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.8-14.2019 emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 9 linguists, unfortunately, have tended to disregard the role ideology plays in our understanding of such playfulness within linguistic sciences (garido, 2016; thurlow, 2017). hardly can we find a study, for instance, that applies ideological insights to the study of phonetics, morphology or syntax. this study may be regarded as a tread in an unvisited territory casting light on how custom has forced us into seeing linguistic studies, phonetics in particular, as stable sciences with clear boundaries. in reality, these boundaries are human constructs that can be expanded or narrowed by our needs. ii. methods this paper utilizes primarily a single sentence to unearth the complexity of all human utterance. the methods researchers use in analyzing their linguistic data create the illusion that language is stable and that the boundaries between different fields and levels of knowledge are natural and clear-cut. by focusing on the analysis of a single sentence and approaching it from different linguistic and literary levels, the paper aims to reveal the artificiality of the boundaries between one field of knowledge and another. the reduction of data used in this study to almost a basically single sentence, despite its limitations which render the analysis of scientific subjects to a skeletal overview, offers the reader an enlightening and informative bird's eye view of a very complex phenomenon were a single utterance such as "wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently" can be subjected to ideological, historical, linguistic, aesthetic, and nonaesthetic investigation. iii. result and discussion based on the approach of the paper to its data, mainly the sentence discussed in the paper, the study, as the subsequent discussion illustrates, found that any human utterance can be interpreted historically, ideologically, stylistically, linguistically, physically, etc. and yield fruitful results. this is because objects in the world, human utterance included, do not have a single essence but many, and therefore no single discourse can offer a comprehensive interpretation of it. wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently. we can study the basic components of this sentence at many levels, its sounds, the internal structure of its words, and the way the words pattern in the sentence, and its meaning. linguistically, the sound level is the subject of phonetics; the word level is the subject of morphology, while the sentence level is the subject of syntax, while meaning is the subject of semantics. all these levels work simultaneously to give the sentence its meaning and, as the study will illustrate, these levels are nothing but human constructs; they attempt to hold the continual slide and the playfulness of language to achieve particular ends. this sentence, like any other sentence, is produced by modulating-playing with-the air flowing from our bodies at certain points of contact by certain degrees with or without the vibration of the vocal cords. phonetics studies this process of modulation by describing how each single sound segment, phoneme, in the sentence is produced. at the individual phonemic level, phonetics describes the place in which the sound is produced, how it is produced, and whether the sound is voiced or voiceless. as these sounds combine, they form meaningful units; the scientific study of these units, morphemes, and words, is called morphology. for example wordplay consists of two free morphemes word and play which are joined together to make up a single compound word while the word competently consists of one free morpheme competent, and one bound morpheme or suffix ly. by combining individual sounds to form words and morphemes, we do not depart totally from the world of phonetics to the world of morphology because morphemes and words are nothing but sound segments larger than phoneme. as individual sounds combine, they emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 10 make up larger sound segments consisting of syllables. in a sequence of syllables, one syllable generally receives extra force and is more prominent than the others. the amount of force used in producing this syllable is described as stress. phonetics describes these segments and their stress patterns. finally, once these segments form a sentence, phonetics describes the intonation of the sentence. this skeletal description of phonetics attempts to illustrate how playful language can be even in the construction of sciences. a critical examination of phonetics would reveal that we are not merely separating the phonetic level from the other linguistic levels, such as the morphological and the syntactic, which work to give this sentence its meaning; it would also reveal that we are separating one sound level from other sound levels. phonetics can be regarded as a specific instance of the more general field of physics, of which the general study of sounds is one instance. therefore, phonetics overlaps intertextually not only with linguistic sciences such as syntax and morphology but also with physics as the latter tends to study sound in general. the overlap between phonetics, the lowest level of language study, and none-linguistic sciences can be illustrated by isolating a phoneme, the smallest distinctive sound unit in language study, from our sentence. by restricting our examination of the sentence to the sound p, for instance, we would be able to see that even the smallest unit in language study is not as stable as we normally believe. language sciences are not immune to language play. the sound p in the sentence may have different aspects for different scientists. the physicist regards it as a vibration of particles, the physiologist as a movement of the body organs, a neuroscientist as an impulse on the cochlear nerve, while the phonetician combines the three sciences in approaching the sound. the physicist, the physiologist, the neuroscientist, and the phonetician may emphasize partial aspects of the sound p. they may borrow from each other different aspects of the sound according to their needs. thus, the essential aspects of the sound and its value may vary from one field of study to another, the boundaries between these fields, on the other hand, are never fixed. the sound p does not have a single essence, a single aspect. it has so many essences depending on the angle from which it is approached. in the history of language, in socio-linguistics, in psycholinguistics, in contrastive linguistics, stylistics, postcolonial studies, education etc. it can be approached differently by different scholars according to their needs and according to how they were trained to see it. no matter how hard they try, none of them can ever see all the aspects of the sound. all they can do is to isolate particular aspects of it and act accordingly. as cunningham observes: … however hard we try, we can only see, can only take in, a small number of phenomena at a time – minima visibilia. moreover, we do, naturally, have to act upon, to make do, with the minima which are all we can perceive at one go. we have to settle precisely for the smallness of our maps, our small models….(cunningham, 2002, 135) phonetics is only one way of visiting the sounds of language, exactly as it is only one specific way of visiting sound in general. all the aspects of linguistic sounds approached by phonetics in the manner already described can be approached in a different manner and for different purposes by a different discipline like literature. for a poet, the sound p acquires aesthetic value if repeated within a line of poetry to create alliteration or if repeated at the end of lines to create a rhyme. to illustrate further, we will take one instance of linguistic sound study, stress, and see how it is approached in phonetics and in literature. it has already been indicated that as a group of sounds combines to form larger sound segments, they constitute syllables and that emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 11 one syllable generally receives a greater amount of force. phonetics tends merely to describe which syllable in a word takes this amount of force or stress. in wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently, phonetics would merely describe the syllables on which stress falls, the first syllable in wordplay for instance, without paying attention to the way these stresses may combine to create an aesthetic effect. poetry tends to study stress by foregrounding its aesthetic aspects. the importance of stresses in poetry lies in the rhythm they create. as a group of stresses recurs at fixed intervals, they create a meter. for instance, "shall i compare thee to a summer’s day?" (shakespeare, 1172) is a sort of wordplay that shakespeare played competently by creating rhythm out of a group of stresses. in poetry, the number and pattern of stresses determine what kind of meter is used in composing this line. since the line consists of a sequence of unstressed syllables followed by stressed ones it is called iambic meter, a common meter in english because the pattern created by such stresses resembles the ordinary speech of english. the analysis of stress and stress pattern, both in linguistics and poetry, is far more complex than the one offered in this paper. however, i believe that it is sufficient to show how a science such as phonetics and poetry analysis do not stand independently with clear boundaries as they both overlap with other fields of language study. the intertextual nature and overlap between fields of knowledge can become even more complex if we introduce syntax, the science that studies the patterning of words into sentences like wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently. a syntactic study of the sentence would tell us which are the possible structures and arrangements of the sentence and which are not. we have already pointed out how we can play with the sentence to produce sentences like: wordplay was a game marlowe played competently. wordplay was a game the victorians played competently. the process of play can continue and produce examples like: wordplay is a game skilled dramatists play competently. wordplay is a game great poets play competently. wordplay is a game shrewd politicians play seriously. a syntactic analysis of the examples would show that although we can play with the sentence and replace some of its parts, the process of replacement is not arbitrary, but a rule-governed one. the word shakespeare occupies the position generally occupied by a noun phrase and consequently it can be replaced by any word or group of words which can occupy that position such as marlowe, the victorians, dramatists, great poets, and shrewd politicians. no matter how long a noun phrase could be, it can occupy the position occupied by a single word occupying that same position. therefore one can say: wordplay was a game the linguistically adept late elizabethan dramatists, such as shakespeare, living in the late sixteenth century played competently. where the linguistically adept late elizabethan dramatists, such as shakespeare, living in the late sixteenth century can replace a single word like shakespeare. the sentence can also be taken as a generative example of all the possible syntactic structures which english can produce. therefore we can say: wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently. emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 12 a game shakespeare played competently was wordplay. shakespeare played the game of wordplay competently. shakespeare competently played the game of wordplay. a competently played game was shakespeare's wordplay. the examples given here can generate any sentence with similar syntactic structure and the process of replacing the word shakespeare with different and larger noun phrases can apply to any word in the sentence as long as it belongs to the same category occupied by the word one intends to replace. by choosing a particular sound pattern, word structure, or sentence structure in the production of the sentences above we enter the domain of stylistics, the study of style–a distinctive way of using language for the sake of particular intentions and effects. therefore, phonetics, morphology, semantics, and syntax overlap with the study of literature, and other linguistic forms such as journalism, sermons, political speeches, telephone conversations which tend to use particular styles at any linguistic level. in literature, stylistics studies which particular sound, word, or sentence patterns a literary artist, or a discursive discipline, prefers. stress, for instance, can be studied in literature, or religious sermons, once it is approached as a distinctive style. therefore, stress can be studied within different subjects such as phonetics, literature, and stylistics. the study of distinctive sound pattern, word structure, or sentence structure is not the monopoly of stylistics. the sentence wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently can be produced and pronounced in a variety of distinctive ways depending on the social group uttering that sentence. the science which studies the way a sentence like this is uttered by foregrounding the social aspect is called socio-linguistics. from the perspective of this study, socio-linguistics is a form of stylistics that pinpoints the geographical, social or cultural aspects of the way a sentence like ours is produced. for instance, the sentence can be pronounced in a variety of ways by different groups of people belonging to different speech communities. it can be pronounced by using the british accent, american accent, boston accent, indian accent or arab accent where these accents are nothing but distinctive styles adopted by particular groups of speech communities making the dividing line between stylistics and socio-linguistics unclear (gunnarsson 2017. shih, 2018). now we turn to the subject that sheds light on the implicit ideological undercurrents of all fields of knowledge, including the linguistic ones we have discussed, discourse analysis. as it has already been indicated, linguistic studies are in reality interdependent. such interdependence demands an interdisciplinary investigation such as that offered by discourse analysis. drawing upon a variety of disciplines, such as linguistics, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, cognitive science, and social psychology, discourse analysis breaks the artificial boundaries between disciplines and casts some light on the inseparability of knowledge and wordplay. for instance, the separation of the different linguistic disciplines is not the result of natural characteristics inherent in these sciences. like all other fields of study and disciplines, phonetics, morphology-syntax, and semantics are nothing but instrumental human structures and not entities in the natural world. there is no one-to-one correspondence between syntax, phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, stylistics, sociolinguistics and the forms of the language they describe. these disciplines are merely regulated forms of speaking about topics delimiting the sayable and the unsayable. simply speaking, they are nothing but forms emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 13 of discourse regulated through other forms of discourse. people tend to approach sciences, including linguistics, as objective, truthful, and given; our readings of these forms of knowledge tend to be mainly uncritical. even when someone casts a critical glance at these scientific practices, he has to obey the implicit rules which delimit how a practice is to be spoken about. truth cannot be expressed in whatever way we want. as foucault observes: it is always possible one could speak the truth in a void; one would only be in the true, however, if one obeyed the rules of some discursive "police" which would have to be reactivated every time one spoke (foucault, 1972, 224). in other words, we cannot talk about a sentence like wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently, nor approach it in whatever way we like. at any historical moment, there is a tendency for cultures to map certain procedures and structures for thinking. particular kinds of statements and forms of classification are regarded as knowledge and self-evident ways of thinking about subjects while others are not (macdonnell, 1986, 87). being a class within the educational system, linguistic studies such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and sociolinguistics can be regarded as games played in order to halt the continual slide of meaning and the playfulness of language. they are games played to bring language-play to an end. this game is played by the utilization of discourse through a ritualization of speech, a qualification and fixing of the roles for speaking subjects, the constitution of a doctrinal group, however diffuse, distribution and an appropriation of discourse with its powers and pieces of knowledge (foucault 1981, 64). iv. conclusion this paper has discussed how playful linguistic studies are by showing how playful a sentence like wordplay was a game shakespeare played competently can be. the multiple possible interpretations of the sentence were restricted to demonstrate that the boundaries between linguistic discipline such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, stylistics and literature are not straitjacketing and that by removing or adding one aspect to the way we study a linguistic characteristic we move from one domain of linguistic study to the other. the paper has illustrated how the sound p or the stress pattern, can be studied under phonetics. by adding the aesthetic feature to the study, we move to the domain of literature, or stylistics. by adding the social aspect, we enter the domain of sociolinguistics. finally, by producing a metadiscourse on these fields of study, we enter the domain of discourse analysis, an interdisciplinary science that tries to show that knowledge and mind play are inseparable. this meta-discourse produced by discourse analysis, as i believe, would prove to be nothing but an ideological game played against the imperfect human perception. references cunningham, valentine. 2002. reading after theory. oxford.: blackwell publishers. foucault, michel. 1980. power/knowledge: selected interviews and other 'writings 19721977. colin gordon(ed.). new york: pantheon books. foucault, michel. 1972. the archaeology of knowledge. trans. sheridan smith, a. m., london: tavistock. emad abd elkareem alqadumi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 14 foucault, michel. “the order of discourse,” in untying the text: a poststructuralist reader, young, robert (ed.) london: rkp. 1981. garrido, maria rosa, emilee moore. 2016. “we can speak we do it our way”: linguistic ideologies in catalan adolescents’ language biography raps. linguistics and education, volume 36, pages 35-44. issn 0898-5898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2016.07.006. gunnarsson, l. 2017. why we keep separating the ‘inseparable’: dialecticizing intersectionality. european journal of women’s studies, vol. 24 no. 2, 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506815577114 macdonnell, diane. 1986. theories of discourse. oxford: blackwell. shakespeare, w. 2012. sonnet 18. in: s. greenblatt, ed., the norton anthology of english literature, 9th ed. new york: norton. pp.1172-1173. shih, stephanie. 2018. learning lexical classes from variable phonology. in proceedings of ajl2. 2018. pp. 3-15. thurlow, crispin. 2017. “forget about the words”? tracking the language, media and semiotic ideologies of digital discourse: the case of sexting. discourse, context & media, volume 20, pages 10-19, issn 2211-6958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2017.06.008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2016.07.006 https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506815577114 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2017.06.008 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: may 30, 2020 final revision: september 14, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 anak dalam jambi tribe (adjt) lives in the forest, far from the population, and the existence is rare. this research aims to determine whether adjt uses illocutionary speech act, function, and type of speech act used. this research uses qualitative with pragmatic research type. the data is in the form of an illocutionary speech act, which is then transcript by putting out the conversation context. this research’s data source is from adjt, who lives in merangin regency, jambi province, indonesia. result research shows that adjt uses three types of speech acts, which are (1) directive with the function of prohibiting, ordering, and asking, (2) expressive with the function of thankful, and (3) commissive with the function of refusing. it can be concluded that adjt frequently uses illocutionary to deliver information to interlocutors. this research is expected can become a preliminary step in further research, especially in the use of language related to indirect meaning in adjt. keyword speech act, sad, kubu, jambi, indonesia correspondence e-mail: bambangb409@gmail.com article the use of illocutionary speech acts in colloquial by anak dalam jambi tribe bambang prastio1, istiqomah nurzafira2, abd. syukur ibrahim3, gatut susanto4, roekhan5 1-5faculty of letters, malang state university, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.109-117.2020 i. introduction one of the obstacles for a community that lives in the rural area is education. jakae et al., (2018) stated that understanding the culture, education, and natural resource is also a human resource is the obstacle faced by rural communities to interact with people from outside their land. adjt is a rural tribe that has not received an education. kanti et al. (2016) argued that adjt had not received proper facilities for learning material. the life of adjt is close to nature also lives far from people’s residence. hambali et al., (2019) stated that adjt is very rare and has begun to disappear, and they live in remote places that far from the population reach so that they rarely interact. thus, it will impact the use and understanding of illocutionary speech acts because they have different world context and knowledge. in pragmatics, communication and cognition cannot be separated. vandepitte (1989) stated that cognitive and communication activity is always related to the use of pragmatics. it is similar to the use of speech acts that are always related to cognitive abilities used to think in the use of language. licea et al., (2019)and proposes that this allows an efficient (good-enough stated that speech act theory needs the cognitive process when producing speech, and several types of research show that the use of speech act is related to cognitive and world knowledge. moreover, kim & kim (2018); lee (2019) stated that one way to understand the speaker’s meaning in communication is the speech acts theory. the speech act is categorized as three acts, one of which is illocutionary. croddy (2002) stated illocutionary speech acts are speech acts that intend to have a response from the interlocutor after uttering the speech that is expressed indirectly. understanding the speech uttered indirectly by the speaker and understanding the context of the conversation will assist in finding out the actual meaning uttered by the speaker (prastio et al., 2019). understanding the meaning of speech not only understands the meaning of the speech but also involves the conversation context. 109 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) it is a term of the effort to comprehend uttering meaningful words or speech when the interaction. austin (1962) stated that a speech act is a speech in a particular context where the speaker expects interlocutor’s communicative acts. to find out whether the use of speech can impact the communicative, the understanding of social and cultural context is needed. martin & mcdonald (2003) stated that understanding indirect speech must rely on high skills, including cognitive skills, knowledge about context, and language. the speech act is divided into three acts. speech is categorized as three acts, which are locution, illocution, and perlocution (searle, 1979; oishi, 2006; domaneschi et al., 2017). localization speech acts are semantic meanings, acts of illocutionary acts of the true purpose meant by the speaker indirectly. meanwhile, the acts of speech actuality in the speech act’s results or actions after listening to the speech uttered indirectly. searle (1979); lee (2019) stated that locution is a basic meaning, hidden purpose illocution of speakers, and perlocution results from the illocutionary speech. according to john et al. (2019), illocution can pressure speech partners to properly solve the message code. meanwhile, the type of speech act is divided into five. searle (1969); cruse (2000); huang (2007) divided speech act into five types, which are assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and declarative. adjt is a tribe that lives in the rural areas of jambi province around the dua belas hills, sarolangun, and merangin regency. adjt survives by relying on natural products such as hunting. the life of adjt (see figure 1 and 2) is still nomadic, and customary traditions are still held tightly (prasetijo, 2017). they live in simple huts made of leaves and wood. malay people or residents who are not from adjt usually call the tribe as kubu (wardani & muslimahayati, 2019; hambali et al., 2019). adjt has its own language in the interaction, and it is difficult to be understood by people who are not from its tribe. however, they interact with people who are not from adjt, they can use the jambi malay language, but not all of them can understand. there are parts of jambi province that have been acknowledged by the government to develop their lives, such as in education and agriculture. adjt usually will not stay long to live in the government’s area due to the strength of their desire to maintain the custom, tradition, and culture inherited from an ancestor. currently, only a small proportion of adjt children go to school, while some usually do not long last go to school due to the lack of awareness of the importance of education. in addition, other factors include those outsides of the adjt who are not so brave enough to interact with them, in which they feel isolated and nomadic constantly live almost every month. a small portion of the adjt belief system has adhered to islam and christianity because of the shift and influence of outside people and the government’s efforts. the rest of them adhere to animism and dynamism. speech act research is not something new. many researchers had researched by using the speech act theory. in recent years, there are relevant researches from overseas. first, holtgraves (2008) conducted research on automatic intention recognition in conversation processing. this research concerns the expression of meaning indirectly by english speakers. the conclusion of that research shows that english speakers can easily recognize the speech act and express the purpose of speech uttered indirectly. second, liu (2011) with the topic of an experimental study of the classification and recognition of chinese speech acts. this research sees the speech act used by the chinese. the conclusion of this research shows that the figure 1. adjt 110 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) speech act is still difficult to be recognized by chinese society. therefore, when speakers utter the illocutionary speech act, they must give more stimulus to make the message expressed can be understood. third, licea et al., (2019)and proposes that this allows an efficient (good-enough with the topic of speech act recognition in spanish speakers. the research looked at whether spanish speakers can easily recognize speech acts and connect with cognitive skills. the conclusion from this research was that native spanish speakers need more time to understand speech acts. the difference between this research and the previous research that has been described is this research concerns on the speech acts expressed by adjt jambi to the communities who are not from adjt jambi (outside communities) and the location of the research where previous research was conducted abroad while this research is conducted at adjt jambi, indonesia, so it has a different context. various speech act research in indonesia also had been conducted by previous researchers. first, syafitri (2019) discusses commissive used by hosts of mnc shop advertisement. second, nurjaleka (2020) discusses second language learners’ rejection speech act, namely japanese language learners. third, mahmud (2019b) discusses the speech act in the context of local wisdom in makassar. fourth, speech act research in the context of daily conversation done by surana et al.(2019) that discusses concerning the use of speech act in functioning for the asking uttered by the speaker of javanese language in trenggalek regency. from these four previous research, it can be concluded that the speech act theory was used in various research contexts and purposes. therefore, this research is extremely necessary to be conducted. some considerations that make this research important are (1) illocution speech act research in daily conversation spoken by the speaker residing in a remote area and living nomadely is still not found by the researcher, (2) the research findings can find out the usage of illocution speech act spoken by remote area community, and (3) the research context in this paper will bring new phenomenon into the research of illocution speech act, especially at adjt. this research will be extremely beneficial, namely, to contribute to the study of the illocution speech act. besides that, this research’s findings are also beneficial for future researchers interested in the research on the usage of language by adjt. meanwhile, this research aims to (1) the type of speech act used by adjt and (2) the function of illocutionary speech acts expressed by adjt to interlocutors. ii. methods this research was qualitative research, which aims to explain and analyze the illocutionary speech uttered by adjt. the type of this research was pragmatics because the actual illocution or speech is not expressed directly. the data were taken in june 2019, also research data in the form of adjt daily conversation. data were obtained by recording conversations when the researcher was in the settlement. based on the result of the recording, then it was transcribed also enter the conversation context. simak bebas libat cakap technique was used to calculate the data. these techniques enable the researcher to become a listener without being involved in the conversation and directly involved during the conversation. in this research, the data source was people of adjt who lived in the edges of rentak seribu village, south pamenang subdistrict, merangin regency, jambi (see figure 2). data were collected by using the free to get involved method. further, there are several stages to conduct the research. the stages are described as follows. first, deepen the speech act theory and look for residents as tour guides to interact with adjt. second, recording communication events while in the adjt settlement. third, identifying the data based on research aims. fourth, conducting the codification to data that has been found by using the data collection table. fifth, classifying, describing, and making a report from data that has been found. then, checking the validity of the data in this research has three techniques. first, the diligence of careful observation. second, triangulation. before the analysis of the existing data, it will be verified. meanwhile, in the data analysis stage, this research used the mean-ends and pragmatic, contextual approach. the mean-ends are the researchers only focus on the speakers’ speech (leech, 1983). triangulation used was source triangulation, data collection methods, and theory. third, discussions 111 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) with colleagues who know pragmatic research, especially speech acts. figure 3. research area iii. result and discussion the speech act used in the society of adjt was the directive speech act to prohibit, ordering, and asking. expressive speech act with thankful function and commissive with refusing function. the finding of the research can be seen in table 1. table 1: research findings no types of speech act function 1 directive prohibition order ask 2 expressive thankful 3 commissive refuse total 3 types 5 functions the result of research findings is divided into three parts, which are based on the type of speech acts found. the discussion of research findings is as follows. first, directive speech act with the function of prohibiting, ordering, and asking. second, expressive speech act with a thankful function. third, the commissive speech act with refusing function. those three parts are explained below. directive speech acts this part describes data of directive speech with functions of prohibiting, ordering, and asking. prohibiting function context: this conversation took place between the interlocutor (hapzi), an outside community. he wanted to ask permission to talk with adjt women to ask several things related to their customary traditions. then, the interlocutor (rayo is a adjt) who is wakil temenggung or the deputy head of the adjt custom, explains the customary rules that apply in their lives outside residents (not adjt) are prohibited from approaching the women’s hut. if that happens, it will be subject to customary law. data in adjt language hapzi (adjt) hapzi : buleh awak ko ke situ ntuk nanyonanyo?(1) : di siko ado bateh batino ngan jantan. apo agi urang luwa, keno utang kelak. (2) : ohh yo (3) english translation hapzi adjt hapzi : may i go there with purpose to ask about several things? (1) : here, the association between women and men is restricted. the outside community may not be able to get customary sanctions. (2) : sure (3) the second data has a type of directive speech act and prohibition function. the purpose of the prohibition function directive speech act is to prohibit the interlocutor to get close to the residence of adjt women. delivery of the prohibition by the speaker is delivered by giving an explanation or delivering a narration. norrick (2015) explained that narration could represent illocution in directive speech act with prohibition function. delivery of the prohibition indirectly by providing narration also aims to maintain interpersonal relations between the speaker and the interlocutor. mauri & sansò (2011)i.e. strategies through which the speaker orders someone to do something, are very frequent in everyday speech, and are particularly subject to processes of diachronic renewal. based on a 200-language sample, this paper provides an extensive survey of the most frequent diachronic processes of emergence of positive directive strategies (imperatives, hortatives, jussives, etc. that the directive speech act sometimes is delivered with particular strategies is often used in daily life to maintain interpersonal relationships. meanwhile, when has heard the speech contains prohibition meaning, the interlocutor usually understands the speaker’s intention to follow the speaker’s wishes. konig & siemund (2007) that speech partners in directive speech act should follow the speaker’s wish.112 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) asking function context: this conversation happens between tara (speaker) with interlocutor (adjt) ketika when having a conversation asking about life and food source of adjt. at that time, the interlocutor is lighting a cigarette. additional information, the majority of adjt are also active smokers, and they smoke their homemade cigarettes. data in adjt language tara adjt tara adjt tara : cak mano jukut kini mamak? (1) : lah payah, pegi pagi balik petang lum ntu dapet kini ko. (2) : hmmm payah jugo yo kalau macam tu (3) : banyak rukuk kawan?(4) : ko cubo ha (5) english translation tara adjt tara adjt tara : how are the prey now? (1) : it is already hard to find, leave in the morning, go home afternoon, not necessarily get a prey (2) : it’s abviously hard in that condition (3) : do you still have a lot of cigarettes?(4) : here, try this (5) the purpose of adjt’s speech can be understood by the interlocutor, which comes from different social identities and social distances. john et al. (2019) argued that a message could be considered successful if the speaker gives code, processed by the interlocutor, then translated properly by the interlocutor to run communication effectively. in delivering data (4) above to make the interlocutor understand the request indirectly, adjt used yesno question pattern. prastio et al., (2020) stated that yes-no question is a speech delivered by giving two answer alternatives to the interlocutor, which are yes or no, also has a pragmatic function, which is asking. data (4) is not only a question but a directive speech act. huls & wijk (2012) argued that it is called directive because the context is contributed to speech meaning. one form of directive speech acts is asking. according to mauri & sansò (2011), the use of indirect directive can be delivered through interrogative speech. adjt conducts directive speech acts in the form of simple interrogative utterance with the function of asking. this data finding is different from the opinion of siemund (2018). if the speaker conducts a conversation with strangers by the purpose of asking, the speech is usually long or complex because the social relationship is too weak and very risky. ordering function context: this conversation is happening between an interlocutor (nanang) with one of the adjt (speaker) who is relaxing in his residential area. at that time, the interlocutor came to meet the customary head to discuss further the issue discussed several days ago. a few days before, the interlocutor had several times come to the adjt residence and met the interlocutor so that the speaker and the interlocutor had often met and known each other. data in adjt language nanang adjt nanang adjt nanang : sanak, ke mano pegi temenggung?(1) : nyo lah pegi nyari lauk. (2) : ka mano ara nyo pegi?(3) :biasonyo karah talang, menyelang petanglah balik (4) : kaba iluk mun cak tu (5) english translation nanang adjt nanang adjt nanang : brother, where did the customary head go? (1) : he has already gone hunting for food (2) : where exactly he went, the customary leader? (3) : usually temenggung and his friends go to talang forest. they will be home at afternoon. (4) : good news (5) data of declarative speech in the fourth line has a type of directive speech act with order function. the aim of speech act with order function is to order the interlocutor to meet the customary head in the afternoon because previously, there was a reason stated. huls & wijk (2012) argued that if someone gives a directive expression, one of the options that someone can conduct can state in the form of reason. that speech is also used narration in the form of reason. according to norrick (2015), the narration is considered able to take the strength of directive speech act as representative in illustrating an event. meanwhile, from the 4th line data, after the speaker delivered speech act with order function, the interlocutor responds the 5th line by using an illocutionary speech act with meaning will be back again to that place in the afternoon. ludwig (2019) stated that making a deal and agreeing to the interlocutor can respond using speech act with speaker and interlocutor condition in the same conversation context. 113 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) expressive speech act with thankful purpose context: this conversation happens between the interlocutor (hapzi) and the speaker (adjt) in the adjt residence. at that time, the interlocutor asked several things related to the residence they (adjt) lived in now. additional information adjt always moved residence (nomadic), and adjt would occasionally come out of the residence to interact with society. adjt is often deceived when transactions (both barter and buying and selling) cannot read and count. during this conversation, the interlocutor asks about the speaker’s response to the existence of a social community that cares about their lives and often teach children to read and write. data in adjt language hapzi adjt hapzi adjt : selamo mundok siko ado urang dateh tibo? (1) : ado baru ko sebelum nak milih presiden, nyo tibo nanyo-nanyo kami, ado jugo yang tibo ngaja. (2) : kino ko kan lah padek yang tibo kadang nyo ngaja anak awak ko baitung, iluk apo dak yang tibo-tibo macam tu? (3) : wai iyoo muek anak bisa baitung bia dak dikicuh urang agi pas kapasa, sanang ati. (4) english translation hapzi adjt hapzi adjt : while living here, did the government (social department) visit? (1) : some time ago, they came for counseling of presidential election, some also came (one of the adjt care communities) to teach children to count and read (2) : now the government and adjt care communities have often come, how about that? (3) : wah i’m so happy, because of that, it makes the children smart so when shopping in the market, they do not get cheated anymore. (4) data (4) is an expressive speech stated by adjt. that speech has a function of gratitude. lee (2016) stated that the expressive speech act could express psychological conditions about the speakers’ previous acts. according to searle (1979); carretero et al., (2015); lisna et al., (2020), one of the functions of expressive speech act is to thank. adjt gratitude expression is by delivering a narrative. that narrative contains data (4) where speakers express the psychological condition by saying that they are lucky to have children who are good at counting and reading. norrick (2015) stated that the provision of a narrative is one manner that can be used in speech acts, especially illocutionary. that gratitude expression expresses the speaker’s psychology to the government and volunteer that have taught adjt. carretero et al., (2015); plamper (2015); siemund (2018) stated that this speech act revealed the attitudes or psychology condition by the speaker. in data four, speakers also spontaneously convey the problems and frustrations experienced by adjt before they understand reading and counting. ponsonnet (2018) stated that the expressive speech act revealed the emotional condition, which shows they reflex, which are spontaneous and sincere. commissive speech acts with refusing function context: this conversation happens when residents from outside adjt already have a closeness with the speakers ask for permission so that the interlocutor can follow the interlocutor to see animal traps have been installed in the morning. at that time, the speaker also had an appointment with his friend, who was a adjt. data in adjt language hapzi temenggung hapzi temenggung : awak nak nurut ngimak jerat? (1) : bisuk be aku ngajak kawan, ari ko awak lah ngato ngan rayo (2) : biasonyo bilo?(3) : tibo be pagi macam ari biaso (4) english translation hapzi temenggung hapzi temenggung : may come to see the animal traps? (1) : i will go with you tomorrow, today i have an appointment with rayo (2) : what time is it usually? (3) : just come in the morning like this (4) the nature of the commissive speech act is that the speaker promises to do acts in the future. searle (1979); cutting (2002); huang (2007) explained that the commissive speech act is speakers are committed to several follow-up actions in the future to speech partner. data two is speech in the form of a promise to the interlocutor. besides, it has a refusing function. the refusal is conducted indirectly so that the speaker saves the face of the speech partner. refusal using speech act can cause a positive face for speech partner because their wishes is not filled by speakers and can cause politeness for speaker because he has saved his face related to refusal gungormezler (2016). in addition, from the data above, the interlocutor also has the hope that the speaker keeps his promise. this is 114 bambang prastio/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) proven by asking questions about that in the third data, and speakers will take action. kissine (2008) stated that in the use of the commissive speech act, the interlocutor has hope and predicts the speaker will conduct activities that do not betray his hopes. the usage of illocution speech act in adjt environment the finding indicates that the educational background, the lack of interaction with other societies, different social groups, and cultures and society’s assumptions about the effect of cognitive in language skills do not relate to illocutionary speech act uttering the meaning indirectly. based on the finding, this research has a different point of view from what is confirmed by (wolfram & schilling, 2015) mentioning the usage of illocution speech act or indirectly by different social group and culture has contrast expectation concerning the usage of speech act delivered by indirect speaker or interlocutor. these data show that adjt uses illocution speech acts and polite language to interlocutors outside their group that they know beforehand, and there is a kinship among them. this reflects that each human life aspect will try to communicate politely. the usage of polite language can be viewed as certain respect to the interlocutor (mahmud, 2013; mahmud, 2019). then the findings also show that kinship and closeness play an important role when adjt uses the illocution speech act. besides that, the data can be concluded that adjt has polite behavior. this polite behavior correlates with an excellent attitude (kecskes, 2014; revita et al., 2020). this research is a preliminary study, most likely, if the research is conducted for a longer duration, then the research result might be different. next, because this research was conducted only at one residence of adjt, the research result cannot be generalized with adjt living in various areas in jambi province. besides that, this research only focused on the speech act study in daily conversation, focusing on the type of speech act and its function. therefore, it is expected that future research can focus on one type of speech act, the strategy, and pattern of delivery of illocution speech act, the formal conversation situation, and different residence area. iv. conclusion with respect to the findings, it is known that adjt uses illocutionary speech act in the interaction. the use of illocutionary speech act in adjt has various types and functions. these type and function cover directive speech act with the function of prohibiting, ordering, and asking. expressive speech act with thankful function and commissive with refusing function. besides, illocutionary speech acts uttered by adjt is the news speech; meanwhile, the use of imperative speech acts is not be found in the interaction. this research used extremely limited data. it is necessary to use more data in order to be useful for the research field. as additional information, these data were obtained from the recording result for the research with different sub-focus. however, this research also contributes to a preliminary study concerning pragmatics study, especially in the illocution speech act spoken by the community living in remote areas and still far from modern life, such as adjt. references austin, j. l. 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(2015). levels of dialect. american english: dialects and variation, 25, 114–146. 117 microsoft word 107-112 desrimayuti .docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.107-112.2019 article the effect of multipass strategy and students’ attitude toward their reading comprehension at the tenth graders of sman 2 lubuk alung desrimayuti english education of graduate program at state university of padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 02, 2019 final revision: october 15, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this study aims to determine the effect of multipass strategies and student attitudes on students' reading comprehension in historical recount texts. the design of this research is quasi experiment research with a 2x2 factorial design. the population of this research is the students of class x sman 2 lubuk alung academic year 2018/2019. reading tests and student attitude questionnaires were used as research instruments. then, the research data were analyzed using the t-test formula and two-way anova. the results of this study indicate that (1) students taught with multipass strategies have better reading scores than students taught with ordinary strategies, (2) students taught with multipass strategies with positive attitudes have better reading values than students taught with ordinary strategies, (3) students taught with multipass strategies with negative attitudes have better reading scores than students taught with common strategies, and (4) there is no interaction between the two teaching strategies (multipass strategies and ordinary strategies) and students 'attitudes towards students' reading comprehension. keyword multipass strategy, reading comprehension, students’ attitude correspondence e-mail: yuyutnazar@gmail.com i. introduction reading is the ability to comprehend or understand texts and printed words. reading belongs to receptive skills because students are asked to receive information from the printed materials. in order to get good reading comprehension skills, students should be able to read properly. students begin to read from the primary level of education until the high level of education. comprehension is the main part of the reading process. without comprehension, students will not recognize and understand the text they read. because of that reading activity is about reading comprehension. according to rand reading study group (2002), comprehension is the process of eliciting and making meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. mcnamara and magliano (2009) emphasized that this process is a task of both reader and text factors that happen within a larger social desrimayuti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 108 context. duke (2003) stated that comprehension is a process in which readers make meaning by interacting with the text through the combination of prior knowledge and previous experience, the information in the text, and the views of readers related to the text. kintsch (1998) and van dijk and kintsch (1983) defined reading comprehension as the process of creating meaning from text. the purpose is to get an understanding of the text rather than to acquire meaning from individual words or sentences. after the researcher did an observation of the tenth graders of sman 2 lubuk alung, some of the students still found difficulties in the reading comprehension process. basically, there are many possible reasons why the students may experience difficulty in learning to read, such as uninteresting reading material, irrelevant media, and teaching strategy. among the factors, teaching strategy is the most crucial reason that influences the students' low achievement in reading comprehension. there is a tendency that the teacher tends to teach reading in a conventional way, for example reading aloud, silent reading, asking and answering the question, discussing, teacher center learning, etc. conventional teaching fundamentally concerns with classical models and is monotonous. on the other hand, the students expect the various teaching or learning models in reading comprehension class in order they feel more enthusiastic and convenient to do their learning activities. one reading strategy that has not been used largely in reading comprehension, namely multipass strategy. multipass strategy is a strategy used to improve student reading comprehension. it helps students who have problems in identifying the main idea, the supporting idea, and detail information, or processing and recalling information after reading. this reading strategy contains three steps (surveying the reading, sizing up the information, and sorting out the text) through a reading text to identify text structure and become familiar with main ideas and organization, read questions at the back of passage and guess an answer. the student then read the text to find the correct answers to the questions (schumaker et al.,: 1982). multipass can be defined as a three-step strategy for the systematic reading of the text. according to schumm (2006: 279), multipass is a three-step approach for a systematic rereading of expository text. multipass has three main procedures included in the survey, sort-out, and size-up. in survey-pass, the students are skimming the text to get the main ideas and understand the text organization. in the sort-out passes, students are active to look for specific information and reading the text. in the size-up pass, students are active to find the correct answers to the questions related to the text. the benefit of teaching reading by using a multipass strategy is to solve the students' problems in reading comprehension. by using this strategy students will easy to understand and comprehend the key point and main ideas from the text. through this strategy, students are guided to comprehend, understand and get an overview from the text as well as the organization of the text. besides, students will be able to answers the questions given after they read the reading text. so, they will have better achievement in reading comprehension. then, there is another factor that will influence the students' reading comprehension, namely students' attitudes. attitude is an individual's positive or negative feelings about performing the target behavior. another definition of attitude is identified as a combination of evaluative judgments about a phenomenon. attitude is a psychological orientation developed as a result of one's experiences, which influences how a person views situations, objects or people, and how she appropriately responds to them. attitudes are complex of positive or negative feelings, desires, fears, convictions, prejudices, or often tendencies that have given a set of readiness to act to a person because of varied experiences that an individual holds about objects, persons, or ideas. pablos, et.al (2015: desrimayuti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 109 35) admit that attitude is an individual's positive or negative feelings about performing the target behavior. another definition of attitude is identified as a combination of evaluative judgments about a phenomenon. consequently, attitude comprises positive as well as negative feelings of someone. attitude is one of the demanded matters in language learning because it will influence the students' achievement in learning, especially in reading comprehension. in other words, if they have a positive attitude in learning, their learning results will be better and vice versa. in this research, there are four hypotheses, as listed in the following points: hypothesis 1 the students who are taught by using multipass strategy have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. hypothesis 2 the students who are taught by using a multipass strategy with a positive attitude have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. hypothesis 3 the students who are taught by using a multipass strategy with a negative attitude have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. hypothesis 4 there is any interaction between treatments (by using multipass strategy and by using conventional strategy) and the students’ attitude toward their reading comprehension. ii. methods this research was a quasi-experimental research. the design of this research was the factorial design 2x2. according to gay, mills, and airasian (2011: 272), a design that has more than one independent variable (grouping variable) also known as factors. related to this idea, the researcher investigated the effect of the independent variable: multipass strategy and moderator variable: students’ attitude (positive and negative) on the dependent variable namely reading comprehension. the population of this research was the tenth graders of sman 2 lubuk alung in 2018/2019 academic year. there were three classes in the tenth graders which consisted of 73 students. the sample had been chosen by cluster random sampling. then, it was found that x mipa 1 was selected as the experimental class which was taught by using multipass strategy. while x mipa 2 was selected as a control class that was taught by using conventional strategy. there were two instruments which were used in this research, namely reading comprehension tests and questionnaires. the reading comprehension test was used to measure students' reading comprehension and a questionnaire was used to know the students' attitudes. after data of students' reading comprehension and data of students' attitude were collected, both of them were analyzed by using normality testing, homogeneity testing, and hypothesis testing; t-test and then analysis of variances (anova) was analyzed by using unweighted mean. iii. result and discussion this research is conducted in 8 meetings for each class. based on the result analysis, both data of students' reading comprehension and students' attitudes in experimental class and control class, either student with a positive or negative attitude are in normal distribution and homogeneous. in addition, the result of the first hypothesis shows that the value of t-observed was 3,33 and the value of t-table was 2,011 with the level of significance 0.05. since the value of t-observed was bigger than t-table, it could be concluded that the alternative hypothesis (h1) was accepted and the null hypothesis desrimayuti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 110 (h0) was rejected. it means the students who are taught by using multipass strategy have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. then, from the second hypothesis, it can be stated that the value of t-observed was 4,08 and the value of t-table was 2,200 with the level of significance 0.05. since the value of tobserved was bigger than t-table, it could be concluded that the alternative hypothesis (h1) was accepted and the null hypothesis (h0) was rejected. it means the students who are taught by using a multipass strategy with a positive attitude have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. in the third hypothesis, it is clear that tobserved was 3,41 and the value of t-table was 2,200 with the level of significance 0.05. since the value of t-observed was bigger than t-table, it could be concluded that the alternative hypothesis (h1) was accepted and the null hypothesis (h0) was rejected. it means the students who are taught by using the multipass strategy with negative attitudes have higher scores in reading comprehension than those who are taught by using conventional strategy. furthermore, in hypothesis fourth testing, it is found that f observed was 0,11 and the score of f table was 4,26. it could be concluded that fo < ft which means ho was accepted, it could be said that there is no interaction between treatments (by using multipass strategy and by using conventional strategy) and the students' attitude toward their reading comprehension. the first finding was related to the fact that the students who were taught by using multipass strategy have better scores in reading comprehension of historical recount text than those who were taught by using conventional strategy. this finding proved the effectiveness of multipass strategy when dealing with students' reading comprehension. this was because, in the process, the multipass strategy guided students to comprehend the text of historical recount properly. the syntax of this strategy was including survey pass, sort-out pass, and size-up pass. this was in line with the theory from wong et.al (2008: 192), they explain that this strategy is appropriate to the content area of reading and teaching methods used by the teacher. students are practiced and experienced with explicit and intense materials and controlled activity. it is a clear improvement in comprehension for the students' reading activity. then, this strategy provides students with a lot of practice. furthermore, there was no interaction between teaching strategies with students' reading attitudes because there was not the only attitude as psychological factors from students that influence their reading comprehension. there are many psychological factors can contribute to the students' reading comprehension, such as motivation, self-confidence, learning strategies, the strength of students' character, learning style, and so on. this was in line with theory from snow (2002: 13) which assumes to comprehend, a reader must have a wide range of capacities and abilities. these include cognitive capacities (e.g., attention, memory, critical analytic ability, inferencing, visualization ability), motivation (a purpose for reading, an interest in the content being read, self-efficacy as a reader), and various types of knowledge (vocabulary, domain and topic knowledge, linguistic and discourse knowledge, knowledge of specific comprehension strategies). the specific cognitive, motivational, and linguistic capacities and the knowledge base called on in any act of reading comprehension depend on the texts in use and the specific activity in which one is engaged. in addition, this finding was also supported by the research result from veneranda (2014) who conducted research entitle teaching reading comprehension on analytical exposition text by using multipass strategy (pre-experimental research on the second semester of eleventh-grade students of sman 1 sungai raya in academic year 2013/2014). desrimayuti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 111 he concluded that the result also revealed that students' achievement in reading comprehension is increased by using a multipass strategy. this was proved by the result of the mean score of pre-test and posttest after the treatment. iv. conclusion based on findings, conclusions, and implications of the research, the researcher would like to suggest some points. first, from the research findings, the multipass strategy is an effective way to improve students' reading comprehension of historical text at the tenth graders of sman 2 lubuk alung. therefore, english teachers are recommended to apply this strategy in teaching reading, especially in teaching historical recount text. then, although this study is conducted in sman 2 lubuk alung, the multipass strategy also can be introduced and applied in any level of education. in other words, this strategy is not limited only for teaching senior high school students but can be lower-level or high-level students. moreover, in this research, the researcher uses attitude as the moderator variable, it is suggested to other researchers to conduct research on another moderator variable such as reading interest, self-confidence, class participation, learning attitude and etc. furthermore, as this research is only limited to teach historical recount text, it is suggested that other researchers should attempt to conduct the research about student's reading comprehension on other kinds of text such as hortatory exposition, argumentation, and discussion text. references gay, lorraine r, mills, geoffrey e. and airasian, peter w. 2011. educational research; competencies for analysis and application. london: pearson education international. herviani. 2014. the effect of using multipass strategy on students’ reading comprehension at smas purna manunggal district of kampar regency. unpublished thesis. riau: uin suska riau. klinger, janette k., sharon vaughn, and alison boardman. 2007. teaching reading comprehension to students with learning difficulties. new york: the guilford press. kottler, ellen, jeffrey a. kottler, and chris street. 2008. english language learners in your classroom (3rd ed.). california: corwin press. pablos, patricia ordonez, tennyson, robert d and lytras, miltiadis d. 2015. assessing the role of mobile technologies and distance learning in higher education. new york: igi global. schumm, jeanne shay. 2006. reading assessment and instruction for all learners. new york: guilford publications, inc. schumaker, jean b., donald d. deshler, pegi denton, gordon r. alley, frances l. clark, and michael m. warner. 1981. multipass: a learning strategy for improving reading comprehension. unpublished thesis. kansas: the university of kansas. snow, catherine e. 2002. reading for understanding toward an r&d program in reading comprehension. pittsburgh: rand. desrimayuti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 112 srivastava, d.s and kumari, sarita. 2005. education skills and competencies. new delhi: mehra offset press. veneranda, maria gina. 2014. teaching reading comprehension on analytical exposition text by using multipass strategy (a pre-experimental research on the second semester of eleventh grade studnts of sman 1 sungai raya in academic year 2013/2014). unpublished thesis. pontianak: tanjungpura university. wong, bernice and deborah l. butler. 2012. learning about learning disabilities. london: elsevier, inc. hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: june 21, 2020 final revision: august 30, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this article attempts to analyze the transitivity pattern in the media discourse analysis of irwan prayitno’s reportage in padang ekspres. the study was conducted using a qualitative approach. data were collected using documentation techniques and analyzed using the transitivity features on halliday’s systemic functional linguistics. the research findings show that there are four types of processes in the media discourse of irwan prayitno’s reportage in padang ekspres: material processes (50.8%), behavioral processes (22.1%), verbal processes (20.4%), and mental processes (6.7 %). the dominance of material processes in irwan prayitno’s reportage as a political figure reflects an effort to represent him as a leader who focuses on real work and action. this representation pattern also strengthens the existence of mutualistic relations between mass media and politics in electoral politics and other kinds of mass mobilization. keyword transitivity analysis, halliday, irwan prayitno, padang ekspres. correspondence e-mail: hettitriana@uinib.ac.id article irwan prayitno and the mass media: a transitivity analysis of news reporting in padang ekspres hetti waluati triana1, reflinaldi2, awliya rahmi3 1,2,3faculty of adab and humanities, imam bonjol state islamic university of padang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.136-143.2020 i. introduction transitivity analysis in political discourse and mass media derives from eggins’s argumentation explaining the theory’s effectiveness to unveil the mass media’s ideology in the form of language use (eggin, 2004). as one of the dimensions of the systemic functional linguistics (sfl) theory proposed by m.a.k halliday, the transitivity analysis’s critical spirit triggers reviewers’ interest to use it as a tool for analysis. from a political point of view, mass media are empowered as instruments to construct reality (hamad, 2004) (berger & luckmann, 1966) (sobur, 2012). they are used by certain groups to strengthen particular power over other parties. the power is internalized intensely and remarkably in individuals and communities. in that manner, the representation of an individual’s image is created to dominate and achieve a positive perception. there are only a few numbers of transitivity analysis studies related to the representation of political figures in the mass media such as zhang (2017), suaparto (2018), agbo et all (2019), etc. however, linguists who study transitivity analysis majorly highlighted their analysis of linguistic data in speech texts. in contrast, the transitivity analysis of political figures’ image representation in mass media is considered limited. among the phenomenal world’s political figures, donald trump is a leader whose speeches are widely studied using transitivity analysis. the studies of zhang (zhang, 2017) (2017), (yujie & fengjie, 2018), hidayat (2018), yuliana et al., (2018) show that material processes dominate the clauses used by donald trump. following the type of clauses he constructed, transitivity analysis concludes that donald trump is the type of leader who prioritizes action and concrete action. apart from the study’s findings, fengjie (2019) found the relational process to be the dominant type. this finding suggests that donald trump, through his speech, identified himself in many positive ways. the domination of the material process in the texts of speech by world political figures is also confirmed through the many kinds of research. 136 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) first, alvi & baseer (2011) and oktifarti (2014) researched barrack obama’s speech. second, naz et al. analyzed the benazir bhutto’s speech (2012), third, kondowe observed the speech of bingu wa mutharika (2014). finally, (agbo et al., 2019) studied buhari’s speech text. the result of the researches explained how world leaders represent their actions through clauses in their speech texts. in indonesia, many political figures become objects of transitivity analysis. firstly, harwiyati & siagianto (2016) studied joko widodo’s speech text in beijing that shows the relational process’s dominance. secondly, nurfaedah (2017) on the political speeches of hatta rajasa. lastly, widodo et all. (2018) and mulyani (2018) observed basuki tjahaja purnama’s (ahok) campaign speech. these researches consistently proved that the material processes appear dominantly. in contrast to the aspect of quantity, a transitivity analysis of political figures representation in the mass media was obtained in the studies conducted by mohammed & banda (2016) and suparto (2018). mohammed and banda (2016) examined nelson mandela’s repetition on the al-jazeera website found the dominance of a material process that included actions and events in which mandela was positioned as the main agent and actor. suparto (2018) reviewed basuki tjahaja purnama (ahok) ‘s description on two different media found that there were variations in the use of participants, processes, and circumstances in creating the perspective of the reader. these studies reflect the insignificant equilibrium analysis of the transitivity text of political figures speech as well as the representation of political figures in the mass media. this situation raises a gap analysis that allows a new dimension of subject and the locus of study to be observed. in the research subject aspect, a transitivity analysis of political figures representation in the mass media is necessary to be conducted to present a new perspective. in the era that tannen & trester (2012) and aitchison & lewis (2004) called ‘new media’, political discourse is massively fulfilling the major topic on the mass media. the analysis of the political figure’s speech text is different from the analysis of the figure’s representation in mass media. by writing the text of a speech, a political figure creates his representation as he expects society will interpret him, whereas a broadcasting system mediates image representation on mass media. furthermore, this reality conveys complexity in the production of discourse and reproduction of meaning among the audience. in terms of locus of the research, the transitivity analysis of political figures representation is dominated by a discourse related to international and national political figures. the political figures are reported under similar social and political circumstances. it means that the media tend to represent the figures in a similar and identical style. as a result, it is understood that the findings between one study and another study are insignificantly different. therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study on a local scope with a different political and social context to present distinction. considering the importance of analyzing a political figure representation on mass media, researchers conducted a study of transitivity analysis on the discourse of irwan prayitno’s reportage (ip) in padang ekspres. ip is considered as an inspirational and visionary leader. in the political field, ip was voted by the people as members of the indonesian parliament for three consecutive periods (1999-2004, 2004-2009, 2009-2014). amid his third period of becoming a member of the indonesian parliament (in 2010), ip was promoted as a candidate for governor of west sumatra and succeeded in winning the political contestation. he was even re-elected as governor of west sumatra for the next period (2015-2020). ip, who is also known as an academician, listed himself as a leader with prestigious records and achievements that he has achieved in his leadership journey. on august 15, 2014, padang ekspres released 137 awards achieved by the west sumatra province during the first four years of ip’s leadership. following the list of achievements, many appreciation and congratulatory messages were also included in the same edition. irwan prayitno’s successful political journey is the reflection of the public’s trust addressed to him. the trust he achieved is the product of his political strategies, through the reporting on mass media. compared to the previous studies, the objects of the research are most likely national figures 137 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) domiciliated. therefore, this research reveals how a provincial leader in sumatera achieved people’s trust for periods. the transitivity analysis of the discourse on ip’s reportage in padang ekspres will reveal the media’s pattern to represent ip as a political figure. deriving from schramm (1975) postulates and nimmo (1993) about the social and political functions of mass media, it can be assumed that padang ekspres is an ip selfconstruction instrument among readers. in this context, a language with a high degree of flexibility is used to deliver information to construct meaning as desired by discourse producers (halliday, 1994) (eriyanto, 2002) can be studied and expressed. ii. methods this study applied a qualitative descriptive approach (neuman, 2007) (sukmadinata, 2007) (moleong, 2005) (sugiyono, 2012) that employs qualitative research procedures and present data by providing a clear concept of mass media constructing irwan prayitno’s leadership style. the qualitative method prioritizes the depth of understanding of interactions between concepts that are studied empirically and descriptively by describing data in the form of words as a sign system that provides a more comprehensive understanding (muhadjir, 2000). to describe the characteristics of irwan prayitno’s leadership constructed by the mass media, the researchers took data in the form of irwan prayitno’s reportage from august to november 2015. this period was chosen due to various political events related to the gubernatorial election of west sumatra. therefore, these political events are expected to provide various and dynamic discourse. for the research steps’ trustworthiness, the data source is divided proportionally into primary and secondary sources. the primary source is any reportage that puts irwan prayitno as the main topic of the news. the selection of primary sources is related to the reportage’s intentions and tendencies that will be built schematically through sentences and paragraphs. secondary sources are other news topics related to ip as a leader. topics can be in the form of issues related to west sumatra provincial government, community activities involving the west sumatra provincial government, etc. the data in this research were collected using documentation and observation techniques (arikunto, 2006). the documentation technique is used to collect news reports and classify them into some group. besides, observation techniques are used in reading the news texts that have been collected. to be specific, this technique is defined by sudaryanto as a non-participate observation technique, where researchers observe and examine the text as a single data source that cannot establish two-way active communication patterns (mahsun, 2005) (kesuma, 2007) (sudaryanto, 2015). the headlines that contain ip’s representation are documented by using the note-taking technique. data analysis was carried out qualitatively following the principle of critical discourse. geertz (1983) elaborates qualitative analysis uncovers meaning that refers to knowledge in its function as the driving force of individuals in social life. meaning is very important for qualitative analysis because a qualitative analysis reflects what problems are experienced, how to interpret people’s behavior, and how to structure the social world. thus, according to spradley (1980), qualitative analysis is inseparable from the context of events that can be identified based on the location of events, behavior, and community activities. referring to the data analysis stage proposed by alwasilah (2002), the data analysis stage in the qualitative method does not require the completion of data collection. the stage of analysis is allowed to begin if the researchers have collected the initial data. based on this, the qualitative data in this study were analyzed with the following steps: (1) writing a memo during the study; (2) coding data; (3) searching for themes and categories; (4) discussing data; (5) drawing conclusions. following the analytical framework used, the analysis refers to the features of transitivity in systemic functional linguistics proposed by halliday (1994). the transitivity system that can reveal human social experience in linguistic representation by halliday is called ‘process’. halliday (1994) further divides the process into six types: material, verbal, mental, behavioral, relational, and existential. the six types of processes will be identified and described in the analysis process.138 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) iii. result based on observations made on the data, four types of processes are found, each of which will be described as follows. material processes a material process is a process that is closely related to physical and material activities. this process is in the form of activities and events. activities have an actor-process-goal constituent, while events have an actor-process constituent. the material process is presented in the following table: table 1. material processes 1 irwan subj actor menyerahkan v process:doing bantuan obj goal irwan handing donations kepada masyarakat setempat prep n loc to local community the clause in table 1 contains a material process of doing something. there are three participants in this clause. the first participant was irwan, who committed an act through the word give. irwan, the participant in the material process clause above, functions as an active actor. the second participant is the donations that are also the target of the process. the second participant functions as a goal. the third participant is the local community that functions as a recipient, who receives the actor’s items. another material process can be seen in table 2. tabel 2. material processes 2 dia pro actor mantap adv circumstance: quality melepaskan v process: doing he confidentally left jabatan nya obj pos goal di partai prep n circumstance: location his position in the party the clause in table 2 has a similar construction to the clause in table 1. it contains the material process of doing. the clause has two participants and two circumstances. the first participant is ‘he’ that refers to ip. he participates as an active actor in action. the second participant is his position, which serves as a goal. the clause has a circumstance of quality marked by the use of the word confidentially that illustrates the actor’s confidence level in carrying out the act. the second circumstance is in the party, which functions as a location to specify where the actor is doing the action (process). behavioral processes behavioral processes are associated with behavior and psychological attitudes. this process is divided into verbal behavior and mental behavior. the process of verbal behavior has a participant called behaver, messages, and recipients, whereas the process of mental behavior has behavior, messages, and phenomena. the behavioral process can be seen in the following table: table 3. behavioral processes irwan subj behaver selalu adv circumstance: time memperhatikan v process: behavioral irwan always concerns about pendidikan anak-anak nya obj n(plural) pos phenomenon his children’s education the clause in table 3 above contains behavioral processes in the form of mental behavior. the clause has two participants and one circumstance. the first participant is irwan, who carried out physiological and psychological mental behavior. irwan’s participants in the behavioral process clause function as behaver. the second participant is his children’s education. the second participant functions as a phenomenon, which is the target of the first participant’s behavior. the circumstance in the clause is always that states the range and time of behavior carried out by the behaver. verbal processes a verbal process is a process of saying. this process has sayer, receiver, and verbiage participants. the verbal process can be seen in the following table: table 4. verbal processes irwan subj sayer mengatakan v process: verbal irwan said kerja nya bahkan tak mengenal waktu n pos adv neg v n verbiage his work is a tireless work139 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the clause containing the behavioral process in table 4 above consists of 2 participants. the first participant is irwan, who does the activity of saying. the first participant functions as sayer who performs a verbal process. the second participant is his work is a tireless work to function as verbiage. it is the content that is said by the sayer. mental processes a mental process is a process that is closely related to sensing. this process has a senser –processphenomenon constituent. the mental process has two participants. a senser is the first participant who has a sense of seeing, feeling, and thinking, whereas a phenomenon is the second participant in the form of something that can be sensed. the process is divided into affection, perception, and cognition. the mental processes can be seen in the following table: table 5. mental processes irwan prayitno subj senser turut merasa terharu adv v adj process: mental, affection irwan prayitno felt touched terhadap perjuangan bagindo aziz chan prep obj n(pos) phenomenon: fact by bagindo aziz chan’s struggle the clause in table 5 above contains a mental process in the form of affections. the clause has two participants. the first participant in the clause is irwan. that irwan is the one who feels consciously makes it a senser in the clause. the second participant, which is the phenomenon that is sensed, is by bagindo aziz chan’s struggle. iv. discussion of the six types of processes proposed by halliday, four types of processes are found in the transitivity analysis of ip reportage discourse in padang ekspres. below recaps the percentage of each process spread over 59 research subject clauses. table 6. describes the dominance of the material process in the data. thirty clauses (50,8%) are found to convey the material process. behavioral and verbal processes occur 13 clauses (22,1%) and 12 clauses (20,4%) respectively. mental processes are only found in 4 clauses (6,7%), while relational and existential processes are absent in the data. based on the experimental analysis postulate proposed by halliday (1985), the process’s distribution illustrates the experience of discourse producers, which is manifested in the form of linguistic representation. at a further level, these experiences are reflected and transformed to construct a new reality depending on the interests and power relations desired and possessed by discourse producers. table 6. percentage of transitivity analysis of ip’s reportage in padang ekspres no processes number percentage 1 material 30 50.8% 2 behavioral 13 22.1% 3 verbal 12 20.4% 4 mental 4 6.7% 5 relational 0 0% 6 existential 0 0% total 59 100% ip representation is dominated by the material process that belongs to the meaning category of ‘doing’. it reflects discourse producers’ efforts to portray ip as an individual and political figure that prioritize concrete actions in his leadership. data that indicate material processes such as handing, working, making, educating, prioritizing, visiting, implementing, inviting, and so on, aim to depict the concrete working steps that have been taken by ip. each material process in the clause has its context, emphasizing that ip has worked comprehensively in various dimensions and sectors. on the contrary, the category of ‘happening’, another category in the material process, is not found in the data. the absence of intransitivity in ip representation explains that ip’s leadership always involves other participants in his actions. this explanation leads to the interpretation of ip’s work style that stresses the spirit of mutual assistance and intensive communication with people. ip representations in the form of clauses that contain behavioral and verbal processes are at relatively high equilibrium. the illocutionary and perlocutionary analysis of the clauses aims to escalate ip’s characteristic as a committed leader who works productively. the behavioral process dominated by mental behavior does not reflect ip as a figure with passive leadership who only feels or 140 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) senses anything without further action. otherwise, mental sensing is still manifested in the form of behavior. in other words, these mental behaviors are always followed by actions. therefore, ip’s impression as a hardworking leader remains irreducible regardless of clauses describing the mental situation. an identical strategy is also found in verbal processes. not only the mental process, but the verbal process also supports maintaining ip’s representation through clauses. ip representation as a sayer-political figure is dominantly expressed in compound sentences. thus, ip speech content is all about the past event and his hard work as a leader. in other words, the verbiage in the verbal process strengthens ip as a political figure. the mental process that is found on a relatively small percentage reflects discourse producers’ efforts to avoid the representation of ip as a sentimental and emotional leader. therefore, the ip representation’s mental processes are majorly transformed into behavioral processes by the discourse producer. the representation of ip reflected through the behavioral processes in the reporting can be considered powerful in communicating political messages. however, this phenomenon proves that media language today has transformed (aitchison & lewis: 2004) this study’s findings are in line with the representation of political figures, both created by the figures themselves and the media, which tends to be dominated by their portrait as real workers and actors. as a figure struggling to win public sympathy, the representation is very urgent and significant in sustaining their leadership careers. therefore, the discourse of political figures associated with interests and power relations, in various mediums and instruments, is believed to have a similar pattern and strategy. this research also answers the research purposes of the transitivity analysis in the mass media with the different subjects of the research. it is also in line with the arguments of schramm (1975), nimmo (1993), sobur (2002), and heryanto (2015). in the authorities’ hands, mass media will always be used as a political instrument and a device to strengthen power. a political transaction happens in mass media that schramm (1975) called to sell goods for us. the media promotes a political figure to the public to get a concrete response in support in many electoral agendas and other mass mobilization activities. the media builds a symbiotic relationship with political figures to meet each other’s needs and interests. in this case, this relationship can be related to global media’s ideology as the new missionaries of global capitalism. in the locus of the research, this study shows that the representation of political figures is dominated by clauses containing material processes. this domination applies not only at the global and national level but also at a local level. political events, including those at the local level, cannot be separated from various human life dimensions, including mass media. this complex situation is called transpolitica by piliang (piliang, 2015). in the development of linguistic today and possibly in the next few years, the discourse of political figures on all scales will always involve the mass media’s language. in this situation, political contestation focuses not only on the realm of ideas and thoughts but also on the war of rhetoric (black, 2011). as a result, it is assumed that the study of political discourse in the mass media will always be a popular and debatable issue (fetzer & lauerbach, 2007). however, this finding proves that discourse is powerful in creating a political image and the public’s trust that benefits the figures. since this research object is an individual political figure, the result is not yet able to represent all similar phenomena. some external factors, such as society’s cultural and social condition, might affect the different results. v. conclusion this study’s findings have successfully answered the absence of transitivity analysis of the political figures from the subject and locus aspects. nevertheless, this study allows linguistic scholars and researchers to develop research on transitive analysis in various aspects. the data found by the researchers are highly heterogeneous, which means that there are many themes and contexts related to ip. in other words, the data can be used and processed by other researchers in the future who are interested in examining ip from other perspectives such as social and political aspects, government policy, and west sumatra development. additionally, this study’s results can be used as a 141 hetti waluati triana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) reference for further research to explore the role of the media in political contestation in west sumatra. however, it is undeniable that research related to the media and press is one of the most notably popular studies among researchers from various disciplines in recent years. to conclude, further research is highly recommended to contribute to research on media and the press. references agbo, i. i., ngwoke, f. u., & ijem, b. u. 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(2007). metode penelitian pendidikan. remaja rosdakarya. suparto, a. d. (2018). transitivity analysis on framing in the online news articles. ranah, vol 7, no 1 tannen, d., & trester, a. m. (2012). language and new media. georgetown univeristy press. yujie, z., & fengjie, l. (2018). transitivity analysis of american president donald trump’s inaugural address. international journal of litearature and arts, 6, 28–32. yuliana, y., manda, l. m., & darwis, k. (2018). transitivity and ideology in donald trump campaign speech. jurnal ilmu budaya, 6(1). zhang, y. (2017). transitivity analysis of hillary clinton’s and donald trump’s first television debate. international journal of applied linguistics and english literature, 6(7), 65–72. biography hetti waluati triana is a lecturer in linguistics at the arabic language and literature department at the faculty of adab and humanities, imam bonjol state islamic university of padang. she completed his doctoral studies in linguistics department faculty of social sciences and humanities, national university of malaysia. among her publications, an article titled the speech act of refusal among minangkabau young generation: a reflection of popular culture in social interaction was published in a reputable international journal. reflinaldi is a postgraduate student in the linguistic study program faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang. he completed his bachelor studies in the arabic language and literature department faculty of adab and humanities, imam bonjol state islamic university of padang. he has published some articles in reputable journals. one of which is the social practice on facebook: critical discourse analysis in the process of text production. awliya rahmi is a lecturer in linguistics at the arabic language and literature department at the faculty of adab and humanities, imam bonjol state islamic university of padang. she completed her postgraduate study at the linguistics study program, andalas university. she is interested in general linguistics, pragmatics, and humor. she participated in the asean education symposium 2018 and published an article titled joke and its relation to students grammar mastery in efl learning. 143 ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 27 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: february 28, 2022 final revision: april 24, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 this study aims to explain the contestation of languages on outdoor signboards found in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada in terms of linguistic landscape and how the implementations of government policies for language use in the public space. the heritage area of jalan gajah mada was originally a trading center but recently it is starting to be developed into a tourist attraction of denpasar old city the study was done by analysing 275 photos of outdoor signboards which were taken along the jalan gajah mada. those photos were classified based on the type of outdoor signboards, the maker, the number of languages, the number of scripts. the results show that the language that is mostly used in outdoor signboards in this area is indonesian, eventhough the shops are mostly owned by chinese descendants and several indian and arabian descendants. the study also showed that an outdoor signboard can have one, two, three, or even four languages simultaneously. for those outdoor signboards that use three and four languages, the two of them for sure are indonesian and english. in accordance with the regulation of the governor of bali province number 80 of 2018, especially with the regulation of the use of balinese and roman script, the implementation of government policies has not been implemented consistently. the outdoor signboards of government agency names were written exactly following the rules while other outdoor signboards are not. keywords linguistic landscape, language contestation, heritage area, signboard, public space correspondence e-mail: tuti@unud.ac.id articles linguistic landscape of jalan gajah mada heritage area in denpasar city ketut widya purnawati1, ketut artawa2, made sri satyawati3 1,2,3linguistic landscape, language contestation, heritage area, signboard, public space under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.27-38.2022 1. introduction language is very important to show identity, communication, social interaction, education, development and so forth (edwards 2009). language is the most powerful device in maintaining cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible culture. a language becomes stronger when it is not only spoken, but also written. languages that are written will ensure the existence of that language longer than languages that are only spoken. outdoor signboard is one of the media to show the existence of the language used by the people living around it, as well as showing how the life of the people living around it. the denpasar city heritage area is established through the denpasar city regional regulation number 27 of 2011 concerning the denpasar city spatial plan for 2011-2031. in article 15 paragraph (2) part b number 1 it is stated that “the cathus patha agung area of denpasar city and around jalan gajah mada as a center for trade and service activities, social activities, cultural activities, government and heritage areas” (pemerintah kota denpasar 2011). based on the map of the heritage area found on the information board located in front of badung market, the heritage area of jalan gajah mada stretches from the bali museum as the easternmost area to maospahit temple as the westernmost area. the boundaries of this area are written on an inscription placed on jalan gajah mada, in the north of badung market. the inscription was written in indonesian using balinese and roman script as shown in figure (1) ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 28 this area has always been a trading center and a place for various ethnic groups to interact. this place is inhabited by balinese, javanese, chinese, arab, and indian. jalan gajah mada consists of a row of various shops which are mostly owned by chinese descendants. arab and indian descendants mostly live in the area on the sulawesi street as cloth sellers. balinese people are mostly traders in the badung market and kumbasari market areas. among these various ethnicities, there are also javanese descendants who are also sellers at badung market. there are several roads and locations that are being part of the heritage area of denpasar, but jalan gajah mada is inaugurated as the center. this area is often regarded as the chinatown area of denpasar, although in its current development, this area is not only inhabited by chinese descendants, but also other ethnic descendants. a number of studies related to the heritage area of jalan gajah mada have been carried out, but all of them tend to look at the tourism aspect or the architecture of the buildings (rinayanthi et al. 2018; runa, warnata, and mahaputra 2011; wijaya and giriwati 2019; yusiana 2016). none of them look at the languages used in the outdoor signboards placed in the area. whereas research on language choice in the linguistic landscape is closely related to economic development which is also related to tourism development as seen in the macao heritage area in china (yan 2018). in other words, the research on language choice for the fig. 1. information board of heritage area in jalan gajah mada fig. 2. jalan gajah mada heritage area ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 29 outdoor signboards is as important as other research in other to develop the tourism aspect as well as the economic aspect. the language itself has its own power for a great economic aspect by using it for marketing (hult and kelly-holmes 2019), it is also useful as a language learning object (barni 2014; gorter 2018; shang and xie 2019) the heritage area of jalan gajah mada is developed as a tourism object, but since it’s establishment as the tourism object in 2011, this area showing no great improvement. this place just like other bussiness area which is visited mostly by those who just wants to buy or sell something, not by those who wants to do sightseeing as a tourist. considering the statement that the language has its great power for marketing (hult and kelly-holmes 2019), we can say that the language use in the area may contribute to the successfulness or unsuccessfulness of the tourism object development, because language can provide a very important service of information needed by the tourist. the outdoor signboards in jalan gajah mada heritage area are interesting object of research considering the many ethnicities that contribute to the languages used in the outdoor signboard. however, until now, there has been no research that focuses on examining how the contestation of languages on outdoor signboards in jalan gajah mada heritage area. since this area covers several streets and places and it is very vast, the research is only limited to a road section designated as the center of this heritage area, namely jalan gajah mada. this road was chosen because it has a wide variety of observation objects such as outdoor signboards on government offices, places of worship, shops, banks, and so forth. this condition gives a great variation for the top down and bottomup outdoor signboard classification. research on the linguistic landscape on a road is not a new object. research like this has been done by rosenbaum, et al. in 1977 to analyse the use of english on keren kayemet street in jerusalem (cenoz and gorter 2006). the results of the analysis show that there has been a contest between roman and hebrew writings, but language policy favors the use of hebrew scripts. the use of roman writing is more common in bottom-up than top-down group outdoor signboards. english as a third language is more likely to be used for commercial purposes (cenoz and gorter 2006). with reference to this research, cenoz and gorter (2006) also made a study by comparing two streets in two different cities. they use only one object in each city. there are two cities used as research sites, namely donostia city in spain and ljouwert city in netherlands. each of these cities has two official languages, basque and spanish in donostia city, while frisian and dutch in ljowert city. the results of their research show that in donostia city, the most languages use in the outdoor signboard was spanish in the first place, followed by basque and english in the second and third place. in ljowert city, dutch became the the most language use in the outdoor signboard, followed by english and frisian. the heritage area of jalan gajah mada as the object of this research is an area located in denpasar city, bali province, indonesia. as an area within the jurisdiction of the republic of indonesia, this area should be subject to the national political policy regarding the use of indonesian as the national language which refers to the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 63 of 2019 concerning the use of the indonesian language. in addition, this area must also follow the regulations issued by the governor of bali regarding the use of the balinese language as stated in the governor of bali regulation number 80 of 2018 concerning the protection and use of balinese language, script, and literature as well as the implementation of the balinese language month. (pemerintah provinsi bali 2018). the linguistic landscape is a display that shows the use of language in public spaces that is built symbolically (shohamy and gorter 2009). public spaces provide various research objects in the form of written language on signboards, bulletin boards, advertisements, topographic information and regional maps, emergency instructions, and so forth. research on language in the public space is an invaluable tool for exploring the existence of different languages and writings in a particular area (backhaus 2007, 141). the languages in various signboards in public spaces are addressed for the public domain, not limited only for certain groups of readers. the variety of languages and writings therein reflects the linguistic landscape of the area in question (backhaus 2007, 1–5). based on the languages used in the public space, readers can find out which languages are accepted in the area. in addition to ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 30 showing certain messages, these languages can also be used as language learning materials in “real” situations and can be used as materials in conducting comparative linguistic analysis. so far, linguistic landscape has received little attention in terms of language planning. based on a large-scale study of language politics, leclerc (1994) shows that there are thirty countries and states that have passed the regulation of language use in public spaces, one of which is indonesia (landry and bourhis 1997). the linguistic landscape can be used as an effective method to determine the evolution of an urban space because the linguistic landscape shows the identity of the city by defining the language used by its inhabitants at that time. the language policy has a very important relation to the linguistic landscape (savski 2021; wang and xu 2018). there are two main problems in this study. the first is the language contestation in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada in denpasar city, bali in terms of linguistic landscape. the second is the implementation of bali government policies for the regulations issued by the governor of bali regarding the use of the balinese language. the result of this study can be used as a reflection on how the society maintain the language. by considering the result of this study, the government can determine the language policy and start thingking the importance of language use in maintaining the area to provide a proper information for everyone. 2. methods data analysis in this study was carried out using linguistic landscape theory based on descriptive qualitative method. the data analysed in the form of photos taken in december 2019, january 2020, and april-july 2021. data collection was carried out using the observation method and was carried out in the heritage area of denpasar city by focusing observations on the gajah mada street. the data collected in the form of photos of name board, signage, announcements, advertisements, and banners. there are 275 photos that met the requirements for analysis. the photos are classified based on several variables, those are the type of outdoor signboards, the maker, the number of languages, the number of scripts. types of outdoor signboards are grouped into 21 consisting of shop name boards, bank names, names of places to eat, street names, market names, place names, government agency names, coffee shops, information, advertisements, announcements, congratulations, prohibitions, traffic signboards traffic, public service advertisements, road signboards, police stations, drugstore names, places of worship, government project information boards, and alley names. the outdoor signboards can be classified into the top-down and bottom-up categories, based on the maker of the signboard (cenoz and gorter 2006). the data groups that fall into the top-down category are outdoor signboards made by the government, while the bottom-up category are outdoor signboards made by the non-governmental parties. classification was also done by defining the number of languages used. this is also related to the position of these languages to other languages in an outdoor signboard. the last variable is the script used in the outdoor signboard. this script refers to roman script, balinese script, or other letters that may appear on outdoor signboards in this area. 3. results outdoor signs in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada the heritage area of jalan gajah mada is a street in the middle of denpasar city which is a business center area. shops in this location are mostly owned by chinese descendants. along jalan gajah mada, businesses found not only common shops, but also coffee shops, restaurants, and banks, as well as temples and government offices. the relationship between language and identity has been an issue in various studies since long time ago and it is very common to see an area with a number of outdoor signs that use more than one languages (banda and jimaima 2017; pakarinen and björklund 2018). this can also be seen in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada. however, the results of the analysis show that the main language spoken in this region is indonesian. every shop and other businesses along jalan gajah mada have their own signboards which show their names. in addition to the signboard that was made by the business owners, the denpasar city government also made a signboard with a blue color background and written in roman and ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 31 balinese script. however, unfortunately not all the shop’s names are still in good a condition. some of them have their color changed into light blue or even just white. this condition can be seen in figure (3). the outdoor signs in this area can be divided into top-down (made by the government) and bottom-up (made by the private sector). the bottomup classification is further divided into outdoor signs made by business owners and outdoor signs made by owners of the products sold in a shop/ business place. quantitatively, the 275 outdoor signs can be divided into top-down classification (113 outdoor signs) and bottom-up classification (162 outdoor signs). from 162 outdoor signs which belong to the bottom-up classification, 142 outdoor signs were made by the business owner and 20 outdoor signs was made by the product owners marketed in the business place. the details can be seen in figure (4) below. according to the types of outdoor signs, the results show that store names are the most common outdoor signs, both from top-down and bottom-up classifications. this is due to the condition of the jalan gajah mada area which consists of various shops, ranging from textile shops, electronics stores, drug stores, office stationery, to hardware stores. top-down outdoor signs are outdoor signs made by the government, but in this area, outdoor signs showing shop names are generally made by shop owners – in this case private parties – are also found in the top-down classification. basically, the shop’s name was created by the shop owner, but the design of the signboard was made by the government. the design is in the form of a blue color background with white letters. balinese script is written on the top of the board horizontally, while roman script are written vertically. the written balinese script is a transliteration of the roman fig. 3. shop names on jalan gajah mada fig. 4. top-down and bottom-up classification chart ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 32 script which are the shop names. this board was made by the denpasar city government as an effort to support this area as a tourism object. in table (1) below the top three of outdoor signs in the top-down classification are shop names (26), information boards (13), and traffic signs (11). for the bottom-up classification, the top three position are shop names (107), advertisements (15), and names of places to eat (7), congratulatory messages (7), drugstore names (7). table 1. top-down and bottom-up classification no type of business numbers based on its classifications top-down bottom-up 1 shop name 26 107 2 drugstore name 0 7 3 bank 9 4 4 restaurant 1 7 5 street name 7 0 6 aisle name 1 0 7 market name 1 0 8 place name 2 0 9 government institusion name 3 0 10 coffee shop 1 4 11 information 13 4 12 adverstisement 6 15 13 announcement 7 4 14 congratulatory words 2 7 15 prohibition 4 3 16 traffic signs 11 0 17 public service advertisement 8 0 18 street sign 7 0 19 police station 2 0 20 temple 1 0 21 government project information board 1 0 the number of signboards that use the government design should be equal to the number of businesses in this area. however, it turns out that the existence of the board shows inconsistency. not all of them have the “blue signboard”. some of them have signboard with different name from the one on the blue signboard. this was caused by a change in the ownership of the shop so that the name of the shop changed, but the blue signboard remained unchanged. in addition, in several shops it was seen that the signboard of the business name made by the government were not well maintained, unreadable, some had even changed color to white. this condition shows us that the development of the business is not accompanied by government efforts to organize this area, especially outdoor signs that display information about shop names. 4. discussion contestation of languages on outdoor signs in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada the use of languages in jalan gajah mada heritage areas shows the diversity. there are six languages appear in the signboards in this area. indonesian is the most language appear in the signboard, followed by english, mandarin, arabic, balinese, japanese. historically, indonesian language is the lingua franca of different ethnic groups in indonesia. since jalan gajah mada is the place where various ethnic groups interact to each other, indonesian language is the main choice for communication because it is understood by everyone. due to the development of this area into a tourist destination, the foreign language, especially english, is started to be used in the signboard. an outdoor sign can consist of one, two, three, or even four languages. quantitatively, the number of outdoor signs that use certain types of language can be seen in the following diagram. table 2. the language(s) use in the sign board no language(s) name number 1 indonesian 174 2 english 13 3 mandarin 2 4 arabic 1 5 indonesian & english 66 6 indonesian & arabic 4 7 indonesian & balinese 4 8 indonesian & mandarin 2 9 english & mandarin 1 10 english arabic 1 11 indonesian, english, mandarin 2 12 indonesian, english, arabic 3 13 indonesian, balinese, english 1 14 indonesian, english, mandarin, japanese 1 the signboard does not always use only one language. in a single outdoor sign, multiple ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 33 languages can appear together. there is an outdoor sign that even use four languages simultaneously. this outdoor sign was found in a coffee shop, namely bhineka djaya. this further will be explained belom in the expalnation of figure (9). indonesian language is used in almost every outdoor sign in this area, in the form of business place names, government offices, banners, advertisements and others. this can be seen in figure (5). quantitatively, there are 174 outdoor signs that only use indonesian. information, advertisements, announcements, traffic signs, public service advertisements, road signs, police posts, and drug store names. on outdoor signs that use indonesian and english there is no provision that indonesian appears before english or vice versa. the use of indonesian and english are complementary. the english used is not the result of a translation from the existing indonesian language, but as additional information from what has not been conveyed in indonesian. this can be seen in figure 7. fig. 5. sign board written in indonesian figure (6) shows several outdoor signs that only use english. there are 13 outdoor signs like this. fig. 5. sign board written in english quantitatively, the frequency of english occurrence in the signboard is the second after indonesian. however, the english mostly use in the signboard along with the indonesian language. there are 66 signboards that use indonesian and english simultaneously. the types of the signboard are shop names, restaurant names, place names, fig. 7. signboard written in indonesian and english in addition to signboard in two languages, there are signboards in three and four languages. on an outdoor sign with three or four languages, it is certain that the two languages that are always present are indonesian and english. outdoor signs that use three languages are found in types of outdoor signs in the form of shop names, advertisements, and drugstore names. examples of outdoor signs that use three and four languages can be seen in figures (8) and (9). figure (8) is an outdoor sign in the form of an advertisement placed in a drug store. the main message is written in chinese and in mandarin because the product offered is a chinese product, judging by the name of the product, which is “naoxintong capsule”. the product description is written in english “capsule”. the advertisement uses indonesian, english, and mandarin. most of the information provided is written in indonesian. ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 34 written the longest, so it is placed at the bottom. in addition, the same script used by indonesian and english makes messages written in these two languages something that is easily caught by the eye. in addition to the use of language, contestation is also seen in the use of letters. in figures (8) and (9), the letters used are adjusted to the language used. japanese messages use japanese characters, while chinese messages use chinese characters. if we see the contestation of the languages use in the area, we can see clearly that this area is not prepared for international tourism object because the outdoor signboards mostly written in indonesian language. this area has lack information in english. futhermore, from the fact that indonesian is the main language in the area, we can conclude that people in this area tend to emphasize their identity as indonesians rather than as citizens of a certain ethnicity. the function of linguistic landscape as a tool to know where the signboard took place can not be seen from the language(s) used in the signboard in this area. we know the information about the location of signboards not from the language(s), but from the balinese script which is used in the signboard. implementation of government policy on outdoor signs in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada the heritage area of jalan gajah mada as the object of research is an area located in the city of denpasar, bali province, indonesia. as an area within the jurisdiction of the republic of indonesia, this area should be subject to the national political policy regarding the use of indonesian as a national language which refers to the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 63 of 2019 concerning the use of the indonesian language. in addition, this area must also follow the regulations issued by the governor of bali regarding the use of the balinese language as stated in the governor of bali regulation number 80 of 2018 concerning the protection and use of balinese language, script, and literature as well as the implementation of the month of balinese language. the regulation issued by the governor of bali state the use of balinese in article 3. it mentions that balinese as a means of (1) communication in balinese family life; (2) communication in all hindu religious activities, customs, and balinese information in english only shows the name of the drug, while information in chinese shows the benefits of the drug. fig. 8. sign board written in 3 languages figure (9) is also an advertisement. the advert is for a coffee shop selling balinese coffee under its own brand. product types and product brands are translated into english only, but advertising slogans are also translated into japanese and chinese. on this signboard, the position of indonesian is always above english. japanese and mandarin are placed between indonesian and english. this ad is the only outdoor sign in four languages. fig. 9. sign board written in 4 languages the use of several different languages is usually followed using several scripts that accompany the language. in outdoor signs like this, indonesian is always present even though it is not always in the main position. in the picture (9) above, the main message to be conveyed is “kopi bali”. the phrase “kopi bali” is followed by its english translation, “bali coffee”, but in the brand name, this position is changed. the brand in english is written above, “the butterfly globe brand”, while the name in indonesian is written below, namely “kupu-kupu bola dunia”. subsequent messages were written in four different languages, in order of indonesian, japanese, mandarin, and english. this writing order seems to be made more on aesthetic appearance, because with the same font size, indonesian is written the shortest, while english is ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 35 no. 80 of 2018 is clearly visible on the signboard of government offices name, as shown in figure (11). the signboard has a red and white background, with balinese script on top of roman script. balinese script is a transliteration of information written in roman script. although the shop name in this area has the same design which was made by the denpasar city government, but a different case was found in the signboard for “restaurant hong kong”. the signboard for this restaurant name contains balinese script, but the design was made by the owner of the restaurant, there is no government intervention involved. thus, this outdoor sign belongs to the bottom-up group. culture; and (3) providing information on public services, both in government institutions and private institutions as indonesian language companion. in addition to the use of balinese language, article 6 of the governor’s regulation also regulates the use of balinese script which is placed above roman script in writing names of places of worship for hindus, traditional institutions, inauguration of buildings, buildings, government institutions, private institutions, roads, tourism facilities, and other public facilities. with the issuance of the governor’s regulation, the design of signboards, both for government and private institutions, which previously only contained roman script, turned into signboard written using balinese script and roman script with balinese script positioned above roman script. however, the language written using the roman script is not always balinese, but also indonesian or even foreign languages. long before the regulation was issued, the denpasar city government had taken steps to use balinese script in writing the names of shops, restaurants, banks in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada denpasar. the shop name is written in the signboard in the same design for all the business place in the area. the name of the shop using balinese script is written horizontally at the top and the name is written using roman script written vertically at the bottom. unfortunately, this design is not updated based on the new regulation from the governor of bali. the area was beautified by adding several ornaments, but the design of the signboard was not maintain properly. not all the outdoor signboard in the area follows the regulation. there are various types and designs of outdoor signboard. in figure (10), the shop name is written using roman script and balinese script. signboard like this is the most common things that fall into the top-down classification. the name of the temple as a place of worship and the name of bank mandiri as the name of a state-owned company can clearly be classified as top-down outdoor signs because both were made by certain authorities who are above the community. however, the shop name in figure (10) cannot easily be classified into top-down or bottom-up groups even though they are both private businesses. implementation of bali governor regulation fig. 10. top-down shop name fig. 11. government office name ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 36 balinese script are written at the top. these two things show a contradiction. this shows that the implementation of governor regulation no. 80 of 2018 has not been fully implemented. the position of the balinese script under the roman script does not also mean that the outdoor signboard violates the regulations because in presidential decree no. 63 of 2019, section 12, article 33 it is stated that in the national language politics, indonesian is the main language. indonesian is used for the names of hotels, inns, factories, places of business, and so forth. if the place has historical value, it can be written in a regional language, but the regional language must be written in roman script and can be accompanied fig. 12. outdoor signboard written in roman and balinese script fig. 13. street signboard with roman script and balinese script the outdoor signboard in figure (11) shows the consistency of the position of the balinese script above the roman script on the top-down outdoor signboard made by the government, although this can not be seen in the bottom-up outdoor signboard made by the private sector like the signboard for “restaurang hong kong”. however, in several cases, the government also found inconsistencies in placing roman script and balinese characters as shown in figure (13). these two street signboards are governmentmade signboards, but the positions of the scripts are different. on the street name “jl. sumatera”, balinese script are written at the bottom, while on the street name “jl. pulau sulawesi”, ketut widya purnawati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 37 by regional script. in the case of street names above, it can be said that the writing system of “jl sumatera”, it follows the regulation state in the presidential decree no. 63 of 2019, while for “jl. pulau sulawesi” the writing system follows the bali governor regulation no. 80 of 2018. however, this still must be explored whether the method of writing is already an implementation of the existing regulations or just a coincidence considering that the existing regulations were only published in 2018, while the road signboard is not known when it was made. 5. conclusion. based on the discussion above, it can be said that indonesian is the majority language in the heritage area of jalan gajah mada eventhough this area is mostly inhabited by chinese descendant. the number of outdoor signboards that use the indonesian language alone is 174 out of 275 outdoor signboards. the second language that is widely used is english. both indonesian and english can be found on outdoor signboards independently or together. the use of indonesian language as the main language in the area shows that the people in this area tend to emphasize their identity as indonesians rather than as citizens of a certain ethnicity. the implementation of government policies was seen from the regulation in positioning the balinese and roman script in accordance with governor regulation number 80 of 2018. this regulation was fully implemented only for the signboard for government offices name because others signboard has not been implemented it consistently. this can be seen obviously in the signboard for the street names. several street names has different design, especially for the positions of balinese and roman script. though the street name obviously is a top-down signboard, which is of course made by the government, it seems that the language-related regulation have not been fully implemented. the government have to take in to account the use of language and maintain the signboard in this area. they have to make sure that the signboard really usefull in providing the information needed by the tourist if they really want to develop this place as a tourist attraction. references backhaus, peter. 2007. linguistic landscapes: a comparative study of urban multilingualism in tokyo. great britain: mpg books ltd. banda, felix, and hambaba jimaima. 2017. “linguistic landscapes and the sociolinguistics of language vitality in multilingual contexts of zambia.” multilingua 36(5): 595–625. barni, monica. 2014. “linguistic landscape theory in language learning.” conference proceedings. the future of education. 4th edition. https://conference.pixel-online.net/foe/acceptedabstracts_ scheda.php?id_abs=557&id_edition=6&mat=aca&wpage=ped. cenoz, jasone, and durk gorter. 2006. 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struggle in two southern thai spaces.” linguistic landscape. an international journal 7(2): 128–50. https://www. jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/ll.20008.sav. shang, g., and f. xie. 2019. “is ‘poor’ english in linguistic landscape useful for efl teaching and learning? perspectives of efl teachers in china.” international journal of applied linguistics 30(2): 1–15. shohamy, elana, and durk gorter. 2009. linguistic landscapes, expanding the scenery linguistic landscaping expanding the scenery. new york: routledge. wang, xiaomei, and daming xu. 2018. “the mismatches between minority language practices and national language policy in malaysia: a linguistic landscape approach.” kajian malaysia 36(1): 105–25. wijaya, dewa gede krisna aditya, and novi sunu sri giriwati. 2019. “kualitas visual koridor bersejarah jalan gajah mada denpasar.” jurnal mahasiswa jurusan arsitektur, 7(2). 7(2). yan, xi. 2018. “a study of language choices in the linguistic landscape of macao’s heritage and gaming tourism.” journal of multilingual and multicultural development 40(3): 198–217. yusiana, lury sevita. 2016. “konsep interpretasi guna melestarikan tapak sejarah di pecinan jalan gajah mada, denpasar.” e-jurnal arsitektur lansekap 2(2): 165–76. jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.1-7.2019 article reading speed of pbsi students of uin syarif hidayatullah jakarta elvi susanti1 1islamic state university syarif hidayatullah, jakarta, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 23, 2018 final revision: may 17, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 this study uses the qualitative descriptive method, which is by describing the data obtained from uin students. the population of this study was all pbsi (pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia) students who attended reading skills courses. the researcher took a sample of research from the 4a and 4b semester students of the 2016/2017 academic year with a total of 76 people. the results showed that there were still many pbsi uin students who had low reading speed. the results of kpm/spm (kecepatan per menit/reading speed per minute) which must be at least 325 kpm, are only achieved by one student or only 1.3% of 2 classes with total 76 people. the reason is that they only read once a week, just read books related to college assignments, get distractions while reading, difficulties in understanding foreign terms and languages, etc. keyword reading speed, literacy, effective reading, motor skills korespondensi e-mail: elvisoesanti@yahoo.co.id i. introduction reading is one of the four main language skills and is a part of written communication. every language skill is related to one another. reading is essential in all four language skills because reading is an effective way for someone to get information (delgadova, 2015). one must find information in advance by reading as many books as possible if you want to write about something. that is why reading becomes an essential language skill requirement. reading is a process that is carried out and used by the reader to get the message to be conveyed by the author through the medium of words or language writing. reading is part of communication, both oral and written. reading is often associated with literacy, which has become a hot conversation lately (gil et al., 2015; suggate et al., 2018). literacy is a concept that has complex, dynamic meaning that is interpreted and defined in various ways and points of view. literacy is the quality of literacy ability, which includes the ability to read and write. however, more than that, the meaning of literacy also includes visual literacy, which means "the ability to recognize and understand visually conveyed ideas (scenes, videos, images)" (lunday and stephens, 2015; aisami, 2015; ). why is reading important? as a muslim who believes in the qur'an as a guide to life, i believe that reading is very important for all aspects of life. the importance of reading is http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.1-7.2019 elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 2 contained in the koran, which means: "read by (mention) the name of your rabb who created, he has created man from a lump of blood. read it, and your lord is the most gracious. who teaches (humans) using qolam (pen). he teaches people what he does not know. "(surat al-alaq: 1-5). various experts also compiled various formulas for the importance of reading (goux et.al, 2017; mclean and rouault, 2017; delgado, 2018). reading is important because it can open new insights; can give new enlightenment to thought; can educate intellectual, spiritual, emotional, and selfconfidence that combine with humility; reading makes being an independent person in seeking knowledge; reading can give pleasure to the soul, and reading can make life more successful. not all indonesians, including students, realize the importance of reading for life. literacy, even at the most basic level, is still a problem in indonesia. the ability to read our society is very low. it was written in kompas report (saturday, 08/27/2016) concerning the poor condition of indonesian reading interest. based on the "most littered nation in the world" study conducted by central connecticut state university in march 2016, indonesia was ranked 60th out of 61 countries about reading interest. our reading interest is only one level above botswana. ironically, at the same time, indonesia is among the top in the use of the internet and social media. do not be surprised if junk news, hoaxes, and fake news thrive in our society. this was also strengthened by the 2012 unesco’s research, where only 1 in 1,000 people in indonesia read a book. two years later, in 2014, unesco noted that on average indonesian children only read 24 pages of books a year. the above data was also supported by the statement of the head of the library and information center of the national library of indonesia, which revealed that the reading interest of the indonesian population was very low. referring to data released by the central bureau of statistics in 2012, 91.58% of indonesia's population aged ten years and over prefer watching television. only about 8.42% of the population likes reading books, newspapers, or magazines. the national library also conducted a study in 2015. as a result, public reading interest also showed a figure of 25.1%, which was in the low category. the study was carried out in 12 provinces and 28 districts/cities, covering 75% of indonesia's territory. the main indicators of this study are reading frequency per week and reading time per day which is 63% reading 0-2 hours per day, 31% reading 2-4 hours, 4% reading 4-6 hours, and 2% reading more than 6 hours; 26% 0-2 times per week, 44% 2-4 times per week, 16% 4-6 times per week, and 14% more than 6 times per week. of course, this situation is very alarming. reading skills are also related to the speed of reading how fast someone eats their reading in the sense that they understand the reading. the speed of reading contains various implications, such as the purpose of reading, habits, reasoning, and reading the material. reading speed is measured by several words that are read every minute. reading speed is calculated by dividing the total number of words with reading travel time. as a lecturer who teaches skills courses, one of them is the "reading skills" subject, the writer tries to provide approaches and tasks that motivate students to read diligently. the reading speed of the students that the writer is not comparable with the level they have to achieve theoretically. the speed of reading contains various implications, such as the purpose of reading, habits, reasoning, and reading the material. the speed of reading is measured by several words that are read every minute. reading speed is calculated by dividing the total number of words with reading travel time. i elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 3 got the final result by giving students reading assignments in the form of scientific reading they used in lectures. the current research focuses on the issue of speed reading as proof that reading is an important issue, including in college. why is the pbsi student reading speed (indonesian language and literature education) uin jakarta still below standard? ii. methods the population of this study was all pbsi students who attended reading skills lectures. researchers took research samples from 4a and 4b semester students in the 2016/2017 academic year with a total of 76 people. the method used in this study is a qualitative approach by following steps. 1. choose a discourse that is suitable/suitable to read 2. marking discourse, the beginning of the reading, and the final discourse. 3. record the start time to read (hours ... minutes ... seconds ...). 4. read the discourse. 5. record the end time of reading (hours ... minutes ... seconds ...). 6. calculate the time needed to read the discourse in minutes. 7. divide the total number of words with the travel time read in minutes, which will produce a unit of reading speed "words per minute" (kpm). to measure the level of reading speed used the formula developed by tampubolon (1987: 10) that is by dividing the number of words that can be read at the reading time in minutes taken by students to complete their reading. for example, the number of words reads 750 words with the reading time taken for completing the reading is 2 minutes. the reading speed is 750 divided by 2 minutes equal to 375 words/minute or the same as the formula: then, the result will be categorized by reading criteria by soedarso (2000): 1) the reading speed is low if the speed is between 200-300 kpm or less. 2) the reading speed is moderate or sufficient if the speed is between 300450 kpm. 3) the reading speed is fast and effective if the speed is between 450-600 kpm or more. 4) layap reading speed and scan range from 800 to 1,000 kpm or more. iii. result the results of this study involved 2 classes of reading learning, grade 4a (36 people) and class 4b (40 people) with a total of 76 people. the theory used was tampubolon's theory, which determined the reading speed per minute (kpm) for undergraduate students is at least 325 kpm and a maximum of 400 kpm. this reading speed score is the most widely used by experts. although in data collection at the beginning of the study, researchers chose to use the nurhadi (2016) theory, which sets the kpm for students is the range 245-280 kpm. the results of kpm for students of class 4a pbsi totaling 36 people were obtained from reading assignments, which of course was more difficult than entertainment reading. a total of 34 students chose to read books related to linguistics, such as syntax, general linguistics, indonesian phonology, and language enchantment. only 2 students chose to read books related to literature, such as the book fiction theory. from the data collected, only one student fulfilled the reading standard by the student's kpm, which is at 360 kpm. in general, referring to the soedarso (2000) criteria the reading speed is as follows: reading speed = number of words time in minute elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 4 1. the reading speed is low if the speed is between 200-300 kpm or less. 2. the reading speed is moderate or sufficient if the speed is between 300450 kpm. 3. the reading speed is fast and effective if the speed is between 450-600 kpm or more. 4. layap reading speed and scan range from 800 to 1,000 kpm or more. based on the classification, grade 4a students with low reading ability are 23 people with a range of 209 kpm to 279 kpm. moderate or sufficient reading ability there are 3 students with a range of 315 kpm to 360 kpm. while the rest are not included in any category, because the speed is lower than the low reading ability of 10 people. this very low student reading ability ranges from 163 kpm to 195 kpm. the books they also read varied, although they were still in the category of serious books used for lecture materials. the book includes, among others, the book "general linguistics" written by alek and achmad hp, which is read by one student. while one person also reads the same book title written by djoko kentjono. m. ramlan's book entitled "syntaxis" is read the most by 21 students. possibly when i gave them reading assignments, the students were assigned by another lecturer to read the book. the book that still deals with linguistics is the book "basics of general linguistics" by djoko kentjono which is read by one person, and the same title but written by abdul chaer also read by two students. then two more students read the writings of j.w.m verhaar, entitled "principles of general linguistics". furthermore, the book which is still in contact with linguistics entitled "educational linguistics" by jos daniel parera; the book "syntax (classification of negative clause) by m. ramlan; the book "indonesian phonology" by abdul chaer; and "sociolinguistics" have abdul chaer read by each one student. other references are about the literature "fiction assessment theory" by burhan nurgiyantoro and other books "language charm" by kurshartanti, each read by two students. from the various answers about the reading speed of grade 4a obtained from the answers to student assignments, various answers were obtained. as many as 10 students had an uncertain schedule in reading. students who read 2-3 times a week 7 people, and who every day or seven times in a week is 6 students. as many as four people read four times a week; three people read once a week a book and 3 others read one book for one to two weeks. then two students read 3-5 times a week, and only one person reads six times a week. books that students read are diverse, such as novels, short stories, college books, and teen lit. novels and short stories or works of fiction are the most interesting readings for grade 4a students, where 25 students made their choices on the work. the way they get reading material is varied, the most are from reading the title, cover, and table of contents, and choosing according to the needs and topics they like. besides those choose to read a book by reading the synopsis, searching on the internet or listening to other people's recommendations, and adjusting it to the needs of lectures or lecturers' suggestions. the favorite topic that is preferred is romance or romance that is favored by 11 students. a total of 10 students like various topics, such as social, political and religious. the rest are those who like reading short stories, articles, historical fiction, biography (struggle and life experience), characters, death and supernatural, entrepreneurship, and psychology. these students prefer to read books as many as 23 people while reading articles of 10 people. the best time to read is that most of the students are admitted at 2:00 a.m. to 05:00 p.m. and from evening to night. free time is also a choice for students to read, and after elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 5 isha prayer or at bedtime, morning and night, and depending on mood or mood. the most favorite authors chosen by grade 4a students are seno gumira ajidarma chosen by 8 people, hamsad rangkuti favored by 6 students, followed by eka kurniawan, habiburrahman el shirazy, leila s. chudori, and sapardi djoko damono who were each chosen by 3 students. the remaining few authors were only chosen by one student, such as abdul chaer, ahmad fuadi, ahmad tohari, mira w and so on. previous reading speed data which presented the ability of low reading speed in contrast to the results of interviews through lecture assignments given to students. they answered when asked if their friends liked to read, as many as 27 students said they liked, while nine students answered that their friends did not like to read. it was also strengthened by the preference of students who preferred to read books as many as 23 students, articles of nine people, and liked both one person. on the other hand, the data was supported by the answers of grade 4a students, that they were dissatisfied with the results of the kpm which reached as many as 14 people, less satisfied by five people, quite satisfied by four people, and satisfied with six people. their assessment of the current reading is also diverse, which assesses 16 people well enough, do not read hoax news 10 people, less attractive or useless 3 people, all good reading as long as it contains two people knowledge, the reading is very good according to two people, reading now there are more social media according to one person, and one more opinion is that reading is not very good now because many teen lit had a lack of quality. meanwhile, in question number 12, as many as 27 student friends who became the object of research liked to read and 9 people did not like to read. however, they did not specify what reading their friends liked to read. students also suggest ways make someone like to read, for example, 12 people suggest motivating and making reading a habit, 10 people giving a stimulus or example, nine others recommend recommending good books, and one person appreciates / rewards. a total of 20 students admitted that lecturers, teachers, themselves inspired them to read; parents inspired seven students; no one inspired six people by prominent figures; one person from everyone who gives advice; and one student. finally, they also admit that if they get knowledge from reading, 11 people get knowledge and entertainment, three people get life/inspiration motivation, and two others get experience/situation/ background stories. from the results of the fourth-grade student b class kpm from 40 students, no one met the kpm requirements for undergraduate students. as many as 28 students have low reading ability, between 200 kpm to 275 kpm. moderate or adequate reading ability is only 2 people, namely 302 kpm and 309 kpm. there are 10 students whose reading ability is below the low reading ability of 123 kpm to 197 kpm. the results were obtained from the results of reading 3 linguistic books, 5 people literature, and 4 people who chose to read the textbook. the title of all books read by pbsi students who are the object of this research is the book "indonesian language of law" (ahmad bachtiar); "syntax" (m. ramlan); "introduction to comprehensive literary and cultural theory" (peter barry); "educational linguistics" (jos daniel parera); "fiction assessment theory" (burhan nurgiyantoro); "guidelines for the raw and non-raw words" (ahmad mufti; "indonesian language syntax" by supriyadi; "history of indonesian literature" by rosida erowati; "character education" has the lve-the asia foundation. there are several other book titles read by pbsi students in grade 4b, namely "indonesian learning strategies" written by iskandarwassid; "innovative and effective learning models" (tukijan taniredja); elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 6 "indonesia emerald tolerance" (henry thomas ";" morphology "(ramlan); and the book" indonesian teaching and learning strategies "by subani and sunarti. of the 15 questions asked to students in grade 4b, they answered reading books once a week 15 people, uncertain 7 people, 8 people reading 2 times a week, and 8 other people reading 3 to 5 times a week. the books they read were varied, the most widely read novels were 28 people, and only 1 read about recipes, while the college books were 18 people. they also have a unique way of choosing reading topics. like seeing book comments, author's name, according to college needs, sees a synopsis, book title, and background. their favorite topics include culinary, entertainment, romance, social, and literature. pbsi students in grade 4b preferred reading articles as many as 22 people and 18 others chose to read books. the best reading time that was dominant for them was at night which was carried out by 20 students, before and after the fajr prayers 10 people, when eight people were free, 7 in the afternoon, and the rest before bed only two people. 6 students did not have favorite authors, the other 7 students who chose seno gumira and 7 students also liked hamsat rangkuti. 4 people favored tere liye, pidi baiq and habiburrahman were both favored by 3 people, while the other authors favored one student. the authors selected by one student were emha ainin najib, bung hatta, gus dur, joko pinurbo, jalaluddin rumi, chairil anwar, eiichiro, sir arthur conan doyle, lexiu xue, ilana tan, yusuf mansur, boy chandra, ahmad tohari; and sapardi djoko damono. the students also get reading in a variety of ways, such as looking at social media 18 people; 17 people searched reading material in the library; 16 people borrow reading material from friends, and the next 15 people bought the reading material themselves. they also have various reasons for barriers to reading, such as feeling lazy (22 people), because of the influence of mobile phones (7 people), difficult to determine the time to read (5 people), noisy or noisy (5 people), then lack of vocabulary; sleepy; no reading material is the reason stated by one person. however, what is clear is that most of the 26 students are not satisfied with the results of the kpm they get; who said they were satisfied as many as 11 people; who regretted the result was too small as many as 8 people, and two students felt normal with the acquisition of their kpm. they also assessed current reading material: 15 students said the reading now varied; 13 people rated the reading as not weighted now; 4 people say it does not vary, and one person judged normal. another question answered by students in grade 4b is that friends in their neighborhood like to read as many as 26 people and who do not like seven people. they generally read 21 novels, seven people short stories, four islamic books, and articles; two persons. on the other hand, according to 23 students how to make someone like to read is by growing reading habits and 12 people suggest giving interesting books. parents are people who inspired 28 students to read, 12 students were inspired by their lecturers to read, six students got inspiration to read from their friends, no one inspired two students, and raditya dika inspired only one student. students also received various benefits from reading, namely 26 students gained unknown knowledge, 17 people thought reading increased their insights, and two people could motivate themselves through reading. iv. conclusion from previous research and discussion, several things can be used as conclusions, from 2 pbsi student classes in jakarta syarif hidayatullah uin 4a and 4b totaling 76 people. for class 4 a, only one person can meet the standard reading criteria according to tampubolon. the student has a reading elvi susanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 7 speed of 360 kpm. for class 4 b, none of them meet the criteria for achieving student reading standards of at least 325 kpm. by the results of research on the level of reading ability of pbsi students of uin syarif hidayatullah jakarta, students must begin to require themselves to read and make it necessary. furthermore, educators (teachers and lecturers), parents, friends, relatives provide motivation to students, children, friends to diligently read in various interesting and educative ways. references aisami, riad s. 2015. learning styles and visual literacy for learning and performance. procedia social and behavioral sciences, vol. 176, 538-545, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.508. delgado, pablo, cristina vargas, rakefet ackerman, ladislao salmerón. 2018. don't throw away your printed books: a meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension, educational research review, vol. 25, 23-38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003. delgadova, elena. 2015. reading literacy as one of the most significant academic competencies for the university students. procedia social and behavioral sciences, vol. 178, 48-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.145. gil, laura, tomas martinez, eduardo vidal-abarca. 2015. online assessment of strategic reading literacy skills. computers & education. vol. 82, 50-59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.026. goux, dominique, marc gurgand, eric maurin. 2017. reading enjoyment and reading skills: lessons from an experiment with first grade children, labour economics, vol. 45, 1725, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2016.09.007. iskandarwassid, and dadang sunendar. 2008. strategi pembelajaran bahasa. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya. lundy, april d., and alice e. stephens. 2015. beyond the literal: teaching visual literacy in the 21st century classroom. procedia social and behavioral sciences, vol. 174, 1057-1060, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.794. mclean, stuart, greg rouault. 2017. the effectiveness and efficiency of extensive reading at developing reading rates, system, vol. 70, 92-106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.09.003. nurhadi. 2016. teknik membaca. jakarta: toko buku rahma. soedarso. 1988. sistem membaca cepat dan efektif. jakarta: pt gramedia. suggate, sebastia, elizabeth schaughency, helena mcanally, elaine reese. 2018. from infancy to adolescence: the longitudinal links between vocabulary, early literacy skills, oral narrative, and reading comprehension. cognitive development. vol 47, 82-95, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.005. tampubolon. 1987. kemampuan membaca, teknik membaca efektif dan efisien. bandung: angkasa. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.508 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.145 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2016.09.007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.794 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.005 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: june 09, 2020 final revision: september 22, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this research is a cross-sectional sample survey with a qualitative approach of malay jambi’s phonology in sarolangun regency. the data was collected in the field using observation and interview methods. it has a form of notes, interview transcriptions, and audio and video recordings. the data was analyzed using a phonetic articulator matching method with a diving-key-factors technique as a basis. the results are presented based on the phonetic symbols of the ipa chart (revised 2005). as found in the research, malay jambi of sarolangun has six vowels and twenty consonants, one of which does not occur in native malay jambi words. beyond the phonological system description, this paper discusses various features found in sarolangun like nasalization and laxing of vowels, consonant and syllable deletion, or glide insertion. keyword malay jambi, phoneme, phonology, sarolangun correspondence e-mail: zkrulikowska@gmail.com article phonological sketch of malay jambi language of sarolangun, indonesia żaneta krulikowska1, nadra2, muhammad yusdi3 1,2,3lingustics department, faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.173-181.2020 i. introduction over the centuries, malay was the most influential language in the southeast asian region. its role was even compared to latin in ancient and medieval europe (collins 2005: 32). according to blust’s (1984 in adelaar 2004: 4) and later also adelaar’s (1985 in adelaar 2004: 4) theory, malay language spread beyond its homeland in southwest borneo around 2000–2500 years ago. since that time, its spread resulted in dozens of variations in countries such as malaysia, indonesia, singapore, brunei, the philippines, sri lanka and southern thailand (adelaar and himmelmann (eds.) 2005: 202). a large number of malay variations can be found in indonesia, the country known for its multiethnicity. even though indonesia has a national language, indonesian, this country is inhabited by hundreds of ethnic groups that use their languages. dialects and sub-dialects of malay language are spoken by approximately 17 million people in indonesia from aceh to irian jaya province (lewis 2009). although there are many malay dialects in indonesia, this paper focuses on malay jambi [iso: jax] variety spoken in sarolangun regency. malay jambi belongs to austronesian languages, more precisely malayic sub-branch of western malayo-polynesian branch (paauw 2008: 3). the total number of its speakers is estimated at around 1,000,000 (lewis 2009). studies of malay jambi language among others include husin et al. (1985), harahap (2015), kamarudin and rustam (2016), and oktariza and sufiyandi (2017), but the only one took place in sarolangun regency i.e. dialectological research of malay language in the batanghari river valley by anderbeck (2008). anderbeck analyzed the jambi people’s speech in 16 locations, three of which were located in sarolangun regency, namely dusun dalam, aro island, and lubuk kepayang. he classified dusun dalam and lubuk kepayang isolect as jambi ulu dialect of malay language, while pulau aro isolect, which is closely related to minangkabau language, was classified as penghulu dialect of malay language (anderbeck, 2008: 30). however, he only briefly discussed malay jambi language’s 173 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) phonological aspect relying on other books, such as husin et al. (1985 in anderbeck, 2008: 27) and gani et al. (2000 in anderbeck, 2008: 27) without any verification. therefore, none of the studies of malay jambi language described phonology of that language in sarolangun regency. sarolangun regency itself, with a total area of 6,184 km2, is the third biggest regency in jambi province. the population of sarolangun reached 315,469 people in 2017. the main religion of that region is islam, which is the main religion of the malay ethnic group (prayogi, 2016: 14, sunandar, 2015: 60-61). the everyday language between the inhabitants is malay jambi of sarolangun which is commonly called bahasa sarolangun (sarolangun language), meanwhile the official language used in schools and offices is indonesian. bahasa sarolangun has been influenced by the other languages used in this regency i.e. minangkabau, javanese, kubu, batin, and penghulu (anderbeck 2008: 30). one of the characteristics of malay jambi spoken in this region is that originally speakers use uvular fricative [ʁ] instead of trill [r] like it happens in malay jambi spoken around jambi city (husin et al. 1985: 12–13) while trill [r] only appears in loan vocabulary. these differences indicate that bahasa sarolangun is a recognizable mark of its community that appears in the local language. this paper provides a synchronic description of the phonological system of the malay jambi variety spoken in sarolangun regency. due to the fact that malayic languages do not distinguish phonemic suprasegmental segments (adelaar and himmelmann (eds.) 2005: 202), the research is limited to the description of segmental sounds only analyzed phonetically, more precisely using articulatory phonetics and phonemics. the purpose of this paper is 1) description and classification of phonemes contained in malay jambi of sarolangun, 2) description of the distribution of these phonemes, and 3) description of malay jambi syllable pattern in sarolangun. ii. methods this research is a cross-sectional sample survey with a qualitative approach. the research covers the whole area of sarolangun regency located in the western region of jambi province. taking into account that sarolangun district is the economic and cultural center of the entire regency, it can be considered as a model of the phonological system of other districts and can be taken as the primary location for this research the data was collected using observation and interview methods from three speakers who were selected based on the requirements taken from nadra and reniwati (2009: 36–42). it took a form of notes, interview transcriptions, and audio and video recordings. in a case of any doubts, data was consulted with an additional speaker and was also supplemented with daily dialogues of sarolangun residents. the author used a vocabulary list by nadra and reniwati (2009: 103) which was revised and reduced according to the needs of this study i.e. from 864 words and sentences to 550 words. then the data were analyzed using two methods by sudaryanto (2015: 25–35). the first one is a phonetic identity method used to identify speech sounds in malay jambi of sarolangun and then distinguish phonemes among recognized sounds. analytical procedures completed this method by pike (1966: 57–122). the second one is a distributional method that was used to analyze the syllables of the researched language. iii. result this section describes phonemes found in malay jambi in sarolangun regency and their distribution in words and syllables. it also includes discussion about patterns of syllables, clusters and diphthongs, and free variations. 3.1 description and distribution of consonants and vowels the description of phonemes in malay jambi in sarolangun regency divides phonemes into two types, namely consonants and vowels. it explains a manner of articulation, the airstream mechanism, and state of the glottis of found consonants as well as the size and shape of the space within the mouth while producing each vowel – the shape and position of tongue and jaw and the shape of lips. it also describes the loan consonant /r/ which was found in the research. the results are summarized in tables.174 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the distribution shows the position of a word and a syllable each consonant and vowel can occur. positions of the word were divided into three groups, i.e. initial, middle, and final position, while positions of the syllable consist of onset, syllabic nucleus, and coda. 3.1.1 description and distribution of consonants as found in the research, there are 25 native phonemes in sarolangun, nineteen of which are consonants, and six are vowels. in addition to the native consonants, one loan consonant was found in studies. based on the analysis that has been done, it can be concluded that malay jambi of sarolangun consists of four nasals, seven plosives, two sibilant affricates, three sibilant fricatives, two approximants, one lateral approximant, and one trill which is the loan consonant. the consonants can be also divided into thirteen voiced consonants and seven voiceless consonants. table 1. is a consonant chart based on the classification of handbook of the international phonetic association: a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet (the international phonetic association, 2007). loan consonant is written in brackets. some several phonological dependencies and tendencies have been found in consonants of sarolangun language. this article provides a short explanation of each of these phenomena. phonemes /p/, /t/, and /h/ are unreleased and become [p̚], [t̚], [h̚] in syllable-final position, while phoneme /k/ becomes plosive glottal [ɂ] in that position, examples are /a.sap/ [a.sap̚] ‘smoke’, /ə.pat/ [ə.pat̚] ‘four’, /i.luk/ [i.lʊɂ] ‘beautiful’, and / su.buh/ [su.bʊh̚] ‘dawn’. the phoneme /k/ and /ɡ/ are released as palatal [c] and [ɟ] and phoneme /h/ as velar [x] if they occur before phoneme /i/, e.g. /bu.kit/ [bu.cɪt̚] ‘hill’, / pa.gi/ [pa.ɟi] ‘morning’, and /li.hi.ja/ [li.xi.ɪ̯a] ‘neck’. finally, the sibilant fricative uvular /ʁ/ occurs as a trill [r] at a final position of a word, as in /i.paʁ/ [i.par] ‘sister/brother-in-law’. all consonant phonemes can be in the initial and middle position of a word, except /ɂ/ which does not occur in the initial position of a word. however, among discovered phonemes, few of them do not occur in the final position of the word, namely phonemes /ɲ/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /ɂ/, /ʨ/, and /ʥ/. what is more, there are no consonants in sarolangun that can play a role of syllabic nucleus. consonants which appear only in onset of syllables are /ʥ/, /ʨ/, /ɂ/, /ɡ/, /d/, /b/, and /ɲ/, other consonants occur both in onset and coda of syllables. speakers of sarolangun tend to insert the approximant /j/ or /w/ to separate close vowels from other vowels in a two-vowel sequence. the close front unrounded vowel /i/ is separated with the voiced palatal approximant /j/ and the close back rounded vowel /u/ is separated with the voiced table 1. consonant chart of malay jambi of sarolangun 175 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) labio-velar approximant /w/, as in /ti.jaŋ/ ‘tiang’ or /pa.ku.wa/ ‘hoe’. this phenomenon is usually called approximant or glide insertion. sometimes, an approximant insertion occurs as a result of a consonant loss, like in /pa.hit/ > /pa .jit/ ‘bitter’ where after the loss of the phoneme /h/ appeared the approximant /j/ to break the two-vowel sequence. the longest sequence of consonants in sarolangun is the two-consonant sequence. speakers of malay jambi in sarolangun often remove one of the consonants that cause total disappearance of that sequence. in a sequence which consists of nasal and voiced plosive phonemes, the removed phoneme is a voiced plosive, as in /səm.bi.lan/ > /sə.mi.lan/ ‘nine’, while in the sequence of nasal and unvoiced plosive phonemes, the nasal is reduced, e.g. /san. tan/ > /sa.tan/ ‘coconut milk’. in the sequence of nasal /n/ and affricate /ʥ/, the reduced sound could become both phoneme /n/ and phoneme /ʥ/, as in /kə.ʁan.ʥaŋ/ > /kə.ʁa.ʥaŋ/ ‘basket’ or /an.ʥiŋ/ > /a.niŋ/ ‘dog’. loan consonant /r/ consists of two allophones, i.e. voiced trill alveolar [r] and voiceless alveolar tap/ flap [ɾ]. sound [ɾ] only occurs in the intervocal position, while [r] in all positions other than that. this phoneme occurs at the initial, middle, and final position of a word, both in onset and code position of syllable in a vocabulary that is considered unusual/from outside by sarolangun residents and as an influence from other languages. 3.1.2 description and distribution of vowels like most of malay dialects and sub-dialects, the phoneme inventory of malay jambi in sarolangun consists of 6 vowels, as presented in table 2. two of them are close vowels, two close-mid vowels, a middle vowel, and an open vowel. moreover, there is three front not rounded vowels, one central rounded vowel, and two back rounded vowels. regarding distribution in words, it can be concluded that vowels /i/, /u/, /o/, and /a/ can occur in all positions of a word, except the vowel /e/ that has never been found in the initial position and vowel /ə/ that has never occurred in the final position of a word. furthermore, all of the vowels in malay jambi of sarolangun always play the role of a syllabic nucleus in a syllable. table 2. vowel chart of malay jambi of sarolangun front central back not rounded rounded close i u close-mid e o mid ə open a generally, all of the vowels which occur after nasal consonants tend to become nasal, e.g. /də.ŋan/ [də. ŋãn] ‘with’ or /ʁi.mo/ [ʁi.mõ] ‘forest’. moreover, vowels /u/, /e/, /i/, /o/ become lax, i.e. [ʊ], [ɛ], [ɪ], [ɔ], in final closed syllables, as in / pə.nek/ [pə.nɛ̃ɂ] ‘short’. this tendency was also discovered in descriptions of other phonologies of malay dialects, i.e. clynes and deterding (2011: 211), or soderberg and olson (2011: 211). at last, the mid-central vowel /ə/, known as schwa, might be deleted in the first syllable, which causes the appearance of clusters, for example,/kə.ʁi.tiŋ/ > /køʁi.tiŋ/ ‘curly’. this tendency might also cause a reduction of syllables in words, as in /kə.ʁan. ʥaŋ/ > /køʁan.ʥaŋ/ ‘basket’ where three syllables become two. this tendency will be also explained in section §2.3 about clusters in sarolangun. 3.2 description of syllables in this section, the writer discusses the syllables in malay jambi of sarolangun. descriptions of found syllable patterns are divided into two, i.e. patterns in native and in loan vocabulary. in addition, the author also analyzes the distribution of syllables in words consisting of one, two, three, and four syllables because the longest words found in that language consist of four syllables. based on the collected data, the syllable patterns in sarolangun consist of six patterns that occur in the native vocabulary, namely n like [u] in [u.ʁaŋ], nc like [əm] in the word [əm.pə.du], on as [ci] in [ci.daʊ̯], onc like [lʊt̚] in the word [mũ.lʊt̚], oon as [ɡra] in [ɡra.ham], oonc like [kʁan] in [kʁan.ʥaŋ], as well as four patterns found in the loan vocabulary, namely n as [u] in [u.sʊs], on like [to] in [to.pi], onc as [man] in the word [man. dɔr] , oon as [sɪ̯o] in [mã.nũ.sɪ̯o]. the canonical syllable structure is (o1)(o2)(n)(c1), with n as the simplest, e.g. /u/ in /u.sus/ ‘intestine’ and oonc as the most complex structure, e.g. /kʁik/ in 176 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) /ʥaŋ.kʁik/ ‘cicada’. in malay jambi of sarolangun, the syllable nucleus is always a vowel phoneme. in contrast, in onset and coda positions, there are always consonant phonemes, so it can be assumed that the nucleus (n) is equal to the vowel (v), while the onset (o) and coda (c) is the same as a consonant (k). all possible syllable variations can be seen in table 3. table 3. description of syllables native vocabulary loan vocabulary monosyllabic words on onc oon oonc onc two-syllable words n.on n.onc nc.onc on.n on.on on.onc on.oonc onc.on onc.onc nc.oonc oon.onc n.onc on.on on.onc onc. on onc.onc three-syllable words n.on.on n.on.onc nc.on.on on.n.onc on.on.on on.onc.on on.on.onc on.onc.onc onc.n.on onc.on.on onc.on.onc n.on.on on.on.on on.on.onc on.on.oon onc.on.on oon.on.onc four-syllable words on.on.on.onc on.onc.on.on onc.on.on.onc on.on.on.on syllable patterns in sarolangun change when considered from a phonemic or phonetic perspective, especially in derivative words. the derivative word is a word that is produced in the process of adding affixes, such as affixation, reduplication, or merging (kridalaksana, 2008: 111). phonemic syllable patterns in derivative words can be different when compared with the phonetic syllable patterns, for example, the phonetic pattern for the word ‘diikuti’ is on.on.on.on /di.ɂi.ku.ti/, while phonemic one is on.on.onc.n /di.ɂi.kut.i/. in the article, the phonetic pattern is used. in sarolangun, the consonants /h/ or /ʁ/ which occur in the word’s initial or final position tend to be omitted. moreover, the consonant /h/ can also be omitted in onset of a second syllable, which might cause a reduction of syllables, an insertion of approximant, or an insertion of a glottal stop. the examples can be seen in table 4 below. table 4. deletion of /h/ and /ʁ/ example initial position of a word /hi.duŋ/ > /øi.duŋ/ ‘nose’, /ham.baʁ/ > /øam.ba/ ‘tasteless’ /ʁu.mah/ > /øu.mah/ ‘house’ an onset of second syllable /ba.hu/ > /ba.wu/ ‘to smell’, /da.han/ > /da.ɂan ~ dan/ ‘branch’, /ta.hu/ > /ta.wu/ ‘to know’ final position of a word /lebaʁ/ > /li.baø/ ‘wide’, /la.paʁ/ > / la.paø/ ‘hungry’, /bə.naʁ/ > /bə.naø/ ‘correct’ /ba.sah/ > /ba.saø/ ‘wet’, /sə.pu.luh/ > / sə.pu.luø/ ‘ten’, /tu.ʥuh/ > /tu.ʥuø/ ‘seven’ another tendency found in sarolangun is the deletion of the whole syllable. this tendency might concern only the first and second syllables of a word. the first lost syllables are /ma/, /kə/, /pə/, and /mə/, while the second lost syllables might be / hi/, /mu/, /ʁe/. all of the found examples are shown in table 5. table 5. deletion of a syllable example first syllable /ma.ʨam/ > /ø.ʨam/ ‘kind/type’, /kə.pa.la/ > /ø.pa.la/ ‘head’, /pə.li.pis/ > /ø.li.pis/ ‘temple (part of the body)’, /məŋ.ɡa.tuŋ/ > /ø.ŋɡa.tuŋ/ ‘to hang’ second syllable /li.hi.ja/ > /li.ø.ja/ ‘neck’, /ni.mu.wa/ > / ni.ø.wa/ ‘coconut’, /ka.ʁe.no/ > /ka.ø.no/ ‘because’ 3.3 clusters and diphthongs three diphthongs were found in research in malay jambi of sarolangun language, i.e. diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/, which occur frequently and diphthong / oj/, which only appears in the loan word /a.soj/ borrowed from betawi language. therefore, only two diphthongs are native diphthongs, namely /aw/ and /aj/. all found diphthongs are falling diphthongs because the first vocal majority is higher than the second vocal majority.177 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in general, clusters do not appear in sarolangun language. however, the author found several examples of clusters resulting from the weakening of the phonemes or syllables. the found clusters are /ɡr/ for example, in /ɡra.ham/ ‘molars’, /kʁ/ in /kʁan.ʥaŋ/ ‘basket’, /pʁ/ in /pʁa.buŋ/ ‘join’, /ng/ in word /ŋɡa.tuŋ/ ‘hang’, and /mw/ in / ni.mwa/ ‘coconut’. these clusters are in the first syllable of words, except /ni.mwa/ which is in the second syllable. phonemes and syllable in which weakening occurred are /ə/, /u/, and /mə/. examples of these types of weakening can be seen in table 6. table 6. clusters examples /ə/ > /ø/ /ɡra.ham ~ gə.ra.ham/, /kʁi.tiŋ ~ kə.ʁi.tiŋ/, /pʁa.buŋ ~ pə.ʁa.buŋ/, dll. /u/ > /ø/ /ni.mwa ~ ni.mu.wa/ /mə/ > /ø/ /ŋɡa.tuŋ ~ məŋ.ɡa.tuŋ/ 3.4 free variations besides the few phonological tendencies, which were found in malay jambi in sarolangun, free variations can also be observed in this language. free variation occurs in the same environment, for example, in words whose meanings are the same, but pronunciation is different (kridalaksana, 2008: 254). it might apply both to consonants and vowels. all of the found examples are presented in table 7 below. table 7. free variation variation example /a/ and /ə/ /ma.nan.tu/ and /mə.nan.tu/ ‘daughter/sonin-law’, /ka.ʁak/ and /kə.ʁak/ ‘eggshell’, / ma.tah/ and /mə.tah/ ‘raw’, /la.mak/ and / lə.mak/ ‘tasty’ /o/ and /u/ /tu.pul/ and /to.pol/ ‘blunt’, /ɲja.kol/ and / nja.kul/ ‘to hoe’ /i/ and /e/ /sə.min/ and /sə.men/ ‘cement’, /sə.nin/ and /sə.nen/ ‘monday’ /in/, /it/, and /et/ /ʨə.ʁe.win/, /ʨə.ʁe.wit/, and /ʨə.ʁe.wet/ ‘miser’ /d/ and /b/ /ʨe.dok/ and /ʨe.bok/ ‘scoop’ /r/ and /h/ /kə.le.la.war/ and /kə.le.la.wah/ ‘bat’ /k/ and /ɡ/ /ku.tu/ and /ɡu.tu/ ‘flea’, /kə.lak/ and / ɡə.lak/ ‘later’ iv. discussion based on the results of the analysis, it can be concluded that the phonological system of malay jambi in sarolangun regency consists of twenty consonants and six vowels. those twenty consonants are as follows – nineteen native ones: /m/, /n/, /ɲ/, /ŋ/, /p/ consisting of allophones [p ~ p̚], /b/, /t/ with allophones [t ~ t̚], /d/, /k/ with allophones [k ~ c ~ ɂ], /ɡ/ with allophones [ɟ ~ ɡ], /ɂ/, /ʨ/, /ʥ/, /s/, /ʁ/ with allophones [ʁ ~ r], /h/ with allophones [h ~ x ~ h̚], /w/, /j/, and /l/, and one loan consonant, /r/ with allophones [r~ ɾ]. meanwhile six vowels are /i/ with allophones [i ~ i ̃ ~ ɪ ~ ɪ]̃, /u/ with allophones [u ~ ũ ~ ʊ ~ ʊ̃], /e/ with allophones [e ~ ẽ ~ ɛ ~ ɛ]̃, /o/ with allophones [o ~ õ ~ ɔ ~ ɔ̃], /ə/ with allophones [ə ~ ə̃], and /a/ with phonemes [a ~ ã]. the analysis of the jambi malay’s phonological system in sarolangun shows that there are both similarities and differences between sarolangun and other jambi malay isolects that have been studied previously well as with standard malay. it can be concluded that although the number of consonants is the same as their number in husin et al. (1985), several phonemes are different. husin et al. (1985) do not differentiate loan phonemes and they describe the archives /p/ and /t/ as phonemes that appear in the final position only, whereas in this study, the closed sounds [p̚] and [t̚] are considered as allophones of consonants /p/ and /t/. comparing consonants in sarolangun to standard malay consonants, differences can also be found. usually, malay consonants consist of 19 original phonemes, except adelaar (1992) and clynes and deterding (2011), which do not distinguish the glottal stop /ɂ/ as a separate phoneme. in contrast to other authors, in this study no palato-alveolar affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ (clynes and deterding, 2011 and sari and syapturi, 2019) or palatal plosives /c/ and /ɟ/ are found, but what is observed are alveo-palatal sibilant affricates /ʨ/ and /ʥ/. the loan phonemes found in standard malay are also different from the loan phonemes in sarolangun which have only one loan phoneme, namely /r/. in standard malay, hassan (1972) found consonants /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʑ/, /x/, /ɣ/, omar (1993) /f/, /v/, /ş/, /z/, /x/, /ʁ/, while clynes and deterding (2011) /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/, /x/, /ɂ/.178 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in addition, in sarolangun, the phoneme /ʁ/ is the native sound in sarolangun, while the phoneme /r/ occurs only in the loan vocabulary. this is a difference with the consonant phonemes by husin et al. (1985: 12) and adelaar (1992) because in their analysis, the sound [ʁ] was not found at all either as a separate phoneme or as an allophone from a phoneme /r/. in contrast to other writers, the author also found that phonemes /p/, /t/, and /h/ and phoneme /k/ is pronounced as /ɂ/ are pronounced in the closed syllable position of the last syllable, this phenomenon was only described by clynes and deterding (2011). the author also found that the phoneme /h/ can be pronounced as [x], /k/ as [c], and /ɡ/ as [ɟ] when occur before phoneme /i/. this phenomenon was not discussed in previous studies. the vowels found in sarolangun are the same as those described by husin et al. (1985) in malay jambi. studies of standard malay, such as hassan (1972), omar (1993), and adelaar (1992) as well as studies of various dialects of malay, for example, soderberg (2014a), also found the same six vowels. however, the discovered allophones were different from allophones in previous studies. usually, previous studies did not discuss aspect of allophones in vowels (hassan, 1972, omar, 1993, and adelaar, 1992), except for clynes and deterding (2011), which showed low sounds and free variations as allophones of vowels in standard malay. meanwhile, in the jambi malay language, harahap (2015: 3-5) found the same allophones as in sarolangun, i.e. [ʊ], [ɛ], [ɪ], [ɔ], however with a different pattern of occurrence, while husin, et al. (1985: 28) only mentioned that the vowel /i/ and /u/ could irregularly be pronounced longer. syllable patterns in sarolangun can have six forms, i.e. n, nc, on, onc, oon, oonc. the syllable nucleus is always a vowel, whereas in the onset and coda position is always the consonant. all consonants can occur at the onset of a syllable. the phonemes that are not in the coda are /b, d, g, ʨ, ʥ, ɂ/. the longest found word consists of four syllables. although the discussion of syllable patterns in other articles of malay jambi’s phonology was not observed, analysis of the syllable pattern of melawi dialect of malay language can be found (noviani et al., 2020: 6-7). comparison of sarolangun’s syllables with melawi’s shows that melawi dialect has only one monosyllabic pattern which is kvk whereas sarolangun has four – kv, kvk, kkv and kkvk. what is more, in twoand three-syllabic words of sarolangun language, more patterns can be found than in melawi dialect, and only three melawi patterns were not discovered in malay jambi of sarolangun, i.e. kv.kv, kv.kvv, kv.kvkv. patterns that were not found in melawi but were found in sarolangun are vk.kvk, kv.v, kv.kkvk, vk.kkvk, kkv.kvk for twosyllabic words and v.kv.kv, v.kv.kvk, vk.kv. kv, kv.v.kvk, kv.kvk.kv and kvk.v.kv for three-syllabic words. four-syllabic words were not found in melawi dialect. jambi malay language in sarolangun has three diphthongs, namely /aj/, /aw/, and /oj/ in which it is similar to malay jambi (husin, et al., 1985: 32) and standard malay language (clynes and deterding, 2011). however, diphthong /oj/, which in other studies was an original diphthong, in this study was found as a loan diphthong because it only occurred in one word from the betawi language. the presence of clusters is a result of the weakening of the phonemes or syllables. discovered clusters are /gr/, /kʁ/, /pʁ/, /ng/, and /mw/. the study of clusters was not found in previous studies of malay language. in addition to the phonological system of malay jambi in sarolangun, the author also discusses several phonological tendencies that were found. for vowels, described tendencies are vowel nasalization after nasal consonant, vowels /u/, /e/, /i/, /o/ become lax in final closed syllables, an insertion of approximant /j/ or /w/ to separate close vowels from other vowels in a two-vowel sequence, and a weakening of /ə/. meanwhile, for consonants, the observed phenomena include a weakening of /r/ and /h/ at the onset of a first syllable and at the end of a word, weakening of /h/ at the onset of a second syllable, and weakening of consonant in a two-consonant sequence. weakening of /r/ and /h/ in initial and medial position as well as deletion of syllable, especially /kə/, /ma/, and /pə/, in initial position was also found in malay language variation in pulau rengas region in bangko barat subdistrict in jambi province (aditiawarman and hilda, 2018: 38-43). deletion of /h/ and /r/ in final position of a word was also found in riau malay subdialect kepulauan in batam (ambalegin and 179 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) arianto, 2020: 170-171). in syllables a tendency was noticed, namely a compression of the whole syllable. this tendency might concern only the first or second syllable of a word. finally, the free variations found are /a/ and /ə/, /o/ and /u/, /i/ and /e/, /in/, /it/, and /et/, /d/ and /b/, /r/ and /h/, and /k/ and /ɡ/. v. conclusion this study is a synchronic sketch of a phonological system of malay jambi as spoken in sarolangun regency in indonesia. it is the first phonological research in that region of jambi province and probably the first analysis of syllables, diphthongs and clusters, and phonological tendencies that occur in malay jambi language. although, this discussion can provide a fairly detailed picture of the phoneme system, syllable patterns, and phenomena found in sarolangun, there are still many linguistic aspects that need to be investigated in malay jambi language as well as that language as spoken in sarolangun regency. this paper aims to become a basis for further studies in morphology, syntax, and dialectology of malay jambi both in sarolangun and generally. references adelaar, k. alexander, proto malayic: the reconstruction of its phonology and parts of its lexicon and morphology, canberra: a.n.u. printing service, 1992. adelaar, karl alexander, “where does malay come from? twenty years of discussions about homeland, migrations and classifications”, bijdragen tot de taal-, landen vol. 160, no.1, 2004, pp. 1–30. adelaar, karl alexander and himmelmann, nikolaus p. 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(http://www.ethnologue.com/16) (accessed: 2018-12-27.) nadra and reniwati, dialektologi: teori dan metode, yogyakarta: cv elmatera publishing, 2009. noviani, riska and patriantoro and syahrani, agus, “fonologi bahasa melayu dialek melawi”, jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran khatulistiwa, vol. 9, no. 3, 2020. oktariza, dodi and sufiyandi, “korespondensi fonem austronesia dalam bahasa melayu jambi: telaah 180 żaneta krulikowska/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) komparatif terhadap isolek melayu jambi seberang dan isolek melayu bungo”, krinok: jurnal linguistik budaya, vol. 2, no. 1, 2017. omar, asmah haji, susur galur bahasa melayu, kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka kementerian pendidikan malaysia, 1993. paauw, scott horan, “the malay contact varieties of eastern indonesia: a typological comparison”, ph.d. thesis, department of linguistics, the state university of new york, new york, usa, 2008. pike, kenneth l., phonemics: a technique for reducing languages to writing, 10th edn., michigan: the university of michigan press, 1966. prayogi, arditya, “dinamika identitas budaya melayu dalam tinjauan arkeo-antropologis”, tamaddun: jurnal kebudayaan dan sastra islam, vol. 16, no. 1, 2016. sari, dewi purnama and syaputri, komala dwi, “a study of phonological system of mentok dialect of bangka language in pusuk district of kelapa west bangka region”, vol. 12, no. 1, 2019, pp. 31-43. soderberg, craig d. and olson, kenneth s., “illustrations of the ipa: indonesian”, journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa, vol. 38, no. 2, 2011, pp. 209–213. soderberg, craig d., “illustrations of the ipa: cocos malay”, journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa, vol. 44. no. 1, 2014, pp. 103–107. sudaryanto, metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis, yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press, 2015. sunandar, “melayu dalam tantangan globalisasi: refleksi sejarah dan berubahnya sistem referensi budaya”, jurnal khatulistiwa: journal of islamic studies, vol. 5, no. 1, 2015, pp. 60-73. the international phonetic association, handbook of the international phonetic association: a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet, cambridge: cambridge university press. 2007) biography żaneta krulikowska was born on july 13, 1994 in lowicz, poland. in 2016, she graduated from the undergraduate program in indonesian and malay philology at adam mickiewicz university in poznan, poland. in 2017, she received unggulan scholarship from ministry of education and culture of indonesia which provided her with the opportunity to take postgraduate course in linguistics at andalas university in padang, indonesia. in 2019, she defended her ma thesis on phonology of the malay jambi of sarolangun. nadra has been a permanent lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences at andalas university since 2002, who obtained a bachelor of literature (dra.) in 1986 from the faculty of literature at andalas university, a masters in linguistics (m.s.) in 1992 and a doctor (dr.) also in linguistics in 1997 at gadjah mada university. she attended the “short-term research fellowship” program at johann wolfgang goetheuniversität in frankfurt am main, germany in 1993 with a scholarship from daad. academic awards obtained include the unand award for research and its application. muhammad yusdi has been a permanent lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences at andalas university since 1982, who obtained a bachelor degree (drs.) at the same year from the faculty of literature at north sumatra university, a master in linguistics (m.hum.) in 1997 at gadjah mada university and a doctor (dr.) in linguistics in 2008 at udayana university in denpasar, bali. he attended the “shortterm research fellowship” program at johann wolfgang goethe-universität in frankfurt am main, germany in 1986. 181 vol. 2, april 2015 28 singkatan dan akronim dalam surat kabar: kajian bentuk dan proses oleh: noviatri dan reniwati fakultas ilmu budaya unand noviatriyat@yahoo.com reniwati.fsua@gmail.com abstrak alasan memilih abreviasi sebagai objek penelitian dilatarbelakangi oleh fenomena marak dan tingginya penggunaan abreviasi di kalangan masyarakat, terutama dalam surat kabar. selain itu, berdasarkan proses pembentukannya, abreviasi yang digunakan dalam surat kabar banyak yang tidak sesuai dengan proses pembentukan abreviasiyang sudah ada. artinya, dari segi proses ditemukan adanya proses pembentukan baru sehingga proses pembentukan abreviasi di antaranya ada melanggar kaidah fonotaktik bahasa indonesia. penulisan makalah ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan bentuk-bentuk abreviasi, yaitu singkatan dan akronim yang digunakan dalam surat kabar dan menjelaskan proses pembentukannya. teori yang digunakan adalah teori abreviasi dan proses pembentukannya yang dikemukakan oleh kridalaksana (2010) yang membagi avreviasi atas lima bentuk, yaitu: 1) singkatan, 2) akronim, 3) pemenggalan, 4) konstrkasi, dan 5) lambang huruf. hasil analisis data memeperlihatkan bahwa ditemukan 1562 ( seribu lima ratus enam puluh dua) buah bentuk singkatan dalam surat kabar dengan 9 ( sembilan) proses, tiga buah di antaranya proses baru (temuan peneliti) dan 896 (delapan ratus sembilan puluh enam) buah bentuk akronim yang digunakan dalam surat kabar dengan 31 (tiga puluh satu) proses. 19 buah di antaranya juga merupakan proses baru. dengan demikian, berdasarkan proses pembentukan singkatan dan akronim ditemukan 22 ( dua puluh dua) buah proses baru. kata kunci: bahasa, bentuk, abreviasi, singkatan, akronim, proses jurnal arbitrer 29 i. pendahuluan alasan memilih abreviasi sebagai objek penelitian dilatarbelakangi oleh fenomena marak dan tingginya produktivitas penggunaan abreviasi di kalangan masyarakat penggguna bahasa, terutama dalam surat kabar. fenomena ini berkait dengan gerakan reformasi yang berlaku di indonesia yang ditandai dengan jatuhnya pemerintahan presiden soeharto pada tahun1998. pada masa ini, rakyat bebas berpendapat, berkumpul, dan berserikat. inilah kebebasan yang tidak diperoleh pada era orde baru. bagi masyarakat bahasa, reformasi juga dimaknai sebagai kebebasan dalam membahasakan pikiran, keinginan, dan perasaan. kebebasan itu terlihat nyata pada penggunaan bentuk abreviasi yang begitu pesat perkembangannya bagaikan jamur yang tumbuh di musin hujan. permasalahan yang timbul di tengah semaraknya pertumbuhan abreviasi ini adalah bahwa proses pembentukan abreviasi yang baru tersebut cenderung tidak mengikuti proses pembentukan abreviasi yang sudah ada. hal ini dapat menimbulkan kesan yang kurang baik terhadap pertumbuhan dan perkembangan bahasa indonesia, khususnya dalam proses pembentukkan kata (morfologi). perkembangan ini sekaligus juga mencerminkan perilaku budaya berbahasa masyarakat indonesia ada dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam artikel ini. pertama adalah apa saja bentuk-bentuk singkatan dan akronim yang digunakan dalam surat kabar (selanjutnya disingkat sk)? kedua, bagaimana proses pembentukan masing-masing bentuk singkatan dan akronim tersebut? teori yang digunakan adalah teori abreviasi yang dirumus oleh kridalaksana (2010). metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini ada tiga kelompok yang sesuai dengan tahapan penelitian. ketiganya adalah 1) metode dan teknik penyediaan data; 2) metode dan teknik analisis data, dan 3) metode dan teknik penyajian hasil analisis data. untuk penyediaan data digunakan metode simak, yaitu menyimak penggunaan bahasa yang digunakan dalam surat kabar. teknik dasarnya adalah teknik bagi unsur langsung dan teknik lanjutan adalah sblc dan teknik catat. untuk menganalisis data digunakan metode padan referensial, yaitu mencari acuan atau referen dari masing-masing bentuk abreviasi. teknik dasarnya adalah teknik pilah unsur penentu (pup) dengan teknik lanjutannya adalah teknik hubung banding membedakan (hbb). teknik ini digunakan untuk menentukan perbedaan antara bentuk akronim yang satu dengan bentuk akronim lainnya. vol. 2, april 2015 30 ii. pembahasan dalam artikel ini, pembahasan bentuk-bentuk abreviasi dibahas secara bersamaan dengan proses pembentukannya. hal ini dilakukan untuk menghindari terjadinya pengulangan bentuk abreviasi yang sama dalam pemberian contohcontoh. 2.1 bentuk dan proses pembentukan singkatan dalam menganalisis data penelitian, analisis mengenai bentuk-bentuk singkatan yang digunakan dalam sk dibahas secara bersamaan dengan proses pembentukannya. hal ini dilakukan untuk menghindari terjadinya pengulangan bentuk singkatan yang sama dalam pemberian contoh-contoh. berdasarkan data yang ada, sesuai dengan sampel penelitian dalam surat kabar penggunaan singkatan menempati jumlah terbanyak dibandingkan dengan bentuk abreviasi lainnya, yaitu 1562 (seribu lima ratus enam puluh dua) buah bentuk singkatan. setelah dilakukan klasifikasi data yang didasarkan pada proses pembentukannya, ditemukan 9 (sembilan) buah proses pembentukan singkatan dalam surat kabar. dari 9 (sembilan) proses tersebut, 3 (tiga) buah di antaranya proses baru (temuan peneliti) berikut adalah paparan mengenai masing-masing proses pembentukan singkatan tersebut. 2.1.1 singkatan dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan huruf pertama tiap komponen dalam sk ditemukan beberapa jenis data yang berbentuk singkatan yang proses pembentukannya dengan pengekalan huruf pertama tiap komponen. berikut adalah beberapa contoh bentuk singkatan dengan proses pembentukannya. dpshp singkatan ini digunakan dalam lingkup pembicaraan pemilihan kepala daerah (pilkada). banyak sekali dijumpai bentuk-bentuk singkatan yang terkait dengan pilkada ini. hal ini disebabkan tahun 2013 ini memang tahun politik. proses pembentukannya dilakukan dengan cara pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen. singkatan dpshp merupakan kependekan dari daftar pemilihan sementara hasil perbaikan. proses pembentukannya dapat disajikan sebagai berikut. dpshp daftar pemilihan sementara hasil perbaikan jurnal arbitrer 31 sajian pada diagram di atas menunjukan bahwa pembentukan singkatan dpshp terbentuk dengan pengekalan huruf pertama tiap komponen, yaitu : d pengekalan dari daftar, p pengekalan dari pemilihan, s pengekalan dari sementara, h pengekalan dari hasil, dan p pengekalan dari perbaikan. 2.1.2 singkatan dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan huruf pertama masingmasing komponen dengan pelesapan konjungsi ada banyak data yang ditemukan dalam sk yang terkait dengan penggunaan singkatan dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen dengan pelesapan konjungsi. pdikm salah satu bentuk singkatan lain yang digunakan dalam sk adalah pdikm. singkatan ini digunakan untuk menunjuk lokasi atau tempat penyimpanan salah satu dokumendokumen kebudayaan daerah. singkatan ini dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan huruf awal masing-masing komponen dengan pelesapan konjungsi. pdikm merupakan kependekan atau singkatan dari pusat dokumentasi dan informasi kebudayaan minangkabau. adapun proses pembentukannya dapat disajikan sebagai berikut. pdikm pusat dokumentasi (dan) informasi kebudayaan minangkabau konjungsi (lesap) berdasarkan diagram di atas dapat dilihat bahwa proses pembentukan singkatan tersebut adalah dengan pengekalan huruf pertama tiap komponen, yaitu p dikekalkan dari komponen pusat, d dikekalkan dari komponen dokumentasi, i dari informasi, k dari kebudayaan, m dari minangkabau, serta pelesapan konjungsi dan. 2.1.3 singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dengan bilangan bila berulang berdasarkan data yang tersedia hanya ditemui beberapa bentuk data dengan proses singkatan di atas. bentuk tersebut adalah tnp2k dan lp2m . tnp2k tnp2k merupakan bentuk singkatan dari tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan. singkatan ini digunakan dalam lingkup vol. 2, april 2015 32 peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat miskin. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. tnp2k tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan tampilan di atas menunjukkan bahwa proses pembentukan tnp2k terjadi melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama, kedua, dan terakhir dari suatu komponen dengan bilangan. tnp2k merupakan bentuk singkatan dari tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan. singkatan ini digunakan dalam lingkup peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat miskin. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. tnp2k tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan tampilan di atas menunjukkan bahwa proses pembentukan tnp2k terjadi melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama, kedua, dan terakhir dari suatu komponen dengan bilangan. 2.1.4 singkatan dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama dari sebuah kata ada beberapa data yang ditemukan dalam sk yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan tiga huruf pertama dari sebuah data. berikut adalah beberapa contoh bentuk singkatan tersebut. cab singkatan ini merupakan salah satu bentuk abreviasi yang digynakan dalam spke. proses pembentukannya adalah dengan cara mengekalkan tiga huruf pertama dari sebuah kata, yaitu kata cabang. cab merupakan kependekan dari kata cabang. berikut adalah proses pembentukannya. cab cabang diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa singkatan cab dibentuk dengan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama suatu kata, yaitu pengekalan cab dari kata cabang. jurnal arbitrer 33 2.1.5 singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan terakhir dalam sk hanya ditemukan satu bentuk singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan terakhir dari suatu kata. singkatan tersebut adalah ka. singkatan ka merupakan kependekan dari kepala. berikut adalah bentuk proses pembentukannya. ka kepala pada diagram di atas terlihat bahwa singkatan ka dibentuk dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan terakhir. huruf pertamanya ialah k dan huruf terakhirnya ialah a sehingga terbentuklah singkatan ka. 2.1.6 singkatan dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan huruf pertama, keenam, dan terakhir komponen kata dalam sk ditemukan beberapa jenis data yang berbentuk singkatan yang proses pembentukannya melalui proses di atas. berikut adalah salah satu contoh bentuk singkatan tersebut. dra. bentuk ini merupakan kependekan dari doktoranda. proses pembentukan singkatan ini adalah sebagai berikut. dra doktoranda sajian diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa singkatan dra dibentuk dengan pengekalan huruf pertama, keenam, dan terakhir komponen kata, yaitu pengekalan huruf d, r, dan a dari komponen doktoranda. 2.1.7 singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama, ketiga, dan terakhir dari komponen kata dalam sk juga ditemukan bentuk singkatan dengan proses pengekalan di atas.. singkatan tersebut adalah kls. singkatan ini merupakan kependekan dari kelas. berikut adalah bentuk proses pembentukannya. kls kelas pada diagram di atas terlihat bahwa singkatan kls dibentuk dengan vol. 2, april 2015 34 proses pengekalan huruf pertama, ketiga, dan terakhir, yaitu pengekalan k, l, dan s dari komponen kelas. 2.1.8 singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan ketiga dari komponen kata singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan ketiga komponen kata tidak terlalu banyakdigunakan dalam sk. berdasarkan data yang tersedia hanya ditemui beberapa bentuk data dengan proses singkatan di atas, di antara bentuk akronim tersebut adalah jl. singkatan jl. merupakan bentuk singkatan dari jalan. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. jl jalan diagram di atas menunjukkan bahwa proses pembentukan singkatan jl terjadi melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan ketiga dari suatu komponen, yaitu pengekalan huruf j dan huruf l dari komponen jalan. 2.1.9 singkatan dengan proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan kedua darikomponen kata ada beberapa data yang ditemukan dalam sk yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan huruf pertama dan kedua sebuah data. berikut adalah salah satu contoh bentuk singkatan tersebut. no. singkatan no. merupakan bentuk singkat atau kependekan dari nomor. singkatan ini terbentuk melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan kedua komponen kata, yaitu kata nomor. proses pembentukannya dapat disajikan sebagai berikut. no nomor diagram di atas menunjukkan bahwa proses pembentukan singkatan no. terjadi melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama dan kedua dari suatu komponen, yaitu pengekalan huruf n dan huruf o dari komponen nomor. 2.1 bentuk dan proses pembentukan akronim dari semua data yang diperoleh ditemukan 896 bentuk akronim yang digunakan dalam surat kabar. setelah dilakukan kalsifikasi terhadap keseluruhan bentuk akronim tersebut ditemukan bahwa proses pembentukannya terbentuk melalui 31 (tiga puluh satu) proses. akan tetapi, mengingat berbagai hal jurnal arbitrer 35 dalam artikel ini proses pembentukan tersebut hanya ditampilkan 15 (lima belas proses) saja. 2.2.1 akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen. dalam sk ditemukan bentuk akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan huruf pertama masingmasing komponen. salah satu contohnya adalah akronim aji. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari aliansi jurnalis independen yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara mengekalkan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen.. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. aji aliansi jurnalis independen proses pembentukannya adalah melalui proses pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponem, yaitu pengekalan huruf a dari aliansi sebagai komponen pertama, huruf j dari jurnalis sebagai komponen, dan huruf i dari kata independen sebagai komponen ketiga/terakhir. 2.2.2 akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan suku kata pertama tiap-tiap komponen ada beberapa data akronim dalam sp yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan suku kata pertama masing-masing komponen. salah satunya adalah akronim mifan. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari minang fantasi yang dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan suku kata pertama masing-masing komponen. berikut adalah diagram proses pembentukannya. mifan minang fantasi akronim mifan dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan suku kata pertama masing-masing komponen, yaitu pengekalan suku kata mi dari komponen minang dan suku kata fan dari komponen fantasi. vol. 2, april 2015 36 2.2.3 akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan tiga huruf pertama masingmasing komponen akronim melalui proses di atas cukup banyak digunakan dalam sk. di antara contohnya adalah akronim nasdem. akronim nasdem merupakan salah satu bentuk akronim yang dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan tiga huruf pertama tiap-tiap komponen. akronim nasdem adalah bentuk kependekan dari nasional demokrat. akronim ini merupakan salah satu nama partai politik, yaitu partai nasional demokrat. proses pembentukannya dapat dilihat dalam diagram berikut. nasdem nasional demokrat diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa akronim nasdem merupakan kependekan dari nasional demokrat yang dibentuk dengan proses pengekalan tiga huruf pertama masing-masing komponen, yaitu pengekalan nas dari komponen nasional dan dem dari komponen demokrat. 2.2.4 akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir dari komponen pertama, pengekalan suku kata keempat dari komponen kedua, dan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen, serta suku kata terakhir komponen keempat dalam sk, akronim melalui proses di atas jarang dijumpai penggunaannya dalam sk. contohnya adalah disdukcapil. akronim ini merupakan bentuk pendek dari dinas kependudukan catatan sipil. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. disdukcapil dinas kependudukan catatan sipil berdasarkan diagram di atas terlihat bahwa proses pembentukan akronim disdukcapil adalah melalui pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan akhir komponen pertama, yaitu dis dari komponen dinas, suku kata keempat duk dari kependudukan sebagai komponen kedua, pengekalan suku kata pertama ca dari catatan sebagai komponen ketiga, dan pengekalan suku kata jurnal arbitrer 37 terakhir pil dari sipil sebagai komponen terakhir. 2.2.5 akronim yang proses pembentukannya dengan cara pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir komponen pertama, pengekalan huruf keempat, kelima, dan keenam komponen kedua, dan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen ketiga, dan pengekalan empat huruf pertama komponen terakhir yang disertai dengan pelesapan konjungsi salah satu contoh akronim yang menunjukkan proses ini adalah akronim dishubkominfo. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari dinas perhubungan komunikasi dan informas yang terbentuk melalui pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir dari komponen pertama, pengekalan huruf keempat, kelima, dan keenam dari komponen kedua, pengekalan tiga hurif pertama komponen ketiga, pengekelan empat huruf pertama komponen terakhir yang disertai dengan pelesepan konjungsi. proses pembentukannya disajikan pada diagram berikut. dishubkominfo dinas perhubungan komunikasi dan informasi konjungsi (lesap) proses pembentukannya adalah dengan mengekalkan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir, yaitu huruf d, i, dan pengekalan huruf terakhir s komponen pertama, yaitu dari dinas, pengekalan huruf keempat, kelima, dan keenam hub dari komponen perhubungan, dan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama kom dari komponen komunikas sebagai komponen ketiga, dan pengekalan empat huruf pertama info dari komponen informasi sebagai komponen terakhir yang disertai dengan pelesapan konjungsi. 2.2.6 akronim dengan proses pengekalan suku kata terakhir komponen pertama dan ketiga serta pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen kedua. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari kursus calon pengantin. akronim ini dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan suku kata vol. 2, april 2015 38 terakhir komponen pertama dan ketiga serta pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen kedua. diagram pembentukannya dapat dilihat pada proses berikut. suscatin kursus calon pengantin akronim yang digunakan dalam surat kabar di atas merupakan pembentukan akronim melalui proses pengekalan suku kata akhir komponen pertama, yaitu suku kata sus dari komponen kursus, pengekalan suku kata pertama ca dari komponen calon, dan pengekalan suku kata terakhhir, yaitu suku kata tin dari komponen pengantin. 2.2.7 akronim dengan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, ketiga, dan keempat, serta pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen kedua sama halnya dengan proses dua akronim di atas, akronim dengan proses ini juga jarang ditemukan penggunaanya dalam sk. pamer paha merupakan kependakan dari padat merayap panas hangat. berikut adalah proses pembentukannya. pamer paha padat merayap panas hangat pada diagram di atas terlihat bahwa pamer paha proses pembentukannya adalah melalui pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, ketiga, dan keempat, dan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen kedua, yaitu pengekalan suku kata pertama pa dari komponen padat, pengekalan tiga huruf pertama mer dari komponen merayap, pengekalan suku kata pertama, yaitu suku kata pa dari komponen paha, dan suku kata ha dari komponen hangat. 2.2.8 akronim dengan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, dan pengekalan suku kata terakhir komponen kedua dalam sk hanya ditemukan satu bentuk akronim melalui proses di atas, yaitu akronim pekat. pekat merupakan kependekan dari penyakit masyarakat. proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. pekat penyakit masyarakat jurnal arbitrer 39 diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa akronim pekat merupakan kependekan dari penyakit masyarakat. proses pembentukannya adalah dengan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen, yaitu suku kata pe pada komponen penyakit dan pengekalan suka kata terakhir komponen terakhir atau komponen kedua, yaitu suku kata, yaitu suku kata kat dari komponen masyarakat. 2.2.9 akronim dengan pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir komponen pertama, pengekalan suku pertama dan kedua komponen kedua, pengekalan tiga huruf pertama dari bentuk dasar komponen ketiga, pengekalan empat huruf pertama dari bentuk dasar komponen keempat, dan pengekalan dua huruf pertama komponen kelima, disertai pelesapan konjungsi berdasarkan hasil klasifikasi data ditemukan penggunaan akronim melalui proses di atas. salah satu contohnya adalah akronim disperindgtamben. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari dinas perindustrian, perdagangan, pertambangan, dan energi. pembentukan akronim ini melalui pengekalan huruf pertama dan terakhir komponen pertama, pengekalan dua suku pertama komponen kedua, pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen ketiga, pengekalan empat huruf pertama komponen keempat, dan pengekalan dua huruf pertama komponen kelima, disertai pelesapan konjungsi. adapun proses pembentukannya adalah sebagai berikut. disperindagtamben dinas perindustrian, perdagangan, pertambangan, dan energi konjungsi (lesap) sajian diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa proses pembentukan disperindagtamben adalah pengekalan dua huruf pertama dan terakhir komponen pertama, yaitu dis dari dinas, pengekalan suku kata pertama dan kedua komponen pertama, yaitu per dan in dari komponen perindustrian, pengekalan tiga huruf pertama dari bentuk dasar dagang, yaitu dag , pengekalan empat huruf pertama dari bentuk dasar tambang, yaitu tamb dari komponen tambang, dan pengekalan dua huruf pertama komponen kelima, yaitu en dari vol. 2, april 2015 40 komponen energi, serta pelesapan konjungsi dan. 2.2.10 akronim dengan pengekalan huruf pertama komponen pertama, huruf pertama,ketiga, keempat, dan kelima komponen kedua, dan pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponemterakhir akronim melalui proses di atas tidak terlalu banyak digunakan dalam sk. contohnya antara lain adalah akronim sprindik. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari surat perintah penyelidikan. akronim ini terdiri dari tiga komponen, yaitu komponen surat, perintah, dan penyelidikan. proses pembentukannya dapat dilihat pada diagram berikut. sprindik surat perintah penyelidikan diagram di atas memperlihatkan bahwa akronim sprindik merupakan kependekan dari surat perintah penyelidikan. proses pembentukannya adalah dengan pengekalan huruf pertama komponen pertama, yaitu huruf s dari komponen surat,dan pengekalan dari huruf pertama, ketiga, keempat, dan kelima komponen kedua, yaitu huruf p, r, i, n dari komponen perintah, serta pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen terakhir, yaitu suku kata dik dari komponen penyelidikan. 2.2.11 akronim dengan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen pertama dan dua huruf pertama komponem terakhir berdasarkan data yang ada terdapat penggunaan akronim dengan proses pembentukan di atas. contoh akronimnya adalah monev. akronim ini merupakan salah satu bentuk akronim yang digunakan dalam sk. berikut proses pembentukannya. monev monitoring evaluasi pada diagram di atas terlihat bahwa akronim monev merupakan kependekan dari monitoring evaluasi. akronim ini dibentuk melalaui proses pengekalan tiga huruf komponen pertama, yaitu huruf m, o, n pada komponen monitoring dan pengekalan dua huruf pertama komponen terakhir, yaitu huruf e dan v pada komponen evaluasi. jurnal arbitrer 41 2.2.12 akronim dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama dan pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen berdasarkan klasifikasi data ada beberapa akronim yang terbentuk berdasarkan proses di atas. salah satunya adalah akronim lebay. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari lebaran bersama anak yatim. berikut proses pembentukannya. lebay lebaran bersama anak yatim akronim ini dibentuk melalui proses pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, yaitu suku kata le dari komponen lebay dan pengekalan huruf pertama masing-masing komponen, yaitu huruf b dari komponen bersama, huruf a dari komponen anak, dan y dari komponen yatim. 2.2.13 akronim dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen pertama dan pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen kedua dan terakhir hasil klasifikasi data menunjukkan bahwa akronim melalui proses ini terdapat dalam sk. salah satunya adalah akronim pantarlih. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari panitia pendaftaran pemilih. proses pembentukannnya adalah sebagai beriikut. pantarlih panitia pendaftaran pemilih akronim ini terbentuk melalui proses pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen pertama, yaitu huruf p, a, dan n dari komponen panitia dan pengekalan suku kata ketiga, yaitu suku kata tar dan lih dari komponen pendaftaran dan pemilih. 2.2.14 akronim dengan proses pembentukan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen pertama dan pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen kedua dan suku kata komponen terakhir berdasarkan hasil klasifikasi data dalam sk ditemukan penggunaan akronim melalui proses ini. contohnya antara lain adalah akronim panwaslu. akronim ini kependekan dari panitia pengawasan pemilu. vol. 2, april 2015 42 panwaslu panitia pengawasan pemilu akronim ini terbentuk melalui proses pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen pertama, yaitu huruf p, a, n pada komponen panitia dan pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen kedua, yaitu suku kata was pada komponen pengawasan, dan pengekalan suku kata terakhir, yaitu suku kata lu pada komponen terakhir, yaitu komponen pemilu. 2.1.15 akronim dengan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen kedua, dan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen terakhir yang disertai dengan pelesapan preposisi dan konjungsi ada beberapa bentuk akronim yang terbentuk melalui proses di atas. salah satu di antaranya adalah akronim perludem. akronim ini merupakan kependekan dari perhimpunan untuk pemilu dan demokrasi. proses pembentukan akronim ini adalah sebagai berikut. perludem perhimpunan untuk pemilu dan demokrasi akronim ini terbentuk dengan pengekalan suku kata pertama komponen pertama, yaitu suku kata per dari komponen perhimpunan, pengekalan suku kata ketiga komponen kedua, yaitu suku kata lu dari komponen pemilu, dan pengekalan tiga huruf pertama komponen terakhir, yaitu huruf d, e, dan m dari komponem demokrasi yang disertai dengan pelesapan preposisi dan konjungsi. iii. penutup setelah dilakukan pembahasan terhadap singkatan dan akronim yang digunakan dalam sk, ada beberapa hal yang dapat disimpulkan : 1. singkatan lebih banyak digunakan dalam surat kabar daripada akronim. 2. penggunaan singkatan berjumlah 1562 ( seribu lima ratus enam puluh dua ) buah bentuk dan akronim berjumlah 896 (delapan ratus sembilan puluh enam) buah. 3. berdasarkan proses pembentukannya, singkatan terbentuk melalui 9 (sembilan) proses. dari sembilan proses jurnal arbitrer 43 tersebut ditemukan 3 (tiga) proses baru. 4. akronim terbentuk melalui 31 (tiga puluh satu proses), 19 (sembilan belas) proses di antaranya proses baru. akan tetapi dalam makalah ini hanya dideskripsikan 15 proses. 5. berdasarkan proses pembentukan singkatan dan akronim peneliti menemukan adanya 22 (dua puluh dua) buah proses baru. referensi arifin, m.hum., prof. dr. e. zaenal dan dra. junaiyah h.m., m.hum.. morfologi: bentuk, makna, dan fungsi. jakarta: pt. gramedia. ba’dulu, m.s., prof. dr. h. abdul muis dan herman, s.ag., m.pd. 2005. morfosintaksis. jakarta: rineka cipta. catford, j.c. 1990. a practicalo introduction to phonetic. new york: oxford university press. kridalaksana, harimurti. 2010 pembentukan kata dalam bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt. gramedia. -------------- 1983. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt. gramedia. noviatri. 2008.” penggunaan bahasa dalam surat kabar padang ekspres”. padang: unand. nugraha, krida.1996. kaidah bahasa indonesia: kata-kata, kalimat, dan akronim baku. solo: cv. aneka. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. 2008. kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional. ramlan. 2003. morfologi suatu tinjauan deskriptif. yogyakarta: cv. karyono. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. the use of seal in early malay official letters : a personal identity and ethnic culture jurnal arbitrer vol. 5 no. 1 (2018) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.1-7.2018 article the use of seal in early malay official letters : a personal identity and ethnic culture abul razak abdul karim academy of malay studies, university of malaya, malaysia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 03, 2018 final revision: april 20, 2018 available online: april 28, 2018 this brief article discuss on how the seals that were used on the official malay letters incorporated and displayed the identity of the senders, whether they are individual dignitaries or governments. the early malay seals are among the symbol and identity of the sender. in the traditional malay society the seal was not something that anyone can own and use indiscriminately. the seals were used as personal symbols by the individual rulers and dignitaries and subsequently became something that was passed on as part of their inheritance. for an individual sultan or dignitary, the seal represented and displayed his identity. the concept of identity in relation to the early malay official letters is actually the malay identity. this article also discuss the shape and form of seal, the language used, and .calligraphy or artistic writing style. keyword seal, personal identity, ethnic culture, malay letters correspondence e-mail: abrazak@um.edu.my i. introduction early malay official letters or correspondences are among the earliest known malay manuscripts that were significant in various ways, both to the local rulers as well as to the colonialist. these letters were among the different communication media used to establish and maintain close relations between governments, as well as for commercial and other purposes. the seal stamped onto a particular early malay official letter was one of the various significant elements used to indicate its authenticity. this was so because the seal symbolises the identity of the sender. the receiver will know the significance of the letter based on the seal stamped on it. in the traditional malay society the seal was not something that anyone can own and use indiscriminately. only specific, group, such as the government officials or dignitaries, the kings or sultans, and the western expatriates were permitted to use seal for their official letters. origin of the seals according to wilkinson (1955:187) the malay word ‘cap’ (seal) originated from the urdu word ‘chapp’. in the malay language the ‘cap’ is also known as ‘menterai’, or ‘tera’, or even ‘mohor’. the seal was used as a substitute for the sender’s signature. however, according to mahayudin hj. yahya (1987:825) the word ‘mohor’ originated from the persian word ’muhr’ that means “something that has a stamp or is sealed”. http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.1-7.2018 abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 2 he further stated that ‘cap mohor’ in the malay world also has its origin from the word “mohur”, a form of gold coin used by the muslims during the era of akhbar and jahangir. these two kings ruled india in years 1556 1621. during that period two forms of ‘mohor’ seals were issued, one circular and the other rectangular in shape. based on this source, it was most likely that the influence and format of the mohor used in the malay archipelago originated from this mohur. it is well known that indian traders who came to the malay archipelago did not only come for commercial purposes, but also brought and spread islam to the malay community. thus, it was very possible that they also introduced their mohur to the malay rulers and administrators at that time. when a ruler used a seal, others began to do likewise, particularly the government dignitaries. this practise gradually spread throughout the malay archipelago. later, the seals were used as personal symbols by the individual rulers and dignitaries and subsequently became something that was passed on as part of their inheritance. the first official letter in the malay world that used a seal was the one sent by sultan alauddin syah (1589-1604) from aceh to harry middleton in year 1602; and the second was the letter written by his royal highness kimahala salahak abdul kadir from ambon, on the letter he sent to the governor of east india company on 23 may 1658. forms and shapes of seals this brief article shall deliberate on how the seals that were used on the official malay letters incorporated and displayed the identity of the senders, whether they are individual dignitaries or governments. generally, people are not fully aware of this fact, simply because their attention is focused on the aspects of illumination, shape, structure, and contents of the letter. to facilitate the discussion the author commenced with a quick overview of the various aspects related to the seals. a study of the development of seals used in the malay letters reveals that the shape of seals used in the early malay world can be categorised into various popular shapes and unique shapes. this categorisation is based on the frequency of use of the seals. in the case of unique-shaped seals, each seal was used by one specific person only and no other seals with similar shape or characteristics were used by others. shape of seals used for early official malay letters that were considered popular were circle, octave, oblong, and circle with specific dent(s). the unique-shaped seals were also of various shapes, but other than the two mentioned earlier. for an individual sultan or dignitary, the seal represented and displayed his identity. everything conveyed by the seal on a particular letter were accepted as description of the sender’s personality since it was considered as his representative. the seal as an identity many are puzzled by the statement that the seal represents the sender’s identity. how can a small seal contain the identity of its owner? to answer this question, it is best to first explain the concept of identity and relate it to the seal so as to facilitate understanding of the seal as the identity of its owner, thus the sender of the letter on which the seal is stamped. the concept of identity in relation to the early malay official letters is actually the malay identity. the focus of this article is on early official letters issued by the government dignitaries and the kings ruling the various territories of the malay archipelago. generally, they were of muslim faith and used malay as the main language of communication. tengku luckman sinar (1998:493-545) listed several significant characteristics to qualify an individual as having the malay identity. they are as follows: abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 3 a) believes in islam, speaks malay and practises the malay custom and culture b) a muslim government that upholds the shafie school of thoughts that places high importance on the concept of ‘maufakat’ (mutual agreement) c) sovereign king, and the citizens adopting the concept of “raja adil raja disembah, raja zalim raja disanggah” (just king is respected, while tyrant king is rejected) d) believes in the oneness of god e) upholds the law to maintain peace, discipline, and prosperity for the citizen f) emphasises the importance of refined manners and behaviour g) places high priority on education and knowledge h) emphasises the importance of “budaya malu” (modesty culture) i) discussions and mutual consensus as the axis of social life j) cordial and open towards guests k) retaliates only under extreme pressure based on the explanations and characteristics for malay identity forwarded by tengku luckman sinar, the question now is how was the malay identity reflected in the early malay official letters or in the seals stamped on them? the most important characteristics for the malay identity are that the individual must be a muslim, uses the malay language in communication, and practices the malay customs and culture. all these characteristics were very clearly reflected in the seals used during the early malay era. firstly, the majority of the kings and dignitaries who used seals were muslims, as proven by their use of the word “allah” the muslim god’s name and ‘nabi muhammad’ the muslim prophet’s name in their seals. the use of the names allah and nabi muhammad in their seals prove beyond doubt that the owners were definitely muslims. it also symbolises the owners’ love for islam. non-muslims would never use these names in their seals. an example of a seal that has the names of the muslims’ god and prophet was the one stamped on a letter that pengiran dipaningrat of sukadana (borneo barat) sent to pengiran ratu of palembang. besides the above, another element that proves that the owner of the seal is a muslim is the use of words borrowed directly from the arabic language. some seals used arabic language in totality, while others used a mixture of the malay and the arabic language. this fact is apparent from the various languages used on most malay seals, as shown in the examples below. seals using arabic language: a) al-marhum al-sultan ibrahim. b) al-qahar ya qahar al amrallah a’dilu al-sultan mohammad fadl. c) billah hita’ala al-watiq al-sayid almuhammad zain ibn abdul rahman alkudsi. seals using both arabic and malay: a) al-watiq billah raja muda al-marhum fisabilillah. b) al-watiq billah paduka raja kelantan waahsanahu ibnu al-marhum alsultan... c) al-watiq billah paduka seri sultan abu bakar tajuddin ibn al-marhum sultan umar alimuddin zalallah fil alam. since the early days, the malays have been known to hold strongly onto their customs and culture. this is reflected by the way seals were used in the traditional malay society. only the dignitaries and the royalties were permitted to use seals in their letters. this was not a law, but a custom accepted and practised by the whole malay community. thus, one will never find any letter written by members of the general public with seal marks on it. this is also a proof of the malays’ absolute abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 4 adherence to their customs and traditions established during that era. ii. methods this study uses a comparative approach between the letters in a different sources from british library, the national library of malaysia and collection from indonesia. seal of these letters are digitalized first and then the image can be view to get all the information contained in the seal. this step must be done because the seal is too small and difficult for the naked eye to read all the information contained therein. when all information has been able to read through the computer, analysis and comparison could be done as well as the characteristics of each seal. iii. result and discussion in brief, the first characteristic of malay identity was clearly reflected in their seals and the way they were used. many may not be fully aware of this fact; nevertheless it is implicitly incorporated in the seals which are very beautiful and pleasing to the eyes. there are other characteristics of the malay identity found in the official letters besides those explained by luckman sinar. these other characteristics are very different from his. they are as follows: a) shape of the seal b) illumination of the seal c) artistic style of the writing each of these characteristic are discussed below to disclose the identity incorporated in the seals used by the senders in their letters. shape of the seal the first characteristic indicating the identity of the sender is the shape of his seal. generally, the shape of a particular seal used by an individual dignitary or a king symbolised him as a person since the shape was his personal choice. the seal’s engraver and calligrapher merely forwarded their suggestions for the dignitaries or kings to consider. the owner exercised exclusive right in the final selection of shape and writing style of his seal. once a seal was made, it became the official seal of the dignitary or king and would be used throughout his lifetime. it would be used to endorse his letters as well as for some other similar purposes. in short, the seal that was selected and created for a particular ruler or king will remain his permanently, and will usually be used as the official seal of the government under his rule. the specialty here is that, upon the demise of the king, his successor will retain the shape of the official seal, and this practice will continue from one generation to another. modifications were often made to the official seal according to the wishes of the new rulers but the shape chosen by the original owner will be retained. changes made were limited to aspects other than shape, such as changing or adding the calligraphy and illuminations. this practise continued through time, or with each appointment of a new ruler. usually the new king retained the original shape of the seal while at the same time introduced some changes to some other parts or aspects of the seal. variations in the shape of seals were true indicators of the different personalities of the letter senders. it also symbolised the extent of his power or authority. the use of the seals on official letters also helped to ensure smoothrunning of the related commercial or other similar important official dealings. this was the role and extent of importance of the seals to their owners. since they were accepted as genuine representatives of their owners in endorsing decisions and agreements, the seals were well guarded and kept with utmost care. from the cultural point of view, the malay seals were said to be among the most beautiful compared to other seals known. their uniqueness and specialty were in the aspects of their shapes and carving or engraving which were either embedded or embossed. a seal owner would take extra care to ensure that the most beautiful shape and engraving abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 5 were chosen for his seal, since they would be seen as a reflection of his own personality and identity. it is interesting to note that not a single seal has the same engraving with another. though they may have the same shape, the writing styles and calligraphic designs used are totally different. beside these, the owner would only choose appropriate wordings that befit his status and at the same time could be fitted onto the small seals. the wordings would be very carefully chosen to truly convey very pleasing and significant meanings to the owners. undoubtedly the seal’s shape is regarded highly for its role as a symbol of the owner’s identity. the existence of a variety of fine and attractive shapes reflected the differences between the owners they represented. as symbols or representations of their owners, these seals also played an important role in establishing their owners’ standing in terms of rank, power or authority. illumination of the seal illumination or decoration is the second element of identity represented by the seals. many people are not aware of the variety of decorations used in seals. many researchers also are not fully aware that such small seals could conceal multitudes of patterns and decorations because these decorations created by the seals’ engravers, are too tiny and fine to be easily visible to the naked eyes. when a seal is enlarged, one will be astonished to find a manifestation of numerous beautiful decorations. the small space was successfully utilised to accommodate a variety of elements to produce several very beautiful and attractive decorations. an interesting example of a seal with attractive decoration is the one owned by paduka seri sultan ratu ingalaga from jambi which he used in his letter to f. light in year 1776. this seal was engraved with the words “al-watiq billah al-makin sultan mas’ud badarudin”. the most interesting aspect about this seal is the illumination selected by his royal highness, the owner. this is one of the most unique malay seal since its decoration included the figures of animals, two elephants and two wolves. generally, in the malay decorative art, the use of living creatures is forbidden, but obviously his royal highness violated this practice. the question is why did he disregard this custom? no one seems to know the reason or his intention in using those icons. further observation of the various aspects of the owner’s identity disclosed that sultan mas’ud also blatantly disregarded the relevant existing rules in the creation of his seal to highlight his identity as a ruler. his royal highness used the figures of elephants and wolves to ensure that other people knew his identity even-though during that era such symbols would never be used as decoration. his royal highness’s zealousness to emphasise his identity as a king made him bold enough to act contrary to the norms of the society of that era. in other examples, images that were used in the illumination of seals included the tanjung and lotus flowers, leaves, awan larat and sulur designs, as well as others that convey special meanings and interpretations in the malay community. a seal’s owner would normally use decorative elements that were commonly accepted by the community to reflect their sense of community spirit. selection of decoration depended on the intention of the owner, since each one of the motives or decorative elements have their respective special meanings. calligraphy or artistic writing style generally most malay seals used arabic language or a mixture of malay and arabic language. however, all of them used the arabic script. the contents of the writing included elements such as the owner’s personal name, his bestowed title(s), date, place, and islamic phrases that have specific meanings. these details were neatly engraved on each seal using various writing styles depending on the skills of the engraver. the intricacies and beauty of the calligraphy abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 6 on a seal reflects the skills of the engraver and calligrapher employed by the king or dignitary who owns the seal. in malay seals, the use of the phrase “alwatiq billah dan zil allah fi al-alam” was exclusively used by the royalties. the dignitaries usually used only their personal names, and seldom include their bestowed titles on their seals. this shows that the choice of words or phrases to be included in the seals depended on the status and rank of the owner. members of the public were conscious of the fact that not every word could be used in the seals, and they conformed to this un-gazetted rule. below are examples of names used by dignitaries on their seals: a) siti sabariah cahaya alam ada negeri kedah darul iman b) laksamana paduka raja c) orang kaya saudagar raja di negeri kedah darul iman d) bendahara muda negeri perak darul ridwan viewed from the aspects of personal identity and community culture, the names as listed above were only used by dignitaries and their family members, and not by kings or sultans. for kings, the wordings used were either praises or some other beautiful phrases that were exclusively sanctioned for them. this special treatment for the kings is one of the sacrifices made by the citizen for their rulers. beside this, the malay community in the early days placed high importance to the custom of “budaya malu” (modesty culture) and would never create a situation where the rulers were insulted or degraded just because their subjects possess seals that were more special or were of higher quality. this fact that kings could use a variety of bestowed titles and accolades, while dignitaries used their own names only was sufficient to show that they enjoyed special privileges. in short, the kings continued to retain their identity through the selection of beautiful phrases for their seals, while the dignitaries on the other hand merely used their own names. this shows that the concept of loyalty to the king continued to prevail strongly in the hearts of the malay community, and this was manifested in their seals. perhaps many are still not fully aware of the existence of the information concealed in the seals. the fact is the malay seals contain substantial information that is manifested implicitly. this information is valuable and therefore should be uncovered and made available to the society. iv. conclusion in the early or traditional malay society, the seal was a symbol of power, authority and personal identity of the person who owns it. it did not only carry a message of power but also represented the symbol of sovereignty and integrity of the owner. the seals were therefore kept with utmost care and not used indiscriminately. due to its role and purposes, when a seal’s owner passed away his seal will also cease to exist. what remains are only the seal marks on the letters (on which they were stamped). these should be researched and the findings made available to the public so that people are informed of all facts related to the seals and their special role in society of the past malay era. as a race who once owned the most beautiful seals in history, we (the malays) seemed to have lost the interest and initiative to carry out research on them. perhaps it is time we should ask ourselves the question, “who better to revive and sustain our culture, if not ourselves?” we should never depend on others to study our seals for fear that they may come up with many inaccurate interpretation. thus, we should take joint responsibility to carry out research on our culture which is on the verge of disappearing. abul razak abdul karim / jurnal arbitrer vol. 5. no. 1 (2018) 7 references abdullah bin abdul kadir, 1932. abdullah bin abdul kadir. vol. 1 (malay literature series; 4), singapore: malay publishing house. abdul razak bin abdul karim, 1998. “warkah-warkah melayu sebagai suatu genre.” ph.d. dissertation faculty of languages and linguistics, university of malaya: kuala lumpur. abdul razak bin abdul karim, 2001 (b), “warkah-warkah perjanjian melayu lama: suatu analisis genre” in seminar kesusasteraan dan undang-undang organised by academy of malay studies, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, 26-27 july. gallop, annabel teh & arp. bernard, 1991. golden letters: writing traditions of indonesia. london: the british library/bayesian lontar. gallop, annabel, teh & arp. bernard, 1992. the art of malay letter, part i: malay seal. workshop on southeast asian manuscripts, leiden, kilt. gallop, annabel teh & arp. bernard, 1994. the legacy of the malay letters: writing traditions of indonesia. london: the british library. mahayudin hj. yahiya, 1987. encyclopaedia search islam, vol. iii: l-o. bangi: national university of malaysia. mahmud yunus, 1973, kamas arab – indonesia, indonesia, jakarta: bayesian penyelenggaraan, translator/interpreter malaysia. muhammad idris abdul rauf al-marbawi, 1304h. kamus idris al-marbawi arab-melayu. singapore: pustaka nasional. tengku luckman sinar, 1998. “jati diri melayu” in pengajian sastera dan sosiobudaya melayu memasuki alaf baru, academy of malay studies, university of malaya: kuala lumpur: wilkinson, r.j., 1955. a malay-english dictionary part i. london: macmillan & co. ltd. wilkinson, r.j., 1959. a malay-english dictionary part ii. london: macmillan & co. ltd. wright, w., 1962. a grammar of the arabic language vol. 1 & 2. cambridge: university press. 1 negasi dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris dian noviani syafar jurusan bahasa dan sastra inggris, stkip pgri sumbar e-mail: dianoviany.s@gmail.com abstract this study is entitled negation in indonesia and english. traditionally, people differentiate positive and negative sentences by identifying ‘not’ in bahasa and ‘tidak’ as negation markers in english. these negation markers can be presented with words, phrases and clauses that form negation sentences in bahasa indonesia and english. this paper tries to describe and compare the other negation markers in these both languages. the data are writen and unwritten from that taken from daily conversation. keywords: language, negation, negation markers pendahuluan negasi merupakan suatu konsep yang universal. negasi berfungsi untuk menyangkal atau mengingkari pernyataan lawan bicara yang dianggap keliru oleh pembicara itu sendiri. dalam berkomunikasi, manusia menggunakan konstituen negatif sebagai alat yang paling efektif untuk menyangkal atau mengingkari sesuatu. sebagai alat untuk menyangkal sesuatu, kehadiran konstituen negatif dalam suatu kalimat mengubah makna kalimat semula. perubahan makna akibat hadirnya konstituen negatif sangat besar artinya karena perubahan itu dapat berarti pembatalan, penolakan atau peniadaan. setiap bahasa memiliki struktur negasi sendiri, demikian pula dengan bahasa inggris. alwi (1993) memberi istilah dalam bahasa indonesia untuk negasi, yaitu ‘pengingkaran’, pengingkaran atau negasi adalah penambahan ‘kata ingkar atau pemarkah negatif’ pada sebuah kalimat. mengenai posisi dan jenis kata ingkar atau pemarkah negatif dalam sebuah kalimat disesuaikan dengan kaidah bahasa yang digunakan. dalam bahasa inggris, penanda negasi yang biasanya ditemukan adalah not. namun ada penanda-penanda lainnya, seperti no misalnya. hal ini kadangkala menjadi kendala bagi para pembelajar bahasa inggris yang berbahasa ibu bahasa indonesia, karena di dalam bahasa indonesia kalimat negasi pada umumnya ditandai dengan kehadiran penanda negasi. penanda negasi dalam bahasa indonesia ada empat yaitu tidak, bukan, jangan dan belum. landasan teori sintaksis adalah cabang ilmu bahasa yang mengkaji seluk-beluk kalimat. ada beberapa batasan kalimat yang dikemukakan oleh para linguis indonesia. alwi (2003) menyebutkan bahwa kalimat adalah satuan ujaran terkecil dari teks yang mengungkapkan pikiran yang utuh. dalam wujud lisan, kalimat diucapkan dengan suara naik turun dan keras lembut, disela jeda dan diakhiri dengan intonasi akhir yang diikuti oleh kesenyapan yang mencegah terjadinya perpaduan ataupun asimilasi bunyi ataupun proses fonologis lainnya. dalam wujud tulisan, kalimat dimulai dengan huruf kapital dan diakhiri dengan tanda titik (.), tanda tanya (?) atau tanda seru (!). jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 2 chaer (2007) menyebutkan bahwa kalimat adalah satuan sintaksis yang disusun dari konstituen dasar, yang biasanya berupa klausa dilengkapi dengan konjungsi bila diperlukan , serta intonasi final. konstituen dasar itu tidak saja berupa klausa, tapi bisa berupa kata atau frasa. tarigan (1999) mengklasifikasikan kalimat atas beberapa golongan. di antaranya penggolongan kalimat berdasarkan respon mitra tutur dan ada tidaknya unsur negasi dalam kalimat. berdasarkan respon mitra tutur kalimat dapat dibedakan atas kalimat deklaratif, kalimat imperatif dan kalimat interogatif. kalimat deklaratif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk memberitahukan atau menginformasikan sesuatu kepada mitra tutur biasanya ditandai dengan intonasi datar. kalimat imperatif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk memerintah atau menyuruh mitra tutur untuk melakukan suatu tindakan atau aktivitas sesuai dengan keinginan penutur yang biasanya disertai dengan intonasi naik. kalimat interogatif adalah kalimat yang berfungsi untuk menanyakan sesuatu kepada mitra tutur yang biasanya disertai dengan intonasi naik. berdasarkan ada atau tidaknya unsur negasi, kalimat dapat dibedakan atas dua bagian yaitu kalimat negatif dan kalimat afirmatif. kalimat negatif adalah kalimat yang mengandung unsur negasi atau kata ingkar, sedangkan kalimat afirmatif adalah kalimat yang di dalamnya tidak ada unsur negasi atau kata ingkar. alisjahbana (1978) mengartikan kalimat perintah sebagai ucapan yang isinya memerintah, memaksa, menyuruh, mengajak, meminta, agar orang yang diperintah itu melakukan apa yang dimaksudkan di dalam perintah. berdasarkan maknanya, yang dimaksud dengan memerintah adalah memberitahukan kepada mitra tutur bahwa si penutur menghendaki orang yang diajak bertutur itu melakukan apa yang diberitahukannya. gorys keraf (1991) banyak menjelaskan kalimat perintah bahasa indonesia dalam karya ketatabahasaannya. ia mendefinisikan kalimat perintah sebagai kalimat yang mengandung perintah atau permintaan agar orang lain melakukan sesuatu seperti yang diinginkan orang yang memerintah itu. dalam kaitannya dengan kalimat negatif imperatif, kata ini berfungsi untuk menyatakan larangan (robins, 1983). bentuk negatif imperatif ditandai oleh negasi jangan yang mendahului struktur deklaratif. kalimat imperatif memiliki dua ciri khusus yang membedakannya dengan kalimat yang membedakannya dengan kalimat deklaratif dan kalimat interogatif. pertama, mengharapkan tanggapan yang berupa tindakan dari orang yang diajak berbicara dan kedua, berintonasi imperatif (memerintah atau melarang). kaliamat imperatif ialah kalimat kalimat yang maknanya memberikan perintah untuk melakukan sesuatu. kalimat imperatif dapat berbentuk positif dan negatif. kaliamat negatif imperatif disebut juga dengan kalimat larangan. moeliono (1988) menyebutnya dengan istilah kalimat ingkar perintah. secara gramatikal, kata-kata negasi digunakan untuk menegasikan predikat, baik predikat tersebut berupa frase verbal, nominal, maupun frasa depan (ramlan, 2005). alwi (1992) menyatakan bahwa penegasian termasuk ke dalam modalitas deontik yang ditandai dengan adanya bentuk negasi jangan. modalitas deontik adalah kategori modalitas dimana pembicara sebagai sumber deontik mewajibkan aktualisasi peristiwa pada lawan bicara yang didasarkan pada kaidah sosial berupa kewenangan pribadi atas dasar perbedaan usia, jabatan atau status sosial di antara penutur dan lawan bicaranya dan kewenangan resmi yang bersumber dari ketentuan umum. kalimat imperatif dapat berupa kalimat deklaratif yang berbentuk afirmatif dan dalam bentuk negasi. kalimat negasi menggunakan jangan, tidak boleh, dilarang dan tidak diperbolehkan. issn 2339-1162 3 howard jackson (2000) menyatakan negasi terdiri dari dua jenis yaitu kalimat negasi dan beberapa elemen atau bagian dari kalimat negasi (negasi lokal). a. kalimat negasi kalimat negasi dapat dicapai baik melalui penegasan kata kerja atau melalui penggunaan kata-kata dengan arti negatif. penegasian kata kerja adalah dengan kata not, yang ditempatkan setelah kata kerja. dalam bahasa informal, not sering tidak bersatu dengan kata kerja dan berubah menjadi n’t. (1) i. he would not have attempted to run away from his captors. ii.he gave her no chance of any private conversation that evening. b. negasi lokal negasi lokal mempengaruhi beberapa unsur atau bagian dari kalimat, bukan seluruh kalimat. hal ini sering tidak terwujud seperti dalam contoh berikut. (2) i. it’s not uncommon problem. ii.three million beggars existed on what they could scrape from a not very good soil. pada kalimat (2)i, negatif ganda terjadi dengan penggunaan kata not dan bentuk adjektif common. kata not berseberangan dengan penggunaan prefiks undan membuat dan membuat efek understatement. dalam contoh kedua, not berhubungan dengan intensifikasi adverb dan berkesan untuk memberikan tekanan terhadap kata sifat setelahnya (very good). dalam beberapa konteks, negasi lokal dengan penggunaan kata no atau beberapa elemen lainnya yang memiliki arti negatif. contoh: (3) i.there were no more than ten superstitious pictures and a cross. ii. here was a goal with no mystical nonsense about it. dalam kalimat pertama, kata no bergabung dengan kata perbandingan pembilang more, yang membentuk kalimat understatement. dalam kalimat kedua, kata no terdapat dalam frase preposisi dan bergabung dengan kata benda negatif (nonsense) yang merupakan preposisi dari kata (with). ramlan (2005) menyatakan negasi sebagai dasar penggolongan klausa, sehingga berdasarkan ada tidaknya kata negatif yang secara gramatik menegasikan predikat, klausa dibedakan atas klausa positif dan klausa negatif. klausa positif ialah klausa yang tidak memiliki kata negatif yang secara gramatik menegatifkan predikat, sedangkan klausa negatif ialah klausa yang memiliki kata-kata negatif yang secara gramatik menegatifkan predikat. kata-kata negatif tersebut adalah tidak, tak, tiada, bukan, belum dan jangan. berdasarkan artinya kata negatif ialah kata yang mengingkarkan kata lain dan secara gramatik kata negatif itu ditentukan oleh adanya kata penghubung melainkan yang menuntut adanya kata negaif pada klausa yang mendahuluinya. misalnya : (4) dia tidak langsung pulang, melainkan berputar-putar di jalan thamrin. *dia langsung pulang, melainkan berputar-putar di jalan thamrin. penggolongan klausa ini juga memperlihatkan bahwa dalam b ahasa indonesia negasi diungkapkan dengan menggunakan tidak, tak, tiada, bukan, belum dan jangan. sudaryono dalam kridalaksana (1986: 160) menyatakan bahwa pengingkaran itu pada umumnya dilakukan dengan menggunakan konstituen penunjuk ingkar yang dikenal dengan sebutan negator. dalam bahasa indonesia kalimat ingkar atau kalimat negatif mempunyai konsep dan dasar penentuan serta keunikan yang nyata. penentuan bentuk negatif berkaitan erat dengan bentuk kalimat afirmatif atau positif. konstituen negatif dalam kalimat akan mempengaruhi makna kalimat. hal itu pula yang akan mempengaruhi struktur kalimat yang dilekati dengan unsur negasi. muis (2005: 50) menyatakan bahwa kalimat ingkar atau jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 4 menyangkal adalah kalimat turunan yang dibentuk dari kalimat inti dengan menggunakan unsur menyangkal (negatif) dalam frasa verbal dan pola intonasi akhir menurun negasi dalam bahasa indonesia pengingkaran atau negasi yaitu proses atau konstruksi yang mengungkapkan pertentangan isi makna suatu kalimat. dalam bahasa indonesia kalimat ingkar atau kalimat negatif mempunyai konsep dan dasar penentuan serta keunikan yang nyata. penentuan bentuk negatif berkaitan erat dengan bentuk kalimat afirmatif atau positif. terdapat empat penanda negasi yaitu tidak (tak), bukan, jangan dan belum. penggunaan kata-kata ingkar tersebut dapat dilihat pada kalimat berikut: (5) dia masuk hari ini. dia tidak masuk hari ini. (6) pemuda itu mahasiswa. pemuda itu bukan mahasiswa. (7) baca buku itu. jangan baca buku itu. (8) adik sudah mandi. adik belum mandi. bentuk tidak, jangan dan belum merupakan bentuk ingkar dari kalimat positif. kehadiran kata ingkar tersebut dapat mengingkarkan seluruh kalimat pada contoh di atas atau bagian kalimat seperti dalam kalimat berikut ini. (9) dia akan berangkat besok, tidak hari ini (10) saya mau menonton sepakbola, bukan bola basket. pengingkaran kalimat dilakukan dengan menambahkan kata ingkar yang sesuai dengan awal frasa predikatnya. kata ingkar tidak ditempatkan di awal predikat yang tidak mengandung bentuk sudah atau telah pada kalimat berpredikat. a. verbal, jenis deklaratif dan interogatif. (11) i. dia akan datang nanti. ii. dia tidak akan datang nanti. (12) i. apa mereka tinggal di jakarta? ii. apa mereka tidak tinggal di jakarta? b. adjektival, jenis deklaratif, interogatif dan eksklamatif. (13) i. ibunya sakit keras. ii. ibunya tidak sakit keras. (14) i. apa ayahnya marah? ii. apa ayahnya tidak marah? (15) i. betapa beruntungnya kakek tua itu. ii. betapa tidak beruntungnya orang itu c. numeral tak tentu, jenis deklaratif dan interogatif. (16) i. buku saya sedikit. ii. buku saya tidak sedikit. (17) i. apa uangnya banyak? ii. apa uangnya tidak banyak? jika predikat mengandung kata sudah, kalimatnya diingkarkan dengan mengganti kata sudah dengan kata belum, seperti pada kalimat berikut: (18) i. mereka sudah pulang. ii. mereka belum pulang. (19) i. apa kamu sudah makan? ii. apa kamu belum makan? (20) i. ayahnya sudah sembuh. ii. ayahnya belum sembuh. (21) i. apa dia sudah pergi? ii. apa dia belum pergi? (22) i. uangnya sudah banyak. ii.uangnya belum banyak. (23) i. apa anaknya sudah dua? ii.apa anaknya belum dua? berdasarkan contoh di atas akan tampak bahwa kata ingkar belum, digunakan pada kalimat berpredikat verbal, adjektival dan numeral tak tentu, jenis deklaratif dan interogatif. berbeda dengan kata ingkar tidak yang dapat digunakan untuk mengingkarkan kalimat adjektival eksklamatif, kata ingkar belum tidak pernah digunakan dalam kalimat eksklamatif. hal ini disebabkan karena kalimat eksklamatif selalu menyatakan perasaan yang dalam tentang issn 2339-1162 5 sesuatu pada saat yang timbul secara tiba-tiba, sedangkan kata belum mengandung ciri makna proses, peristiwa atau keadaan yang melibatkan jangka waktu tertentu. kata ingkar jangan digunakan untuk mengingkarkan kalimat imperatif . predikat pada kalimat imperatif terbatas pada verba atau frasa verbal dan sejumlah kecil adjektiva atau frasa adjektival. kata ingkar jangan digunakan hanya untuk mengingkarkan kalimat verbal dan adjektival imperatif. seperti tergambar pada contoh berikut: (24) i. buka pintu itu! ii. jangan buka pintu itu! (25) i. tolong bawa buku-buku ini! ii. tolong jangan bawa buku-buku ini! (26) i. harap diam! ii. harap jangan diam! (27) i. coba marah kepada anak itu! ii. coba jangan marah kepada anak itu! kalimat perintah dapat bersifat negatif. untuk menegatifkan kalimat perintah, digunakan kata jangan yang biasanya ditempatkan pada bagian depan kalimat. kalimat perintah yang bersifat negatif berubah menjadi larangan. kata ingkar bukan digunakan terutama untuk mengingkarkan kalimat berpredikat nominal dan numeral tentu yang tergolong jenis kalimat deklaratif dan interogatif. (28) i. pak amir orang minang. ii. pak amir bukan orang minang. (29) i. apa budi mahasiswa fakultas teknik? ii. apa dia bukan mahasiswa fakultas teknik? (30) i. luas perkebunan itu 5000 meter persegi. ii. luas perkebunan itu bukan 5000 meter persegi. (31) i. apa harga sepeda ini satu juta rupiah? ii. apa harga sepeda satu juta rupiah? kata ingkar bukan juga dipakai sebagai ekorkalimat tanya embelan yang berbentuk deklaratif , baik yang positif maupun negatif yang menghendaki jawaban positif. (32) i. dia mengikuti pertandingan basket, bukan? ii. dia tidak mengikuti pertandingan basket , bukan? (33) i. dia sakit, bukan? ii. dia tidak sakit , bukan? (34) i. kamu sudah mandi , bukan? ii. kamu belum mandi bukan? (35) i. mobilnya hanya satu , bukan? ii. mobilnya bukan hanya satu , bukan? dalam hal ini, bentuk negasi bukan dapat mengisi bagian akhir dari sebuah kontruksi kalimat. pengingkaran bagian kalimat bagian kalimat tertentu dapat diingkarkan dengan menempatkan kata ingkar yang sesuai di depan unsur yang diingkarkan itu. salah satu jenis pengingkaran unsur kalimat adalah pengingkaran pengontrasan. kata ingkar yang digunakan adalah bukan, bukan ... melainkan..., tidak ... tetapi... seperti pada contoh kalimat berikut. (36) dia tiba bukan kemaren melainkan tadi pagi. (37) dia tidak berangkat dengan kereta api, tetapi dengan bus. (38) saya ingin minum , bukan makan. (39) dia akan datang sebelum magrib, bukan sesudah magrib. untuk menguatkan pengontrasan itu, kata ingkar bukan diberi partikel –nya, seperti tampak pada contoh kalimat berikut. (40) dia tidak masuk bukannya karena sakit melainkan karena malas. (41) setelah dibantu, dia bukannya berterima kasih malah marah-marah. pada contoh di atas, terdapat dua bentuk penghubung yaitu melainkan dan malah. bentuk malah khusus digunakan untuk mempertentangkan dua unsur yang kontradiktif, sedangkan bentuk melainkan untuk unsur-unsur yang tidak kontradiktif. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 6 pengingkaran unsur kalimat tertentu juga terjadi pada kalimat pada kalimat verbal yang mengandung bentuk seperti mungkin, ingin, mau, boleh dan bisa. penempatan kata ingkar tidak di depan kata-kata itu cenderung hanya mengingkarkan kata-kata tersebut. (42) a.i. dia tidak mungkin datang. ii. tidak mungkin dia datang. b.i. dia mungkin tidak datang. ii. mungkin dia tidak datang. (43) a.i. mereka tidak ingin mengadakan pesta. ii. tidak ingin mereka mengadakan pesta. b.i. mereka ingin tidak mengadakan pesta. ii. ingin mereka tidak mengadakan pesta. (44) a.i. dia tidak boleh ikut. ii. tidak boleh dia ikut. b.i. dia boleh tidak ikut. ii. boleh dia tidak ikut. (45) a.i. dia tidak mau makan tadi. ii. tidak mau dia makan tadi. b.i. dia mau tidak makan tadi. ii. mau dia tidak makan tadi. (46) a.i. kamu tidak perlu masuk hari ini. ii. tidak perlu kamu masuk hari ini. b.i. kamu perlu tidak masuk hari ini. ii. perlu kamu tidak masuk hari ini. kalimat (a.ii) pada contoh-contoh di atas memperlihatkan bahwa kata ingkar di depan bentuk mungkin, ingin, boleh, mau, perlu dan sejenisnya hanya mengingkarkan bentuk-bentuk itu. kalimat (b.ii) memperlihatkan bahwa kata ingkar di depan verba predikat mengingkarkan kalimat. unsur kalimat tertentu dapat pula diingkarkan dengan menggunakan kata yang bermakna negatif seperti tanpa, mustahil dan tak pernah. (47) a. dia menamatkan sekolahnya dengan bantuan kakaknya. b. dia menamatkan sekolahnya tanpa bantuan kakaknya. (48) a. dia mungkin akan berangkat malam ini. b. dia mustahil akan berangkat malam ini. (49) a. dia selalu terlambat. b. dia tak pernah terlambat. pada contoh di atas, tampak bahwa bentuk tanpa, mustahil dan tak pernah masing-masing mengingkarkan makna dengan, mungkin, dan selalu. selain bentuk-bentuk itu, masih ada sejumlah kecil ungkapan yang bermakna negatif, umumnya adverbia, seperti jarang, kadang-kadang dan sedikit yang dapat digunakan untuk mengingkarkan, secara berurutan makna sering, acapkali dan banyak. selain itu, bentuk negasi juga ditunjukkan dengan prefiks a-, awa-, de-. dis-, in-, im-, i-, non-, tan-, nir-, dan tuna-. bentuk-bentuk ini sebenarnya bukan merupakan bentuk asli bahasa indonesia. contoh: amoral awahama deregulasi desintegrasi disorientasi inkonsisten impersonal ilegal nonprofit nirlaba negasi dalam bahasa inggris penanda negasi dalam bahasa inggris yaitu : 1. not penanda negasi not adalah penanda negasi yang paling dikenal dan yang paling banyak digunakan. penanda negasi not berposisi setelah verba pada sebuah kalimat. not berkategori adverbia, karena pemarkah negatif tersebut menerangkan verba. bila ia disingkat menjadi n’t, morfem n’t akan melekat pada operator. pemarkah not yang berposisi setelah verba akan menegasi seluruh klausa, sehingga kalimat tersebut memiliki makna negatif. penanda negasi ini dapat diterapkan dalam empat jenis kalimat yaitu deklaratif, interogatif, imperatif, dan eksklamatif. contoh : issn 2339-1162 7 (50) she could not tell him (51) is not shandy at home? (52) don’t shut the door! (53) how is not beautiful this picture. dalam bahasa inggris, sebuah penanda negasi membutuhkan operator untuk menegasi verba yang berfungsi sebagai predikat. verba bantu tersebut terbagi 2, yaitu verba bantu primer yang terdiri dari verba bantu do, be dan have. sedangkan verba bantu modal terdiri dari can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, dan must. a. operator verba bantu modal (can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, dan must) pada kalimat she could not tell him , penanda negasi not menegasi pengisi fungsi predikat, yaitu verba tell. kalimat negatif ini memiliki verba bantu could, maka verba bantu berfungsi sebagai operator. tense operator can menyesuaikan dengan tense kalimat ini, maka operator can menjadi could. b. operator be dalam kalimat negatif verba bantu be merupakan verba primer kedua yang dapat berfungsi sebagai operator. namun demikian, dalam kalimat negatif lainnya verba bantu be adalah pengisi fungsi predikat. shandy is not at home? penanda negasi not menegasi pengisi fungsi predikat, yaitu verba be yang sudah mendapat infleksi menjadi is. c. operator do ( did, does) pada kalimat imperatif negatif don’t shut the door! , verba shut dinegasi oleh penanda negasi not. karena verba shut merupakan verba utama, maka tidak dapat langsung dinegai oleh penanda negasi not, operator do dihadirkan untuk membantu verba shut dinegasi. selanjutnya, penanda negasi not menegasi operator do. (54) she didn’t take anything. pada kalimat (54) penanda negasi not menegasi pengisi fungsi predikat. pengisi fungsi predikat pada kalimat ini adalah verba take. penanda negasi not tidak dapat langsung menegasi verba utama take. oleh karena itu operator do dihadirkan untuk dinegasi oleh pemarkah negatif not. operator do telah mendapat infleksi menjadi did. penulisan pemarkah negatif not disingkat menjadi morfem n’t, morfem n’t berposisi melekat di belakang operator did. d. operator have penanda negasi have dapat dilihat pada kalimat berikut. (55) we haven’t told them yet penanda negasi not menegasi pengisi fungsi predikat, yaitu verba tell. penanda negasi not menegasi verba bantu have yang berfungsi menjadi operator pada kalimat itu. penulisan penanda negasi not disingkat menjadi morfem n’t, morfem tersebut berposisi melekat di belakang operator have. penanda yet pada kalimat tersebut berkategori keterangan waktu temporal. kalimat di atas berarti kami belum mengatakan kepada mereka. 2. no penanda negasi no merupakan penanda negasi yang menegasi sebuah nomina. umumnya penanda no berposisi mendahului nomina yang akan di negasinya. penanda negasi no berkategori ajektiva, karena ia menerangkan nomina. (65) i have no idea. penanda negasi not dalam sebuah kalimat dapat berdistribusi paralel dengan no. perbedaannya terletak pada : posisi penanda negasi tersebut dalam kalimat. penanda negasi not menegasi kata yang berkategori verba pada suatu kalimat ; sedangkan pemarkah negatif no menegasi kata yang berkategori nomina. contoh : penanda negasi not penanda negasi no jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 8 (66)that was not an accident. (67) that was no accident (68) she isn’t any different. (69) she is no difference. 3. never never merupakan adverb adalah perpaduan dua kata, yaitu kata not dan ever. penggunaan adverbia ini seperti adverbia lainnya, yaitu berposisi setelah operator atau verba bantu, seperti contoh pola kalimat dengan never. adverbia negatif never dapat pula berposisi sebelum verba utama (main verb). (70) i’ve never known this place. 4. almost, barely, hardly. adverbia negatif, seperti: seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, dan barely merupakan adverbia negatif yang memiliki makna negatif yang tidak penuh (tidak 100% negatif). 5. none pronomina none adalah perpaduan dari kata no dan one. no one adalah pronomina yang mengacu kepada manusia, namun pronomina none dapat mengacu kepada benda hidup maupun benda mati. none umumnya diikuti oleh partikel of dan sebuah pronomina.. (71) none of them came in time. 6. neither neither berarti not one and not the other biasanya digunakan di awal kalimat. seperti none, neither digunakan dengan partikel of dan sebuah pronomina.. namun neither dapat hadir sendiri pada sebuah kalimat bila kalimat itu bermakna sebuah pilihan. dalam kalimat di bawah ini, ‘neither’ berkategori ajektiva (72) neither of them could speak. (73) neither book gives the answer. 7. no one/no body pronomina negatif no one memiliki makna yang sama dengan makna pronomina negatif nobody. no one selalu mengacu pada manusia. (74) no one wish me a happy birthday. 8. nothing pronomina negatif ‘nothing’ digunakan untuk kata yang mengacu pada barang dan binatang. (75) she learned nothing. bentuk negasi juga terdapat pada pertanyaan dengan tag adalah sebuah kalimat perpaduan antara kalimat pernyataan (statement) dan kalimat tanya. kalimat tanya yang hanya berisi sebuah operator dan sebuah pronomina yang disebutdengan tag terletak diakhir kalimat pernyataan tersebut. kalimat tanya ini bermakna suatu konfirmasi tentang pernyataan tersebut. contoh : (76) she doesn’t follow this competition, does she? bila kalimat pernyataan berada dalam bentuk negatif, kalimat tanya berada dalam bentuk positif, dan sebaliknya. (77) david plays the piano, doesn't he? bentuk negasi juga muncul dengan menambahkan prefiks un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, dis-, dan apada adjektiva atau adverbial, seperti unhappy inappropriate impossible illogical irreplaceable dislike analisis kontrastif bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia merupakan bahasa yang berasal dari rumpun yang berbeda. bahasa inggris termasuk dalam rumpun indo eropa, sedangkan bahasa indonesia termasuk dalam rumpun bahasa indonesia. berangkat dari fenomena dan kenyataan tersebut maka penelitian atau kajian ini bisa diangkat menjadi sebuah kajian ilmiah yaitu mengungkap perbandingan baik dari segi sudut persamaan issn 2339-1162 9 maupun perbedaannya dan pada kajian ini akan dikaji tentang negasi. setiap bahasa memiliki ciri dan sifat yang berbeda dan hal itulah yang akan menjadi ciri khas dari bahasa itu sendiri. baik bahasa inggris maupun bahasa indonesia tentunya memiliki ciri khas atau karakter masing-masing yang berbeda-beda. akan tetapi, dari sudut perbedaan dari bahasa itu pasti ada sesuatu unsur kebahasaan yang sama sehingga menimbulkan perbedaan. a. persamaan negasi dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris 1) penanda negasi jangan dan don’t berfungsi untuk mengingkarkan kalimat verbal dan adjektival imperatif. 2) bentuk kalimat negasi yang menginginkan jawaban positif. dalam bahasa indonesia, penanda negasi bukan dipakai sebagai ekor kalimat tanya embelan yang berbentuk deklaratif , baik yang positif maupun negatif yang menghendaki jawaban positif. bentuk yang sama juga ditemukan pada pertanyaan dengan tag dalam bahasa inggris. pertanyaan dengan tag adalah sebuah gabungan kalimat antara kalimat pernyataan (statement) dan kalimat tanya. bila kalimat pernyataan berada dalam bentuk negatif, kalimat tanya berada dalam bentuk positif, dan sebaliknya. umumnya, bentuk kalimat ini menginginkan jawaban positif. dia mengikuti pertandingan basket, bukan? david plays the piano, doesn't he? 3) penanda negasi belum diikuti oleh verba. penanda negasi belum dalam bahasa indonesia dapat diikuti oleh verba. dalam bahasa inggris, bentuk belum) juga dapat diikuti oleh verba. penanda negasi belum juga tidak pernah digunakan dalam kalimat eksklamatif. hal ini disebabkan karena kalimat eksklamatif selalu menyatakan perasaan yang dalam tentang sesuatu pada saat yang timbul secara tiba-tiba, sedangkan kata belum mengandung ciri makna proses, peristiwa atau keadaan yang melibatkan jangka waktu tertentu. 4) bentuk bukan diikoti oleh nomina. kategori yang dapat dinegasi oleh penanda negasi no adalah nomina. penanda negasi no berposisi di depan nomina yang dinegasinya. hal yang sama juga terjadi dalam bahasa indonesia, yaitu pada bentuk negasi bukan yang selalu diikuti oleh nomina. 5) penanda negasi tidak diikuti oleh verba. pemarkah negatif not sebagai adverbia berposisi setelah operator atau verba pada kalimat yang dinegasinya. b. perbedaan negasi dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris 1) bahasa indonesia memiliki 4 bentuk utama penanda negasi yaitu tidak, bukan , belum dan jangan. dalam bahasa inggris, penggunaan 4 penanda negasi tersebut diwakili oleh penanda negasi not atau no sesuai dengan jenis kalimat. bila yang digunakan penanda negasi no dengan kategori adjektiva, no akan menegasi kata yang berkategori nomina; no berposisi di depan nomina yang dinegasinya. penanda negasi not sebagai adverbia berposisi setelah operator atau verba pada kalimat yang dinegasinya. demikian pula dengan adverbia never, almost, barely dan hardly berperilaku seperti adverbia lainnya, penanda-penanda negasi tersebut berposisi setelah operator atau verba pada kalimat yang dinegasinya. pronomina negatif none, never, no one, nothing dan nobody dapat berposisi di awal kalimat menegasi subjek, ditengah kalimat menegasi objek . penanda negasi belum dinyatakan dengan penanda kala, seperti pada kalimat; (i) i have not invited her yet. jurnal arbitrer, vol. 3, no. 1, edisi april 2016 10 2) bahasa inggris membutuhkan operator yang berfungsi sebagai pendukung kalimat negatif yang bersifat wajib untuk kalimat-kalimat yang mempunyai verba utama. contoh: penanda negasi jangan pada kalimat imperatif negatif dinyatakan dalam bentuk don’t. kalimat ini menggunakan operator do yang dinegasi oleh penanda negasi not. (ii) don’t close the door! 3) bila kalimat positif yang menggunakan verba utama dinegasi oleh pemarkah negatif not, yang akan dinegasi oleh pemarkah negatif adalah operatornya, yaitu verba bantu do, does, dan did. tense pada operator harus sesuai dengan tense yang terdapat pada kalimat positif. contoh : (i) he smoked (ii) he did not smoke pada kalimat di atas, did berfungsi sebagai operator yang akan dinegasi oleh pemarkah negasi not. penggunaan did di sini menunjukkan bentuk kala lampau (past tense). bahasa indonesia tidak memerlukan operator dalam sebuah kalimat negasi. verba langsung dinegasi oleh penanda negasi. bahasa indonesia juga tidak menandai kala secara morfemis melainkan secara leksikal. seperti pada kalimat berikut. (iii) dia tidak merokok kemarin. kemarin merupakan penanda kala secara leksikal. 4) operator harus ada pada kalimat-kalimat yang menggunakan verba utama. pada kalimat-kalimat yang memiliki verba bantu primer (do, be, have), dan verba bantu modal (can, could, may, might, will, would, must, shall dan should), verbaverba bantu tersebut dengan sendirinya menjadi operator pada kalimat negatif. 5) kalimat negatif bahasa inggris memiliki unsur kalimat yang lazim digunakan pada kalimat negatif, yaitu any. menurut kaidah bahasa inggris, any digunakan pada kalimat negatif untuk menggantikan some. bahasa indonesia tidak mempunyai pemarkah seperti ini. kesimpulan berdasarkan uraian di atas, dapat ditarik kesimpulan sebagai berikut: 1) ada empat macam penanda negasi lazim yang digunakan dalam bahasa indonesia yaitu tidak, bukan, jangan dan belum. 2) penanda negasi not dan no merupakan penanda negasi umum yang ditemukan dalam bahasa inggris. 3) penanda negasi tersebut dapat digunakan untuk mengingkarkan 4 jenis kalimat, yaitu kalimat deklaratif, kalimat interogatif, kalimat imperatif dan kalimat eksklamatif. 4) dalam bahasa inggris, operator harus ada pada kalimat-kalimat yang menggunakan verba utama. pada kalimat-kalimat yang memiliki verba bantu primer (do, be, have), dan verba bantu modal (can, could, may, might, will, would, must, shall dan should), verba-verba bantu tersebut dengan sendirinya menjadi operator pada kalimat negatif. daftar pustaka alisjahbana, s. takdir. 1978. tatabahasa baru bahasa indonesia. jakarta: dian rakyat. chaer, abdul. 2007. linguistik umum. jakarta : rineka cipta. hasan, alwi, dkk. 2000. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (edisi ketiga). jakarta: balai pustaka jackson, howard, and etienne zé amvela. (2000). words, meaning and vocabulary: an introduction to modern english lexicology. london: cassell. keraf, gorys. 1991. tatabahasa rujukan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt grasindo. issn 2339-1162 11 ramlan, m. 1987: ilmu bahasa idonesia sintaksis. yogyakarta: cv. karyono. sudaryono. 1993. negasi dalam bahasa indonesia: suatu tinjauan sintaksis dan semantik. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. tarigan, hanry guntur. 1986. pengajaran sintaksis. bandung: angkasa. quirk, randolph dan sidney greenbaum. a unversity grammar of english. english langugae book society and longman group limited. verhaar, j.w.m. 1986. pengantar linguistik. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. grammaticalization cases through the four linguistic shifts mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 22, 2020 final revision: december 31, 2020 available online: april 25, 2021 the present study aims at describing the grammaticalization phenomenon of some hijazi arabic (ha) elements that, to the best of the author’s knowledge, have not been dealt with. it argues that the elements xən, ʕsəs and lissa have gradually developed from the verb xalla, the preposition phrases (pp) ʕla asa:s and ila al-sa:ʕah respectively. to achieve this, the paper speculates that these developed forms have followed the prevalently agreed upon grammaticalization chains where they have undergone desemanticization (semantic shift), decategorialization (morphosyntactic shift), cliticization (morphophonological shift) and erosion (phonetic shift). these chains exhibit the grammaticalization stages of the elements under study. keyword grammaticalization, linguistic-shifts, desemanticization, decategorialization, cliticization, erosion correspondence e-mail: m.zah@tu.edu.sa articles grammaticalization cases through the four linguistic shifts mohammad ali al zahrani1 1 associate professor, foreign languages department, faculty of arts, taif university, taif, saudi arabia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.1-13.2021 i. introduction grammaticalization, as a linguistic term, was coined by meillet (1912) and is used in the literature to convey two main meanings; one refers to the research framework accounting for the change, the other is the phenomenon itself (hopper & traugott, 2003: 2). the current paper uses the latter meaning where grammaticalization is a linguistic phenomenon referring specifically to some steps by which some elements have become more grammatical. more specifically, the paper describes some hijazi arabic (ha) lexical forms that have undergone some linguistics shifts (section 4) to serve grammatical functions. the paper should contribute to the ha studies on grammaticalization. several linguists have been exploring different linguistic aspects of ha (see, for example, al zahrani, 2020 for more studies on ha). however, with respect to grammaticalization, it has not received much attention. eifan (2017) has explored some grammaticalized elements including ga:m ‘stand’, which marks the inceptive aspect, gaʕad ‘sit’, žālas ‘sit’, and fiḍil ‘remained’, which mark the progressive aspect. the syntactic distribution, the selectional properties and the hierarchical placement of these aspectual elements have been explored in al zahrani (2016). also, some studies on ha have shown that the prefixes b-, derived from abγa ‘i want’, and ħ-, derived from ra:ħ ‘went/has gone’ have been grammaticalized to either mark future time references (al zahrani, 2013, 2020; eifan, 2017) or hypothetical and counterfactual interpretations (al zahrani, 2020). furthermore, eifan (2017) has concluded that the prepositions ʕind ‘at’, maʕ ‘with’, and fi: ‘in, at’ show some grammaticalization features where they behave as markers for the possessive function: a function that can also be coded by the grammaticalized nouns ħagg and tabaʕ ‘belong to’. another grammaticalized form that eifan (2017) has explored is the subordinate conjunction ʕašān ‘because’. these previous ha studies have shown, to some extent, that the elements have undergone some grammatical changes, i.e., they have developed, on the one hand, from being purely lexical to being purely grammatical or moving 1 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) towards the grammatical pole; or from being less grammatical to more grammatical, on the other hand, as is the case with the afore-mentioned prepositions. the significance of the present study is that it particularly contributes to the ha literature by exploring some more forms/phrases that the grammaticalization studies to date, to the best of my knowledge, have not dealt with. the present study includes the verb xalla ‘allow’ and the prepositional phrases ʕala asa:s ‘on the basis of’ and lisa:ʔah ‘to the moment/time of’. the study also contributes to the field of grammaticalization, in general, as it uses the mechanisms of the grammaticalization phenomenon to describe the dialect of question. in essence, the paper shows that the forms under study have followed a grammaticalization path that results in some linguistic shifts by which they serve grammatical functions. for the descriptive sake, following heine (1993), these linguistic shifts are crosslinguistically seen as four chains including desemanticization, decategorialization, cliticization and erosion (see section 3). the findings show that the verb xalla has developed to cover a variety of modal meanings ranging between permission, obligation, suggestion, adhortative, threatening, and imperative. the imperative form of xalla has developed a form functioning as an introductory particle. the prepositional phrases ʕala asa:s ‘on the basis of’ and lisa:ʔah ‘to the moment/time of’ have developed constituents functioning as cause and purpose subordinators, and as negative adverbial markers. however, due to the absence of diachronic evidence for the grammaticality developments of the elements under study, the paper presents the shifts and changes of the elements according to what appears to me from their morphophonological features. that is to say, all the developments of each form show constituents existing in ha and thus the order of these constituents is presented according to their morphophonological features at best. this method is not so unusual; as a matter of fact, investigating the variations and changes of the language through time without its diachronic data or any written documents is impossible (see, for example, jarad’s (2013, 2014, 2017) and fleischman’s (1982) studeis, to mention a few). this being said, unless otherwise stated, the examples come from the author’s intuition and/or introspection. the organization of the paper is as follows. section 2 presents grammaticalization as a linguistic phenomenon. section 3 introduces the theoretical assumptions needed in the current study. section 4 and its subsequent sections (4.1 & 4.2) explore the ha elements under study, and section 5 concludes the paper. ii. the grammaticalization phenomenon hopper and traugott (2003: 5) defines the phenomenon of grammaticalization as “the process whereby lexical items and constructions come in certain linguistics contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions”. thus, as a phenomenon, grammaticalization is concerned with “how grammatical items develop grammatical functions” (hopper & traugott, 2003: 7). being developed to serve grammatical functions does not always imply a full change of the form from being lexical into grammatical. put differently, haspelmath (1999: 1044) argues that the most general definition of grammaticalization would not restrict the phenomenon to a full change of a lexical form to a grammatical form, but would admit that grammaticalization “shifts a linguistic expression further toward the functional pole of the lexicalfunctional continuum”. against this background, grammaticalization shows some linguistic shifts of contentive elements via a grammaticalization path by which they serve grammatical functions. notably, the grammaticalization path, as pointed out by heine (2003: 589), is referred to in the literature as ‘pathway’ (bisang, 1986), ‘path’ (bybee et al., 1994: 14), ‘grammaticalization chain’ (heine, 1993: 53), and ‘cline of grammaticality’ (hopper & traugott, 2003: 7). the paper uses these terms interchangeably. the grammaticalization path shows a gradual language change that bybee (2015: 10) claims to be “an inevitable outcome of language use”. this gradual change, more or less, results in the loss of the semantic and phonological properties of the lexical items, as well as their syntactic freedom and morphological features (norde, to appear in ore : 1). hence, the change that grammaticalization shows 2 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) is actually a composite change that encompasses simultaneous or successive “microchanges” at the different linguistic levels: syntax, morphology, semantics, and phonology (norde, 2012; norde & beijering, 2014). these linguistic changes, as suggested by hopper and traugott (2003:7), as well as by many others (see references above), follow a “cline of grammaticality” that presents continuous series of changes that the lexical elements may undergo. for instance, hopper and traugott’s (2003:7) cline in (1) suggests that the items occurring to the very right edge of the cline are more grammatical than those in a preceding level of the cline. hopper and traugott (2003: 99) admit that grammaticalization is assumingly unidirectional. put differently, the left end of the cline is less grammatical than the right one. 1. content item > grammatical word > clitic > inflectional affix the literature shows dozens of examples that follow the cline in (1) (see, for example, al zahrani, 2020; eifan, 2017; hopper & traugott, 1993, 2003; jarad, 2014, 2017; norde, 2012; norde & beijering, 2014, to mention a few). some typical examples include the change of some lexical motion verbs into future markers as is the case with the english to be going to, the french aller and the dutch gaan (norde, to appear in ore ); this is the case in all roman languages (see, fleischman, s. (1982), for more examples). simialr cases are present in other langugaes such as the ha raaħ and abγa (al zahrani, 2020; eifan, 2017), the levantine varieties: bi-widd (mitchell & al-hassan, 1994: 19), the yameni arabic yaʃaʔ (versteegh, 2014), the moroccan arabic bat (stewart, 1998: 110). other examples also include the development of the indefinite articles out of the numeral ‘one’ as is the case in english a(n), french un(e), and dutch een (norde, to appear in ore). an important point to be considered here is that the concept of unidirectionality does not necessarily require all crosslinguistic elements undergoing grammaticalization to move through all the stages of the cline of grammaticality, and this is evidenced by many grammaticalization studies (i show this with the grammaticalized constituent lissa, section 4.2). once again, the aforementioned studies have shown that the cross-linguistic elements follow the same cline of grammaticality, which in turn suggests a cross-linguistic regularity, which is an important aspect of grammaticalization. heine (1993, 1997, 2003) argues that the crosslinguistic regularity is resulted by the cognitive processes that, as the examples have shown, cannot be language-specific. this is also evidenced by the regularity across languages where the concepts of some body parts are extended to function as locative markers (heine, 1997, 2003; heine & kuteva, 2002). examples include the english back, the ha dahr ‘back’, the danish bag and the old danish baker (norde, to appear in ore ) that can express the special notion of ‘behind’. also, the ha waʤh ‘face” and ra:s ‘head’ have been developed as locative markers expressing front and the higher spatial notions. this concludes that grammaticalization is a linguistic phenomenon exhibiting a fact where concrete meanings develop to more abstract concepts (heine & kuteva, 2002). having presented this overview, the paper now shifts to briefly present some theoretical assumptions needed for the present discussion of the grammaticalized elements. iii. theoretical assumptions: linguistic shifts following heine (1993: 54), when contentive elements start to grammaticalize, they exhibit a number of linguistic shifts, each of which constitutes a distinct chain/continuum. each chain shows a specific linguistic behaviour and this signifies that the chains are related to the four aspects of linguistics, referred to in the literature as ‘stages’ or ‘mechanisms of change’. these chains are the semantic shift (desemanticization), the morphosyntactic shift (decategorialization), the morphophonological shift (cliticization) and the phonetic shift (erosion). this section provides a brief definition of each shift and presents some of its basic and salient features. desemanticization, coined by heine and reh (1982), is the first shift in a grammaticalization process. it is known as the semantic shift, and semantic bleaching. it is believed that early stages of grammaticalization must exhibit a shift in meaning 3 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) where the form gradually and slowly strips out from its contentive meaning (hopper & traugott, 2003). heine (1993: 54) defines the semantic shift as the “process whereby in specific contexts a lexical item is emptied of its lexical semantics and acquires a grammatical function”. however, according to heine and kuteva (2002), desemanticization must be triggered by extension: context generalization, i.e., the element is used in new contexts where its meaning is extended to cover other more meanings and consequently increases its frequency. hence, they argue that extension is the basic principle in grammaticalization. this paper considers extension an indivisible part of the semantic shift so that it treats them together under desemanticization. the term decategorialization was introduced by hopper and thompson (1984). heine (1993: 55) classifies this shift as the second stage of a grammaticalization process. decategorialization is a morphosyntactic shift in which a form increasingly loses some morphological and syntactic properties as well as some privileges of its grammatical category. cliticization is the third linguistic shift of a grammaticalization process whereby a form gradually develops “to an operator of another item” (vangaever, 2019: 260) in that it forms a part of the morphophonological structure of its complement, indubitably, after having lost its lexical content (heine 1993: 55). in this shift, the linguistic element forms an independent constituent that is separate from its complement and then develops into a clitic. erosion exhibits the fourth linguistic shift of a grammaticalization process by which the linguistic element undergoing grammaticalization loses its phonological substance and does not carry distinctive tone or stress (heine, 1993: 56) and this may lead to fusion. erosion is the last to happen in the linguistic shifts. following this brief discussion of the linguistic shifts, it is important to emphasize that not all these shifts are relevant in each grammaticalization process as is the case in some of the elements under study. however, the semantic shift, including extension, is, on the one hand, the primary stage that “precedes all other shifts” (heine 93: 58). on the other hand, the phonetic shift ‘erosion’ is not a necessary process in grammaticalization, and if it happens it is “the last to apply” (heine & kuteva, 2002: 42). in view of this discussion, when an element undergoes grammaticalization, extension implies that it gains some more properties due to its use in other linguistic contexts though it loses (some of) its semantic and syntactic (and probably phonetic) properties that it has as a pure lexical element. notwithstanding, grammaticalization does not insinuate the elimination of the lexical item. hopper (1991) argues that when a lexical element is grammaticalized, it may remain “as an autonomous element and undergo the same changes as ordinary lexical items” (hopper, 1991: 22). this is the characteristic known as “divergence” (hopper & traugott, 2003: 118) or “split” (heine & reh, 1984: 57). in light of these linguistic chains, the paper now shifts to the discussion of the ha elements under study. iv. ha grammaticalized elements and their linguistic shifts due to the different behaviour of the elements under study, the paper explores them in two subsequent sections. it aims to explore the linguistic behaviour of the elements under study: the verb xalla and the prepositional phrases ila al-sa:ʕah ‘to the moment/ time’ and ʕla asa:s ‘on the basis of’. it also shows that their behaviour has undergone some shifts that consequently have developed some grammatical elements. subsection (4.1) starts with the morphological derivation of the various forms of xalla and its inflectional properties. then, in subsection (4.2), the paper discusses the prepositional phrases ila al-sa:ʕah ‘to the moment/ time’ and ʕla asa:s ‘on the basis of’ and shows that they are the source from which the grammaticalized lissaʕ and ʕasa:s have been developed. 4.1 the verb xalla following the majority of linguists including ryding (1994, 2014; 2005), bahloul (2008) and al zahrani (2013), the arabic perfective form is the basic verbal form since it shows the least amount of inflection when derived from a radical 4 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) verbal root. accordingly, the verb xalla is the basic form from which other root-related derivatives are created. like other ha lexical verb forms, the basic form xalla derives perfective, imperfective and imperative forms inflecting for the phi features as the following three paradigms show (see al zahrani 2013 for more on ha morphology). the examples in (2a-d) show the perfective and imperfective forms of the verb xalla along with their inflectional properties indicating the grammatical features of tense, aspect, voice, person, number and gender. the basic notion of the verb xalla in these examples is permission/allowing. further to this basic notion, the verb can be used in a causative function as in (3). table 1. the perfective paradigm of xalla table 2. the imperfective paradigm of xalla table 3. the imperative paradigm of xalla notice that all the subject pronouns appearing under the three basic notion columns in the paradigms are indicated by the agreement morphemes. the basic notion of the verb xalla in ha indicates the act of allowing something/someone to do something or act in a specific way as the examples in (2a-d) show. notice that the colon diacritic /:/ following vowel sounds indicates the length of the vowels. 2 3 both the perfective and imperfective forms in (3) express a causative meaning; this implies an extension of the verb’s basic notion of permission. the verb is used in other general contexts where its meaning is extended to cover other interpretations. furthermore to this causative-meaning extension, context generalization cases are provided with the imperative form of xalla in (4). 4 the example in (4a) can be causative, but it can also be used in different scenarios to convey different meanings. it can give permission for nada to write, an obligation to the addressee that nada should write, or a suggestion to the addressee to invite nada to write. what we may assume in these causative and modal senses is that the addressee may have authority upon nada to cause her, allow her, oblige her or invite her to write. this, however, is not the case in (4b) where neither the speaker nor the addresses can stop the rain. the meaning here can be a suggestion or a request from the speaker 5 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) to the addressee to wait until the rain stops. in like fashion, in (4c) the speaker asks the addressee to ‘leave it, wait’ until tomorrow. the examples in (4b-c) present cases where the basic meaning of the verb has extended to cover suggestion or request interpretations. example (4d) exhibits another meaning where the speaker expresses his acceptance/satisfaction. in this example one can consider the verb as a particle to convey the meaning of ‘allow it, leave it’. in (4e), we can suggest a scenario where some students are asking their teacher to make the exam tomorrow instead of today as they haven’t prepared well. while the examples in (4a-e) can employ the other forms of the verb xalla, the examples in (4f-g) are particular to the imperative form xall. examples (4f-g) show that xall conveys the meanings of ‘let alone’ and ‘be/stay’ respectively. the salient point that one can draw from the examples in (4a-g) is that they provide clear evidence for further meaning extension cases. that is, they exhibit more semantic meanings to the verb in question beside its permission and causative meanings expressed in (2a-d) and (3a-b). in relation to the morphosyntactic properties of the verb, the above examples show that the verb inflects and that the subject of the verb is indicated by the inflections signifying the phi features. however, the verb can also show a different case where the plural inflectional suffix –na can refer to third person singular features as in (5). of xall-i-na, as in (5c), by a referring expression such as ana wa ali (i and ali). thus, the referring expression reinforces the meaning that –na is a plural marker. this analysis is not unusual, and it is on a par with the use of the english lets (without an apostrophe) as shown in (6) and (7), adopted from hopper and traugott (2003: 10). 6. “lets give you a hand. (i.e., let me give you a hand.)” 7. “let’s you and i take ‘em on for a set.” quirk et al. (1985: 830) argue that the lets here is “no more than an introductory particle”. the presence of the first person plural in (7) is reinforced by you and i, and in this case the verb appears with an apostrophe: let’s. with reference to the four chains, examples (4a-e) and (5a-c) demonstrate desemanticization, i.e., they clearly show the semantic shift that unequivocally features the extension of the basic notion to other notions in other general contexts. desemanticization is the first shift in a grammaticalization process. it involves a shift in meaning, which occurs only in a highly specific context (hopper & traugott, 1993, 2003). stated differently, the contextualized scenario due to the frequent use in other contexts gives the rise for the appropriate interpretation, be it permission, obligation, suggestion or request. in this connection, the element undergoes the conceptual shift that hopper and traugott (2003: 51) describe as the first obligatory step in grammaticalization. the conceptual shift that we have noticed is actually triggered by the semantic generality of the verb, which is an important semantic property for its grammaticalization (hopper & traugott, 2003: 101). what the semantic generality implies is that lexical meanings that are subject to undergo grammaticalization are “quite general” and “basic words”, but not very specific and specialized terms such as whisper, chortle or squirm (ibid). the semantic generality of the verb of question is evident and it has shown that it is a quite general and basic word whose basic notion has been extended to cover a range of other meanings. further to this conceptual shift, other frequent uses of the verb provide ample evidence for extending its basic meaning to adhortative — suggestion/ encouraging interpretations, again, in a highly specific context. this latter meaning has more 5 both (5a) and (5b) show the third person plural suffix –na and this is compatible with the first translation of each example. however, the second translation of each example shows that – na can be used to refer to first person singular subject. this reference implies some ambiguity. notwithstanding, the ambiguity resulted by (5ab) can be solved by emphasizing the plural object 6 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) grammaticalization features as shown next in examples (8) through (12). the decategorialization of the verb is witnessed in (5) where the use of xall-i:-na ‘you-letus’ refers to first person singular in a context expressing adhortative meaning. thus, in addition to the foregoing semantic shift, (5) shows a morphosyntactic shift where the verb has lost some morphological and syntactic properties of its grammatical category. that is, the verb xall selects for the plural suffix –na not to indicate a speaker with first plural agreement features, but with first person singular features. this exhibits a remarkable stage of the grammaticalization of the verb of question as shown in (8). lexical verb following it. notice that (9a-c) have the same translation: “let me write”. the linguistic shifts that the verb has undergone are represented in (10). 10. xall-i:-ni > xall-i:-na and xall-u:-na > xalləna > xənna > xən in addition to the cliticization shift, the linear representation in (10) also shows the fourth shift: erosion, in which the verb, as suggested by heine (1993: 56), has lost its phonological substance and does not carry distinctive tone or stress. if this analysis is right, the paper argues that xən functions as an introductory particle basegenerated in the left periphery of the clause after it has been stripped out from its basic notion, morphosyntactic and morphophonological features. so far, the grammaticalization process of the imperative form of the verb xall and its agreement features xall-i:-na and xall-u:-na shows that its use to indicated permission and obligation has extended to other more frequent uses that result in both semantic and morphosyntactic shifts. following these two shifts, there are two other successive shifts, namely– the cliticization and erosion shifts where the verb functions as an independent constituent separate from its following constituents and then develops into a first person singular proclitic that has lost its phonological properties as shown in (10). these shifts are on a par with bybee and pagliuca’s (1985: 76) claim that “as the meaning generalizes and the range of uses widens the frequency increases and this leads automatically to phonological reduction and perhaps fusion”. further to this, the grammaticalization of the expressions xalli:na and xall-u:-na to xən can be traced via the cline of grammaticality, represented in (1), where xən has been grammaticalized from the basic-form content item xalla into the grammatical element xən. evidence for the grammaticalization of xall-i:ni ‘you-let-me’ into the introductory particle xən springs from the fact that the particle xən can also be used in examples where its following lexical verb carries first person singular features as is presented in (11a), which is the counterpart of (9c) above. 8 the paradigm in table 3 shows that there are only two imperative forms, which are used in (8a-b). using quirk et al’s (1985: 830) expression, these two imperative forms can be used as “introductory particles” with first person singular reference although they exhibit the plural suffix –na. this being the case, the previously mentioned features of the plural suffix –na, as well as the person, number and gender agreement morphemes –i– and –u–, represented in table 3, are lost as shown in the different verb forms in (9a-c). one can consider the first person plural features expressed by –na frozen. therefore, from now on, i gloss the verb xall as prt (particle) without any hyphens. 9 the example in (9a) shows a morphophonological shift where the agreement morphemes –i– and –u– have shifted to the schwa sound /ə/ that is followed by the plural suffix –na (xalləna). (9b) shows another morphophonological shift in which more sounds have been deleted so the resulting form is xənna. (9c) presents another stage where the form has been reduced to xən and encliticized to the 7 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) in ha, a speaker may convey the meaning of “let me write” by uttering the statement in (9c) above, which has the first person plural morpheme nattached to the verb –uktub ‘write’ = (n-uktub) [literally ‘wewrite’], or the statement in (11a), which has the first person singular morpheme aattached to the verb –ktub ‘write’ = (a-ktub) [literally ‘i-write’]. it should be mentioned that while a-ktub [literally ‘i-write’] can follow the grammaticalized from xən, i.e., the introductory particle, it cannot follow the form xall-i:-na [literally ‘you-let-us’] since the agreement features of the two verbal forms are incompatible. this fact provides another piece of evidence for the grammaticalization of xən. another piece of evidence supporting the argument of the grammaticalization of xən is the fact that it can be followed by any perfective/imperfective form derived from its basic-form content item xalla, introduced in table 1 and table 2, as shown in (11b). in this latter example, both the grammaticalized element xən functioning as an introductory particle and the imperfective form a-xalli:kum co-occur. in (11b) the introductory particle xən conveys the adhortative interpretation (suggestion), whereas a-xalli:kum, according to its context, may convey either the causative interpretation or permission. further to this analysis, (11b) also shows that the grammaticalization of xən does not eliminate the lexical derivatives introduced in table 1 and table 2. this shows the “divergence” (hopper & traugott, 2003: 118) or “split” (heine & reh, 1984: 57) characteristic of the basic form xalla (and its derivatives) in that it still exists in the dialect and may undergo more grammaticalization cases. on the flip side, the particle xən has been grammaticalized as a first person singular proclitic. however, it is not used for other persons (second or third). this explains the ungrammaticality of (11c). at the present juncture, it is worth reiterating that grammaticalization is a continuous process and grammaticalized elements do not stop at a specific stage as they may “continue to develop new grammatical functions” (2003: 5). this claim is evidenced in ha by al zahrani’s (2020: 176) argument asserting that although the ha grammaticalized elements band raaħ developed as future markers, they continued to develop other hypothetical functions. this being said, there are signs that xən can be used for other persons if and only if an adverbial element or a pronominal expression intermediates between the introductory particle xən and the verb carrying the agreement features of the second/third person as the examples in (12) illustrate. 11 12 (12) clearly shows the function of the element xən as an introductory particle in the left edge of the clause introducing the proposition following it. in these examples xən appears with verbs carrying second and third person agreement features. so far we have seen the linguistic behaviour of the verb xall across the four chains (shifts), and how it has developed some grammatical constituents through its grammaticalization journey, one of which is xən that serves as an introductory particle. the next subsection explore the pps ʕla asa:s and ila al-sa:ʕah. 4.2 the prepositional phrases ʕla asa:s and ila al-sa:ʕah i briefly show that these two pps have gone through some linguistic shifts that resulted in the two grammaticalized elements ʕsəs and lissaʔ. the expression ʕla asa:s is composed of the preposition ʕla ‘on, upon’ and the noun asa:s ‘base, basis, core, fundamental’ that constitute the preposition phrase (pp) [pp ʕla asa:s] meaning ‘on the basis of, on the fundamental that’. in like fashion, [pp ila al-sa:ʕah] is built from the preposition ila ‘to’ and alsa:ʕah ‘moment, hour, time’ and conveys the meaning of ‘to the moment of’. the literal use of the lexical phrase ʕla asa:s ‘on 8 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) a base’ and its plural variant ʕla usus ‘on bases’ refers to concrete bases/objects as in (13). example (15a) shows the cause for the forgiveness whereas (15b) shows the purpose behind the forgiveness. both cause and purpose are interpreted by the same pp expression ʕla asa:s. in their product of ten years of research, heine and kuteva (2002) have provided hundreds of grammaticalized elements, some of which are elements functioning as subordinators of cause and purpose clauses (see heine and kuteva (2002: 210-213)) as is the case with the ha element in question. following heine and kuteva’s (2002) argument, the cause and purpose interpretations must have evolved significantly from the quite frequent usage of this pp, which in turn results in the semantic shift (desemanticization) featuring the meaning extension and the metaphoric usage of the pp ʕla asa:s. with reference to the cline of grammaticality, represented in (1) above, the grammaticalization journey of the pp ʕla asa:s can be summarized as in the linear development in (16). 16. ʕla asa:s > ʕlasa:s > ʕasa:s > ʕəsəs > (ʕ)səs what this linear development shows along with the metaphorical interpretations in (15a-b) is that stage 1 in (16) started with two separate elements forming the pp. that is, the content item asa:s is basically selected as a complement by the preposition ʕla (stage 1) that has been agglutinated to its complement (stage 2). this latter stage discloses that the two elements have been united to create one syntactic unit functioning as a subordinate conjunction. the agglutinating process has resulted in a new grammatical element: a subordinator of cause and purpose. this process shows a morphosyntactic shift (decategorialization) by which the pp category has vanished, and this accounts for the ungrammaticality of (17) where i gloss the subordinator of cause and purpose as subo. 13 this literal interpretation of the content phrase ʕla asa:s and its plural variant becomes more generalized when used metaphorically. traugott and dasher (2002: 27) argue that desemanticization happens when metaphorical uses are involved. the illustration of this claim is shown by the phrases in (14a-b) where the pps do not refer to concrete objects. 14 recalling that context generalization gives rise to expanding the frequency of the expression, examples (14a-b) present context generalization cases wherein the basic meaning of the pp ʕla asa:s is extended to cover other contexts. by way of illustration, the basic meaning of a physical base, as in (13), is extended to metaphorically cover more abstract bases: aluxuwah ‘brotherhood’ and alsˤuħbah ‘friendship’. the nps that can replace the abstract bases (14a-b) to convey metaphoric interpretations are definitely infinite and this suggests a high frequent usage of the pp. the metaphorical use of the pp is in the vein of heine and kuteva’s (2002) argument asserting that in grammaticalization concrete meanings are developed to more abstract concepts, and this is due to the semantic generality of the expression. both the extension of the basic notion of a concrete basis and the frequent metaphorical uses of the pp ʕla asa:s trigger the semantic shift. this conclusion is corroborated by the two interrelated interpretations of cause and purpose illustrated by (15a-b) respectively. 15 179 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the decategorialization of [pp ʕla asa:s] is reflected in the fact that the element ʕlasa:s has undergone some changes by which it has lost some of its morphosyntactic properties and lost the privileges of the original pp category; hence, it cannot function as a pp as shown by the ill-formed clause in (17). by pointing out that the phonological reduction follows the conceptual shift (heine, 2003: 52), the reduced form ʕlasa:s is precluded when ʕla asa:s is used in its lexical meaning; this is supported by the ungrammaticality of (17). the preclusion of reduced forms is further evidenced by the fact that while the grammaticalized elements in (16) can replace the grammaticalized expression ʕla asa:s in (15a-b), only the lexical meaning of the pp ʕla asa:s is allowed in (17), as is the case in (13a-b). this suggests that there are two expressions: the grammaticalized ʕla asa:s that serves a grammatical function (cf. the cause and purpose function in (15a-b)), and the lexical ʕla asa:s that expresses the basic lexical notion of a concrete base (cf. (13a-b)). this linguistic paradox of precluding the reduced forms from conveying lexical meanings can be further supported by examples from english where the ungrammaticality of (18d) is attributed to the fact that the reduced grammaticalized constituent is gonna in (18c) cannot express the lexical meaning of is going to in (18a), although is going to can also function as a grammatical expression as in (18b) (examples adopted from heine (2003: 51)). ʕasa:s. by this stage, the resulting structure ʕasa:s shows an independent constituent that is discrete from the original pp. further to these grammaticalization chains, the final two stages (stage 4 and stage 5) exhibit the pure cause and purpose subordinate forms ʕəsəs / (ʕ)səs that no longer convey the lexical meaning of ʕla asa:s. beside the previous phonetic reductions that happened simultaneously with agglutination, these two stages clearly show the phonetic shift (erosion) that the constituent has undergone. stage 4 has two instances of the schwa sound whereas stage 5 shows only the final schwa with the possibility of the deletion of the voiced pharyngeal fricative sound: the clitic ʕ-.these two stages demonstrate how in the phonetic shift the lexical content loses its phonological substance and and does not carry distinctive tone or stress (heine, 1993: 56). having discussed the grammaticalization of the cause and purpose subordinate conjunction across the four chains and seen its linguistic behaviour as a grammaticalized element, the section now shifts to the pp lisa:ʕah ‘to the moment’. to avoid repeating the facts discussed so far and to be more succinct, i start by the linear development in (19) that i assume the pp lisa:ʕah has gone through to develop the adverbial negative element lissaʔ ‘not yet’. 19. laa lisa:ʔah > laa-lissaʔ > lisa:ʔ-(x) > lissa(ʔ) the grammaticality development of lissaʔ represented in (19) suggests that it started out as a negated pp constituent: laa lisa:ʔah ‘no, to this moment, to the moment of’. underlyingly, this stage shows the negative laa ‘no’, the preposition li ‘to’ and the noun phrase al-sa:ʔah ‘moment/time/ hour’ = [neg laa [pp li [np al-sa:ʔah]. notice that the lexical meaning of the pp lisa:ʔah ‘to this moment, to the moment of’ can be used in affirmative and negative statements as shown in (20). 18 (18) shows that there are the lexical expression is going to indicating a physical movement/motion and the grammatical expression is going to marking grammatical features. following the semantic and morphosyntactic shifts, the final product in (16) (stage 5) provides ample evidence for the other grammaticalization chains. to unravel this claim, recall that the agglutination of ʕlasa:s in stage 2 results in the deletion of the final vowel of the preposition ʕla. following this process, stage 3 of the linear development in (16) shows a morphophonological shift (cliticization) by which the remaining part of the preposition ʕla is further reduced into the proclitic ʕthat is cliticized into the noun asa:s and thus resulting in 20 semantically, the np lisa:ʔah is frequently used to cover a variety of time slots including ‘to this 10 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) moment’, ‘to this hour’, ‘to this time’ and ‘to that time’. apart from the lexical use, (19) shows that the constituent lisa:ʔah is in the domain of the negative particle and this entails that it cannot occur in affirmative clauses (see example (21) below). stage 2 of the linear development in (19) exhibits the morphosyntactic shift in which the negative particle laa is agglutinated to its complement and thus resulting in laalisa:ʔ. this stage also features the deletion of the intrinsic gender marker –ah. it is intrinsic because the gender inflection in al-sa:ʔah is grammatically inherent in the derivation of the noun form. this is not the case when the gender is contextualized as in adjectives such as ħilwah ‘beautiful.f’ and ħilu ‘beautiful.m’. against this background, unlike adjectives, the deletion of the intrinsic feminine marker does not derive a counterpart masculine noun. in spite of this morphological analysis, the grammaticalization of the constituent laalisa:ʔ featuring the deletion of the intrinsic gender marker –ah has allowed for suffixing all subject agreement markers. put it another way, stage 3 of the grammaticalization development of laa lisa:ʔah introduces the constituent lisa:ʔ-(x) where (x) represents the subject accusative agreement suffixes shown in table 4. have just’, taww-na ‘we have just’… etc. besides, other functional elements can take these agreement markers and can stand alone without them such as the prepositions l-, fi, and ʔən, to mention a few. against such a backdrop, the element lisa:ʔis considered a functional element at this stage and it can behave in such a way. it is worth mentioning that stage 4 exhibits the grammaticalized form lissa(ʔ) ‘not yet’ which underlyingly features the agglutination of the negative particle laa. hence, negation constitutively forms an underlying principle ingredient of the grammaticalized element lissa(ʔ), as illustrated by the examples in (21). table 4 the subject agreement markers in lisa:ʔthe paradigm suggests that the subject agreement markers can be suffixed to lisa:ʔ, and by deduction the form lisa:ʔ can stand alone without any agreement markers when it is nonreferential, which is the resulting constituent in stage 4 of the grammaticalization development of laa lisa:ʔah = lissa(ʔ). notice that stage 4 also features the possibility of the deletion of the voiced pharyngeal fricative sound ʕ-; hence, it is represented in brackets in (19). the deletion of the agreement markers is not infrequent in ha; for example the adverbial time expression taww ‘just’ can take the agreement markers represented in table 4: taww-i ‘i 20 in (21b) the grammaticalized negative-adverbial element lissa ‘not yet’ provides the negative response to the question in (21a). this negativeadverbial element features an intrinsic negative interpretation and this explains why it is compatible with negative clauses as in (21c), but not with affirmative clauses as in (21d). with reference to the cline of grammaticality, represented in (1) above, our discussion has clearly shown that lissa(ʔ) ‘not yet’ has developed from the negated content np laa lisa:ʔah meaning ‘no, to this moment, to the moment of, to the hour of, to this time, to this hour’. however, the other stages of the cline of grammaticality are not witnessed here, i.e., lissa does not serve as a clitic or an inflectional affix. the following section concludes the paper. v. conclusions and recommendations the present study shows that the forms xən, ʕsəs and lissa have evolved from the verb xalla, the preposition phrases ʕla asa:s and ila al-sa:ʕah respectively. presumably, the gradual development of these elements has presented changes related to the different linguistic chains. that is to say, the forms have been grammaticalized through the cline of grammaticality exhibiting desemanticization (semantic shift), decategorialization 11 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) (morphosyntactic shift), cliticization (morphophonological shift) and erosion (phonetic shift). the paper has shown that the grammatical element xən functioning as an introductory particle has evolved from the content verb xall ‘notion of allowing’. while the content verb form and its perfective, imperfective and imperative derivatives inflect for the grammatical features of tense, aspect, voice, person, number and gender, the evolved element xən does not. the grammatically functioning cause and purpose conjunction particle ʕəsa:s has evolved from the pp ʕla asa:s. in like fashion, the negative adverbial element lissəʕ ‘not yet’ has evolved through a grammaticalization journey from the negated pp constituent [neg laa [pp lisa:ʔah]. the paper is a contribution, on the one hand, to the growing literature of ha in that it helps gain a better understanding of the dialect. on the other hand, it contributes generally to the linguistic phenomenon of grammaticalization in that it enriches the literature exploring the elements changing through the cline of grammaticality and undergoing the four linguistic shifts. however, because the paper has only looked at three elements, future research on ha may explore more grammaticalized elements by which other studies may explore the features of all the elements that have gone through (or towards) the grammaticality pole. further studies may also investigate ha and english causative expressions. they may compare the ways of causative expressions in english with the facts of ha, briefly shown in this paper, to make such ha expressions more familiar to the expert interested in grammaticalization but ignorant of ha. references al zahrani, m. 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(2014). the arabic language (second edition. ed.). edinburgh, : edinburgh university press. 13 microsoft word 147 gusdi sastra.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.147-154.2019 review the role of neurolinguistics for language and speech disorders gusdi sastra1, mohamad saiful haq2, handoko handoko3 1,2faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang, indonesia 3 academy of malay studies, university of malaya, malaysia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 16, 2019 final revision: october 17, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this paper explains the significance of neurolinguistics as one of interdisciplinary fields of linguistics encompassing the analytical procedures on individual speech disorders in producing and using language. the result of analysis is used for designing a model and strategy to improve their language capacity. neurolinguistics roadmap covers some previous researches done by sastra et all since 2006. those studies investigate language and speech disorders including thinking ailments, and answer the inherent question on neurolinguistics contribution for addressing the individual problems to express themselves. those problems are caused by some disorders on the left and right hemispheres of the brain. science wise, neurolinguistics will always develop because the language phenomena always happen in human life through thinking and speech. keyword neurolinguistics, language regions, speech therapy, bioacoustics, brain hemispheres. correspondence e-mail: gusdisastra@hum.unand.ac.id i. introduction the rapid development of psycholinguistics consists of the following sub-disciplines (chaer, 2003) such as theoretical psycholinguistics (focuses on human mental aspects in language use), psycholinguistics of growth and development (focuses on first and second language acquisition), social psycholinguistics (on social aspects of language as an internal bind), educational psycholinguistics (language and language teaching), experimental psycholinguistics (on the experiments of language activities and verbal behavior), neurological psycholinguistics and neuropsycholinguistics (on the relationship of language, language in use, and human brain), applied psycholinguistics (the application of all sub-disciplines of psycholinguistics into other fields such as education, neurology, psychiatry, literary criticism, and communication). those sub-disciplines of psycholinguistics develop on its own thanks to the birth of psycholinguistics in 1953. r. brown opened psycholinguistic special program at ph.d. level. eric lenneberg graduated as the first scientist in this field. however, psycholinguistics was believed to be born in 1955 when lenneberg conducted his first research. lenneberg’s research proves that the humans have a biological tendency to acquire language. the animals do not have this behavioral trait. there are some reasons gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 148 for that as follow: 1) there are specific regions in human brain for language development and use, 2) all human babies share similar way of acquiring and developing language, 3) there are many obstacles to stop human language development, 4) other living being on earth cannot learn language like the humans do, 5) all languages in the world share the universal aspects. moreover, psycho-neurology or neuropsycholinguistics also developed on a good course. the neurologists often asked about the process of human brain processing the language input and programming the language output. the linguists, on the other hand, were attracted to study the verbal aspects occurring if someone suffered from language disorder caused by brain ailments. there were more researches on the relationship of language and the brain. therefore, neuro-psycholinguistics was finally known as neurolinguistics. this era began since the dawn of joint research of neurologists and linguists on observing the human brain and language. both neurologists, broca and wernicke, study the localization of brain function and its relationship with language disorder. broca found pincas p. gage, a worker in a factory suffered from a serious injury caused by an explosion propelling the iron bar thrusted deeply into his cheek and protruded from his forehead. this worker survived the accident until 12 years later. he did not have any thinking disorder whatsoever, but he showed a language disorder grammatically. his attitude also underwent some changes, he became more emotional, less patient, and full of anger. this case proves that there is a different brain function regulated by left and right hemispheres. serious injury on left side of the brain will damage one’s language proficiency, whereas the injury on the right side of the brain does not have any impact to human language capacity whatsoever. thus, it is evident that the language function regulated by the left hemisphere of human brain. furthermore, wernicke is the first researcher who explains the differences of expressive aphasia found by broca from the receptive aphasia. expressive aphasia causes human to be able to comprehend the utterance but has no capacity to speak it up directly. moreover, the people suffered from receptive aphasia cannot comprehend the utterance but they have the capacity to speak up in wrong grammatical rules. wernicke show the relationship of receptive disorder with the damage in temporal lobes on the left hemisphere of the brain. broca explains the expressive aphasia occurs because of the damage on the regions closed to motoric cortex, whereas, the receptive aphasia, according to wernicke, happens caused by the damage in the regions closed to auditory cortex on the rear-end of left-brain hemisphere. this cortex regulates all audio stimulation and utterance. both hemispheres of the brain have different functions for sure, but language wise, their function support each other. the segmental function of language regarding the grammatical rules is regulated by the brain left hemisphere, but language has no meaning without supra-segmental aspects such as tone and intonation controlled by the brain right hemisphere. the use of language for communication is also controlled by other pragmatic aspects like feeling, meaning, and any other communicative components of the human utterances. the right hemisphere of human brain regulates this function. this phenomenon shows human emotional quotient is based on the function of brain right hemisphere (dharmaperwira-prins, 2004). in some cases, the right hemisphere of the brain can take over some function of the left hemisphere. it is not about the right hemisphere taking over the full function of the left hemisphere like what happens to the lefthanded people. precisely, the right hemisphere connects the language regulated by left hemisphere of the brain to the aspects of perception, emotion, and the way of using language. gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 149 therefore, the use of both hemispheres is required for better communication in human life including verbal and non-verbal communication. the verbal communication is supported by human capacity to use language although most people do not share the same proficiency. there are also normal and abnormal language capacity. that is there to it any way. being normal in using language equals to being able to use language in proper linguistic rules such as grammatical aspects, tone, and intonation. on the other hand, being abnormal is all about suffering from disorders in neurological cells and psychological aspects regulating the use of language for communication and interaction at the individual level. this so called abnormal also means being incapable in the context of normal human. it causes the failure in communication. people with abnormal language use found in numbers in the society. this abnormality is caused by some factors such as the neurological damage in the language regions inside the brain as a result of serious injury, the damage in articulatory organs, and stress. moreover, there is also another case called cortical motoric aphasia, meaning, he or she has lost the capability to express the thought in the utterance (kusumoputro, 1993). someone with this syndrome is actually able to comprehend both written and oral expression but they have no capability of verbal expression since they barely understand non-verbal expressions. furthermore, the dysfunction on both left and right hemispheres of the human brain also cause many disorders in verbal and nonverbal expression. these disorders hurt the communication. in this era of technology, there are factors causing verbal and emotional disorders that also result language and speech disorders. in essence, neurolinguistics is a discipline for observing and studying those disorders in a wider conceptual spectrum including linguistic and non-linguistic aspects. ii. discussion 2.1 neurolinguistics neurolinguistics also defines as language neurology, meaning, an interdisciplinary linguistics studying human brain functions on language comprehension and processing. this discipline also studies the disorders in understanding and producing language (arifuddin, 2010; sastra, 2011). this field explains the human brain structures normally required in language processing before comprehending one’s lingual symptoms through verbal expression and capability in the communication. the are some neurolinguistic rules as follow: 1) brain damage hurts language processing, whereas the injuries in the heart, lungs, liver and kidney do not have a direct impact to language function. it is evident that the brain is an organ for the center of language processing. the brain damage often causes specific language dysfunction so called the aphasia; (2) the damage on the left hemisphere causes the problems in processing the language, meaning, even though one can listen to the utterance but she or he cannot comprehend those utterances. the damage in the right hemisphere does not cause this disorder. mostly the damage occurs on the left hemisphere of the cerebrum. the left hemisphere regulates many functions including language processing, whereas the right hemisphere is responsible for other capabilities such as distance and visio-spatial processing, language and mind creativity, emotion, pragmatic control, later it develops as neuro-pragmatics, a study on individual communication considering the aspects of socio-cultural and the environment of the speakers and hearers. (3) the brain damage on frontal region also causes disorders in responding to linguistic stimulation for speaking and writing, whereas the damage on rear-end location causes disorders in listening and reading. different hemispheres regulate different mental function. it defines as the function of localization. gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 150 therefore, the damage on left side of the brain also disrupts the process of language understanding. the brain damage also causes disorders for understanding the senses of smell (agnosia) such as the capability to recognize the aroma of orange, durian and other fruits. this problem also causes the lack of ability to do a common motion such as licking the lips under a command, or speaking clearly. it is evident, a damage of the brain causes disorders in language processing (aphasia) and is possibly responsible for the inability to understand the sensory organ for the smells (agnosia). this problem also causes people to do spontaneous and uncontrollable motion (apraxia), and the obvious disorders to speak clearly (dysarthria). 2.2 language and speaking disorders language disorder is the inability to produce and understand any utterance fluently and correctly (aphasia). blumstein (1985) states the one suffered from motoric aphasia experiences difficulties to say words. the patience shows a great effort just to say a word. therefore, the patience shows verbal expressions in mix results, some words are fluently spoken, the other are not. bastiaanse (1995) put aphasia into three categories as follow: 1) fluent aphasia, 2) non-fluent aphasia, 3) sensory aphasia. fluent and non-fluent aphasia cause many issues in human utterances and the way of using the organs of articulatory. the damage occurs in broca region is the causal factor. obler & gjerlow (2000) states the injury in 43rd area of brodmann taxonomy causes the broca syndrome. geshwind (1981) explains the broca region is closed to the motoric cortex on frontal hemisphere. it regulates the face muscles, tongue, chin, and throat. the stroke attacks to broca region will render the left side of the face paralyzed. the speech muscles are also in paralysis causing the evident disorders in verbal expressions, meaning, the patience undergoes speech or language disorders. thus, the patience suffered from aphasia experiences many difficulties in speaking caused by the paralysis of the articulatory muscles. this paralytic state occurs because of the damage in motoric neurons in the center of neurons or in some regions of the brains. these damages are no physically visible, but the brain regions experience disorders such as the left and right hemispheres, and the brain stem. the brain stem functions for transferring the message from the brain or for the brain. the disorder in this region causes the paralysis and other disorders in the sensory organs either left or right side of the body. this brain stem also has its own function for regulating the motion of the eyes and consciousness. it controls other motions such as swallowing, throwing up the sputum and coughing. language wise, the brain stem regulates the words construction and the utterance proficiency, but it is not responsible for the message or meaning. the people suffered from stroke experience the difficulty to say words or to speak the words although they clearly understand what they really mean. this condition defines as dysarthria. kohn (1993) states the patience of broca aphasia shows a strange phenomenon, they have difficulty to speak up. the errors also occur on the initial syllable and the repetitive syllable. although they can produce the phoneme but it is repeated on wrong syllable. the repetition occurs on the syllable and sound indicates non-fluent aphasia. moreover, temporary stop with or without utterances mostly occurs. a temporary stop done by the broca aphasia patience shows an attempt to produce a correct sound and syllable. this aspect only happens to the fluent patience, not only the one suffered from the broca aphasia but also other categories of language disorders such as stammering. actually, most people once experience normal disorders in language use such as temporary stop, or repetitive words, but the problem of aphasia occurs as paralysis gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 151 in some regions of the brain, it is not about a daily habit of using language. in essence, aphasia is not the only language disorders. there are other disorders as follow: dysphasia (language disorder of the children), dyslexia, dysgraphia, and alexia (disorders of reading, writing, figuring out and writing the letters), dementia, alzheimer, and parkinson (intellectual degradation in producing and recognizing the language), amnesia (memory loss/memory and parts of speech), auditive perceptive and visual disorder (the disorder of sound and face recognition), agnosia (the inability to recognize goods and visual loss), apraxia (the loss of reflex), dysarthria (the loss of motoric for language use caused by damage on the brain stem), myasthenia (the disorders of muscle reaction to the stimulation of motoric neurons), cerebral palsy (the disorders of speaking caused by injuries in motoric neurons). many studies on language process or mechanism in the brain show the right hemisphere also has specific function in the communication. this function does not relate to the aspects of linguistics, but it categorizes as the social function since the damage in the brain right hemisphere will cause some language disorders socially affecting the people in the social environment. the right hemisphere regulates some aspects of language, the damage or injury in this area will cause the following disorders: expressive and receptive lexico-semantic disorder, expressive and receptive macro-structures disorders, pragmatic disorder, prosody and its components disorder, lexicon disorder, syntactic disorder, emotion and conversation disorder, proper conversation disorder, etc. speech disorder is actually different from language disorder, but it is often confused with language disorder (ingram, 2007). speech is all about speaking; it shows one’s voice or sound of the words. on the other hand, language is about expressing and accepting information in a specific way. language is a means of communication. a child suffered from language disorder perhaps can utter a word correctly, but he or she cannot construct two words grammatically. other children, for example, cannot enunciate a word clearly but they are able to construct the words grammatically to express what they want. the adults use language encompass their full linguistic competence. this process activates the neurons in the brain, whereas speaking is about their capability to express the messages or thoughts after language processing. the results are verbal expressions produced by speech organs. in fact, speech disorder occurs because the speech organs (language and speech) experience some disorders caused by either internal or external factors (travis, 1971). some cases on the children such as: speech delay, disorders on speech organs such as pulmonal disorders, laryngeal, lingual, resonance, deformed upper lip, malocclusion (teeth factors), multifactor disorders like uncontrollable utterance in extremely fast manner, slower speaking, propulsive speaking ( non-fluent), mutism (no speaking caused by psychological issue), psychogenic speech disorder, sassy speech style (phonological syndrome), stammering speech, latah (southeast asia-based abnormal verbal behavior of startle disorder, ekolala: an abnormal verbal behavior to repeat other people’s words and korprolala: an abnormal verbal behavior to speak dirty, repetitive verbal tendency). 2.3 the role of neurolinguistics research neurolinguistic researches on the patience suffered from language and speech disorders have been done by sastra et all (2014). these researches focus on the aspects of phonological and lexical disorders such as aphasia, dysphasia, cerebral palsy, dyslexia, speech delay, autism, dysarthria, mentally disabled, myasthenia, stammer, etc. now the research will focus on listening disorder on the patience suffered from auditory syndrome. moreover, this research will also develop a speech therapy model to treat those gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 152 disorders. the model has been tested to the patience. the further research on bioacoustics is needed to examine the improvement of patience’s communication proficiency. this research is about studying the change mechanism of the sound wave from the human voice. speech analyzer-based spectrogram analysis can be used for this purpose. this software has been used in the usa and europe, but it is rare to be used in indonesia. there are some researchers in indonesia using spectrogram software for neurolinguistic research as follow: sastra (2013) on stroke patience, some graduate students of linguistic department of andalas university under sastra supervision (dewi, 2013; putri, 2014; johan, 2014; satria, 2015; anggraini, 2015) the researches on neurolinguistics have been done by sastra et all since 2012. the results of those studies can be a good reference and comparisons for therapists, neurologists, linguists and the people who have a family member suffered from speech disorders. the results of these researches also function as the knowledge or materials for another field of science such as information technology in building a software of speech therapy. europe and united states have done that development. furthermore, sastra et all also develop a model on behavior therapy (mtp) to improve the communication proficiency of the patience of speech and language disorders. fig. 1. roadmap of neurolinguistics research gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 153 these neurolinguistic researches have been conducted by sastra et all in more than ten years. every study contributes for linguistics and neurolinguistics in theoretical aspects and applied purposes for the society. the models of speech therapy have been developed and tested in some medical centers for rehabilitation, meaning, the linguists or neuro-linguists can work together with medical science and doctors. furthermore, this research on bioacoustics is expected to examine the proficiency level of the patience suffered from speech disorders. one of the researches on speech disorders done by sastra et all in 2016 entitled: bioacoustics for the patience of mild listening disorder. the subject of the research is the people suffered from listening disorder. sastra et all also conducted a research on model development of language and speech therapy funded by competence grant scheme of dikti indonesia in 20122016. iii. closing all human beings have a natural biological tendency to acquire language for the following reasons: (1) there are specific regions or centers in human brain functioning to regulate language, (2) all human babies share the same way of developing and acquiring language, (3) all humans experience difficulties in developing and acquiring language, (4) learning language is not possible for any other creatures, (5) all languages on earth share the universal components. 1. there are many researches on the relationship of the brain and language. therefore, the sub-discipline of neuropsycholinguistics was later coined as neurolinguistics. this term translates as the starting point when neurologists work together with linguists in studying brain and language. 2. broca and wernicke are two neurologists who study the localization of brain function and its relationship with language disorder. 3. there are some aspects to consider for formulating neurolinguistic rules as follow: 1) brain damage affects language processing directly, 2) damage on the left hemisphere of the brain causes difficulties in processing the language, 3) damage on the frontal region of the brain causes disorder to linguistic stimulation for speaking and writing, whereas the damage on the rear region of the brain causes disorders to linguistic stimulation for listening and reading, 4) brain damage also causes disorders for understanding the sensory organs of the flavor (agnosia) and the ability of language processing. 4. language disorder is the difficulty for producing and understanding the utterance fluently (aphasia). being adults use language is all about using their full linguistic competence through activating all functions of the neurons in the brain. on the other hand, speaking translates as one’s capacity to express his or her thought after undergoing a language processing. the results of this process become the utterance produced by the speech organs verbally. sastra have conducted numerous neurolinguistic researches for more than ten years. all those studies contribute for linguistics, neurolinguistics, general health, and medical science in theoretical aspects and applied purposes. gusdi satria / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 154 references anita, angraini lubis. 2015. kemampuan verbal penderita auditory agnosia: studi kasus “tifa” pasien poliklinik tht rsup m. djamil padang (suatu tinjauan neuropsikolinguistik). diploma thesis, universitas andalas. arifuddin. 2010. neuro psikolinguistik. jakarta: pt rajagrafindo persada bastiaanse r, bosje m, visch-brink eg. dutch adaptation of kay j, lesser r, coltheart m. psycholinguistic assessment of language processing in aphasia. hove, uk: lawrence erlbaum associates ltd, 1995. blumstein, s.e. and s. baum. consonant production deficits in aphasia. j.h. ryalls (ed.) .... british journal of disorders of communication, 20 (1985), pp. 155-164. chaer, abdul. 2003. linguistik umum. jakarta: rineka cipta. dewi, yoffie kharisma. 2013. disfungsi bahasa anak retardasi mental ringan: studi kasus pada tuturan yogi. 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labrador, 2014; john, 2015). an advertisement is not only used as a medium to communicate but also as a medium to convey the information about something. according to an indonesian dictionary, kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2012:521), an advertisement is news or message that is used to support or to persuade the people to a product. therefore, an advertisement must have the persuasive power so that it can persuade or influence the people to a product (labrador, 2014). meanwhile, jefkins (1998:15-16) proposes that an advertisement is a marketing way conducted by distributing the information, but the information that is distributed is not two-bit information. besides that, jefkins also states that not all information contain an advertisement. the language used in an advertisement can be analyzed through discourse analysis. as hikam in eriyanto (2009:5) explains that discourse analysis can be used to uncover or to explain a meaning. the approach in discourse analysis that can be used is pragmatic approach, particularly speech act theory. in addition, the approach can be used to find out the messages in the advertisement or the hidden messages by using speech act theory (simon, 2015). the theory of speech act that is used is the theory of searle. searle (1979:354-355) classifies speech act into 5 (five) categories, they are assertive, directive, commissive expressive and declaration. as stated before that an advertisement can be found in any medium, written or electronic medium. one of the medium that broadcasts many advertisements is television. the television channel that provides or presents many advertisements or has advertisement as its main program is mnc shop. mnc shop was launched in 2013 and becomes a channel that broadcasts shopping products as its main program. it is also broadcasted for 24 hours. since it is a shopping channel, therefore, the use of commissive speech act can be found in its program. in other words, the commissive speech act is used by the shopping hosts to attract people’s attention or to influence the people to buy the products. because besides that, mnc shop is chosen due to its slogan which reflects the commissive speech act as well, namely “kepuasan berbelanja (20132016) and “home shopping terpercaya (2016-now). therefore, the objectives of this research are then formulated as follows, (1) what is the form and the pattern of the commissive speech acts used by the shopping hosts of mnc shop?; and (2) what are the functions of the commissive speech acts used by the shopping hosts of mnc shop?. therefore, this research is conducted to answer those questions, namely to identify the form and the pattern of the commissive speech acts and to explain the functions of the commissive speech acts used by the shopping host of mnc shop. ii. methods this research uses qualitative approach. this approach is aimed at describing the object of the research obviously (djajasudarma, 1993:8-9). the data of this research is the shopping hosts’ utterances, the object of the research is the commissive speech acts in the shopping hosts’ utterances and the source of data is taken from the advertisements of mnc shop. data are collected by using observational method followed by recording and notetaking technique (kesuma, 2007:44-46). the first step in collecting the data is observing (in this case, watching) the language use of the widdya syafitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 30 shopping hosts. this step is done to identify or to find out the possibility of the use of commissive speech act done by the shopping hosts. after finding it, then, it is followed by recording technique. the recording technique is done by using tape and video recorder. both are used to get the accurate data. data are then analyzed by using pragmatic identity method and distributional method with deletion and permutation technique. these methods are also supported by the theory of form and pattern of the commissive speech acts proposed by alwi (2003) and putrayasa (2009) as well as the theory of its functions proposed by yule (1996) and ibrahim (1993) to answer or to find out the research problems. in presenting the result of analysis, formal and informal method from sudayanto are used. sudaryanto (1993:144) states that formal method is a method of presenting the result of analysis by using rules, symbols, abbreviation, etc. it is used to make the explanation of the result more systematic and simpler, while informal method is a method of presenting the result of analysis by using words or common language. it is used to make the elaboration of the formal method in detail so that the result of analysis is readable and understandable for the readers. iii. result and discussion this chapter deals with the data analysis of the commissive speech act used by the shopping hosts of mnc shop. data 1 host 2 : itu dia tu jeje, jadi bolong je. baru dipake beberapa bulan aja gitu ya, untuk kita memblender yang namanya buah, sayuran, udah pecah kayak gitu shopper. (that’s it, jeje. it’s perforated, je. just some months we use to blend fruit, vegetables, now it is broken like that shopper) host 1 : bener… (that’s right) host 2 : beda halnya kalo shopper menggunakan tecstar blender yang satu ini. (it will be different if shopper use tecstar, this blender) host 1 : bener…(that’s right) this conversation takes place between two shopping hosts talking about their product that is a blender. in this case, the hosts describe or talk about the quality of their product. the hosts explain that the blender will not get broken or cracked if it falls on the floor. in other words, the hosts would like to say that the blender is strong. the hosts also prove the statement by throwing the blender to the floor. as the result, the blender is still in good shape. the utterance uttered by the shopping host is in declarative mood (form) since the shopping wants to state or to tell something about the product. in this case, the shopping host wants to tell about the quality of the product that is strong. besides that, the intonation used by the host is in flat intonation which indicates the declarative form of a sentence or an utterance. to create the commissive utterance, the host uses an adverb (adverb of comparison) before the subject of the sentence. though the use of an adverb is arbitrary; it can be placed anywhere such as at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence, however, in this utterance it cannot be treated like that. in other words, if the position of the adverb is in the middle or at the end of the utterance, the meaning will change and it will not contain the commissive speech act anymore. besides that, it will be ungrammatical and sound strange to the hearers, as seen in this utterance, “shopper menggunakan tecstar blender yang satu ini (ber)beda halnya.” in terms of the function, the utterance above is used to guarantee the quality of the product. in addition, the host says the utterance to widdya syafitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 31 make a guarantee to the shopper that the product is strong and unbreakable. the host proves it by demonstrating it. in this case, the hosts throw the blender to the floor and it is still in good shape. data 2 host 1 : saya akan jatuhkan dulu nana… (i am going to throw it, nana…) host 2 : oh, boleh, boleh, iya…mau liat ya. (oh, sure, sure, yes..want to see it) host 1 : iya dong…kita akan buktikan untuk yang ada di rumah. (of course. we will prove it to the people at home) host 2 : tadi yang biasa, sekarang tecstar…ya, silakan. (the cheap one before, now tecstar..yes, please) the conversation happens when the shopping hosts demonstrate the quality of the product that is a blender by throwing it to the floor to see whether it is broken or not. the result is the blender is still in good shape. the commissive speech act in that utterance is conveyed by using declarative mood (form). it is because the host would like to convey or to inform the fact about the product that is the fact about its strength, which cannot break if it is dropped to the floor. besides that, the intonation used by the host in uttering the utterance is flat and there is no response like ‘yes’ or ‘no’ given by another host toward the utterance. as we know that ‘yes’ or ‘no’ is a response for an interrogative sentence. this commissive utterance is uttered in normal pattern which subject precedes the predicate and then followed by compliment. it will bring the same meaning if the pattern is inversed by placing the compliment at the beginning of the utterance as seen in this utterance “untuk yang ada di rumah kita akan buktikan.” otherwise, it will not change the commissive meaning as well if the utterance is changed into passive form like this “akan dibuktikan (oleh kita) untuk yang ada di rumah.” in terms of the function, this commissive utterance is used to convince. in other words, the host states this utterance to convince the shoppers about the quality of the product. to make it more convincing, the host then proves it by throwing it to the floor. besides that, the word “akan buktikan” is intended to make or to persuade the shoppers to believe in the quality of the product. data 3 host 1 : oke, shopper itu dia. akhir kata saya marina dan juga.. (okay shoppers. that’s it. i am marina and …) host 2 : saya miki..(i am miki) host 1 : kita ketemu lagi di produk berkualitas selanjutnya. (see you again on the next qualified product) this conversation takes place when the shopping hosts demonstrate or promote their product that is a steam iron. this utterance is uttered by the hosts at the end of the program. in other words, this utterance is used when the hosts would like to close the program. the utterance uttered by host 1 contains commissive speech act. the commissive utterance is uttered in the form of declarative (declarative mood) since the purpose of this utterance is just to give the information that the hosts will be back and promote other products next time. the flat intonation that is used by the host also indicates that it is in the declarative mood (form). meanwhile the pattern of the utterance follows the normal pattern which subject followed by the predicate and then adverb. if the host uses inverted pattern which the subject is placed after the adverb, it will not change the meaning. shortly, it still contains commissive meaning or utterance as seen in this utterance, widdya syafitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 32 “ketemu lagi kita di produk berkualitas selanjutnya.” also, the following utterance still contains commissive meaning although the pattern is inverted like this, “di produk berkualitas selanjutnya kita ketemu lagi.” dispite thre is no change in meaning, but the utterance sounds strange to the hearers. the commissive function of the utterance uttered by host 1 is to promise. in this case, the host promises the shoppers that they will come back again and show or promote next products in the next session. the promising function can be seen from the words ”ketemu lagi” and “selanjutnya” which mean that there will be the continuation of the program and the shopper can watch or see it again. data 4 host 1 : wah, ini gampang banget! (wow, it’s so easy!) -> (4a) host 2 : gampang sekali. liat tuh. wow, langsung rapi seketika! (so easy. look! wow, it looks tidy in short time) -> (4b) host 1 : betul. oke itu dia. nah, sekarang shopper sudah lihat. (that’s right. okay, that’s it. well, you have looked it shopper) this conversation takes place when the hosts promote the steam iron. at that time, the hosts demonstrate the iron to prove that it can be used easily and make the clothes tidier after it is ironed. the commissive utterances in this conversation are created in the form of exclamative mood (form) since the hosts would like to show their amazement of the iron’s quality. the exclamative mood (form) is shown by the words “wah” and “wow” in both utterances. besides that, the intonation used by the hosts is the exclamative tone or intonation. the pattern of the commissive utterances used by the hosts are using subject before the predicate (as seen in 4a) and using predicate without the subject (as seen in 4b). in these utterances, the predicates are adjectives. the subject in utterance 4a actually can be omitted and it will not cause the meaning change, like this utterance “wah, gampang banget!” the subject of the utterance is omitted but it still contains the commissive meaning in it. in terms of the function, the commissive functions found in these utterances are to guarantee (4a) and to promise (4b). in 4a, the host gives a guarantee that the shoppers will be able to use the iron. in other words, the host guarantees that it is not difficult to use it. while in 4b, the host expresses her amazement that the iron can make the clothes tidy in short time. so, through the utterance, the host wants to promise the shoppers that it will not take much time to tidy up or to iron the clothes since the iron is so helpful and the shoppers can use it and get the satisfying result. data 5 host 2 : tapi, kalo misalnya steam q double action nggak perlu khawatir, karna ada nih ya plat tambahannya. (but, with steam q double ction, no need toworry because it has additional plate) host 1 : aman banget ya mik ya? (it’s safe, right, mik?) host 2 : iya. kayaknya nih masih kurang meyakinkan ya? (yes. it seems unconvincing) host 1 : iya. (yes) the comversation above happens when the hosts show or promotes the steam iron. the hosts make some trials to test or to prove the quality of the iron which is applicable to all kind of clothes. it is because of the additional plate or double plate it has. the commissive utterance is stated in the interrogative mood (form). it can be seen widdya syafitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 33 from the utterance which the host uses question tag at the end of her utterance and the use of asking intonation as well. in addition, the response “iya” given by another host also indicates that it is in the interrogative mood (form). although it is stated in the form of a question, but through the question the host has tied herself to the utterance that is the iron is safe to use indeed. the pattern of the commissive utterance uttered by the host is predicate without the subject and followed by the use of question tag. the use of subject will not omit the commissive meaning in this utterance. while the commissive function of this utterance is to convince. though it is a question, but in this case the host has tied herself to prove that the iron is safe to use. therefore, the host tries to convince the shopper that it is safe indeed. iv. conclusion in this research, the writer has analyzed the form, pattern and function of commissive speech act used by the shopping hosts of mnc shop. as the result of analysis, the writer found 55 data which are classified into three forms (moods) with different pattern for each form (mood), they are declarative mood, interrogative mood and exclamative mood. based on the analysis, the writer found that the declarative mood is frequently used by the hosts to express the commissive speech act, followed by the exclamative and then interogative mood. from the three moods (forms), the pattern used varies. the pattern comprises the normal pattern which subject followed by predicate and object, compliment or adverb and also the inverted pattern which the pattern is arranged in inverted way such as predicate before the subject, subject at the end of the utterance, etc. in terms of the functions, there are some commissive functions found from the research, they are to promise, to guarantee, and to convince. the dominant function of the commissive speech act found in this research is giving guarantee, promising and then convincing. references adona, fitri. 2006. citra dan kekerasan simbolik dalam iklan perusahaan di televisi. tesis. padang: andalas university press. alwi, hasan, dkk. 2000. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (edisi ketiga). jakarta: balai pustaka. dai, hongying, jianqiang hao. exposure to advertisements and susceptibility to electronic cigarette use among youth, journal of adolescent health, volume 59, issue 6, 2016, pages 620-626, issn 1054-139x, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.06.013. depdiknas. 2012. kbbi edisi keempat. jakarta: balai bahasa. djajasudarma, t. fatimah. 1993. metode linguistik: rancangan metode penelitian dan kajian. bandung: refika aditama. eriyanto. 2009. analisis wacana. yogyakarta: pt lkis printing cemerlang. ibrahim, abd. syukur. 1993. kajian tindak tutur. surabaya: usaha nasional. jefkins, frank. 1998. public relations. london: financial times prentice hall. john, deborah ashabai fredericks. language choice and ideology: examining the use of the malay language in english newspaper advertisements in malaysia, language & communication, volume 43, 2015, pages 87-101, issn 0271-5309, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2015.05.004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.06.013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2015.05.004 widdya syafitri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 34 kesuma, tri mastoyo jati. 2007. pengantar (metode) penelitian bahasa. yogyakarta: carasvatibooks. labrador, b, n. ramón, h. alaiz-moretón, h. sanjurjo-gonzález. rhetorical structure and persuasive language in the subgenre of online advertisements, english for specific purposes, volume 34, 2014, pages 38-47, issn 0889-4906, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2013.10.002. putrayasa, ida bagus. 2009. jenis kalimat dalam bahasa indonesia. bandung: refika aditama. searle, john r. 1979. expression and meaning: studies in the theory of speech acts. uk: cambridge university press. simon, simona, daniel dejica-cartis. speech acts in written advertisements: identification, classification and analysis, procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 192, 2015, pages 234-239, issn 1877-0428, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.033. sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. wijana, i dewa putu.1996. dasar-dasar pragmatik. yogyakarta: andi. yule, george. 1996. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2013.10.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.033 article widdya syafitri1 i. introduction ii. methods iii. result and discussion iv. conclusion kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 05, 2021 final revision: october 18, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 danfo buses are one of the main means of transportation in lagos. for commuters to move from one location to another, it is highly essential that they know their bus stops and how the danfo bus conductors pronounce them. this is because an inability to understand how these bus stops are pronounced will make it difficult for commuters to locate their destination. this paper aims to classify lagos bus stop names based on their languages and sources of origin and demystify their pronunciation by danfo bus conductors. data was gathered through audio recordings of the speeches of the danfo bus conductors. data shows that bus stops in lagos were named using both the local and english languages. data also reveals that the names of these bus stops were derived from several ancient landmarks, including religious landmarks, commercial activities, agro-related landmarks, ancient edifices, and long-standing handiwork practices around these bus stops either now or in time past. the data further shows that the danfo bus conductors employ various phonological processes such as vowel deletion, nasal deletion, vowel lengthening, consonant deletion, and word deletion in the pronunciation of bus stop names. the public is urged to take cognisance of these pronunciations in order not to miss their locations. keyword lagos, bus stop names, danfo bus conductors correspondence e-mail: obiorahkenneth@yahoo.com articles lagos’ bus stop names and their pronunciation by danfo bus conductors kenneth obiorah1 1university of lagos, nigeria under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.180-188.2021 i. introduction lagos, which was formerly the capital of nigeria, is located in southwest nigeria. current information on en.m.wikipedia.org indicates that lagos currently houses close to 15 million nigerians with different ethnic backgrounds. it is considered one of the largest cities in the world and regarded as the largest commercial and financial center of nigeria in terms of population and economy (emordi and osiki 2008). transportation is one of the key economic sectors in lagos. one of the means of transportation in lagos is through local buses, otherwise called the yellow or danfo buses. the term yellow bus is derived from the colour of the bus, while ‘danfo’ is derived from the local nigerian indigenous language of the immediate environment. the danfo buses can be found in all corners of lagos. they comprise different types of fourteen-seater buses that carry 14-18 people (otunola et al., 2019). different types of busses are used for danfo in lagos. initially, kombi buses were the first types of danfo buses used for local transport in lagos, later volkswagen transporter, toyota hiace, nissan, mitsubishi, and then l300 started to appear, etc. the danfo bus is facilitated by a bus driver who is often referred to as danfo driver and a bus conductor popularly and simply known as ‘danfo conductor’ or ‘conductor’. many residents of lagos prefer danfo bus to other means of transportation. the advantage of using danfo buses is its ability to ply almost all routes. however, the success of the passengers’ journey depends partly on their ability to understand the pronunciation of these danfo bus conductors. this is because the way danfo bus conductor pronounces the names of bus stops differs from the normal way that the populace knows and pronounces them. the difference in articulation has led to a situation where new travelers often time miss their bus stops.180 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) recent research by adedun (2005) and akanmu (2017) shows that the use of language by danfo bus conductors differs when they interact with their different clients. consequently, this paper will focus on classifying lagos bus stop names based on their derivations and pronunciations. this study will increase the understanding of the language of danfo bus conductors in the area of pronunciations and different types of lagos bus stop names in general. a name is what a person, a place, or a thing is known for. a name can refer to anything (william 2003). bus stop names are places where vehicles that commute people from one place to another may stop to pick or drop passengers. who then is the danfo bus conductor? a danfo bus conductor is the one who announces bus stop names and collects transport fare from passengers. they sit beside the main door of the bus. they also hang on the bus doorway when the vehicle is on the move. in lagos, they are known as agbero by the locale. danfo bus conducting is a men’s job, but female bus conductors are also very rare. (edewor 2014) reported that most homeless children and youths in lagos state survive by working as bus conductors while waiting for their life dream to manifest. passengers are their regular clients. the interaction between a conductor and passengers is very important to how each workday will turn out for passengers. premium times newspaper of wednesday, january 8, 2020, reported that one of the criteria for working as a lagos bus conductor is being able to pronounce bus stop names in their own manner quickly. the danfo bus conductor must also be creative, and able to chop off syllables from names of popular places around the city in a way that passengers would relate with, making quickly the ‘keja’ ‘shodi’ and ‘blende’ sounds as against ‘ikeja’, ‘oshodi’ and ‘obalende’ in such a manner that passengers moving towards these places in no time will understand. the writer of the article on premium times newspaper also noted that another criterion for being a good danfo bus conductor in lagos is modulating their vocal deliveries to sound out within the cacophony of bus stations and drawing the attention of potential passengers. in the midst of all the noise in the lagos city; a danfo bus conductor must be heard. the voice must be loud enough to suppress the loud noise of the engine’s silencer, loudspeakers, hawkers, horns chatters, and verbal mapping of other conductors; else, the day’s work may be a disaster. the article placed so much emphasis on the ability to articulate sounds without emphasis on the manner in which these bus stops are articulated. the truth is that the harsh pitches of a typical talker that the danfo bus conductors employ contribute to how they speak, which makes them different from passengers. interestingly, every passenger is expected to know their bus stop names and how they are articulated if they do not want to lose their way. the study by olorunmbi et al. (2017) gives insight into the nature of services available to some bus stops in lagos, such as ‘oshodi bus stop’ and ‘sango bus stop’ without reference to the nature and service rendered by the danfo bus conductors. studies that examine the nature of bus stop names in lagos are scarce. in most places in lagos, bus stop names are written and displayed in their locations. the majority of these bus stop names are also on google maps, but their pronunciation on google map and real-life differ from how danfo bus conductors pronounce them. the information on lagos bus stop names will be needed as long as these buses are used for transportation in lagos. consequently, research on lagos bus stop names and their pronunciation can no longer be neglected. this is because there is hardly any bus stop or garage in lagos that one cannot find a danfo bus conductor in a danfo bus ‘shouting’ names of several locations to passengers. few articles have described transport activities in lagos concerning passengers and danfo bus conductors. for example, the behaviour patterns of commercial, public transport passengers in lagos metropolis were examined by afolabi et al. (2017). the study noted that travellers in lagos are not provided with an adequate bus-stop facility in lagos. the authors projected that the situation might get worse if no improvement is made. the study by adedun (2005) was conducted to show different linguistic practices by the danfo bus conductors toward all types of transport workers. according to the author, danfo bus conductors create different registers and metaphors to communicate with other transport workers such as the police, the driver, the park, and bus stop workers. adedun (2005) notes that words such as oshodi, oshodi oke, oshodi kan (one oshodi), eko straight, mile two, one 181 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) nyash (one more space for commuter going to mile 2), go (proceed on the journey), cable lo (continue) cablong (drive at high speed) wole one time (enter one time) are major words in the language of danfo bus conductors. adedun (2005) concluded by saying that the uniqueness in the use of language by these danfo bus conductors creates a peculiar linguistic act. according to akanmu (2017), danfo bus conductors use neologism, compounding, borrowing, phonaesthetics, and coinage to create new idioms and idiomatic expressions that are peculiar and idiosyncratic to their jobs. agbiboa (2017) investigated the meaning of the slogan painted on yellow buses in lagos showed that bus workers document their slogan on the stickers placed on their buses. common slogans such as remember your six feet, life is war, monkey dey work baboon dey chop, anything can happen, no more persons, and i dey like dead bodies, which tell the story of the city life of lagos, the philosophy and aspiration of bus workers are well documented in several danfo buses in lagos. the works of these scholars buttress the supposition that conductors create and use language differently. lagos bus stop names and the phonological strategies used by danfo bus conductors to signal where commuters are going and where they have arrived have not been considered; a presupposition that makes the current study a critical one. this study investigates different lagos bus stop names and how they are pronounced by danfo bus conductors, which previous research has neglected. to achieve this aim, the study is guided by the following objectives: 1. how is lagos bus stop names classified? 2. what are the phonological strategies used by danfo bus conductors in the pronunciation of lagos bus stop names? ii. methods the data used for this study were recorded from different bus stops in lagos. some were recorded by the researcher inside the danfo buses and motorcycle as a passenger, while others were recorded as observers at different bus-stop stations while standing. the recordings were done without the knowledge of the danfo bus conductors hence there was no problem of observer paradox. from his experience as a resident of lagos for so many years, the researcher traveled around the state, with a tape recorder, and a jotter, recording and jotting various bus-stop names on the signpost and their pronunciations by the passengers and danfo bus conductors. the original names of these bus stops were written down and classified based on the language of origin and the ancient landmarks they are associated with. the recorded data were studied perceptual and transcribed for phonological analysis. the pronunciations of these bus stop names were later compared with the pronunciation provided on google map app. a total number of one hundred and thirty bus stop names were recorded and analysed. throughout the period of data collection, a member check was employed to validate the data. this is used to ensure that all data are reliably and accurately documented. this method helps to correct every error or false information that could have occurred in the documentation and interpretation of the data. iii. results and analysis before proceeding to look at how danfo bus conductor pronounces lagos bus stop names, it is very important to show different languages used in naming lagos bus stops and their source of origin. from the data, several bus stop names are derived from different sources. while some are named using the local language, others are named using english. consequently language is one of the basis for classifying lagos bus stop names. nigeria is a multilingual nation, however, the bus stop names in lagos are derived majorly from english language and yoruba; a local indigenous nigerian language spoken in the immediate community of lagos. classifications of lagos bus stop based on the language of origin a. indigenous bus stop names they are names derived from yoruba, the major language spoken in lagos. examples of such names are [oʃodi] bus-stop, [obalende] bus-stop, [agege] bus-stop, [ɪjanupaʤa] bus-stop, [ketu] bus-stop, [idumɔta] bus-stop, [ekoidumɔta] busstop, [ɪjanaɔba] bus-stop, [aʤamgbadi] bus-stop, [ikorodu] bus-stop, [oʤuelegba] bus-stop, [ɪʤu] bus-stop, [bariga] bus-stop, [falɔmɔ] bus-stop, [ikoji] bus-stop, [onikpanu] bus-stop, [alakra] busstop, [agbotukojɔ] bus-stop, [ogologo] bus-stop, [tabo tabo] bus-stop, [ogogoro] bus-stop, [alakiʤa] 182 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) bus-stop, [abule] ado bus-stop, [kpako] bus-stop, [agidimgbi] bus-stop, [okpebi] bus-stop, [ileekpo] bus-stop, [ʤakande] bus-stop, [onigbongbo] busstop, [muʃi] bus-stop, and [ilasa] bus-stop. despite the facts that these bus stop names are in local language, majority of these bus stop names are written with english orthography while a few like [muʃi], [ilepo] and [ilasa] are written using yoruba orthographic writings. yoruba and egun are languages indigenous to the native of lagos, but yoruba is the only indigenous language used in naming bus stops in lagos. igbo and hausa, which are among the three major indigenous languages in nigeria, are also used in many places in lagos but do not appear in the lagos bus stop names. b. foreign bus stop names these are names derived from non-indigenous languages, especially english, a colonial language and a lingua franca in nigeria. there are many busstop names that are in english. examples of such bus stop names include west minister bus-stop, along bus-stop, mile 2 bus-stop, dustbin bus-stop, cele bus-stop, church bus-stop, under bridge bus-stop, cemetery bus-stop, vulcanizer bus-stop, bakery bus-stop, last bus-stop, mechanic busstop, coconut bus-stop, along estate bus stop, first-gate bus-stop, boundary bus-stop, agric busstop, law school bus-stop, junction bus-stop, gate bus-stop, second gate bus-stop, abattoir bus-stop, chevron bus-stop, mangoro bus-stop, 7/8 bus-stop, maryland bus-stop, church bus-stop, berger busstop, curstan bus-stop, airport bus-stop, anthony bus-stop, palmgrove bus-stop, banana bus-stop etc. all these bus stops names are documented in english. apart from the language of naming, there are classes of names whose origin are associated with ancient landmarks in lagos, such as religious landmarks, commercial landmarks, agro-related landmarks, edifices, and special handiworks, while some names are derived from abbreviations. classification of lagos bus stop names based on ancient landmarks the second classification of lagos bus stop names is based on ancient landmarks. these types of lagos bus-stops are not far from the source of the name. although some of these bus stops have outgrown their sources, the only way to trace their source is through history. this category also contains names originating from both native and non-native languages. the lagos bus stop names that are derived from different landmarks are listed below: a. religious based bus stop name these are bus stop names derived from the name of religious activities around the location of bus stop. in this category, the tendency to find or link a religious center or religious activities around the bus stop location is very high. examples of lagos bus stops that are derived from religious activities are: 1. cele bus-stop is derived from the name of a celestial church, a christian religious organisation. 2. church bus-stop is derived from an area where churches are located. 3. [mosalaʃi] bus-stop is derived from muslim praying center, [mosalaʃi] is a local name for mosque in yoruba language. b. commercial bus stop names these types of bus stop names are derived from commercial activities around the bus-stops. they include: 1. chevron bus-stop derived from the name of an oil company. 2. [ileepo] bus-stop is derived from a local name for where fuel is sold. 3. abattoir bus-stop is used for bus stop where meat is sold. 4. berger bus stop is derived from the location of julius berger, a construction company. 5. [onikpanu] bus-stop is a local name derived from one who sells roof. 6. [alakara] bus-stop is a local name derived from place where bean cake is sold. 7. total bus-stop is derived from the name of a petrol filling station where fuel is sold. 8. oando bus-stop is derived from the name of a petrol filling station where fuel is sold. 9. [ɔʤa] bus-stop is derived from a local name 183 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) for market. 10. bakery bus-stop is derived from the location where bread is made. 11. law school bus-stop is derived from a location close to the nigeria law school in lagos. some of the names have equivalent meanings. for instance [ileepo] is a general name in yoruba for an outlet station where fuel is sold, while oando and total are different companies that sell fuel. c. agro related bus-stop these classes of names are derived from botanical plant names. some of these plants had existed, while some still exist around the location of this group of bus stops. they include: 1. mango bus-stop. 2. agric bus-stop. 3. coconut bus-stop. 4. pamlgrove bus-stop. 5. banana bus-stop. d. names derived from the edifice/site location they include: 1. estate bus-stop is derived from several block of buildings cited in one location. 2. under-bridge bus-stop is associated with where flyovers are located in most places in lagos. 3. dustbin bus-stop is derived from the location where waste or refuse is dumped. e. handiwork activities 1. mechanic bus stop is derived from motor mechanic workshop. 2. vulcanizer bus stop is derived from a location where an individual attend to those who has bad tire. e. other class of names derived from abbreviation. 1. v.i derived from victoria island 2. tbs derived from tafawa balewa square 3. cms derived from church missionary society 4. brt derived from lagos bus transit system sample evidences above show that lagos bus stop names are derived from different sources. these bus stop names are not given by danfo bus conductors. the categorisation shows the nature of names that the danfo bus conductors as well as commuters encounter each day in their daily work. they were given by earliest dwellers, and are as old as these bus stops themselves. the government mostly provide sign post to indicate the name. although it is hard to establish how the danfo bus conductors learn these pronunciations, but one obvious fact is that there are some names that they do not pronounce exactly like the populace. phonological strategies used by danfo bus conductors attention is now shifted to how danfo bus conductors pronounce these bus stop names. pronunciation deals with how words are articulated in a language (awonusi 2007). there are many phonological processes involved in the pronunciation of lagos bus stop names by danfo bus conductors that make it different from the normal way that the populace articulates them. the phonological strategies employed by the danfo bus conductors are deletion of sounds, deletion of nasality, consonant deletion, deletion of words and vowel lengthening. they occur in a fast speech employed by the danfo bus conductors. these processes are generated from deep structure or phonological form, that is, the original pronunciation of these bus stop names otherwise known as the input, and then mapped out and transformed into phonetic form using the phonological processes which result in the manner that danfo bus conductor pronounced them which is referred in this paper as the output. they are presented below: a. deletion deletion is a process where a segment is lost in a phonological component. when the deletion of sound(s) occurs in a word, the number of segments is reduced. there are four deletion processes observed when danfo bus conductors call bus stop names in lagos. they are as follows:184 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (i) initial vowel deletion: initial vowel deletion simply means the removal of a vowel segment that occurs first in a word. in the data below, the initial vowels in the following lagos bus-stop names may be omitted in some instances by the danfo bus conductors. the inputs are what the populace pronounce, while the output is what danfo bus conductors pronounce. consider the following bus stop names in example. in the examples above, both the vowel /i/ and /ʊ/ are lost at the output level. (iv) nasal deletion: nasal deletion is a process where nasality is lost in a segment. nasality is a common phonological element in yoruba (fadairo 2014). among danfo bus conductors where you have people who are not yoruba, the chance of omitting nasality in a bus stop name is very high especially when the conductor has not gained competence in the production of nasality. nasal deletion is attested in the pronunciation of mushin bus stop, onyinbo bus stop, ijigon bus stop, and ilasan bus stop. in orthographic writing in yoruba where the bus stops names are derived, nasality is represented with /n/, while the tilde is a sign for nasality in phonetic (oyebade 1998). samples are presented below: in example above, the vowel /i/, /a/ and /ɔ/ becomes null in the pronunciation of ishiaga, ipaaja, obalende, iyano̩ipaja, alapere, ikeja and ikorodu when pronounced by danfo bus conductors. (ii) medial vowel deletion: medial vowel deletion simply means the removal of a vowel segment that occurs at the middle or within a word. medial vowel deletion is seen in the data below: the number of sound shows that the first words that serve as inputs which contain six sounds in the initial input in the word oriile is also realised as five sounds orile in the output, showing that the vowel /i/ has been deleted. in iyanuipeja /ijanɔikpaʤa/, the vowel /u/ is deleted from the input iyanuikpaja/ and becomes iyanikpaja. (iii) final deletion: final vowel deletion simply means the removal of a vowel segment that occurs at the end of a word. final vowel deletion is recorded in example below: the tilde is a sign of nasality. the nasal sign is lost in the outputs in example above. (v) consonant deletion: consonant deletion simply indicates that a consonant sound in a lagos bus-stop name disappears as the busconductors pronounce the name. instances where consonant deletion occurs are seen in the pronunciation of agege bus stop, ikorodu bus stop, alapere bus stop and tollgate bus stop as recorded below: in example above, /g/, /r/ /l/ and /t/ which are all consonants are all deleted in the middle position in above examples. in agege, alakpere and tolgate in example 1, 3, and 4, the first consonants in each bus stop names were lost, while in the pronunciation of ikorodu in example 2, it is the second consonant /r/ that was lost.185 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (vi) vowel lengthening: vowel lengthening is the process of elongating the duration of a vowel segment in a word. vowel lengthening is common when danfo bus conductors are calling bus-stop names in lagos. this can be seen in the following data: the full pronunciation of these bus-stop names are retained regardless. it is important to state that not all pronunciation of lagos bus stop names involves phonological manipulation. for instance, bus stops such as yaba bus stop, sabo bus stop, idumota bus stop, and lekki bus stop maintain the same inputs and outputs. the phonological processes employed in pronouncing these bus stop names are also found in the languages used to name these bus stops. for the danfo bus conductors, it is all about using what is in the language to create a unique way of speaking. from the data presented in this study, it can be seen that there are several bus stops in lagos, which are drawn from several sources. one basic thing to note in this study is the fact that most lagos bus stop names are tied to the history of lagos as a city. for example, the name of these bus stops, such as cele (derived from celestial church) and others documented in this study, always remind one that a celestial church was once in or around the present location of the bus stop. although one can only know that if you ask why such bus stop is being called cele bus stop. the same thing is applied to other bus stop names. from observation, there is always a one narration or the other that is connected to a bus stop name in lagos. the history of a bus stop is always tied to wherever a bus stop is located or whatever bus stops are named after in lagos. this is a very important point for historians to note. interaction with the locale and residents always proves this assumption to be true. it seems adequate that the lagos bus stop’ names are classified based on their meaning but a historical study will show how the location of these bus stops have developed from what is used to be known, to what it is now. apart from the issue of history which is left for historians to explore, this study has added more information to the linguistic behaviours of danfo bus conductors, especially in the area of pronunciation which early studies such as adedun (2005), akanmu (2017), and agbiboa (2017) fail to touch. it goes on to show that apart from different registers and idiomatic expressions which danfo bus conductors create according to adedun (2005) and akanmu (2017), they also create a unique pattern of pronunciation which is evident from the data we have presented so far. the study on the in data above, all the vowel in the final position are elongated, covering more period in their pronunciation, unlike their initial input. in ikorodu /korodu/ and ikeja /ketu/, the lengthening of the vowel sound /u/ led coalescence where the sound /u/ becomes two similar but different vowels: vowel /u/ and /o/. the roundness of the vowels is retained but the height. this is different from other data where either the vowel sound /a/ or /e/ only takes more periods but retains its similarity and identity. (vii)word deletion: word deletion is a phonological process in which one of the morphemes that makes up a bus stop name is lost in a compound noun bus-stop construction. most bus-stop names are more than one word, and in most cases, a pronunciation of one part is enough for a regular commuter. hence, this type of phonological process where a word may be null is common in the articulation of bus-stop names in lagos. examples below illustrates this point with oworo-shoki bus stop, ijuishiaga bus stop, iyanu-ipaja bus stops and ifako ijaye bus stop. samples are present: the mention of one part already gives a commuter an idea of where the vehicle is going. however, where the deletion of one word or morpheme may lead to confusion, 186 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) classification and pronunciation of bus stop names are not common in literature to the best of our knowledge but it is something that can be explored even further as we have done this study. iv. conclusion this study aims to show different lagos bus stop names and their pronunciations by danfo bus conductors. this study has attempted to bring to the limelight different types of lagos bus stop names and their pronunciations, showing the different phonological processes involved in their pronunciation. although, there are exceptions in that not all bus stop names show differences between input and output. in other bus stops, names are just abbreviations of english words such as victoria island, tafawa balewa square, church missionary society, etc. no phonological process is employed rather the orthographic sounds are pronounced, such as v.i for victoria island, tbs for tafawa balewa square, and cms for the church missionary society. as documented in this paper, references adedun, e. a. (2005). “carry go”: a sociolinguistic study of the language of bus conductor in lagos (nigeria) in momoh, c. s. (ed.) integrative national conference vol. iii (inter-group tensions), lagos: faculty of arts, university of lagos, 209 – 225. aduwo e. b. olutobi f. s & uzodimman u. (2019). transportation system in obalende lagos, nigeria: prospects and challenges. european journal of logistics, purchasing and supply chain management vol 7, (1), 46-55. www.eajournals.org afolabi, o.j. hasan, a. m. & age, l.o. (2017). behaviour patterns of commercial public transport passengers in lagos metropolis. journal of sustainable development of transport and logistics 2 (1), 40–50. agbiboa e. d. (2017). mobile bodies of meaning: city life and the horizons of possibility. journal of modern african studies, 55 (3) pp 371-393. cambridge university press doi:10.1017/ soo22278x1700012x. akanmu, d. (2017). use of new idioms and domestic expressions among the agbero: the lagos bus conductors. scientific research journal volume ii, issue ii. awonisi s. (2007). good spoken english and national development: sociophonology in the service of man, an inaugural lecture, university of lagos, march 14, 2007. bright w. (2003). what is a name? reflections on onomastics. language and linguistics 4.4:669681,2003, 2003-0-004-004-000059-1 (online). edewor, a. p. (2014). homeless children and youths in lagos, nigeria: their characteristics, street life and sexual behaviour. mediterranean journal of social science, rome italy vol.5(1). emordi, e. c. & osiki, o. m. (2008). lagos: the villagized’ city. journal of information, society and justice, volume 2. (1) 95-109. these lagos bus stop names and their pronunciation are part of language use in lagos. the significance of this research is that it has exposed pronunciation of the lagos bus stop names, which was difficult for newcomers in lagos. in order to avoid the countless stories that are told about how passengers miss their way because of their inability to comprehend various ways that danfo bus conductors pronounce lagos busstop names, the public, town planners, and the government are advised to take cognisance of these pronunciations, which might of no doubt remain in the populace despite the presence of other means of transportation in lagos. this study is, however, limited to just lagos state, nigeria. there are other big cities in nigeria, and across the world where they are local bus conductors, further studies may probe the language of the bus conductors in these cities, especially in the correspondence between input and output in their pronunciation or any other aspect of language use. 187 kenneth obiorah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) fadiaro y. o. (2014). phonological processes in yoruba: a complementarity approach. ihafa: a journal of african studies vol 6 (1), 2014 liora, b. (2011). the former names of lagos (nigeria in historical perceptive, names 229-240. 10.1179 /002777311x13148870565437. olurnnimbe r.o, oni s. i. ege, e. & giwa, o. m. (2018), analysis of bus stop and laybys level of service along oshodi abeokuta expressway in lagos, nigeria. international journal of science and research. volume 7 (4), doi.10.21275/art20181358/. otunola, b. kriticos, s. & harman, o. (2019) the brt and the danfo: a case study of lagos, transport reforms from 1999-2019. igc cities that work case study. oyebade, f. (1998). a course in phonology, ijebu ode: shebiotiomo publications taveres. galvez, a.v. de albuuquuerque, c. almeida a.l. barros r. q. soares m. & villarouco v. (2015). information on public transport: a comparative between information system at bus stops. procedia manufacturing 3, (2015) dio:10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.958. olawoyin o. 2018. how to become a successful lagos bus conductor january 9, 2018 188 template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.59-76.2019 article moroccan arabic: the battlefield of language ideologies marouane zakhir1, jason l. o’brien2 1 university of chouaib doukkali, in el jadida, morocco 2 university of alabama in huntsville, huntsville, al, united state of america submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 27, 2019 final revision: may 16, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 the debate on the use of moroccan arabic (also known as moroccan darija) dates back to the medieval period when literary critics have discussed the effectiveness of writing in moroccan arabic lyrics of muslim spain, muwashshahat and zajal. this debate was later sharpened in the protectorate era (1912-1955) by the french colonial administration in its attempt to use ma in education as a tool to divide morocco into arabs and amazigh, separate the country from the arab world and pave the way for french to flourish in society. nowadays, the use of ma in education came to the fore front of the interests of moroccan intelligentsia. a new current of francophone academics called for the legitimacy of using ma in education and media to fight illiteracy and maximize access to education in the country. they held many conferences for the sake of discussing the utility of ma as an alternative for sa in education and designed dictionaries and books to ease its instruction. such attempts raised the hostility of arabists and amazigh activists. they regarded the defense of ma use in education as an ideology of language to eradicate moroccan official languages in favour of french and the francophone culture. the present empirical research examines the status of ma in education and the different ideologies backing its use by moroccan teachers and students. keyword moroccan arabic, language policy, education, media, ideology korespondensi e-mail: prof.zakhir@gmail.com i. introduction morocco is a multilingual country in which citizens use standard arabic, amazigh, moroccan arabic, hassaniya, french, spanish and english. standard arabic (sa) is the official language of education, administration, and media. it was introduced to the country in the 7th century a.d. by arabs of yemen and the arabian peninsula. the use of sa in society increased in morocco after independence from the french by the adoption of the arabization project. however, this project was criticized by several groups within moroccan society as an abject failure. the linguistic gap which the incomplete arabization project created between secondary education and university is still a source of many problems for students, http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.59-76.2019 marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 60 particularly in science disciplines (gharib, 1996). amazigh, an official language which gained recognition in the constitution of 2011, is said to be the original language of moroccans. there are no official statistics on language speakers in morocco but researchers indicate that about 15 million moroccans use amazigh in their daily communication (ennaji 2014, p. 93). the instruction of amazigh is still impeded by the shortage of trained teachers who master it as well as the lack of a political will to implement it in all moroccan schools. ma is the lingua franca in morocco. it is used by most moroccans, be they arabs or amazigh, in their daily communication. heath (2015) argues that “ma took shape in the 7th–8th centuries ad in roman cities in which late latin (ll) was spoken” (p. 1). it was later impacted by contact with sa, french, amazigh and spanish. ma has different variations depending on regions, social class, and gender. the variety used within the city of fes, for example, is said to be more elegant than the one used in marrakech or in doukkala (ennaji, 2005). sometimes, the specific manifestation of ma may distinguish the speaker as ‘aroubi (peasant) or mdeni (urban). however, all ma variations are understood by moroccans regardless of their regions. while ma is mutually comprehensible by most moroccans, it is often difficult to understand by other arabs of the middle east. it is considered by many as a ‘low variety’ which is suitable only for informal communicative practices. currently, some activists, politicians and teachers call for the recognition of ma as an official language to replace sa, whose implementation is considered as a source of failure of the moroccan education system and literacy programs. a new dictionary (2016), titled the dictionary of moroccan darija, is 1 all language communities are entitled to an education which will enable their members to acquire a thorough knowledge of their cultural heritage (history, designed to ease ma use in education. however, this dictionary is rejected by opponents of ma in education, including intellectuals who see it as a linguistic conspiracy to pave the way for french to spread at the expense of sa. bouali (2016), the head of the moroccan association for the protection of standard arabic regards ayouch’s plan to standardize ma as an old colonial plot which is used by the french administration to eradicate sa, destabilize the country and divide the arab world. advocates of ma, on the other hand, see it as a right for all moroccans to study in their mother tongue, following the declaration of the unesco1 (1996) on language rights. lately, the beginning of the school year 2018/2019 has survived the first concrete attempt to introduce ma to the moroccan public school. new books of arabic with ma words were published to familiarize children of primary levels with education. this attempt received a harsh criticism from all moroccans, as various demonstrations were held in front of academies and delegations of education all around morocco. it also provoked a heated debate in social media and electronic journals. some examples of ma words such as ‘baghriratun’ and ‘batbutatun’ (bread) were sarcastically used by youtubers and publishers in facebook and twitter to criticize the entire idea of ma in education. such social reaction pushed the minister of education, saaïd amzazi, in september 2018 to ensure moroccans that no word of ma will be used in published books of primary schools or any level. however, as its adherents battle for linguistic supremacy, ma is gaining popularity in different sectors in the country, including commerce and audiovisual media. for example, new turkish and mexican television series are broadcast with ma dubbing. also, an increasing number of electronic journals are publishing research in ma in an effort to make scientific discoveries accessible to a wider audience. ma is geography, literature, and other manifestations of their own culture), as well as the most extensive possible knowledge of any other culture they may wish to know. marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 61 currently being used more often for commerce, as evidenced by the proliferation of new advertisements written in the language. this new role of ma is seen by many as a significant shift in the status of languages in morocco, which may necessitate a revision of the entire language policy in the future. hassaniya is widely-used by moroccans of the south for informal communicative purposes. it is different from the other variants of sa due to its contact with bordering sub-saharan languages. this bedouins variety is distinguished by its phonetic and morphological features which differ from one region to another. the constitution of 2011 openly declared that hassaniya should be preserved as an integral component of the moroccan cultural identity. before the french colonization, the moroccan education system was traditional and monolingual. sa (also called classical arabic at the time) was the sole language of the three tier education system despite the existence of amazigh in society. in koranic schools (msi:d), students were taught sa and the koran through memorization and reciting. in the koranic secondary school (lmedrasa), students were introduced to rules of sa and islamic jurisprudence and philosophy. in the third education level, students used to enroll in the unique university of karaouine (founded in 859 ad), where they received advanced courses of islamic jurisprudence, philosophy, sciences, logic and medicine through sa (bentahila 1983, 5-6). with the coming of the french protectorate, new schools were built to replace the islamic traditional education system. grandguillaume (1983) argued that the french administration set up the franco-islamic schools, which were reserved for the children of moroccan notables, european schools for french children, french-jewish schools for children of the jewish community in morocco, and the french-berber schools for children of the amazigh to teach them french, amazigh and christianity. french was given priority in all these schools to the detriment of sa and islamic traditional education system. students who were graduated from these schools were encouraged to join french universities in france. these schools were used as a vehicle to spread french culture and civilization among the new generation to ease their integration into the french administration. they played an important role in segregating ethnic groups in society and paving the way for french to flourish in education. in 1965, morocco gained its independence, and nationalists took several measures to free the national education system from french dominance. they launched an arabization project to spread sa in society, unify the education system and strengthen the link with the arab nations under what was known at the time as al-qawmiya al’arabiya (arab nationalism). the system of education in public schools was unified, and french schools were organized under the mission universitaire culturelle française (mcuf) (bentahila 1983, 10). primary schools increased the number of years to five years and, then, to six years, plus three years of middle school and three years of high school. these three levels were totally arabized as all science subjects were and are still taught in sa. university was comprised of three levels in a system which later developed into lmd (licence-mster-docorate). universities up to the present day provide courses of pure sciences in french, while other subjects of humanities and law are arabized. yet, despite the attempts to substitute french by sa, its strong position in society and the economic relationship with france, gave it priority over all languages existing in the country. the role of french nowadays is increasing, particularly with the failure of the implementation of a complete arabization project and the decrease of students’ achievements of sciences in high schools. this study is grounded in language ideology. the term first appeared in the fields of sociolinguistics and anthropology to denote marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 62 “sets of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or justification of perceived language structure and use” (silverstein, 1979, p.193). this terminology is frequently used in language studies to define a force shaping peoples’ understanding of their verbal practices (calame-giaule, 1986; heath, 1989). the present study considers ideology as an internal driving-force for students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards ma in education. based on social constructivism (oxford, 1977), the study assumes that the informants’ ideology of language status and use is constructed through education, society, politics and culture (philips, 1995; zakhir & o’brien, 2016). furthermore, this theoretical underpinning assumes that moroccans’ language practices are backed by internal and external ideologies that promote some languages and undermine others. ii. methods a major aim of the present research is to show how ideology affects language use and status in moroccan society. it presumes that many moroccan students and teachers have a negative view of ma and consider it an ‘informal language’ which is not suited for academic and scholarly communication. this perception of ma is exacerbated by inherent beliefs regarding the superiority of french and sa as languages of modernity and literacy. for purpose of this study, quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data. using questionnaires, the study aims to identify some of the central reasons for the rejection of ma in education and its confinement to informal instances of communication. given the exploratory nature of the study, a descriptive analysis was adopted to present the data. responses to the questionnaires are presented in percentages with discussions. the present research examined responses from students (n=172) and teachers (n=28) chosen from public schools and universities in two major cities in morocco. a group of students were randomly selected from science disciplines in high school (n=104) and another group (n=68) were chosen from two science universities. of the participants, almost half (n=104) were completing their final year of their baccalaureate studies while twenty eight attended ba programs and an additional forty were pursuing a graduate education. there were 95 male students and 77 females. it was by no means an accident that the number of male students in this study doubles the number of females, for studies revealed that the ration of boys in moroccan schools is slightly higher despite the efforts done to increase the enrollment of girls. according to the unesco (2018), out of the total number of students (79.67%) enrolled in secondary education in 2017, (83.98%) are males and (75.15%) are females. one hundred and nine (63.37%) of the students were aged 16-21, and a slightly smaller percentage (36.62%; n= 63) were between 22-25 years of age. the majority of students from both education levels belonged to the middle social class. except for several students (18.02%; n=31) whose parents occupied high official posts, the majority of students’ parents worked in public administration or in the private sector. of all students, 56 identified as amazigh, and 116 considered their identities to be arab. teachers who participated in the study taught in a variety of instructional levels. four were chosen from kindergarten, eight from primary and middle schools (grades 1-8), ten were high school teachers, and six taught science courses at the university level. there were 9 female teachers and 19 males. the age of (10) ranged between 23-35 years while the age of (18) ranged between 36-54. fourteen teachers had 9-17 education experience; six had 18-23 while eight spent 24-33 years. teachers were chosen from different disciplines. twelve taught arabic, (10) taught maths and (6) instructed sciences (biology, chemistry and geology). seven teachers were amazigh while (21) were arabs. marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 63 iii. result students’ attitudes this section provides the results of the questionnaires completed by the 172 students either in high school or studying at university. specifically, students’ attitudes towards the use of ma in education and the role of media in ma dissemination will be discussed. attitudes towards ma in education to examine the status of local languages (ma and amz) in students’ early years of education, high school and university students were asked to choose languages they were exposed to in kindergarten and primary schools. the majority of students (81.39%; n=140) reported that their early language of acquisition was sa in kindergarten and primary school, while a much smaller percentage (18.60%; n=32) reported that the language of instruction in their early education was french and sa. results from the survey indicate that moroccan teachers delivered less instruction using local languages in the elementary grades. only 22 and 10 students reported that they were educated in preschool via ma and amz, respectively. they claimed that they studied sa through ma/amz in jama’2 and that teachers addressed them all the time in their home languages. students themselves were not concerned about the role of their mother tongues in learning, in that they all agreed that they need french and, to a less degree, sa in their early education. several research studies have shown that children benefit more from mother tongues in early education and that the introduction of foreign languages which are not used at home may delay their acquisition of knowledge by creating a gap between what they hear and see at home and what they learn at school (unesco, 1996; bensoukas, 2010). when students were asked “what is your current language of learning?” they provided 2 jama’ is a traditional koranic preschool where students get arabic courses and koran. different responses. a majority of high school students (78.84%; n=82) indicated that they were instructed in sa, while a smaller percentage (14.42%; n=15) indicated that their language of instruction was french. these results were unsurprising, as other researchers (zakhir & o’brien, 2016) have found that most science students in public and private high schools learn their subjects in sa and then are expected to use french as their sole medium of communication while at universities of sciences. this ‘linguistic disconnect’ is the result of an incomplete project of arabization which students are forced to go through during their education career. such reality, of course, has various negative consequences on students’ learning. each year students have difficulties dealing with this change, and thus change their field of study from sciences to other subjects of humanities, where sa is the medium of education (gharib, 1996). correspondingly, a number of students who decide to follow their science studies at university either struggle with academic content in french or give up in the first years. the results from this survey indicate that ma is infrequently used as the language of instruction in high schools. only (6.73%; n=07) indicated that it was the primary language of instruction in high school while no students chose it as the primary language used at university. respondent 11 from high school stated, “we sometimes use ma in informal scenes of communication, or to let teachers explain more.” it is worth nothing that english was mentioned by 23.52% (n=16) of the university students who listed it as the primary medium of learning. students claimed that under current education reform, english has begun to be used at universities of sciences as a fundamental component of the curricula. respondent 7 pointed out, “we attend 2 hours of english for specific purposes (esp) classes per week. it is not enough to master it. marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 64 we are forced to use english in the day of defense and to publish at least an article before we defend our doctoral dissertations.” he added, “french is dominating; we have to extend the number of hours of esp in the curriculum.” the student here makes reference to a ministerial decree launched by the previous minister of higher education (daoudi, 2015) who declared that students should give more priority to english due to its prominent use in scientific literature and research. however, implementation of this policy has been weak, as students are only required to use english in one semester during master’s studies. when asked about their language of communication with teachers in the classroom, 57.69% (n=60) chose sa and 42.30% (n=44) chose ma in high schools while 75% (n=51) chose french and 25% (n=17) selected ma at university. though sa is the official medium of learning in high school, it should be noted that ma is widely used in oral communication between students and teachers. participant two wrote, “i prefer to discuss scientific theories in ma with my teacher,” when offering a justification for its use. this, however, is not the experience of many university students who report that they are not allowed to use any language other than french in the classroom even in informal contexts. such behavior questions the tolerance that teachers treat their students with when they transgress the rules by using ma at the expense of sa in high school and not at university where french should be kept as the fundamental language of communication. it shows that university teachers and students are more positive towards french language than high school students and teachers are with sa. concerning students’ medium of oral communication at home and with friends outside of the classroom, the results of the study indicate that ma was used by 66.86% (n=115) of respondents and amz was used by 29.65%(n=51) at home. similarly, ma is highly used by respondents (69.18; 119) in their communication with friends while amz is used by (21.51; n=37). french is also used in students’ communication with each other (9.30%; n=16) and to a less degree at home (3.48%; n=6). the dominance of ma and amz here is quite normal as one student (respondent 17) pointed out. “in our daily communication, we use ma or amz. we sometimes use french while discussing intellectual subjects or sitting with intellectuals.” this result aligns with the findings of several researchers who argue that moroccan students perceive french as a prestigious language and ma as a language of informal communication (bentahila, 1983; marely, 2002; zakhir & o’brien, 2016). this reality manifests in students’ preferences for french as the preferred language of instruction. when queried, a majority (44.18%; n=76) of both high school and university students preferred to learn sciences in french, followed by sa (27.90%; n=48), an additional 32 (18.60%) chose english, while a smaller percentage 9.30% (n=16) opted for ma. students’ choice of french is logical because they all complete their university studies in french. respondent 20 from high school stated, “i prefer to learn sciences in english and french. these are two powerful languages which offer good sources of information.” another student (3) from university argued, “i think english is the best to bandwagon with the developed west in scientific research. french can be useful too, but english is the first language in the world. it helps us get open to many western countries.” concerning the majority of students who preferred sa and ma, they all agreed that it is better and easier for students to learn in their own national languages. respondent 11 argued, “we should rather give priority to ma and sa in learning; this will not only ease our acquisition of sciences but also improve our mastery of our national languages.” similar attitudes were discovered when students were asked to choose which language they think can be more effective for marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 65 learning sciences. participants responded that french is more popular (39.53%; n=68) as a language of instruction in both high school and university; sa was the second most effective (23.25%; n= 40); english was third (20.93%n=36) and ma finished last with (16.27%; n=28) participants choosing it as the most effective. the results seem to indicate that students are attached to french and sa as two effective media of learning, although french is rated higher. french exerts a strong influence on students’ attitudes due to its dominance in higher education and the job market. a student (respondent 21) from university said, “the moroccan job market needs french. we are obliged to learn it otherwise we will have problems in the future.” in her interpretation of the dominance of french on ma in morocco, bullock (2014) argues that “the relationship between the school system and the labor market has been perhaps the largest driving force in marginalizing dialects and normalizing a particularly-backed language hierarchy, that ‘invisible, silent violence’ (bourdieu 1991, p. 52).” (bullock 2014, p. 29). it is worthy of notice that english is becoming popular in moroccan classrooms. students who responded to the questionnaires shared positive attitudes towards it as a promising language in the future. respondent five from university wrote, “the world now uses english. it is effective in our education.” this attitude aligns with many researchers (zouhir 2013; bentahila 1983) who argue that factors such as globalization, media, and moroccans’ relationship with europe open the gate for english to spread in society, education and business. on the other hand, ma is still perceived by many moroccans as not as effective as french for the purposes of instruction and learning. sixty-seven students (98.52%) from university saw no role of ma in learning sciences while 90 students (86.53%) from high school agreed that it may play an 3 ħchuma in ma means a taboo or a source of embarrassment. important role in education. of these 90 high school respondents, some felt that ma can be used effectively to facilitate the learning of science content in their courses. these students stated that ma can play a decisive role in understanding scientific theories which seem difficult in sa. student 2 claimed “all developed countries use mother tongues to learn sciences, why not morocco? it is easier and practical to learn in ma.” another student from high school argued that the majority of high school science teachers use ma to teach sciences. “what is wrong with this?” he asked. these attitudes were not accepted by the majority of university students who regarded ma as a barrier to learning science effectively. on this topic, respondent five said, “ma is a mixture of spanish, french and sa vocabulary. it differs from one region to another. so which one shall we use, huh?” another student sarcastically added, “ma in science classes is funny and useless. how can a teacher explain a course of labor in ma?” the speaker here makes reference to some scientific terminology of labor such as sexual organs, which are considered as a taboo if uttered in ma, but normal in sa and french. this is clear from the attitude of a high school student who pointed out, “ma is a vulgar language and uses street vocabulary. this vocabulary cannot be used in classroom. it is ħchuma3.” it is worthy of notice that the majority of students from both high school and university levels (88.37%; n=152) perceived ma as an oral dialect, (7.55%; n=13) saw it as a vulgar language, while only (4.06%; n=7) viewed it as a modern language. this shows that students relate oral speech to dialects and situate ma in a lower position than sa. there is a shared belief among many of these students that ma should be confined to informal scenes of oral communication. perhaps, they are not aware that even a language is a dialect with a navy and army of its own as stated by weinreich (1945). concerning students who perceived ma as a marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 66 vulgar language, they argue that it is full of taboos which may spoil the classroom atmosphere if used by students and teachers. in fact, this attitude is criticized by advocators of ma, such as ayouch and his colleagues, who believed that it is the responsibility of linguists and teachers to encourage its appropriate use in classrooms by omitting slang or inappropriate words. ayouch (2012) claimed, “it is indispensable to proceed in simplifying ma and adapting it to the needs of modern life” (p. 4). to uncover students’ views on both ma and sa, they were asked whether ma can take the place of sa in education. the majority of students (80.23%; n=138) from both high school and university responded negatively to this post, while a minority (19.76%; n=34) were positive. those who argued for its use stated that sa has a rich history and that it is not easy for ma to take its place in education. a respondent from high school (79) stated that “there is a conspiracy to eradicate sa by the use of ma. we will not accept this. we will defend the language of our ancestors, the language of the quran.” it is significant that students perceive sa as the sole language of islam and the quran. in response to these notions, bullock (2014) argues that religious communities conflate “the holy message with the medium through which it was expressed.” she added that these communities believe that “language and its ideographs were not representations; they were reality.” (p. 12) it should be noted that a majority of students rejected the idea of replacing sa with ma in education, even though most use it with teachers in classrooms and they feel more at ease when teachers explain concepts using it as a medium of communication. one of the respondents (student, 10) who is a proponent of ma argued that “it is flourishing in education because moroccans are familiar with it. if things remain the same, one day we will have full ma classes.” similar responses were recorded when students were asked the question: “is there any role of ma in learning sa?” students were split equally between the affirmative (n=85) and negative (n=87) choices. student nine reported, “there are many common characteristics between the two languages. this makes ma an impetus for learning sa which is foreign for all of us.” conversely, another student stated, “ma is oral, irregular and easy because it is changing over time while sa is formal and rule-based. i don’t see any role of ma in learning sa; it is indeed a distortion of it.” it seems from these contradicting responses that students are inclined to ma as an instrumental language which increases their chances of learning, but at the same time they defend sa as part of their identity and refuse any language which threatens its use in education. similar results were recorded by zakhir and o’brien (2016) in their research on arabization and french in morocco. they argued that although many students like french, they defend sa as “part of their identity and sacred religion” (p. 7). bullock (2014) pointed out that moroccans see that “…the beauty of fusha (sa) is upheld by its status as the language of islam, as well as by a certain nostalgia for the islamic golden age” (p. 12). attitudes towards ma in media to understand the role of ma in media use, respondents were first asked about the language they use when accessing the internet. of all the responses from high school and university students (n= 172), seventy (40.69 %) reported preferring to use ma, 15.11% (n=26) chose french, 5.81% (n=10) chose sa and 38.37% (n=66) selected english. students reported that using ma with latin alphabets was easier and more practical for communicating and writing emails to each other. they also reported using a combination of ma, french and english “to show a high level of education,” as written by respondent 13 (university student). however, when utilizing search engines or writing formal emails, all students stated that they use french or english because ma is not standardized. marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 67 students’ preference for writing in ma was apparent from several of their responses to the question regarding what languages they used for text-messaging on mobile phones. a majority of students who responded (79.06%; n=136) indicated that they commonly use ma in texting each other while 16.27% (n=28) answered negatively and 8 were neutral. one of the students (respondent 11) claimed, “using sa or french in text messaging is a bit formal. i prefer ma instead. it is easier in typing and all moroccans understand it.” another respondent wrote, “i use ma in text messaging unconsciously and i sometimes mix it with french.” other students who responded negatively argue that they use french instead, particularly when writing to each other or to well-educated people. one of them pointed out, “it’s a shame to type a message in ma. it sounds childish and shows that the sender is illiterate” (respondent 65, student). the responses to these two questions reveal that the principles of practicality and ease of use again are the driving force for students’ motivation to use ma particularly in personal and/or intimate communication. it is important to note that more media is being produced in morocco using ma as a medium of communication. by seeing advertisements and official notifications in ‘mother tongues,’ it has the potential to elevate ma to a status equal to sa or french. mcintosh (2010) argues that, “the very use of the vernacular with this technology (mobiles) militates against its marginalization, asserting the right of a marginalized people to invoke their ethnic identity ever in a technologicallymediated space dominated by dreams of assimilation” (hall, 2015, p.114). when asked if they watch tv programs in ma, respondents’ answers were very evenly split. those who responded positively argue that they favour dubbed mexican and turkish series. such series are famous in morocco among a diverse group of people (including the poor and uneducated), and as such these programs have a palpable influence on the young people in morocco. in general, these series center around social issues such as love stories and family problems. students also mention that they watch other programs in ma such as political debates, cooking programs, football matches, and movies. however, when asked whether satisfied or not with the language of these tv programs, the majority of students (91.27%; n=157), unexpectedly, responded negatively. they argue that the language is artificial and has nothing to do with ma they use in daily communication. respondent nine commented “except in some entertaining programs, i feel that the language is funny. it is neither sa nor ma.” another respondent (78) expressed his dissatisfaction with the whole idea of ma in tv and argued that “it’s not professional and reduces the quality of tv programs.” this attitude was not accepted by several of his colleagues who pointed out that what matters is the message. “since the language reaches the maximum of moroccan audience, it’s good,” said respondent 4. it should be noted that these tv programs use a modern form of ma which sounds somewhat like sa used by the elite. it is referred to by youssi (1995) as the middle variety, which is a bit half-way between sa and ma. this variety is clean from expressions or words which are considered taboo or vulgar to societal norms in morocco. it is also worth mentioning that the majority of tv ads in morocco are broadcast in ma. hall (2015) posed a reason for this when he posited that the use of ma for advertising purposes creates “a direct and immediate link between the viewer and the content because it indexes a sense of intimacy” (p. 200). another area in which ma has become more pervasive in the past decade is in print media (e.g., newspapers and magazines). periodicals such as nichan (direct), akhbar souk (market news) and hab wtban (corn and hay) started to become more widely-circulated although not as quickly as the publishers would have liked. when queried, 77.32% of the respondents (n=133) mentioned that they read these publications ‘rarely’, another 20.93% (n=36) stated that they read the publications ‘from marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 68 time to time’ and three respondents (1.74%) mentioned that they had never read them. when asked to explain their indifference to these publications, several mentioned objections based on the poor quality of language and the sarcastic manner in which the information was presented. respondent 77 stated, “these ma newspapers are trivial and shocking. they are full of taboos which cannot be accepted in our conservative society.” the speaker here makes reference to some magazines, journals and newspapers, such as nichan, which address issues shocking to moroccans such as sexuality, prostitution, and political corruption. the publication nichan, for example, was accused of betrayal of the moroccan state and was shut down in 2010. respondent 6 had very strong viewpoints regarding such publications when he stated, “the aim of such media is to indoctrinate the maximum of moroccans and destabilize their islamic values. i have read just one or two volumes and since then i boycotted them all,” he added. it should be noted that these ma media outlets use sa alphabets and not latin like in messages or emails. perhaps, this choice of ma with sa alphabets is a strategy used by editors to reach all moroccans, be they literates or illiterates. last, students were asked their opinions on whether the use of ma is proliferating in education and in media, and the majority (93.60%; n=161) answered in the affirmative. a student from university (7) stated, “ma started to spread in education and media because in this age of globalization people have become pragmatic. they do their best to avoid complexities in communication and use the easiest and most profitable way to exchange messages.” another student (53) explained, “ma is spreading due to its wide use by teachers in classrooms and also by companies to advertise their products.” some students criticized the government’s indifference to the increased use of ma. a common sentiment shared by respondents is that ma is used as a way to eradicate sa in an attempt to increase the use of the french language in morocco. beliefs such as these echo the sentiments of some conspiracy theorists in morocco (see: fassi fehri, 2013; laroui, 2013) who argue that advocating for the use of ma is part of a concerted effort to reconstruct the linguistic and cultural landscape of morocco. however, the fact that ma has no script or grammar books to regulate its use makes it less prestigious and formalized than sa, which could lead to people using it for informal purposes rather than in school and in business. in short, the findings of the questionnaire completed by students reveal that there exists a wide variety of opinions regarding the use and proliferation of ma. though a majority of students see it as an easy and practical medium of communication, they still perceive it as a primarily oral dialect which threatens sa, the language of religion and identity in morocco. these deeply-held beliefs that students bring to the classroom seem to decrease the effectiveness of ma as a medium of communication in moroccan schools and universities. teachers’ attitudes this section presents the findings of the questionnaire completed by a total of 28 teachers from kindergarten (n=4), primary school (n=8), high school (n=10) and university (n=6). the instrument was used to uncover teachers’ attitudes towards ma, as well as attitudes regarding the use of ma in education and its increased usage in print, broadcast, and electronic media. attitudes towards ma in education: discussion teachers were first asked about the medium of teaching they use in classroom. out of twelve respondents in kindergarten and primary schools, (n=4) stated that they teach utilizing ma, (n=6) others reported using sa for instruction, and (n=2) teachers chose to use french. of the ten respondents in high school, (n=7) teachers reported preferring sa, while (n=3) opted for french. in university, marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 69 (n=5) stated that they use french, while only (n=1) purposefully uses ma for instruction. teachers were also asked whether they resort to ma when explaining concepts to students. here, the majority (n=20) from elementary (n=4), primary (n=7) and high schools (n=9) responded positively, while (n=2) in high school and (n=6) in university provided a negative answer. these responses indicate that teachers in elementary, primary and high schools find it appropriate to use ma as a medium of communication in the classroom while university professors try to respect the official languages of education (sa and french). of the majority who responded positively, 55% (n=11) said that they ‘sometimes’ use it and 25% (n=5) reported using ma ‘a lot,’ while 20% (n=4) teachers said that they ‘rarely’ rely on it. teachers who supported the use of ma argue that it facilitates communication and understanding for students who are more comfortable speaking it. respondent 3 (high school teacher) pointed out, “ma offers a good opportunity to target weak students by explaining theories in a language they are familiar with.” another teacher (9) from primary school added, “ma helps me overcome language problems and focus more on the subject matter.” by mentioning language problems, the teacher here meant the difficulties he faces using sa terminology in science instruction. this, however, was not accepted by the opponents of ma who claimed that because it does not have rules or a script, its use reduces the quality of classroom communication. respondent 11 from primary level stated, “what’s the use of schools if we teach in ma? it is the language of homes, not schools.” it is ironic that teachers criticize the role of ma as a distortion of education standards while they commonly use it in their teaching of sciences. for instance, one of the teachers who declared that they ‘sometimes’ use ma (respondent 7) argued, “ma should not be used in classroom; it affects students’ expressive ability in sa, the language in which they will be examined.” these attitudes and practices are criticized by many scholars who value the use of mother tongues in early childhood education (benson 2004; pinnock 2009; gacheche 2010). gacheche (2010), for example, argues that “learners who understand the language they are instructed in are more likely to engage meaningfully with content, question what they do not understand and even enjoy the challenge of new things” (p. 3). many teachers also reported that they do not allow students’ use of ma in the classroom, particularly while discussing the subject matter. eighteen out of twenty-eight teachers held the belief that ma should not be used because its use violates official policy, namely that it contradicts the goals of the national charter for education and of the official languages adopted by the ministry of education. respondent 13 (a teacher of math in high school) argued, “i don’t accept the use of ma in my classroom. it is one of the main reasons for the decrease of education standards. if we tolerate students’ use of ma, they will get used to it and forget sa, the language of their religion and identity.” it is worth noting that respondents used religion and identity to defend sa whenever they feel that ma threatens its use in official capacities (e.g., media and education). what is odd is that ma is the first language the majority of arab students and teachers are introduced to at home and the most used in their daily communication. it is also widely used in the religious sector, as even some imams use it with sa in their religious discourse in friday prayers. this perhaps should give ma more privilege as a language of identity and religion. it is also important to understand that the majority of teachers 85.71% (n=24) believe that ma is not ‘effective’ in teaching sciences. “i can’t teach physics in ma. the classroom discourse will be like esperanto, with french, ma and sa,” said respondent 20 from high school. some of these teachers even deny the role of sa as an effective language and state that sciences should be taught in french or english because most scientific research findings are presented in marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 70 english and french. this sentiment was articulated in the response of an svt teacher (respondent 21) in high school who pointed out, “sa linguistic system is weak; no science terminology, and only weak references. we should think again about its use in teaching sciences.” yet, the majority of teachers (71.42%; n=20) believed that ma can be useful in kindergarten while a smaller percentage (14.2%; n=4) prefer to use it in the first years of primary school. respondent 3 from university argued, “the child in kindergarten needs just elementary knowledge to compare what he hears at home with what he sees in the world. there is no harm if teachers use ma or even amz.” this sentiment aligns with the findings of researchers who study the impacts of early childhood education on children’s development (daniel, 2003; ball, 2010; tariq, 2014). these researchers found a positive impact of the use of home languages in the classroom such as improved abstract thinking as well as the benefits of being able to communicate in multiple languages. unfortunately, teachers rarely value home languages in the classroom and many are reticent to use ma in their instruction. in practice, many teachers give priority to sa and french in kindergarten, thinking that this will improve children’s educational experiences and help with their transition to secondary and university studies. some teachers like respondents 4 and 1 from private schools argued that “parents always complain about the level of their children in french and sa. they find it weird when they hear that the teacher uses ma.” another teacher (respondent 7) pointed out, “for commercial reasons, we are forced to use french to attract families to our school. parents like to hear their children speak in french.” it is worthy of notice here that early childhood education in morocco is private and is not regulated by the ministry of education. this gives preschools more autonomy in choosing their curricula and languages of instruction. furthermore, teachers saw no necessity in recognizing ma as an official language in education. twenty-six of the teachers believe that ma has no added value except in elementary education. respondent 4, a high school teacher said, “any attempt to recognize ma will have dangerous effects on students’ standards in sciences. it will complicate their learning; needless to say, that it may isolate morocco from the arab world.” this teacher sees the adoption of ma as a barrier for communicating with others in the arab world. this belief of one language and one nation is regarded by some researchers like bullock (2014) as an exported ideology of arab nationalism which has no real consequences, “for no country speaks one homogenous language” (p. 25). in the same context, respondent 15 from university criticized ma by stating, “the rejection of ma reveals that teachers have no faith in its ability to compete with other languages in this age of globalization. instead of working on the standardization of ma, we should modernize our education tools and encourage students to learn english and french to compete with developed countries.” similar to students, teachers summarily rejected the idea that ma may replace sa in the future in education, accusing the current attempts of serving a french agenda to destroy the arabization project. most believe that the use of ma in high school and university will have a negative impact on students’ education. one respondent (2) claimed, “even powerful countries which use a local language in education have other low varieties which serve intimate and informal communication. if we standardize ma we will have another sort of diglossia like a high ma and a low variety of the street. who knows that after few years we will hear other voices calling for the standardization of the weak variety?” another teacher (respondent 11) in high school stated, “it is idiotic to recognize ma in this time when sa itself needs much work to adapt it to the needs of science education. it’s a waste of time, money and efforts.” these attitudes reveal that marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 71 moroccan teachers feel that the issue of language is problematic in education, and the attempts to recognize ma as an official language, together with sa, french and amz will only imperil the moroccan education system. it is clear from these responses that teachers have little or no faith in ma as a medium of instruction and that the ideology of diglossia exerts a strong influence on their opinions. fassi fehri (2010) considers ma/sa diglossia as a colonial conception to destabilize the linguistic scene in morocco (see miller, 2013). el harras (2007) and ayouch (2012), on the other hand, conducted research on students who were exposed to ma in preschool and early years of primary school in passerelle programmes and in the private institute of zagoura, and they argue that these students showed higher linguistic competencies than others who had only sa education. attitudes towards ma in media to elucidate the reason behind teachers’ negative views on ma, they were asked about its use in media. the majority (89.28%; n=25) pointed out that they have never read newspapers in ma. some even doubted the existence of such newspapers. respondent 7 from a high school stated, “i think there are few electronic journals or small annexes in newspapers. the whole idea doesn’t work.” “people don’t give them any interest due to the low quality of both the language and the news they provide,” he added. another teacher (21), on the other hand, argues that there were some attempts to publish full ma newspapers like the one used by elena prentice, an american expatriate in tangier, or nichan (direct). the same teacher claimed that he is familiar with annexed ma sections in the newspapers of al-akhbar (news) and al-masae (evening). he said, “i like the sarcastic way they criticize famous political figures in ma. it’s funny and purposeful.” the teacher also mentions some electronic ma journals like goud (straight), which is famous among the young generation. when asked about the reason why ma does not receive any interest from moroccan officials, teachers argue that the issue is political. “ma in media receives various criticisms from both arabophones and imazighen, who see it as a threat to their languages,” said respondent 9 from high school. it is worthy of notice that no political party in morocco has ever expressed a positive attitude towards ma in education. they all defend the use of sa and amz and relegate the importance of ma. amina maa el ainine from the justice and development party (pjd), for example, argues in a talk show in medi1 tv in 2016 that ma is not an endangered language to standardize it. she also accused supporters of ma for destabilizing the principles of moroccan education system. however, the silence of policymakers on ma use in education and media is not neutral for many researchers. miller (2013), for instance, argues that it reflects the cleverness of authorities to follow social demands and respond to the immediate needs of people. to democratize the public sphere, authorities pave the way for ma to flourish in all sectors of modernity (p. 106). unexpectedly, teachers’ attitudes towards ma changed when asked about its use in audiovisual media. twenty-two of them stated that they follow tv programs in ma. “i’m fan of turkish series in ma. the language is cute. it sounds modern and clean, not like the one we use in street communication,” said a primary school teacher (respondent 3). this idea of modernity in the ma used in tv is also mentioned by a university teacher (respondent 5): “actors use some sa words in ma discourse such as ‘syyara’(car) ‘lħaqiba’ (bag) ‘laʕamal’(work) to make it sound suitable and prestigious.” this, however, was interpreted differently by another teacher (respondent 5) who claimed, “the style used in moroccan tv programs addresses the upper class viewers who are familiar with it.” perhaps, it is this clean variety of ma which proponents of darija like ayouch are aiming to implement in education. further, it is significant that ma marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 72 used in tv does not receive serious criticisms from teachers as it was the case with newspapers and journals. this can be interpreted by the control which the ministry of communication exerts over audiovisual media. teachers also show positive attitudes towards the status of ma in internet communication. sixteen stated that they use it in writing emails and chatting with friends while 10 claimed that they do not use it. one of the former teachers (respondent 7) pointed out, “i use ma with latin letters, or sometimes with sa letters in intimate conversations and emails. it is funny but practical.” on the other hand, another teacher (4) from university stated, “oh no! it’s childish to write emails in ma. we are teachers; we need to use french.” the teacher here meant that the use of french gives him the status of a well-educated person, while ma is a sign of immaturity, ignorance and informality. it is, indeed, interesting to see how the use of one language than another may raise the status of the speaker and promote his social rank. on this issue, bentahila (1983) argues that moroccans feel highly educated by using western languages. these contradictory attitudes were also recorded in teachers’ responses to the question on the common language they use in writing messages in mobile phones. seventeen stated that they use ma while (11) opted for french. similar to students, teachers who use ma in text-messaging think that it’s a practical and intimate language. “not all mobile phones have sa keyboards. it is also practical to use ma since the message fulfills its goals easily,” pointed out teacher 8 from primary school. another respondent (3) argued, “i use ma in my intimate communication with my wife and friends. it’s effective and immediate.” again, respondents perceive ma as an intimate language which is able to convey their emotions. hall (2015: 327) claims, “there is a dominant ideology that associates moroccan arabic with a sense of directness and intimacy in that moroccan arabic is imagined to reach right to the core of the person hearing or reading it.” it seems that the decline of sa as a medium of communication in new technological tools benefits supporters of ma. this, however, is perceived by french proponents as a sign of recklessness and illiteracy; for they all refused ma to take the place of french in new media of communication. “i’ve never responded to any sms in ma. it’s ridiculous to write ma with latin letters,” stated respondent 15. furthermore, respondent 7 from university revealed that students’ use of ma with french starts to affect their communication skills in french: “sometimes i find code switching samples in students’ essays, which is very disturbing. we need to work on this bad habit and let our children give it up.” in brief, teachers still perceive ma as an oral variety which is not worthy using in education and formal communication. they tolerate its use only in home communication or some private scenes of internet chatting and text messaging. what is odd is that ma is highly used by teachers in classrooms, particularly in high schools. this can be interpreted as the effect of new media of communication on ma spread in moroccan society, for teachers themselves are influenced by their exposure to it in new domains which were reserved for french and sa. discussion the results of this study reveal the advanced status which ma starts to achieve in the moroccan linguistic landscape. factors such as new media of communication, globalization and human rights helped ma to gain more ground in domains which were reserved for sa and french before. this social promotion of ma, however, seems unstructured and ineffective due to the lack of an official recognition and to the conflicting ideologies held by those who promote its use. all attempts to use ma in education, literature, business and media were individual, as they emanated from separate linguists, activists and ngos. this represents a real challenge for ma supporters to agree on marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 73 a fixed script and to convince moroccans of its use. such implementation of the ma project serves its opponents who see it as an attempt by the french administration to eradicate sa and pave the way for french to gain elevated status (and increased use) in morocco. arabists save no efforts in condemning the standardization of ma and its use in education and media. some of them such as fassi fehri (2010) and laroui (2013) even doubt the entire idea of diglossia and see it as a language ideology to weaken sa (see miller, 2013). the findings of this study identify some of the linguistic tension held by teachers and students in morocco. despite the fact that a significant number of respondents stated that they use ma in classroom discourse and despite the increased use of ma in the media, teachers and students overwhelmingly view ma as an oral variety which cannot take the place of sa. such hesitant attitudes summarize the opposing ideologies which characterize the project of ma. what is quiet odd is that the moroccan government preserves its neutral position as regards the recognition of ma, for neither the last constitution of 2011 nor the national charter for education has clearly defined its role in education. by choosing the term ‘arabic’ in all official declarations, stakeholders keep themselves in a distant position from the ideological conflicts characterizing the issue of language hierarchy in society. this intensifies linguistic rivalry and opens the gate for tentative interpretations, which exacerbate the entire language situation. miller (2013) sees this neutral position of the state as a political move to democratize the public sphere and give ma a chance to flourish covertly in all sectors. whereas others such as ayouch and alami perceive it as a tacit recognition of the failure of the arabization project which, according to them, caused the country much troubles. this situation raises many questions about the nature of ma, its origin, relationship with sa, and its role in education. eckert (1980) argues that “diglossia does not arise; it is imposed from above” (p. 1056). this ideology of language, indeed, is what pushed ma supporters to fight for its recognition and use in education instead of sa. but are the borders of ma and sa clear and easily determined? studies (youssi, 1992; benjelloun, 1990; chekayri, 2006) have shown that ma is deeply related to sa in vocabulary, morphology and meaning. ma, of course, borrows from different languages, particularly amazigh, french and spanish, but still it is a representation of sa in daily communications. its shape and use can never be static because, like every other language used by humans, it is subject to modifications due to social factors, and other common linguistic instances, such as interference, contacts, and borrowing. all languages of the world undergo such linguistic adaptation to the needs of individuals who use it in personal discourse for a variety of purposes, and no language exists which does not possess more informal forms which are used between individuals. english, for instance, has a standard form used in schools and other varieties used in informal communication such as african american vernacular (aave). similarly, french has a standard form and non-standard varieties which differ from one region to another. laroui in his debate with ayouch criticized supporters of ma standardization by claiming that what we teach in school is the written form of oral languages. it is, indeed, this written representation which facilitates access to knowledge because it is rule-based and avoids complexities and irregularities which characterize our street communication. if ayouch’s plan to standardize ma and use it in education is followed, this will not protect the new standard ma from the linguistic changes which languages succumb to in daily contacts and communication. this new version will then have a lower status, and its speakers will presumably clamor in the future for its standardization to preserve cultural marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 74 identities and cultural capital. rather than thinking of ma as a replacement for sa in school settings, perhaps researchers should focus on ways to teach using ma to help students transition to sa as they enter middle school and high school. in this manner, both languages are valued and taught, but secondary students will be instructed in a standardized language which can improve readiness for university studies. the attitudes of students and teachers in this study are reflective of the larger linguistic tension which exists in morocco. the question which policy makers should consider is “how can we alter opinions of teachers and students to see ma as a distinct variety that can be beneficial on the continuum to learning sa?” breuilly (1985) argues that “a nation must be as independent as possible” (p. 3). without a clear democratic language policy, which gives value to all official moroccan languages, the divisive nature of the linguistic debate will simply cause other languages to proliferate at the expense of morocco’s native languages. iv. conclusion the results of this study reveal that ma is gaining popularity with several segments of the moroccan population. students and teachers have become familiar with its use in classrooms, on social media, and on tv and with mobile phones. yet, this new role which ma has begun to play as a medium of communication is still impeded by the prejudices against its formal use, which impacts how it is valued and used. despite its use in classrooms, tv, emails, and messages, ma is perceived by students and teachers as an oral variety which does not deserve to be recognized as an official language. commonly-held beliefs such as these reinforce the hegemonic relationship between sa and french over ma and impeded its expanded use in the classroom and the media. what the future holds for the use of ma is unclear, but clearly its survival and use in formal settings depends on the ability of policymakers to encourage its use while simultaneously reducing the barriers to its acceptance in society. policymakers should find ways to legitimize the use of ma in elementary levels to ease children’s introduction to formal education. they should encourage teachers in kindergarten and the first two years of primary schools to modernize their use of ma and the other mother tongues--depending on the origin of learners--to familiarize children with the school life and maximize their benefit from education. policymakers have also to reduce the linguistic tensions existing in society by giving each language the rights it deserves in education and media. it is only through a democratic management of the linguistic situation of the country that morocco can develop its education system and increase levels of literacy. references ayouch, n. 2012. la darija, langue, d’avenir? séminaire «politique de la diversité : quelle opérationnalisation sous la nouvelle constitution ?» ires. ball, j. 2010. educational equity for children from diverse language backgrounds: mother tongue-based bilingual or multilingual education in the early years. unesco international symposium: translation and cultural mediation, paris: unesco, 22/23 february 2010, on the occasion of the 11th international mother language day. benjelloun, s. 1990. acquisition of lexical derivational rules in moroccan arabic: implications for the development of standard arabic as a second language through literacy, berkeley, ca: university of california, ph. d. dissertation. marouane zakhir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 75 benson, c. 2004. do we expect too much of bilingual education? bilingual teaching in developing countries. in, j. brut griffler and m. m. varghese, eds. blinigualism and language pedagogy. clevedon: multilingual matters. ltd, pp. 112.129. bensoukas, k. 2010. language policy and mother tongues in morocco: a linguistic human rights perspective. in: el kirat (eds.): globalization and mother tongues in africa.135152. rabat bentahila, a. 1983. language attitudes among arabic-french bilinguals in morocco. multilingual matters ltd. exeter, england: short run press, ltd. bouali, f. 2016. ayouch’s language serves a phrancophone agenda to reduce the value of standard arabic. hespress journal. morocco: rabat bourdieu, p. 1991. language and symbolic power. cambridge, mass: harvard university 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moroccan triglossia : facts and implications. international journal of the sociology of language, 112, 29-43. youssi, a. 1992. grammaire et lexique de l’arabe marocain moderne, ed. wallada. casablanca. zakhir, m. & o’brien, j. 2016. french neocolonial influence on moroccan language education policy: a study of current status of standard arabic in science disciplines. in language policy. springer. volume 16. n 1. doi 10. 1007/s10993-015-9398-3 zouhir a. 2013. language situation and conflict in morocco. conference paper presented at the 43rd annual conference on african linguistics. somerville, ma. cascadilla proceedings project. article marouane zakhir1, jason l. o’brien2 i. introduction ii. methods iii. result iv. conclusion la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 26, 2020 final revision: april 11, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 the article discusses the double prefix of the kakenauwe language. this language is spoken in the kapuntori sub-district and the lasalimu subdistrict in buton district. this research uses a qualitative approach with descriptive methods. the descriptive method used in this research method is mainly dealing directly with data collection. the data used in this study is oral language data. the results obtained from the analysis of the data are the thirty-three three prefixes of the kakenauwe language, cifo-, cifopo-, feka-, fomo-, fose-, café-, kafeka-, kafo-, nacifo-, nako-, namo-, nocifo-, nefopofeka-. the kakenauwe language has specific criticisms such as the kakenauwe language, which is a vocalist language, which has double prefixes up to three times. keyword affixation, prefix, kakenauwe correspondence phone: +6285285786999 e-mail:laino@uho.ac.id article double prefixes in kakenauwe language la ino1 1departmentt indonesia literature, faculty of humanities, halu oleo university, southeast sulawesi province, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.29-35.2020 i. introduction kakenauwe language is one of the languages in the southeast sulawesi province. speakers of this language are in kapuntori and lasalimu subdistricts of buton. this language is a minority language because of the number of speakers, no more than 150 people. this language also gradually, slowly but surely, has begun to shift toward the negative. this is because users of this language, especially among adolescents, are slowly leaving their language, namely kakenauwe. besides that, this language is in the middle of minority languages, namely muna and wolio. on this basis, kakenauwe language research needs to be encouraged and conducted. from a phonological level, the kakenauwe language generally recognizes phonemes that vibrate alveolar voices (orthographically / kh /) as in the khumpa word ‘can’. conversely, in this language, there is no phoneme alveolar / r /, as in the word rambi ‘whip’ in wolio, whereas in kakenauwe language it is called khambi ‘hit’. however, kakenauwe generally recognizes contrast. an ingressive sound like / b / in the word bibi ‘trembles’ with an ingressive sound / b / in the word bebe ‘duck’. besides that, kakenauwe generally does not recognize the ingressive sound / d /, except the ingressive sound / d / in the word dudu ‘end’. affixation system includes the study of linguistics, in the field of morphological work. the affixes in the kakenauwe language are quite interesting to study because besides knowing several affixes that can attach to certain forms, they also recognize several unique forms of affixes in them. the existence of these affixes varies greatly, depending on the personal pronouns that are the subject. affixes attached to verb forms such as prefixes me, ne-, nae-, de-, and dae-, in the word bukhi ‘write’, each will become mebukhi, nebukhi, naebukhi, debukhi, daebukhi. the meaning of each of these verb forms is ‘writing’. however, the use of each of these forms is very dependent on the pronoun as an object. an affix is a grammatical unit in a word which is a non-word element and not a word subject that can attach to other units to form new words or words (ramlan, 1987: 48-49). this is in line with 29 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the opinion of muchlich (1990: 37), that affixes are a form of bound linguistic which only has a grammatical meaning, which is a direct element of a word but is not a basic form that can form new words. kridalaksana (1984: 26) states that affixes are word-formation or morphological processes carried out by combining words or main words with affixes. the concatenation is sometimes added at the beginning and end of words and inserted in the middle of words, or added at the beginning and end of words. verhaar (1986: 60) explains affixation as follows: affixation is the addition of affixes. affixes are always bound morphemes and can be added at the beginning of the word prefix in a process called prefix, at the end of the word suffix in the suffixation process, for the part at the beginning of a word and part at the end of the word confix, simulfix, ambifix) in a process called confixation, ambifixation , simulfixation, or in a word itself as an infix insertion in a process called infixation in terms of position, affixes can be distinguished from (a) prefixes, (b) infixes, (c) suffixes, (d) confixes, and combinations (patedda, 1988: 777). prefixed is a bound morpheme which attached before the basic morpheme or free morpheme, for example, me, ber-, per-, and so on. the affix which place in the middle of a basic morpheme is called infix, for example, -el-, -em-, -er-. suffix is an affix that attached following the basic form or free morpheme, such as -kan-, -an, -i. confix is an affix that must be attached simultaneously to a basic morpheme to form the word which functions in the utterance, for example, in the rain. meanwhile, two or more affixes attached to a free morpheme is called the combination of affix, for example, consider the word beautify (keraf, 1979). many researchers had done the research on affixes in the various languages, including some local languages in indonesia (denafri, 2019; nengsih, 2019; ro’aini, 2019; dinar, 2018; muhidin, 2018; nazar, 2018; mena, 2018; humaidi, 2018; rusniarti, 2018; fitriani, 2017; ariani, 2017; nur, 2016; zainuddin, 2016; romli, 2015; la ino, 2009). although there has been a study of prefix research on the kakenauwe language (dinar, 2018), this research only focuses on the single prefix kakenauwe language. the current research focuses on the double prefixes of kakenauwe language, which has never discussed before. furthermore, research on the kakenauwe language, in general, is still lacking. therefore it is expected that writing as a basis to inspire researchers who subsequently to conduct kakenauwe language research in fields which ii. methods this research uses a qualitative approach with descriptive methods. the descriptive method used in this research method is mainly dealing directly with data collection. the use of this method makes a systematic and accurate description of the data, properties, and relationships of the phenomena under study (djajasudarma, 1993: 8). the data used in this study is oral language data. oral data were obtained from several native speakers of the kakenauwe language. the technique used in analyzing this data is the direct element sort technique, which is selecting data based on a lingual that is divided into several parts or elements. iii. result this section will explain the multiple prefix process in kakenauwe. 1) prefix cifocifo-+sampu‘down’ → cifosampu ‘downgraded’ + sangke ‘lift’ → cifosangke ‘lifted up’ + bakhi ‘lots’ → cifobakhi ‘propagated’ cifosampu ‘downgraded’30 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the cifo double prefix is a combination of the ciand fo single prefix. the same analysis treatment in the next. 2) prefix cifopocifopo+ gaa ‘separate’ → cifopogaa ‘made separated’ + kahato ‘to’ → cifopokahato ‘met by’ + kamau ‘near’ → cifopokamau ‘brought together’ same basic form between the two. only in prefixes fome-, able to attach to adjectives, while fomo besides being able to attach to the word adjective also in verbs. fomo+osa‘strong’ → fomoosa ‘strengthen’ + ndawo ‘fall down’ → fomondawo ‘drop’ + nea ‘benign’ → fomonea ‘tame’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the cifopo double prefix is a combination of the ci-, fo and po single prefix. 3) prefix fekafeka+ mate ‘die’ → fekamate ‘turn off’ + kida ‘smart’ → fekakida ‘smart’ + khoko ‘sharp’ → fekakhoko ‘sharpen’ + ito ‘black’ → fekaito ‘discolor’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the feka double prefix is a combination of the feand ka single prefix. 4) prefix fomoprefix fomoin kakenauwe is likely to be an allomorph of prefix fome-, because most have the based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the fomo double prefix is a combination of the foand mo single prefix. 5) prefix fosefose + pikhi ‘plate’ → fosepikhi ‘make on plate’ + tombu ‘group’→ fosetombu ‘make on group’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the fose double prefix is a combination of the foand sesingle prefix. 6) prefix kafekafe + tei ‘put’ → kafetei ‘something saved’ + dua ‘two’ → kafedua ‘the second time’31 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the kafe double prefix is a combination of the kaand fe single prefix. 7) prefix kafekakafeka+ mate ‘die’ → kafekamate ‘deadly thing’ +aebu ‘disgrace’ → kafekaaebu ‘something that causes disgrace’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the nocifo double prefix is a combination of the no-, ciand fo single prefix. 10) prefix nakonako+ ise ‘rain’ → nakoise ‘it will rain’ +labi‘more’ → nakolabi ‘will be excessive’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the kafeka double prefix is a combination of the ka-, feand ka single prefix. 8) prefix kafokafo + foni ‘ride’ → kafofoni ‘a tool to raise’ + lanto ‘buoyant’ → kafolanto ‘life vest’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the kafo double prefix is a combination of the kaand fo single prefix. 9) prefix nacifonacifo+ sampu ‘down’ → nacifo sampu‘will be lowered’ + sala ‘is wrong’ → nacifosala ‘will be blamed’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the nako double prefix is a combination of the naand ko single prefix. 11) prefix nocifonocifo+ sala ‘is wrong’ → nocifosala ‘to blame’ +banu‘wake up’ → nocifobanu ‘be woken up’ 32 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the nacifo double prefix is a combination of the na-, ci-, and fo single prefix. 12) prefix nefonefo+ndala‘street’ → nefondala ‘run’ +kuku‘meeting’ → nefokuku ‘close together’ based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the pofeka double prefix is a combination of the po-, feand ka single prefix. the research is the initial research in the kakenauwe language. because the research is preliminary, it is hoped that the results of this study can contribute to the kakenauwe language. the expected contribution is the results of the research can be used as a source of learning for students in school, especially on local content subjects. kakenauwe language research is needed. if there is no further research done, it is feared that the kakenauwe language will be displaced by the languages around it, namely muna and wolio languages. the findings of this study can also contribute to other morphological fields such as basic words, compound words for further research. iv. conclusion this paper aims to describe the double prefix in kakenauwe. the results of this study found fourteen double prefixes in kakenauwe, namely cifo-, cifopo-, feka-, fomo-, fose-, café-, kafeka-, kafo-, nacifo-, nako-, namo-, nocifo-, nefopofeka-, with the results of this study it is expected that further researchers will research in other fields of morphology such as word classes, compound words in syntax elements also need to be researched. next is the results of this study that can be implicated in learning in schools, especially for learning local content in the location of kakenauwe language. research on kakenauwe language is very much needed. this is because this language is flanked by two main languages, namely muna and wolio. because this language is enclosed in two main languages, likely, the kakenauwe language will gradually erode or shift. the kakenauwe language has specific criticisms such as the kakenauwe language, which is a vocalist language, which has double prefixes up to three times. based on the diagram above, it can be explained that the nacifo double prefix is a combination of the na-, ci-, and fo single prefix. 13) prefix nifonifo+ pake ‘use’ → nifopake ‘put on’ + sande ‘leaning’ → nifosande ‘which is propped up’ 14) prefix pofekapofeka+ea‘shame’ → pofekaea ‘embarrass each other‘ +pali‘rotate it’ → pofekapali ‘circle around each other’ 33 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) references denafri, bram, mery melati, dan sabri koebanu. (2019) “affixation process in sundanese”. jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) dinar, sri suryana. (2018). “kakenauwe of single language prefix” in jurnal international journal of linguistics, literature and culture available online at https://sloap.org/journals/index.php/ijllc/ vol. 4, no. 5, september 2018, pages: 14-19 issn: 2455-8028 https://sloap.org/journals/index. php/ijllc/article/view/286 djajasudarma, t. fatimah. (1993). metode linguistik rancangan. metode penelitian dan kajian. bandung: erisco. fitriyani nurul hidayah, andayani, dan sumarkam. (2017). “penggunaan afiksasi pada karangan persuasi mahasiswa program bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing” dalam jurnal metalingua, vol. 15 no. 2, desember 2017:191–203 humaidi, ahmad & ahmad hb. (2018). “afiks pembentuk nomina dalam bahasa banjar” dalam stilistik: jurnal bahasa sastra dan pengajarannya volume 3 nomor 1. keraf, gorys. (1979). tata bahasa indonesia. ende flores: nusa indah. kridalaksana, harimurti. (1984). tata bahasa deskriptif bahasa indonesia. sintaksis. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. la ino. (2009). “proses morfonologis prefiks dalam bahasa wolio (kajian transformasi generatif)”. lingua vol. 4 no.1. mena, vera veti & kurnia saputri. (2018). “a contrastive analysis between english and indonesian prefixes and suffixes in the descriptive texts of student’s textbooks”. english community journal vol. 2 no.1 page 175 – 182 muchlis, masnur. (1990). tata bentuk bahasa indonesia. malang: ya3 muhidin, rahmat. (2018). “prefiks nbahasa komering di sumatra selatan” dalam jurnal mlangun jurnal ilmiah kebahasaan & kesastraan volume 15, nomor 1, juni 2018 munandar (2016) “afiks pembentuk verba bahasa sunda”. jurnal humanika no 16 vol 1 maret 2016 issn 1979-8296 nazar, asrul. (2018). “gejala makna prefiks bahasa kepulauan tukang besi dialek kaledupa.” sang pencerah. volume 4 noor 1 hal 1-4. n.k. ariani. (2017). “derivational and inflectional prefixes and suffixes in batusesa dialect of balinese: a descriptive study”. international journal of language and literature, vol.1, no.1, page 42-52 nur, dedi rahman. (2016). an analysis of derivational affixes in commencement speech by steve jobs in script journal volume 1, issue 1, april 2016 parera,jos daniel. (1997). pengantar linguistik umum bidang morfologi. ende flores: nusa indah. pateda, masyur. (1988). linguistik sebuah pengantar. bandung: angkasa ramlan, m. (1987). ilmu bahasa indonesia. morfologi. yogyakarta: karyono. ro’aini & fithrah aulya ansar. (2019). “prefix and suffix analysis in relation with students english ability in english education”, jurnal tadris bahasa inggris, vol 12 (1), 49-62, page 49 –61 romli, muhammad & w. widan. (2015). “afiksasi dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa sunda (studi kontrastif)”, jurnal sasindo unpam volume 2 nomor 2 rusniarti, charlina, mangatur sinaga. (2018). “malay language affixation riau isolek serapung”. jom fkip volume 5 edisi 2, juli desember, 2018 verhaar, j. w. m. (1986). pengantar linguistik. yogyakarta: gajah mada universitas press. zainuddin. (2018). “a study on derivational affixes of indonesian noun-formation in newspaper editorial: a semantic perspective”. international journal of english linguistics, vol. 6, no. 3, page 148 – 155. 34 la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) biography dr. la ino, s.pd., m.hum. is full-time lecturer of the faculty of humanities, halu oleo university, kendari indonesia. he graduated his master of humanity in udayana university bali. then, he graduates his doctorate in udayana university in bali. la ino born in raha on september 26, 1971. he wrote some articles in several different book and journals. book: 1. deskripsi fonem bahasa di sulawesi tenggara nomor isbn: 978-602-1621-36-3, 2. bahasa indonesia dan karya tulis ilmiah nomor isbn: 97860271215-2-2, journals: 1. survival vocabulary of wuna language in plant environment of kowala publish international research journal of management sciences, it and social (irjms) issn: 2395-7492 volume 3, issue 5, may 2016, 2. makna tuturan dalam penyelesaian pelanggaran adat mambolosuako masyarakat tolaki lingua jurnal ilmu bahasa dan sastra issn 1693-4725, vol. 6 no. 1, april 2010, 3. proses morfologis prefiks dalam bahasa wolio (kajian transformasi generation) lingua jurnal ilmu bahasa dan sastra issn 16934725, vol. 6 no. 1, april 2011. 4. social media as a conduit for teacher professional development in the digital era: myths, promises or realities? teflin journal 2018. conference: 1. kinship relations in kulisusu language, wawonii language, and moronene language (a comparative analysis) article presenting in the 26th annual meeting of the southeast asian linguistic society manila philippines 26 – 28 may 2016, 2. derivational system of ciacia language (a study of morphological). proceeding annual international conference issn 2251-3566 5th conference on language, literature, and linguistics (l3 2016) 30-31 may 2016 in singapura, reconstruction of protolanguage blagar and pura in alor regency in east nusa tenggara in indonesia (the study of historical linguistics). third international linguistics and language conference june 24-25, 2016 in turki istanbul. 3. presenter in international conference on language, literature, culture, education november 15 –16 2019 at kendari. 4. presenter in international seminar on linguistik (isol) 4 july 9 – 11 at universitas andalas. 5. presenter in international conference humanities 2018 at universiti sultan zainal abidin malaysia. 6. presenter in international conference on education, language, and society agustus 6 –7 2019 at universitas negeri jakarta. 7. presenter the 2nd international conference on education (ice) september 28, 2019 at purworejo muhammadyah university. 35 naskah jurnal arbitrer finish_3.pdf analisis absolute dan oblique dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah nova rina, fadlul rahman nova.rina007@gmail.com , universitas bung hatta abstract penelitian ini mengkaji bidang fonologi, bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan alternasi rima bentuk absolute dan oblique pada bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah dan mendeskripsikan kaidah-kaidah fonotaktik dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah. manfaat praktis dari penelitian ini untuk 1) mendokumentasikan bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah yang terancam oleh bahasa indonesia standar, jakarta indonesia, minangkabau, dan yang paling serius terancam oleh berkembangnya bahasa kerinci koine, 2) hasil penelitian yang berupa deskripsi bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah akan bermanfaat bagi peneliti-peneliti bahasa malayic terutama pada wilayah pedalaman sumatera, dan 3) dapat memberikan kontribusi kebahasaan yang cukup berarti bagi masyarakat kerinci khususnya pulau tengah. dari penelitian ini ditemukan 19 alternasi rima dalam kata-kata g (g-words), 20 alternasi rima dalam kata-kata k (k-words), 16 deret vokal, 28 gugus konsonan, 12 deret konsonan, dan berdasarkan kaidah fonotaktik silabel, dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah ditemukan enam pola, yaitu v, vk, kv, kvk, kkv, dan kkvk. kata kunci: absolute, oblique, fonotaktik, pulau tengah. 152 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ i. pendahuluan bahasa melayu yang digunakan oleh para penutur sangatlah bervariasi dari berbagai daerah dan sosial dialek terutama di daerah pedalaman sumatera dan kalimantan (mckinnon, 2011). desa yang berjarak tidak lebih dari beberapa kilometer mempunyai perbedaan struktur bahasa dan terkadang daerah yang lebih dari 100 kilometer sudah memiliki bahasa yang sulit dipahami dan bisa dilihat sebagai bahasa yang berbeda. banyak bahasa melayu di sumatera yang belum diteliti dan terancam punah. kerinci merupakan salah satu wilayah yang terdapat dalam provinsi jambi yang berbatasan dengan kabupaten solok selatan, provinsi sumatera barat di sebelah utara; kabupaten merangin di sebelah selatan; kabupaten bungo dan kabupaten merangin di sebelah timur, dan; kabupaten muko-muko provinsi bengkulu dan kabupaten pesisir selatan provinsi sumatera barat di sebelah barat, bisa dilihat pada peta di bawah ini: peta wilayah pulau tengah, kerinci bahasa kerinci termasuk dalam rumpun melayu yang menggambarkan kombinasi antara dialek tradisional melayu dan karakter lainnya yang sangat berbeda dengan variasi bahasa melayu lainnya. bahasa kerinci juga mempunyai isolek (istilah netral yang dapat digunakan untuk menunjuk pada bahasa, dialek, dan subdialek) yang sangat bervariasi seperti isolek sungai penuh, isolek tanjung pauh mudik, isolek rawang, isolek kumun debai, isolek pulau tengah, dan lain-lain. sebagai bahasa hidup, bahasa kerinci mengenal variasi bahasa yang berupa variasi dialektal. variasi itu terutama di dalam variasi fonologis yang terlihat pada silabel akhir kata. variasi dialektal bahasa kerinci dapat diketahui dari bentuk i (bi)/absolute dan bentuk ii (bii)/oblique yang terdapat pada kata (usman:15). sebagai contoh yang digambarkan di bawah ini, terdapat perbedaan fonologis antara isolek-isolek yang ada di daerah sungai penuh tanjung pauh rawang koto keras arti gad yh /gadeyh gad eh/gad yh gadiwh /gad wh gaduh/gadi gahe gah /gah gahoa/gahi w /mulot mulak/mul k /mulu mulaw /mulu vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 153 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ data di atas diambil dari berbagai sumber, isolek sungai penuh dari disertasi amir hakim usman, tanjung pauh dari disertasi timothy mckinnon, koto keras dari ernanda, dan rawang dari tesis fadlul rahman. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah yang terancam oleh bahasa indonesia standar, jakarta indonesia, minangkabau, dan yang paling serius terancam oleh berkembangnya bahasa kerinci koine (dialek lisan yang menjadi bahasa standar bersama untuk daerah yang secara politis sudah bersatu). menurut steinhauer dkk, kerinci koine mulai menggantikan bahasa kerinci isolek sungai penuh, di mana perubahan bentuk absolute dan oblique di daerah ini sudah mulai menghilang. perumusan masalah 1. bagaimanakah alternasi rima katakata-k (k-words) dan kata-kata g (g-words) dalam bentuk absolute dan oblique pada bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah? 2. bagaimanakah kaidah-kaidah fonotaktik dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah? landasan teori 1. bunyi dan sistem fonem pike (1962) mengemukakan empat pokok pikiran dalam upaya bunyi cenderung dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan; (b) bunyi cenderung mempunyai hubungan simetris antara bunyi yang satu dengan bunyi yang lain; (c) bunyi cenderung untuk berubah; dan (d) ciri urutan bunyi menyebabkan adanya interpretasi fonemis secara struktural terhadap bunyi atau urutan bunyi yang meragukan. pokok pikiran pike banyak diikuti oleh para ahli linguistik, di antaranya ahli 131-137) yang mengemukakan pokok pikirannya sebagai berikut. 1. bunyi bahasa mempunyai kecenderungan untuk dipengaruhi oleh lingkungannya. contoh yang dijelaskannya dalam beberapa struktur fonemis di dalam bahasa indonesia, yaitu kelompok kelompok /mp/, /mb/, /nd/, ditemukannya kelompok-kelom 2. sistem bunyi mempunyai kecenderungan yang bersifat simetris. seperti yang terdapat di dalam bahasa indonesia, selain bunyi [j], terdapat pula bunyi hambat tak bersuara s [k]. 3. bunyi-bunyi bahasa yang secara fonetis mirip harus digolongkan ke dalam kelas-kelas bunyi atau fonem-fonem yang berbeda, apabila terdapat pertentangan di dalam lingkungan yang sama atau yang mirip. umpamanya dapat dilihat pada pasangan minimal. bunyi-bunyi yang secara fonetis mirip, jika terdapat di dalam pasangan minimal merupakan fonem-fonem yang berbeda. 4. bunyi-bunyi yang secara fonetis mirip dan terdapat di dalam distribusi komplementer, harus dimasukan kelas-kelas bunyi yang sama (fonem yang sama). umpanya bunyi [o] dan [ ] pada [toko] dan [t k h] dalam bahasa indonesia. 154 jurnal arbitrer ii. metode penelitian http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 2. modifikasi intern dalam linguistik umum sering diungkapkan bahwa dalam beberapa bahasa di dunia terdapat proses morfemis yang menyebabkan peru-bahan-perubahan bentuk morfem. karena perubahan itu sendiri terdapat dalam morfem tersebut maka perubahan itu disebut perubahan intern (modifikasi intern). samsuri (1978:192) memberi contoh modifikasi interen sebagai berikut: perubahan dari bentuk tunggal ke bentuk jamak pada kata benda seperti foot menjadi feet, mouse mice, dan man men; perubahan dari waktu kini ke waktu lampau kata kerja, seperti: run ran, take took, dan sing njadi sang. dari contoh-contoh di atas, ternyata yang dimaksud dengan perubahan di sini ialah perubahan pada vokal. baik pada jamak bagi kata benda maupun pada waktu lampau bagi kata kerja tidak dapat diambil bagian yang mana dari bentuk-bentuk itu yang mengandungnya. dari beberapa dialek dalam bahasa kerinci yang telah diteliti ditemukan modifikasi intern terjadinya perubahan katakata karena dipengaruhi oleh katakata k dan kata-kata g. 3. kata-kata g (g-words) dan katakata k (k-words) perlu diperhatikan pembagian kata-kata bahasa kerinci atas katakata g (g-words) dan kata-kata k (k-words) (steinhauer dan usman 1978). yang dimaksudkan dengan kata-kata g ialah kata-kata yang di dalamnya terdapat konsonan hambat bersuara yang tidak didahului oleh sebuah nasal yang termasuk satu morfem yang homorgan dengan konsonan hambat bersuara itu. umpanya kata /ube g karena /b/ adalah konsonan hambat bersuara. kata /umba adalah kata k walaupun /b/ adalah konsonan hambat bersuara tetapi fonem itu di sini didahului oleh nasal /m/ yang homorgan, dan termasuk dalam morfem yang sama dengan /b/. lain halnya dengan kata-kata /bambe posisi tengah didahului oleh nasal /m/ dan termasuk dalam satu morfem, kata-kata seperti ini termasuk kelompok kata-kata g karena dalam masing-masing kata itu terdapat konsonan hambat bersuara /b, j, g/ dan tidak didahului oleh nasal pada posisi awal. iii. hasil dan pembahasan 1. alternasi rima sejarah alternasi rima, menurut prentice dan usman (1978) dan steinhauer (2002) pertama kali menyajikan sejarah perkembangan alternasi rima kerinci. steinhauer menjelaskan tentang sejarah fonologi kerinci yang memperlihat beberapa perubahan yang memberikan efek pada bentuk dasar dan akhir rima. a. alternasi rima kata-kata g ditemukan sebanyak 19 alternasi rima. {-i/-uy} {-a/-oy} {-iw/ {-a/-ew} {-ih/-uy} {-o /-ew} { {-o /k} { {-o h/ vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 155 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ {-ewh/ {-o / { {k/k} {-uk} {/-oy} {-ew/ {h/-oy} {-a/ b. alternasi rima kata-kata k ditemukan sebanyak 20 alternasi rima. {-ay/-oy} {-ew/ {-aw/-iw} {-e/ {-ayh/-uy} {-o/-aw} { {/-ak} { {h/ {-ah/-oy} {/ {-ah/-ew} {-ak/k} {-ik} {/ {-uk} {/-ay} {-aw/ {-ah/-oy} contoh data dapat dilihat pada bagan di bawah ini. tabel tanpa koda: *-i dan *-u *-i *-u abs obl abs obl kata-kata g -i -uy -iw kata-kata k -ay -oy -aw -iw data kata-kata g (g-words plt arti *-i duh{-i/-uy} bas{-i/-uy} pad{-i/-uy} *-u deb{-iw/ baj{-iw/ bat{-iw/ data kata-kata k (k-words): plt arti *-i kak{-ay/-oy} tal{-ay/-oy} nas{-ay/-oy} *-u an{-aw/-iw} lak{-aw/-iw} pak{-aw/-iw} tabel koda glotal pada kata-kata koda * *-h rima *-i *-u *-ih *-uh bentuk abs obl abs obl abs obl abs obl kword -a -oy -a -ew -ah -oy -ah -ew 156 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ k: *-i , *-ih, *-u , *-uh data kata-kata k (k-words) plt arti *-i it{-a /-oy } rint{-a /-oy } sis{-a /-oy } *-u mas{-a /-ew } kt{-a /-ew } piy{-a /-ew } *-ih sih{-ah/-oy} pil{-ah/-oy} put{-ah/-oy} *-uh pul{-ah/-ew} tmp{-ah/-ew} suh{-ah/ew} tabel 11. rima dari *-a rima *-a bentuk abs obl kata-kata g -o -ew kata-kata k -o -aw data kata-kata g (g-words) plt arti *-a mud{-o /-ew} gul{-o /-ew} grud{-o /-ew} -o /-ew} duw{-o /-ew} data kata-kata k (k-words): plt arti *-a usah{-o/-aw} luk{-o/-aw} pas{-o/-aw} tuw{-o/-aw} vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 157 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ tabel alternasi rima isolek pulau tengah obstruent nasal liquid *ø frika tif glotal *p *t *m *n *l *r *s *h *i abs g -- ---i -i -e -i -ih -ih k ---i -ay -ay -a -ay -ayh -ah obl g -ik ---uy -uy -uy -uy -uy k ---ik -aw -oy -oy -oy -oy *u abs g ---iw -ew -ew -iw -ih -ewh k -aw -aw -aw -a -a -aw -ayh -ah obl g -uk -uk -- -uy k -ew/ -iw -ew *a abs g --k -o -o -o h -o h -o k -ak -ak -o -ah h obl g --k -ew -oy k k k -aw -ak 2. fonotaktik tiap bahasa mempunyai ciri khas dalam fonotaktik, yakni dalam merangkai fonem untuk membentuk satuan fonologis yang lebih besar, misalnya deret vokal, gugus konsonan, dan suku kata. bahasa indonesia mempunyai pola suku kata v, vk, kv, kvk dan mengenal pola suku kata vkk, kkv, kkvk, kvkk, kkvkk, kkkv, dan kkkvk dalam ragam bakunya. a. deret vokal kehadiran dua atau lebih vokal secara berurutan sedangkan masing-masing vokal merupakan anggota dari silabe yang berbeda dalam sebuah morfem atau kata, disebut deret vokal. dalam morfem dasar bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah terdapat 16 kemungkinan deret vokal seperti terlihat pada data berikut ini. deret data arti /aa/ /ae/ /ai/ /ao/ /a / / 158 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ / /au/ /ee/ /jeewh/ /deew/ / / /¤ k/ /ia/ /liya/ /ii/ /io/ /i / /liy / /oo/ /mroo/ /poo/ /ua/ /guwa/ /ue/ /kuweh/ /uu/ /t b. gugus konsonan dan deret konsonan menurut halim dalam usman (1988:129) menyatakan dengan tegas perbedaan antara kedua kelompok konsonan tersebut, yaitu antara gugus konsonan dengan deret konsonan. kelompok konsonan seperti pada kata-kata kriting, kpalo, kmejo, gmas, bruang, skolah, streka, dan dray disebutnya gugus konsonan (consonant cluster), sedangkan kelompok konsonan seperti pada umpan, lintah, bungkus, dan waktu disebut deret konsonan (consonant sequences). jadi, yang dimaksud dengan gugus konsonan ialah kelompok konsonan yang berfungsi mengawali atau mengakhiri sebuah silabel, sedangkan deret konsonan ialah kelompok kon-sonan yang unsut-unsurnya be-rada dalam dua silabel. c. gugus konsonan gugus konsonan dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah terdapat pada posisi awal dan tengah. dapat dilihat pada data berikut ini. 1) gugus konsonan pada posisi awal a) gugus konsonan /b/ dengan /r/ /branuy/ /brip k/ b) gugus konsonan /c/ dengan /r/ /cr: / c) gugus konsonan /d/ dengan /r/ /dr:oy/ /dritew/ d) gugus konsonan /g/ dengan /l, r/ /gl: h/ /gl: /gr:ek/ e) gugus konsonan /j/ dengan /r/ /jriye / vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 159 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ f) gugus konsonan /m/ dengan /b,p/ /mbewh/ /mbih/ /mpak/ g) gugus konsonan /n/ dengan /c, d, j, t/ /nd /nd k/ /nco/ /ntay/ /nt / h) gugus konsonan /p/ dengan /l, r, t/ /pl:ah/ /plimboe/ /pt:ayh/ /pt: / i) gugus konsonan /s/ dengan /k, l, m, p, r, t/ / /skuriy / /sl: / /sm: h/ /sp: / /sp:oh/ /srudew/ /st:ah/ /st:aw/ j) gugus konsonan /t/ dengan /l, r/ /tl: /tr:ayh/ /tr: 2) gugus konsonan pada posisi tengah gugus konsonan pada posisi tengah sangat terbatas sekali di dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah, seperti yang terlihat pada data berikut ini. /ibluy/ /mgr: k/ /mmpr:ih/ d. deret konsonan deret konsonan dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah dapat dilihat pada data berikut ini. 1) fonem /p/ yang diikuti oleh /k, s,/ /napk h/ /napsu/ 160 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ 2) fonem /k/ yang diikuti oleh /l, r, s, t/ /makripat/ /laksana/ /maksut/ /waktew/ /prakt k/ 3) fonem /s/ yang diikuti oleh /j, k, l, m, t/ /msj k/ /mskay/ /isl / /pasmah/ 4) fonem /m/ yang diikuti oleh /b, p/ /cimb /imb k/ /imp h/ 5) fonem /n/ yang diikuti oleh /c, d, j, s, t/ /cincay/ /gandiw / /inj k/ /ganje/ /kons n/ /sinso/ /gantew/ /intuy/ 6) /g, k, s/ k/ / 7) fonem /l/ yang diikuti oleh /m/ /ilmiw/ 8) fonem /r/ yang diikuti oleh /b, d, g, m, n, p, t/ /trb /kardus/ /tard k/ /hargew/ /karma/ /karm y/ /karno/ /hartaw/ 9) fonem /h/ yang diikuti oleh /l/ /mahluk/ 10) fonem /s/ yang diikuti oleh /k, n, t/ vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 151 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ /piskaw/ /musnah/ /plastik/ 11) fonem /t/ yang diikuti oleh /n, t/ /pitn h/ /kuntutturoba/ 12) /g, j, l, m, t/ e. distribusi fonem dalam struktur silabel dan morfem dasar morfem dasar bahasa kerinci dapat terdiri atas satu silabel atau lebih. struktur silabel bahasa kerinci diringkaskan dengan formula: (k1)v(k2). dalam formula ini, k1 adalah konsonan yang dapat berupa gugus. v adalah vokal atau diftong, dan k2 adalah konsonan. dalam bahasa kerinci isolek pulau tengah ditemukan morfem dasar yang satu silabel, dua silabel, tiga silabel, empat silabel, dan lima silabel. 1. satu silabel vk /ak/ kv /ju/ /n: / kvk /m / /cak/ kkv /mpa/ /pr: / kkvk /mp k/ /pr: 2. dua silabel v-kv /abu/ / kv-v /sae/ v-kvk /ij vk-kv /and / /umpa/ kv-kv /bacaw/ /lib / kv-vk /luuq/ vk-kvk /and l/ /iblih/ 161 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ /unj k/ kvk /munt kvk-kv /bantoy/ /campew/ kkv-kv /klapo/ kkv-kvk /brip k/ kvk-kvk /konc /timb k/ kvk-kkv /t kkvk-kvk /brunt / 3. tiga silabel v-kv-kv /agame / vk-kv-kv /antahaw/ /umpamo/ v-kvk-kvk /atant v-kvk-kv vk-kvk kvk-kvk-kvk /mintintah/ k(v)-kkv-kvk kv-kvk-kvk /kamanj kv-kvk-kv /karimp / /¤erimp / kv-kv-kv /sara¤ / kv-kv-kvk vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 162 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ kvk-vk-kv /p ndasi/ /pnjarew/ kkv-kv-kvk /skuriy / kvk-kv-kv /s mbilo / 4. empat silabel v-kv-kv-kv /ulubaloe/ vk-kv-kv-kvk kv-kv-kv-kv /bakarak / kv-kv-kv-kvk /basaruhih/ kv-kv-kv-v /rahasiaw/ kv-kv-kvk-kvk /kaloj( kvk-kv-kv-kvk 5. lima silabel kvk-kvk-kv-kv-kv /kuntutturoba/ . 163 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ daftar pustaka chaer, abdul. 2009. fonologi: bahasa indonesia. jakarta: rineka cipta. djajasudarma, fatimah. 1993. metode linguistik: ancangan metode penelitian dan kajian. bandung: eresco.. keraf, gorys. 1991. tata bahasa rujukan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt gramedia. kridalaksana, harimurti. 1989. pembentukan kata dalam bahasa indonesia. jakarta: gramedia. mahsun. 2007. metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan, strategi, metode, dan tekniknya. jakarta: raja grafindo. phonology and morphosyntax of kerinci worddisertation. delaware university (not published). nadra., reniwati. 2009. dialektologi: teori dan metode. yogyakarta: elmatra publisihing. nikelas., dkk. 1981. morfologi dan sintaksis bahasa kerinci. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. pike, k.l. 1962. pnonemics. michigan: the university of michigan press. second international conference on autronesian linguistics. fascicle i. western austronesian. pacific linguistics c121-163 samsuri. 1987. analisis bahasa. jakarta: erlangga. tesis master pascasarjana universitas indonesia (tidak diterbitkan). seksi wilayah dan analisis. 2012. kerinci dalam angka 2012. kerinci: badan pusat statistik kabupaten kerinci. second international conference on autronesian linguistics. fascicle i. western austronesian. pacific linguistics c438-502. and robert blust (eds): between worlds: linguistics papers in memory of david john prentice. canberra: pacific linguistics, research shool of pacific and asian studies, australian national university, hal 149-176. sudaryanto. 1992. metode linguistik: ke arah memahami metode linguistik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. vol. 3, no. 2 oktober 2016 164 http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistik. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. disertasi doktoral pascasarjana universitas indonesia (tidak diterbitkan). wray, alisson dkk. 1995. projects in linguistics: a practical guide to researching language. great britain: arnold. thesis master in ohio university (not published) 165 jurnal arbitrer http://code-industry.net/ http://code-industry.net/ shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 29, 2021 final revision: october 20, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 this study aimed at finding and analyzing the information of the ideal speaking and listening online assessment media needed in computer science faculty, university of putra indonesia yptk. the study used descriptive and qualitative approaches. the data instrument was a questionnaire using likert-scale and open-questions responded by 431 students and 17 english lecturers. the result of the study showed that the students need interactive and interesting assessment web responsive while the lecturers need web responsive media which enable them to assess speaking and listening online including scoring and sending feedback. the result of the study will also be used as a matrix for developing online assessment media. keyword need analysis, speaking, listening, assessment media correspondence e-mail: shallyamna@gmail.com articles a need analysis for english speaking and listening assessment media with web responsive in computer shally amna1, dian christina2 1,2english computer science faculty, university of putra indonesia yptk, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.148-156.2021 i. introduction the english language is one of the compulsory subjects taught at any level of indonesian education institutions. in university, the english language is delivered in two periods. general english (ge) is given as the primary course and english for a specific purpose (esp) is given afterward. when ge is used to give basic english language skills to the students, esp serves the students’ need for the language in their professional careers. therefore, teaching esp requires a closer analysis of the related major. computer science faculty in university of putra indonesia yptk padang also recommend esp as english for computer science studies in the second semester. this subject should meet the students’ needs of using english in it industries. it provides competencies especially in speaking and listening skills related to topics and job implementations. speaking and listening skills for computer science students is crucial. these skills are applicable in computer science jobs since it is more often for the workers to communicate with their colleges than to pay attention to grammar. fahmi, pratolo, and zahruni (2020) found that many english learners still cannot speak english fluently even though they have spent more than a decade learning english. therefore, students need to practice speaking and listening to english following their field of study, so that they can benefit from the skill in their careers. the pandemic of covid-19 causes changes in all aspects of teaching and learning activity. teaching and assessing speaking and listening cannot be done in class anymore. lecturers must figure out ways to teach and assess these skills online. this way has to be able to reach the same outcomes as they used to get it offline. to reach the outcomes, the lecturers must set the same standard for speaking and listening assessment. the assessment of language proficiency means the capability of the students to perform communicative and effective language by using basic skills, like speaking and listening (lorena and sadiku, 2015)what it teaches , and what it takes, the teacher and the student. today takes great importance to the training of students to teach themselves , their education, equipping them with the skills of independent work with the most advanced methods of learning conscious , sustainable , active and creative. the purpose of this topic is to know the importance of usage of all skills during a lesson hour. the teacher is free to use a variety of methods and strategies of teaching 148 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) / learning to suit the needs of students in different classes. he combines these methods during the learning process and adapts according to the increasing development of linguistic competence and independence of student development, the consistency of this process. teaching has at its center the method of communication, task-based methods, functional methods and situations as real life etc. these methods are realized through various strategies and techniques, according to language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing. hidayah (2017) stated that the students are motivated to reach their learning goal when they can see their progress and failure based on the review given by the lecturers. moreover, assessing language proficiency is beneficial since it can help both lecturers and students see the students’ progress in language learning and evaluate the curriculum of teaching (idayani and rugaiyah, 2017). speaking and listening assessment requires a set of requisites that can be very complicated for online or even offline teachers. the use of certain media has been proposed to facilitate assessment activities. jing (2006) stated that english lecturers have been looking for media for the students to practice english independently as accurately as possible, like in real communication. the search for a proper assessment media in esp must be done through the need analysis process. need analysis in developing esp material has been discussed for ages by scholars especially in esp. (hammer, 1983; hutchinson and waters a., 1987; brown, 1995; duddley-evans and m.j.st. john, 2009; richards, 2001). they agreed that need analysis must proceed with developing esp courses, including syllabus design, materials selection, and assessment. need analysis is the first basic step initiating the development of esp materials and courses. since the pandemic of covid-19 caused immense changes in elt, analyzing the needs for a proper speaking and listening assessment has become more crucial for both teachers and students. many scholars have conducted the need analysis research for having basic information about teaching esp. it is because different majors of students may require different language needs. ulum (2015) has done need analysis in developing listening skills in university. the analysis found that there should be more attractive and relevant speaking materials in students’ exercises. menggo et al. (2019) found that the students from six universities wanted to have more speaking materials that can promote 21st-century skills. for all this long, teaching esp in computer science faculty in upi yptk requires more practice than theory, especially speaking and listening skills. amna, and rasmita (2019) have done need analysis research in the computer science department before developing the esp module. the results showed that most students wanted to have more interactive and speaking activities in their esp module. however, during the online learning studies, all english lecturers, especially in computer science upi yptk, struggle to find suitable methods and media to assess the student’s speaking and listening skills. to find suitable assessment media and to understand the difficulties in speaking and listening assessment, the need analysis process should be done immediately. since there are no studies in literature reviews explore the use of the responsive web for speaking and listening assessment in the computer science faculty, this research is done to fill the gap and find out what speaking and listening assessment media is needed for both lecturers and students during the online teaching and learning activities. ii. methods need analysis is the first step in research and development procedure (w. r. borg and m. d. gall, 1989). it is the first significant procedure in creating esp teaching strategy (amna and idriani 2019). this research used the concept of need analysis proposed by duddley-evans and m.j.st. john (2009) as the instrument of the research questionnaire. the questions were given in likertscale questions (1 to 4 scale) and open-questions. the research data were collected using the questionnaire given to the students’ classes in computer science faculty in upi yptk padang in the academic year of 2020/2021 and esp lecturers from some universities in padang, west sumatera. there are 431 students and 17 lecturers had been participated and responded to the questionnaire. the data were analyzed descriptively and 149 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) qualitatively. firstly, data were recorded in the google form and then analyzed by using the excel chart data software. finally, data were presented in bar charts for numerical calculation of the percentage and continued by qualitative interpretation. overall, this research used a descriptive quantitative study. the descriptive qualitative method is used to explore and analyze the data based on the phenomena that existed (gay, mills, and airasian 2012). moreover, cohen, manion, and morrison (2011) stated that qualitative data analysis involves organizing, accounting, and exploring data, in short, understanding data in terms of participants’ definition of situations, recording patterns, themes, categories, and regularities. hence, the researchers can obtain deep and detailed information based on the circumstances that occur with the students. iii. results 3.1 need analysis based on the students’ questioners a. subjective analysis as proposed by duddley-evans and m.j.st. john (2009), it is necessary to find out personal information about the students that might affect creating an appropriate speaking and listening assessment. therefore, the first question queries about the students’ perception of the importance of speaking and listening skills. mastering speaking and listening in language learning. this percentage coerces the lecturers to make their students see that they need to gain a high level of speaking and listening english to succeed in being a part of the international world and working in it industries. fig. 1 students’ perception of the importance of speaking and listening skills figure 1 shows that most students realize how important the skills are when asked about students’ perceptions. there were about 314 students, or 72,9% stated that they think speaking and listening are very important, and the next 90 students, or 20,3% of students said that those are important. only the rest were not sure about the benefit of fig. 2 students’ intention in mastering speaking and listening in question 2, students were asked about their intention in mastering speaking and listening for their future when working in it industries. figure 2 shows that there is 78% (339 students) stated that they wanted to master speaking and listening skills, especially in it. in this question, none of the students did not want to master the skills. the chart shows that the students’ intention to master speaking and listening skills is high. therefore, the lecturers need to act out the fact by facilitating the students with proper speaking and listening assessment to monitor the students’ skill progress. fig. 3 students practice speaking and listening skills question 3 asked how often the students practice their speaking and listening skills. based on figure 3, we can see 48% (207 students) said they barely practice speaking and listening. 1,9% of students do not do anything to improve their english speaking and listening. this percentage shows how much they need more speaking and listening assessment to check their improvement in learning english. 150 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) question 4 was asked whether the students use any online media or application using english. figure 4 shows that more than half of students tend to use online media with english. it is obvious because there are many foreign webs, applications, and media which are interesting and fun. this fact proves how important to build an online assessment so that teachers can also record and assess the students’ online activities. b. present situation analysis the second aspect in need analysis is present situation analysis. this aspect is aimed to find out the students’ current language skills so that the researchers know the students’ english capability, especially in speaking and listening. their listening is good. this number is higher in comparison to the students’ response for speaking skills. c. learning needs the learning needs aspect defines the needs of the students to improve their learning capability. by studying the learning needs, the researchers can find an effective way to fulfill the need. fig. 4 the use online media or application in learning english fig. 5 students’ insistence toward to their speaking figure 5 shows the students’ insistence toward to their speaking skills. most of the students stated that their speaking skills are still fairly good. there are also 4,2% of students who said that their speaking skills are not good at all. only 2,3 % of students are confident enough to say that they are very good at speaking. figure 6 shows the students’ answers related to their listening skills. there are 47,1 % (203 students) admitted that their listening is still fairly good and 4,9% said that their listening is not good. however, there is for about 45% (194 students) stated that fig. 6 students’ skills in listening fig. 7 students’ need for speaking and listening assessment in question 7 of the questionnaire, students are asked whether they need their speaking and listening to be assessed in every meeting. figure 7 shows that while studying english for computer science, most students wanted their speaking and listening skills to be evaluated every meeting. it is shown by the percentage of strongly agree and agree on the category, which reached 36,2% and 54,5% consecutively. the next question was whether the students wanted their speaking and listening skills to be tested and assessed with online media. based on figure 8, we can see that there is 44,5% (or 192 students) answered strongly agree, and 49,7% (or 214 students) agreed that they want online media to test and assess their speaking and listening skills more effectively. 151 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in question 9, the students were asked whether they needed media or applications to test their speaking and listening beyond class hours. figure 9 shows that 44,8% (207 students) strongly agree, and 48% (193 students) said that they need to have media or applications beyond their class hours so that they can do their activity or homework anytime and anywhere with better readiness. d. linguistics analysis the last question is whether the students agree that interactive online assessment will encourage students to improve speaking and listening skills. in figure 10, most students agree that interactive online assessment might encourage their motivation to improve speaking and listening skills. there are 54% (233 students) and 40,4% (174 students) show that teachers need to think of a more challenging evaluating system. 3.2 need analysis based on the lecturers’ questioners in developing a needed media for speaking and listening assessment, the researchers gave questioners to english lecturers who teach english for specific purposes. the questions are generally asked in open-question using a google form to get information on how the teachers use media assessment, especially during online learning. the first question asked how long they usually take time to assess the students speaking and listening. the answer is shown in figure 11. fig. 8 students’ need for speaking and listening assessment fig. 9 students’ need for media or applications to test speaking and listening fig. 10 interactive online assessment for speaking and listening fig. 11 time spent for assessing speaking and listening figure 11 shows 52,9% of lecturers or most lecturers are used to spend 1 to 5 minutes assessing each student’s speaking and listening skills when they were in the classroom. some others spent more than five or ten minutes, depending on the assessment activity. while doing the assessment online, most lecturers only spend not longer than 5 minutes for each student. fig. 12 how often the teachers assess the student’s speaking and listening152 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) the second question for the lecturers asked how often they usually assess the student’s speaking and listening skills in one semester. in responding to the questions, lecturers’ answers are varied, as seen on chart 12. 47% of lecturers said that they do the assessment every 2 or 3 meetings. some lecturers even honestly answered that they only do the evaluation once or twice during the semester. since evaluating speaking and listening skills were used to be carried in class, doing an online assessment with limited media provided caused many difficulties to the lecturers like the amount of internet data used and timewasted in checking individual assignments sent by the students. fig. 13 teachers use online media or application for assesing speaking and listening question 3 asked whether the lecturers use any online media or application to assess students’ speaking and listening skill. in figure 13, it is found that 41,2 % of lecturers sometimes use online media or applications to assess speaking and listening. moreover, some lecturers never use any online media or application to assess speaking and listening. they just choose to assess directly during the online classes running with zoom or google meet. question 4 asked whether the lecturers get advantages by using online media or applications to assess speaking and listening. the answers in figure 14 show that almost all lecturers agree that they found the online media and applications very useful. the fifth question asked whether the lectures have found any ideal media to assess speaking and listening. fig. 14 teachers use online media or application for assesing speaking and listening fig. 15 teachers use online media or application for assesing speaking and listening figure 15 shows that 70,5% of lecturers stated that they had not found a certain media that they need to assess students’ speaking and listening skills accurately and effectively. moreover, the lecturers suggested that the research may help to design a media to help lecturers in assessment activity and can be run on any device. iv. discussion to get the full picture of need analysis for speaking and listening assessment media in computer science faculty in the pandemic era, the questionnaires are given for both lecturers and students. in the questionnaire, eight aspects of duddley-evans and m.j.st. john (2009) concept of need analysis is used. the questionnaire is divided into likert scale questions and open-question to get the information about the aspects. the liker scales’ questions for students’ questionnaire are presented in figure 1 until 10. firstly, subjective need analysis. it talks about students’ opinions and perceptions about the subject they study. in this research, chart 1 until 4 have represented the students’ perception of how 153 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) important it is to master speaking and listening skills. the charts’ percentage also suggests that teachers should provide proper assessment media that the students can use to track their improvement in speaking and listening skills. the second aspect is present situation analysis. this aspect was discussed in questions 5 and 6, asking about the students’ speaking and listening skills. both charts emphasize the lack of speaking and listening skills for most students based on their assessment. this fact can be used to build a better assessment media to show students’ speaking and listening skills. the absence of assessment will mitigate the students’ motivation for selfimprovement. conversely, when the students can access the assessment for their skills, they can help themselves to get improve independently. the third and fourth aspects are objective and lack analysis. these aspects are meant to find out the students’ lack in their competency and the students’ pretension of certain topics that they think they might need to learn for their career in it. according to duddley-evans and m.j.st. john (2009), the lecturers should adhere to the student’s desires so that they can achieve their attention and motivation. these two aspects are questioned in open-question questionnaires. after gathering all information, some main topics come out the most important topic to be assessed in speaking and listening. those are: (1) the interview in english for it career, (2) terms, number, and computer specifications, (3) features, function (4) rules in it, (5) giving and following instruction, (6) explaining problems and (7) giving solution. the fifth aspect is learning needs. this aspect is discussed in questions 7, 8, and 9. based on the students’ answers, it can be concluded that the students wanted media that can be used to assess their speaking and listening skills and can be accessed by both lecturers and students. the students also suggested using online media which is easier to use anywhere and anytime. the students require a different length of time to practice and learn among each of them before they are ready for the test. some students may need a longer time to understand the structure, the pronunciation, and the concept in the materials, or even the concentration and confidence than their other friends. this fact may cause the conventional testing and assessing speaking and listening in class to decrease the students’ chance to maximize their scores. by giving them media or applications, which can be used outside class should give them better opportunities to learn and practice before they do the test. the sixth aspect is linguistics analysis. it is used to find out the knowledge of how language, or in this case, speaking and listening skills, are used in the learning target. in responding to the questions, most students agree that interactive and interesting online assessment media will improve their motivation in learning. inevitably, online media nowadays is much better for expressing many ideas. media has everything to improve the students’ communication in the target language. (tomlinson, 2007). the seventh and eighth aspects are what is wanted from the course and means analysis. means analysis shows the environment where the students choose to learn or in this case, want to be assessed. in the questionnaire given the students are asked to write any media or applications, they tend to use when they want to practice and test their speaking and learning english. the media or applications that emerged are youtube, duo lingo, games, and social media. those online media have inspired students and encouraged their learning motivation (omidvar and bahadorfar, 2014). the next open-questions questionnaire is given to the lecturers. since the pandemic of covid-19 happens, almost all teaching and learning activities are carried out online. for speaking and listening assessment in the esp course, lecturers need to figure out ways to conduct the assessment. based on the open question given, teachers said that they found some ways to assess, namely, having discussion followed by q and a, asking the students to record their voice to tell their opinion on a topic, asking to give a summary on audio, youtube video, and describing pictures. almost all of the activities are done by using whatsapp and zoom. the use of online media helps the students to build their skills and connect them to the world (muslem, 2017). using online media or application are admitted to bringing some advantages for both teachers and students. they are recordable and more attractive. khotimah (2016) said that the lecturers can see 154 shally amna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) that using online media can improve the students’ vocabulary, self-confidence, and creativity. however, the teachers still face some difficulties when using these media for speaking and listening assessments. the lecturers often complain about the internet connection, too many ads and pop-ups while listening to audio or video online, and other technical errors. besides, teachers also spend too much time assessing the assignment by manually checking each sending recording, evaluating, and giving feedback. therefore, the lecturers suggest building a certain media using web responsive to enable lecturers to do the assessment. harahap and putri (2017) have designed an android application for english learning, however, this application cannot be run on all devices. they suggested that the english learning application would be better to run in multiplatform or using responsive webbased. web responsive is a kind of website which is designed to adapt itself to devices with a suitable screen resolution (bader, 2016). aminudin, sari, and basuki (2019) stated that web responsive could give optimal look even the user uses different devices. finally, the research found that most lecturers agreed that web responsive media could be the solution for effective and efficient media since both lecturers and students can access the media anytime and anywhere by using any gadget or computer device. v. conclusion the pandemic of covid-19 induces changes in teaching and learning systems. since all the learning and assessment are carried out online, lecturers must design a new method to adapt to the situation but still get the best outcomes from the students. speaking and listening are skills that used to be assessed in class directly by lecturers. however, assessing online brings some difficulties. based on the questionnaire given, it can be seen that there is an urgency for special speaking and listening assessment media that can be accessed effectively and efficiently. the students proposed interactive and interesting media so that they could do the assessment vigorously. moreover, lecturers hope that by conducting the research, a media for speaking and listening assessment can be provided by the university, especially in computer science faculty, to tackle the problems and be used effectively by both lecturers and students. some other suggestions from lecturers include the efficiency in recording the students’ work and scoring system and the use of responsive web media. after all, the result of the research will be used as a matrix to design and develop a responsive web for english-speaking and listening assessment in future research. acknowledgement this article is part of the research development project of “speaking and listening assessment media using web responsive” which is fully funded and supported by the university of putra indonesia padang. we thank upi yptk, lppm upi yptk padang, and all lecturers and students who have participated in responding to the questionnaires. references aminudin, aminudin, zamah sari, and setio basuki. 2019. “aplikasi multimedia interaktif pada pembelajaran metode tilawati berbasis web responsive.” jrst (jurnal riset sains dan teknologi) 3(1): 1. amna, shally, and selfa idriani. 2019. “a need analysis approach in developing esp module based on interactive multimedia for academy industrial technology padang.” in in 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of immersive multimedia learning with peer support on english speaking and reading aloud. omidvar, reza, and maryam bahadorfar. 2014. technology in teaching speaking skill article in international journal of multidisciplinary research review impact of critical thinking on the speaking of english second language learners : a focus on fluency features view project technology in teaching speaking skill. http://www.aijmr.net. richards, j.c. 2001. curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. tomlinson, b. 2007. materials development in language teaching. cambridge. cambridge university press. borg, w. r. and m. d. gall. 1989. educational research: an introduction. new york: longmen.156 diction character of headline news in west sumatra mass media jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 38 article joke strategies in american situational comedy “how i met your mother” awliya rahmi submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: may 25, 2017 final revision: august 06, 2017 available online: august 08, 2017 the research discusse joke strategies in american situational comedy how i met you mother (himym). the purpose of this research is to identify; (1) the joke strategies in situational comedy himym (2) the pragmatic meaning of jokes that are expressed by the characters in himym and (3) pragmatic prank functions that are expressed by the characters in himym. this research is categorized as descriptive linguistic research. observation method applied in data collection, while the method of distribution and matching applied in analyzing data. the results of this research data analysis is presented using informal and formal methods. from the results of data analysis found 14 strategy joke uttered by characters in a situational comedy american himym, namely: ambiguity, grammar, syllabics, idiomatics, questionable english, antonymics, style, negativism, lexicography, spelling, punctuation, rhyming english, numerical english and part of speech. the dominant strategy used is ambiguity because there are many words in english that mean more than one and are likely to lead the listener to multiple interpretations. the jokes uttered by the characters in situational comedy himym have assertive, expressive and directive meanings. moreover, the joke also serves to show the power, solidarity and psychological defense of the speaker. keyword pragmatics researh, joke strategy, joke research, humor research, joke in comedy correspondent e-mail: awliyarahmi@gmail.com i. introduction jocular register must have its characteristics and differences from other forms of language. joke is simply described as the specific type of humorous text (attardo,2000:61). it apparently seems to have no difference from other forms of language but what makes it different is that it is able to build some comic effects such as laughter, smile, happiness and release. it cannot be denied that those effects are possibly created by non-lingual aspects such as expression and gesture but it is also important to bear in mind that language and its elements are so powerful that they can amuse and release the listeners. joke seems to be a favorite form of language. it is delighted not only to be uttered but also to be heard by people. it is also affected by the natural factor of human as language user which has sense of humor, pleasure, anger and other kinds of feeling (oktavianus and revita:2012). what possibly makes a joke liked by hearers is its funniness along with the surprising effect which is expected to appear at the end of the universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 39 joke. it is the one which is short and conveys light idea to appear in conversation or documentary. a successful joke will end with surprise and laughter of the hearers. meanwhile, the flat or failed joke will get none of those results. it seemingly proves that joke is a form of humorous language which needs a deep thought to construct. fry (in raskin:1944) mentioned that a joke may be defined as an item of humor reduced to a single point or particle. this definition is then supported by raskin (1944:28) who stated that joke is a selfcontained humorous thought. it can be generalized that joke conveys thought and funniness constructed in single or multiple sentences. just like other forms of language used by speakers, there are also various purposes of people making a joke. in general, joke is made to amuse the hearers and invite their laughter. other than that, joke can also be intended to mock certain people. the former purpose must be able to invite laughter of the hearer while the latter might end up with two possibilities. when a joke is directed to some hearers on the purpose of mocking one of them, it must be annoying for the object of the mockery but it is possibly amusing for the rest of the hearers. what the writer wants to say is that people are different in responding the joke they hear. this is of course affected by some factors. the factors influencing some people find a joke funny or unfunny will be explained deeply later in this thesis but the condition that every joke has to deal with is that people tend to find things funny differently. the idea about various responses to humor was acknowledged by raskin that some people are characterized as having the sense of humor while others lack it (1944:2). general factors such as social and cultural background must have role in generating the sense of humor. this is why, in some occasion a joke is funny for a group of people and it is not for other groups. since joking is a part of human daily communication, it can be found in any form of language and in any media of communication. joke can be found in the conversation between women and men or between teacher and students. it can be read in magazines, newspapers, advertisements and posters. even in england, joke is printed in a chocolate wrap and called penguin joke. because of the development of technology, joke is now can be also seen and heard at once in the form of movie, television series, commercial break, and situational comedy. one form of media that the writer bears in mind to be an interesting form to find jokes is situational comedy. there are actually many researchers have done the researches about joke and humor from various perspective. it obviously proves that any kind of humor, whether it is joke, wit, wisecrack or anecdotes are interesting to explore. this research is too, derives from the writer’s interest in lingual phenomenon hidden behind the laughter in one of famous american situational comedies, how i met your mother (himym). the term situational comedy or better known as sit-com describes a short narrative series comedy, generally between twenty four and thirty minutes long, with regular characters and setting (kutnik and neale:1990). besides its short and frequent broadcasting, situational comedy is also prototyped by its narration and the stable situation. how i met your mother is an american romantic comedy which is very famous and has billions fans around the world. it is proven by the total numbers of season and episode it has until the finale which successfully reached 9 seasons and 208 episodes. the first episode of himym was aired on september 19th 2015 and its last episode was officially aired on march 31st 2014. it can be assumed that this situational comedy has something different that makes it lasted for nine years. regardless many famous actors and actresses casted in himym, which possibly becomes one of attractive factors in this situational comedy, the writer expects to focus on the verbal humor that the characters tell. verbal humor in this research is defined as any text which is capable of creating a humorous effect awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 40 or in another term is the joke-carrying text (raskin: 1985). in perspective of linguistic, however, linguistic features must be the main focus of the any field of linguistic research. when the researcher did a little pre-research observation by watching the series of himym, she found both single joke and multiple jokes uttered by the characters which are legitimately unique to be observed. in this study, the researcher recognizes it is necessary to find the humorous aspects conveyed in that multiple jokes in any persepectives of linguistic such as phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspect. since himym is a situational comedy which the script had been thought, arranged and discussed to accomplish laughter from the watchers, it is assumed that the sentence construction of the script invest the funniness to the show. when one single sentence or multiple sentences are constructed on purpose to create funnines, it can be said that there is a certain strategy applied. it must be noted that there are some strategies of joke that makes one type of joke is different from others but they still convey humor inside the text. realizing that all linguistic aspects are necessary to generate the humorous aspect of a text, the researcher is triggered to conduct a research titled ‘joke strategies in american situational comedy how i met your mother’. needless to say, this research is expected to be able to seek any linguistic features related to joke and considerably different from any other humor research from other field of science. ii. methods referring to the definition of qualitative research by bogdan and taylor (in moleong, 2007:4) which defines it as a research procedure which produces descriptive written or spoken data from the observable society and behaviour, this research is considered as one. in addition, qualitative is regarded as the right approach since the main purpose of this research is to seek the language phenomena, especially english humor, as the part of society behaviour. in this research, the data are divided into two types; primary data and secondary ones. primary data are all the jocular or humorous utterances produced directly by the chatacters in how i met your mother. meanwhile, the secondary data are the jocular or humorous utterences of the characters in how i met your mother which are already transcripted into subtitle. both primary and secondary data are taken from all seasons of the situational comedy series from its beginnining until its finale episode. totally, there are 9 seasons and 208 episodes of how i met your mother. generally, the method of collecting data in this library research is observational method and note taking technique. it is a method of collecting the data where the researcher observes and taps the language phenomena (sudaryanto,1988:2). data are then analyzed by applying two methods of analyzing data; identity method and distributional method. as how a result of descriptive research should be presented, the result of this research will be disposed both formally and informally. iii. result and discussion after analyzing the data, it is found that among 24 joke strategies proposed by esar (1961), only 14 strategies appear in the conversation between the characters in himym. the strategies are ambiguity, grammar, syllabics, idiomatic, questionable english, antonymics, style, negativism, lexicography, spelling, punctuation, rhyming english, numerical english and part of speech. it is important to restate that all the data are analyzed following evan esar’s linguistic strategy of joke. a. grammar data 1 ted : hey, don’t you have a paper to write tonight? marshall : dude, you’re talking to the kid. ted : i know it. marshall : i’m gonna knock back this beer. i’m gonna knock back one more awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 41 beer. i’m gonna go home. i’m gonna write a 25 page paper. i’m gonna hand it in and i’m gonna get an “a”. my name is and that’s the trufus. (evrybody at the table laughed and tossed the beer) dialogue above happened in a bar between ted mosby and marshall eriksen, two bestfriends who had been friend since they were freshmen at university. besides that, marshall also threw a joke to his other bestfriends; barney, robin and lily. marshall was taking his law school and had twenty pages of paper to write due to the next day morning. instead of writing the paper, marshall and his friends were hanging out in maclaren’s bar. in the middle of their conversation, ted asked marshall about the paper that he had to write. marshall replied humorously by telling a joke about what he was going to do with the paper. refferring to the joke strategies by esar (1961), the joke strategy used by marshall in answering ted’s question is categorized to grammar and rhyming english. therefore, this part will focus to grammar as the strategy. marshall’s answer consists of five utterances which are grammatically constructed in future tense. this is used to indicate activities that will be done or happen in the future. a joke in dialogue above is indicated by the use of be + going to formula in those six utterances. in other words, the utterances are repeated in the same formula by marshall as the speaker to build the sense of humor. repetition in a conversation gives unusual effect of the utterances. as the speaker, marshall has two options to explain about what he is going to do about the essay. to show his idea, the first option is that he does is splitting the idea into six utterances with ‘i’m going to’ is repeated in the beginning of them as in (a): (1a) ‘i’m gonna knock back this beer, i’m gonna knock back one more beer. i’m gonna go home. i’m gonna write a 25 page paper. i’m gonna hand it in, and i’m gonna get an a. the second option that the speaker can choose to state the same idea is by arranging the utterance with the ommission of the repeated ‘i’m gonna’ as in (b): (1b) i’m gonna knock back this beer, knock back one more beer, go home, write a 25 page paper, hand it in and get an a. both (1a) and (1b) contain an equal infomation about the action that he is going to take regarding the paper. instead of that, statement in (1a) is considered jocular because it is uncommon to hear spekaer in daily communication speaking with to many repetitions. in contrast, (1b) is arranged simply and casual without any repetition of ‘i’m gonna’ and considered less funny than (1a). these repetitions build hearer’s curiosity about what is going to happen next to the topic of the communication. to help this explanation, the researcher will divide the utterance into (1c) and (1d). (1c) i’m gonna to knock back this beer, i’m gonna to knock back one more beer. i’m gonna go home. i’m gonna to write a 25 page paper. i’m gonna hand it in, (1d) i’m gonna get an a not only plays with the grammar construction, the speaker also plays with hearer’s expectation about the speaker. the information that the speaker states in his first five utterances shows that he does not take the 25 page paper seriously. writing a qualified 25 page paper in one night is considered difficult to do. this leads the hearer to the expectation that he will get bad result for that. instead of committing to get bad result for writing a 25 page paper a night, the speaker is optimist to get an a. an a is known to be the highest grade that a student can get in academic activity. (1c) and (1d) are two contrastive cause and effect. this is the mixmatch part of the joke besides the repetiion of ‘i’m gonna’. b. syllabics syllable is part of language which is pronounced as unit consisting of one vowel awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 42 with one or more consonants. in humor, it has possibilities to create jocular effect by blending the syllables, alternating them, disjuncting them etc. jokes in himym are also built by playing the syllabics as found in data (2) and (11). data 11 ted : instead of stuffing, i’m going to fill the turkey with a slightly smaller turkey. it’s called a turturkeykey! lily : a turturkeykey? (lily threw a confused look to ted) ted and gang were going to hold a thanksgiving dinner. ted was in charge of cooking the turkey. commonly, turkey is was filled with stuff like chopped vegetables, but specially for this thanksgiving, ted decided to cook it differently. instead of filling it with vegetables, he chose to fill the turkey with a slightly smaller turkey. he also named this meal a turturkeykey. in dialogue above, ted’s utterance is considered humorous because of some reasons. he sets up the humor by describing about a new way of cooking turkey that he is going to try. this set up part still sound usual and does not reach the funny part yet. the funny part is when he declared the name of the meal. the name ‘turturkeykey’ is unusual and unpredictable. listeners are directed to the common names of meal such as turkey with turkey slices, roasted turkey or extraordinary turkey. listeners are unaware that the speaker will name the meals semantically played with the syllables. the name turturkeykey is semantically what speaker means by ‘filling a turkey with turkey’ which is also the way how he cooks the turkey. related to the name of the meal, there is an insertion of word ‘turkey’ inside another ‘turkey’. word ‘turkey’ has two syllables ‘tur’ and ‘key’. how syllables are played in this joke can be seen in (11a) below. (11a) turkey tur + turkey + key in the joke about meal name above, hearer’s interpretation is misled. hearer has his own interpretation about a meal name. generally, a meal is named with the name of its raw material or combined with its additional raw such as: chicken with tomato soup, potato green salad and spicy beef steak. instead of that, the speaker who throws the joke above insert a word ‘turkey’ in a word ‘turkey’. word ‘turkey’ is firstly splitted into two sullables ‘tur’ an ‘key’. between these two syllables another word ‘turkey’ is inserted and it becomes ‘turturkeykey’. thus, in this strategy the humorous effect appears because of the semantically played syllable of the meal name. c. rhyming english as another outcome of phonetic play, rhyming is commonly found in english humor. in himym, some main characters use it to create humor as found in data (1), (15) and (21). data 21 barney :damn it! what’s the matter with me? robin : you like her. you should call her. barney : call her? robin, three things; she had a nice face, booty was in place but barney don’t chase. (robin stopped talking to barney) barney had a huge crush of an english girl named nora. she lived in new york and is robin’s co-worker. everyone in the gang noticed barney’s feeling but he kept denying. robin emphasized that barney really liked nora and suggested him to give her a call. this idea was refused by barney because it was hard for barney to admit that robin was right. there are many ways in linguistic phenomenon to show disagreement . in this cas, barney shows his disagreement to robin’s suggestion by creating statement in rhyme. the rhyming statement created by barney composed by three ideas; face, place, chase which phonetically similar in rhyme. awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 43 (21a) robin, three things; she had a nice face [feɪs] (21b) booty was in place, [pleɪs] (21c) but barney don’t chase [tʃeɪs] explanation in (21a), (21b) and (21c) shows that there is a rhyme play in the speaker’s utterance. the words ‘face’, ‘place’ and ‘chase’ similarly end in rhyme [-eɪs]. in daily conversation, it is uncommon to hear people speak in rhyme. it can be also said that rhyming language is made on purpose. in this case, the purpose of giving the rhyme is to amuse the hearer with a funny impression. as joke has incongruous part, this joke is also incongruous between the set up and the punchline. this joke is set by statement (21a) and (21b). these statements contains two good values about a woman phisical appearance; nice face and butt. it needs to know that the speaker is known to be a hooker which makes it is impossible for him to not want this girl. the joke is then ended with punchline (21c) which indicates two contrast ideas. d. idiomatics idiom is a another unique phenomenon of language yet risky. since idiom is a group of words whose the meaning is different from the meaning of the indiviidual words, it cannot be guaranted that the communication is successful without any difficulties. humor itself needs a shared understanding between the speaker and the hearer. if they don’t, the joke will be flat. this wht makes idiom is risky to be made as a joke. therefore, jokes using idiom as strategy in himym are found in data (3) and (25). data 3 barney : no, not again. not this year. you’re going as my wingman. flightsuit up! ted : no thanks. i’m sticking with the hanging chad. barney : oh, you’re dangerous, maverick. your ego’s writing checks your body can’t cash. (ted smiled and both of them left the appartment) barney and ted were going to celebrate halloween party on the roof of ted’s apartement. barney came to ted’s apartement in a fighter pilot costume. he had also prepared another exactly similar costume for ted. unfortunately, ted had already decided to stick with the hanging chad and refused to wear the fighter pilot costume. barney who was a little disappointed with ted’s refusal shown his disppointment by quoting an idiom from top gun movie. the conversational joke above consists of set up and punch line. ted’s and barney’s first utterance are categorized as the set up part and barney’s last utterance is the punch line. dialogue above consists of one joke strategy called idiomatic strategy. the use of idiomatic joke can be seen in the punch line of the joke made by barney. (3a) your ego’s writing checks your body can’t cash. in order to create pun and surprise effect the speaker, idiom (3a) is used. this idiom is a famous idiomatic quotation from top gun movie. the idiom ‘your ego’s writing checks your body can’t cash’ is a figurative speech used to show disability of someone to do something bigger than his or her capability. in this idiom, ‘ego’ represents expectation and ‘body’ represents reality. in other words, this idiom is also an expression to show unequal expectation and reality. the speaker says the joke with serious facial expression following the main character in top gun movie. e. questionable english data 7 robin : hey, everybody! let me tell you something about people from canada. do you know why canadians never get a birthday wish? because they’re too afraid to awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 44 blow out the candles. (people at the bar stared at robin in silence) robin scherbatsky was one of two female members of the gang. she was canadian while other four members are american. her friends like to make a joke about her nationality. robin’s utterance above happened a minesota bar where marshall took her to. at first, people at the bar liked her because she hide her seal nationality and pretended to come from bemidji. minesota but it didn’t last longer. marshall who was the real man who come from minesota did not like to see. robin got all the attention of the people at the bar. finally he revealed robin’s real nationality and as the impact. robin was kicked out of the bar. before she left, robin shouted at the people at the bar and asked the question about canadian to show her anger. robin’s utterance above belongs to the most common type of joke, riddle. it is a question that is difficult to understand and has surprising answer. referring to joke strategy formulated by esar, it is categorized as questionable english. many americans make fun of canadian for being afraid of darkness. this is why the jokes about canadian are often related to light. joke in (7) is made in the form of riddle. hearers are given a question whih sounds serious but has unexpected answer. in this case, hearers do not expect that the question about candle will be related to canadian’s darkness phobia. phrase ‘birthday wish’ is associated to ‘candle’ and ‘blow’. f. ambiguity data 10 robin : hey, you know what? not every setup has a “but”. what about jamie, that girl lily set you up with? barney : wow, who knew being in a commited heterosexual relationship could make guy so gay? (marshall and lily hugged and smiled at barney) marshall : yeah robin : she’s really nice. barney : if memory serves me, she had a huge “but”. her huge butt. nailed it! (barney laughed like a drain while lily, ted, robin and marshall snickered) the gang was talking about a setup date. they believed that not all man or women they were set up to to date is bad. it is commonly agreed that it is impossible to find someone perfect in a set up date. in other words, there is always minus side of them. instead of that, they recalled a girl named jamie that lily set up with barney. robin and barney thought that jamie was really nice that they couldn’t find the minus side of her. the joke in barney’s last utterance above is based on the fact that there can be two possible interpretations of the same group of sound. this language phenomenon is called homophone. there are two different interpretations of sound [bʌt] exist in dialogue above marshall and robin set the joke by talking about ‘hot’ which pronounced and sound [bʌt]. the word ‘but’ in this situation means the contradicted character of a date meanwhile, barney gets two different words for [bʌt] sound. at first, barney follows the previous speakers and takes [bʌt] as ‘but’ by saying ‘she had a huge but’. following the content, it means that the girl he dated has a big or a lot of weakness. therefore, he turns the [bʌt] sound to another possible word that is also pronounced [bʌt] which it is used to sit on and also considered as sensual part of human body. overall, in this joke, barney plays with ambiguity of sound. g. antonymics data 5 marshall : all right, well, have fun at your little disco, guys barney : what the hell happened to these two? lilly : marshall and i are just growing up marshall : yeah, it’s gonna be sweet, too. like tonight we’re tasting all awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 45 these different wines, pairing them up with these up with these cool gourmet cheeses. marshall and lily are married couple who are also barney’s best friend. they are interested in trying some grown up activity which they had never done before. the grown up activity that they were going to try that night is wyne tasting. this activity is regarded new for them considering they always spent their time sitting at maclaren’s bar for hours with the gang. barney is a member of the gang who is well known to against all related to married things. he thought what marshall and lily were going to do last night was lame. the conversational joke between marshall, lily and barney above consists of set up and punch line as divided in the following categorization. the set up part is build with marshall and lily’s explanation about the wine tasting party they’re going to host at the apartment which makes them unable to join the club that night. whereas, the punch line is barney’s response in the form of rethorical and satirical question. the division below is provided to support the set up and punch line explanation. marshall : all right, well, have fun at your little disco, guys barney : what the hell happened to these two? lilly : marshall and i are just growing up marshall : yeah, it’s gonna be sweet, too. like tonight we’re tasting all these different wines, pairing them up with these up with these cool gourmet cheeses. barney : wow, who knew being in a commited heterosexual relationship could make guy so gay? in dialogue 5, the joke hitter is barney. his rhetorical and satirical question turns the expectation of the hearer to marshall and lily’s elegant and classy activity. in order to surprise the hearer, barney’s utterance is set by constructing a question with antonymic strategy. (5a) wow, who knew being in a committed heterosexual relationship could make a guy so gay? the phrase heterosexual relationship has contrast meaning to gay. heterosexual relationship is the between two sexually different individual. in other words, relationship between man and woman is the heterosexual relationship. in contrast, gay is a utterance, wine and cheese tasting are gay activity. the punch line of the joke above gives incongruous effect to the hearer because of its contrast meaning. h. style data 20 marshall : hey lily needs some gift ideas for stella’s wedding shower. does she like to cook? ted : um, actually i don’t know. marshall : oh, what’s her favorite color? ted : don’t know that either. marshall : well, does she have any hobbies? ted : yes, she’s exactly the kind of person who would have hobbies and interest too. i am one lucky son of a bitch. marshall : dude, you don’t know anything about the woman you’re marrying. ted : what? you’re crazy. i know plenty. marshall : what colour are her eyes? ted : the colour of the ocean after the storm. marshall : which is? ted : beautiful. (marshall looked at ted in the eyes) awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 46 marshall was helping ted packing his stuff to move in stella after the wedding. marshall asked him about gift ideas that he and lily will give as a wedding present. surprisingly, ted did not know anything about his soon-to be wife but he would admit that. marshall kept asking him anything about stella to prove that ted really did not know anything about her. ted tried his best to show marshall that he knew many things about stella by answering the question twistedly. ted’s answer to marshall’s question is considered humorous because it violates the maxim of quality. this strategy is categorized as strategy of styles in which the simple words are replaced to the complicated one. there are two questions that ted answer twistedly. first, the question about stella’s hobby is unable to be answered. a question about hobby can be simply answered by using noun such as cooking, fishing, reading, etc. instead of that, the speaker gives a long explanation which is not the answer. second, the question about stella’s eyes colour requires a fixed answer such as blue, green, brown, etc. despite mentioning the colours, ted answers the question complicatedly. the answers ‘the colour of the ocean after the storm’ and ‘beautiful’ potentially lead the hearer to misinterpretation because both describe something relative. overall, the style strategy used by ted shows that quality maxim violation can be used to create jocular effect. i. negativism data 6 robin : eight flights, of stairs who puts a theater up eight flights of stairs? what kind of building is this? barney : from the smell of it, i’m guessing a urine factory. ted : where do you guys want to sit? barney : i know where i don’t want to sit. (marshall, ted, and robin snickered) barney, ted, robin and marshall were invited to watch lily’s theater performance. lily’s performance was held in the eight floor of an old building. the building was dark and fishy. when they arrived in the room they were so tired since there was so lift or escalator to help them up. among those four friends, really looked so angry that be answer robin and ted’s question madly. the strategy of joke used in data 6 is called negativism. it is strategy which represents any saying whose wit is expressed through denial or refusal. in the conversation above, the speaker shows refusal by flipping the positive sentence construction with negativism. the negativism in the sentence is indicated by the use of ‘don’t’. by negating the positive sentence, the speaker refuses the invitation to sit which is offered through the previous speaker’s question. negativism in the pun gives the effect of incongruity because it turns the expectation of what should be the answer of the question. j. lexicography data 8 robin : got to go lily : hey, where are you going? we just got here. robin : oh, a korean massage lily : by yourself? robin : well, i’d figured you’d be busy reading. what to expect when you’re expecting to expect. (lily stared at robin’s leaving sadly) robin and lily were two best friend and the only female members of the gang. because of that, they used to hang out together doing some girly stuff like korean massage. lately, robin was annoyed by lily who was always talking about baby because she was planning to have one. robin was fed up with all the baby thing that lily always chattered. because she could not stand it anymore. robin decided to do the korean massage by herself. conversation above has humorous aspects which are proven by laughter back sound at the end of the conversation. thus, it can be regarded as conversational joke. in conversational joke, the joke is set up in the turn awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 47 and taking between the speakers meanwhile the utterance which makes it funny, usually the last one, is called punch line. in order to give jocular effect in the conversation above, the punch line is constructed by repeating verb ‘expect’. there are three verb ‘expected’ which are constructed in on clause. this kinds of construction learns the meaning of the clause. to comprehend how this construction learn the meaning of the clause the brief explanation below will help ‘what to expect when you’re expecting’ is a famous tagline mostly for woman who is going to have a baby. commonly, the tagline is only written ‘what to expect when you’re expecting to expect’. this addition leans the quality of the verb ‘expecting’. in other words, this repetition creates playful lexicography of word ‘expect’. the strategy used in this joke is grouped as the lexicography strategy. k.spelling data 13 waitress : hi, kristen! krirsten :everyone pronounces is wrong the ‘r’ is after the’i’ waitress : kirsten krirsten : and before the ‘i” it’s krirsten waitress : your table’s ready barney : wow! they’re trerible! (barney and robin cackled) barney and robin were having dinner at a restaurant. they were drinking on the bar chair before having meals on thir table. at the same time, another couple was also drinking next to them. this couple was annoying for barney brought from home barney also heard the woman talked to the waitress and complained about her misspelling her name. barney who was really annoyed murmured by imitating the way the woman spelled her name. the humorous sense of the dialogue above lies in barney’s utterance. in other words, it can be categorized as the punchline. there are some strategies that can be used in creating humorous effect in a conversation. in barney’s utterance, the strategy used is called spelling. the spelling play that barney used is categorized as intentional misspelling. in his utterance, barney misspells the word ‘terrible’ becomes ‘trerrible’ deliberately imitating the way krirsten spells her name. the misspelling ‘trerrrible’ would not be able to invite laughter if the complicated spelling of krirsten’s name does not appear before. it is common to have krirsten as a name meanwhile krirsten sounds uncommon and weird as a name. this misspelling of ‘terrible’ is unexpected. the spelling pattern of terrible is e-v-c-c-v-c-c-v as in t-e-r-r-i-b-l-e. in the other side, the pattern of k-r-i-r-s-t-e-n’ is c-c-v-c-cv-c. in the spelling of ‘terrible’, barney imitating the insertion of letter ‘r’ between consonant ‘t’ and vocal ‘e’ which makes the spelling pattern becomes ‘c-c-v-c-c-v-c-c-v’. thus, both krirsten and terrible sound alike with the play of consonant ‘r’ encircling the vocal sound. l. punctuation data 23 ted : some bastard snuck into my room and spilled the ink all over the gretzky photo i was holding for barney. detective mosby is on the case. lily : oh, god, that’s horrible. ted : i know. it was a gift for robin. lily : no, i mean “oh, god, that’s horrible detective mosby’s the worst”. (ted showed disappointed face to lily) a day before barney and robin’s wedding there was someone snuck into ted’s room and spilled the ink over the gretzky photo ted was holding for barney. ted told it to lily to show that he was really mad. among the gang, ted was known well as the pretentios detective mosby. many times he tried to solve a mystery case and pretended to know everything. this was most of the times annoying for the rest of the gang. after the spilling ink tragedy, ted declared to lily that he would solve the case and called himself detective mosby. lily is the speaker who thrown the joke in above dialogue. she uses strategy of awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 48 punctuation to create the humorous effect in her utterance. punctuation play which lily uses is able to change the meaning of her utterance and practically change ted’s reaction too. in response to ted’s story lily says ‘oh, god, that’s horrible’ in a flat expression and intonation. she skips the exclamation punctuation to let ted misinterpret her utterance by pretending to finish her speech but actually it is not. her full speech is “oh, god, that’s horrible detective mosby’s the worst”. m. part of speech data 26 marshall : okay, robin, what you need is indeed something that buries a bone, but i’m not talking about dog. i’m talking about a man. robin : here we go. marshall: you’re clearly trying to fill a hole, in her heart. you feel like the seventh wheel, because now ted is with zoe and barney is with nora and lily’s with big fudge. barney : whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa, big fudge. “with”? i’m not with nora. wrong preposition. later tonight i’m hoping to be on nora, right? or under nora, right? or we’re all adults, i’ll just say it behind nora. (all the people at the table chuckled) barney was known as a hooker among the gang. therefore it was hard for him to admit that at that time he was in relationship with a girl named nora. eeventhough his friend could see that he really fell for this girl, he kept denying it. one way to show denial is by throwing a joke. barney’s joke contain part of speech strategy. in this strategy, preposition as part of speech is played. as the one who throws the joke, barney splitted the preposition ‘with’ which means accompanying or being together into preposition ‘on’, ‘under’ and ‘behind’ which he refers to sex position. this joke sounds humorous because the preposition is played. being in a relationship has close meaning to togetherness. among the preposition, togetherness is signed by preposition ‘with’. in other words, this preposition is the most appropriate preposition to be used to describe the condition between barney and nora. instead of that, barney throws the dirty joke by stating some condition about him and nora which he actually reffers to sex activity. n. numerical english data 16 ted : barney? what? you’re back? barney : that’s right. ted : in a totally new costume. barney : every halloween i bring a spare costume in case i strike out with the hottest girl at the party. that way i have a second chance to make a first impression. (ted grinned to barney) every october 31st barney usually celebrated halloween party at the roffftop party. a halloween party was always full of people in various costume. some of them also wore a mask to support their costume. barney used every halloween party to get a girl to come go home with. at first, he disguised in a fighter pilot costume and stared his move to get a girl. unfortunately, the girl he was talking to did not like him and left because he talked too vulgar. considering his mistake, barney changed his costume to a penguin costume and tired to catch the same girl. humor in data 16 appears in barney’s utterances which conveys numerical play. there is the use of number punning technique where the numerical play is put in the puncline of the joke. in this case, the punchline is barney’s utterance as in (a) below. (a) that way i have a second chance to make a first impression. the numerical play used by barney is the play of ordinal number. there is the use of first and second. not only that, first and second in the awliya rahmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 4 no. 1 (2017) 49 speaker’s utterance is slightly contradictive. first in ‘first impression’ means that the impression comes before any other impression. in other words there is not more than one first and one after that is considered as second. the combination of two ordinal numbers, first and second creates witticism on hearers. iv. conclusion joke is a part of language phenomenon which can be found in both spoken and written language. as a part of language it has its own form, strategy and function. form and strategy of joke are related ecah other. it has its characteristics in all linguistics aspects; phonology, morphology, syntaz, semantic, pragmatic and sociolinguistic. the twenty four linguistic strategies of joke proposed by esar (1961) are actually derived from those linguistic fields. among the thirty data analyzed, fourteen strategies of joke are randomly used in this comedy. the straegies are; ambiguity, grammar, syllabics, idiomatic, questionable english, antonymics, style, negativism, lexicography, spelling, punctuation, rhyming english, numerical english and part of speech. the dominant strategy found is ambiguity. ambiguity is the easiest strategy to create joke. it is able to mismatch the expectation of the hearer about the joke. besides, many words in english have more than one meanings. since jokes in this researches categorized as conversational jokes, it gives more possibilities for ambiguity strategies to be played. ambiguity can be found in the form of sound and form. especially in english, ambiguity becomes more possible to be played and twisted mostly in spoken language. pragmatically, there are four meanings that joke conveys. it conveys information about some state of affairs, commitment of the speaker, requests of the speaker, speakers’ attitude about some state of affairs. since the source of the data is a situational comedy, most jokes are thrown expressing speaker’s attitude about some state of affairs. there are various functions of speakers throwing jokes. mostly, jokes are thrown on the purpose to amuse everybody included in the conversation. this is shown by the laughter or smile appears after the joke is told. it can be said that this function is related to solidarity. solidarity also the factor which causes a joke is accepted or not. there are some jokes in this research which are categorized as dirty jokes. its acceptance is determined by the solidarity level of the speakers in the conversation. not only to amuse, joke can also be used to mock and tease other people, either they are included or not in the conversation. power takes role in this function. another function of the joke is to defend the speaker himslef from any psychologically threating condition. references 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arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: may 10, 2020 final revision: august 26, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this study aims at investigating the effect of the process approach on student writing anxiety and performance. teachers should find ways to cope with anxiety as it is known as the negative predictor of students’ writing performance. fifteen students participated in this study. they were assigned to write an argumentative essay under the topic ‘should national exam be banned?”. the treatment was given following the writing stages, from outlining to publishing. slwai questionnaire was distributed before and after the treatment to measure the effectiveness of the process approach on students’ anxiety. the findings indicated that students writing anxiety decreases from 71.27 to 63.20, which means that the anxiety level goes down from high to moderate anxiety. the second findings informed us that there is a significant difference in students writing performance after the treatment with the level of significant .000. it can be said that the writing process approach has a significant effect on students writing anxiety and performance. the pedagogical implication is also discussed. keyword process approach, writing anxiety, writing performance correspondence e-mail: kurniasih@unisma.ac.id article writing process approach and its effect on students’ writing anxiety and performance kurniasih1, fitri awaliyatush sholihah2, atik umamah3, ika hidayanti sung4 1,2,3,4faculty of teacher training and education, universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.144-150.2020 i. introduction english students are required to have a good command of english both in written and spoken form. communicating ideas in written form are more challenging than in spoken form because writing itself must be self-explanatory in which readers can understand the writers’ intended meaning. to produce an understandable piece of writing, students should have acquired language knowledge such as spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and syntax (jennifer &ponniah, 2017). furthermore, they should apply writing techniques, such as text genre, mechanics, organization, and coherence and unity. thus, writing becomes more complex, and most students consider writing is the most difficult skill to master (zoghipour and nikou, 2016). in addition, writing with its complex nature makes writing a complex task in itself. it is also due to students’ lack of vocabulary and grammatical knowledge (sabti, rashid, nimehchisalem, & darmi, 2019) regarding the factors that cause writing difficulties, al seyabi & tuzlukova (2014) reported that omani students experience difficulties in writing due to lexical and content aspects. other research studies reported that pakistani undergraduate students have to struggle with grammar, syntax, vocabulary, generating ideas, and structural organization. in addition, a study conducted by alfaki (2015) revealed many factors associated with writing problems that sudanese students face, such as mechanical problems, linguistic problems, cognitive problems, and psychomotor problems. furthermore, they also feel anxious about writing and tend to rely on l1 (fareed, ashraf, and bilal (2016). more recently, umamah, hidayanti, & kurniasih (2019) found that grammar, mechanics, organization and content, and style re the main causes of writing difficulties experienced by indonesia efl students. what makes writing more complex may also come from the students themselves when students feel insecure about writing concerning language 144 kurniasih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) knowledge and writing properties. students’ affective feeling cannot be neglected because it may become the source of writing problems (latif, 2012). in other words, students’ negative emotions need to be given serious attention due to their detrimental effect on students writing since writing is both cognitive and affective activity (erkan & saban, 2011). students’ feeling of uneasiness and discomfort of writing activity is labeled as writing anxiety (jennifer & poniah, 2017), which was first called ‘writing apprehension’ by daly and miller (1975), referring to a condition where students tend to avoid writing situation and fear of negative evaluation. writing anxiety has gained interest in being investigated, focusing on its type, level, and level of anxiety. most of the studies found that writing anxiety correlates negatively with students’ performance. the higher the students writing anxiety level, the lower the students writing performance will be. therefore, it is a need to investigate teachers’ strategies in helping students reduce their anxiety. one of which is by implementing process approach writing. the process approach has been well-known for its benefits for writing. it allows students to go through writing stages before submitting their final draft to the teacher. furthermore, the teacher can also give comprehensive feedback to the students’ work, starting from the brainstorming idea, outlining, drafting, revising, and publishing. in process writing, students’ involved in the stages of writing form brainstorming for ideas, organizing ideas, writing the first draft, revising, and publishing (graham & perin, 2007; and pritchard & honeycutt, 2006). students have been trained to plan their writing so that their final product will be the version of them. it is also possible for students to implement the same skills they have learned in the process approach into a new context( guy, 2009). zamel (1982) emphasizes the importance of teacher intervention throughout the writing process, and students should consider themselves as readers. however, the teaching method, which focuses on the final product, ignores how ideas were explored through writing and fails to teach students that writing is a process of discovering meaning in which writers do not know what they will write. therefore she writes in the title of her article “writing: the process of discovering meaning”. writing anxiety has a significant contribution to the students’ success that its causes need to be considered important to be given serious attention. some of the causes of writing anxiety are lack of linguistic difficulties, lack of writing practice, lack of topical knowledge, and fear of negative evaluation and comments from peers and teachers. according to cheng (2002), writing anxiety is categorized into three types. they are cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior. cognitive anxiety refers to mental changes when students are assigned to produce a composition. they feel worried about negative evaluations from teachers and peers. somatic anxiety deals with bodily symptoms such as trembling, sweating, panic, etc. students who avoid writing situations due to their negative feeling of writing activity suffer avoidance behavior. regarding the types of anxiety, most of the findings of the previous study revealed that the most common type is cognitive anxiety compared to the other two types (cheng, 2002; jennifer & ponniah, 2017; kurniasih, 2014; kusumaningputri, ningsih &wisasongko, 2018, & zhang, 2011). to be able to produce a good piece of writing, in fact, students have some difficulties in writing due to some causes. regarding the source of anxiety, zhang (2011) developed a questionnaire to investigate the causes of anxiety. some scholars agree that linguistic difficulties (spelling, grammar, and vocabulary), test anxiety (especially fear of unfamiliar content), lack of topical knowledge, low self-confidence in writing, and fear of teachers’ negative comments, and lack of writing practice (cheng, 2002; zhang, 2011; jennifer& ponniah, 2017) are the major causes of anxiety. furthermore, jawas (2019) found that students become more anxious when they are given an in-class assignment. in addition, kelly & gaytan (2019) added that instructors’ immediate behaviors and instructional clarity are two factors causing anxiety. some studies investigated the effect of writing anxiety on students; performance. they found similar findings that learners with higher levels of anxiety were likely to perform poorly compared to lower anxiety (erkan & saban, 2011, gibriel, 2017 & 2019; kurniasih, 2014; latif, 2015; & zhang, 145 kurniasih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) 2011). as based on those findings, most studies revealed that anxiety is the main negative predictor of students’ writing performance. brown (2001) states that the process writing approach reflects writers’ thinking process that they have gone through before producing their final writing product. applebee (1986) emphasized that planning-revising and the like helps writers plan their writing rather than focus on how the final product looks (patterns of organization, spelling, and grammar). moreover, process approach writing contributes to students’ positive attitude toward writing (pritchard & honeycutt, 2006). it enhances students’ motivation in which students have their ability, get close attention from the teacher, and have a less stressful atmosphere. those conditions can facilitate students to have a positive feeling towards academic task (wigfild, 1994) the process approach offers some benefits for the students in terms of organization of ideas (barnet, 1992), managing and controlling their writing (brown, 2001), collaboration with peers (nunan, 1991; & wigfild, 1994). furthermore, graham and sandmel (2011) argued that writing process approach trains students to be critical such as in the planning and revising stage, to enhance students’ writing ability. guo, zhang, deane, & bennet (2019) investigated the students’ writing process and classified the process into sequences of writing. it is found that students have gone through some stages start from classifying students’ writing processes into sequences of writing states empirical studies have been conducted on the implementation of the writing process approach in various levels of education. syafii (2019) reported that integrating the process approach and pictures improved writing ability and increased motivation to learn english of the eighth graders. in addition, miftah (2015) implemented the writing process approach to indonesia efl university students using classroom action research design for two cycles. after quite a long process, 86.67% of the students have improved their writing ability. furthermore, dokchandra (2018) measured the effectiveness of writing process approach on students writing performance in a large class. the results showed that writing process approach had a significant effect on the writing performance of thai undergraduate students. moreover, they perceived writing process approach positively. writing process approach serves positive effects on lowering students writing anxiety as proven by a study conducted by bayat (2014) that revealed that the process approach provides significant effects on students writing anxiety and writing success. writing process approach is not only significant for students, but it is also beneficial for teachers to develop their teaching quality. street and stang (2008) found that the majority of teachers (79%) who have joined process-based writing courses become more confident to do their duties as teachers in giving the materials, checking students ‘works, giving feedback and evaluation. being more confident reflects a stable emotional state in which teachers don’t feel anxious when they do writing-related activities. as discussed above, it is, therefore, very crucial to optimize the positive side of the process approach to reduce the negative effects of writing anxiety and see its effect on writing performance. therefore, this current study aims at answering two research questions: 1). is there any significant difference in students’ anxiety levels after being taught by using the process approach? 2). is there any significant difference between students writing performance after being taught by using the process approach? ii. methods students who were registered in writing iii course have participated in this study. as many as 25 students filled out a slwai questionnaire in the pretest, only 15 students completed the whole process (the pretest, treatment, and the post-test). therefore, only 15 students were accounted as the participants in this study, which is good for writing class, so the teacher can give every student full attention. regarding the design, one-group pretestposttest design was employed. in this study, there is no control group. two instruments were employed to obtain data about students writing anxiety and writing score. participants were instructed to fill out a questionnaire, namely second language writing anxiety inventory (slwai) developed by cheng (2002), in the pretest and posttest. it consists of 22 items that fall into three categories: cognitive 146 kurniasih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) anxiety, somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior. the items distributions are as follows, cognitive anxiety ((1,3,7,9,14,17,20,21), somatic anxiety (2,6,8,11,13,15,19), and avoidance behavior (4,5,10,12,16,18,22). the slwai is a five-point likert response scale was used for each item ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). out of the 22 items, five items (1, 4, 17, 18, 22) are negatively worded and require reverse scoring before being summed up to yield a total score. the result of slwai questionnaire was analyzed to find out the mean before and after the treatment. to measure the effectiveness of process approach on writing performance, one group pretest-posttest designed was used. the data were analyzed using an independent paired sample t-test. iii. results and discussion the effect of writing process approach on students writing anxiety to answer the first question, the result of data analysis of the first research question is presented in the table 1: the data in table 1. indicates that the mean of the level of anxiety decreases from 71.27 to 63.29. before the treatment, the students have a high level of anxiety (71.27), then after the treatment, the students’ level of anxiety decreases to a moderate level (63.29). table 2. showes the difference in students’ level of anxiety was significant at .002. students have lower anxiety after getting the treatment using a process approach. the effect of writing process approach on students writing performance the findings of the second research questions about the effect of the process on writing anxiety shows that there is a significant difference between students writing performance before and after the treatment as represented in the table 3: the data analysis results above informed us that there is a significant difference in students’ writing performance after implementing the writing process approach. when students are given enough time to prepare their final draft, their score is significantly better than in the pretest. table2. the significant difference in the level of anxiety paired samples test mean paired differences t df sig. (2-tailed) std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 pretest – posttest 8,067 8,328 2,150 3,455 12,678 3,7 14 ,002 table 1: mean of level of anxiety paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pretest 71,27 15 4,590 1,185 posttest 63,20 15 9,405 2,428 table 3: mean score of pretest and posttest paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pretest 69,00 15 7,512 1,940 posttest 78,40 15 4,611 1,190147 kurniasih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) process approach has a significant effect on the students’ anxiety. the findings show that students’ level of anxiety decreases after the implementation of the process approach. the findings of this study are in line with bayat (2014). he conducted a study of 74 first-year-students, and he found that the process approach significantly affected students’ success and anxiety. this finding adds more valid data that process writing is beneficial for improving writing quality and reducing students’ anxiety. in relation to the causes of anxiety, when students are given enough time to plan their writing and acknowledge the teacher’s intervention during the writing process, their writing quality is better than the pretest. it indicates that time allocation matters in the process of writing since the writing process allows students to give and receive feedback from peers (nunan, 1991; & wigfild, 1994). as the participants are pre-service teachers, making them familiar with the process approach can prepare them for a future career as english teachers. one of the pedagogical implications of process-based writing is based on the findings of a study conducted by li and zhang (2015), which indicated that the teachers who participate in process-based writing had understood the principle of process-based writing, have learned the stages of process-based writing starting from planning, drafting, revising, editing, and sharing, and have high confidence to be writing teachers as well as writers. it is also in line with street and stang’s (2008) findings that the majority of teachers(79%) who have joined process-based writing course become more confident to do their duties as teachers in giving the materials, checking students’ works, giving feedback and evaluation. furthermore, a study conducted by khuder and hardwood (2015) proved that the process approach significantly affects the test situation’s writing quality. in relation to the specific part of the writing process, the prewriting stage correlates significantly to the writing quality, while the revision stage has no effect (de miliano, 2012) or negative effects (worden, 2009). iv. conclusion from the discussion above, it is clear that the writing process approach helps students improve the quality of the writing and reduce students’ anxiety. this research needs to be improved further in terms of the number of participants and the research design. furthermore, the students’ anxiety level may decrease to a low level if the research is conducted longer. it is suggested that teachers adopt/adapt the writing process approach principles to facilitate learning and prepare them to be english teachers and writers. acknowledgment authors would like to thank to universitas islam malang for the financial support in conducting this study under the program klasterisasi penelitian hibah institusi unisma (hi-ma), number: 375/b.21/u.ak/r/l.16/viii/2019. table 4: significance different of students’ performance paired samples test mean paired differences t df sig. 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(2016). the impact of explicit instruction of lexico-grammatical devices on efl learners. modern journal of language teaching methods (mjltm), 6(1), 677690. 150 microsoft word 122-129 ika agustina.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.122-129.2019 article pocket book of english for graphic technique as learning resource and medium of english for graphic technique course ika agustina1, reniwatilubis2, syahripal putra3 1,2 teknik grafika, politeknik negeri media kreatif, sumatera utara, indonesia 3 english teacher, sma negeri 19 medan, sumatera utara, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 23, 2019 final revision: october 11, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this research aims to develop learning resources and learning media in the sort of a decent and useful android-based pocketbook application as an effort to increase student interest and learning achievement. the research method used is r & d with research subjects, namely students of the department of graphic technique in semester 2. the data collection technique in this research was in the kind of documentation by organizing learning materials based on the syllabus through relevant book references and conducting fgd with graphic and esp experts. furthermore, to ensure that the pocketbook application is feasible, validation was carried out by 6 validators with a value of 4.61 with an excellent category then tested with students' response of 4.57 with a very positive category. therefore, this application is proven to be able to accommodate the needs of resources and media for learning english for students because it can be a substitute for books that are easy to carry and can be used practically without limitation of time and place. keyword pocketbook, android, learning, graphic technique correspondence e-mail: agustina.ika87@gmail.com i. introduction technology and language are complementary and symbiotic entities. in the discipline of education, language functions as a medium of interaction in conveying substance, concepts, messages, and information that must be acquired by students (zygmunt, 2016). in the context of lectures in the graphic technique department, language courses, especially english, are still taught until semester 4, even though they are not the main subjects. the existence of english courses is expected to play a major role in accelerating the fulfillment of competent graphic technique human resources who can compete in global market competition. however, so far, there have not been many learning resources for english graphic techniques. the development of massive and rapid information technology should encourage lecturers to be more creative, innovative, and productive in solving problems of lack of learning resources and other problems such as limited face-toface hours. therefore, this research designs and makes an android-based pocketbook application for english graphic technique ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 123 both as a learning resource and learning media. learning resources are all material, audiovisuall, and non-audio-visual materials, human, school environments available in the academic environment to facilitate and simplify the teaching-learning process (dangara, 2016). learning resources are very important because they have a role in assisting students in learning (prastowo, 2018). learning resources are functioned to help students achieve their learning goals. learning resources can include people, tools and materials, activities, and the environment. learning media is everything that can convey or channel messages from a planned source so that a contributive learning environment occurs where the recipient can carry out the learning process efficiently and effectively (arsyad, 2016). as technology advances, teachers inevitably should be able to develop learning media by utilizing new technologies. the use of technology as learning media can encourage students’ motivation (nasrudin, agustina, akrim, ahmar, & rahim, 2018). however, the biggest obstacle to the development of technology-based learning media is the low technological knowledge of the lecturer (chigona, 2017). therefore, the campus must provide training to lecturers intensively related to the use of technology. the use of android in learning has begun to be widely developed in indonesia (astra, nasbey, & nugraha, 2015); (arista & kuswanto, 2018). several studies have shown that android-based learning media has a constructive influence on students' learning motivation (cahyono, tsani, & rahma, 2018); (muhdiyanto, 2018). it increases students' productivity and creativity, including characteristic mental attitude, the systematic arrangement of the model, and the social system (putra, irdianto, mukhadis, & suhartadi, 2016). moreover, it is assumed innovative because it simplifies the students' acquisition of information significantly (abildinovaa et al., 2016). it is also more efficient than traditional learning using books or student worksheets (zatulifa, riswandi, fitriawan, & akla, 2018). other previous studies also showed positive results from the use of android-based learning media on students' understanding of grammar and vocabulary development (fodor & covaci, 2016). an android operating system is an operating system for linux-based devices that is open source, including operating systems, middleware, and applications (safaat, 2015). this openness allows programmers to design applications and modify the system. some of the programs needed are ide (integrated development environment) which is a program having the tools needed in the software technique (nurhidayat, 2018). by using a particular java ide, all programming requirements will be simplified into one container. starting from text editing, compiler or translator, system assistance, and can also be found other features that are useful in coding while eclipse is open-source software that consists of a modifiable framework (can be developed further). thus, the pocket book of english for graphics technique can be categorized as a learning resource because, with this application, information can be recorded, disseminate, and can also be integrated with others. it can also be categorized as a learning medium because it is the result of a combination of computer technology that used as a learning medium for students in learning english. english for graphic technique is an english specific purposes course with 2 credits delivered to students of the graphic technique study program in the second semester. in this course, students are expected to have english communication competencies, know the terms of graphic ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 124 technique, and can describe activities related to graphic technique ranging from pre-print, print, to post-print. the lack of learning resources is the main challenge for lecturers in teaching esp (nguyen & ngo, 2017). therefore, many lecturers make their textbooks. english lecturers also face this in the graphic technique study program (agustina & murtopo, 2017). the lack of resources for learning english for graphic technique and the unavailability of androidbased learning media for graphic technique students. the research focuses on developing an android-based pocketbook for android techniques, which can help students to learn english wherever they are. the study of english for the graphic technique consists of reading time with themes related to graphic technique and supported by several enrichments such as vocabulary, reading and listening comprehension, speaking, and grammar focus on each unit. ii. methods the research uses research and development methods by developing educational products in the sort of android-based pocketbook applications that can be opened via smartphones and having practical and interesting features. the study was conducted in the politeknik negeri media kreatif, and the research subjects are 13 students of graphic technique in the second semester of 2018/2019 academic year. the object of research is a set of knowledge and skills competencies gathered in the syllabus and semester learning plan for graphic technique courses. the procedures taken in this study are: 1. identify problems and needs this stage includes conducting studies and analyzing the needs of the syllabus and learning outline in english technique graphic courses. it aligns the results of studies and needs analysis properly on students and lecturers of core courses in the graphic technique department through discussion forums. 2. data collection in collecting data, researchers used documentation techniques by organizing learning materials based on the syllabus through relevant book references 3. system analysis it analyzes existing cases of how the pocket book of english for graphics technique application can run well and can be accessed by users on devices with the android 3.0 honeycomb operating system. as a programming language applied in this research, development is java 2 m. e. and for the sqlite database used. 4. system design the system design will explain the general description of the database system that will be implemented with the uml (unified modeling language) design model. 5. implementation this stage involves the construction of an application program that runs on a device based on the design and applies a stringmatching algorithm. the resulting pocketbook display and application installation process are adjusted to the analysis and design. the work step in this application is, when input is entered in the sort of a search with keywords, it will be processed with a mechanism that has been defined and will generate links to databases related to the material that has these keywords. another way is to click on the digital pocketbook content hierarchy either by pulling up or down the home interface. 6. validation, testing, and evaluation the validation and testing are carried out by conducting observations, giving questionnaires and interviews. the pocketbook was validated by 2 esp experts, 2 instructional media experts, and 2 computer science experts. this application was revised based on the ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 125 suggestions of the experts. after being revised, it was tested on 13 graphic technique students to know their responses. finally, this application was revised for the second time according to students' inputs. iii. result 3.1 need analysis of application here are some analyzes of why this pocketbook is important in learning english for graphic technique: 1. the number of subject credit that is only two credits can be categorized as very minimal to pursue and achieve the goal of creating a reliable workforce in the discipline of graphic arts. 2. lack of learning resources of english for graphic technique. 3. conventional books make students get bored quickly on exercises and routine tasks so that learning motivation becomes less to review it further. 3.2 design of pocketbook application at the system design stage, an outline of the android-based pocket book of english graphic technique application program was developed. the following are some typical pocketbook points in the application. 1. home page the home page is served by displaying the sign-up menu function to register themselves. next, the sign-in menu functions for the entrance to access the application by inputting the username and password. 2. main menu page this page displays the main menu to access contents, book maps, acknowledgment, how to use this book, units 1-10, (consisting of unit 1: the history of printing, unit 2: career in printing, unit 3: process of printing, unit 4: introduction to printing machinery, unit 5: ink& paper, unit 6: screen printing, unit 7: digital printing, unit 8: color in marketing, unit 9: advertising printing, unit 10: ecommerce), about book & authors, references. 3. search and close menu this menu simplifies application members to close the application if they do not want to access the application. a close menu will appear on each home page. 3.3 implementation of pocketbook application the process that occurs in the use of the english digital graphic book pocketbook application is as follows: a. installation process the installation process of the pocketbook application requires a memory space of a minimum of 40 mb with compatibility that can be used for any version of android. it is just a recommended specification, the android 4.3 jelly bean operating system, or above. then the phone must possess minimun1 gb of ram and 500mb rom. after the minimum specification requirements are met, then the user simply clicks on the icon and confirms, just wait for about 1 minute, then the application is installed completely. fig. 1. icon of pocket book b. the process at running time when the program runs, the user will see the initial interface as shown in figure 2. then the option to sign up will appear if the user has never enrolled or signed in if the user has ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 126 registered before. after inputting the data username and password is correct, then the user will be directed to the next page, namely the menu selection page. in the select menu page, there are menu options, namely contents, book maps, acknowledgment, how to use this book, units 1-10, about book & authors, and references in part displayed in figure 3. fig. 2. initial interface fig. 4. main menu display some display materials such as reading, listening, speaking, writing and grammar can be accessed by the user, as shown below. fig. 5. lesson page display c. the process at search and close in this application, there is a typical menu different from other pocket book applications. this apps has a search menu that can search for material with key terms related to graphics, making it easier to access the desired graphic technique material. the close menu can be found on any page of the application. when the user clicks on the close menu the application asks for confirmation; whether the user is sure they want to close the application 3.4 validation and testing result of pocket book of english for graphic technique a. validation to verify whether the pocketbook that has been designed by the research team is feasible or not to be used, the first step is to validate the feasibility of the application by asking for opinions of some experts in the discipline of esp, instructional media, and computer science experts. the results of the assessment of the quality of the application dictionary are calculated on a scale of 1-5, with criteria: x > 4,2 = very good 3,4< x ≤ 4,2 = good 2,6< x ≤ 3,4 = fair 1,8< x ≤ 2,6 = bad x ≤ 1,8 = very bad ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 127 table 1.validation score of pocket book no aspect validator validator 1 validator 2 1 application design 4.80 4.67 2 material worthiness 4.40 4.53 3 reliability of application 4.53 4.73 average 4.57 4.64 total average 4.61 table 1 shows that the total average of the validation score is 4.61. it proves that the pocketbook application is in a very good category (x > 4,2). in addition, the validation process also obtained suggestions qualitatively against deficiencies in the pocketbook application. some validators’ suggestions are to add a help menu, add glossary menu, develop more varied grammar exercises, and make feedback. b. testing after going through the design, manufacturing and validation stages, the application is required to be tested by users, namely graphic technique students of politeknik negeri media kreatif, to find out the usefulness, reliability, suitability, effectiveness, and practicality of dictionary applications. the trial questionnaire of the application is intended for students as the target subjects for using the pocket book of english for graphic technique application with 20 items of questions, and 13 respondents spread in the second semester as attached. students responded to this pocket book application with an excellent response, as evidenced by the acquisition of a questionnaire result of 4.57. however, the students criticized that the reading material uses many complicated terms for the beginner. moreover, they also suggested that this application should have initial exercises easier for warming up for students. iv. discussion to produce a qualified application, then this application has been revised 2 times, namely after the validation stage by experts and after the testing phase on students. the first improvement was done by following the suggestions from the validators by adding the help menu, adding glossaries, grammar exercises made more varied, and making feedback. meanwhile, the second phase of the revision was done by considering the suggestions from students, namely by providing an easier initial exercise as warming up and simplifying the reading material. based on the data, it can be deduced that the pocket book of english graphic technique applications that have been designed by the team is of good quality overall. the android-based pocket book of english for graphic technique application can display material studies, competency tests, and user interactions in a consistent, standardized, relevant, coherent, and up-todate manner under the study of graphic technique. this application also works smoothly on all device devices in a compatible, synchronous, and smooth manner. the pocket book of english for graphic technique application has passed the validation test with a validation test value of 4.60 from 6 validators comprise of 2 esp experts, 2 instructional media experts, and 2 computer science experts. qualification of digital pocket book products is quite good. it has passed a series of revisions based on feedback and suggestions from validator and graphic technique students as the main users so that they can guarantee the quality of the application of the pocket book of english for graphic technique as a reference, media, and independent learning source. this is evidenced by the positive response of students to the presence of digital pocketbook products with a gain index of 4.57 or very well categorized. ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 128 iv. conclusion the android-based pocket book of english for graphic technique application can run as a learning source and media for students of the graphic technique department. the pocket book is also validated with a validation test value of 4.61 from six validators, each two esp experts, instructional media experts, and computer science experts. the students, as the main subject, verify the quality of the pocketbook application by 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persada. astra, i. m., nasbey, h., & nugraha, a. 2015. development of an android application in the form of a simulation lab as learning media for senior high school students . eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(5), 1081–1088. https://doi.org/https:// doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1376a cahyono, b., tsani, d., & rahma, a. 2018. pengembangan buku saku matematika berbasis karakter pada materi trigonometri. jurnal phenomenon, 8(2), 72–86. chigona, a. 2017. western cape subject advisors’ perception of their preparedness for connected classrooms. the electronic journal of e-learning, 15(5). dangara , u. y. 2016. educational resources  : an integral component for effective school administration in nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences , 6(13), 27–37. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed578024.pdf fodor, a.-g., & covaci, b. v. 2016. e-learning mobile app for android and ios “english grammar l earn &test.” database systems journal, vii(2), 10–18. muhdiyanto, a. r. 2018. pengembangan buku saku matriks berbasis android berdasarkan kurikulum 2013 untuk siswa kelas xi ips sma negeri 2 sukoharjo . universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. nasrudin, n., agustina, i., akrim, ahmar, a. s., & rahim, r. 2018. multimedia educational game approach for psychological conditional . international journal of engineering & technology, 7(29), 78–81. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.9.13353 ika agustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 129 nguyen, n. t., & ngo, n. d. 2017. understanding teacher efficacy to teach english for specific purposes. asian efl journal, (102), 4–16. nurhidayat, m. 2018. jurus rahasia menguasai pemrograman android. jakarta: alex media komputindo. prastowo, a. 2018. sumber belajar dan pusat belajar: teori dan aplikasinya. depok: prenadamedia group. putra, a. b. n. r., irdianto, w., mukhadis, a., & suhartadi, s. 2016. pocket book learning: learning methods to train students productive and creative using ‘brano’as an effective learning recorder . aip conference proceedings. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4965768 safaat, n. 2015. aplikasi berbasis android edisi revisi. bandung: informatika. zatulifa, m., riswandi, fitriawan, h., & akla. 2018. application based android as a development of english learning media. iosr journal of research & method in education, 8(4), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-0804036672 zygmunt, t. 2016. language education for sustainable development. discourse and communication for sustainable education, 7(1), 112–124. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1515/dcse-2016-0008. biography ika agustina was born on august 9, 1987 in medan. she graduated from the postgraduate program on english applied linguistics unimed in 2012. she actively involves in journal association (rji) and a frequent speaker at english teaching seminars at national and international level. she supervises students and teachers in medan. she works in politeknik negeri media kreatif medan and universitas muhammadiyah sumatera utara. reniwati lubis was born on october 1974 in medan. she graduated from the postgraduate program on education technology unimed in 2011. her expertise in teaching typography and work safety in politeknik negeri media kreatif medan. syahripal putra was born on may 10, 1985 in batubara, north sumatera. he graduated from the postgraduate program on english applied linguistics unimed in 2012. he is active in english teachers association and a frequent speaker for an english teaching in some seminars. he is a national instructor of pkb program from the ministry of education and culture in 2016 2017. he actively supervised students in english club. he works in sma negeri 19 medan, north sumatera luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 01, 2021 final revision: september 10, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 finding out aspects of learning in small group discussions that matched with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots) and aspects of local cultures that contradict small group discussion excellence is the purpose of this research. the method of this research is qualitative. researchers use document analysis by collecting documents from various sources such as journals and articles, which are following the research that the researcher will do. the results of this research show that the implementation of hots instruction in teaching speaking skills investigated from students’ small group discussions will be advantageous and beneficial. in essence, hots instructions give a positive effect on students speaking skills significantly. keyword speaking, small group discussion, elt correspondence e-mail: lulisariyustina@uinib.ac.id articles small-group discussion in actual elt speaking classes of minangkabau context luli sari yustina1, besral besral2, syayid sandi sukandi3 1,2,3universitas islam negeri (uin) imam bonjol padang under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.189-196.2021 i. introduction implementing hots in teaching english is mandatory in indonesia. the purpose of implementing hots is to allow students to perform analysis, evaluation, and creation on their knowledge (newman, 1990; zohar et al, 2001; keshta and seif, 2013; antoni, 2014; faravani and atai, 2015; eisenman and payne, 2016; nguyễn and nguyễn, 2017; ariyana et al., 2018). theoretically, english teachers are encouraged to develop the hots in their teaching performance. hots itself is defined as a certain way of thinking that involves knowledge application, reflection examination, decision preference, solution-oriented act, and new things formulation in the sense of teaching and learning, (seman et al., 2017). english teachers are ought to develop the hots approach toward the students. hots helped the students to be adaptable toward new learning circumstances heong et al., 2011. additionally, hots is situated as the highest level of the cognitive taxonomy as proposed by bloom (brookhart, 2010). the ability to implement and develop new skills within the process of learning a new topic is one purpose of hots as a system. there are five stages to adjust the critical ability to think: 1) deciding the learning goals of reading class; 2) teaching through questioning; 3) requesting students to practice; 4) reviewing refining and improving the current understanding; 5) performing feedback and learning assessment. the five stages should be integrated to boost critical thinking (limbach & waugh, 2010). in the context of efl english, four language skills need to be mastered. the skills are categorized into: a) receptive skills; b) productive skills. the former skill is reading and listening; meanwhile, the latter skills are writing and speaking. speaking skill needs further attention from english teachers. it relates to communication competence in english. communication happens between people because of the need to share information that has facts, opinions, ideas, instruction, and the like). classbased communication activity has the purpose to engage learners to use the language they are learning to interact in actual and meaningful ways. typically, it involves information or opinion exchange. speaking skill is regarded as an active skill because it demands learners to concentrate on achieving the communication activity. in this research, the researchers chose the small group discussion technique, which was later on 189 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) called sgd in this article, to promote the learners’ performance and competence in oral english presentation. we assumed that the sgd technique triggers further involvement from the students’ side compared to other techniques in teaching speaking. the sgd technique can reach the communicative activity because it highlights two needs of language learning 1) preparing learners with reallife language use; 2) encouraging the learners to actualize their knowledge of the language. the sgd technique provides wider opportunities for learners in terms of practicing their oral english presentation skill because, comparatively, a small group members make the presenter feels more confident in explaining the topics in comparison to a big group discussion. speaking is an active and interactive activity to mentally and vocally recreate the word and try to understand the content of the communication. we use language to communicate every day. in other words, language is crucial for social interaction to happen. the interaction exchange process possibly happens between two persons, at least, who have interactions, experiences, and knowledge that are different socially. one of the ways to have social interaction is by conducting the sgd technique discussion in the classroom. in this research, we situated students into three people that had a different experience and social interaction in their environment. then, we gave a topic for speaking and they understand the topic, eventually, they can collaborate to comprehend the topic with a calm attitude. as has been mentioned earlier, the purpose of this research is to describe the sgd technique in an english-speaking classroom within the efl english situation. we planned to describe the application of the sgd technique in the speaking class of english language teaching. the problem of this research is formulated in these following questions: 1. what aspects of learning in small group discussions are matched with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots)? 2. what aspects of local cultures contradict small group discussion excellence? considering the background and formulation, this research aimed to achieve the following objectives: 1) to find out what aspects of learning in small group discussion matched with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots); 2) to find out what aspects of local cultures contradict with small group discussion excellence. the researcher hopes to give the result of this study as some theoretical and practical and theoretical. theoretically, this study provides benefits as a general referential knowledge of the way to describe aspects of learning in small group discussion that matched with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots). in terms of the researchers, this research can provide an opportunity in developing our knowledge and skill in describing aspects of learning in the sgd technique discussion that is in line with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots) and aspects of local cultures that contradict with the sgd technique excellence. in terms of the english teachers, this study can be helpful as information in selecting aspects of learning in the sgd technique that is in line with the indonesian higher order thinking skills (hots) and aspects of local cultures that contradict with small group discussion excellence. furthermore, this research can be considered as a reference and general knowledge about the next research that relates to the sgd discussion technique in current teaching of the english language, especially in speaking class. ii. methods the method of this research is qualitative. the qualitative research was relevant for exploring the process of understanding a current group or an emerging phenomenon. the outcome of such explorations is in the form of new theories. the unique thing about qualitative research is that it can help the researchers to find out answers to issues or questions and concerns that might not be answerable within the notion of the quantitative method. qualitative research focuses on the understanding of the concept of the research. collecting the data is relevant in doing the research, it is used to conceptualize the method, material, and interpretation of the research (flick, 2009). in this research, the researcher starts his analysis by using a checklist and data classification. in this study, there are two variables: 1) learning 190 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) outcomes; 2) the student-centered learning method based on the sgd technique. the subject of the research is aspects of learning of small group discussion are matched with the indonesian higher-order thinking skill and aspects of local culture contradict with small group discussion excellence. in qualitative research, a researcher can use observation, interviews, or document analysis as instruments (ary, 2010). the researcher uses document analysis as his instrument. in this research, we used the documentation method in collecting data. documentation technique is one of the techniques in finding data about things or variables that can be found in media like notes, books, transcripts, newspapers, magazines, agendas, and others (arikunto, 2006: 231). researchers use document analysis by collecting documents from various sources such as journals and articles, which are following the research that the researcher will do. three stages must be completed in analyzing qualitative research data, such as (1) data reduction ; (2) data exposure; (3) conclusion verification (miles & huberman, 1992). data validation before the data is analyzed, first the validity and researchers take some results from research from other studies to the student-centered learning method based on small group discussion in the accuracy and stability or reliability of the instruments in this study and several journals related to local culture, specifically minangkabau. in terms of conducting this analytical research, the researcher used secondary data from the students’ thesis which can be a reference or guide for the researchers. the first is roni la’riban, a student from the indonesian christian university toraja, who researches at smpn 2 saluputti in tana toraja. the second data are taken from the thesis of sovenda septa hastoyo from the university of sebelas maret surakarta, who researched at mi al islam grobagan, surakarta. from roni la’riban’s research, the result of the finding showed that there was a different percentage in pretest and post-test of the students’ ability in speaking for the eighth year students of smpn 2 saluputti. in the pretest, there were 16 or 100% students classified as “very poor” score, and in the post-test, there were 2 students or 13% of the sample classified as very good in the posttest. there were 9 students or 56% of the sample classified as good. there were 4 students or 25% of the sample classified as fair. there was only 1 student or 6% of the sample classified as poor. the mean score of the students in the pre-test was 22.8 and the post-test was 78.2. the gain score was 55. 3 (78.2> 22.8). it shows that the mean score of the post-test is greater than the pretest. from the data, it can be stated that using the sgd technique can improve students’ speaking ability for the eighth-year students of smpn 2 saluputti. “the use of a small group discussion teaching strategy gives the students a lot of benefits, such as they have much opportunity to speak or express their ideas.” (la’biran, 2017). sgd technique can indeed improve students’ speaking competence (hastoyo, 2010). further more, orlich et.al (1985) mentioned there three reasons, including increasing classroom interaction, promote personal interaction, and increasing independent learning. the authors found that several aspects of the small group discussion match higher-order ranking skills. first, studentcentered, in this case, students become the center of learning. students are required to find and get learning materials. second, the form is discussed in a limited group. after students read and understand the material students are asked to discuss it in groups. the groups can be formed in pairs or 3-4 students. third, it is the purposed discussion. the discussion that occurs between students is a discussion that has the aim of achieving broader information and perspectives. in this case, there are several aspects of the sgd technique that are compatible with higher-order thinking skills. first, it is the student-centered matches with higher-order thinking skills. in terms of student activity, it is more pointed out than the teacher. in higher-order, thinking skills students are required to have advanced reasoning and conclude the results of their reasoning. the second aspect of the discussion in a limited group is also under higher-order thinking skills in terms of argumentation skills because in discussions students can express their opinions based on their reasoning. the third is the purposed of discussion 191 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in terms of the ability to make decisions about something. after students get a conclusion about the things they are discussing, students are required to apply it in the form of action. table 1. aspect small group discussion are matched with hots aspects of the sgd technique higher-order thinking skill student-centered students are more active and do their reasoning discussion in a limited group ability to argue in groups purposed of discussion decision-making ability iii. results the aspect of local culture contradicted with the small group discussion the democratic system of the minangkabau people is marked by the custom of deliberation to reach an agreement or consensus this has been around for a long time, remembering many archaeological remains associated with these activities. the mention of kursi salapan (eight seats) or medan nan bapaneh (a field place hot/open space) itself is associated with the customs of the minangkabau people in their social life. everything related to the interests of the community is decided by deliberation. the discussion was possibly already known by the minangkabau community when they were still living with megalithic culture. as is known, the megalithic culture developed in society has lived a sedentary life. sedentary life marks the development of life social development, as well as the development of the social strata of society. the construction of megalithic buildings and the holding of traditional ceremonies, for example, are not only done by working together with the possibility of also being discussed in deliberations by members of the people. an indication of the existence of places that indicate deliberation as well mentioned in tambo, the old manuscript of the minangkabau people. among them mention that after traveling across the sea, finally, the king of kings appeared as a king around lagundi nan baselo, the name of a field on the slopes of mount marapi, also where the leaders sit in meetings (nopriyasman, 2008: 122). this explains that in a place that is spacious and open, deliberation has existed before the entry of hindu-buddhist teachings. in general kurisi salapan or medan nan bapaneh is located in a different place that tends to be spacious. this spacious location is then possible to implement court in the vicinity, so that then society connects the function of the throne the stone throne for the congregation. physically, the stone throne cannot be connected directly as a place to gather or meet, but used the location where the stone throne is located is based more on the idea that the place has magical value. the use of a wide and open area as a place for deliberation to take place until the time of hindu-buddhist development in the minangkabau realm. inside the tambo too mentioned when the government of datuk suri dirajo, founded balai nan saruang with the roofed sky, walled with wind, and floor of stone. the hall is the place consensus on royal officials (nopriyasman, 2008:123). selection in a large area and openness are intended so that decisions are taken by the ruler can be heard directly by the public. the use of a wide and spacious area is also known by the minangkabau community now. activities that involve community members are carried out on the spot. in the minang realm, there is a center of activity called pemedanan and arena. pemedanan is a large field located outside the village, used to resolve disputes between individuals, between clans, and between nagari that are not probably completed the respective headers. the arena is used as a place for folk games and competitions (navis, 1984:189). the life of deliberation then developed until later times, namely islamic and colonial times. increasingly complex community life also causes many problems in society that must be decided through deliberation. when life is increasingly complex society then entrusts affairs to the headman as the leader. it is these traditional leaders or stakeholders who then convened to discuss various matters such as village government affairs, resolve and try cases, and others. one of the special features of the minangkabau community is the nan sakato community. inside forming a nan sakato society four elements must be adhered to by each member of society, namely (amir, 2003:111–115):192 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) a. saiyo sakato, differences of opinion between individuals are recognized in community life but sought a way out with deliberation for consensus. results can be round (acclamation), but can also be flat or blind (via voting). anyway, the decision process is taken, if there is a consensus then the decision must be implemented by all parties. b. sahino samalu, tribal group life is very close. the intimacy of deep relationship this group of tribes makes individual self-esteem melt into one self-esteem tribal groups c. anggo tanggo, created an orderly and disciplined association in society. every member of society is required to abide by the rules and laws as well as disregard the guidelines and instructions given by the customary authorities d. sapikue sajinjiang, in a communal society, all tasks become a responsibility together. the nature of gotong-royong is a must. help and support each other is an obligation. these four elements, if applied properly, can fulfill the purpose of living in a peaceful, peaceful, prosperous, and blessed society. apart from that, the minangkabau community in its cultural system also applies democratic values marked by tradition deliberate to reach a consensus in solving existing problems. at this point, the researcher found that local culture and small group discussion are closely connected because minangkabau culture is very egalitarian; thus, having criticism in conversation is not seen as a problem and it is open to new elements such as the sgd. in minangkabau, the principle of deliberation applies in reaching an agreement. deliberation is necessary because truth does not come from individuals but a collection of individuals in a group. the minangkabau community is known as a religious and hard-working community; and upholds cultural customs, as well as lives in harmony with nature. in addition, it also applies the concept of a safe and peaceful life. another special feature is the sakato community. sakato means “even”, agree, and agree. four elements must be followed by every member of society to be able to form a society and sakato, namely: saiyo is clearer than the position of leader/chief is also more important because at hand those leaders are various problems solved and solutions are sought. decisions that have gone through stages of deliberation to obtain consensus are the real truth. that decision is a unanimous decision and fully supported by all individuals participating in the deliberation. deliberation is an element of democracy modern culture has long been cultured in society minang. we can see to this day in every nagari or villages addda balai balai as ninik mamak pemangku traditional meeting place (kasim, 1995). the tradition of deliberation to reach a consensus has existed since ancient times, even long before islam entered the minangkabau region. democratic values contained in the minangkabau customary system have been going on for a long time, meaning far away before indonesian independence, the minangkabau people practiced democratic values. various archaeological remains, old manuscripts, and traditions to this day illustrate that the minangkabau community in completing various problems that occur in social life tends to prioritize the method of deliberation. differences of opinion in the deliberation process are highly valued because differences in opinion will enrich the decision. recognizing principles differences of opinion and deliberation is always the essence of democratic values being grown. the nature of openness in deliberation activities is indicated by the selection of deliberation locations that tend to be open, and also in the form of a traditional hall building which is deliberately made without walls, doors, and windows. the public trusts the leader to solve the various problems at hand, but the way is that there is no secret deliberation or trial so that it can be heard by the general public. although there are differences in the shape of the traditional hall building, or there is a difference in the position of the rulers, the two alignments are fixed prioritizing the deliberation system to reach consensus. democratic values are have become a tradition in the life of the minangkabau people, apart from being the wrong form of local wisdom in social life, can also inspire progress democratic life in indonesia. therefore, in minangkabau small group discussions can be used very well because minangkabau 193 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) has democratic customs, which always hold deliberations in large or small groups to solve problems. iv. discussion local culture (minangkabau) in the small group discussion (sgd) the tradition of deliberation to reach a consensus has existed since ancient times, even long before islam entered the minangkabau region. democratic values contained in the minangkabau customary system had existed until today since a long time ago, even far away before indonesian independence, the minangkabau people practiced democratic values. various archaeological remains, old manuscripts, and traditions to this day illustrate that the minangkabau community in completing various problems that occur in social life tends to prioritize the method of deliberation. differences of opinion in the deliberation process are highly valued because differences in opinion will enrich the decision. recognizing principles differences of opinion and deliberation is always the essence of democratic values being grown. the nature of openness in deliberation activities is indicated by the selection of deliberation locations that tend to be open, and also in the form of a traditional hall building which is deliberately made without walls, doors, and windows. the public trusts the leader to solve the various problems at hand, but the way. there is no secret deliberation or trial so that it can be heard by the general public. although there are differences in the shape of the traditional hall building, or there is a difference in the position of the rulers, the two alignments are fixed prioritizing the deliberation system to reach consensus. democratic values are have become a tradition in the life of the minangkabau people, apart from being the wrong form of local wisdom in social life, can also inspire progress democratic life in indonesia. one of the special features of the minangkabau community is the nan sakato community. inside forming a nan sakato society four elements must be adhered to by each member of society, namely (amir, 2003:111–115). a) saiyo sakato, differences of opinion between individuals are recognized in community life but sought a way out with deliberation for consensus. results can be round (acclamation), but can also be flat or blind (via voting). anyway, the decision process is taken, if there is a consensus then the decision must be implemented by all parties. b) sahino samalu, tribal group life is very close. the intimacy of deep relationship this group of tribes makes individual self-esteem melt into one self-esteem tribal groups c) anggo tanggo, created an orderly and disciplined association in society. every member of society is required to abide by the rules and laws as well as disregard the guidelines and instructions given by the customary authorities d) sapikue sajinjiang, in a communal society, all tasks become a responsibility together. the nature of gotong-royong is a must. help and supporting each other is an obligation. table 2. characteristic of cooperative learning in small group discussion and cultural characteristics of deliberation in minangkabau characteristic of cooperative learning in small group discussion cultural characteristics of deliberation in minangkabau positive interdependence saiyo sakato individual and group accountability sahino samalu interpersonal and small group skills anggo tango face-to-face promotive interaction sapikue sajinjiang group processing in the discussion above that the characteristics of the small group discussion, especially cooperative learning, are very suitable for the characteristics of deliberation in minangkabau culture. the characteristics of saiyo sakato are very compatible with positive independence and group processing because in the discussion what is sought is the result and consensus, and interdependence with each other to solve problems. group members need to feel free to communicate openly with each other to express concerns and celebrate achievements.194 luli sari yustina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) while anggo tanggo also relates to individual and group accountability because the group is responsible for achieving its goals and each member must be responsible for making a fair contribution from his work to achieve group goals. likewise, each member is required to comply with the rules and invite and heed the guidelines and instructions given. for next characteristic, sapikue sajinjiang is also suitable for face-to-face promotive interaction because in sapikue sajinjiang there is an element of ‘gotong royong’, helping and supporting each other is an obligation as well as face-to-face promotive interaction. they help, support, encourage, and applaud each other’s efforts to learn. academic and personal supports are part of this common goal. however, there is one characteristic in the deliberation in minangkabau that does not match the characteristics of cooperative learning, namely sahino samalu, because in minangkabau the closeness of the relationship is very close while in cooperative learning sometimes we have individuality problems with group-mate. v. conclusion the point to be made in this article is that decision-making in the minangkabau community is performed by implementing deliberation and consensus and in-process decision making is led by mamak, penghulu. as such, in the minangkabau context, as it relates to the actual elt speaking classes of indonesian efl english, the small group discussion technique is worthy application. the reason is that no elements of minangkabau culture that are against the advantages of the sgd technique. briefly, almost all of the characteristics of the sgd technique match with the minangkabau culture of deliberation. references amir. 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(2017). teachers’ challenges in teaching and learning for higher order thinking skills (hots) in primary school. https://doi.org/10.18488/ journal.1.2017.77.534.545 zohar, a., degani, a., & vaaknin, e. (2001). teachers’ beliefs about low-achieving students and higher order thinking. teaching and teacher education . 196 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 25, 2020 final revision: april 07, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this study aims to fill the gap of the comparison study between japanese learners and native japanese speakers, focused on the semantic formula of refusal act. sixteen japanese native speakers and twenty-two indonesian learners are the subjects of this study. we use a questionnaire or discourse completion test (dct) to collect the data, and we use the semantic formula by ito and ikeda to analyze the refusal utterances. this paper reveals that indonesian japanese learners tended to not aware of different social status levels and use different semantic formulas in japanese. the lack of knowledge of the pragmatic competence within the use of speech act is the main problem in japanese education. keyword politeness strategy, japanese refusal expression, indonesian japanese learners, pragmatic competence correspondence phone: 08979333781 e-mail: lisda_nurjaleka@mail.unnes.ac.id article refusal expression in l2 and its comparison with native speaker: a study case in the japanese language lisda nurjaleka1 1japanese languae education, universitas negeri semarang, east java, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.34-44.2020 i. introduction japanese is referred to as a contextual language. this means that communication is essential in the context of socio-cultural discourse relating to the use of the japanese language. studying japanese, however, should not be separated from the culture of the society to which the language belongs. many aspects of communication are closely related to their social, cultural, political, and various other contexts. these complex relations between the nature of japanese discourse and its socio-cultural contexts are problematic for foreign learners. for example, many people say that the refusal expressions in japanese are ambiguous, especially for foreigners who study japanese. they often misunderstand and have difficulty understanding these expressions. refusals are categorized as face-threatening acts, and the possibility of offending someone is inherent in the act itself (beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz, 1990). for this reason, refusals are often regarded as strategies. more direct the refusal, the more the threat to the person’s face. because of this risk, some degree of indirectness usually exists; the person who refuses may need to soften the force of the refusal. to this end, making reasons for refusal are also crucial for reducing face-threatening. (taguchi 2008; campillo, jordà & espurz 2009) however, the study of this aspect is limited. many studies have investigated refusal expressions from the function of the modality in refusal discourse until a contrastive study with their native language. for example, grein (2007) compared the speech act of refusal within the languages of german and japanese in the setting of a dialogic action game. ito (2006) and ikeda (2005) analyzed the semantic formula of refusal expression in japanese. some studies have investigated the important speech act performed by language learners (e.g., al-kahtani, 2005; gass & houck, 2011; ikeda, 2009; allami & naeimi, 2011; yamada, 2010, kartika, 2019). these studies revealed that the generic structure of japanese refusals to requests has two obligation stages: request/invitation and refusal. others, such as initiating, pre-sequence, excuse, apology, 36 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) empathy, and alternative, are optional stages. this pattern is relatively similar to the refusals in other languages. however, few studies have investigated the speech act performed by indonesian japanese learners and their comparison with japanese speakers. the aim of the present paper is twofold: 1) to compare refusal strategies by indonesian japanese learners and native japanese speakers; and 2) to examine and compare the semantic formulas of both indonesian japanese learners and native japanese speakers. the results can contribute to active japanese language learning for indonesian learners and smooth communication between indonesian and japanese people. several studies on cross-cultural conducted throughout the year and one of the primary research in refusal is by beebe et al. (1990). beebe et al. conducted survey research to see and clarify pragmatic transfer from its mother tongue japanese to english of english learners whose mother tongue is japanese. on that process of investigation, this study uses a semantic formula for refusal in english american whose mother tongue is american, and a refusal of japanese language whose mother tongue is japanese. therefore, the difference between american english and japanese becomes clear. according to beebe et al., in japanese refusal expression, we can either choose to be part of it or not. ito emiko (2006) stated that “longer expressions are politer than shorter expressions with regards to refusals under the condition that the expression is appropriate.” the results of the present study show a necessary implication for learners of the japanese language. the japanese language is considered hc communication (high context). this means that the context of communication is essential for socio-cultural discourses regarding japanese language use. if these socio-cultural expressions of communication are not followed, communication is considered incomplete (hall 1976). this suggests that learners also need to be able to estimate the appropriate level of politeness in a close relationship and to use acceptable expressions when speaking with native japanese speakers. gass and houck (2011) studied interlanguage refusal by non-native speakers. the results reveal that learners negotiated their way by using various means to establish solidarity. their findings suggest that refusal by non-native speakers should be analyzed in a broader range of communicative resources, such as discourse tactics and turn takings. a study by okto primasakti (2006) investigated refusals by native indonesian speakers. the result is that native indonesian speakers use different semantic formulas and adjuncts of refusals following the status levels. for example, they use apologies to speakers of low status less frequently than those of equal status and use more often to those of high rank. wijayanto (2019) compared refusals in javanese and english. the findings showed that javanese and british native speakers used similarly indirect refusal strategies. furthermore, they found minor differences in the way they chose semantic formulas to mitigate the refusals. in recent years, some studies such as gustini (2018) examined refusal in the indonesian language and compared it to the japanese language, focusing only on working situations. this study investigates the differences and similarities in the politeness strategies of refusal. the results are that indonesians use reason to state the refusal act clearly. meanwhile, the japanese considerably use aimai reason. however, few of the studies have compared the use of refusal between native japanese speakers and indonesian learners of japanese. therefore, the present study is an attempt to analyze refusal strategies by japanese learners of indonesia with native japanese speakers. the findings might reveal the knowledge of refusal strategies by japanese learners and their various means to negotiate the strategy. ii. methods participants this study compared refusal strategies and their semantic formulas employed by two groups of participants: (1) indonesian japanese learners as group 1 (g1), and (2) native japanese speakers as group 2 (g2). group 1 consisted of 22 participants from s university, and group 2 consisted of 16 participants living in osaka city, japan, selected through a random sampling technique.37 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) instrument in providing data, researchers use a questionnaire called discourse completion test (dct) to collect data from both sides, japanese and indonesian. dct is usually used as a test of intercultural communicative competence and pragmatic competence. a dct consists of a one-sided roleplay containing a situational prompt that a participant will read to elicit the responses of another participant. two initiating acts of refusal (invitation and request) were used as the setting situation of the refusals act. the dct questionnaire was designed to be as realistic as possible in both japanese and indonesian contexts. for this purpose, the situation was developed by consulting with native speakers of japanese and indonesia, who were all lecturers of language studies. procedure data collection was administered in semarang indonesia for indonesian japanese learners. for the native japanese speaker’s participants, data collection was conducted in osaka, japan. before answering the dcts, the participants received some explanation about their roles in the scenarios. the refusal strategies were analyzed by the semantic formulas that were classified by ito (2005) and modified by ikeda (2008). semantic formula classified by the meaning content of an expression that use by people to refuse something. the content of the expression commonly used “apology,” “excuse,” “alternative,” and so on. (ikoma and shimura, 1993). data coding the first is the refusal of an invitation to a welcome party; the second situation is the refusal of a request to substitute him/her for a part-time job. the last setting is the situation of refusal to request to be an interpreter. moreover, the degree of intimacy is set and classified as follows: 1. a close senior(older) 2. not very close senior(older) 3. close friend(same age) 4. not very close friend(same age) 5. a close junior(younger) 6. not very close junior(younger) iii. result the usage of direct and indirect strategies in the early the 1990’s, beebe et al. classified semantic formulas into three main categories which are: 1) direct refusals such as execution and improper; 2) indirect refusals such as apologies, excuses, and alternatives; and 3) adjunct to refusals such as: gratitude and filler. in the first setting of the refusal of an invitation, indonesian japanese learners use more “indirect refusal” than native japanese speakers for “not so close senior,” and “not so close friend.” in japanese classes, they learned about the japanese uchi-soto concept. the uchi-soto concept is a human relation concept in japanese that divides between person close to the speakers as an uchi group. such as family, the person who the same office with him/her. the person outside the inner circle of his/her as a soto group. in the questionnaire, indonesian japanese learners know the concept and use it in the situation of these refusal acts. below is an example of indirect refusal by indonesian japanese learners. (1) ”aa sou desuka, demo pa-ti ni iku no wa amari suki jyanai node, sumimasen. chotto…” (oo..really, i don’t like going to a party. i am sorry. i don’t think….) table 1 semantic formulas and examples semantic formula example apology gomen, sumimasen, moushiwake arimasen implicit refusal (xwa)chotto…sekkaku desuga, reason tsukarete iru node, yakusoku/youji/yoteo ga aru node, conclusion direct : ikemasen/ ikimasen/ dame desu. indirect : ie ni kaeritai desu. jikan ga nai desu. empathy zannen desuga, benkyou shitai no desuga, gratitude arigatou gozaimasu. second apology hontou ni sumimasen. expectation for next time mata kondo onegai shimasu. ashita (hoka no hi ni) ukagatte mo ii deshouka. alternative (youji ga) hayaku owattara, renraku shimasu. jibun de benkyou shimasu. 38 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) meanwhile, native japanese speakers equally use direct refusal and indirect refusal. these results show that in japanese daily life, the more intimate the opponent, the speaker could easily and directly refuse the invitation. in the use of “direct refusal” for the invitation situation, indonesian japanese leaners use to “a close senior” and “close friend.” on the other hand, native japanese speakers mostly use “close friends” and “close junior.” below is an example of direct refusal by native japanese speakers. (2) "pa-ti wa sukijyanai node ikanaide okou to omou" (i think i can’t come to the party because i do not like a party.) the second situation is the refusal expression used on a request to substitute him/her for a parttime job. indonesian japanese learners mostly use “indirect refusal”, regardless of the interlocutors their facing. meanwhile, native japanese speakers mostly use “indirect refusal” to the “not so close friend” and “a close friend.” we conclude that japanese indonesian learners lack pragmatic competency because the “indirect refusal” usage is high for all the interlocutors without considering the degree of intimacy. these results may also show that they have a limited refusal expression variety. the third situation is the refusal of a request to be an interpreter. indonesian japanese learners have the same tendency as in the other situation, which is that they use more indirect refusal regardless of the interlocutors they are facing in conversation. meanwhile, native japanese speakers use less “indirect refusal” and give more to the “not so close senior” and “not so close friend.” in the use of “indirect refusal” and “direct refusal”, between indonesian japanese learners and comparison with native japanese speakers, we can see that indonesian japanese learners tend not to notice the degree of intimacy, and the refusal strategies usage differs from native japanese speakers. the semantic formula of refusal expression by indonesian japanese learners and native japanese speakers in this section, we compare refusal expression with its semantic formula for indonesian japanese learners (g1) and native japanese speakers (g2). the semantic formula was analyzed with classification as follows: (apologies), (reason), (refusal implicit), (empathy/gratitude), and (alternative). figures 1 shows that, in the apology semantic formula, indonesian japanese learners tend to use apology much more than native japanese speakers, regardless of whom they are talking. the native japanese speakers use apology only to “not so close senior,” “a close senior,” and “not so close friend.” in japanese, being polite, such as using apology before making a refusal act use, not to all the interlocutors, but mainly to the person in the soto group or older than him/her. therefore, a native japanese speaker uses different strategies towards the speaker whom they are talking about. meanwhile, in the semantic formula of reason, native japanese speakers mostly add a reason in their refusal act. similarities occurred in the answers fig 1: situation 1 ―refusal on an invitation to a welcome party ―(g1:n=20, g2: n=16)39 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) from indonesian japanese learners. they also tend to add a reason for their refusal act. it is somehow stated that both use reason as an act of politeness to lower the fta or face threatening act. and giving a reason is maybe one of the politeness strategies in both indonesian and japanese. the third semantic formula of refusal expression is refusal implicit. refusal implicit in japanese generally uses an ellipsis sentence such as “chotto…” and so on. in figure 1, the usage of refusal implicitly by indonesian japanese learners is higher than native japanese speakers. this kind of ellipsis sentence was taught in japanese classes as one of the refusal expressions. therefore, many learners thought that adding “chotto…” as an act of refusal in japanese. in japanese, refusal expression uses an ellipsis to give a polite refusal without providing any explanation adding. it is to show that they do not explicitly refuse the offer to make the speaker comfortable regarding who is the opponent of the conversation. they use a different strategy for refusal expression. below is an example of ellipsis expression in the refusal interaction. 1. example of indonesian japanese learner (g1) "hontou ni sumimasen, pa-ti ni iku no wa amari suki dewa nai node, chotto…" (i am sorry, i don’t like going to a party, so its….) 2. example of a japanese native speaker (g2) "suimasen, sono hi wa chotto youji ga ate… honto ni ikitain desukedo, sumimasen. mata onegai shimasu!” (i am sorry, on that day, i have something to do. i am like to come. i am sorry. next time, please invite me again!) another strategy in the refusal semantic formula in figure 1 is adding a feeling of gratitude or expressing empathy. japanese speakers use more empathy and gratitude strategies to their refusal expression rather than indonesian japanese learners. figures 1 shows that indonesian japanese learners give feeling regret by showing and expressing an apology. however, japanese native speakers tend to use another strategy different from the opponent’s talking. figures 2 shows the result in the second situation for refusal of a request to substitute in the parttime job. japanese native speakers use the strategy of an apology based on the degree of intimacy; they use the politer expression of apology if the opponent is a senior or the person is older. in both situations of refusal expression, indonesian japanese learners mostly use a semantic formula of apologies, regardless of whom they are talking. in a situation of refusal to request, both learners and native japanese speakers use apologies as one of the refusal strategies. meanwhile, the same tendency also occurred in the semantic formula of an excuse or reason. high usage of the reason was seen in both japanese learners and native speakers’ refusal strategies. however, refusal implicit such as ellipsis expression use less by native japanese speakers, and not by the learners. this has the same results as the first fig 2: situation 2― refusal on a request to substitute him/her for a part-time job ―(g1:n=20, g2: n=16)40 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) situation on the refusal of an invitation. meanwhile, native japanese speakers have seen that they used more empathy or gratitude than japanese learners. they also give an alternative plan as refusal strategies to give more polite acts to their interlocutor. below is an example of the use of alternative plan semantic formulas. 1. alternative plan on refusal expression by japanese learners "raishuu no kinyoubi wa youji ga arimasu kara, hoka no hito wa dou deshouka." (i have something to do in next friday, how about i ask other people?) 2. alternative plan on refusal expression by native japanese speakers "yaa, youji aru… gomen ne. dareka hoka no hito ni kite mite ageyokka?" (no, i have some errand. sorry. i will ask someday how about it?) figures 3 shows the semantic formula of the third situation of refusal on request to be an interpreter. as in the previous situation on refusal to request, here, indonesian japanese learners also mainly added apologies to the semantic formula of refusal strategies regardless of the interlocuters their facing. both learners and native japanese speakers much less use the semantic formula of an alternative plan, as this result may relate to the topic of the speech act they’re giving to which is a request to be an interpreter. an alternative plan may also suggest a solution giving by the speaker to the interlocutors. this shows that they feel regret fig 3: situation 3―refusal on request to be an interpreter ―(g1:n=20, g2: n=16) and confirm if they use another alternative to help. in this request situation, we can see that the empathy strategy is less used. there is an entirely different tendency of the use of ellipsis expression for an invitation situation and a request situation. japanese learners tend to use a much more elliptical expression in an invitation situation instead of in a request situation. iv. discussion in japanese refusal interaction, a japanese native speaker uses a different expression to the interlocutors in regards to showing politeness. they use direct refusal and sometimes provide no apology if the opponent intimate and close. in contrast, indonesian japanese learners use refusal strategies regardless of whom they are talking. moreover, they also tend to make an indirect refusal and express a feeling of sorry by showing apology regardless of the opponent’s facing. in this study, the dct scenarios were made with the social status and social distance between the speakers and the interlocutors. japanese native speakers varied the refusal strategy to with whom they were talking. however, indonesian japanese learners differ. in the japanese language, the refusal strategy is complicated; they use a variety of different kinds of apology or giving refusal implicit, and so on. related to brown and levinson’s (1987) politeness theory, strategies for negative politeness preferred in japanese. on the contrary, indonesian expression 41 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) tends to express positive politeness because it uses an indirect form. japanese learners give a formal expression somewhat different from japanese. indonesian learners use apology form when they represent refusal regardless of the interlocutor’s social status. however, the japanese show politeness by giving a feeling expression of regret or gratitude and sometimes adding an alternate plan to its refusal utterance. according to aziz (2000), an indonesian native speaker commonly gives a direct refusal expression (strategy #1), although a variety of ways smoothens directness. indonesian speakers often do not reveal the refusal and make indirect refusal by making words around in circles and inconsistent. this strengthens the claim that indonesian learners tend to use indirect refusal, as explained above. the degree of intimacy that was chosen above has a close-range relationship, senior student, friends, and junior. in japanese, as explained above, we can see that japanese native speakers use a different kind of strategy in refusal interaction. moreover, indonesian japanese learners tend to use ellipsis much more than japanese native speakers. in the indonesian language, there is no called and ellipsis expression such as “chotto…”, “~node…”. however, in indonesian, according to aziz (2000), there is some strategy to refuse by making vague words. it is also assumed that strategy is the influence of the mother tongue. the use of reason as a strategy in the refusal semantic formula for both japanese learners and japanese native speakers is high. we conclude that to give politeness feeling on its refusal utterance, both speakers are somewhat the same. by using an explanation adding to a refusal expression could provide a more formal expression so that the opponent would not hurt their feelings. this result is a preliminary investigation; the percentage shows above might differ if the object was more in number. however, we can head up the situational and linguistic expressions that differ both by japanese learners and japanese native speakers. this study implies that indonesian japanese learners still influence their first language when using refusal expressions. because of their lack of pragmatic competency in japanese, they tend not to use a variety of refusal expressions based on the interlocutor’s social distance and social status. v. conclusion this study shows different usage of refusal expressions between indonesian japanese learners and native speakers. indonesian japanese learners mostly use apologies in their indirect refusal, regardless of whom they are talking. meanwhile, native japanese speakers use negative politeness and use different refusal strategies and consider their degree of intimacy with the interlocutors. the data employed in this study are limited; the results should be examined using more data. however, the results of the current study are to contribute to intercultural communication studies and the need for the introduction to pragmatic competency in japanese learning. references al-kahtani, s. a. w. (2005). refusals realizations in three different cultures: a speech act theoreticallybased cross-cultural study. journal of king saud university, 18, 35-57. allami, h., & naeimi, a. (2011). a cross-linguistic study of refusals: an analysis of pragmatic competence development in iranian efl learners. journal of pragmatics, 43(1), 385-406. aziz, aminudin e. (2000). aspek-aspek budaya yang terlupakan dalam praktek pengajaran bahasa asing. bandung: universitas pendidikan indonesia. beebe, l., takahashi, t., & uliss-weltz, r. (1990). pragmatic transfer in esl refusals. in r. c. scarcella, e. andersen, & s. d. krashen (eds.), developing communicative competence in a second language, 55-73. new york, usa: newbury house. brown, p. & levinson, s. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. campillo, p. s., jordà, m. p. s., & espurz, v. c. (2009). refusal strategies: a proposal from a sociopragmatic 42 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) approach. rael: revista electrónica de lingüística aplicada, (8), 139-150. gass, s. & houck, n. (1999). interlanguage refusals: a cross-cultural study of japanese-english (studies on language acquisition [sola]) . mouton de gruyter publishers gustini, m. (2018) constrastive analysis of refusal expressions in japanese and bahasa at workplace. japanedu: jurnal pendidikan dan pengajaran bahasa jepang, 3(2), 132-139. grein, m. (2007). the speech act of refusal within the minimal action game. a comparative study of german and japanese. dialogue and culture, 1, 95-115. houck, n., & gass, s. m. (2011). interlanguage refusals: a cross-cultural study of japanese-english (vol. 15). walter de gruyter. ikeda, yuuko. (2009). chuukyuu no. koutou happyou nouryoku o nobasu shidou o kangaeru -- gakushuusha no. kotowari hyougen ini okeru riyuu o megutte--keio university, nihon bunka kyouiku senta-. in nihongo to nihongo kyouiku. (37), 166-175. ikoma, tomoko, & shimura, akihiko. (1993). eigo kara nihongo e no. puragumatikku toransufa kotowari to iu hatsuwa koui ni tsuite. nihongo kyouiku gakkai. in nihongo kyouiku. (79), 41-52. ito, emiko. (2006). nihonjin wa kotowari hyougen ni oite teineisa wo dou handan shiteiruka: nagasa to tekisetsusei kara no bunseki. ibunka communication kenkyu, 18, 145-160. kartika, d., & aditiawarman, m. (2019). analysis of appologies speech act in japanese and english: contrastive pragmatics. humanities & social sciences reviews, 7(5), 245-255. taguchi, n. (2008). pragmatic comprehension in japanese as a foreign language. the modern language journal, 92(4), 558-576. okto primasakti, f. (2006). direct and indirect strategies of refusing among indonesians. phenomena: journal of language and literature, 10(2), 103-115. wijayanto, a. (2019). refusals in javanese and english a comparative study of saying ‘no’ in two different cultures. journal of intercultural communication 50, 1-23 yamada, emiko. 2010. daini gengo ga bogo ini ataeru eikyou: kotowari hatsuwa no bunseki kara. in near conference proceedings working papers near. (11), 1-15. 43 lisda nurjaleka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) appendix (questionnaire 1. refusal on an invitation to a welcome party situation) shinkan kompa : [welcome party] bamen: anata wa shitashikunai sempai ni shinkan kompa ni sanka suru youni sasowaremasu. shikashi, anatawa pa-ti ni iku no wa amari suki dewa nai node, sono shinkan kompa ni sanka dekinai to kotowaritai desu. [situation: you are encouraged to join the welcome party by seniors who are not so close to you. but, you do not like going to parties so much, so you would like to refuse to participate in the party.] sempai: asatte no shinkan kompa, ikanai? [senior]: will you go to the welcome party the day after tomorrow? watashi: me: (questionnaire 2 refusal on a request to substitute him/her in a part-time job situation) arubaito [part-time] bamen: anata wa yuujin ni hoka no hito no kawari ni baito o shite hoshii to tanomaremasu. shikashi, sono hi anata wa youji ga arimasu node, kotowaritai desu. [situation: you are asked by a close friend to replace another person for a baito. but, that day, you have some errands and wants to refuse.] sempai: b san, raishuu no kinyoubi, kitemoraenai? jitsu wa kinoshita san ga yasumu mon dakara, kawari o sagashite irun dakedo… [senior] b san, can you please come next friday? sakashita san will be absent, so i am looking for a substitute… watashi: me: (questionnaire 3: refusal on request to be an interpreter situation) tsuuyaku [interpreter] bamen: anata wa shitashii kohai ni ahmad sensei no kyouju no kouenkai de tsuuyaku suru you tanomaremashita. shikashi, ichido mo tsuuyaku o shita koto ga arimasen shi, senmon yougo mo shirimasen. kotowaritai desu. situation: you were asked to help as an interpreter at prof. ahmad lecture by your close junior. but, you never did it. so, you want to refuse the offer. kohai: b san, kyouju no kouenkai de tsuuyaku wo shitekureru hito wo sagashite irun dakedo, onegai dekinai? junior: b san, i`m looking for a person who can help with interpreting professor lecture, could you help? watashi: me: 44 journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 48 language empowering in character building (pemberdayaan bahasa dalam pembentukan karakter) oleh, kamsinah faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university email: kamsinahdarwis@gmail.com abstract character building is the most important thing to do as it is a striving system which underly behavior (freud). even more, good character is more to be praised than outstanding talent. most talents are to some extent a gift. good character, however, is not given to us. we have to build it peace by peace by thought, choice, courage, and determination. so important it is that it is said that if there is no more character every thing is lost (mahatma gandhi). the best way to build it is to develop the function of all individual potential, including cognitive, affective, and psychomotoric aspects simultanously in the context of socio-cultural interaction (in family, in school, and in society). character is gained by nature and nurture. it can be done begin from the golden age to the old one through the three character building components: moral knowing, moral feeling, and moral action as suggested by lickona. they make it possible since human beings, as the best-formed creature of all, are the ones and the only creature posessing culture, and that, they can educate and be educated in terms of the model of person of character. everybody must have character. therefore, to apply lickona’s, one must empower her/his language, in which she/he/ perform her/his competence in using language creativity (chomsky) in both ordinary and literary language. in this case, buginese language is used as the sample. key words: character building, language empowering, and the model. 1. pendahuluan manusia terdiri atas dua unsur, yaitu unsur jiwa (rohani) dan badan (jasmani). unsur yang pertama tidak terlihat oleh mata sebagaimana unsur yang kedua. jiwa yang sehat memerlukan tubuh yang sehat pula. masalahnya ialah manusia cenderung melupakan pembangunan jiwa dan sangat memperhatikan pembangunan badan. padahal, w.r. soepratman telah mengingatkan, “bangunlah jiwanya; (kemudian) bangunlah badaannya.” manusia lupa bahwa nilai diri mereka sangat tergantung pada kualitas jiwa atau karakter. dalam al-quran (qs, 49: 13) dinyatakan bahwa yang paling mulia di antara manusia itu ialah yang paling bertakwa, bukan yang paling cantik atau gagah. dalam hadits yang diriwayatkan oleh muslim dinyatakan, “sesungguhnya allah tidak memandang rupamu dan kamsinah 49 hartamu, tetapi dia memandang hatimu dan amal perbuatanmu.” dalam kebudayaan bugis konsep manusia (istilahnya: tau) sering dibagi tiga, yaitu (1) tau tongeng, (2) tau bawang, dan (3) tau-tau. yang pertama tidak lain dari konsep manusia paripurna atau insan kamil, yaitu manusia dengan karakter badan yang terbangun secara seimbang sehingga membentuk sosok manusia seutuhnya secara lahir dan batin. begitu pentingnya mewujudkan atau menghadirkan tau tongeng (manusia dengan kriteria insan kamil), dalam ungkapan dinyatakan bahwa suatu negeri terjamin berada dalam kesentosaan apabila terdapat tiga hal, yaitu (1) tongeppi tongengnge; (2) ritongengappi tongengnge;, dan (3) mappattongeppi tongengnge. artinya: yang benar itu memang benar; yang benar itu dibenarkan; dan yang membenarkan itu adalah orang benar. yang pertama menyangkut aspek substansi, yang kedua aspek sikap, dan yang ketiga adalah aspek pelaku. manusia dengan konsep yang kedua, yaitu to bawang ialah sosok manusia tanpa karakter (moral, jiwa). umpatan yang sering dialamatkan kepada orang sepeti itu ialah asu tau, artinya sosok manusia dengan tabiat anjing. adapun konsep manusia dengan kategori ketiga ialah tautau, artinya manusia pajangan atau manusia bentukan, yaitu manusia tanpa jiwa dan badan yang sebenarnya (manusia boneka). yang terakhir ini kerap dijumpai di sawah-sawah sebagai penghalau burung pipit atau binatang pengganggu tanaman. selain itu, dalam filsafat bugis dibedakan antara konsep manusia (tau) dan konsep orang (rupa tau). dalam ungkapan bahasa bugis dinyatakan, “seddimi tau, rupa taumitu maddupa-rupang.” artinya, manusia atau tau itu hanya satu, yang bisa banyak dan beragam ialah orang atau rupa tau. konsep pertama adalah konsep universal atau kesemestaan, sedangkan konsep yang kedua adalah konsep keberagaman atau keberbedaan antara satu sama lain (bangsa, suku, dan ras). yang dipermasalahkan dalam makalah ini ialah bagaimana karakter itu dibentuk atau dibangun. dengan kata lain, bagaimana pemberdayaan bahasa dalam pembentukan karakter. untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, bahasa bugis diajukan sebagai percontoh pembahasan. dengan sendirinya, makalah ini membahas bagaimana karakter orang bugis itu dibentuk dengan memberdayakan ungkapan-ungkapan, termasuk di dalamnya pantun-pantun atau syair bugis (elong ugi). 2. memahami hakikat manusia melalui bahasa manusia dari sudut pandang neurolinguistik merupakan makhluk yang ditakdirkan memiliki otak yang berbeda dengan makhluk lain., baik dalam struktur maupun dalam fungsinya. pada otak manusia terdapat bagian-bagian yang journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 50 dikhususkan untuk kebahasaan (language acquisition device, lad), sedangkan pada makhluk lain tidak ada. selanjutnya, dari sudut pandang biologi, manusia diberikan struktur biologi yang sedemikian rupa sehingga memungkinkan manusia mengeluarkan bunyi (suara) yang berbeda-beda. kelenturan lidah, ukuran rongga mulut dan bibir memungkinkan manusia mampu menggerakkan alat-alat bicaranya secara mudah sehingga bisa menghasilkan bunyi-bunyi distingtif, yang tidak bisa dilakukan oleh makhluk – makhluk lainnya. adapun dari sudut pandang teologi islam memandang bahasa sebagai keniscayaan fenomenal dalam proses penciptaan manusia. melalui simbol-simbol keilahian yang terkandung di dalam diri manusia dan alam semesta, yang hanya manusia yang dapat memahaminya, allah swt telah mengukuhkan manusia sebagai makhluk tertinggi atau makhluk yang sebaik-baik bentuk di alam semesta ini. karena itu, bahasa tidak dapat dilepaskan dari eksistensi dan kepentingan manusia atas bahasa, karena dunia manusia adalah dunia bahasa. hal ini terjadi karena bahasa mencakupi harapan dan keputusasaan, kebenaran dan kebohongan, amal dan dosa, yang kesemuanya merupakan pertimbangan dalam hidupnya. manusia menciptakan bahasa bukan hanya sebagai media pengekspresian pikiran, melainkan untuk mengejawantahkan secara simbolik seluruh hakikat penciptaan dan eksistensi dirinya dan alam semesta. manusia memiliki kemampuan untuk menamakan dan memaknakan dunia (freire, 2002). selain itu, manusia mampu memaknakan diri dan eksistensinya di tengah-tengah makhluk lain di jagad raya ini melalui bahasa yang diciptakannya (stevens, 2001). 3. konsep bahasa dan karakter sebelum membahas lebih jauh tentang pemberdayaan bahasa dalam pembentukan karakter manusia, terlebih dahulu penulis membahas pengertian dari kedua istilah ini, yaitu bahasa dan karakter. bahasa adalah ciri khas terpenting dari makhluk manusia. bahasa merupakan sistem lambang yang bersifat arbitrer (semena-mena) yang berarti bahasa dapat dimaknakan baik secara denotatif, konotatif maupun secara kontekstual. kedua pemaknaan yang tersebut terakhir dikatakan paling sering membuahkan masalah. hal ini disebabkan oleh bahasa yang tidak hanya menyatakan apa adanya tetapi juga mengandung maksud atau kepentingan tersembunyi, atau idiologi tertentu, yang disadari atau tidak akan melahirkan emosi-emosi tertentu pada para interlokutor. kalau demikian halnya, maka berlakulah tesis filsafat bahasa bahwa manusia menciptakan realitas dan menatanya melalui bahasa. demikianlah menurut sobur (2002) “bahasa yang sama dapat menghancurkan realitas seseorang, realitas suatu suku bangsa, bahkan realitas kamsinah 51 suatu bangsa”. di tangan orang bijak, bahasa dapat mempererat hubungan silaturrahim antar sesama manusia, namun di tangan orang tak berkarakter atau di tangan bukan orang bijak, bahasa dapat menjadi kekuatan yang sangat dahsyat, lebih tajam dari belati, yang mampu menghancurkan dan membinasakan orang lain. loren bagus (dalam sobur 2002) mengatakan bahwa” bahasa bisa menjadi tiran yang sulit dilacak melalui makna-makna yang dihamburkan melalui simbol-simbol kebahasaan yang dinyatakannya”. selanjutnya, sebuah hadis terkait hal ini berbunyi ” keselamatan manusia terletak pada lisannya, kecelakaan manusia terletak pada lisannya”, yang di dalam bahasa indonesia dikenal dengan pepatah” badan binasa karena mulut”, dan “mulutmu adalah harimaumu”. selanjutnya, kajian sosiolinguistik, pragmatik dan teori generatif chomsky menganjurkan pengidentifikasian seseorang melalui bahasanya. kajian tersebut kurang lebih berbunyi ”berbicaralah supaya saya mengenali anda”. dalam kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2008: 682) kata karakter dinyatakan bermakna tabiat; sifat-sifat kejiwaan, akhlak atau budi pekerti yang membedakan seseorang dengan yang lain; watak. dengan pengertian ini, menurut sumantri (2010), upaya membangun karakter adalah proses mengukir atau memahat jiwa sedemikian rupa, sehingga berbentuk unik, menarik, dan berbeda, atau dapat dibedakan dengan orang lain. dalam pengertian ini, karakter dipahami sebagai hal yang berkaitan dengan masalah ciri, jatidiri, atau kepribadian. selain itu, kata ‘karakter’ juga bermakna sikap mental, yaitu konsep mengenai ‘sistem nilai budaya’, dalam hal ini konsep abstrak yang hidup dalam alam pikiran sebagian besar masyarakat mengenai hal yang harus dianggap penting dan berharga dalam hidupnya sehingga menjadi potensi pendorong untuk bereaksi terhadap lingkungannya. karakter dan kepribadian tidak identik. kepribadian diperoleh secara nature, sedangkan karakter diperoleh secara nature dan nurture; kepribadian bersifat konseptual, sedangkan karakter bersifat operasional; kepribadian merupakan kapasitas, sedangkan karakter merupakan realitas; kepribadian bersifat statis, sedangkan karakter bersifat dinamis. karakter menjadi nilai intrinsik yang melandasi sikap dan perilaku individu sehingga berbentuk unik, menarik, dan dapat dibedakan dengan orang lain. perbedaan itu dapat diibaratkan dengan huruf-huruf dalam alfabetis yang antara satu dengan lainnya tak ada yang sama. karakter harus dibentuk, ditumbuhkembangkan, dan ditegakkan. seorang manusia seharusnya berkarakter, karena demikian pentingnya karakter itu sehingga pepatah mengatakan if there is no more character every thing is lost . journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 52 4. pemberdayaan bahasa dalam pembentukan karakter dari segi penggunaan ungkapan manusia bugis dikenal dengan karakter ‘maccai na malempuu; waranii na magetteng’. artinya, mereka itu orang cerdas yang jujur dan orang berani yang teguh. sebenarnya terdapat empat sifat yang sekalis menjadi penciri pribadi, yaitu cerdas, jujur, berani, dan teguh, tetapi antara satu sama lain merupakan satu kesatuan yang tidak terpisahkan. dalam hal ini, sifat cerdas mesti disertai sifat jujur; begitu pula sifat berani mesti disertai dengan sifat teguh atau konsisten. akan sangat tercela seseorang memiliki sifat cerdas, tetapi tidak jujur. demikian pula, akan menjadi aib besar bagi seseorang yang memiliki sifat berani, namun tidak teguh alias ‘masuk angin’. bagaimana sifat-sifat utama tersebut diwarisi dan dilembagakan secara kolektif sehingga akhirnya tidak semata-mata menjadi penciri individu, tetapi sekaligus menjadi penciri sosial atau kelompok. di sini dapat dipertimbangkan saran yang diberikan oleh lickona, yaitu dilakukan sejak usia emas anak-anak dan melalui tiga komponen pembentukan karakter, yaitu moral knowing, moral feeling, dan moral action. yang pertama menyangkut aspek kognitif, yaitu adanya pengetahuan atau pengertian tentang konsep moral kecerdasan, kejujuran, keberanian, dan keteguhan. yang kedua behubungan dengan aspek afektif, yaitu bentuk sikap yang harus ditunjukkan oleh anak-anak. adapun yang ketiga berkaitan dengan aspek psikomotorik, yaitu berupa tindakan moral yang merupakan hasil perpaduan antara moral knowing dan moral feeling. dalam filsafat bugis hal tersebut dinyatakan dalam bentuk ungkapan, yaitu (1) tongengpi tongengnge, (2) ritongengangpi tongengnge, dan (3) mappattongengpi tongengnge. terjemahannya ialah (1) yang benar itu memang adalah benar, (2) yang benar itu dibenarkan, (3) yang membenarkan itu ialah orang benar. artinya, (2) bentukbentuk ungkapan yang berisi nilai-nilai moral kejujuran, kecerdasan, keberanian, dan keteguhan tersebut merupakan sesuatu yang benar, (2) konsep kebenaran tersebut dibela dan diperjuangkan, dan (3) pihak yang ditetapkan sebagai pembela kebenaran adalah juga orang yang benar. ketiga aspek di atas akan menjadi sangat efektif apabila dilakukan dengan memberdayakan bahasa. hal ini sejalan dengan metode penanaman nilai-nilai pada diri seseorang, yang memerlukan bantuan bahasa. sudah sangat jelas bahwa, baik untuk menginternalisasi maupun mengeksternalisai nilai-nilai moral yang ada, bahasa merupakan sarana yang sangat efektif. mula-mula nilai-nilai moral tersebut diekspresikan dalam bentuk ucapan-ucapan sehingga memungkinkan orang lain mendengarkannya. ucapan-ucapan yang dimaksud hadir dalam bentuk ungkapanungkapan. karena itu, rasanya sulit bagi kamsinah 53 seseorang untuk mengetahui dan menghayati kandungan pesan-pesan moral dalam ungkapan apabila tidak menguasai bahasanya. bagaimana kalau ungkapanungkapan bahasa daerah (bugis) tersebut diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa lain, misalnya bahasa indonesia. hal ini bisa saja dilakukan, tetapi efektivitasnya akan berkurang, antara lain disebabkan oleh tidak semua ungkapan bahasa bugis dapat diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa lain dengan makna yang sepadan. terlebihlebih lagi, sesuai dengan teori monism, begitu berubah bentuk, begitu berubah makna. berikut ini adalah ungkapan-ungkapan bahasa bugis yang dapat dijadikan sebagai instrumen, baik untuk menginternalisasi maupun untuk mengeksternalisasi nilai-nilai moral yang diperlukan dalam membentuk karakter orang bugis. 4.1 nilai kecerdasan dalam bahasa bugis terdapat ungkapan, “maccai na malempuu; waranii na magetteng.” artinya, mereka itu orang cerdas yang jujur dan orang berani yang teguh. ungkapan ini mengisyaratkan pentingnya kecerdasan itu disertai kejujuran; begitu pula keberanian hendaknya diikuti oleh sifat keteguhan atau konsistensi. seorang cerdas yang tidak jujur akan lebih berbahaya daripada seorang bodoh yang tidak jujur. dalam hubungan ini, sangat tercela keadaan seseorang yang bodoh. ungkapannya ialah maloppo tedong, artinya jangan sampai terjadi hanya bermodal badan besar, tetapi bodoh. indikator orang bodoh itu ialah memperturutkan hawa nafsu, yang berarti tidak mempergunakan akal sehat. ungkapannya, “turuki inapessu, padai tonangie lopi sebbok.” artinya, memperturutkan hawa nafsu berarti menumpang pada perahu bocor. termasuk orang cerdas adalah orang yang penuh perhitungan. dikatakan dalam ungkapan, matemua matutue, matepi dua tellu massola-solae. artinya, orang yang cerdas, yaitu orang yang penuh dengan perhitungan dengan keadaan (cermat). artinya ia akan mendapatkan musibah juga (mengikuti takdir masing-masing), tetapi setelah dua-tiga orang bodoh (ceroboh) tertimpa musibah. dalam dunia usaha terdapat juga nasihat, “narekko maelokko madeceng ri jamajamammu, attangngako ri bate lak-e. ajak muolai bate lak-e sigaru-garue. apabila hendak berhasil dalam pekerjaan, hendaklah engkau memperhatikan jejak langkah orang; jangan sampai mengkikuti jejak langkah yang kacau-balau. ungkapan ini menekankan pentingnya seseorang belajar pada pengalaman orang yang berhasil, di samping mempelajari sebab-sebab orang mengalami kegagalan usaha agar tidak terperosok pada keburukan yang sama. dalam hubungan itu, ada dua jenis jejak langkah yang tidak boleh diikuti, yaitu jejak kaki penyadap nira (enau) dan pembuat gula merah. dikatakan dalam journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 54 ungkapan, “dua laleng tempedding riola, yanaritu lalenna passarie enrengnge lalenna paggollae.” jejak kaki penyadap nira tidak boleh diikuti karena berlikaliku, dari pohon yang satu ke pohon yang lain dan dari pelepah yang satu ke pelepah yang lain, yang bermakna ‘menghalalkan semua cara untuk mencapai tujuan’. adapun jejak pembuat gula merah tidak boleh diikuti karena dinilai kurang memperhatikan masalah kebersihan. adapun indikator orang cerdas ialah “ripariajangngi riajangne, riparialaui alaue, riparimaniangngi maniangnge, ri pariasei ri asek-e, ri pariawai ri awae.” artinya, sesuatu yang seyogianya berada di barat, tempatkanlah ia di barat; sesuatu yang seyogianya berada di timur, tempatkanlah ia di timur; sesuatu yang seyogianya berada di selatan, tempatkanlah ia di selatan; sesuatu yang seyogianya berada di atas, tempatkanlah ia di atas, begitu pula sesuatu yang seyogianya berada di bawah, tempatkanlah ia di bawah.” dalam bahasa inggris terdapat ungkapan “the right man in the right place”. penempatan orang yang tepat di tempat yang tepat. tudangi tudangengmu, artinya duduki tempat dudukmu. inilah ciri orang cerdas, dia arif-bijaksana, dia juga tahu diri; artinya, dia ‘tahu tingginya gunung’. ditambahkan lagi dengan ungkapan yang senada dengan ungkapan di atas, yaitu “naiyya riasengnge pannawanawa, mapaccingngi ri atinna, sappai ri nawanawanna, nalolongngi sininna adae, enrengnge gaue, napolei jaa, enrengnge napolei deceng. “artinya, yang dimaksud dengan cendekiawan ialah orang yang jernih hatinya, senantiasa mencari jalan keluar dengan kecerdasan hatinya, sehingga memahami seluruh perkataan dan perbuatan, baik yang mendatangkan kebaikan maupun keburukan. satu contoh ungkapan lagi, yaitu “sompekkak ri alek kabo, kupusa nawa-nawa, atikkumua mallolongeng.” maknanya, saya mengembara di hutan rimba hingga tersesat pikir, tetapi hatiku jua yang memperoleh pemahaman. ungkapan ini bermakna bahwa seorang cerdas (cendekia) mencari kebenaran intelektual (akal) sampai akhirnya memperoleh kecerdasan hati atau spiritual. rumus yang berlaku di sini ialah upaya akal sehat mengikut pada kehendak hati, bukan sebaliknya, hati mengikuti kemauan pikiran. 4.2 nilai kejujuran dalam bahasa bugis tersedia ungkapan untuk mewujudkan karakter orang jujur pada kalangan orang bugis, yaitu “duami kuala sappo yanaritu belo-belona kanukue sibawa unganna panasae. artinya, dua saja kujadikan pagar, yaitu cat kuku dan bunga nangka. cat kuku itu ialah pacci [paccing] dan bunga nangka itu ialah lempu [lempuu]. dalam aksara lontara kata pacci [paccing] dapat dibaca pacci dan dapat pula dibaca paccing. dalam hal ini lafal kedua yang digunakan, yaitu paccing artinya ‘kebersihan’. kemudian tulisan aksara lontara lempu kamsinah 55 [lempuu] dapat dilafalkan lempu dan lempuu. dalam hal ini, lafal kedua yang dituju, yaitu lempuu artinya kejujuran. dengan demikian, pagar diri orang bugis ada dua, yaitu bersih dan jujur. artinya, orang bugis menjaga citra diri sebagai orang bersih dan jujur. ungkapan lain ialah “ajak mupoloi olona tauwee. artinya, jangan kamu memotong/ mengambil hak orang lain. yang senada dengan ini ialah ungkapan, “ajak mualai aju tennia iko pasaranrei . artinya, jangan kamu mengambil kayu yang bukan kamu menyandarkannya/ menebangnya. adapun nilai kejujuran itu dinyatakan dalam ungkapan, “iyaro lempue padai awo monangnge ri tengnga dolangeng; ritenrek-i ponna, mompoo-i cappakna, ritenrek-i cappakna, mompoo-i ponna. artinya, kebenaran itu bagaikan bambu di tengah lautan, kalau pangkalnya ditekan ujungnya muncul, kalau ujungnya ditekan pangkalnya muncul. maksudnya, orang jujur itu pasti muncul di permukaan, ia tidak akan hidup dalam kerugian sepanjang masa. kebenaran dan kebaikan mesti memihak padanya. ia terpercaya. ekonominya bangkit dan stabil. 4.3 nilai keberanian untuk membentuk sifat berani dalam bahasa bugis, tersedia ungkapan “tuppui naterri, turungngi namacawa (waktu mendaki dia menangis; waktu menurun dia tertawa). ungkapan ini bermakna bahwa seseorang harus siap dengan segala kondisi. artinya keberanian harus diuji dalam kondisi nyaman dan tidak nyaman. ungkapan lain lagi menyatakan, “pura babbarak sompekku, pura tangkisi golikku, ulebbirenni tellenge natowalie.” layarku sudah berkembang, kemudiku sudah terpasang, lebih kusukai tenggelam daripada harus kembali. ini contoh nilai keberanian para pelaut bugis. contoh yang lain yang sepadan ialah ialah taroi telleng linoe, tellaing pesonaku ri masagalae (biarpun dunia terbenam; sudah tidak akan bergeser tawakalku kepada yang mahagaib). 5. nilai keteguhan untuk membentuk atau menghasilkan karakter orang teguh, tersedia ungkapan seperti “taro ada, taro gau.”terjemahan lurusnya ialah menaruh tutur; menaruh perbuatan. ungkapan bahasa indonesia yang sepadan ialah “satu kata dengan perbuatan”. dari sini diketahui bahwa karakter budaya orang bugis ialah ia mengerjakan apa yang dikatakannya atau ia mengatakan apa yang sanggup dikerjakannya. ungkapan tersebut sepadan dengan ungkapan “iya ada, iuya gau atau ada na gau” aksudnya bagaimana perkataaannya begitu perbuatannya. sikap teguh yang harus ada pada penguasa, misalnya dalam ungkapan “adek-e temmakkeanak, temmakkeeppo. adat (hukum) tidak beranak; tidak bercucu. artinya, hokum mesti ditegakkan tanpa memandang bulu. satu ungkapan lagi yang menunjukkan perlunya terdapat keselerasan antara perkataan dan perbuatan serta sikap, yaitu journal arbitrer, vol. 1 no. 1 oktober 2013 56 “sadda mappabatii ada, ada mappabatii gau, gau mappabatii tau.” artinya, tuturan membentuk perkataan, perkataan membentuk perbuatan, dan perbuatan menghasilkan karakter manusia. 6. penutup orang bugis memiliki karakternya sendiri yang menjadikannya berbeda dari suku atau bangsa yang lain. perbedaannya terletak pada komposisi sifat utama, yaitu maccai na malempu, warani na magetteng. dia cerdas dan jujur; dia berani dan teguh. dengan kata lain, kecerdasannya disertai kejujuran dan keberaniannya disertai keteguhan hati. ungkapan ini menjadi indikator untuk menilai kadar kebugisan seseorang atau sekelompok orang. satu per satu sifat-sifat ini merupakan sifat yang berlaku semesta, bukan milik orang bugis saja, tetapi sebagai suatu kesatuan sifat yang keadaannya utuh (integral) pada diri seseorang atau sekelompok orang, itulah karakter manusia bugis. baik untuk menginternalisasi maupun untuk mengeksternalisasi karakter tersebut, diperlukan peran bahasa, yaitu sedapat-dapatnya anak-anak bugis menguasai bahasa bugis. hal ini penting karena tidak semua ungkapan dapat diterjemahkan dengan makna yang sepadan, misalnya dalam bahasa indonesia. bahasa di sini memegang kendali yang sangat besar karena karakter itu berbasis pada jiwa atau moral keyakinan seseorang. rumus yang berlaku di sini ialah pelurusan keyakinan melalui pelurusan hati dan pelurusan hati melalui pelurusan perkataan. artinya, pada tahap pembentukan kognisi (moral knowing) diperlukan bahasa sebagai alat ekspresi untuk bisa didengarkan dan diperdengarkan kepada diri sendiri dan kepada orang lain. dengan senantiasa memperdengarkan ungkapan-ungkapan itu kepada orang lain diharapkan menjadi instrumen pengendali perilaku sejalan dengan fungsi bahasa sebagai alat kontrol sosial. makin sering diucapkan dan didengarkan oleh seseorang, makin baik untuk keperluan pengondisian diri pada nilai-nilai yang terkandung pada ungkapan-ungkapan yang berkenaan (moral feeling). sampai di sini pengetahuan nilai diharapkan meningkat menjadi keyakinan hati. walaupun demikian, satu tahap lagi yang sangat penting ialah tahap keteladanan dan semuanya harus bermula pada diri sendiri. setiap orang perlu membuktikan semua nilai yang diketahuinya dengan tindakan nyata dalam kehidupan alami (moral action), pengetahuan dan sikap harus teruji dengan kondisi ataupun situasi, baik yang menyenangkan maupun yang menyusahkan. itulah sebabnya tiga kondisi hendaknya tersedia, yaitu dari segi substansi setiap ungkapan memang diterima sebagai kebenaran (tongeng,’ truth’), kemudian nilai kebenaran itu memang dibela atau dijunjung tinggi oleh orang-orang yang sudah tercetak dalam karakter sebagai orang benar (terpercaya). kamsinah 57 referensi chaika. elaine. 1982. language the social mirror. london: newbury house publishers, inc. chomsky, noam. 1968. language and mind. new york: harcourt, brace & world. -----------. 2000. new horizons in the study of language and mind. new york: harcourt, brace & world. dardjowidjojo, soenjono. 1986. “bentuk pasif sebagai cermin pikiran bangsa indonesia”. dalam pusparagam linguistik& pengajaran bahasa. bambang kaswanti purwo (ed). jakarta: arcan. darwis, muhammad. 2011. “nasib bahasa daerah di era globalisasi: peluang dan tantangan”. makalah disampaikan pada workshop pelestarian bahasa daerah bugis makassar, balitbang agama makassar, hotel pariwisata parepare, 15 oktober 2011. duranti, alessandro. 1997. linguistic anthropology. cambridge: cambridge university press. kamus besar bahasa indonesia .2008. jakarta: pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional koentjaraningrat.1992. bahasa dan budaya. makalah dalam bulan bahasa dan sastra ikip jakarta. kramsch, claire. 1998. language and culture. oxford: oxford university press. profil adnan buyung nasution. 2010. kompas, edisi 28 juli 2010. sariyan, a. 2004. pengajaran bahasa sebagai suatu wasilah membina kehidupan berbudaya luhur: pengalaman malaysia. tersedia di: www.ialf.edu/kipbipa/abstracts.html. [11 mei 2005]. sobur, a. 2002. analisis teks media: suatu pengantar untuk analisis wacana, analisis semiotik, dan analisis framing. bandung: pt. remaja rosda karya. stevens, c.m. 2001. theory in historical linguistic. tersedia di http://www.facmaintext.html. [12 pebruari 2002]. sumantri, endang. 2010. “pendidikan karakter sebagai pendidikan nilai: tinjauan filosofis, agama, dan budaya. bandung: program studi pendidikan umum, sekolah pascasarjana upi. sundusiah, suci. 2009. nilai-nilai pendidikan karakter pada novel 5 menara.bandung: penerbitan di kalangan sendiri. syarkawi. 2009. pembentukan kepribadian anak. jakarta: bumi aksara.` r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: may 22, 2020 final revision: september 11, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this study aims to describe the forms of shifting conventional context elements to a virtual external context in the cyberpragmatics perspective. the data of this study were manifestations of the shifts in the contexts. the substantive data source of this study was various kinds of utterances and the formulation of the context containing realizations of the shifts in the conventional external context. the locative data source was social media that published a variety of utterances and the context in which there was a shift in the context elements that could be collected by the researcher around the time of the study. the data collection method applied was the listening method, focusing on the free engaged and profound method of listening. the technique used in applying the listening method was the note-taking technique. the data were then classified and verified further. the verified data were then triangulated to experts of pragmatics, especially cyberpragmatics. data analysis was carried out by applying distributional method to cover the linguistic dimension of this study. as for the non-linguistic dimension, the researcher applied the extralingual equivalent method. the results of this study were the manifestations of the context shifts as follow: (1) shifting aspects of context element of speech setting, (2) shifting aspects of context element of objectives of speaking, (3) shifting aspects of context element of speech participants, (4) shifting aspects of context element of speech atmosphere, (5) shifting aspects of context element of speech channel, (6) shifting aspects of context element of speech genre and (7) shifting aspects of context element of verbal acts. keyword conventional external context, virtual external context, cyberpragmatics perspective correspondence phone: +628164266263 e-mail: kunjana@usd.ac.id; kunjana.rahardi@gmail.com article the shifts of conventional context element aspects: towards a cyberpragmatics perspective r. kunjana rahardi1 1master program of indonesian language education department, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.151-161.2020 i. introduction research in the field of pragmatics should not only focus on general pragmatics but also on a culture-specific perspective (rahardi, 2018b). in connection with digital developments, pragmatics has synergized with information and digital technology, which has given birth to cyberpragmatics (locher, 2013a). this new field of science needs to be promoted continuously in the linguistic-pragmatic area. as the newest field in linguistics, pragmatics is all about questions of uses. pragmatics deals with the relation of signs to their users and interpreters. the meaning of the speaker is what is meant by pragmatic meaning. therefore, the pragmatic meaning is highly influenced by the speech partners’ personal and communal assumptions embodied in the context. both are social, societal, cultural and situational in nature (rahardi, 2018a). in other words, pragmatics is a context-bound study of language. the context that applies to pragmatics is triadic, not religious. in addition to the language form and meaning of the language itself, there are also aspects of speakers and speech partners that make it triadic. thus, the pragmatic intent interpretation cannot be separated from the triadic context (wijana, 2014). such pragmatics are referred to as general pragmatics, or what are commonly referred to as pragmatics. in subsequent developments, this 151 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) pragmatic field developed according to the local cultural context. indonesia, which is very diverse in ethnic and cultural wealth, has given birth to many local culture-based pragmatic researches. such pragmatics are referred to as culture-specific pragmatics (hassall, 2012). cultural bases that are not the same will give birth to pragmatic rules which are certainly different. unequal community base, which means the manifestation of a culture that is not the same, must have given birth to unequal pragmatic rules. the relationship between general pragmatics and specific cultural pragmatics is that the language contained in general pragmatics is used as the basis for pragmatic language formulation in specific cultural perspectives. the pragmatic constellation in linguistics and its relation to other interdisciplinary fields were clearly explained in the previous section. in the constellation presentation, it is clear that pragmatics is actually outside the internal scope of language. it is said so because in pragmatics, what is studied is the speaker’s intention through the speech spoken by the speaker. the speaker’s meaning can be observed through the speech because speech is actually a verbal act (leech, 1983). speech as a verbal act has been widely explained in the field of study of speech acts. furthermore, it needs to be explained that in pragmatics, the role of context is very basic. the study of speakers’ intention, which is not based on context, does not produce true study results because the absence of context will inevitably have implications on various kinds of ambiguity. context has various elements, functions, and roles. the role of context is not the same, depending on the study’s perspective used by researchers. the context in a systemic pragmatic perspective is not the same as the context in a pragmatic intercultural perspective. the context in the specific culturebased pragmatic perspective is not the same as in the experimental perspective. in the latest development, the context in the perspective of cyberpragmatics is certainly different from the context in the perspective of other pragmatics (yus, 2011). thus, it can be emphasized that the context in pragmatics has experienced a shift. it is the shifting of elements and functions as well as the role of context that is interesting to explain. the shift in context is explained step by step through the study conducted by the researcher. dell hymes is known to be a forerunner who supported the study of context based on this social dimension. the mnemonic expression speaking is used to summarize elements of the social context that need to be considered in understanding the meaning of the speaker in a social perspective (wildner-bassett, 2004). furthermore, jacob l. mey found a new understanding related to the social context. if the experts mentioned earlier focus on the horizontal dimension of society, mey places more emphasis on society’s vertical dimension. in other words, mey’s orientation is more on the social status and social level dimensions instead of the horizontal social distance. the dimension of power is more prioritized by mey than the dimension of solidarity. thus, in essence, mey focuses more on the societal dimension, while hymes focuses on the social dimension (mey, 2003). the context of cultural dimension is conveyed by halliday to understand speakers’ meaning in relation to cultural, intracultural, and perhaps intercultural dimensions. halliday’s view is in line with blumkulka’s view, which also emphasizes on cross-cultural pragmatics. at the stage of the explanation given above, there are two types of pragmatics that the researchers can identify: pragmatics with cultural dimensions and culturespecific pragmatics (halliday, 2015). speeches on social media in the form of hate speech, humorous speech, and the like can serve as abundant data and substantive data sources in studies of cyberpragmatics. fransisco yus is known as one of the pragmatic field figures who initiated this cyberpragmatics field study. this pragmatics field is also widely referred to by miriam a. locher as internet pragmatics (locher & graham, 2010). it is said so because the data and data sources in this pragmatic field are, in fact, the speeches present in the internet media, including social media. with the development of the digital world that further developed into the internet, there is a new community called a virtual community. in sociolinguistic studies, there are known terms, which are social communities and speech communities. language variants that occur and the 152 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) purpose of using these variants can be described from these communities. in cyberpragmatics, the social community and the speech community seemed to have disappeared and now replaced by a new community called the virtual community. within the virtual community, there are interaction and communication between fellow members of social networks on the internet (guthrie & mccracken, 2010). citizens in the virtual community stop at the social and cultural dimensions and at the situational dimension that is not separated from certain interests. for example, interactions and communication between virtual community members do not always have to be controlled by the age factors of speakers and speech partners, the gender of speakers and speech partners, position of speakers and speech partners, horizontal and vertical social relations of speakers and speech partners, and the like. therefore, context considerations in social communities differ from context considerations in virtual communities. the meaning of pragmatics or intent in virtual communities is the object of study in cyberpragmatics studies (locher, 2013c). thus, it can be emphasized that the object of the pragmatic study is consistent, that is, on the speaker’s intention. however, the locational data source of cyberpragmatic research is in virtual communities that are very easily accessible from the clever schemes that are always in everyone’s hands. the new era has turned out to be truly a change in indonesian people’s behavior, let alone the world community, in which people must not be separated from information and communication with smart mobile devices at any time (rahardi, 2017b)up to this day the study of linguistic impoliteness, particularly based on culture-specific backgrounds has not been done. this research discusses the pragmatic manifestations of linguistic impoliteness. through this research, a detailed description of how the manifestations and intentions of the linguistic impoliteness markers would be obtained. the data was gathered by using listening and speaking methods in linguistics. the data gathered through the basic and advanced listening and speaking methods was analyzed by using the equivalence method, particularly the extra-lingual equivalence. the research results showed that the pragmatic impoliteness was classified into five categories, namely (1. with this situation, language research should change and shift to find new pragmatic rules, which will certainly be very useful for pragmatic development in indonesia and all parts of the world. this study aims to describe the forms of shifting elements of conventional external contexts to virtual external contexts. this study is important since it determines the intention of speech present digitally and virtually through various social media platforms. through this study, the field of pragmatics will also continue to develop following the times. pragmatics in the past is certainly different from pragmatics at present due to the rigging of digital technology in cyberpragmatics (yus, 2011). ii. methods the study of the shifts from conventional external contexts towards virtual external contexts was a qualitative study (schilling, 2006). the object of this study was the manifestation of context shifts. thus, this study’s data were the manifestation of the shifts in a conventional external context to a virtual external context. the substantive data source of this study was various kinds of utterances and the formulation of the context that contains the realization of a shift in a conventional external context towards a virtual external context (aranda, levy, & stoney, 2015). the locative data source was social media that publishes a variety of utterances and the context in which there was a shift in the conventional external context to the virtual external context that can be collected by the researcher around the time of the study. the data collection method applied was the listening method, specifically the free engaged and profound listening method. the technique used in the context of referencing was note-taking. data collected through the application of methods and techniques were classified and verified (sudaryanto, 2016). furthermore, the data were triangulated to the experts in the field of pragmatics, especially cyberpragmatics. in addition, triangulation was also conducted to validate the research data. data analysis was carried out by applying a distributional method to cover the linguistic dimension of this study. as for the non-linguistic dimension, the researcher applied extra-lingual equivalent method (mahsun, 153 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) 2005). the results of the study were presented with informal presentation methods. iii. results and discussion 3.1 results of the study this study has presented seven manifestations of shifting aspects of a conventional external context to a virtual external context. the seven manifestations of shifts are successively conveyed as follow: (1) shifting aspects of context element of speech setting, (2) shifting aspects of context element of objectives of speaking, (3) shifting aspects of context element of speech participants, (4) shifting aspects of context element of speech atmosphere, (5) ) shifting aspects of context element of speech channel, (6) shifting aspects of context element of speech genre, and (7) shifting aspects of context element of verbal acts. the manifestations of these shifts are stated in succession at dtinstg 1 to dtinstg 7 in the form of data along with their locative data sources as shown in table 1 below. 3.2 discussion the present study results showed seven manifestations of changing aspects of conventional external context elements into virtual external aspects. these shifts were possible because of the aspects of digital technology that are lined with language. in the past, language was not cultivated in its rigging with digital technology (yus, 2011). therefore, the purpose of speech was not discussed in connection with technology. however, in the current era of the industrial revolution 4.0, the link between language and digital technology is necessary. understanding the meaning of speech that does not associate table 1. context shifting manifestation data code forms of speech data and locative data sources manifestation shifting aspects of context elements dtinstg 1 tidak menggunakan masker denda sebesar rp5 juta atau kurungan penjara selama dua minggu (penalty of rp. 5 million or twoweek imprisonment for not using a mask ) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_zzxv7lyll/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of speech setting dtinstg 2 jika pemerintah indonesia menolak kedatangan tka china internet di indonesia akan diblokir (if the indonesian government refuses arrival of chinese foreign workers, internet in indonesia will be blocked) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_1etf1l56i/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of objectives of speaking dtinstg 3 pemerintah pusat tidak memiliki uang untuk membayar utang ke pemprov dki jakarta (central government does not have money to pay debt to dki jakarta provincial government) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_-ocsdf9s0/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of speech participants dtinstg 4 2.800 orang narapidana di lapas paledang dan pondok rajeg bogor (2,800 prisoners in paledang lapas and pondok rajeg bogor) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_2pxnblc2a/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of speech atmosphere dtinstg 5 menteri kesehatan amerika sudah menandatangani persetujuan penggunaan chip untuk virus corona (us health secretary signs approval for chip usage for corona virus) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_32ngwlley/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of speech channel dtinstg 6 hukuman seumur hidup bagi kepala daerah yang memainkan bantuan covid-19 (life penalty for regional heads who embezzle covid-19 aid) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_2p7oufge6/?utm_source=ig_web_button_ share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of speech genre dtinstg 7 tenaga medis covid-19 rsud purworejo ditagih biaya rp. 150 ribu/malam oleh pemkab. (covid-19 medical staffs at purworejo district hospital were charged rp. 150 thousand per night by regency government.) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_4bobsfeqk/?utm_source=ig_web_button_share_sheet shifting aspects of context element of verbal acts 154 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) digital technology with all aspects and impacts is a big mistake in language studies today (limberg, 2009)1996; bousfield, 2008a; bousfield and locher, 2008; bousfield and culpeper, 2008. in the following sections, each of these manifestations of change is discussed. 3.2.1 shifting aspects of context element of speech setting speech settings can be divided into time and place settings. chaika refers to it as a spatio-temporal setting. thus, in her view, language is due to social mirrors tightly laced with language and its social context (rahardi, 2009). she implied that context as setting time and place as a unit. in eastern culture, speech context can be simplified into ‘understand time’ to know the time and ‘understand space’ to know the place. in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 where digital technology plays a very important role in social life, time setting, and place settings are not too decisive in interpreting a statement (taguchi, 2015). in the past, people talking loudly at night was forbidden and considered rude. likewise, in the past, people in a place of worship talking about something were not allowed, but nowadays, people in the church or other holy places talk freely. thus, there has been a shift from conventional external contexts with time and place elements to time and place elements in virtual external contexts. with a smart gadget in someone’s hands, people can now communicate at any time. the place is now also very open and without insulation because someone can just talk to friends in other cities or other countries easily without being restricted by space restrictions. in the following dtinstg 1 virtual external context data, the substance of information delivery is by no means limited to space and time. that is, in this cyberpragmatics perspective, the context of the speech substance is not at all bound by time and place settings, as is the case in conventional external contexts (rahardi, 2017a). dtinstg 1 virtual external context tidak menggunakan masker denda sebesar rp5 juta atau kurungan penjara selama dua minggu (penalty of rp. 5 million or twoweek imprisonment for not using a mask). https://www.instagram.com/p/b_zzxv7lyll/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: beredar berita bahwa pengendara sepeda motor atau mobil dikabarkan akan dikenakan sanksi tilang sebesar rp5 juta atau kurungan penjara selama dua minggu apabila tidak menggunakan masker saat berkendara. dikutip dari media instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 5 mei 2020 menyebutkan bahwa berita yang beredar tersebut tidak benar adanya. melalui media sosial humas polda kalteng @humaspoldakalteng, dinyatakan bahwa kepolisian negara republik indonesia tidak pernah mengeluarkan kebijakan semacam itu dan dapat dipastikan dalam peraturan tersebut tidak tertera dalam uu nomor 22 2009 tentang lalu lintas dan angkutan jalan. (context: news circulating that motorcyclists or car drivers are rumored to be subject to sanctions of rp. 5 million or imprisonment for two weeks if they do not wear masks while driving. quoted from instagram media turnbackhoax.com on may 5, 2020, saying that the news circulating was not true. through the central kalimantan police public relations social media @ humaspoldakalteng, it was stated that the indonesian national police had never issued such a policy and it was certain that the regulation was not stated in law no. 22 of 2009 concerning traffic and road transportation.) 3.2.2 shifting aspects of context element of objectives of speaking in a virtual external context, it is not only the spatio-temporal setting context element that is shifting. let us now examine the utterances in the dtinstg 2 virtual external contexts below. the speech excerpt that reads “if the indonesian government refuses the arrival of chinese foreign workers, the internet in indonesia will be blocked.” is addressed to anyone who reads the posts on social media. in addition to the fact that people’s purpose is unlimited as a result of the use of social media, the purpose of people speaking is also multi-purpose (mey, 2003). that goal can be branched anywhere, so to interpret it is not as easy as interpreting speech in a conventional external context. we can say that the speech from the perspective of cyberpragmatics means a lot, not just double or ambiguous. i want to emphasize that the speech that is multi-purpose and multi-target, as in the data snippet below, is more than double meaning as it is intended to be overcome through pragmatics (locher, 2013b). speech that has a lot of meaning as in the speech below can only be completed with a cyber-pragmatic perspective.155 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) dtinstg 2 virtual external context jika pemerintah indonesia menolak kedatangan tka china internet di indonesia akan diblokir (if the indonesian government refuses arrival of chinese foreign workers, the internet in indonesia will be blocked.) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_1etf1l56i/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: dalam berita di media sosial instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 5 mei 2020 beredar berita hoax dari akun twitter intelektual jadul @ plato_ids yang mengatakan bahwa jika pemerintah indonesia menolak kedatangan tka china maka china mengancam akan mematikan jaringan internet di indonesia. berdasarkan hasil penelur dari artikel medcom.id terungkap fakta bila tiongkok tidak berwenang mematikan atau memblokir akses internet di indonesia. kewenangan pemblokiran akses internet diatur di dalam undang-undang nomor 19 tahun 2016 pasal 40 ayat (2a) dan (2b) tentang informasi dan transaksi elektronik (ite) dan secara teknis pemblokiran atau pemutusan akses internet dilakukan oleh kementerian komunikasi dan informatika (kominfo). (context: in the social media news on instagram turnbackhoax.com on may 5, 2020, hoax news circulated from the intellectual twitter account of jadul @plato_ids, which said that if the indonesian government refused the arrival of chinese foreign workers, china threatened to shut down the internet network in indonesia. the medcom.id article’s search results revealed that china is not authorized to shut down or block internet access in indonesia. the authority to block internet access is regulated in law number 19 of 2016 article 40 paragraph (2a) and (2b) concerning electronic information and transactions (ite). technically, the blocking or termination of internet access is carried out by the ministry of communication and information technology (kominfo). 3.2.3 shifting aspects of context element of speech participants one element in the conventional external context is the participant element. the concept of participant element includes not only the speaker and speech partner but also other speech actors. the presence of a third person will also usually be very influential in communication between the speaker and the speech partner. the conversation that is taking place between people is usually very influential in the course of communication and interactions. thus, the meaning of meaning from a pragmatic perspective must consider aspects of the context elements, in particular, the participant elements of the conversation shifted (o’driscoll, 2013). the speech partner in the virtual external context is not present so the considerations of courtesy, apathy, and the like automatically change. people no longer need to use paralinguistic elements, which are kinesics, mimics, proxemics, to be considered polite (locher, 2013a). therefore, the concept of participant speaking is completely different from the context in general pragmatics. in this connection, dtinstg 3 virtual external contexts below need due attention. who are the actual participants in the conversation? virtual context in cyberpragmatics can answer this question. dtinstg 3 virtual external context pemerintah pusat tidak memiliki uang untuk membayar utang ke pemprov dki jakarta (central government does not have money to pay debt to dki jakarta provincial government) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_-ocsdf9s0/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: dilansir dari media instagram turnbackhoax. com pada 9 mei 2020 beredar berita hoax di media sosial facebook beang adhietya yang menyatakan bahwa pemerintah pusat tidak mampu membayar utang sebesar rp5 triliun kepada pemprov dki jakarta. faktanya, medcom.com menelusuri dan ditemukan artikel tersebut adalah hasil editan. kompas. com pada jumat 8 mei 2020 pukul 04.04 wib hanya mempublikasikan artikel berisi sindiran pimpinan dprd dki jakarta kepada menteri keuangan sri mulyani dengan judul “sindir sri mulyani, pimpinan dprd dki: semua daerah tak punya uang, kenapa hanya jakarta?” wakil ketua dprd dki jakarta zita anjani menanggapi pernyataan sri mulyani terkait pemprov dki jakarta yang tak lagi mampu memberikan bantuan untuk 1,1 juta keluarga penerima manfaat (kpm) di tengah pandemi covid-19. cnnindonesia. com, memuat pernyatan sri mulyani yang telah membayar setengah dari rp5,16 triliun yaitu, 2,6 triliun utang dana bagi hasil (dbh) tahun anggaran 2019 pemerintah pusat ke pemprov dki. (context: reported by instagram media turnbackhoax. com on may 9, 2020, hoax news circulated on the beang adhietya’s facebook social media stating that the central government could not pay debts of rp5 trillion to the dki jakarta provincial government. in fact, medcom.com searched and found that the article was edited. kompas.com on friday, may 8, 2020 at 04.04 wib only published an article containing the insinuation of the dki jakarta dprd leader to the minister of finance sri mulyani entitled “quipping sri mulyani, chairperson of dki dprd: all regions have no money, why only jakarta?” deputy chairman of dki jakarta dprd zita anjani responded to sri mulyani’s statement regarding dki jakarta provincial government that could no longer assist 1.1 million beneficiary families (kpm) amid the covid-19 pandemic. cnnindonesia.com published the statement of sri mulyani, who had paid half of rp 5,16 trillion, which was 2,6 trillion of revenue sharing debt (dbh) for the 2019 fiscal year of the central government to the dki jakarta provincial government.)156 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) 3.2.4 shifting aspects of context element of speech atmosphere elements of the context of speech atmosphere are present in both the conventional external and virtual contexts. it also means that both in general pragmatics and cyberpragmatics, the speech atmosphere’s element determines the intent. even so, the manifestation of the presence of these context elements is different. the serious atmosphere, relaxed atmosphere, tense atmosphere, humorous atmosphere, and others tend to ‘lose control’ in cyberspace’s pragmatics (spencer-oatey & ruhi, 2007). unlike the context elements of the atmosphere in general pragmatics that tend to be bounded and ‘strong control’, in general pragmatics, a meeting between the speaker and the speech partner is required to present a statement. however, in cyberpragmatics, participants’ presence is not necessary (kampf, 2008). dislike is what makes it seem as if people are completely free, completely unlimited, so for example, if an atmosphere of humor arises, then the humor is presented out of control. likewise, if there is anger, for example, then the anger will really explode without limits. the utterances in dtinstg data 4 in the following virtual external context can be further examined to clarify this point. get a clear look, whether the speech was present in a tense or relaxed atmosphere, serious or not serious. only cyberpragmatics which takes place in virtual external contexts, is capable of disambiguating this narrative atmosphere (yus, 2011). thus, it is clear that the shift in aspects of the atmosphere of speech actually takes place due to the integration of digital technology in language. the language also absolutely cannot escape digital technology’s involvement in the current era of the industrial revolution 4.0. dtinstg 4 virtual external context 2.800 orang narapidana di lapas paledang dan pondok rajeg bogor (2,800 prisoners in paledang lapas and pondok rajeg bogor) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_2pxnblc2a/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: beredar sebuah video dari akun facebook bernama petrus i yang berisi tampilan peta lokasi lembaga pemasyarakatan pondok rajeg, cibinong, jawa barat di media sosial beserta narasi yang menyebutkan bahwa pada tanggal 6 dan 7 mei 2020 sebanyak 2.800 orang narapidana di lapas paledang dan pondok rajeg, cibinong akan dibebaskan. dilansir dari media instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 6 mei 2020 beredar hanyalah berita yang keliru. faktanya, kabag humas direktorat jenderal pemasyarakatan (ditjen pas), meminta agar masyarakat tidak cepat termakan isu yang kebenarannya tidak bisa dipertanggungjawabkan. sementara itu, kepala lembaga pemasyarakatan (kalapas) kelas iia pondok rajeg, cibinong, kabupaten bogor, ardian nova christiawan menjelaskan bila pesan itu sangat tidak tepat, dijumlahkan total warga binaan dari kedua lapas tidak mencapai 2.800 atau tidak sesuai dengan berita yang beredar. (context: a video circulating from a facebook account named petrus i which contains a map display of pondok rajeg penitentiary, cibinong, west java on social media along with a narrative that states that on may 6 and 7, 2020 there were 2,800 inmates in lapas paledang and pondok rajeg cibinong who would be released. it is reported from the media turnbackhoax.com on may 6, 2020 that the circulated news was incorrect. in fact, the head of public relations of the directorate general of corrections (ditjen pas) requested the public not to be quickly convinced by issues whose truth could not be justified. meanwhile, the head of penitentiary (kalapas) class iia of the pondok rajeg, cibinong, bogor regency, ardian nova christiawan explained that the message was very incorrect, because the total number of fostered residents from both prisons did not reach 2,800 which was not in line with the circulating news.) 3.2.5 shifting aspects of context element of the speech channel channels of speech in general pragmatics are very influential in determining the purpose of the speech. a channel actually refers to the media conveying the intent. for example, people who are speaking to the public in large numbers can replace the loudspeakers so that the intended purpose can be reached clearly to the listeners. the clarity of the voice is very influential in determining the purpose of the speech. the shift that occurs in the digital era now is the scarcity of loudspeakers. people in this era also increasingly feel that they do not need loudspeakers as the media and channel to convey messages (ishihara, 2010). with just one click, the message will reach a large number of people around the world. thus, it is very fast; both messages in the form of written language and messages in the form of spoken language can quickly reach the public in just seconds. even so, the issue of dislike always has the potential to cause false perceptions. in the example of snippet in dtinstg data 5 in the following virtual external context, the message 157 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) will arrive very quickly. in addition to the fact that messages arrive very quickly, access to the message is also valid for all the time with the accompanying site address. dtinstg 5 virtual external context menteri kesehatan amerika sudah menandatangani persetujuan penggunaan chip untuk virus corona (us health secretary signs approval for chip usage for corona virus) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_32ngwlley/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: dilansir dalam media instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 6 mei 2020 beredar berita hoax dari akun eyda ed mengunggah sebuah postingan yang berisi klaim menteri kesehatan amerika sudah menandatangani persetujuan penggunaan chip 666 di masa pandemi covid-19. faktanya, berdasarkan hasil penelusuran, cerita tentang chip implan 666 rfid yang ditanamkan pada tangan kanan dan dahi merupakan teori liar yang ada sejak dahulu dihembuskan oleh para pecinta teori konspirasi, kemudian berkembang dengan menghubungkannya dengan agama dan angka 666 merupakan simbol kejahatan anti-kristus dan saat ini dikaitkan kembali dengan covid-19. (context: reported on turnbackhoax.com on may 6, 2020, hoax news from eyda ed’s account posted a post containing the claim that the american health minister had signed an agreement to use the 666 chip during the covid-19 pandemic. in fact, based on search results, the story of the 666 rfid implant chip implanted in the right hand and forehead is a wild theory that has long been exhaled by connoisseurs of conspiracy theorists, then developed by relating it to religion and the number 666, which is a symbol of anti-christ crime and currently this is associated with covid-19.) 3.2.6 shifting aspects of context element of speech genre speech genre plays an important role in determining intent in a general pragmatic perspective. the speech genre is actually identical to the ‘barrel’ speech. the clarity of the genre or barrel is very influential in determining intent (giordano, 2016). when someone poems, for example, the mistakes in language are possible for beauty or aesthetic purposes. likewise, when someone narrates, the repetition or repetition of the intention is very important to emphasize the speaker’s intention. in the perspective of cyberpragmatics, the speech genre becomes free. try to pay attention to the speech-hoax tone on social media, or maybe also the speech-hate speech in any social media, the clarity of the genre is not very mainstream. someone is required to be able to interpret the purpose of the speech delivered with any genre. therefore, the presence of a virtual external context is very important to note. dtinstg 6 in the following part is important to note. is there any clarity of genre in the speech delivered in the data? dtinstg 6 virtual external context hukuman seumur hidup bagi kepala daerah yang memainkan bantuan covid-19 (life penalty for regional heads who embezzle covid-19 aid.) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_2p7oufge6/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: dilansir dalam media instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 6 mei 2020 beredar berita hoax dari facebook terkait penyataan presiden jokowi akan menghukum seumur hidup bagi kepada daerah yang memainkan bantuan covid-19. faktanya, berdasarkan penelusuran tempo.co, tidak mencantumkan secara jelas kapan dan di mana presiden jokowi menyampaikan pernyataan itu. pernyataan terkait hukuman seumur hidup bagi kepada daerah yang memainkan bantuan covid-19 secara pasti disampaikan oleh plt juru bicara kpk ali fikri saat dikonfirmasi liputan6.com. (context: reported on turnbackhoax.com media on may 6, 2020, hoax news circulating from facebook regarding the statement that president jokowi will issue a life sentence to the regional heads who embezzle covid-19 aid. in fact, based on the tempo.co search, it did not clearly state when and where president jokowi made the statement. statements related to life sentences for regional heads that embezzle covid-19 aid were clearly conveyed by acting kpk spokesman ali fikri when confirmed by liputan6.com.) 3.2.7 shifting aspects of context element of verbal acts leech has discussed verbal acts as elements of the context of the situation. however, they are also discussed in the framework of general pragmatics. thus, any type of verbal act must actually be captured by the speech partner correctly (leech, 2007)ide 1989; 1993; matsumoto 1989; gu 1990; mao 1994. whether the verbal act is intended to convey information or messages, or intended to ask someone to do something, or whether the verbal act intended to present a particular stream or effect, it must be made a context element by the speech partner as a catcher of the intended purpose of the speech. dtinstg 7 virtual external contexts can identify the types of verbal acts, whether they are locution, illocution, or perlocution. the accuracy of the identification of the speech partner as a catcher of the intention of the speech will largely determine the accuracy of the 158 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) interpretation of the intention. therefore, people will not be easily prejudiced or give prejudice to others before they really understand the type of speech acts used by speakers (mao, 2003). from a cyberpragmatics perspective, understanding this type of verbal action is very important because all aspects of the context are present virtually. it is easier to make confirmations in conventional external contexts compared to virtual external contexts. in this regard, the following data are very important to be observed. dtinstg 7 virtual external context tenaga medis covid-19 rsud purworejo ditagih biaya rp. 150 ribu/malam oleh pemkab. (covid-19 medical staffs at purworejo district hospital were charged rp. 150 thousand/night by regency government.) https://www.instagram.com/p/b_4bobsfeqk/?utm_ source=ig_web_button_share_sheet konteks: dalam berita yang dikutip dari media instagram turnbackhoax.com pada 7 mei 2020 beredar berita hoax di media sosial tentang tenaga medis covid-19 rsud purworejo ditagih biaya rp. 150 ribu/malam oleh pemkab karena telah tinggal di hotel ganesha (milik pemkab purworejo) jawa tengah. faktanya, berdasarkan klarifikasi tersebut disampaikan sekretaris daerah kabupaten purworejo drs. said ramadhon, selasa, 5 mei 2020 tenaga medis covid-19 rsud purworejo dipindahkan sementara di rsu raa tjokronegoro, karena hotel ganesha akan disterilisasi dan akan kembali kembali ke hotel ganesha setelah proses sterilisasi selesai. (context: in the news quoted from turnbackhoax. com media on may 7, 2020, hoax news circulating on the social media about covid-19 medical staffs of purworejo regional hospital who were charged rp. 150 thousand/night by the regency governments for having lived in the hotel ganesha (owned by purworejo regency government) in central java. in fact, a clarification was conveyed by the regional secretary of purworejo regency drs. said ramadhon, tuesday, 5 may 2020 stating that the covid-19 medical staffs at purworejo regional hospital were temporarily moved to raa tjokronegoro general hospital, because the ganesha hotel would be sterilized and they would return to the ganesha hotel after the sterilization process was complete.) iv. conclusion in conclusion, the researcher intends to reiterate that the implementation of research on the manifestation of context shift from conventional external context to virtual external context from cyberpragmatics has produced seven manifestations. the seven manifestations of the shift are conveyed as follow: (1) shifting aspects of context element of speech setting, (2) shifting aspects of context element of objectives of speaking, (3) shifting aspects of context element of speech participants, (4) shifting aspects of context element of speech atmosphere, (5) shifting aspects of context element of speech channel, (6) shifting aspects of context element of speech genre and (7) shifting aspects of context element of verbal acts. even so, the researcher feels that there are still limitations to the implementation of this study. research data about contexts that are available in a limited way is one of the obstacles in implementing this study. this weakness will be perfected by carrying out research in a broader pragmatic context. in addition, other researchers are also advised to carry out similar research, even if the topic is different so that this shift in context can be better described. references aranda, c. l., levy, d. k., & stoney, s. 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(1st ed.). amsterdam: john benjamin publishing company. retrieved from https://benjamins.com 161 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 4, 2020 final revision: march 14, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this study concerned with language in written form that is visible as graffiti in the padang city, indonesia landscape. the mushroomed of graffiti in padang city landscapes increasingly has been a growing problem in society. even local government as the official authority has created some task to prohibit graffiti, but a new graffiti has always been emerging in public space. therefore graffiti has been considered a crime. it is interesting to explore graffiti in padang city landscapes from other perspectives, particularly the symbolic functions of graffiti. the study uses qualitative approaches by applying critical discourse analysis. the result shows that graffiti in padang city landscapes accomplished two principal symbolic functions; first graffiti as a medium of demonstration in which providing space for marginalized expression with the opportunity to voice controversial ideas publically; second graffiti as social critics in which providing input into the public discourse that is not concerned by other conventional media. keyword linguistic landscape; symbolic functions; critical discourse analysis; graffiti. correspondence phone: e-mail: yendrastkip@gmail.com article symbolic functions of graffiti in padang city of indonesia: critical linguistic landscape studies yendra1, ketut artawa2, i nyoman suparwa3, made sri satyawati4 1stkip pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia 2,3,4 faculty of humanities and arts, universitas udayana, bali, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.100-108.2020 i. introduction padang is the capital city of west sumatra province, indonesia. the city located on the west coast of sumatra island until 2010 recorded as a city has received ‘adipura’ award 17 times, which is an award for cities in indonesia that have succeeded in cleaning and managing the urban environment. since 2016 the community shocked by the appearance of graffiti in public spaces. even though the padang city government had erased the graffiti, then a new one appeared again. the government emphasizes the graffiti is vandalism that ruins the beauty of the city. indeed, the government has issued to give legal sanctions for those found to create graffiti on public facilities. however, it seems that the efforts made by the government have not been successful yet. some of padang’s community members believe that the graffiti is a work of ‘prankster artists who do not have jobs’. base on the previous study conducted, reeve (2017) has concluded that graffiti in padang is an urban art cultural movement that influenced by global culture. it is not a new issue, and it is already global and happening all over the world. on other perspectives, graffiti in padang city public space is part of the linguistic landscape (ll) has known as public signs, the scene where the public space is symbolically constructed by various language signs (artawa & sartini, 2019; gorter, 2018; hernández et al., 2017; landry & bourhis, 1997; thongtong, 2016). graffiti in padang city is bottom-up or nonofficial signs which often display more linguistic diversity and less regulated, or can be said as “freedom of speech rights” (dixson, 2015). surely, all these signs communicated a basic informational function. furthermore, even signs of ll such graffiti in 100 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) padang city have an informative function to the reader. besides, signs also have a symbolic function that represents an ideology. the symbolic function of the ll sign is the implicit messages within a language in which these signs are written. there is a deeper meaning below the surface. it’s mean that symbolic functions are more ways than to communicate information. beside represent linguistics function, signs also have social, cultural, political, and economic means (dixson, 2015). the symbolic function also indicates significant symbolic meaning to the public in a territory; therefore, the signs of ll may be considered as a powerful mechanism of inclusion and exclusion, and hence also of expressing creating identity (kotze, 2010). some aspects denote symbolic functions, such as culture, identity, power relations, and language status (dagenais et al., 2015). it seems ll signs such graffiti in padang city have symbolic markers that express the status and power which working within semiotic modes of social positioning and power relations (torkington, 2009; scollon & scollon, 2003). the signs can be considered to reflect the relative power, particularly those signs produced by the marginalized and to give way into the power relations in social communities, and also to contribute to the discursive construction within sociolinguistic context (gorter & cenoz, 2017). the producer of graffiti in padang city may thus be acting based on their ideological orientations. the graffiti in padang city contribute to enhance the hegemonic ideologies by resembling a social representation. it can be assumed that graffiti in padang city as part of a linguistic landscape bigger than just urban art culture trends; maybe there something it wants to convey. as stated as “all signs are equally subject to critical reading, for no sign is innocent” (kress, 1993). it means linguistic signs in public spaces one of the subjects of critical reading because there are no signs without an intention. as van leeuwen (1993) mentioned, “no matter how ideologically innocent signs may seem, they may, in fact, be forceful instruments in the reproduction of the social world in which they form part of the landscape”. based on the discussion above, the current research focuses on the symbolic function of signs in padang’s graffiti. ii. methods this study designed qualitatively by combining basic investigation methods of linguistic landscape (ll) studies and critical discourse analysis (cda) studies, called critical linguistic landscape (cll) studies (yendra, 2020). it is a new alternative concept move from the inclination of mostly first researches of ll to apply quantitative approach which usually only focus on calculating and analyzing signs in a particular region of a city based on the use of language and the producer of the sign (blackwood, 2015; moriarty, 2014) to reveal the hierarchy of linguistic devices in multilingual contexts(roig-marín, 2016; durk gorter, 2018); to determine about the peoples who reside in a region, what ideologies are used, which languages have dominance and renown, and which are marginalized (edelman, 2014; lamarre, 2014; papen, 2012). therefore, this cll concept broader than ll concept in applying a quantitative approach, which just only the documentation of signs. the ccl concept moves beyond descriptive and distributional approaches, whereas local historical and symbolic means are used to recognize the distinctions of the given context. it is because the ll is understood herein as a place where language, along with semiotic devices, involves in symbolic construction. hence, the qualitative aspect should include a critical approach to ll such cda. in collected the data, observation is done while photographing the graffiti in padang city as much as possible with cell phone cameras. the photographs were taken more than 500 photos and saved to a computer in digital image format, even though there are repeating photos with the same object. graffiti in public space communicates messages which often have a deeper meaning than what is seen on the surface, so that interview also conducted as complementary data. the interview focused on social cognition toward language sign padang’s graffiti by using the snowball technique. its support the claim discourse, as a social practice, is both socially conditioned and socially constitutive (fairclough & wodak, 1997). in this way, the padang’s graffiti might be contributing to the reinforcing of hegemonic ideologies by the reproduction of particular social representations, and it may also reveal something about the social identities of the place in which it is embedded.101 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) in data analysis, this study specifically focuses on language in written form that is visible as graffiti in padang city public space, which purposes exploring the symbolic functions, particularly the discursive construction through linguistic code preference. three paradigms had been applied in exploring the symbolic function of graffiti in this study: firstly, the positive-empirical paradigm: focused on analyzing the form of the language in which the sign as a text. secondly, constructive paradigm: focused on analyzing the meaning of signs as discursive construction in which is a representation of social cognition. thirdly, critical paradigm: focused on exploring discursive construction through linguistic code preference, and how it related to social context includes social knowledge and social power (fairclough & wodak, 1997; van dijk, 2001). figure 1 shows in which the analysis model is used. on the dimension of the text, the sign on graffiti is described as a linguistic structure. on the dimension of social cognition, the meaning of the signs is interpreted base on social cognition and discourse production process. the last, on the dimension of social context, the constellations of the sign and the social context is explained as a discursive construction, as social cognition includes social knowledge and social power. iii. result and discussion kind of graffiti in padang city landscape graffiti in this study defined as writings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed illicitly on the city wall or other surface in a public space as part of linguistic landscapes. on other terms, it is sometimes known as a mural, street art, or wall writing. in padang city, graffiti has various forms that are produced by various social groups of people and serve several social needs expressing in different social interests. on some creation of graffiti, the producers mentioned a nickname, referred to as a tag or signature, sometimes the tag only created independently of the existence of graffiti. while on some other, the producers not mentioned their signature as anonymous. therefore, graffiti in padang city landscapes could be distinguished into a signature and anonymous graffiti. most of the signatures graffiti widespread in padang city landscape is a creation as an appreciable work of art such as graffiti and mural street art (ex. picture 1 and 2). it is a decorative expression of the picture and writing that requires artistic skill and understanding of art painting. still, this kind of signature graffiti has labeling both vandalism and artistic expression of art within it. following (dabbour, 2017), accepting graffiti in the art word implies that if graffiti is in its proper place, it becomes acceptable and even profitable. however, inversely graffiti in the city public space is a crime since it sometimes challenges hegemony and those who have authority over the public city space. this duality created a dichotomy of meanings of scribbling that stemmed from the notion of space. figure 1. cda analysis model (adopted from fairclough & wodak, 1997; van dijk, 2001) fig. 2. sample of street art graffiti102 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) that conveys within the language signs, such as sentences, phrases, and words. generally, it uses simple rhetoric and images to make the audience easier to catch and remember the messages. generalized base on contents or topics within linguistic code preference is found, graffiti in padang city landscapes are classified thematically into: (1) polices theme, (2) investor theme, (3) corruptor theme, (4) save gunung talang theme, and (5) other certain themes. from all these themes, the most frequent theme repeatedly found in many ways and in many different places in padang city is graffiti, which is signing “#save gunung talang”. sometimes these signs are created signatory but mostly created anonymously. table 1 shows several samples of linguistic preferences that appear through graffiti in padang city landscape thematically. symbolic function of scribbling in padang city landscapes padang’s graffiti as social critics the perception of graffiti related to crime and vandalism is a basic reason for assessing bad attitudes towards such actions. the basic motivation that drives to leave writing somewhere, including graffiti in public spaces, is human nature, as a quote “if you put a pen into any child’s hand, naturally, he’ll go to the wall” (reiss, 2008). this quote assumes graffiti is a part of individual desire or need to involve and relate to society as an effort to acknowledge or call attention to the mass system. this involvement provides an opportunity to be part of the conversation that takes place in public spaces, especially for those who have little or no voice in the community. according to chaffee (2014), graffiti in public space is a type of democratic in which there is universal access and a barometer that register the spectrum of thinking, playing and intricate role in ordering space, establishing and communicating codes of behavior, values, and beliefs, participating in the cultural reproduction. as kress (1993) noted as “ideological construction of space”. the meaning of signs contained padang’s graffiti is an expression conveyed with a form of curse and satire. for example, the use of the word anjing (‘dog’) in graffiti (see table 1). semantically, ‘dog’ are representations of four-legged mammals, the different of signature graffiti, anonymous graffiti seems simpler and mostly just a written scratch-made spontaneously by producers in a flash, without concerning any artistical aspect (ex. figure 3 and 4). the anonymity of this scribbling might afford the producers to challenge the normative values of the setting without risking caught in the act and get an impeachment; “hit and run” (johnston, 2006) might be proper words to describe the occurrences of these anonymous graffiti in padang city landscapes. fig. 3. sample of street art mural fig. 4. sample of anonymous scribbling 1 picture 4. sample of anonymous scribbling 2 there are some distinctions between signature and anonymous scribbling, but both kinds of scribbling mostly carry a special oppositional message in it 103 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) gives a negative connotation to a dog. on another aspect, dogs have their theological roots with islam as the majority religion in padang. dogs are conceptual metaphors that more often symbolize uncleanness and humiliation. therefore, a graffiti signed “anjing kota padang” shows that the author uses graffiti to express anger, curse, resentment or disappointment. for another example, the phrase “tanah lahan but indonesia’s cultural repertoire full of diction related to animals, including a dog. for indonesian readers, expressions that use animal names tend to be vulgar and have negative connotations. the negative implications of ‘dog’ are often related to other signs syntactically that can be interpreted differently. there are various reasons related to the negative connotation of ‘dog’, although dogs have more value and tend to be loyal to anyone who gives them food. the opportunistic loyalty table 1. amount of samples of linguistic preferences of graffiti in padang city landscapes themes linguistic preferences transliterations polices polisi anjing you are dog (police)/ fuck the police rajin baca jadi pandai, malas baca jadi polisi reading much to be smart, less reading to be a police semangat pak polisi, pelanggaran sama dengan uang don’t give up mister police, our mistakes is money for you jangan bangga jadi anjing; polisi anjing don’t be proud to be a dog; fuck the police polisi anjiang fuck the police (minangkabau language) investor indonesia menangis; investor indonesia is crying: investor tanah lahan bermain anak investor place for children investor to play akal busuk investor investor’s cruel intention kami tidak menjual tanah kepada investor manapun we are not sale out land to any investor go green; go green; pantek go green; go green; fuck corruptor gantung koruptor biar kering hang the corruptor until dry indonesia bersih dari koruptor!! fuck indonesia cleans (has no/ without) corruptor!! fuck lenyapkan koruptor, bankit rakyatku, sejahtera negeriku vanished corruptor, growing up my peoples, prosperous my nation ayo pemuda bangun gerakan indonesia bersih dari koruptor come on guys make indonesia without corruptor awasi dan laporkan koruptor watch over and report the corruptor #save gunung talang #save gunung talang; hati-hati tertipu #save talang mountain; be careful of delusion #save gunung talang; tolak proyek geothermal #save talang mountain; refused geothermal project may day #save gunung talang may day #save talang mountain #save gunung talang dari proyek geothermal #save talang mountain from geothermal project #save gunung talang; selamatkan gunung talang #save talang mountain; (translation in indonesia language) #save gunung talang; sumbar tolak geothermal #save talang mountain; sumbar (west sumatera province) refused the geothermal #save gunung talang;say no to geothermal #save talang mountain; say no to geothermal #save gunung talang;tolong, tolong, tolong #save talang mountain; help, help, help104 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) bermain anak investor” as one main discourse on padang’s graffiti (figure 1). literally, the phrase meaning ‘place for children to play’. when word anak (‘children’) had crossed out changed by word investor, the meaning of the phrase coerced to change into ‘place for the investor to play’. the sign shown in picture 1 is conveying that underlined messages would create discursive construction with deep information. the place is not a free public space anymore. it has become a private and commercial place. as a discursive construction, it is a creative way of communicating with the general public since the message was conveyed in figurative form, as an ironic social commentary or satire. it can serve as a powerful means of reaching the public to raise awareness of investment issues and probably was demoralizing for a city administration. relates to social context, the investor had perceived badly as social cognition among societies in padang city. this assumption can be proved with appearing a number of graffiti in public space talks about investor (see table 1), such as “indonesia menangis; investor”, “kami tidak menjual tanah kepada investor manapun”, “akal busuk investor”, and “go green; go green; pantek”. those samples writing give a portrayal that the investment issue in padang city has been view as a growing problem in society. the phase “indonesia menangis” meaning ‘indonesia is crying’ give presupposition that indonesian peoples suffer because of bad investment and they refuse or exclusions investor from talking which is shown by crossed the lexical investor (investor). the phrase “kami tidak menjual tanah kepada investor manapun” meaning ‘we not sale our land to any investor’ gives presupposition that investor issue has trying to take resident land. the phrase “akal busuk investor” meaning ‘cruel investor intention’ give presupposition that investment issue does not give a good impact to resident economically. the phrase “go green; go green; pantek” meaning ‘go green; go green; fuck’ is the angry expression to the investor. in short, the discursive construction of oppressed identity is realized linguistically through the actual signs of these graffiti. the exploration confirms that graffiti in public space is a medium of social criticism that contains ideas or value as a reflection of the social conditions and public concern. the dialectical process between critics and graffiti in padang’s public spaces is more than evident with various individuals or communities who use urban space as a public forum, referred to as minor or small media. graffiti in public spaces is another potential form of communication that provides open or more subtle social messages as expressions of ‘social power’ to controlled societies. it is important when formal forms of communication are not possible contrary to ‘hegemonic power’. relates to what van dijk (2001) the ways in creating discourse to consolidate power as social control: firstly, access to specific forms of discourse as a power resource; secondly, do some action to influence people’s minds, knowledge or opinions; and thirdly, find the discourse may at least indirectly control people’s actions as persuasion and manipulation. in those ways, the group will have power if they can control the actions and thoughts of other groups. padang’s graffiti as a protest as we mentioned before, graffiti in padang’s public spaces communicates messages. from various topics in padang’s graffiti (see table 1), we are interested in investigating more specific topics about “gunung talang” because the mountain is not even in padang’s territory. mount talang is in the solok region, a district in west sumatra near padang. initially, we assumed graffiti on the topic of mount talang in padang’s public spaces was the distribution of graffiti from solok. but, after we observed in solok, we did not find any graffiti on the topic of mount talang in solok itself. we began to ask: what’s wrong with mount talang, and what is the connection with padang’s graffiti? based on information from several solok community members, in early 2016 the west sumatra government, together with several private companies, built a megaproject that utilizes geothermal energy from mount talang. however, the project was rejected by peoples who lived around mount talang. they consider the geothermal project has damaged the environment, which has an economic impact on the peoples there who live as farmers. eventually, local residents conducted some of these demonstrations and blocked geothermal project activities. in response to the actions, the government was officially allowed to use military force to restore the demonstrators directly. in short, 105 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) this “geothermal war” has been a long epic story between the local and the government since the geothermal project has begun. the question is; what to do with graffiti in padang? to answer this question, we began to investigate information and messages contained in padang’s graffiti. from several data, graffiti with the topic of mount talang mostly uses the phrase “#save gunung talang” (for example, see picture 3). expression such “#save gunung talang” on any graffiti intertextually seems to be linked to and produced collectively. however, looking further into each writing style and linguistic form, it seems that different producers created the graffiti. it might be said that people gathering around the same cause and common objective can establish a discursive partnership, despite being unaware of each other. the decentralized aspect of graffiti enables individuals to act separately but simultaneously. the graffiti allows a variety of positions as ‘’is a synchronic activity conducted by a range of uncoordinated actors at different points in time” (hanauer, 2011), and relatively straight forward and shared by anyone. the use of symbol “# “ (hash-tag) in with the linguistic sign gives some nuance that the sign has to be concerned by the audiences. it might be some code of social cognition to influence audient, to support, or hopefully, they (audiences) will share it. just like a symbol used to make engagements “link to link” in the computer application program (web/ internet). it is an example of micro bottomup politics hoping to influence the public. why in padang? even in solok itself where mount talang is located, there is no such graffiti like this. moving on from the last question, we assume that graffiti on the topic of mount talang in padang is a protest because padang is the capital city of west sumatera, the center of government and parliaments. so, it makes sense that turning to graffiti in the public spaces as a means of resistance occurs after more conventional ways of protest fail to bring change. although the production process of graffiti is mostly spontaneous and anonymous, the outcome might be expected to be noticeable in which to attracting and presupposing an audience. it is an expressive resistance tactic that challenges power relations where the aim is to influence public opinion, policy, or government decision making. therefore, this graffiti acts like a large-scale demonstration in the urban landscape that appears presupposing that mount talang in solok district is “in danger” and must be saved. such conditions can be asserted that it is not easy for marginalized resistance to survive and struggle on their own, so their struggle requires non-involvement to be encouraged and to be involved by sending messages through graffiti. in this way, padang’s graffiti can function as an abstract of protest ideas and constitutes a form of expression that wants to be heard. padang’s graffiti is a micro-level ‘’bottom-up’’ of marginal voice, which may create the ability to challenge the state and other powerful actors. padang’s graffiti also provides instruments in creating a discourse that transmits sociopolitical messages. through graffiti, marginal voices have the opportunity to make statements and be heard about social problems that they cannot formally convey informal media. it is a strong form of marginal communication functions as an expression of thought, as a sociopolitical struggle, as the agent of power, and as a resistance to the power authority, which is a non-responsive government. the spreading of phrase such as “#save gunung talang” in padang’s public spaces give a portrayal that the graffiti used as a medium of protest. v. conclusion this study specifically focuses on language in written form that is visible as graffiti in padang city public space, which purposes exploring the symbolic functions, particularly the discursive construction through linguistic code preference. the massively spreading of graffiti in padang city of indonesia landscapes became a new phenomenon and increasingly growing problem in society since it is perceived as a crime. even the official authority had been created special task to combat those graffiti. however, the effort to prohibit act has failed since a new graffiti has always been emerging to fulfill city landscapes. this scribbling act provides a unique insight into society and contributes to the discursive construction through linguistic code preference in padang city landscapes. in conclusion, graffiti in padang city landscapes at least accomplished two principal symbolic functions, including: first, graffiti as social 106 yendra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) critics in which providing input into the public discourse of ideas that are not concerned by other common media. second, graffiti as a medium of demonstration in which providing space for marginalized expression with the opportunity to publically voice controversial ideas. therefore, the signs of ll appear on graffiti in padang city landscapes to be valuables since linguistic references artawa, k., & sartini, n. w. 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(2020). coretan lingual di ruang publik kota padang: kajian lanskap linguistik. universitas udayana. 108 rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 17 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: october 22, 2022 final revision: march 17, 2022 available online:may 10, 2022 the objective of this research is to describe the construction of claims in the strategies used in the coffee discourse. the claim in the argument can show cognition about coffee that is implanted by the producer. his research takes data from the online discourse of indonesian coffee. the data of this research are statements that are contextually interpreted as claims and then examined from the toulmin concept. by studying the types of claims, types of claims and its strategy to connect claims and ground, the researcher describes the arguments in the coffee discourse. from the results of the qualitative study, it is obtained that there are three types of claims, namely fact-based claims, judgment and value claims, and claim-based policies. from the three types of claims it can be concluded that there are. from the results and discussion it can be stated that there are subjective and objective claims formed in the coffee discourse. objective claims are proven by geographical location, research, knowledge and environmental conservation in industrial agriculture (future knowledge). subjective claims are shown by personality and support quality. regarding history, as an aspect of judgment and value claims, it is subjective and objective. from these claims, it can be seen that the coffee discourse contains cognitions about coffee companies with historical authority, personality, and taste; future knowledge and research references; taste, packaging, and good process. keywords claim, argumentation, discourse correspondence e-mail: rusdhiyanti.fkip@unej.ac.id articles claim category in indonesian coffee discourse argument rusdhianti wuryaningrum1, arju mutiah2, ahmad syukron3 1,2,3university of jember, jember, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.17-26.2022 1. introduction the coffee discourse in this research refers to the informative-persuasive discourse about coffee in indonesia. basically, the coffee discourse is made on the basis of economic interests. coffee industry companies have websites that can be accessed and linked with other websites or with pages that will help spread information about coffee. although it does not directly mention the brand, the company will show its identity in other forms. for example, coffeeland.co.id is a website that provides a lot of information about indonesian coffee. the website is a coffee company’s medium for consumption that will increase people’s desire to drink coffee. they will check the type of coffee referred to in the manuscript. on the other hand, writing information about coffee will increase recognition power. the coffee discourse emphasizes the conative function (bühler, 2011) because it focuses on the receiver of the message. the existence of a conative function is supported by arguments. deighton (1985) explains that advertising is argumentation in its sense of importance affecting the audience with argumentation, in the sense that it intends to influence an audience with substantiated assertions. the use of language for the purpose of influencing is discussed by the influence can be observed from brutian (2002). in this case, he said that argumentative discourse, including advertising, has many layers: semantics level (especially at level two) as the basis, factual information, and intended meaning analyzed from pragmatics information. deighton explained toulmin’s concern is how should an argument be laid out if we want to locate the sources of its validity? three elements of his rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 18 structure are a claim, grounds, and a warrant or license to infer from the grounds to the claim. setyaningsih & rahardi (2020) through toulmin’s opinion stated that the components of the argument in full include (1) claims (2) facts, (3) warrants (4) backing, (5) capital qualifier, and (6) rebuttal. of the six concepts, the study of coffee discourse in this research is discussed from the claim element. garcia-mila & andersen (2007)how these processes develop, and most importantly, given the scope of the present book, how this development relates to science learning. for the latter, we need to situate the role of argumentation in science learning, and this is the focus of the first section of the chapter, where the case of the importance of argumenta-tion in the new approaches of science will be made. argumentation, however, is a very broad, multidisciplinary, and polisemic term, and thus is used differently within and between disciplines. the second section is an attempt to clarify the term. we will devote the third section to concretizing which aspects of argumentation specifically relate to science education, in order to make a cognitive analysis of these aspects in the fourth and fifth sections. finally, the last section addresses what the literature says about scaffolding argumentation. in other words, we will try to answer the questions science educators may pose in order to deal with argumenta-tion in their science classes: what are the main difficulties students meet when they engage in argumentation? what should we expect from young children in an ele-mentary class in terms of their competencies to argue? in what ways are these competencies different when we compare elementary with secondary school stu-dents? what are they built upon? what is the role of metacognition in their devel-opment? our underlying main claim is that argumentation is a process involved in general knowledge acquisition, regardless of whether it is individual silent learning or collaborative learning, and following siegel (1989 provide underlyings from their research reporting that the main claim is that argumentation is a process involved in general knowledge acquisition. this research describes the construction of claims in the strategies used in coffee discourse. toulmin explained that claim or position statements are the main statements that the author wants to prove to reveal the truth. harper (2011) describes that a good claim is one that can be proven and formulated in a clear and precise manner. there are three types of claims. first, fact-based claims that refer to formulas are drawn or based on phenomena that can be empirically verified. this can be done by direct observation, experimentation, and other research data support; second, judgment and value claims are claims that are formulated based on judgment and value refer to the opinions, beliefs, and values. third, claims based on policy, namely a phenomenon that occurs in the community that is the object of research is used as a basis for formulating claims. of these three types, the types of claims in coffee discourse can be categorized based on their construction. this research finds the construction of claims made by producers in building the image of their coffee. in the era of social media, consuming coffee is associated with a new culture and lifestyle. henningsen (2012) in his research reports the results of the lens of consumption at chinese starbucks. the lifestyle and attitudes of parts of the mainland chinese urban middle class, especially of the so-called xiaozi. he argues and analyzes how the foreign brand and the multitude of meanings associated with it are consumed. consumption may be viewed as a particular search for authenticity that enables consumers to construct their self-images in the context of the vast changes occurring in contemporary china. thus, consuming coffee with foreign brands is an image. it is natural that there is an extraordinary effort to support coffee branding. society has been patterned with the prestige of branding and coffee has become a decent world product to show social class. the claim is a conclusion whose merits must be established (deighton, 1985). it can appear to be general knowledge (garcia-mila & andersen, 2007)how these processes develop, and most importantly, given the scope of the present book, how this development relates to science learning. for the latter, we need to situate the role of argumentation in science learning, and this is the focus of the first section of the chapter, where the case of the importance of argumentation in the new approaches of science will be made. argumentation, however, is a very broad, multidisciplinary, and polisemic term, and thus is used differently within and between disciplines. rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 19 the second section is an attempt to clarify the term. we will devote the third section to concretizing which aspects of argumentation specifically relate to science education, in order to make a cognitive analysis of these aspects in the fourth and fifth sections. finally, the last section addresses what the literature says about scaffolding argumentation. in other words, we will try to answer the questions science educators may pose in order to deal with argumenta-tion in their science classes: what are the main difficulties students meet when they engage in argumentation? what should we expect from young children in an ele-mentary class in terms of their competencies to argue? in what ways are these competencies different when we compare elementary with secondary school stu-dents? what are they built upon? what is the role of metacognition in their devel-opment? our underlying main claim is that argumentation is a process involved in general knowledge acquisition, regardless of whether it is individual silent learning or collaborative learning, and following siegel (1989. an argument can be called structured if the claim of the argument is made explicit, and the relationship between the premise and the claim is formally defined (eg using logical entailment) besnard et al., (2014). thus, what is built into a product through claims will make the product known as a differentiator with other products. a research is needed to capture the construction claims that will establish how the product claims are formed. besnard et al., (2014) found that there were two types of claims. in general, there are two claims, namely objective and subjective. claims subjective uses surrogate indicators to indicate the presence of brand attributes or benefits. research that shows support or corroboration (for example, showing research from professionals in the field), symbols (for example, phrases or brand names) and exaggerated quantities (for example, those created by camera angles) can serve as surrogate indicators. objective claims explicitly provide information about the attributes or benefits of a brand, for example in the form of direct evidence, technical specifications, or numerical cues. advertisers usually rely exclusively on subjective claims or add objective claims to surrogate (subjective) endorsements. the use of subjective claims more often than objective claims. objective claims also tend to be unambiguous, having credible credibility. consumers with higher product brand commitment were more positively influenced by exposure to a combination of objective and subjective claims than by subjective claims alone. in contrast, less committed people were equally affected by both types of claim strategies. subjective claims appear to have the same impact on consumers, regardless of their level of commitment. the argumentation process limits consideration of content and quality of evidence (simon, 2008). claim is the term toulmin aplies to what normally speak of as conclusions (s. e. toulmin, 2003). claims need support from evidence, facts, or specific data. the reasons submitted can be in the form of statistical data, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, other forms that can be used as a reason for the claims raised. elements that can strengthen claims are warrant or guarantee (setyaningsih & rahardi, 2020). warrants appear in the form of a syllogism. this element serves as a connecting bridge between reasons and position statements. there are several strategies can be done to connect claims and grounds. strategies make connections between data claims, namely (1) generalization, (2) signs, (3) authority, (4) principles, (5) causality, and (6) analogies. language studies do not exclusively discuss terms and concepts, facts and laws, principles and hypotheses. the study of language is closely related to the character of the restructuring of scientific claims about method, purpose, and explanation, a well-established character in history, philosophy, and sociology (duschl, 2007). in argumentation, the study of language is a discourse that critically examines and evaluates the function of language in shaping knowledge or social cognition. therefore, claims as part of the argument in advertisements that contain many interests need to receive a sufficient portion of the study. 2. methods involvement of context in the meaning of research is needed in qualitative research. this study explains the claims of advertising arguments based on the context. therefore, this research is qualitative. researchers take interpretive steps to characterize qualitative research (creswell, 2012). rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 20 the characteristics of this study meet the qualitative criteria based on the opinion of bogdan & taylor (1992). broadly speaking, data analysis was carried out in 3 stages, namely (1) description, (2) interpretation, (3) explanation. at the description stage, the researcher identified the types of claims and the types of claims and its strategy to connect claims and ground. at the interpretation stage, the researcher understands the classification results which depend on the accuracy and the researcher considers the meaning of the data. in the explanation stage, the researcher explains the relationship of the statement to the linguistic, ethnographic, and social context.the data of this research are written sentences or statements that show claims based on the use of real contexts. observations were made on the phenomenon of written language by describing in detail all the data obtained. the discussion is carried out by interpreting the phenomenon to be connected with the research description. in addition, the research was conducted in a certain context, period, and involvement so that it cannot be generalized. at the data collection stage, the data sources are sorted by documenting all types of claims in the coffee discourse, determining the types of claims, both subjective and objective, and determining the construction of claims according to the context and the development of toulmin, rieke, & janik (1979) theory of claims as developed by several previous studies. the results of this research were reviewed by observing the data sources and rechecking them with the data that had been analyzed and checking their suitability with the theoretical frame. the data source of this research is informative-persuasive discourse on advertisements (https://coffeeland. co.id/) the discourse was created to build an image on coffee products. this study uses primary sampling and intensity selection (denzin & lincoln, 2011). primary sampling is done by determining the sample from the level of sales and recognition level as evidenced by coffee story management. the data collection process is considered sufficient after repeated patterns are obtained to obtain the similarity of data characteristics. 3. results the focus of this research is (1) the types of claims used and the construction of claims that are built to build public (consumer) cognition about the image attached to coffee products. therefore, data from informative-persuasive discourse is used; (2) characteristics of claims and its description. 3.1 types of claims the basic concept for discussing types of claims is the claim is a conclusion whose merits must be established and claims need support from evidence, facts, or specific data. therefore, claims in a structured manner can form general knowledge that becomes the image of a product. from the results of the analysis there are types of claims. 3.1.1 fact–based claims fact-based claims that refer to formulas are drawn or based on phenomena that can be empirically verified. this can be done by direct observation, experimentation, and other research data support. in the discourse of coffee claims in the form of facts, it is found to show the existence of heritage that makes the product has a superior legend. a subpart of fact-based claims in the coffee discourse, consisting of geographical references and research references. (1) geographic reference the following are the results of research on geographical references as compilers of claims. data 01: arjasari coffee is grown in the mekarjaya village area at an altitude of 1200-1300 meters above sea level (masl). coffee plants are allowed to grow naturally along with various surrounding plants. (https:// coffeeland.co.id/) the data shows the results of research in the geographical context, especially on the location and natural processes. these claims are used to strengthen the nature of the coffee produced. data 02: the garden, which is located 1,500-1,700 meters above sea level, is located on the hillside of rante karua, north toraja, south sulawesi (https://excelso-coffee. com/our-story/) the altitude above sea level in units of meters rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 21 is an informative geographical reference and persuades readers to believe in the quality of coffee offered, including the company’s advantages. these characteristics are also found in other data. in general, purely geographical references and accurate environmental processes are used. data 03: from the best coffee plantations of mandailing, north sumatra which is known as one of the world’s best coffee producers. (https://www.indocafe.co.id/coffeestory. php) the data shows the existence of “from the best plantation” which is a claim for coffee quality. however, it does not show support for numerical data to ensure coffee quality. (2) research reference data 04: more than 23,000 cups of coffee are drunk every second, but with so many people enjoying it, we need to be careful not to run out of coffee. (https://www.nescafe.com/id/ article/) these statistics are scientific claims they have to show they care about the existence of coffee. data 05: climate change, plant diseases, water scarcity, and people leaving agriculture for the cities all threaten the future of coffee. (https://www.nescafe.com/id/article/) in general, research references are used to indicate the quality of coffee. observation results show that research is not used as a reference as a reference for claims. there are developments in research references in the coffee discourse. the research issues referred to are saving the environment and coffee conservation. 3.1.2 judgment and value claims judgment and value claims are claims that are formulated based on judgments and values that are believed to be based on opinions, beliefs, and values that are considered true. one form of belief in the coffee discourse built by coffee companies is the age of the company that can build legend cognition. subclaims judgment and value claims consist of history, personality, quality, and future knowledge. the data that shows these claims are described below. (1) history data 06: it all started when our founders got the trust to manage a coffee plantation that “lost” after being left by the dutch. (https:// excelso-coffee.com/our-story/) data 07: show history as a form of belief that they got trust in the colonial period. this shows that the company has a historical momentum that is older than the age of the republic of indonesia. data 08: toraja, became the first single origin to be offered. (https://excelso-coffee.com/ourstory/) the “first” claim indicates that they have a history or create history. this is very important to show the impression of having experience on them. data 9: in september 1991, the first excelso cafe outlet was opened at plaza indonesia, jakarta. the name excelso, which is derived from the word excellent, was chosen to answer coffee lovers’ desire for high-quality coffee products. kalosi toraja, which is produced from his own garden. (https://excelso-coffee.com/our-story/) like the previous data, the history description in this data contains a description of the time. the difference is, in this historical data, education about names is also described. this is a complement to the historical description that strengthens the branding justification. (2) personality data 10: our team is filled with people who have a passion for always being creative and learning to bring new coffee, food, beverage and service products. working closely with coffee farmers and processors in the toraja rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 22 plantations, raw material suppliers and local roasters who share the same passion and love for quality has always been what inspires us the most. (https://excelso-coffee. com/our-story/) the value raised is their personality as a core part of the company and the people they work with. it was formed to demonstrate a high work ethic. (3) quality data 11: …thus making indocafe coffee a product with the best taste that has been enjoyed by everyone. (https://www.indocafe.co.id/ coffeestory.php) excelso coffee, which started with 1 kalosi toraja variant, has now presented the best indonesian and world single origins, blends that we made especially for coffee lovers. data 12: the best coffee beans are processed through the stages of roasting, refining with a standard level of fineness. to produce this type of coffeemix, coffee grounds go through an extraction process by mixing using the latest technological machines with strict quality control to produce the best quality. (https://www.indocafe.co.id/ coffeestory.php) data 13: excelso coffee, which started with a toraja kalosi variant, has now presented the best indonesian and world single origins, blends that we made especially for coffee lovers. (https://excelso-coffee.com/our-story/) data 14: when we taste toraja coffee without using sugar or sweeteners, we will feel a savory taste that is rarely found in local coffees in other regions. this savory taste is one of the main characteristics of toraja coffee that makes people addicted to enjoying this coffee. (https://coffeeland.co.id/) data 15: high attention to quality is not only focused on gardens in toraja, the production process until the product can be consumed by consumers is also taken into account. the product technology uses the most advanced technology to ensure the best taste of coffee can be produced and packaged so that quality is maintained. the vision is clear, how coffee lovers from sabang to merauke can get the best quality products from the best origins in indonesia and the world, blends that we make especially for coffee lovers. (https://excelso-coffee.com/ourstory/) in the results of claims judgment and value claims subclaims quality pad taste, coffee bean, single origin, and quality due to sophisticated machine technology, and packaging. this shows that during the progress of the coffee industry, coffee producers introduced more of these 5 aspects to describe excellence. (4) future knowledge data 16: in the next 20 years the world will drink about 50% more coffee than today. by making our coffee farms more productive today, our farms are better prepared for the future. this is critical in preventing deforestation while meeting growing demand. (https://www.nescafe.com/id/ article/) data 17: we encourage bees and insects to create greater biodiversity in coffee growing areas with intercropping and agroforestry programs. with us, farmers learn how to farm while developing natural diversity (https://www.nescafe.com/id/article/) data 18 : our experts teach farmers how to grow high-quality coffee using less water, thereby making water available to people and the environment. (https://www.nescafe.com/id/ article/) future knowledge in this case relates to research issues raised in fact-based claims. the keyword he uses in his judgment and value claims is “future”. followed by an assessment of confidence in the accuracy of the steps that are considered rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 23 correct. 3.1.3 claims based policy data 19: excelso cafe has become the choice for loyal customers because the philosophy of serve with heart and give the best has always been a passion that we hold every day. (https://excelso-coffee.com/our-story/) data 20: this is our highest appreciation for the farmers, by ensuring the results of their hard work are processed with special care and enjoyed by as many coffee lovers as possible in various settings. we pay great attention to quality because we believe coffee brings people together, and a good cup of coffee brightens everyone’s day. (https://excelso-coffee.com/our-story/). data 21: we are always inspired to bring and make it easier for our loyal customers to get premium quality coffee. (https://excelsocoffee.com/our-story/). the policy claims used in the claims are generally affirming the response of the people who have voted, the company’s loyalty to farmers as part of the community that supports quality, and the policy to make it easier to get products in accordance with advances in technology and information. these claims are an important part of showing the company’s integrity to the public and consumers. 4. discussion fact-based claims that refer to formulas are drawn or based on phenomena that can be empirically verified. this can be done by direct observation, experimentation, and other research data support; second, judgment and value claims are claims that are formulated based on judgment and value refer to the opinions, beliefs, and values. third, claims based on policy, namely a phenomenon that occurs in the community that is the object of research is used as a basis for formulating claims. from the results obtained, the claims about coffee can be described. this will be described in the following section. fact-based claims to make claims there is a guarantee that needs to be used. elements that can strengthen claims are warrant or guarantee (toulmin, 2003). therefore, adequate research results are needed. in general, traditional logic, a warrant is identical to the major premise (setyaningsih & rahardi, 2020). to prove the truth, it is necessary to support the facts. from the research results, claims about coffee discourse in indonesia are supported by geographical references to show which plantations are used to support coffee quality. the higher the elevation, the better the quality of the coffee because the reference used is arabica coffee, which shows the taste of coffee that is popular in the world. altitude, soil chemical properties, have a positive correlation with the physical quality of coffee beans. the higher the place, the higher the chemical properties of the soil such as ph, c-organic, n-total, na, and cec, but vice versa for total p2o5 (supriadi, randriani, & towaha, 2016). thus, there is an expectation that the height or mountains will show the facts of coffee quality. in this study, evidence was used for arabica. it shows that the geographical reference as a syllogism is supported by research. research in informative-persuasive discourse on coffee is developed with statistical data, environmental research that supports conservation. this shows integrity in environmental security due to changes in soil and water ecosystems. claims supported by research use statistical data to strengthen causality of the need to protect soil and water ecosystems. an effort to utilize natural resources that exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment which is not followed by efforts to conserve soil and water, turns out to lead to the emergence of environmental imbalances, namely the continued increase in the area of critical land (nugroho, 2000). it seems that the response to water conservation has been well received as a persuasive aspect to show positive knowledge about coffee. thus, it can be said that the research raised in the coffee discourse has experienced the development of knowledge. judgment and value claims this judgment type is used to build knowledge (toulmin, 2003). some claim that this evidence relies on mechanisms that are fundamentally different from those that underpin other types of judgment (harvey, 1997). through history, rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 24 guaranteeing environmental security and farmers’ welfare in the future. this is also strengthened by fact-based claims. in the same data source, it was found that the developed future knowledge was followed by research reference on fact-based claims. that means, there is a claim of scientific values to be shown. claims based policy in the claim-based policy, there are efforts to bring the company and the community closer. in the claim-based policy, what is published is loyalty and high appreciation for the community or consumers. there are not many claims in the coffee discourse. the characteristic of this type of claim is illocutionary speech. the illocutionary utterance shows commitment, appreciation, and care which is shown as a policy. the perlocution that is built from this illocution is that they (the coffee company) coffee lovers or coffee connoisseurs must be loyal to their products or cafes, we need to consume coffee because it provides goodness, consuming the best coffee in an easy way according to the times. policy in this case, as harper (2011) argues, is a phenomenon that occurs in the community that is the object of research is used as a basis for formulating claims. the claim formula in the coffee discourse from the policy is commitment as a form of consumer loyalty, coffee provides goodness to human activities because it can improve the quality of life, and coffee is an innovative aspect that continues to be developed. these claims show the social currents in coffee consumption. the indonesian coffee discourse has portrayed coffee consumption as a matter of social relations between companies and coffee brands and consumers; between consumers and coffee; between consumers and other consumers. 5. conclusion the basic concept for discussing types of claims is the claim is a conclusion whose merits must be established and claims need support from evidence, facts, or specific data. from the results and discussion, it can be stated that there are subjective and objective claims formed in the coffee discourse. objective claims are proven by geographical location, research, knowledge and environmental conservation in industrial agriculture (future knowledge). subjective claims are shown by personality and support quality. fact-based claims with geographic and research references are coffee companies will introduce themselves as experienced people. mutlu & er (2003) explains that the history of a product is done to show that innovation has been done for a long time. in the coffee discourse data, in terms of context, history is mentioned to claim that they have gained trust, have experience in managing coffee farming and the industry. in this case, the company reinforces the characteristics of history and coffee as part of human life in daily activities. this is supported by the claim personality that is built. the coffee discourse that takes advantage of historical momentum strengthens with personality as its characteristic. claim quality is the most chosen to facilitate persuasion. the coffee discourse mentions taste, coffee beans, single original, good packaging, and high technology-natural processes as warrants or quality guarantees. all four are guarantees of coffee quality in a referential explanation of coffee education research (wuryaningrum, muti’ah, & rijadi, 2021). from these data it can be explained that the description of coffee quality is in these five points. coffee genetic resources are being lost at a rapid pace due to varied threats, such as human population pressures, leading to conversion of land to agriculture, deforestation, and land degradation; low coffee prices, leading to abandoning of coffee trees in forests and gardens and shifting of cultivation to other more remunerative crops; and climate change, leading to increased incidence of pests and diseases, higher incidence of drought, and unpredictable rainfall patterns. all these factors threaten livelihoods in many coffee-growing countries. (krishnan, 2017) the economics of coffee production has changed, the demand for specialty coffee is at an all-time high. in order to make coffee production sustainable, attention should be paid to improve the quality of coffee by engaging in sustainable, environmentally friendly cultivation practices, which ultimately can claim higher net returns (krishnan, 2017). therefore, the issue of future coffee plantations must receive attention. in the indonesian coffee discourse, there is an attempt to claim the correctness of the coffee growing procedure by publishing the concept of “grown respectfully”. therefore, the cognition built in their coffee story is leading to conversion of land to agriculture, deforestation, saving water, and rusdhianti wuryaningrum / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 25 effort to improve the quality of coffee by engaging in sustainable, environmentally friendly cultivation practice. this research is meaningful to clarify cognition about coffee which is built from the aspect of claims as part of the argument. in the next research, an in-depth study of all aspects of the argument is needed. specifically, it is necessary to study the claim aspect in relation to other aspects of the argument in wrapping the ideology about coffee and its impact on people’s mindsets. the types of claims used to strengthen coffee quality statements. judgment and value claims consisting of sub-claims history, personality, quality, and future knowledge are types of claims that are used to build a company image and ensure work quality or professionalism. the results of this study have proven that the indonesian coffee discourse places knowledge about coffee as part of the craze for coffee. it is information that coffee is not only a matter of taste, social class, but also knowledge because there is an references besnard, p., garcia, a., hunter, a., modgil, s., prakken, h., simari, g., & toni, f. 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(2021). pemanfaatan kajian tuturan pemanduan wisata kopi-kakao dalam pembelajaran keterampilan berbicara. sap (susunan artikel pendidikan), 6(1). devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: december 15, 2020 final revision: january 12, 2021 available online: april 25, 2021 the present paper deals with the importance of language laboratory in developing language skills. it basically presents how language labs are useful in developing the language skills of the learners. apart from the classroom lectures that students attend, the practical classes held in language labs hone their language comprehension. the present paper discusses the importance of these labs, benefits the receivers receive, and an urgent need for more such labs in academic institutions. keyword laboratory, phonetics, multimedia, digital, audio conferencing, audio channel, pedagogy correspondence e-mail: krishna.devina@gmail.com review importance of language laboratory in developing language skills devina krishna1 1patna women’s college, patna, india under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.101-106.2021 i. introduction learning process has been aided by the advent of quite many types of equipment, and one such area is developing language skills. because of the information technology that has led to the emergence of this equipment that has facilitated the learning process, there has been a production of high-quality teaching resources. the constant use of audio and video resources, in general, has led to the creation and implementation of learning and teaching material in an interactive format that adds to learning. learning is part and parcel of the human learning process. yet, our understanding of teaching and learning is still imperfect, and the consequences irregular. teaching approaches vary from learner to learner. since the beginning of the 20th century, language teachers have been making use of technological aids. both sound and video are important elements of technology, and teaching a language to the learner in the absence of these elements is unimaginable. both are integral components in providing opportunities for enhancing the learner’s experience. language teaching today helps in developing learning in the classroom through language laboratories. a language laboratory commonly clipped as ‘lab’ is a part of an institution that deals with the language learning process’s practical aspects. it is a setting with a particular setup and runs under the supervision of trained language experts. the early literature states that the first language lab was at the university of grenoble. in the 1950s until the 1990s, there were tape-based systems using reel to reel or cassette, which has been replaced recently by large multimedia computers. the language lab is a technological setup created for providing skills in english. the multimedia-based language lab helps to learn and increase language proficiency by sharing the course materials. in the up-to-date digital age, we are all connected regardless of geographic distance. advancement in technology has literally brought the world into our living room in the form of tv or the internet, allowing us to watch events in other countries or talk to friends and family living in another continent via the internet. as a result, we are exposed to different languages, cultures, and traditions of people worldwide. we are residing in a multilingual and multicultural world. language lab provides great assistance to 101 devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) students in learning the language of their choices and learning at their swiftness. they can record and gauge their performance to make sure that they pay attention to phonetics such as pronunciation, accents, stress, etc. it is through audio-video aids that the learners of the language learn accurately. the training in a language lab differs from the traditional classroom training. the students actively participate in language learning exercises and undergo training. the practical sessions are conducted in the language lab. a good quality language laboratory should be made an imperative part of an academic institution. learners of a language get a stand for practical training through these language labs. in a language lab, students are very willing to listen to the audio files and watch videos. therefore, there is a facility of recording as well as comparison with the innovative material. communication happens in pairs or in groups using objective language. students try innovative things in a lab than in a classroom. audio, video, multimedia, and the internet collectively provide resources with which the students respond. for students, attending lab sessions is a retreat from the traditional classroom sessions. they find it an effective and versatile tool in providing interactive sessions to the students to learn the language or swiftly undergo any activity. a language dealing institution lacking lab facilities will provide boredom to the learners and deprive them of real-life language learning situations. without such labs, the learners will find themselves being debarred from adding interest and creativity in their language-enriching process. a language lab plays a great role in making the institution’s teaching method successful in a very novel way. in addition to audio-visual materials, there can be study materials production which can be made a central activity among faculty staff. one can systematize seminars and workshops and various educational software, production techniques, dubbing, etc. without a doubt, a language lab stimulates the language learning process. it is significant scientific support for education. western countries have shown a high degree of trend in involving people in language laboratories to develop their language learning process. however, a laboratory for language learning is something novel for indian learners. an effective language lab capably and resourcefully strengthens the language skills of the learners. it is very positive in assessing students’ speech. for example, learners of a language can get a realistic experience in learning a sound system of language in phonetics classes. they can listen to a wide variety of human speech sounds through software which is not possible in a classroom setting. similarly, complex sounds of different languages can also be heard and learned by language learners. in addition to learning articulation, tone of voice, stress, and all other phonetics features can be learned by the learners. the learners of a language can record their speech, listen to their recordings again, and store it. there has been a lot of technological support for learning languages, including software like praat, which is a heavy source for studying acoustic properties of the speech of any variety for learners and more so for academicians. it is very easy to download praat. if a language lab is equipped with such software, it will enable the students to avail lot of facilities related to speech. in addition, there are electronic dictionaries of pronunciation available now for learning pronunciation of words. daniel jones ‘english pronouncing dictionary is now available with compact discs for learning accurate pronunciations of english. the online version of such classic work is available too in british and american english. the learners can have such word learning exercises in the language lab itself. the language labs have become an important part of the paraphernalia for teaching the language in institutions related to language. these also provide coaching classes for standardized language tests such as toefl, ielts, and many others. similarly, online courses and paperless examinations can be conducted through the language laboratory. students are provided with the technical tools to get the best samples of the pronunciation of the language. learners find a very stimulating experience in acquiring language while sitting in language labs. language lab has become an integral part in any language learning process for communication. not only can one language be learned, but more than one language can be learned efficiently. moreover, the learners learn the best samples of any language. this is primarily the 102 devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) basic and important task performed in the language laboratory. the material used in the present-day language labs is very rich. not only are audio and videos being played, but also flash-based games and internet facilities are available. it is different from the traditional language labs, which lacked the modern facilities at language labs. besides this, the delivery of information from the teacher to student and student to teacher is faster, and much more engagement is there. further developments in language labs are presently noticeable as access moves from a fixed network and related microsoft operating systems to online and browsers. students can now access these new ‘cloud’ labs from their own devices anytime and anywhere. students avail the facility to question and record audio and video files and be marked and assessed by their teachers a little. ii. benefits a lot of benefits can be acquired by the inclusion of these language laboratories. these include the following: the machinery of a language laboratory serves quite many benefits to both the sender and the recipients. new information and communication can be accessed quickly and easily with the advent of a lab. in it exists a space where which has at disposal the latest technology for language learning. nowadays, digital language labs with fine audio quality enable teachers to interact with the whole class simultaneously. these offer students the prospect to enhance their language skills, especially the four lsrw skills that enhance the listening, speaking, reading, and writing aspects of communication. genuine language materials like radio and television programs help students experience the target language in an effective and meaningful manner. moreover, there is a language regulation through the various thoughts created with the students’ intellect. our present-day generation is connected to the world wide web to get access to information on a comprehensive basis. this leads to immediate access to information worldwide. the content of multimedia comprising text, images, sound, and video involves the language learners in the language learning process, no matter whatever is the learner’s style. a particular class can be divided into several groups. each member of the group is provided with a user id and a password. the students can log in to the program with the user id and the password. the teacher is also assigned a particular id and password. one day the teacher instructs a particular lesson, and the other day the students. the next day, the students perform the particular task as a part of the students’ activity. similarly, the students listen to different programs on different themes through software. lab is a phenomenal platform to overcome shyness among students and enhance their speaking skills. it serves as a high degree of a motivational factor among the students as it removes one’s fear and brings joy within the learning atmosphere. any motivation brings happiness to people, and language lab is a source of joy among learners. the language lab allows the student to listen to the program. a learning environment is created in a language lab to perform effectively, thereby encouraging participation in interesting exercises. nowadays, language labs have evolved to become much more contemporary and realistic. they can fetch english students closer to native-level speech and heighten all their language skills by providing valuable exposure to the language in action. let us take an example of an english language lab. basically, it is a place with computers for students to complete a multiplicity of linguistic activities separately. these activities can include listening exercises, vocabulary work, and fluency building. some programs even allow one to record video lessons or audio exercises for students to view and pay attention to independently. while working on their pronunciation, the students can categorize words into syllables, find tones, and stress the words’ location. these are activities related to phonetics other than the rest of the activities that can be performed in english labs. students can also listen to conversations, listen to an audio track, and practice speaking what they hear. they can also read short stories and complete audio exercises that accompany them. thus, a variety of activities can be associated with english language labs. it was recently in a piece of news that the district centre for english at kozhikode possesses a language lab that has the facility to engage 30-35 103 devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) teachers to work simultaneously. here the teachers will be trained in communication skills, ways to handle various software and digital devices. this is a praiseworthy step in the enhancement of teachers in language skills by the management. learning is a continuous process, and human beings need to improve their knowledge and skills from time to time. now let us discuss the labs operating in parts of uk. in few uk language labs, the teacher can keep an eye on students’ recordings and interact with them individually or collectively through their headphones. they can basically chat with them. a conversation can be held with a student over the audio channel. it may be an individual and subgroup of the whole class or the whole class where some instructions can be given or so. the teachers can observe a student’s desktop and remote control his/ her mouse and keyboard. a particular kind of language lab known as the ‘melissi language lab’ uses analog software that provides most of the conventional language lab functions and integrates video, word-processing, and other computer applications. another kind is the senako lab, a learning center that requires only one computerthe teacher’s property. it is meant for the teacher/trainer only. students are equipped with simple to operate user audio panels with high-quality digital sound where they practice listening and speaking using a comparative recording. they listen to lessons or audio passages, record their responses, and then compare original audio files. there are more speaking and listening sessions in this kind of lab. thus, different labs, no matter what structure they possess, their purpose is almost the same. thus, a language laboratory is where students develop practical linguistic and rhetorical skills through information exchange. it makes the process of learning a language and language-related topics easier and in an interesting manner undoubtedly. iii. need of language laboratories it is high time that we need language laboratories in schools and colleges to promote innovative teaching-learning methods and techniques. a major challenge is that even urban students communicate in english with their mother tongue influence. many colleges are equipped with language laboratories to meet the global standards in english proficiency and gain employability skills. still, there need to be more such laboratories in academic institutions to promote learning with innovation and interest. language labs should exist within the school as well as college premises. all students can interact concurrently without disturbing each other regardless of the group of students and their size. language lab gives a chance to work on individual needs, which are not dealt with in a traditional classroom setting. it strengthens the learner’s fundamentals of the language, that is, a language’s grammar and sound system. these days many academic settings are coming up with labs equipped with software that is designed for language labs. although setting up a language lab is not an easy job. finance is a big issue. one needs to invest a good amount in setting up a language laboratory. it requires the installation of computers, software related to language activities, and much more. right from the very beginning, language laboratories should be made mandatory part of the school and college curriculum. english for example, is a global language. students should be made to practice in language labs in schools to hone their pronunciation skills and listening skills. speaking exercises will enable them to master their accuracy in pronunciation. although there are language labs prevalent in many academic setups, there is an urgent requirement for such labs in more quantities. we can witness language labs in academic institutions in the present scenario, yet there is a setting of such labs in more numbers. it is true that language labs require a variety of interactive equipment and resources which need to be maintained properly, but the benefits are numerous. setting up these labs is very expensive and in a country like india there is no syllabus as such and usually language classes are included within theory classes. in terms of finances, upgrade in the medium of instruction will be a taxing job for academic institutions. therefore, such setups must be introduced in schools and colleges to promote language development among learners. classroom knowledge mingled with practical sessions will serve as a collaborative approach for language learners.104 devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) iv. conclusion a language lab aims to engage students in overcoming the mother tongue influence and developing their communication skills. it is different from a traditional classroom setup. the process of learning becomes more participatory and interesting. language labs and multimedia enables learning to become fun and friendly. the outline of the lab must be constructive for developing the effective communication skills of the students. effective communication skills are essential in all professional careers, and language lab can help acquire this important life skill. the language lab is a technological break for imparting skills in english. it is a breakthrough the conventional teaching method with the rich teaching material contents. the digital language lab motivates student’s learning attitude, thereby providing interactive learning surroundings. language lab represents the solo largest investment and installment of audio resources in education. the computer presently fulfills all the needs of language educators and gives existence to language for many learners. apart from english, the learners of the language can learn quite several languages. today’s modern language labs play an elemental role in language learning, in fact, for students who belong to the cell phone generation. modern language labs play a primary role in grabbing students’ concentration and motivating them to learn well. thus, we should be thankful to the present technology that has facilitated the language laboratories’ existence to enhance their language skills with delight and full participation. references abdelaziz, m. 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(2013): an investigation into call in english language teaching through language laboratory; journal of humanities and social science; volume 6, issue 6, pp08-14. hashmi, s. (2013): need of an english language laboratory in engineering universities; international journal of computer science and network, volume 2, issue 5. izumi, m., gakuin, s. and ikenra, s. (1979): the language laboratory and teaching english at the college level in japan; junior college. j. augustus richard, ramprabhu, s. (2016): effectiveness of language laboratory in learning english; shanlax international journal of education, vol.4, no.2. khampusan, d. (2013): past, present and future: from traditional language laboratories to digital language laboratories and multimedia ict suites; the tenth international conference on elearning for knowledge-based society, thailand. konar, n. (2011). english language laboratories: a comprehensive manual: phi learning pvt. ltd. kumar, s. (2007). a handbook for english language laboratories: foundation india. marzuki, m. (2014): managing an effective english language laboratory in a polytechnic; studies in english language and education, 1(2), 106-115.105 devina krishna/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) nwosu, v. (2019): teachers’ perception of the use of language laboratories in english language teaching and learning in obio/ akpor lga, international journal of education and evaluation, vol. 5, no.1. sihite, j. (2017): the role of language lab technique in learning english as a second language; lembaga penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat, medan. solanki d. shyamlee (2012): use of technology in english language teaching and learning; an analysis; international conference on language, medias and culture, vol. 33, iacsit press, singapore. omotoyinbo dare, w. (2020): impact of language laboratory on effective teaching and learning of oral english language in secondary schools; international journal of innovative research and advanced studies, vol. 7 issue 8. pandey, pks. (2013). developing speech skills, fortell: new delhi. peace, j. a., mabel, a. (2016): the influence of language laboratory in the academic achievement of students in french language in edo state secondary school; european journal of language studies; vol. 3, no.2. raval, m.r. (2014): use of ict in english language teaching; international journal of research in all subjects in multi-languages, vol. 2, issue:2. 106 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 3, 2021 final revision: october 15, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 this study aims to explain the negative impoliteness in the comments on the news of the palestinian conflict on the arab youtube channel. this descriptive qualitative research took the source of data in the form of 5 news of the attack on the al-aqsa mosque complex by the israeli military on the al jazeera youtube channel as a data source. the internet archive documentation technique and free-of-conversation listening technique were used at the data collection stage. meanwhile, the identity method by referring to the stages of qualitative analysis was used as a guide in data analysis. the researchers found 310 negative impoliteness speeches consisting of 5 types: frighten found at 17 speeches (6%); condescend, scorn or ridicule at 113 speeches (36%); invade the other’s space at 72 speeches (23%); explicitly associate the others with negative aspect at 97 speeches (31%); put the other’s indebtedness on record at 11 speeches (4%). the negative impoliteness has a context in the form of criticism of the political policies of arab countries in responding to the palestinian conflict. speakers seek to construct a new community identity for arab countries in the context of fighting against the israeli occupation of palestine. keyword negative impoliteness, construction of identity, cyberpragmatics, palestinian conflict, arab youtube channel correspondence e-mail: yufnifaisol@uinib.ac.id articles negative impoliteness and reconstruction of identity: cyberpragmatics analysis of palestinian conflict news comments on arab youtube channel yufni faisol1, wahyudi rahmat2 1universitas islam negeri imam bonjol, padang, indonesia 2universiti malaysia kelantan, kelantan, malaysia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.168-179.2021 i. introduction the attack on the al-aqsa mosque complex in ramadan 2021 marked the escalation of the palestinian-israeli conflict, the longest humanitarian conflict in the middle east (regan, 2020; scheindlin & waxman, 2016; shafir, 2017). news of the action on youtube triggered various user comments (mor et al., 2016; törnberg & törnberg, 2016). some provide perspective using negative impoliteness language addressed to various parties. from one side, the use of negative impoliteness language can be understood as a new media phenomenon that positively influences the arab world (eren-erdoğmuş & ergun, 2017; hwang & kim, 2015; zayani, 2005; zweiri & murphy, 2011). however, on the other hand, this phenomenon can be a disaster that prolongs the occurrence of conflict (eickelman & anderson, 2003). in the linguistic scientific landscape, many experts have responded to the phenomenon of language use on the internet. as an object of study, impoliteness is often associated with conflict, morality, and identity (garcés-conejos blitvich, 2010; graham, 2007; upadhyay, 2010)2003; spencer-oatey, 2005. this phenomenon also occurs in the arab world, where language impoliteness on the internet is closely related to society’s identity, morality, and sociological phenomena (al zidjaly, 2012, 2019a; khosravinik & sarkhoh, 2017; labben, 2018)i draw on contemporary theorizing on the concept of face (e.g., ting-toomey 1994, 2004; 168 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) tracy 2008. a study of (al zidjaly, 2012, 2019a) i examine impoliteness-oriented discourse on arabic twitter as a resource for the negotiation of islamic moral order. i do so by highlighting the responses arabs post in reaction to a tweet which attacks islamic cultural face. as the triggering act poses an indirect request to change an authoritative islamic practice deemed immoral by the instigator of the tweet, sundry responses were generated to repair the damaged collective face through keeping intact or arguing against the questionable moral order. the main strategy i identify as a response to the professed face-attack is divine (im explained that the digital world is a medium for arab society to reconstruct their community. people consciously build online communities as a platform to realize solidarity in the real world. simultaneously, the interaction of discourse on the internet has offered a revitalization of identity for arab and islamic communities (al zidjaly, 2010) from a sociolinguistic perspective, the role that the internet plays in the online discursive construction of the islamic religious identity of an enlightener. it does so by examining chatroom conversations between a man with a disability from the islamic arabian country, oman and individuals of diverse religious backgrounds and nationalities with whom he frequently chats. the chapter illustrates how an enlightener identity is constructed through juxtaposing two contrastive religious identities: a liberal identity (when interacting with other muslims. in this context, a negative impoliteness study of youtube users’ comments on news of the palestinian conflict is interesting to do. this study offers a novelty because it has never been done before. some arabic researchers on youtube focus on the use of offensive and abusive language (al-tamimi et al., 2017; asghar et al., 2015; hassan, 2019; perrino, 2017). this perspective is different from negative impoliteness which focuses on attacking the face of the interlocutor in a speech (culpeper, 1996, 2020). in addition, the study of negative impoliteness became meaningful according to the findings of (alqarni, 2020; hammod & abdul-rassul, 2017; hassan, 2019)a new genre of computer-mediated communication. based on data from comments of arabic viewers of political tv talk shows on youtube, the article argues that impolite responses appear to be a common feature in arabic comments in political talk shows on youtube. identity and power are reconsidered in this paper as variables that trigger impoliteness in arabic online responses in political talk shows on youtube. it argues that obscuring identity online incites the use of conventionalized impoliteness to exercise power on the tv presenter or the tv episode’s guest. the article also shows how communication variables such as context, commentator’s identity and models of communication influence the realization of impolite responses in those online interactions. the study draws on spencer-oatey (2007 where arabic youtube user comments are dominated by impolite language. from the aspect of the object, this study focuses on discussing the palestinian conflict, while previous studies discuss conflicts in other arab countries (badarneh & migdadi, 2018; el-falaky, 2019; gordon et al., 2017; harlow, 2012; labben, 2018; sheline, 2021; sinatora, 2019). in addition to these novelty facts, negative impoliteness in arabic youtube user comments is also a complex phenomenon because it involves many aspects. in the various speeches in the comments column, there are issues of religiosity, sociology, politics, and activism against colonialism. this complexity is also a challenge for linguistic studies on social media, especially youtube (arthurs et al., 2018; kern et al., 2016; snelson et al., 2012). in humanitarian conflicts in various arab countries, social media has been used as a medium of resistance and social solidarity (al zidjaly, 2019b; eren-erdoğmuş & ergun, 2017; harlow, 2012; hwang & kim, 2015; zidjaly, 2019). this study will be interesting because it explores new data that is different from the existing studies. the researchers used the theory of negative impoliteness proposed by (culpeper, 1996, 2005; culpeper et al., 2003) in analyzing stage. in his argument, (culpeper, 1996, 2005) suggested several impoliteness strategies consisting of bald on-record impoliteness; positive impoliteness; negative impoliteness; sarcasm or mock impoliteness; withhold impoliteness. in this classification, negative impoliteness is a strategy designed to damage the addressee’s negative face wants. this strategy consists of several outputs: frighten; condescend, scorn or ridicule; invade the other’s 169 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) space; explicitly associate the others with negative aspects; put the other’s indebtedness on record (culpeper, 1996, 2005). this analytical framework is appropriate to use considering that language on youtube is one type of discourse where the study of impoliteness develops (bou-franch & garcésconejos blitvich, 2014; dynel, 2015; garcésconejos blitvich, 2010; lorenzo-dus et al., 2011). ii. methods the design of this research was descriptive qualitative. the descriptive qualitative character was reflected in the use of theory as a blueprint, the process of collecting data in a natural setting, and analysis involving context (hadi, 2001; moleong, 2005; neuman, 2007). the data was taken from the aljazeera channel الجزيرة which can be accessed at the link https://www.youtube.com/c/aljazeera/ featured. al-jazeera is the largest arabic news youtube channel. it has 8.69 million subscribers and a total of more than 3 billion views. this channel has reached various countries so that the linguistic data in the comments column has very varied forms and represents various thoughts. news of the al-aqsa mosque attack in ramadan 2021 was chosen as the source of the data. in addition to getting various comments from many users, also reasons for the sensitivity of the issue. muslims in different countries also condemned the actions of the israeli army in the news. to determine the focus of the study, five news stories published on may 10, 2021, were selected as the subject of the study. the five news stories were chronological series starting from the siege, the attack, and the mosque congregation’s evacuation outside the alaqsa mosque complex. details of the five news sources of data can be seen in table 1. data were collected using internet archive documentation techniques (gunn & faire, 2011) using the youtube comments downloader application (https://youtubecommentsdownloader. com/) which can be accessed online. after printing all the data, the researcher used the freeof-conversation listening technique (mahsun, table 1. list of research subject news title link of video comment صور مباشرة القتحام قوات االحتالل اإلسرائيلي للمسجد األقصى ṣūrah mubāsharah li iqtiḥām quwwāt al-ih̄tilāl al-isrāīlī li al-masjid alaqṣā live broadcast of the israeli occupation forces storming the al-aqsa’ ’mosque https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=axwb9ywdrgs 830 طرد الطواقم الطبية والمسعفين من داخل المسجد األقصى وساحاته ṭard al-ṭawāqim al-ṭibbiyah wa al-mus’ifīn min dākhil al-masjid al-aqṣā wa sāḥātih ‘the medical staff and paramedics were expelled from inside the al-aqsa mosque and its courtyards’ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=sqvlhaufows 771 عاجل استغاثات حية من داخل المسجد األقصى ‘ājil – isti’ānāt hayyah min dākhil al-masjid al-aqṣā ‘urgent live calls from inside the al-aqsa mosque’ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yrott0fof8k 165 اعتداء قوات االحتالل على المرابطات داخل المسجد األقصى i’tidā’ quwwāt al-iḥtilāl ‘alā al-murābiṭāt dākhil al-masjid al-aqṣā ‘israeli occupation forces attack worshipers inside the al-aqsa mosque’ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5spb5fmoess 92 لحظة خروج المرابطين المحتجزين داخل المساجد إلى ساحات األقصى laḥẓah khurūj al-murābiṭīn al-muḥtajzīn dākhil al-masjid ilā sāḥāt al-aqṣā ‘the moment the worshipers detained inside the mosques leave for al-aqsa courtyards’ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=n1ycjipcrai 91 number of comment 1.949170 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) 2005; rahardjo, 2002) to read the data in detail and repeatedly. the researchers marked the data containing negative impoliteness by referring to the classification of (culpeper, 1996). the authors made relevant reflective notes throughout the data collection process to conduct the analysis (lune & berg, 2017). at the analysis stage, the author used the identity method (sudaryanto, 2001). the analysis was carried out to describe the negative impoliteness of the data source by involving context outside the language according to the speech components (hymes, 2009). the author took the stages of the qualitative analysis model (lune & berg, 2017), which consists of data reduction, data display, and conclusion and verification. in the data reduction stage, the researchers extracted the data by selecting the core speeches. at the data display stage, the researchers presented the data that was considered the most relevant and representative to explain the results of the analysis. the selected data was then described and concluded. at the verification stage, the researchers re-checked the suitability of the data analysis result with the context of the data. the results of the analysis were then presented using informal and formal methods (rahardjo, 2002). the researchers used the standard transliteration model ala-lc romanization to facilitate understanding of arabic research data. iii. result based on the results of data analysis, it was found that there were 310 negative impoliteness speeches in the comments on the palestinian conflict news on the youtube channel as the data source. the number of speeches consists of five types: frighten; condescend, scorn or ridicule; invade the other’s space; explicitly associate the others with a negative aspect, and put the other’s indebtedness on record. quantitatively, the form frighten was found at 17 speeches (6%); condescend, scorn or ridicule at 113 speeches (36%); invade the other’s space at 72 speeches (23%); explicitly associate the others with negative aspect at 97 speeches (31%); put the other’s indebtedness on record at 11 speeches (4%). the distribution of the number and presentation of each type of negative impoliteness is displayed in figure 1. based on the appearance of the figure, it can be seen that the form of impoliteness in the news comments of the palestinian conflict on youtube channels tends to show expressive scaremongering; demeaning, mocking, or mocking; attack other spaces, and explicitly associate others with negative aspects, and the analysis can be seen in the following sections. frighten this form of frightening relates to trying to frighten others and threaten that something bad will happen in the future. this form uses speech that is intended to cause concern for others. in the data source, the two forms of frighten were found. the form of speech that seeks to scare others can be seen in table 2. table 2. frighten (scaring others) speaker 1 الصهاينة يخافوا ما يخشوش. al-ṣahāyanah yakhāfū mā yakhshush ’zionists are afraid of scary things’ speaker 2 فليذهب المسوول القومي إلى جهنم. أهلل اكبر! أهلل اكبر! falyadhhab al-mas’ūl al-qawmī ilā jahannam. allāhu akbar! allāhu akbar! ‘let them go to the helliest hell. allah is the greatest! allah is the greatest!’ in table 2 above, speaker 1 states the nature of zionists, that they are afraid of scary things. speaker 2 replied with a frightening speech containing news to scare the zionists. the content of speech 2 relates to speech 1. when speaker 1 mentions mā yaḥshūsh ’scary things,’ speaker 2 immediately realizes it in his speech. he describes figure 1. negative impoliteness in youtube channel data source 171 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) these things specifically, namely jahannam ’the helliest hell.’ the form of frightening in this speech is emphasized by the imperative in the form of falyadhhab ‘let them go.’ the frightening form in this speech is reinforced by the imperative of the falyadhhab ‘let them go.’ in addition to this form of scaremongering, data sources also found a form of threat that something bad will happen. this form is as reflected in table 3. table 3. frighten (threat of bad things) ربي سيطردهم من رحمته كما طرد الشيطان الرجيم. rabbī sayaṭruduhum min raḥmatihi kamā ṭarada al-shayṭān al-rajīm ‘my lord will expel them (israel) from his mercy as he expelled the accursed satan.’ in table 3 above, the speaker threatens others (israel) that they will get bad things in the future. the specific form of such a bad thing is that they will not reach allah’s mercy. this substance is emphasized through the sentence sayaṭruduhum min raḥmatih ’(allah) will expel them (israel) from his mercy’. speaker likens the process of expelling israel from god’s mercy as expelling satan from heaven. this illustrates how bad the position of israel is for the speaker. condescend, scorn or ridicule condescend, scorn or ridicule relates to attempts to insult others. in this form, negative impoliteness is speeches that consider other people to be low, weak, and despicable. these two forms were found in data sources. the first form is to weaken others as shown in table 4. table 4. speech weakens others speaker 1 أين العرب، أين المسلمون؟ ayna al-arab, ayna al-muslimūn? ‘where are the arabs, where are the muslims?’ speaker 2 العرب طبعا خائفون من أمريكا و إسرائيل. al-arab tab’an khāifūn min amrīkā wa isrāīl. ‘the arabs, of course, are afraid of america and israel.’ in table 4 above, speaker 1 makes scornful speeches against arab and muslim countries. he questioned the absence of arabs and muslims in defending the palestinian people occupied by israel. in response to speaker 1, speaker 2 issued a speech that weakened the arab countries. this form is reflected in the khāifūn phrase ’fear,’ in which speaker 2 describes arab countries afraid of the united states and israel. in addition to weakening, the second form found in data sources is demeaning to others. this form can be seen in table 5. table 5. condescending speech to others speaker 1 قاسم األقصى شهيد أمثال وين هللا، حزب وين إيران؟ وين سليماني؟ وين خليفة المسلمين تبعهم أردوغان..؟؟ وين حماس، باطالق صواريخ الحوثي إال مع تطلع ما إال وين حماسهم؟ و الكعبة..؟ wayn īrān? wayn hizb allāh, wayn amthāl shahīd al-aqṣā qāsim sulaymānī? wayn khalīfah al-muslimīn taba’ahum erdogan? wayn ḥammās, wayn ḥammāsuhum? wa illā mā taṭla’u illā ma’a al-ḥūthi biitlāqi ṣawārīkh al-ka’bah..? “where is iran? where is hezbollah, and where are alaqsa martyrs like qassem soleimani? where\ is the caliph of muslims followed by erdogan? where is hamas? where is their courage? and what did he do except with al-houthi by firing missiles at the kaaba..? speaker 2 اللهم انصر شبابنا و رجالنا يا رب... allāhumma unṣur shabābanā wa rijālunā yā rabb.. ’oh allah, help our youth and men’ in table 5 above, speaker 1 issued scorn for the state, organization, and central figures. in contrast to the first form, the ridicule is delivered directly and explicitly. speaker 1 scoffed at iran, hezbollah, qasim sulaymani, erdogan, and hamas. responding to the ridicule, speaker 2 issued a speech in the form of a prayer for youth and men. speaker 2 implicitly positions youth and men as a group that dares to fight. as a condescending speech, the prayer became the antithesis for iran, hezbollah, qasim sulaymani, erdogan, and hamas, who are considered afraid to fight. invade the other’s space invade the other’s space relates to the speaker’s attempt to attack others directly. speakers no longer 172 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) consider privacy in the form of the status and social strata of others who are the target of speech. among these forms can be seen in table 6. table 6. speech invading other people’s space speaker 1 إخوانك فعل سلمان أباك و أعجبك هل سلمان، ابن محمد يا الصهاينة. في قتل اهل ال اله اال هللا و اقتحام القدس الشريف. اول قبلتين و ثاني الحرمين. yā muḥammad ibn salmān, hal a’jabaka wa abāka salmān fi’l iḥwānika al-ṣahyāniyah. fī qatli ahl lā ilāha illā allāh wa iqtiḥām al-quds al-sharīf. awwalu qiblatayn wa thānī al-ḥaramayn. ‘o muhammad ibn salman, did you and your father salman like the behavior of your zionist brothers? killing those who worship allah and raiding al-quds al-sharif, the first qibla and the second holiest land of muslims.’ speaker 2 اللهم العن آل سعود و آل سلول. allāhumma al’in āla su’ūd wa āla salūl. ‘o allah, curse the sa’ud family and the salul family. in table 6 above, speaker 1 issued me a speech in the form of direct criticism of muhammad bin salman and king salman as the rulers of saudi arabia. speaker 1 revealed something that is considered a secret of the royal family, which is not helping palestinians who are being colonized by israel. the speech is an attack on the privacy or secrets of the kingdom of saudi arabia, which is the foreign policy they have adopted in the palestinian conflict. in other data, there were also attacks on other arab leaders, such as erdogan (turkey), bashar assad (syria), hassan rouhani (iran). these forms of speech have the same substance, namely criticism of the foreign policy they applied in dealing with the palestinian conflict. explicitly associate the others with the negative aspect the form of explicitly associate the others with negative aspects relates to the speaker’s efforts to attach vices to others. with the attachment of these vices, other people become negatively associated. among these forms can be seen in table 7. table 7. speech that associates bad traits with others يريدون للكلمة الحقيقي بالمعنى نفسيا مرضى اإلسرائيليون اإلنتقام لقتالهم في اإلحتفال الوسح. al-isrāīliyyūn marḍā nafsiyan bi al-ma’nā al-haqīqī li al-kalimah yurīdūn al-intiqām li qatlahum fī al-iḥtifāl al-wasḥ. ’the israelis are mentally ill in the truest sense of the word, wanting to avenge their murderers in the big celebration.’ in table 7 above, the speaker attaches a bad trait to israel, namely mental illness. this form is reflected in the sentence al-isrāīliyyūn marḍā nafsiyan ‘the israelites are mentally ill’. the association automatically puts israel as a negative value entity. not only for israel, negative associations on data sources were also found for arab countries. this can be seen in table 8. table 8. speech that associates bad traits with others speaker 1 واحدة. ملة إسرائيل و سوريا. أطفال قاتله المجوسية. إيران إسرائيل و إيران المجوسية. هم أعداء األمة اإلسالمية. īrān al-majūsiyah. qatalahu aṭfāl sūriyā, wa isrāīl millah wāḥidah. isrāīl wa īrān al-majūsiyyah. hum a’dā’u alummah al-islāmiyyah. ’’zoroaster. syrian child killers. they are and israel is one sect. israel and zoroastrian iran. they are both enemies of the muslims.’ speaker 2 نتنياهو و سوريا أطفال قاتل الالت نصر حسن النعجة بشار اليهودي كلهم ملة واحدة. bashār al-na’jah ḥassan naṣr al-lāta qatala aṭfāl sūriyā wa netanyahu al-yahūdī kulluhum millah wāḥidah. ‘bashar the sheep, hassan the helper of idol, who fought the children of syria, and netanyahu, the jew, are all one sect.’ in table 8 above, the negatively associated objects are iran, israel, bashar al-assad, hassan rouhani, and benjamin netanyahu. iran is associated with the zoroaster that they are in the same sect. they are an enemy of muslims. bashar al-assad, hassan rouhani, and benjamin netanyahu have been likened to animals and idol helpers. this reality shows that speakers intentionally form a negative image of the other person who is the target of their speech.173 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) put the other’s indebtedness on record put the other’s indebtedness on record relates to the efforts of speakers to demonstrate the existence of the services or debts of others. in this form, the speaker mentioned the things that must be paid by others to him. in the data source, this form is reflected in the speech that mentions other people’s debts to him. this phenomenon can be seen in the data in table 9. table 9. the speech of collecting other people’s debts أين هي الجيوش العربية!؟ أين هي الماليير الدوالر التي تصرف بشراء األسلحة و العتاد األسكري!؟ أين..!؟ أين..!؟ ayna hiya al-juyūsh al-‘arabiyah!? ayna hiya al-malāyīr al-dūlār allatī tuṣarrifu bi shirā’ al-asliḥah wa al-‘itād alaskarī!? ayna..!? ayna..!? ‘where are the arab armies!? where are the billions of dollars spent on buying weapons and military equipment!? where..!? where..!?’ in table 9 above, the speaker mentioned in detail the things that are the rights of the people to the government. the speaker mentioned that the government had spent a lot of money to buy weapons and military equipment. however, it had no impact at all on the military aid program for the palestinians. the speeches of collecting the debts are reflected in the question word ayna..!? ayna..!? ‘where!? where!?’ based on some of the above findings, it can be seen that, in the linguistic scientific landscape, many experts have responded to the phenomenon of language use on the internet, as an object of study, impoliteness is often associated with conflict, morality, and identity. a result, negative impoliteness in the speech commentator’s speech is no longer only in the microstructure of discourse but has entered the macrostructure in the form of the social context targeted by the speaker, to criticize arab countries, the negative impoliteness speech in the data source is mostly based on the sociocultural identity of the arabs with use internet as negative impoliteness in the speech. therefore, the cyberpragmatic approach can be used as a form of identity disclosure and reconstruction. discussion analysis from the perspective of negative politeness showed a variety of impolite speech in the comments column of the arabic youtube channel on the news of the israeli army attack on the al-aqsa mosque complex. a total of 5 forms of negative impoliteness found in the data source reflect the context of the diverse speaker situation. in general, the most dominant context is the sociopolitical situation of the palestinian conflict which has heated up again with the attack on the alaqsa mosque complex and the sheikh jarrah land dispute. meanwhile, specifically, the speech was motivated by the absence of solidarity of arab and muslim countries in helping the palestinian people. this context relates to criticism of the foreign policies of arab countries which are politically judged to be more in favor of the united states than the suffering of the palestinian people. based on the order, the form of negative impoliteness in the data source consists of condescending, scorn, or ridicule (36%); explicitly associate the others with negative aspect (31%) invade the other’s space (23%); frighten (6%); put the other’s indebtedness on record (4%). the order of numbers is due to the context of the speech situation. the form of condescending, scorn, or ridicule is intended to insinuate and underestimate the existence of these countries because the arab countries are not united in taking a stand against the palestinian conflict. speakers insult, weaken, and demean arab countries that are considered cowards. meanwhile, explicitly associate the others with negative aspects and invade the other’s space are used to attack clearly by revealing things that are not favored by these arab countries. in the last two forms, the speaker explicitly criticizes the foreign policies applied. viewed from the perspective of speech content, the study’s results confirmed the study’s findings (al zidjaly, 2012, 2019b, 2019a; khosravinik & sarkhoh, 2017; labben, 2018)i draw on contemporary theorizing on the concept of face (e.g., ting-toomey 1994, 2004; tracy 2008. negative impoliteness speech in data sources aims to reconstruct arab identity to deal with various aggressions from foreign countries. according to the findings of (al zidjaly, 2012, 2019a, 2019b)i 174 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) draw on contemporary theorizing on the concept of face (e.g., ting-toomey 1994, 2004; tracy 2008, the speeches reflect the confusion of arab identity, so they need the construction of a new community mediated by the internet. in line with that, existing speeches no longer focus on personal face-to-face attacks, but more than that to have sociocultural implications (el-falaky, 2019; gerbaudo, 2012; sumiala & korpiola, 2017). thus, negative impoliteness in the speech commentator’s speech is no longer only in the microstructure of discourse but has entered the macrostructure in the form of the social context targeted by the speaker (angouri & tseliga, 2010). in addition to the relevance of the above, the research results also have a distinction from previous studies. in contrast to the findings of (harlow, 2012; rabab’ah & alali, 2020; rababa’h & rabab’ah, 2021), negative impoliteness in the data source is only in the form of speech, not including video links, images, or news. to criticize arab countries, the negative impoliteness speech in the data source is mostly based on the sociocultural identity of the arabs. speakers consider the importance of the unity of arab countries to overcome the occupation experienced by the palestinian people. it is different from the findings of (al zidjaly, 2010; culpeper et al., 2017; sheline, 2021) which revealed the context of religious identity in impoliteness speech on social media. thus, research findings will contribute to the development of theories and studies of language impoliteness (haugh, 2018). from the perspective of implications for social reality, the study findings will have more impact on grassroots movements than the political policies of arab governments. following the arguments of (ghannam, 2011; hwang & kim, 2015; kidd & mcintosh, 2016; smidi & shahin, 2017), the community consciously initiates social movements from below to form strong solidarity. these speeches will form digital solidarity that moves sporadically among internet users (sumiala & korpiola, 2017). negative impoliteness, which is intended to form a new arab community construction, will manifest at the level of the general public with the existence of these theoretical arguments. meanwhile, in terms of political solidarity between countries, the construction of the arab community as expected by speakers will clash with various political interests of the government. v. conclusion based on the analysis and discussion above, it can be concluded that negative impoliteness in the comments of arabic youtube channels is influenced by the context of the speaker’s views on the israeli-palestinian conflict. the three dominant types, condescend, scorn or ridicule; explicitly associate the others with a negative aspect; invade the other’s space, describes the speaker’s response to the foreign policy of arab countries. speakers demean arab countries that are considered more pro-israel than palestine. speakers directly make negative impoliteness as a language choice to attack these arab 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(2016). muslims in social media discourse: combining topic modeling and critical discourse analysis. discourse, context and media, 13, 132–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. dcm.2016.04.003 upadhyay, s. r. (2010). identity and impoliteness in computer-mediated reader responses. journal of politeness research, 6(1), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1515/jplr.2010.006 zayani, m. (2005). al jazeera phenomenon: critical perspectives on new arab media. pluto press. zidjaly, n. al. (2019). paper digital activism as nexus analysis : a sociolinguistic example from arabic twitter. january, 0–27. zweiri, m., & murphy, e. c. (2011). the new arab media: technology, image, and new perception. ithaca press. 178 yufni faisol / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) biography yufni faisol is a lecturer at the arabic language and literature study program at the faculty of adab and humanities at the state islamic university of imam bonjol padang. he has interests in arabic linguistics, particularly pragmatics and discourse analysis. among his recent publications are media alignment: information reproduction patterns of middle east conflict in indonesian media (2019) and idiulūjiyyah wasāʼil al-iʽlām al-jamāhīriyyah al-indnisiyyah ibar al-internet fi naql akhbār aş-şirāʽ assiyāsyar fī asy al-awsaţ (2021). wahyudi rahmat is an assoc prof at stkip pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia. he is currently pursuing his studies for a ph.d. in psycho-pragmatics from universiti malaysia kelantan, malaysia. his research interests are pragmatics, socio-pragmatics, psycho-pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis. he is the chairman of the indonesian language and literature education lecturer community in west sumatra, indonesia. he is available at e20e029f@siswa.umk.edu.my 179 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: july 14, 2020 final revision: september 01, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 austronesian languages are one of the largest language groups in terms of the number of speakers and their spread area worldwide. the austronesian languages are assumed to be branched, developed, and spread extensively due to migration from taiwan to the south, including the nusantara archipelago. this literature-based paper attempted to examine the spread and development of the austronesian languages family as well as the problems in reconstructing the austronesian languages in the nusantara archipelago. this writing examined the process and form of words’ reconstruction problems in austronesian languages and its relation with its parent form that eventually created the languages that existed in the malay archipelago. the results of the reconstruction demonstrated that the inheritance of the language from one generation to the next had created a significant relationship of the current language employed in the nusantara archipelago with its parent language as well as proved kinship based on elements of similarity as well as innovation or change from its parent, the ancient austronesian language (proto). the research also discovered that the languages’ family relationship is manifested through the similarity of pronunciation sound form, vocabulary, and grammar structure when reconstructed based on the sound similarity found in the languages compared. keyword austronesian language, reconstruction, family ties correspondence e-mail: minsung625@gmail.com review a review about family context and reconstruction problems in the austronesian languages family cho min sung1 1department of malay-indonesian interpretation and translation, hankuk university of foreign studies (hufs), korea under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.210-220.2020 i. introduction the analysis of the family of languages in the world includes a vast scope. it is unlikely to get an estimate of how many languages are still spoken or dead to this day. according to rough estimates of some linguists, there are about 2000 to 3000 types of languages worldwide, and out of that number, there are about a family of languages that are widely spread around the world (amat juhari, 1967; collins: 1996). p. w. schmidt (1926) in his book, the family language and global environment (die sprachfamilien und sprachkreisen der erde) categorized the family of world languages into five groups namely (mees, 1967). 1) austrian languages family, which consists of: a. austronesian language b. austro-asian language surrounds several areas such as proto-malaka, khasi-nikobar, mon-khmer, munda, and cham. c. the tibeto-chinese language, which encompasses three main groups; • thai-chinese, which consists of chinese, thai (siamese), and anam. • tibetoburmese, which consists of tibetan, assam, and burma. • northern siberian, known as jenissai ostyak. 2) the nostratic language family which includes; a. indo-european language is a famous and largest language family and its widespread covering india and europe. this language 210 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) family comprises languages such as sanskrit and its descendants, such as hindustani, hindi, bengali, iranian-ancient, kurdish, hethite, armenian, albanian, latin, ancient greek, celtic and germanic. b. hamito-semitic language covers parts of north africa and asia minor such as arabic, jewish, and ethiopian in the semitic family; qibti, berber, gushitic, and chad in the himitic family. c. ural-altaic language includes finno, ugric, samoyed, altaic languages including turkish, mongolian, manshu, nippon, and caucasian. 3) central and south african language families, which consists of languages such as; a. khoisan, the language of the busman and hottentot peoples of south-west africa. b. bantu, covering most of south and central africa such as niger-congo, swahili and so on. c. sudan 4) the american language family consists of more than 1000 isolated languages and are complex to classify. among them are north american indian, uto-aztec, eskimo-ale’ut, algonquian, muskogean, and so forth. 5) remote language families in asia and australia. these languages consist of specific groups such as; a. hyperborea or palaeo-asiatic b. drauvidia, which is found in south india c. andaman is found in the andaman islands. d. indigenous people mainly speak australia on the australian continent. e. halmahera-tidore f. papua austronesian language group since the 18th century, various western scholars such as wilhelm von hombuldt (1836), van der tuuk (1897), john hendrik c. kern (1871, 1889) otto dempwolff (1934, 1937), wilhelm schmidt (1903, 1906), brandes (1884), w. marsden (1783, 1812), renward brandstetter (1916) charles adrian van ophuijsen (1882-1914) and others investigated the languages that were spread across the malay archipelago by comparing the languages. through their research, it was known that the languages in the malay archipelago are a cognate language known as indonesia (nusantara). when the language groups were compared to the language groups in the polynesian and melanesian islands, it revealed the similarities, and thus, these language groups were classified into one language family called austronesian (bellwood: 1997, blust: 1999, comrie, 2001). austronesian name was first proposed by p. w. schmidt (1926), a leading member of the austronesian, substituting the term malayopolynesian employed by wilhelm von humboldt, namely, a linguist who had studied the kinship between the malay language with languages in polynesia districts. the word austronesia comes from the latin word austro which means south and nesos, which means island. thus, austronesia illustrates the meaning of the southern islands (asmah, 1985: 35). at the same time, brandstetter (1916) adopted the term indonesich for the same purpose. nevertheless, malayo-polynesian and indonesian names are unpopular, incomplete and limited in scope. malayo-polynesian only complements the malay and polynesian contexts and does not cover the island of madagascar, melanesia and micronesia. according to historical records, hadrian reland (19706) first examined the similarities of languages in the austronesian language family. he provided evidence about the similarity of words in javanese, malay and malagasy. with these similarities, he believed that the languages were derived from the same language. reland’s opinion was followed by anderson (1990), who declared that there was a similarity of number in polynesian language with the number in nusantara language (hesperanesia) (amat juhari, 1967: 10). after that, austronesian language researchers came and described the position of the relationship between languages such as schmidt, von humboldt, van der tuuk, brandes, and others. austronesian language grouping from a historical point of belief, archaeologists concluded that the austronesian tribes’ language originated in the mountains of yunnan in south china. this opinion followed the position of the 211 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) language within the austric languages that had branched out into two principal language families, specifically austronesian and austro-asian (bellwood: 1985, 1987; li: 2004, 2006). according to schmidt, in asmah (1985), all languages discovered in mainland asia possessed similarities, and these languages were said to come from the same group from the austric phylum. later, from the austric phylum, it split into two parts, the austronesian group and the asian austro group, which took place over a long period. therefore, schmidt made a breakdown of the language family as follows; a. formosan languages such as favorlang and singkam languages. b. filipino languages such as tagalog, bisaya, benag, igorad, pangasinan, maguindanao, and so on. c. sulawesi and its surroundings which consists of various language groups such as d. gorontalom tomini, toraja, loinang, banggai, bungku-laki (mori), south sulawesi (makassar and bugis) and munabutung. ambon and its surroundings covering languages in eastern sulawesi such as groups sula-bachon, south halmahera and ambon. e. nusa tenggara which includes the bimasumba and bali-sasak groups, including the east, alor, solor and roti languages; kro’e, kupang and manggarai languages on flores island; sumba in the south and bima, sumbawa, sasak and bali in the west. the balinese language is one of the historic austronesian languages , and various inscriptions from the 10th to 12th centuries that were studied. f. kalimantan and its surroundings which consists of the dayak language and its tribes such as the murut group, kenya-bahaukayan and busang group, ot-danum group and iban group in sarawak and brunei. g. java island and its surroundings which consists of three main languages, madura, javanese and sundanese. h. sumatra, malaya and its surroundings languages and dialects of malaya inescapably linked to language in the north-eastern coast of sumatra, that is the malay language. malay area outside of malaya includes riau archipelago. palembang, kampar, jambi, and medan. malaysriwijaya showed the old one of the austronesian languages’ remnants, by the inscription carved on stone named talang tuwo, dated 680 ad. while in the northern part there are acheh, gayo language groups, bataka language groups such as karo, toba, simalungun, angkola-mandailing, nias and mentawai languages, minangkabau and lampung. figure 1. austronesian language groups austronesian language groups can be classified into four primary language families, namely polynesian, melanesian, micronesian, and indonesian (hesperanesia) (asmah: 1985). the organization and dissemination of austronesian languages were administered based on geographical area. according to mees (1967), it was divided into polynesian languages, melanesian languages, micronesian languages, and indonesian languages (hesperanesia). indonesian language group (nusantara) indonesia is also named hesperanesia or nusantara. the indonesian language group, also known as hesperanesia or the nusantara, surrounds a vast territory located in the austronesian islands’ western part. this area encompasses madagascar’s islands (malegasi) to the west, the malay formosa archipelago in the north of the and easter island in the pacific ocean. this indonesian language group has the most comprehensive and extensive language distribution area. according to mees, the categorization of indonesian language groups was accomplished based on geographical area (mees, 1967: 22-23) as follows; 212 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) i. madagascar and its surroundings including malegasi and hova languages. j. cham language which is a relatively isolated language in a tribe in cambodia. indonesian languages’ branch expanded widely because a similar race develops it to the malays. it occurred due to the spreading nature of the malay race is themselves. they were identified as prone to sail and migrate. the features of sailors and migrants of malay race resulted in two critical developments in the core indonesian language in pre-historic times, namely first, the spread of malay parent language to such wide area, and the second, the breaking of the parent indonesian language into other languages (osman, 1961: 3). iii. study approach since the 17th century, many studies were performed by researchers from diverse fields of knowledge, by presenting various hypotheses and opinions on the origin and family between austronesian languages (slametmuljana, 1975; abdul rashid and amat juhari, 2006; asmah, 1985; collins, 1996). among them were j.r. foster, van der tuuk, brandes, wilhelm marsden, von humboldt, j.r. logan, a.h keane, hendrick kern, brandstetter, j. crawfurd, otto dempwolff, heine gelden, and others. studying a language necessarily entails a historical and comparative approach to related languages, which is referred to as historical language knowledge and comparative language knowledge. according to ha gleason (gleason, 1961: 11), historical language knowledge is the discourse of language changes over time or time, while comparative language knowledge is about the relationship between languages of similar origin. next, gleason explained that the method comparative language knowledge allows linguists to explain that two or more languages are interconnected and related. therefore, many linguists developed studies and hypotheses on languages within the austronesian language environment. in the early stages, language research in the context of comparisons between austronesian and mainland asian languages was largely done on vocabulary alone. nevertheless, the studies from other perspectives were given less attention except after prof. hendrik. c. kern started to study the austronesian language in terms of grammar and word comparison, especially between fiji and the nusantara (amat juhari, 1967). according to research by slametmuljana (1975), the first person to observe the cohesion between austronesian languages was hadrian reland (1706) and followed by anderson, then supported by l. hervas. a dutch scholar, a. reland (16761718) suggested that austronesia’s languages belong to one group of languages. while john reinhold foster in his ‘voyage round the world’ mentioned that a similar form of words between polynesia and the malay language was derived from the two mentioned parties’ older language. the older language was called the malay language. according to him, ancient polynesia was used by the indie islands people or the northern islands near the asian continent. besides, william marsden (1783-1812), more emphatically, said that there was solid reciprocity between the languages within the range between madagascar to the marquesas islands. iv. problems of reconstruction and classification in the austronesian language family according to crystal (1980: 297), the process of language reconstruction is a method used in historical linguistics and philology comparison of two or more languages performed in the analysis of sound systems and forms of a language that no longer exists, such as proto-languages. for kridalaksana (1983: 144), reconstruction is a process of obtaining a common ancestor from a group of related languages by comparing standard features or by determining the changes experienced by a language throughout the ages. thus, language reconstruction aims to reshape the structure and the system of a language that is lost through the features of the language of its related languages that still exist today. types of reconstruction anthony arlotto (1971: 70) divided the reconstruction into two parts, particularly phonological reconstruction and internal reconstruction. phonological reconstruction involves analyzing the sounds of a parent language to study the similarities in the origin of a language 213 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) with other languages. internal reconstruction includes the comparison of languages to find out the origin of a particular language. asmah haji omar (1985: 347) explained that internal reconstruction is a method in historical-comparative linguistics that aims to study the history of a particular language through its dialects. this method is called the indirect method, due to contemporary materials to find out about its history. austronesian language reconstruction and classification the work of reconstructing and classifying the austronesian language family is closely associated with the history and origins of the nation and language, and it is not a simple task. the origin of the austronesian race and language is not straightforward to recognize because according to the study, the austronesian population was said to come from other areas such as mainland asia or the like. therefore, it is tough to identify the original components in the austronesian family. it is because every cultural element that existed in austronesia were not clearly known. it was often considered to be its own original culture. thus, words like aku (me), hidup (life) dan mati (die) whose origins were not originally known were included in the group of native austronesian words. while the words whose origins were known were not classified among the original austronesian words. for example, the word saya (me), which was clearly derived from the sanskrit word or wafat (death) was derived from the arabic language (slametmuljana, 1975: 28). therefore, it is quite complex to reconstruct an element as a result of historical interpretation. the determination of whether the words studied was included in the words of ancient austronesian, or foreign words were closely related to the search for the immigrant nation’s original land. similarly, to provide an interpretation of the austronesian language and nation’s original land, one should collect enough historical material and evidence and then research and study its truth. in this case, based on the classification done, it was found that many researchers believed that many ancient austronesian words that exist until now were considered as original words originating from mainland asia. when viewed in terms of its form, it was found that there were various languages scattered throughout austronesia, especially in the indonesian islands. hence, it clearly exposed multiple connections or similarities and was not found in other languages. as already explained, there were many scholars from various races and disciplines who gave opinions on the origin of the austronesian language and race, especially nusantara. as an attempt to classify and reconstruct the language, some opinions were only in the form of suggestions or hypotheses that were inaccurate and firm or more positive. these opinions were closely related to the question of language groups in nusantara. research on these languages was often done on word types, word formation such as affixes, or looking at the language’s sentence structure. the results of von humboldt’s research (in slametmuljana, 1975) discovered that the ancient javanese language received many sanskrit words. moreover, the study revealed a kinship between malay and polynesian languages. furthermore, h.c kern (in slametmuljana, 1975) discovered that many words were in malay polynesia languages in mainland south asia such as cambodia, siam, and assam. thus, he decided that the malay polynesia ancestors’ original land was champa, kocing china, cambodia, and surrounding land along the coast. kern’s research proved that there was a language coexistence between austronesia and campa, chinese kocing and cambodia. kern cited the word selatan (south), which indicated direction, i.e. opposite the north, which was available in various language areas of sumatra and was limited in the range of languages that were still close to the malay language to find out the extent to which the broader common with other languages. it can be reconstructed based on the user areas, as described below. (slametmuljana, 1975: 32). the word selatan came from the malay peninsula area and is still used today in the malay language. besides, it is also used in aceh, jakarta, riau, lampung, indrapura, bengkulu, banjar, dayak, ngaju, bacan, and banda. while in polynesian languages, the word tonga is used for the selatan 214 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) (south) meaning and is called tonga (maori), toa (tahiti), kino (hawaii), toga (tonga), tuatoka (marquesas), toga (mangarewa), and toga (paumotu). in the languages of nusa tenggara, most of them use the word tarangan for the southern meaning, such as tarangan (nusa laut, waru and saparua), forangan (seram), tarana (elpa putih), tranan (fordata) and trangan (jamdena). words in nusa tenggara were considered to be related to the word toga in polynesian. therefore, the word selatan (south) only existed as the original relationship between the malays in the malay peninsula who settled in indonesia and a small part of the tribes living in the area austronesian (slametmuljana, 1975: 21). p.w. schmidt (in slametmuljana, 1975) also argued that the language of the campa, rade, jarai and sedang showed that the structure and vocabulary were included in the language family of monkhmer, whereby in this language, there were many loanwords from malay to include the pronoun and count noun. for example, we examined the form of pronouns to reconstruct and determine the relationship between the languages. for example, my personal pronoun covered a wide area of usage in the austronesian islands. the word is not an ancient austronesian word but came from the shan language, which is kau (you). the word is also found in the campa language which is said to have originated in shan and is used in language groups from southern tiongkok to assam. similarly, the personal pronoun kamu (you) both in malay and indonesian language was derived from the shan that is mau. while the third-person pronoun in palaung language, an called n or an in various austronesian languages, but not in malay or campa. the malay language takes, which was derived from the language khasi war and in indonesian language, it became ia (slametmuljana, 1975: 32). in another investigation, the reconstruction elements of polynesian languages can also be observed based on comparing four languages that were investigated, namely maori, hawaiian, samoan, and fijian (arlotto, 1971: 92). maori hawaiian samoan fijian pou pou pou bou tapu kapu tapu tabu tani kani tani tani takere ka?ele ta?ele takele the comparison of the languages above clearly explains some movement and connection in some vowel sounds and consonants. aspects of vocal sound relevance can be shown in the following relationships; maori hawaiian samoan fijian example o = a = o = o 1 u = u = u = u 1 & 2 a = a = a = a 2 & 3 i = i = i = i 3 e = e = e = e 4 while the relationship in the consonant sounds can be shown in the following relationship; maori hawaiian samoan fijian example p = p = p = b 1 & 2 t = k = t = t 2&3&4 n = n = n = n 3 k = ? = ? = k 4 r = l = l = l 4 etymological approach another exciting aspect of researching the origin and spread of words in this ancient austronesian language is to be seen from the etymological point of view. the concept of etymology can recognize a bond or network in a word that is between sound and its meaning naturally. this method is called etymology of sound symbolism or sound symbolism etymology (hashim, 1991: 62). in this method, every word’s meaning is supported by every sound or syllable in the word. for example, the two-syllable word in the malay language which sounds jur was derived from austronesian languages (proto), for example; jur means ‘long and wide.’ lajur ‘extends along.’ mujur ‘extending abstractly, i.e. good luck continues.’ jujur ‘honest behaviour.’ kujur ‘lying upright longitudinally.’ lanjur ‘overdo or continuous.’ lunjur ‘sit with feet straight forward.’215 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) regarding this approach, a.c vreede once examined the relationship’s distinctive features in his study of morphemes in javanese (over de wortelwoorden in de javaanschetasal). vreede has explained that certain parts of root words have meaning concerning other morphemes in many cognate words. according to him, words with the same final syllable, tend to show a meaning that is quite close or almost the same, for example, in words rooted in the root word (morpheme) wur as below that carries a scattered notion (mees, 1967: 66). luwur scattering lawur scattered wuwur sprinkling mawur scattered; messy kuwur giving up, fibrous bawur running away blawur messy kebawur mixing with the crowd kesawur/ spreading ketawur characteristics of proto-austronesian language phonology phonology is the field that studies the sound systems of language. phonological studies are essential to produce research results on the phonemes of a language that enables language researchers to compose and create a writing system to express the language (arbak, 1983: 78). studying the phonological features of a language inevitably involves the study of the phoneme system of a language. phonemes are distinctive language sounds (distinguishing meanings). the number of phonemes between one language and another in the austronesian family is not the same. for example, the number of javanese phonemes from the indonesian group is more than the number of phonemes in the polynesian language. it is challenging to interpret the sound and writing system, such as the proto-austronesian language, especially in studying the sound sequences used in the austronesian language family due to its imperfect writing system and lack of definitive evidence. according to dempwolff (1956: 3-4), the sound system in the austronesian language of proto consists of the following consonants and vowels; lip consonants : p, b, v, m tooth consonants : t, d, l, n cerebral consonants : d, l palatal consonants : t, d, j, n (coronal) k, g (dorsal) verlar consonant : k, g, r, n vowel sounds : a, i, u, e (pepet). for consonants, these phonemes are associated with nasal sounds at the end of words, i.e. mp, mb, nt, nd, nd, n’t ‘, n’d’, n’k ‘, n’g’ k, g as well as prenasal sounds v: vp, vb and vt. consonant sound system it is fascinating to realise that when discussing the consonant sound system in the protoaustronesian language, it is related to the rld and rgh sound law proposed by van der tuuk (1897). according to him, the consonant sound / r / in proto-austronesian (sulong) can change its sound in other languages that come from the same language family; that is, some change to / g / and / j / and some change to / l / and / d /. in the study further explains brandes, an example of sound law of rld, (/rl/ in the protoaustronesian) is the utterance / pari / (java) / padi / (malay) and / palai / (tagalog). for brandstetter, rgh sound law is marked / r2 / and rld sound law is marked / rl /. examples of / rl / in protoaustronesian language are / ribu / and / r2 / is / atus / (ratus). the sound / r2 / () in proto-austronesia can vary in different languages from the same family for example for the austronesian word / u at / (amat juhari, 1967: 108); malay /r/ : urat tagalog /g/ : ugat dayak /h/ : uhat lampung /y/ : uyat pengasingan /l/ : ulat with regard to this / r / sound also in austronesian language, otto dempwolff reconstructed the sound law made by brandstetter and listed two forms of sound namely / r / velar (in the throat cavity) and / r / alveolar (on the front gums). the pronunciation / r / velar is similar to the sound / / in arabic or / /, for example in the words / bibi /, / dapu /, / ta uh /, / atus / and / abut /. for / r / alveolar sounds closer to / l / and / d / sounds 216 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) especially in the following examples (mees, 1967: 31); /hatul/ (atur) /tutul/ (tutur) /culat/ (surat) /ukul/ (ukur) the spread of consonant sounds in the protoaustronesian languages also often changes the relatively limited range around the native sounds of the language. for instance, we observe that blast soft palate / k / which is original in most languages in the austronesian family is protected, but its presence in words often become a glottal stop /? /, especially in the malay language. while in tobabatak language, the consonant / k / is changed to / h / (mees, 1967: 44). austronesia : /k/ aku laki-laki kali malay : /k/ aku laki-laki kali toba batak : /h/ ahu lahi-lahi hali the earliest study of the phonological system of austronesian languages was conducted by e.m. uhlenbeck (1949) in his thesis entitled de structuur van het javaanse morfeem. he analysed the structure of sound arrangement based on 18,000 root words in javanese (mees, 1967: 81-82). based on the study, uhlenbeck outlined six features that were not found in the javanese phonological system, namely; a. more than one vowel in one syllable. b. more than one consonant at the end of a word. c. more than two consonants at the beginning of a word. d. more than three consonants in a row in the middle of a root word. e. more than two consecutive vowels. f. more than four syllables in the root word. instead, the study found that there are four main features found in it, namely; a. most, i.e. 85 per cent of the root words are two-syllable. b. 55 per cent of the root words show a rotating arrangement of consonants regular vowels. d. consonants at the beginning of a word are more than vowels. e. consonant sounds at the end of a word are also more than vowels. vocal sound system otto dempwolff (1956: 4) has listed only four vowel letters in the austronesian vowel sound system, namely the vowels / a /, / i /, / u / and / e / (pepet) and there is no vowel / e / (taling) and / o /. the vowel / a / in the proto-austronesian languages does not change much except due to the influence of nearby phonemes (mees, 1967: 39), for example; austronesian language malay language tontemboan language /avak/ /awak/ /owak/ the vowel sound / a / changes when followed by the semi-vowel sound / w /. most of the vowel / a / in final syllable also stay, for instance, in the malay riau language and malaya, it is pronounced as / / otherwise in the java language called / c /. as explained, the vowel sound / o / does not exist in the proto-austronesian phonological system. these / o / sounds only exist through several ways such as due to the process of melting the sounds / ae / and / au / in javanese or the realisation of the sound / u / (mees, 1967: 40), for example; proto-austronesian ba’u boho (tagalog) batu bato (tagalog) dapug dapog (tagalog) tulung tulong (tagalog) takut takot (tagalog) as for the vowel sounds / e / and / / in austronesian language, most of them are in the indonesian language family (nusantara). according to the brandes study list, it turns out that / e / pepet is widely available in ancient javanese, balinese, tombulu, sawu and batak. in most austronesian languages, the vowel / e / pepet can realise other vowel sounds, for example / e / turns into / a / in makassar, minangkabau and bugis, / e / in ngajudayak, / i / in tagalog, / o / in toba and bisaya, and / eu / in aceh. the following example shows the change of the sound / e / pepet for the word / depa / (proto-austronesia) (mees, 1967: 41); language word /depa/ malay depa javanese depa balinese depa217 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) sundanese deupa bugis rapa dayak depe tagalog dipa bisaya dopa bikol dupa samoa lofa as for the vowel sound / u /, although it is retained as the original sound in austronesian languages, in many cases the sound / u / is changed to / o / in the pronunciation of some languages especially in the final syllable, for example in tagalog. in a variety of other languages in the austronesian family, vowel / u / can be transformed into / o / irregularly. it usually occurs in languages ngajudayak, javanese, malay, toba-batak etc. (mees, 1967: 41). it can be observed through the example below; austronesia language gunung gonong (ngaju dayak) ubah owah (javanese) ubat obat (javanese) gumah omah (javanese) gucuk gosok (toba batak) puhun pohon (malay) ugang orang (malay) in general, the austronesian languages, two vowels (vowel row) may exist in one syllable, except in aceh, whereby there are clusters of vowels, i.e. vowel/ee / and / or / exists in one syllable. according to the statement of m. g. emeis (in abd. ghani, 1960: 652), the form of the verses written on the stone inscription is not smooth and long, but it is a simple form of word bonding. moreover, there is a verse that is formed in one word such as the word ‘dapunta’ which means our respected master (salutation for the king), which according to emeis contains a combination of malay / pu / or / mpu /, which indicates master, then combined with the word / nta / which means kita (us). at the same time, the word / da / at the beginning is a prefix that serves as a sign of respect. therefore, the word ‘dapunta’ means our respected master. in regards to the construction of subjects and predicates in sentences, in various austronesian languages, there are forms of verbs that do not require any prefix, and they are referred to as root verbs. it can be observed in the pattern of verbs such as pergi (indonesia), cap (khmer), blei (campa), men (palaung) and co (mon) which are built in the verses below (slametmuljana, 1975: 59 -60); language sentence indonesia : aku pergi ( i go) khmer : khnyom cap ( i catch) mon : on co ( i pour) palaung : o men ( i see) campa : kau blei ( i buy) passive sentence form. passive forms in various regional languages in the austronesian region have existed for decades. nevertheless, written evidence of the existence of the oldest passive form in austronesia can only be traced back to 684 ad. the oldest passive form was found in the sriwijaya charter, the talang tuwo charter in palembang (slametmuljana, 1975: 62). there is clear evidence in the sriwijaya language that there is evidence of active and passive forms. the active form beginning with ma, for example, is built on the word / mangujari / and the passive form beginning with ni can be seen in the example of the word / niujari /. similarly, in another example found in the kota kapur charter, this prefix is used as a passive form marker, for example formed in the word / niwunuh / (killed). besides, the passive form with this insert marker is considered one of the oldest passive forms in the austronesian language and has an extensive area of use below (slametmuljana, 1975: 70). an example can be observed through the following sentences found in the ancient javanese language; tinunggang ire kang kuda (he rides the horse) this insertion of in the word ‘tinunggang’ (rides) serves as a passive form marker. proto-malay language as an essential branch of the austronesian family of languages, one must mention the shapes and sounds of the proto-malay language. history writing malay started way back in 680 ad. the evidence indicated that the extent of the spread of the proto-malay language as the language of instruction in the malay archipelago was reinforced when the stone inscriptions or inscriptions were 218 cho min sung / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) found. it uses the malay language within the land andalas like the inscription of kedukan hill (683 ad), the inscription of talang tuwo (684 ad ), the inscription of kota kapur (686 ad), and the inscription of karang brahi inscription (692 ad). additionally, there was also evidence of other discoveries in java in the district of gandasuli, kedu, towards the east of mount sundara (abd. ghani, 1960: 648). according to the inscription on the charters, it shows some of the shapes and sounds of the proto-malay language. consonant sounds of proto-malay language. based on the study of the talang tuwo (684m) and kedukan bukit (683m) inscriptions, it is clear that there is no consonant of two explosive lips / b /, instead, it is replaced by a semi-vowel sound / w / (ismail, 1984: 18), for example in words -the following words; wulan bulan (moon) wanyak banyak (a lot) wuat buat (make) in addition, there are many uses of consonants pronounced with aspirational sounds such as / bh /, / ph /, / dh / and / kh /. vocal sound of proto-malay language. regarding the vowel sound, in the inscriptions of talang tuwo (684m) and kedukan bukit (683m), there is no middle cardinal vowel / ə /. thus, in the proto-malay language, the vowel / ə / is usually replaced by a vowel / a /, for example, on the following word (ismail, 1984: 18); dangan dengan (with) while in the terengganu inscription stone (1303m), the form of writing is more precise with the following writing; danda dengar (listen) mandalika mendalika additionally, in some writing, vowel / a / eliminated directly in spelling and pronunciation proto-malay (ismail, 1984), dngan dengar (hear) dngar dengar (hear) an assumption that indicates that such forms existed in proto-malay language is due to sanskrit’s influence and the effect of pallawa alphabet sound (ismail, 1984). iv. conclusion ergo, this research presented a concise description of the austronesian language family with its far-reaching spread. although determining the homeland of the austronesian nation and language was not a facile task, with the perseverance of researchers and analysts among previous linguists, whether they have employed comparative linguistic or historical approaches, some hypotheses can be justified its history. through this paper, the researcher endeavored to rearrange some theories and hypotheses about the history and dissemination of language families in the austronesian group. it was accomplished to identify and understand the origin, dissemination, grouping, and forms of language based on comparison and explain reconstruction. references abd. ghani abbas. 1960. bahasa melayu kuno – dari segi bentuk dan bunyi. dewan bahasa. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka, januari 1960. hal. 652. amat juhari moain. 1967. mastika. bilangan 3. mac. bangi: utusan melayu berhad. amat juhari moain. 1967. mastika. bilangan 6. jun. bangi: utusan melayu berhad. amat juhari moain. 1967. mastika. bilangan 8. ogos. bangi: utusan melayu berhad. amat juhari moain. 1967. mastika. bilangan 10. oktober. bangi: utusan melayu berhad. anderson, benedict richard o’gorman. 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pulau pinang: penerbit universiti sains malaysia. puerto princesa city, palawan, philippines. http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers. html. slametmuljana 1975. asal bangsa dan bahasa nusantara. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka. wolff. john, u., 2010, proto-austronesian phonology with glossary. ithaca, ny: cornell southeast asia program publications. 220 afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 48 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this research is an attempt to study gairaigo in japanese. the study is focused on the formation, meaning, and cultural implication of gairaigo. the data for this study are japanese loan words borrowed from english taken from nhk easy japanese news from may 2021 to october 2021. the research used qualitative and quantitative approaches. the data are collected by using the non-participant observation method. the analysis of data is done by using the intralingual equivalent method. the result of the study shows from 32 gairaigo collected from nhk easy japanese news, 98% of them are adapted to the japanese linguistic system in the form of sound insertion and substitution. the formation of gairaigo is done by adjusting linguistic forms of english into japanese. the formation of gairaigo causes the change in meaning which also implies japanese culture. the formation of gairaigo while maintaining the linguistic features of the japanese language is a sign of the language loyalty of japanese speakers to their language. keywords gairaigo, english, japanese, meaning, formation of gairaigo, and cultural implication correspondence e-mail: kharismaerlinaa@gmail.com articles gairaigo in japanese and its cultural implication afif kharisma erlina1, oktavianus oktavianus2, lindawati lindawati3 1,2,3department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.48-56.2022 1. introduction a language does not always have sufficient vocabulary to meet the communication needs of its speakers. meanwhile, communication and interaction across cultures for many purposes cannot be avoided. the absence of certain cultural concepts and vocabularies in one language can be overcome through loan words. the contact of one language with the other through loan words leads to the emergence of linguistic globalization as in the case of japanese and english. japan and england are two countries that are geographically far apart. they have different languages and cultures. in terms of language use, to reduce the gap caused by linguistic and cultural differences between the two countries, loan words become the choice even though it is also possible to have other motives to borrow the words from the donor languages. this phenomenon is common in all languages in the world. indonesian language, for example, has absorbed the words from sanskirt, arabic, dutch, chinese, french, english, and local languages (mulyadi, 2014). in japanese, a loan word is defined as gairaigo, which means word borrowed from other languages. japanese borrows a lot of english vocabulary (stanlaw, 2004). then, omar (2015) noted that language contact between japanese and english is through trade and education. japan certainly needs to market its industrial products to western countries and at the same time, western countries also need to learn from japan. japan’s industrial products can be found almost everywhere in the world. besides, a good system of education invites people from many countries to come to japan (oktavianus, 2017). in this modern era, cooperation among the countries in the world needs to develop. language with all its variations and sources plays a very important role in carrying out this cooperation. gairaigo is part of the language elements that can support that network. the use of the gairaigo continues to increase due to the influence of globalization. gairaigo is used widely in the japanese speech community both in the form of spoken and written language. the absence of certain words to express a given concept in japanese also triggers them to invent recieved: april 14, 2021 final revision: april 18, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 49 and use gairaigo. as it occurs in other languages in the world, gairaigo borrowed from foreign languages has been adapted to japanese pronunciation and writing rules (tsujimuta, 1997). the meaning of gairaigo is also possible to shift and even change. the shift and change in meaning have cultural implications. although there is an adjustment process, gairaigo is still understood by the speaker of the language from which it came (shibatani, 2001). gairaigo is an interesting topic to study. researchers have studied gairaigo from a different perspective by using different approaches and theories. oshima (2002) conducted a study on the social context of the use of gairaigo. the data are taken from the asahi shimbun. the study aims to prove whether there is a change in gairaigo patterns over time or whether its use remains stable. the result of the study indicated that there is a shift in semantic and structural patterns of gairaigo in japanese. horikawa (2013) investigated english loan words in japanese. the study aims to determine the current status of commonly used english loan words in contemporary written japanese. this research tries to uncover the perception of japanese over 60 years old toward english loan words. the results of the research indicate that japanese people over 60 years old find difficulties in understanding words related to technologies compared to the younger generation. it is because the younger generation is more concerned with technological things. sari (2019) researched the formation of abbreviated loan words in japanese. data are taken from asahi shinbun digital website of automotive technology column. the research indicated that gairaigo has three types of formation processes namely (1) the omission of the first part of the word which is called jouryaku in japanese. for example, he form of internet shop in english becomes nettoshoppu; (2) the omission of the last part of the word which is called geryaku. for example, the form of car navigation in english becomes kaanabi in english; and (3) the omission in the first and last parts of word which is called jougeryaku. for example, the form of laser radar in english becomes reedaa in japanese. the studies on the meaning of gairaigo is also done by wilistyani et al (2018). the data were collected from garuda orient holidays januarymarch 2017. the research indicated that gairaigo had undergone generalization and specialization of meaning. susan (2003) studied the perception of the japanese native and non-native speakers toward gairaigo. this research stated that the use of gairaigo has a positive impact to strengthen the english of japanese. the studies previously conducted by the researchers have provided us with a lot of information about gairaigo. however, the cultural implication of the use of gairaigo has not yet been studied. therefore, the study of gairaigo on the aspects that have not much been explored related to gairaigo needs to do to know more about the japanese language and culture. 2. methods this research uses qualitative and quantitative approaches. the two approaches are used as the basis to investigate the form, meaning, and cultural implication of gairaigo. the data for this study are japanese loan words borrowed from english taken from nhk easy japanese news from may 2021 to october 2021. the method of collecting data is nonparticipant observation. the data analysis uses intralingual equivalent method (sudaryanto, 2015). the intralingual method compares and relates the elements of two or more languages to identify the language patterns, their similarities, differences, and even changes. to verify the origin and the meaning of gairaigo as well as the phonetic transcription of english, two dictionaries are used. they are the japanese dictionary, tangorin (2021) and the oxford learner’s dictionary (2021). the oxford leaner’s dictionary is used to verify the meaning of english words which are borrowed into japanese. phonetic transcription of english also refers to the oxford leaner’s dictionary. the japanese dictionary is used to verify the origin of gairaigo. then, the meaning of gairaigo in the dictionary is compared with the meaning of the same gairaigo used in nhk easy japanese news to observe. this step is done to observe the shift in the meaning of gairaigo. 3. results and discussion after observing and investigating nhk easy japanese news from may 2021 to october 2021, afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 50 it was found that there are 32 gairaigo used in that online media as presented in the following table. the formation of gairaigo every language has its lexicon. the form and structure of the lexicon are different from language to language including in japanese and english. japan and english have a different writing systems. japan has three writing systems namely katakana, hirakana, and kanji. in the case of gairaigo, the english words borrowed into japanese are treated in two ways. first, words absorbed from english into japanese are adapted in some parts to the language system commonly used in japanese. second, words are borrowed totally without adjustment in the recipient language. of 32 gairaigo collected from nhk easy japanese news, 98% of them are adapted to the japanese linguistic system in the form of sound insertion and substitution. from the data in table 1, it can be proved that the vowel [o] is inserted at the end of english words ended with consonants no english gairaigo 1 class /klɑːs/ クラス kurasu 2 machine /məˈʃiːn/ ミシン mishin 3 screw /skruː/ スクリュー sukuryuu 4 event /ɪˈvent/ イベント ibento 5 mansion /məˈʃiːn/ マンション manshon 6 center /ˈsentə(r)/ センター senta) 7 point /pɔɪnt/ ポイント pointo 8 cup noddle /kʌp nuːdl/ カップめん kappume) 9 trouble /ˈtrʌbl/ トラブル toraburu 10 summit /ˈsʌmɪt/ サミット samitto 11 symbol /ˈsɪmbl/ シンボル sinboru 12 passport /ˈpɑːspɔːt/ パスポート pasupooto 13 coach /kəʊtʃ/ コーチ koochi 14 message /ˈmesɪdʒ/ メッセージ messeeji 15 heading /ˈhedɪŋ/ へディング heding) 16 zero /ˈzɪərəʊ/ ゼロ zero no english gairaigo 17 dancer /ˈdɑːnsə(r)/ ダンサー dansaa 18 principle /ˈprɪnsəpl/ プリンシパル purinshipar) 19 ticket /ˈtɪkɪt/ チケット chiketto 20 drama /ˈdrɑːmə/ ドラマ dorama 21 belt /belt/ ベルト beruto 22 hotel /həʊˈtel/ ホテル hoteru 23 level /ˈlevl/ レベル reberu 24 speaker /ˈspiːkə(r)/ スピーカー supiikaa 25 game /ɡeɪm/ ゲーム geemu 26 talent /ˈtælənt/ タレント tarento 27 case /keɪs/ ケース keesu 28 cleaning /ˈkliːnɪŋ/ クリー二ング kuriiningu 29 image /ˈɪmɪdʒ/ イメージ imeeji 30 timing /ˈtaɪmɪŋ/ タイミング taimingu 31 set /set/ セット setto 32 captain /ˈkæptɪn/ キャプテン kyaputen table 1. gairaigo in japanese source: nhk easy japanese news, (may 2021 to october 2021) afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 51 [t] and [d] as in (7), (10), (12), (19), (21), (26) and (31). vowel [u] is inserted at the end of english words ended with [l] as in (9), (11), (18), (22), and (23), consonant [m] as in (25), consonant [ŋ] as in (28) and (30), and [s] as in (27). vowel [i] is inserted at the end of the english word ended with alveo-palatal affricative as in (13) and (14). gairaigo is also invented through the insertion of a vowel between two consonants in english words as in the data (3), (9), (12), (18), (20), (24), (28), and (32). gairaigo is also formed through sound alternations. the consonant [v] is substituted by [b] as in data (4) and (23). this alternation is caused by the fact that the japanese does not have consonant [v]. japanese has consonant [b]. thus, japanese adapted the word level to reberu and event to ibento in japanese. it seems that sound alternation does not only occur when english words are borrowed into japanese but the same case also occurs in many languages in the world. in speaking english, for example, the speakers of the indonesian language tend to transfer [θ] to [s] or [t] to pronounce the word thank /θæŋk/ in english. then, from table 1, four words do not change significantly as in (2), (5), (6), and (16). however, the four words are still not pronounced the same as in their original form in english. the adjustment of form does not occur in the word zero as in (16). the meaning of gairaigo meaning is part of language elements that are dynamic; unstable and open-ended (leech, 1981) and tends to shift and even change (ulmann, 1977). meillet (2018) stated that one of the causes of changes in meaning is due to social aspects in the life of the speakers of the language. it is possible that words previously categorized as general terms then they are used to name and label specific concepts. words that are initially used in certain groups will experience an expansion of meaning when used by the general public. thus, meaning in language is possible to shift from general to specific meaning and vice versa. nasihin (2007) also proposed a total change of meaning in which the original meaning in the language from which gairaigo came may disappear. among 32 gairaigo collected from nhk easy japanese news, 98% of them have also changed meaning. the meaning of gairaigo is extended, restricted, and changed. the changes in the meaning of gairaigo in japanese can be seen in the following diagram. from the above diagram, the narrowing of meaning dominates japanese gairaigo with the percentage of 72% of the total gairaigo collected. then, it is followed by a wide and total change of meaning. this finding indicated that japan tends to use gairaigo for certain concepts. it seems that the japanese perceive a word in a different way than english. the following data are the description of the meaning of gairaigo among 32 data found in nhk easy japanese news. このロボットを田んぼに入れて、スク リューを回すと、水が濁ります。水の 中に光が入らなくなって、米が育つの に邪魔になる草が大きくなりません。 kono robotto o tanbo ni irete, sukuryuu o mawasu to, mizu ga nigorimasu. mizu no naka ni hikari ga hairanakunatte, mai ga sodatsu no ni jama ni naru kusa ga ookikunarimasen ‘put this robot in a rice field and turn the screw to muddy the water. light does not enter the water, and the grass that interferes with the rice growth does not grow (source: nhk easy japanese news, 31 may 2021)’ in the above data, gairaigo is スクリュー/ sukuryuu/. gairaigo is borrowed from the english word screw which means bolt. the meaning of the word /sukuryuu/ is defined in nhk easy japanese news as in the following description. ‘船の底の後ろに取りつけた、船を進め る仕掛け。せんぷうきのはねのような形 をしている。プロペラ’ ‘fune no soko no ushiro ni toritsuketa, fune o susumeru shikake. senpuuki no hane no youna katachi o shiteiru. puropera’. fig 1: the change of meaning of gairaigo afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 52 ‘mechanism for advancing the ship which is installed at the rear of the bottom of the ship. it is shaped like a propeller fan.’ in the oxford learner’s dictionary (2001), the meaning of the word screw is to fasten one thing to another or make something thigh with a screw. in the dictionary, the word screw refers to a class of nouns as in the sentence you need to screw all the parts together. the word スクリュー /sukuryuu/ does not only refer to a bolt which is a small object to connect two objects but also refers to a screwshaped object attached to the robot when the screw is rotated. it will make the robot move following its function. thus, the word スクリュー/sukuryuu/ has undergone an expansion of meaning from a word that only refers to something more specific to a more general one. the change of meaning of gairaigo in japanese can also be identified through the following data. ワクチンパスポートは外国入るとき に、新しいコロナウイルスのワクチン を受けたことを証明する書類です wakuchin pasupooto wa gaikoku hairu toki ni, atarashii korona virusu no wakuchin o uketa koto o shoumeisuru shorui desu. ‘a vaccine passport is a document that proves that you have received a new coronavirus vaccine when you enter a foreign country (source:nhk easy japanese news, 18 june 2021)’ in the above data, the word /pasupooto/ has changed in meaning. this gairaigo is borrowed from the english passport. the meaning of the word /pasupooto/ is defined by nhk easy japanese news as follows: ‘国が発行する外国旅行に必要な身 分証明書。旅券’。 kuni ga hakkousuru gaikoku ryokou ni hitsuyouna mibun shoumeisho. ryoken. ‘identity card issued by the state for overseas travel’. in the oxford learner’s dictionary (2001), the meaning of passport is an official document that identifies someone as a citizen of a particular country, and that she or he may have to show when you enter or leave a country from certain countries, and which you may have to show when you enter or leave a country (source: oxford learner’s dictionaries, 2001) the word passport in english is an official document in the form of a pocketbook to identify a person as a citizen of a particular country. however, after being absorbed into japanese, the word パス ポート/pasupooto/ has changed its meaning as in the example of the news sentence above. then, the wordパスポート/pasupooto/ does not only refer to a person’s official citizenship identity document but also refers to documents to prove that the person has been officially vaccinated or also known as ワ クチンパスポートwakuchin pasupooto ‘vaccine passport’. the word /pasupooto/ has undergone an expansion of meaning or generalization from a word that only refers to something more specific to a more general word. a document to approve that someone has officially been vaccinated is called a vaccine certificate. of the 32 gairaigo found in nhk easy japanese news online application, the following example is the narrowing meaning of gairaigo. 国は毎年、女性は一生に産む子どもの 数がわかる「出生率」を計算していま す。去年の出生率は１・３４で、おと としより０・０２ポイント低くなりま した。２０１６年から５年続けて、前 の年より下がっています。 kuni wa maitoshi, jousei wa isshouni umu kodomo no kazu ga wakaru ‘shusseiritsu’ o keisanshite imasu. kyonen no shusseiritsu wa 1.34 de, ototoshiyori 0.02 pointo hikuku narimashita. 2016 nen kara 5 nen tsudzukete, mae no toshi yori agate imasu. ‘every year, the country calculates a birth rate that tells the number of children a woman will have in her lifetime. last year’s fertility rate was 1.34, 0.02 points lower than adults. it has been lower than the previous year for five consecutive years since 2016 (source: nhk easy japanese news, 7 june 2021)’. in the data above, the word gairaigo with the change of meaning is ポイント/pointo/. gairaigo is borrowed from the english word point. the meaning of the word /pointo/ in the text in nhk easy japanese news is as follows: ‘点。悪点。得点。点数.’ ten, waruten, tokuten. tensuu ‘point/score and number’ afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 53 in the oxford learner’s dictionary (2001), the word point means a thing that somebody says or writes giving their opinion or stating a fact. the word point in english has a wider meaning than ポイント/pointo/ in japanese. the word point in english can be used to show the facts and express opinions in spoken or written forms. the word point has a narrow meaning when it was absorbed into japanese where it only refers to the meaning of value or score. it can be stated that the word ポイント/pointo/ has a narrow meaning from a word that refers to something more general to a more specific word. the other example of gairaigo having a narrowing meaning can be identified in the following data. イギリスで、日本やアメリカなど７つ の国のリーダーが集まるｇ７サミット がありました。 igirisu de, nihon ya amerika nado nanatsu no kuni no riidaa ga atsumaru g7 samitto ga arimasu. ‘in the united kingdom, there was a g7 summit where leaders from seven countries, including japan and the united states, gathered. (source: nhk easy japanese news, 14 june 2021)’ in the data above, there is the word gairaigo which has changed its meaning, that is the word サ ミット/samitto/. gairaigo has borrowed from the english word summit. the meaning of /samitto/ in the sentence above refers to the official meeting of the g7 summit or the high-level conference among several countries. the word summit in the oxford learner’s dictionary (2001) refers to the highest point of something (top of a mountain). the word summit also refers to ‘an official meeting or series of meetings between the leaders of two or more governments to discuss important matters.’ based on the data found, the word サ ミット/samitto/ in japanese only refers to an official meeting among government leaders to discuss important matters. it is contrary to the word summit in english, which also refers to the ‘peak/highest point of something,’ especially the top of a mountain. the word peak in japanese is called 頂上/choujyou/. it can be stated that the word サミット/samitto/ in japanese has changed its meaning. it is categorized as a narrow meaning where the meaning of the original word in english is wider than after being absorbed into the japanese language. the total change of meaning of gairaigo can also be identified in the following data. ルールでは、海に来た人たちに放送 で、周りの人と近くならないように言 います。海岸で酒を飲んではいけませ ん。大きな声で話さないように、スピ ーカーから出 す音楽などを小さくしな ければなりません。 ruuru de wa, umi ni kita hito tachi ni housou de, mawari no hito chikaku naranai youni iimasu. kaigan de sake o nonde wa ikemasen. ookina koe de hanasanai youni, supiikaa kara dasu ongaku nado o chiisaku shinakerbanari-masen. ‘the rule is to broadcast to people who come to the sea and tell them not to be close to the people around them. do not drink alcohol on the beach. the music from the speakers should be small so that you do not speak loudly (nhk easy japanese news, 31 may 2021)’. in the above data, there is the word gairaigo which has a change of meaning such as スピー カー/supiikaa/. gairaigo borrows from english speakers. the meaning of the word as explained by nhk easy japanese news is as follows: ‘電気の信号を、音声に変えて聞かせる ための器械。 ‘denki no singo o, onsei ni kaete kikaseru tame no kikai. ‘a device for converting electrical signals into sound’. meanwhile, in the oxford learner’s dictionary (2021), the meaning of speaker is a person who gives a talk or makes a speech. cultural implication language and culture are closely related to each other. concerning the relationship between language and culture, kramsch (1998:3) stated that language expresses, embodies, and symbolizes cultures. culture itself has wide scopes which are categorized as tangible and intangible cultures. the interesting thing to observe is the fact that the language and culture of every country are not the same. wierzbicka (2003) stated that different culture speaks different languages. japanese has a different linguistic system from english. certain sounds of japanese are not possessed by english. if english words are borrowed into japanese afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 54 as indicated in table 1, there should be some adaptations to the japanese linguistic system. the adaptation of english words into the japanese linguistic system to form gairaigo has cultural implications. gairaigo has implications for the language attitude of japanese speakers, the enrichment of japanese vocabularies, the early stage to recognize english embedded in japanese and cultural maintenance. language attitude. the way the japanese borrowed and treated english words reflects their language attitude. on the one hand, japanese speakers borrow english words into japanese. on the other hand, they do not want to lose their japanese linguistic features. japanese speakers embedded linguistic features of english and their japanese language in one word. this phenomenon can be seen in the following examples. also be created. due to ethnographic factors, the meaning of gairaigo can be extended, restricted, and even totally changed. the early stage to recognize english. one of the ways to know and learn a foreign language at the early stage is continuous exposure to the foreign language which becomes the target of learning. english words borrowed into japanese can be regarded as the early stage to recognize english. the presence of linguistic features of english in japanese words can help and guide the japanese speakers to recognize english as illustrated in the following table. table 2: gairaigo and language attitude english words gairaigo talent /ˈtælənt/ tarento event /ɪˈvent/ ibento drama /ˈdrɑːmə/ dorama summit /ˈsʌmɪt/ samitto case /keɪs/ keesu (source: nhk easy japanese news, 7 june 2021) the formation of gairaigo while maintaining the linguistic features of the japanese language is a sign of the language loyalty of japanese speakers to their language. two cultures in one word. the formation of gairaigo by maintaining the linguistic elements of english and japanese illustrates that there are two different cultures in one word. the words tarento, ibento, dorama, samitto, keesu, and the other words in table 1 contain the linguistic features of english and japanese. the linking of two cultures in one word has a wide impact. gairaigo can be the initial marker of the relationship between japanese and english. enrichment of japanese words. gairaigo can improve the number of japanese words. with gairaigo, a new form with a new meaning can be invented. then, a new form with old meanings can table 3: gairaigo and language recognition english words gairaigo center /ˈsentə(r)/ sentaa point /pɔɪnt/ pointo image /ˈɪmɪdʒ/ imeegi captain /ˈkæptɪn/ kyaputen speaker /ˈspiːkə(r)/ supiikaa (source: nhk easy japanese news, 7 june 2021) the examples in table 3 above are the japanese with a taste of english which can serve as the early stage to recognize english. english words undergo a process of japanisation (honna, 2010). cultural maintenance. the formation of gairaigo by incorporating the linguistic features of the japanese into english is to maintain the japanese language and culture. by inserting japanese linguistic features into gairaigo, japanese people have shown a way of maintaining their culture. thus, the substitution of [v] with [b] in the word event to ibento is not only the problem of sound adaptation in japanese but also the effort to keep their culture. language is a culture. language is the social and cultural identity of one speech community (crystal, 1998). in line with this statement, it can be said that the japanese language is the social and cultural identity of japanese people. thus, gairaigo as presented in table 1, is the marker of the social and cultural identity of the japanese. afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 55 4. conclusion referring to the analysis of data above, it can be concluded that the japanese have their way of forming gairaigo. the formation of gairaigo also leads to changes in meaning and has wide cultural implications for japanese culture. gairaigo in japanese gives the idea that different languages can connect through the transfer of linguistic forms among them. in the future, it can be predicted that the speakers of languages in the world will always build a network that will also have an impact on the development of their language as in garaigo in japanese. references aovill team. (2020). nhk easy japanese news readersimple & useful (version 13.14). [mobile app]. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.aovill.language.e2l.ejn crystal, d. (1998). the encyclopedy of language and linguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press. honna, n. (2010). english in japanese society: language with language. journal of multilingual and multicultural development vol. 6(1-2) horikawa, n. (2013). english loan words in japanese: exploring comprehension and register. portland university irwin, m. (2011). loanwords in japanese. amsterdam: john benjamin publishing co. kramsch, c. (1998). language and culture. oxford: oxford university press. leech, g. (1981). semantics: the study of meaning. pinguin books. meillet, a. (2018). how words change meaning. independently published mulyadi. (2014). loan words in bahasa indonesia. journal of english language teaching and education, vol.2(1). nasihin, a. (2007). kata serapan dalam bahasa jepang. padang: universitas bung hatta. oktavianus. (2007). “cultural values in indonesian and japanese provers in relation to labor, employment and industry”.padang: paper presented to international conference and published in proceeding. omar, s. (2015). “being japanese in english: the social and functional role of english loanwords in japanese”. scripps college. oshima, k. (2002). semantic and structural shift patterns of gairaigo in japan. intercultural communication studies xi:4, 51-65. oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. (2021). “oxford leaner’s dictionary”. oxford university press. tangorin japanese dictionary and translation. sari, w. d. (2019). the formation of abbreviated loanwords in japanese a study of ryakugo and toujigo in asahi shinbun digital website of automotivetechnology column. japanedu: jurnal pendidikan dan pengajaran bahasa jepang, 37-45. shibatani, m. (2001). the language of japan. cambridge: cambridge university press. stanlaw, j. m. (2004). japanese english: language and culture contact. hongkong: hongkong university. sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: sanata dharma. tsujimuta, n. (1997). an introduction to japanese linguistics. uk: blackwell publishers, ltd. ullman, s. (1977). semantics, an introduction to the science of meaning. oxford: basil blachwell. takashi, k. (1992). language and desired identity in contemporary japan. journal of asian pacific communication, 3(1):133-144. afif kharisma erlina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 56 wierzbicka, anna. (2003). cross-cultural pragmatics: semantics of human interactions. berlin: mouton de gruyter. wilistyani, n.m., ni nengah suartini and gede satya hermawan. (2019). analisis perubahan makna gairaigo dalam garuda orient holidays: suatu kajian semantik. jurnal pendidikan bahasa jepang undiksha 4(3):210. oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 71 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 20, 2022 final revision: may 08, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 public spaces are the sphere where people meet each other for many purposes, activities, and interests. public spaces are decorated with languages with various designs and motives to guide and give information to people in public spaces. language is displayed in public spaces as the name and labels of shops, restaurants, offices, buildings, streets, advertisements, and short notice. this writing discusses the designs and roles of languages as the text in public spaces. the result of the study shows that languages realized in the text in public spaces have a variety of designs and roles. the study of the text in public spheres should be done by applying integrated approaches and theories. keywords language, public spaces, linguistic landscape, and text. correspondence e-mail: oktavianus@hum.unand.ac.id review multimode and multirole of languages in public spaces oktavianus oktavianus1 1universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.71-79.2022 1. introduction language is important in human life. language is not only functioned as a communication tool but also used to run all activities of human beings. besides, language is also the marker of the sociocultural identity of its speakers. language can be in the form of spoken and written forms. written and spoken languages have their respective strengths and weaknesses as a means of communication. in certain contexts, spoken language is more effective as a means of sustaining life, but in the other contexts, written language is needed written language is widely used in public spaces. depending on the media where the language is displayed, written language can also be called printed language. the term printed language can be defined as the language which is printed everywhere around us such as on the wall, doors, banners, or billboards. public spaces especially in the cities are full of written or printed languages with various designs and motives. the written or printed languages are treated as a textthe term to be used throughout this writing. text is defined as language in use (schiffrin, 1994). it can be written or spoken (halliday, 1980). public places are all spheres that can be accessed by people for many different or the same purposes. public spaces include public roads, schools, worship places, hospitals, hotels, markets, buses, trains, planes, etc. the design and use of the languages in public places depend on the purpose of communication. the structure of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences are adjusted to the available space and the message to be conveyed. language in public spaces is artistically made so that it looks beautiful. it is done to attract the attention of the public. the creative design of languages can be found in the banner, stickers, t-shirt, food and drink packaging, nameplate, and other strategic places as in one of the following example. fig. 1. nameplate of warung steak and shake source: warung steak and shake. (dok. oktavianus, 2022). oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 72 the design and layout of letters, combination of linguistic and non-linguistic signs as well as coloring make the steak and shake shop above look beautiful. the creative use of languages in public spaces develops rapidly because of the increasing need for human communication in various models. language is used as the media of competition. it also becomes a commodity. people do not only sell goods and services but also languages. even, the selling of goods and services depends on the styles of languages the sellers choose. at present time, we notice in public places attractive and interesting names are used as the names and labels of food. the following example is the use of language in public spaces. fig. 2. about mie gacoan kuta bali source: mie gacoan kuta bali. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) groups of the signs give information to the public about the food which includes the name, place of the restaurant, and opening year. in the first part, there is one non-linguistic sign namely the image of the gate. the second part contains the status of the customer namely single, taken, and hungry. since the context of the use of language is at the restaurant and it is a kind of advertisement of the food, then the status which is marked is hungry. in the other context, the status which is marked can be single, taken, or hungry. it depends on the space where the language is used. meaning depends on and changes through contexts (leech, 1981; yule, 2000). language has four main components namely form, function, meaning, values, and ideology (oktavianus, 2022). the four main components can also be found in the written and printed language used in public spaces. the prominence of languages in public spaces lies in the artistic designs of that language and the way meaning, value, and ideology are delivered. this study, therefore, is an attempt to discuss the designs and the roles of languages in public spaces. besides, this article is also aimed at formulating the concepts of language in public spaces as social control, character building, cultural identity, sources of teaching and learning materials, and the object of linguistic research. 2. the study of languages in public spaces many researchers have investigated written and printed language in public spaces. in general, the research on text in public places has been conducted under the approach of the linguistic landscape. the linguistic landscape itself is defined as the language of public road signs, advertising billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, and public signs on government buildings combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration (landry and bourhis 1997). gorter (2006) stated that language is all around us in textual form as it is displayed on shops windows, commercial signs, posters official notices, traffic signs, etc. linguistic landscape can also be regarded as the description and analysis of the language situation in a certain country (sciriha & vassalo, 2001; kreslins, 2003; and oktavianus, 2019, 2021, and 2022). fig. 3. display of status at mie gacoan source: mie gacoan kuta bali. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) the language displayed on one of the walls of mie gacoan restaurant is designed in such an interesting way as to attract the attention of the public. the first text contains four groups of linguistic signs namely (1) mie gacoan; (2) kuta: (3) since 2016; and (4) funtastic food. the four oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 73 referring to the definition of linguistic landscape proposed by landry and bourhis, when observed, the public places especially in cities in indonesia are full of languages in their written form. they present beautiful scenery in the public spaces. in this regard, backhaus (2007:1) stated that a city is a place of language contact. gorter (2006) stated that the number of linguistic tokens is high in shopping areas in cities which are then called linguistic city spaces. in addition, in business centers, the number of linguistic tokens is increasing. the landscape of various texts is getting more complex. the display of text in public spaces is complex. in one area or a city, there are hundreds of texts scattered along the streets, attached to shops, building, banners, cars, office spaces, and other spots. two models of study can be conducted on all these texts. first, all the texts can be the object of the study at the same time to formulate the linguistic landscape of the area of the city. in other words, the purpose of the study is to know the language situation in one area or city. second, the study of language in public spaces can be done with one text with all its variations. amer (2014) did research on the shop signs in aqaba city, jordan. oktavianus, khairil anwar, and ike revita (2019) researched the linguistic landscape of rumah makan minang. dabbour (2017) studied tahrir square protest signs and egyptian national identity. the advantages of multimodal text in public spaces texts 1-3 above can be regarded as multimodal text. the element used to design the text consists of linguistic and nonlinguistic signs. the linguistic sign can come from one, two, or more different languages. nonlinguistic signs are the image, color, size, and model of the letters, background, as well as layout. the combinations of these two groups of signs to design the text to be displayed in public places are regarded as multiple means of making and delivering meaning. 3. multidesign of language in public places languages in indonesia can be classified into indonesian language, local languages, and foreign languages. indonesian language, which can also be called bahasa indonesia, is the official state language as stipulated in article 36 of the 1945 constitution. the functions of the indonesian language are stated in article 25, paragraphs 2 and 3 of law number 24 of 2009 concerning the flag, language, state institution, and the national anthem. paragraph 2 article 25 stated that the indonesian language function as a national identity, national pride, a means of unifying various tribes in indonesia, and a means of communication among regions and regional cultures in indonesia. paragraph 3, article 25 stated that the indonesian language functions as the official state language, language of instruction in the process of teaching and learning, a means of communication at the national level, national culture development, transaction and commercial documentation, a means of developing and utilizing science, technology, art and the language of mass media. badan bahasa of the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology from 1991 to 2019 has mapped and identified 718 local languages in indonesia. law number 24 of 2009 also stated the roles and functions of local and foreign languages in indonesia. local languages are languages used for generations by indonesian citizens in the republic of indonesia. meanwhile, a foreign language is a language other than the local and indonesian languages. the foreign language in indonesia is dominated by english. the fact that english is a compulsory subject at schools and universities makes english the dominant foreign language in indonesia (oktavianus, 2020). besides, the mastery of english at a certain level of competency as the requirement for continuing education, getting scholarships, and applying for jobs are other factors that cause english to have a strategic role. the massive and long-standing internationalization of english has made english a very important foreign language in indonesia. english is used in cities, villages, and even in remote areas. the roles and functions of indonesian, local and foreign languages are also regulated by the badan bahasa, the ministry of education, culture, research and technology through the tagline, utamakan bahasa indonesia; lestarikan bahasa daerah; dan kuasai bahasa asing. this tagline implies for indonesian act locally, unite nationally, and think globally. the language displayed in public spaces can be monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual. monolingual is the use of one language in one space. in the indonesian context, the language can oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 74 be indonesian, local, or foreign language only. bilingual is the use of two different languages in one space. the languages can be a combination between indonesia and the local language, indonesian and english, or english and the local language. multilingual is the use of three or more languages in one space. the combination can be indonesian, local, and foreign languages. the following examples are the use of languages in public spaces. the text above is taken from one of the coffee shops next to the stick and shake shop in kuta street denpasar bali. the use of english is to build a wide customer network that not only covers local customers but also the foreigners who visit bali and stay around kuta. for the owners and customers, the use of english in the coffee shop is aimed at indicating social prestige and identity. this style of language is also addressed to a certain group of customers namely the youth. instructions, warnings, and short notices in public places are also made by combining three different languages in one space. the language usually used is indonesian, local languages, and english. the use of local languages depends on regions where the instructions, warnings, and short notices are displayed. in minangkabau, west sumatera, the languages used in the public spaces can be a combination of indonesian, minangkabau, and the english language. in bali, the language used in public places can be a combination of indonesia, balinese and english language as in the following example. the above text is language displayed in the coffee shop, janji jiwa at terminal 3 soekarno hatta international airport in jakarta. the main message is delivered in the indonesian language with the design of the text by choosing the word ended by [u] as in kananmu, kirimu, and sejatimu. however, the combination between indonesia and english is placed in the lower right and left corners of the text namely jiwa tea and jiwa toast. as english becomes the dominant language in public places, the use of language in public places is mostly dominated by english. the following example is the use of english in a coffee shop in kuta street in denpasar. fig. 4. advertisement for coffee source: coffee shop at the airport jakarta. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) fig. 5. language displayed at the coffee shop source: coffee shop kuta bali. (dok.oktavianus, 2022) the above text is displayed in one of the hotels in kuta denpasar, bali. in the text, three languages are used in sequence namely balinese, indonesian and english. based on the order of the placement of the three languages, it can be identified that the balinese show a structure of thinking in maintaining local culture through the use of the balinese language. balinese state their national identity and pride through indonesia as well as being part of the world community through english. the obligation to use the balinese language is stated through the bali governor’s regulation no. 80 of 2018 regarding the protection and use of balinese language, script, and literature. paragraph 1, article 6, chapter iv of the bali governor’s regulation states that the balinese fig. 6. area wajib masker source: ibis hotel kuta bali. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 75 script must be placed above latin letters in writing the name of the place of worship for hindus; customary institutions; building inauguration inscription; building; government and private institutions; streets; tourism facilities and other public facilities. the placement of three languages in sequence in the above text has followed the balinese governor’s regulation related to the use of balinese script. thus, wherever we go around public places in bali, we will see and find two or three languages in sequence. if there are two languages in sequence, the order is balinese and indonesian language. if there are three languages in sequence, the order is balinese, indonesian, and english as in the above text. the following example is a billboard on one of the main streets in padang. the signs used are a combination of linguistic and nonlinguistic signs. the above billboard contains public signs displayed on one of the main streets in padang. the billboard uses the indonesian language. in the top left and right corner, it is written bumn untuk indonesia; pegadaian. the main message is uang bisa dicari, kenangan susah diganti. in the bottom left corner, it is written #gadaiajadulu. in the bottom right corner, there is the image of a ring. the message conveyed is an offer to the public to pawn their valuable goods such as gold as it is displayed on the billboard. the message delivery structure is the introduction of the pawnshop (bumn untuk indonesia), the main message (uang bisa dicari; kenangan susah diganti), and (#gadaiajadulu), and confirmation by displaying a ring image. the following example is the placement of the landscape of language in front of the exit gate in i gusti ngurah rai international airport in denpasar bali. fig. 7. billboard of pegadaian in padang source: billboard of pegadaian. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) fig. 8. the gate of bali source: the gate of bali (dok. oktavianus, 2022) the semiotic sign of bali is designed and displayed in an artistic style and placed between bali script and english, island of paradise. bali is an international tourist destination in which language contact is very dynamic in this region. the other similar example can be seen in the picture below. fig. 9. the gate of mall bali galeria source: mall bali galeria. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) the above text is the sign of a commercial shop sign in denpasar bali. it is all written in english. under the signs mall bali galeria, it is written the words enjoy, play, eat, and shop. the four words are written and decorated with different colors and wavy letters. the label of the gate of mall bali galeria (mbg) is also written in wavy letters. the four words enjoy, play, eat and shop reflect the situation inside the mbg. 4. multi roles of language in public spaces social control the public spaces are very complex. people from various social statuses and professions come and meet in public spaces. when we are in the oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 76 public spaces, we see people in the street walking or waiting for public transportation. in public places, people are busy with their businesses and activities. they come to hypermarkets for shopping. in the wet market, for example, there is an interaction between the seller of various goods and the buyers. people go to the office to work. in the office, they meet their colleagues and other people and do interaction. people go to the bank to make or save money. even, some people need to go to the restroom. some others need to go to the mosques at praying time. people are standing at the bus stop or going on public transportation. on the bus, train, and plane, people also meet each other. in the public spaces as mentioned above, life becomes complex because people from different backgrounds, attitudes, habits, professions, and ethnicity come and meet each other. disharmony and conflict may occur triggered by many factors. it is also possible that some people are a newcomer to certain public places so they need to get information about everything in the public spaces. the written languages displayed everywhere in public places will function as social controls and regulate people from different backgrounds with different attitudes, habits, professions, and ethnicities. this can create harmony and avoid conflict and miscommunication. short notices and warnings in public places such as no smoking in an air conditioned room, priority seat in an airport waiting room, open and close displayed at the door of café or office, in and out at the entrance gate of hotels and government office buildings are some examples of languages displayed in the public places as social control. these short notices and warnings guide people to act and behave properly. character building people in public places may have different or the same interest, activities, and businesses. the two are possible. then, as stated in the previous part, people in the public spaces can come from different backgrounds with different attitudes and behavior. thus, if they are in public places, they have to have a concern for other people. positive values such as politeness, solidarity, mutual understanding, wiseness, patience, honesty, and other positive values should be part of their behavior toward other people in all their interactions and communication. however, it seems that positive values are not always part of people’s behavior in public places. violations of values, norms, and rules may occur in public places. then, it is also possible to meet people with impolite behavior, dishonesty, and other negative attitudes in public places. in this regard, written languages in public spaces are one of the ways to remind people to behave reasonably. in the public spaces, it is found short notices and warnings such as queue/antri at the bank, hospitals, and other public places. these short notices were created to remind people to take turns in doing something. the short notices anda sopan, kami segan was put at the barbershop to remind the customer to behave properly. the priority seat in the waiting room of the airport is aimed at reminding people to give priority to old people or the disabled people to sit in the chair marked with priority seat. some people were littering in public places. consequently, the surrounding environment looks dirty. the short notices buanglah sampah di tempatnya are displayed in some corners of schools, hospitals, and other public places to remind people to put rubbish in the rubbish bin. mall bali galeria. (dok. oktavianus, 2022) offering to behave politely in providing services to the public and customers are also found in public spaces. the designs of written languages to remind an employee to serve customers politely can be seen in the following example. fig. 10. reminder to give good service to the customer source: restoran ayam remuk pak tisno pekan baru (dok. oktavianus, 2022) offering in the above banner is designed in artistic modes and colorful letters. these are done to remind the employee to provide good services to customers. the size and the color of the letters are designed in such a way to attract the attention of the public and to give a good image of the company to the public. oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 77 cultural identity indonesia is a unitary state in which many tribes inhabit the entire archipelago. each of the ethnic groups has its language and culture. as also stated by wierzbicka (2003), different culture speaks a different language. every tribe in indonesia can be identified and recognized through their language and culture. the high mobility of indonesians to the cities in indonesia causes the spread of languages and cultures. in jakarta, for example, the linguistic landscape of one main street shows us the various cultures coming from various ethnic groups in indonesia. the logo, name, and label in local languages displayed in the shops and restaurants are the marker of the cultures of one ethnic group. names and labels of rumah makan minang, for example, are the marker of minangkabau cultures (oktavianus, 2019). the other example of how the language in the public spaces has the role of a cultural marker can be seen in the following examples. fig. 11. nameplate of coto makassar source: warung coto makassar (dok. oktavianus, 2022) in indonesia, there is a food named soto. every ethnic group in indonesia has this kind of food with a different composition and even taste. in makassar, it is called coto as it is written in the above nameplate. thus, everywhere in indonesia, if there is the word coto refers to the food, people can recognize that it comes from makassar. thus, the shift from [s] in the word [soto] to [c] in the word [coto] leads us to the different cultures in indonesia. sources of teaching and learning material languages in public spaces grow and develop rapidly. the creativity of language users can create a language with various forms and designs. the languages in the public spaces can be collected and used as teaching materials. by doing this, the students are guided to observe the reality of how language is used and designed in public spaces. the methods of project-based learning and case studies are suitable for using languages in the public spaces as the learning materials. then, by observing the use of language in the public spaces, students can observe and analyze directly the linguistic data collected to show the reality of how the language is used. big data for linguistic research language is all around us in textual form (gorter, 2006c:1). the languages in the public spaces can be used as an object of inexhaustible linguistic study. the new forms and constructions occur every time because of the increasing needs of the speakers of the language to communicate with each other. the variation of languages in the public spaces can be studied by using the different approaches and theories both linguistically and non linguistically. the study can also be done from the perspective of micro linguistics and macro linguistics. besides, the study of language in public places can also be conducted by applying the approaches and theories from other sciences such as sociology, anthropology, history, psychology, economics, law, and even theories of natural sciences. the analysis of languages in public spaces can apply all these approaches and theories because the designs of the languages in public places usually use more than one sign or mode. kress, g., & van leeuwen, t (2001 and 2006) stated that semiotic systems of human communication consist of various signs and modes that can be analyzed by using the different approaches and theories. thus, the multimodal approach can be regarded as the appropriate way of investigating languages in public spaces. 5. conclusions at the end of this short writing, we can say that public spaces are the largest area for the use of languages with various motives and designs. the use of language in public spaces is very dynamic. the language in public spaces does not only have the roles as the medium of communication but also as social control, character building, cultural identity, teaching and learning materials, and as the object of linguistic research. oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 78 references amer, f., & obeidat, r. (2014). linguistic landscape: a case study of shop signs in aqaba city, jordan. asian social science, 10(18), 246-252. backhaus, p. (2007). linguistic landscape. a comparative study of urban multilingual in tokyo. clevedon-bufallo-toronto: multilingual matters ltd. dabbour, k. (2017). the linguistic landscape of tahrir square protest signs and egyptian national identity. journal of studies in linguistics and literatures,1(2), 142-161. gorter, d. (ed). (2006). linguistic landscape: a new approach to multilingualism. clevedon: multilingual matters. halliday, m.a.k and ruqaiya hassan. 1980. cohesion in english. london: longman ltd. kramsch, c. (1998). language and culture. oxford: oxford university press. kreslins, j. (2003). linguistic landscapes in the baltik. scandinavian journal of history, 28 (3-4), 165174. kress, g., & van leewen, t. (2001). multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. london: arnold. landry, r., & bourhis, r.y. (1997). linguistic landscape and ethnolinguistic vitality: an empirical study. journal of language and social psychology, 16(1), 23-49. leech, g. (1981). semantics: the study of meaning. penguin books. oktavianus. (2006). analisis wacana lintas bahasa. padang: minangkabau press. oktavianus. (2019). the landscape of cultural identity at rumah makan minang. jati-journal of southeast asian studies, 24(2), 155-175. oktavianus. (2022). kiasan dalam bahasa minangkabau. padang: minangkabau press. schiffrin, d. (1994). approaches to discourse. cambridge: blackwell publishers. sciriha, l. and vassallo, m. (2001). malta: a linguistic landscape. malta: university of malta. wierzbicka, anna. (2003). cross-cultural pragmatics: semantics of human interactions. berlin: mouton de gruyter. yule, g. (2000). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. oktavianus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 79 biography oktavianus is professor of linguistics (semantics) at faculty of humanities, andalas university. his research interests are in the field of semantics, pragmatics, and linguistic landscape. he has published four books, some chapter books and articles in national and international journal. he is reviewer of some national and international journal. he is also the member of indonesian linguistic society. vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 97 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december11, 2022 final revision: may 04, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 a celebrity’s scandal can be an enthralling theme for the media to produce news, either factual or fabricated. this research primarily focuses on distorted content or media manipulation to report it. it explores the correlation between misleading news and the motives behind twisted reality. the method used in this research is a descriptive qualitative method through the lens of the forensic linguistics approach, supported by villa’s interpretative pragmatics (2010). the collected data were from selected sources of distorted media reporting, especially about a highly considered korean singer’s crime, known seungri of bigbang. his charge was not direct link with sexual abuse and systematic drugs, which is in fact unrevealed wealthy people committing them. even nonconsensual disclosure of sexually-explicit videos was committed by other celebrities. yet, the media fraudulently blended and misrepresented seungri as the key figure of the scandal in a club named ‘burning sun’. society was misled to hate and blame him. this research shows that passive constructions, lexical references, and subject matters of the texts become linguistic evidence of fact distortion. manipulating celebrity’s scandal is driven by political goals, such as creating mistrust and bewildering larger audiences, especially in south korea about proving the justice system as the actual culprits are withdrawn. this research is noteworthy since there are interwoven claims of the power of media to wriggle out of legal punishments after spreading distorted facts. hence, it implies that pragmatics is applicable and efficacious to prove the case. it leads to defamation by media, correlated with forensic linguistics. to reveal the distorted facts by deceitful media, this study expectantly contributes in enhancing social awareness of the truth behind blatant public outrage and its social consequences. keywords distorted facts, legal punishment, manipulation, forensic linguistics correspondence e-mail: vivianzulfie@gmail.com article distorted korean idol’s scandal, deceitful media, and the role of forensic linguistics vivian zulfie1, asrumi2, agus sariono3 under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.97-106.2023 1. introduction digital media provides the speed of spreading information. yet, deceptive information is a phenomenon that reaches wider audiences or readers. this dissemination not only misleads the public but also it is assumed as more emotionally receptive to specific messages and interactions in society, politics, economy, and culture (carmi, 2020). such fake news phenomenon has been soaring with the emergence of social media. regarding this issue, intergovernmental policies and regulations necessarily heed the notion of “fake news” (richter, 2018). in practice, how news is presented makes it notoriously difficult to differentiate fact, opinion, and value. although article 19 of the international covenant on civil and political rights in 1966 states about freedom of speech, distorted news is more challenging to grasp legally. this is grounded by the development of media and technology in this digital modernism. fake news is considered the most widespread on social media on online platforms. it has no obstacles for people to share the news. readers are guided to naturally trust the news’s authenticity and believe the news stories’ content is true (simon & nyitrai, 2021). as fake news 1-3magister linguistics, faculty of humanities, jember university, indonesia vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 98 can trigger intervention or clash in society, media manipulation by distorting facts can be seen as a crime. specifically, this manipulative news content possibly ruins a public figure’s reputation, so mass hatred is addressed toward the suspected person without realizing the truth. in this regard, forensic linguistics contributes to analyzing the linguistic evidence of crimes in this specific case. various motivations behind fake news exist, economic, political, or might serve private interests. correspondingly, the perception of media reporting to serve undistorted and nontendentious representation of reality needs to be more attainable in the complexities of this information age. prohibition to spread distorted facts, however, seems tolerated legally as it would be too vulnerably abused (baade, 2019; nagasako, 2020). a wide range of media manipulation covers global health issues, national presidential elections, and even attacks upon a public figure’s private life. media fabricates the truth, causing potential public harm or mass anxiety. thus, with the contribution of forensic linguistics, some factors grounding the deceitful media to report a public figure’s scandal can be elaborated in this recent research. consequently, this recent research aims to discuss media deception and distorted facts about a public figure’s scandal, specifically a well-known korean singer ‘seungri of bigbang’ in his private business, which is ‘burning sun’ (bs) club. this phenomenon is scrutinized by a forensic linguistic approach in an attempt to examine and identify the linguistic features based on villa’s interpretative pragmatics theory (2010). moreover, this case is complicatedly constructed due to seungri’s worldwide fame as korean celebrity, besides his real name is lee seung hyun (lsh). the surge of fake news triggers mass hatred towards seungri since this criminal case involves elite individuals related to international business enterprises. these fakes news were spread through digital platforms, such as twitter and instagram. then it comes to the term ‘cancel culture’, which means increasing criticism of withdrawing a public figure based on social justice perspectives indicating insurmountably problematic digital platforms (ng, 2020). this occurred when the media conducted his misleading information about unacceptable behavior, portraying seungri as the center of attention to condemn. celebrity is one of the targeted groups vulnerable to moral panic, shown in ‘cancel culture’ as public pressure (clark, 2020). a number of studies related to fake news in the context of their content have been soaring. the findings of previous research assist this recent research in correlating distorted media reporting and forensic linguistics. first of all, mahyoob, algaraady, & alrahaili (2021) found that to determine untrustworthy texts, grammatical features help in the portrayal of unreliable articles. secondly, related to legal standards, it seems harder to apply in distorted news, generally produced and shared by formal news agencies and outlets (baade, 2019). in parallel, manipulated content and distorted truth are categorized as harmful, and identifying the wrongfulness of disinformation becomes a challenge for future international initiatives to consider the regulation of it (nagasako, 2020). thus, as the task of forensic linguistics is to provide the analysis of the linguistic evidence of crimes, manipulated news articles can be observed through this lens of study. thus, this recent research builds upon the three earlier findings related to media manipulation and forensic linguistics. yet, this research attempts to utilize the novelty which extends the areas of information disorder causing social consequences. these can be realized in several circumstances. the first significant difference is seen in the topic of the phenomenon. the previous scholars select political propaganda such as presidential election (mahyoob et al, 2021), government policy (baade, 2019), and regulations (nagasako, 2020), while this recent research chooses celebrity scandal or non-political actors. a celebrity is also considered to give influence on the general public. it can be depicted as the newness among similar studies. secondly, the methodology applied in this research highlights qualitative analysis, yet mahyoob et al (2021) use qualitative and quantitative analysis for processing data obtained randomly. while purposive sampling in this recent research has not been employed before since it concentrates on the significant representations of information disorder. thirdly, baade (2019) and nagasako (2020) show no solid description from the linguistic approach, so this recent research applies villa’s pragmatics (2010) to provide an analytical tool in the lens of language investigation towards fake news. considering these aspects, this recent research not only gains corresponding topics of interests about vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 99 fake news and forensic linguistics but also defines the distinctions to enrich the role of language study in fake news or media manipulation. however, misleading content can occur as a form of epidemic crime. without investigating the validity and reliability of the sources, headlines of news articles are modified to shock, horrify, or scare the readers outright (simon & nyitrai, 2021). this is in line with the recent research on observing the effect of fake news on society. yet, both studies differ in the domain of health issues and organized crimes, drugs, sex, and gambling. in this viewpoint, this recent research aims to delineate media manipulations that trigger scaremongering. it arouses ‘a credulous public’ (law, 2017). the dissemination of false information requires the continuity and discrepancies of legal responses in varying contexts that all claim to share common global values of free speech and free media (richter, 2018). with particular relevance to the current research, the scandal of a celebrity and a severe moral transgression involve the dimension of negative information and public sentiment (karg, lim, & schnall, 2022). for the sake of text exploration, semantic and pragmatic analyses were blended to disclose the ideology of crime news that leaves a negative impression on audiences (nawaz & hussain, 2021). typically, studies in forensic linguistics prove precise interpretation and further explanation about the language used in media reporting. hence, it can be assumed that most media manipulate and distort information if it is linked to a celebrity’s scandal. it is palpably clear that this current research reveals the actual motives of misleading news distributed by selected online media such as ‘south china morning post’ (scmp) and ‘the washington post’ (twp). it is also considered as an intertwining context towards legal action after breaking ethical journalism. the power behind these media agencies is also delineated, as there seems to be an undesirable consequence of mainstream news coverage of distributing distorted facts (tsfati, boomgarden, strömbäck, vliegenthart, damstra, & lindgren, 2020). in sum, this recent research points out three research questions, which are; 1. what linguistic features represent the distorted facts in lee seunghyun’s scandal? 2. how do the selected media become deceitful in reporting this scandal? 3. why is forensic linguistics required to elucidate this phenomena? conceptually, the interpretative pragmatic approach is useful for evaluating linguistic expression. this is in line with zhanghong and yanan (2020), figuring out that chinese celebrities tend to show sincere apologies by employing pragmatics as the analysis tool. therefore, it is significant for this research to conduct under the linguistic study as the objective of the research is to reveal and manifest the language expressions representing distorted facts and deceitful media through the combination of pragmatics and forensic linguistics. ii. methods this recent research applies a qualitative descriptive approach because the object of the research is in the form of written texts. the data, which are the linguistic expressions such as words, phrases, and clauses, are collected based on the meaning addressing the scandal’s target, seungri or lee seung hyun. the data were collected by searching the news headlines by the keywords of seungri, and several news articles appeared. they were sorted out after reading them comprehensively to find out the meaning conveyed as the news content. then, the sources of the texts were identified. they were from famous media agencies: south china morning post (scmp) and the washington post (twp). after that, two news articles were obtained due to the indication of meaning addressing seungri as the crime’s key figure. the first was entitled ‘you raped her: jung joon-young and seungri’s texts about sharing sex videos’ published on march 15, 2019 on https:// www.scmp.com/. the second news was ‘sex scandals stain the clean-cut image of south korea’s k-pop’ published on august 5, 2019 on https:// www.washingtonpost.com/. in the next stage, purposive sampling, the data are sorted by purposive sampling. it is aimed to a conceptually-driven approach (ferrugia, 2019). there were 7 data collected for this research. then, the data were identified by certain coding, such us giving them numbers such as (1), (2), (3). then, the media outlets, south china morning post and the washington post were shortened into scmp and twp to relate the data sources. finally, the data vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 100 were bold to highlight the particular word, phrase, and clause that refers to distorted facts. in analyzing the data, firstly the data were identified based on the structural or grammatical system, including the lexical reference, for instance, the active, passive construction and the lexical choices. then using the interpretative pragmatics of villa’s theory (2010), particular data were analyzed in order to interpret the context of expression. the data were investigated by fact-checking based on the official or originally trusted sources, for example, the korean police conference in clarifying the scandal. lastly, the data are analyzed further to figure out the underliying reasons based on linguistic forensics approach, especially the case that can provide evidence of probable defamation after the media distorted the facts. therefore, this research is included in the social scientific study as it aims to reveal fact distortion, deceitful media, and the reasons and social consequences of the disinformation phenomenon in society. both data collection and data analysis have been described respectively to provide the answers to the three research questions. iii. result the selected linguistic features, such as lexical choices and passive constructions, prove there is misleading information in the texts. media manipulating news related to a public figure’s issue is perceived to gain more advantages, which could cause massive sentiment and ruin someone’s identity in society. therefore, forensic linguistics is required to combat the distribution of distorted truth. scmp and twp are considered major media outlets where readers automatically believe the reporting is published as factual news. yet, the regulation of spreading false information is necessary to create and operate as this phenomenon triggers severe impacts such as national and global ‘cancel culture’ towards seungri as the victim of media distortion. hence the power behind mainstream media platforms is realized as the political motives and their ideological tendencies to influence social psychology. distorting truths language is either explicitly conveyed or it can provide space for receivers to infer other meanings. some linguistic indicators are found in the selected texts described by villa’s interpretative pragmatic theory (2010). first, both the headline and the content by scmp are deceiving. (1) ‘you raped her’: jung joon-young and seungri’s texts about sharing sex videos (scmp, 15/5/2019) there are two linguistic expressions in data (1). from the structural view, ‘you raped her’ is constructed that seungri conveyed this utterance after a sex video shared by jung joo-young (jjy). since jjy and seungri were posited to sending texts each other based on the second utterance. the position of jung joon-young appeared as the subject of the rape to the female victim who was merely referenced by the objective pronoun ‘her’. this aligns with villa (2010) about a reference point to interpret the context as the sphere of investigation. readers were guided that seungri was cherishing jung joo-young’s immoral act. this is a baseless headline; in fact, seungri was never involved in a chat and commented about the shared sex video. this was misleading information. as in july 10, 2019, there was an official statement of police chief min gap-ryong through the official youtube platform (thebluehousekr, 2019) that seungri was never accused of rape, even the involvement of the group chat containing the shared sex video. (2) jung joon-young’s group chat includes discussions of rape, drugging women and having sex with women who are being filmed without their consent (scmp, 15/5/2019). (3) k-pop stars seungri, yong jun-hyung and choi jong-hoon are also members of the chat group (scmp, 15/5/2019). the situation surrounding data (2) and (3) connect respectively. there was mentioned that it was not a private chat between only jung joonyoung and seungri. yet, new information was added in (2) that jung joon-young owned group chats to discuss the crime. villa (2010) claimed that exclusive attention is operated through communicative messages. similarly, from the previous meaning in (2) about the group chat, other participants, such as seungri and choi jong-hoon (cjh) were brought in (3) to ensure that they were members of the group chat. it was shown in the phrase ‘also members’. this was aimed to lead the reader’s perception that seungri was also involved in the chat group where jjy did some illegal acts. these two utterances were partially false since supreme court in september 24, 2020 affirmed vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 101 prison terms of merely jjy and cjh as the rapists, without seungri. so, it was palpable that the truth of the real rapists was not enthralling without seungri’s name involvement. media, through the language used in their article, successfully spread the untrustworthy information consumed and believed by the readers. most readers would rely on the media reporting without doing further factchecking (simon & nyitrai, 2021). related to the incriminating chat room, it was another singer with the initial name ‘lee’ but not seungri. it was lee jong hyun (ljh) from a band named cnblue admitting his involvement. seungri was charged with sharing obscene material for the business’s promotional project, and it was not the footage of assaulting women. (4) seungri (real name lee seung-hyun) of k-pop act bigbang, yong jun-hyung of boy band highlight, and choi jong-hoon of the act ft island were reportedly also members of the chat room and famous female entertainers are allegedly among the victims (scmp, 15/5/2019). (5) lee is under investigation for allegations of prostitution, drug abuse, and sharing footage of women filmed in sex acts without their consent (twp, 05/08/2019). the utterance in data (4) emphasized seungri’s involvement in the group chat for sharing videos of sexual assault. from data (3) to data (4), seungri’s name was located in the initial position in a sentence. this seemed obvious that seungri was depicted as the center of this scandal, although he was not proven guilty as one of the rapists. there is a contextual projection as the aspect of disclosing the implied meaning in a text (villa, 2010). this distorted information triggered public sentiment, as karg, lim, & schnall (2022) stated about the negative evaluation of a celebrity’s issue. moreover, based on the final trial, no victim was reported from seungri’s involvement. seungri was in fact, involved in another group chat merely to discuss the club business, called ‘burning scandal’. in reality, seungri was alleged only of prostitution, especially to himself yet the prostitute told the judge that seungri did not know her real identity. so, the lexical items in (5) ‘drug abuse and sharing footage of women filmed in sex acts without their consent,’ also highlighted additional crimes that he did not even allege, which were illegal acts to consume additive drugs and immoral behavior. the real context was that he became the frontline to raise massive hatred even though he only owned 8% of the total sharing in the business. this means that it falsely demonstrated seungri as the main suspect when he was free from the two mentioned allegations. furthermore, the official police statement announced during the investigation on february 27, 2019, that seungri’s drug results were negative. in addition, there was never an accusation of sharing footage of women filmed in sex acts without the female’s consent. (6) reports of sex crimes by big bang singer lee seung-hyun have ended her decade-long love for the band, she said. lee has denied the allegations (twp, 05/08/2019). (7) prosecutors allege that the club was a haven for date-rape drugs and offered illegal prostitution services for vip customers (twp, 05/08/2019). the lexical items ‘reports of sex crimes’ in (6) refer that the suspect doing this illicit act was seungri. the subject matter is related to the ‘surrounding context’ (villa, 2010). readers found a correlation between seungri and sex crimes, although the convicted criminals were jjy, cjh, kim in-cheol, kwon hyuk-jun, and an exburning sun employee, ‘heo’. on the other hand, prosecutors in (7) never processed allegations of drugging/sexual assault in bs vip rooms. it was stated that the police investigation was closed on july 19, 2019 which proved no systematic drug distribution or sexual assault occurred in bp vip rooms. police chief min officially announced this on blue house’s youtube channel (thebluehousekr, 2019). furthermore, judge shin pointed out that seungri’s main charge was the embezzlement of the bs funds. hence it was a different context, but the language use in (6) and (7) was constructed to hide seungri’s case, which was not about sex crime and drug abuse. in sum, from the linguistic features from (1) to (7), language use becomes indisputable evidence of the existence of distorted facts. villa (2010) concludes that the theory of meaning in legal interpretation is correlated with the surrounding context. this is in line with mahyoob, algaraady, & alrahaili (2021), stating the contribution of linguistic analysis for systematic nuances to detect disinformation in the news. the truth was not disclosed. identifying linguistic characteristics is more effective and achieves reasonable and vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 102 promising outcomes to portray the existence of distorted facts. passive constructions, lexical references, and subject matters become indubitable evidence to lead public’s perception as they relate to ‘emotionally driven language’ (damstra, boomgaarden, broda, lindgren, strömbäck, tsfati, and vliegenthart, 2021). in this research, pragmatics observations aspire to the reconstruction of truth or facts. the manipulative features found in grammatical and lexical features can prove the fact distortion case. the distorted facts are considered in passive construction, lexical reference, and subject matter. these could answer the first research question, which is about the linguistic features representing the distorted facts of seungri’s case. this all occurred due to the language choice by the media. kenzhekanova, zhanabekova, and konyrbekova (2015) discuss how mass media wield power in employing the language they choose in their texts. it seems that the media left out the factchecking information and proper translation from official clarification. this can be using linguistic evidence in court (shim, 2020), especially for emphasizing defamation after the media distorted the fact. here, it is clear that villa’s pragmatically oriented approach (2010) is fundamental for this research to interpret various meanings linked to the surrounding contexts. deceitful media from the linguistic features, the media created distorted facts about seungri’s real allegations, which were not mentioned in the texts. the prostitution case was not directly connected to seungri, it was yoo in-seok (yis) who arranged and provided funding for the prostitution mediation. there was no evidence that seungri transferred some money related to prostitution to him as well. the prostitute called ms. a who was convicted in her trial, clarified she worked under yis’s orders, yet police kept forcing her to say seungri’s name along with yis. hence it can be seen that the media outlets did not obey ethical journalism. scmp and twp broke the rule to do fact-checking as long as their articles were published to gain mass attention. this is in line with baade, (2019) and nagasako (2020) that spreading distorted information was covered by media due to irrelevant equation wording of two different languages. this problem can be recognized as the need for more professional accuracy checking by scmp and twp, which did not examine the equal meanings in korean language to english besides their baseless information. in parallel, tsfati et al (2020) stated the causes and consequences of mainstream media disseminating fake news. hence, both mainstream media served unreliably true information. media distortions appear as the triggering factor to agitate emotions, anxieties, and resentments around specific topics (carmi, 2020), including the sensitive issues like rape and drug abuse addressed to seungri. as a minor shareholder in bs club, seungri was used by the media to make him as the front face of the scandal. on march 23, 2019, by being interviewed, he admitted that he had never attended a meeting for bs nor taken responsibility for internal management since he was busy with his schedule as a singer or performer. further, he clarified that his name became the promotional strategy for bs. seungri’s business partner, yis known as the ceo of yuri holdings pleaded guilty in january 2020 for all charges related to bs case. thereby, it showed that disseminating false information has no general normative, institutional, or judicial framework that becomes the media practice to create public confusion or even hate campaigns towards particular individuals (richter, 2018). the ideological tendency of the media to serve the fastest and most enthralling information blurs the principles of accurate and objective journalism. the fabrication of information for deceptive purposes has been increasing in this modernized digital era (nasu, 2021). it is supported by the mass appeal of mainstream media outlets for both upperand middleand working-class readers (mcfadden, 2012). this means harmful influences may occur in broader sectors, such as democracy stability, political welfare, economy, and health policy. here, seungri’s case represents how the media becomes deceitful in their potential agenda to hide the actual truth. the role of forensic linguistics in untrustworthy news the impacts of distributing distorted facts can be severe as the public is led to be in extreme sentiment and anxiety. there was a mass report to seungri’s social account as the following act after the misleading information. then, instagram took action to ban the account due to violations. many vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 103 consequently, forensic linguistics in this current research contributes to improve media literacy or fact-checking, suggesting legal regulation for giving sanctions towards deceitful media and the distorted facts they distribute in their articles. the demand for legal action is not purposed merely for defending a particular figure or group but also for combating intentionally deceptive information to disseminate publicly. however, this recent research provided an important contribution to raising awareness of the power of truth so that the public would not be naively misled into massive anxiety, resentment, and social psychological distress. furthermore, sousa-silva (2022) succeeds in mapping linguistic features as evidence of fake news through the lens of forensic linguistics. the findings were obtained by comparing english and portuguese fake news. this utilizes the newness of the results of this recent research. specifically, the findings in this research are elucidated from english news, although the actual information was from korean. concerning the implication of language study, news articles containing distorted facts become obvious examples of collaborating academic approaches in combatting fake news in this digital era. the answer to why forensic linguistics is required in this problem attempts the interpretation of legal disposition in spreading distorted facts. this can be realized as the supporting reason to actualize a legal rule, specifically an international law, about fabricated facts. in conclusion, forensic linguistics assists in detecting and investigating widely circulated distorted facts. it can be regarded as the contribution of a linguistic approach to certain social problems like distorted facts, fake news, or deceitful media. as the previous research focused on the cases of politics (baade, 1019; nagasako, 2020; mahyoob, algaraady, & alrahaili, 2021) and health (simon and nyitrai, 2022; ), the results of this research illustrate the development that pervades the scandal of a public figure, especially a well-known celebrity triggering mass hatred and blatant resentment. defamation appeared as a new notion after this disinformation phenomenon occurred, which can be considered as the most significant novelty of this recent research compared with the previous findings. indeed, it evinces that information disorder has taken control of broader scope in this highly sophisticated digital era, not merely covering people consumed the distorted facts as they believed him as rapist, pimp, or drug abuser. regarding these alarming impacts, media distortions successfully stir emotions, anxieties, and resentments around specific topics (carmi, 2020). as an ordinary korean citizen, the media ruined lee seung-hyun’s identity after spreading fabricated news. it comes to the term known as ‘cancel culture’ among social media users. the notion of ‘cancel culture’ has since committed into journalistic shorthand wielded as a tool for silencing marginalized people (clark, 2020). hence it is noteworthy to create regulations for distributing distorted facts along with enhancing the ethics code of journalism. based on the society of professional journalists, ethical codes of journalism involve unbiased news, the accuracy of news, and news free from prejudices. in addition, the ideology of crime news itself triggers negative impressions (nawaaz & hussain, 2021). hence the approach of forensic linguistics delineates the correlation of media manipulation on distorted facts and legal regulations since it is to examine the impact of sociocultural factors, especially in a public figure’s scandal. the political motives of the media seek to grab the opportunity to profit from the chaotic and crisis situation (kim, xiong, lee, and han, 2021). it can be caused by a celebrity. it follows the damage that the media cause is most widespread on every aspect of life. in this case, the drag of the current discussed figure, seungri, aims to violate his rights by defending against misleading information about him. his identity as an ordinary citizen, lee seunghyun, apart from his previous image and occupation as a korean singer is also severely impacted. most korean society even addresses their resentment to seungri, although his charges did not involve sexual footage without consent, sex crime, or even drug abuse. similarly, such fake news possibly causes irredeemable harm, such as threatening, scare-mongering, and causing psychological distress (simon & nyitrai, 2021). name-clearing towards this misleading news seems unattainable for him. in fact, his charges cover his involvement as a minor shareholder in the business of burning sun clubs, such as embezzlement, violation of the food sanitation act, habitual gambling, violation of the foreign exchange transaction act, prostitution, distributing obscene material, and co-principal of aggravated assault. vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 104 political actors or government policy. this is prone to cause internal conflict among citizens of a country that becomes a vulnerable spot for democratic instability. it mitigates the research gaps with the prior scholars in the interrelated topic of discussion. this can hint at deeper striking problems provoking national instability, even international conflicts. it reflects the growing concerns about malicious acts or fact distortion and its potentially coercive effects on society (nasu, 2021). hence, seungri’s distorted fact is considered as one of the warning phenomena that can trigger threatening impacts in all aspects of life, including law, economy, health, education, and even national stability. iv. conclusion this research has discussed and clarified the issue of distorted facts by media, specifically about a korean celebrity scandal. based on the linguistic analysis, such as passive constructions, lexical references, subject matters, and the surrounding contexts indisputably prove the indication of fact distortion. through villa’s interpretative pragmatics (2010), this research is considered to reveal the linguistic analysis related to distorted facts by media. it is expected to contribute to providing evidence through the lens of forensic linguistics. media manipulated the truth and posited seungri as the constructed main suspect of the scandal. the misleading information causes sociopsychological change, as kim et al (2020) highlight fake news as the supporting source for people’s opinions. legal regulations are perhaps prone to be violated. media use their rights of freedom of expression yet lack ethical and professional journalism qualities. political motives and ideological tendencies ground the dissemination of distorted facts by media. thus, the role of forensic linguistics is to shed light on distorted facts and manipulative media by providing language analysis as evidence. the impact can be seen that seungri’s previous identity as a well-known celebrity has been ruined. even this phenomenon affects his personal life besides as an entertainer in korea. all the distorted facts can be evidence of defamation for misleading media reports. this recent research turns the spotlight on the role of a pragmatic approach in forensic linguistics to scrutinize distorted facts by deceitful media. hence, it also aims to enhance social awareness of the truth behind blatant public outrage and its social consequences. it means an international legal rule is urgently necessary the combat the disinformation by the media. regarding the limitation of this research, it merely concentrates on media texts applying a purposive sampling strategy of a celebrity’s scandal. there is a need for future research to apply an ethnographic approach to disinformation cases. it would help observe the obstacles to accuracy and transparency for media outlets through the language used on their news articles. the power of truth should be the solid base of news value to halt distorted facts. references baade, b. 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(2019, july 10). burning sun 6in susa chungwon dabbyeon gonggae with min gap ryong gyeongchalcheong (english translation: announcement of the respond to the petition to investigate the 6 people in burning sun vip room the chief of the national police agency, min gap-ryong) [video]. youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txtjtikuyky&feature=youtu. be tsfati, y., boomgaarden, h. g., strömbäck, j., vliegenthart, r., damstra, a., & lindgren, e. (2020). causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: literature review and synthesis. annals of the international communication association, 44(2), 157-173. villa, v. (2010). a pragmatically oriented theory of legal interpretation. revus. journal for constitutional theory and philosophy of law/revija za ustavno teorijo in filozofijo prava, (12), 89-120. zhanghong, x., & yanan, li. (2020). a pragmatic study of apologies posted on weibo by chinese celebrities. international journal of literature and arts8 (2), 52-61. vivian zulfie / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 106 biography vivian zulfie is currently pursuing master degree in (magister) linguistics, faculty of humanity, jember university, indonesia. her study interests include forensic linguistics, critical discourse analysis, language and literature, and eco-linguistics. her previous research was disseminated through language and literature national seminar in trunojoyo university in 2018. asrumi holds doctoral degree from sebelas maret university and is currently teaching as indonesian lecturer of department of indonesian literature in jember university. her research interests include indonesian semantics, morphology, psycholinguistics, syntax, and forensic linguistics. agus sariono is a lecturer of department of indonesian literature since 1986 up to now. holding doctor of philosophy, his research interests cover sociolinguistics, ethnography of communications, dialectology descriptive, quantitative (dialectometry) code switching, variety of language, madurese dialect (kangean). r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 17, 2020 final revision: april 08, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 the research on emblematic meanings of traditional medicinal herbs is descriptive qualitative research. the data of the research were mostly obtained from texts containing descriptions of local wisdom values found in the names of traditional medicinal herbs. the data were also obtained from the researcher’s intuitive ideas as a member of the community where the local wisdom is shared and lived by. the data were obtained by using two methods, namely observation, and speaking methods. the observation method was carried out by using a note-taking technique, while the speaking method was carried out by using the recording technique. the conversation between the researcher and the research informants was recorded and then transcribed to find the required data. the participatory interview method employed an in-depth interview to obtain the description of local wisdom values specifically. the proliferation of data was concluded by classifying and typifying the data after being identified from the sources. data analysis was carried out using the distributional method with a direct element division technique to cover the linguistic dimensions of this ecopragmatic research. the data was also analyzed and interpreted by using the identity method to cover the pragmatic dimensions in this research. the research results show that: (1) the emblematic meanings are truly found in several traditional medicinal herbs in some parts of indonesia; (2) the emblematic meanings of the traditional medicinal herbs are classified based on their shapes, uses, directions of the plant’s flower, the smell of the plants, and the origins. keyword emblematic menings, traditional medicinal herbs, local wisdom values, ecopragmatic perspective correspondence phone: 08164266263 e-mail: kunjana@usd.ac.id article on emblematic meanings of traditional medicinal herbs: local wisdom values in the perspective of culture-specific ecopragmatics r. kunjana rahardi1 1master program of indonesian language education department, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.16-28.2020 i. introduction local wisdom values remain an important research subject to be conducted in the industrial revolution 4.0 where technology is playing a huge part in our everyday life (darling-hammond, 2006). amidst the technological advances, local wisdom values have been gradually abandoned. research on local wisdom values contained in traditional medicinal herbs and plants is an effort to meet the demand of globalization. in the researcher’s perspective, the current industrial revolution has ironically strengthened the spirit of glocalization amidst the thrill and excitement of globalization (mungmachon, 2012), (rahardi, r. kunjana., setyaningsih, 2019). local wisdom values have never ceased to exist in human civilization despite the advances of technology that have pervaded every facet of our public life. even though local wisdom values will not diminish by time, it is possible that those values also pose ambiguity. the ecopragmatic research was conducted to reveal the ambiguity of local wisdom values contained in the emblematicity of the traditional medicinal herbs and shrubs (rahardi, r. kunjana., setyaningsih, 2019), (wimberley, 2017). against this backdrop, 16 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the research questions are formulated as follows: “what are the emblematic meanings found in the culture-specific names of medicinal herbs and shrubs?” the underlying theory of this research is the ecolinguistic and pragmatic theory (r. k. rahardi, 2019), (do couto, 2014). the first theory rose to prominence in 1970s when einar ingvald haugen, an american linguist, objected to the formalist’s perspective, especially the structuralists, that language is always counted as one and homogenous (wodak & meyer, 2016), (lin & lin, 2019). in the formalist perspective, language is a mental phenomenon, instead of a social phenomenon. as a mental phenomenon, language study must not relate a language and its society and culture. to argue against the formalist perspective, haugen and his colleagues developed their theory of language study, known as the functional theory. language is claimed as a social phenomenon. thus, language cannot be separated from their functions (anchimbe & janney, 2011), (miller, 2009). therefore, language must be understood as heterogeneous linguistic variations. the heterogeneous linguistic variations occur because language is integral to its social and societal contexts (mey, 2006). the social context of the language always has a horizontal dimension, while the societal context has a vertical dimension. the study of language by taking into account the social and societal contexts in which the language is embedded as its ecology is defined as ecolinguistics (mey, 2017), (diercie dwyarie & tjahjani, 2019). initially, ecolinguistics is understood as an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics which involves extralinguistic dimensions. therefore, ecolinguistics covers several interdisciplinary fields of language (peace & mühlhäusler, 2006). when the interdisciplinary fields in ecolinguistics are related to nature, then it calls natural ecolinguistics or envirolinguistics (senanayake, 2016). however, when the fields are related to cultural, psychological, dialectal, communal dimensions, the fields are referred to as metaphorical ecolinguistics, or commonly known as ecolinguistics. thus, the umbrella term to understand this study is the separation of fields in the linguistic study involving extra lingual aspects (gumperz, 2008), (jucker & taavitsainen, 2010). furthermore, in their development, both the natural and metaphorical ecolinguistics cannot be separated from the pragmatic study, which essentially refers to the study of meaning. speaking of language and ecology implies the study of language and its contexts (r. k. rahardi, 2019), (ephratt, 2011). the involvement of context is not limited to social and societal contexts, as previously understood. however, contexts also refer to cultural and situational contexts. in other words, ecolinguistics cannot be separated from the pragmatic study because it is closely connected with the speaker’s meaning. such an ecolinguistic study is referred to as ecopragmatics (wimberley, 2017), (rahardi, r. kunjana., setyaningsih, 2019), (nambiar, hashim, & yasin, 2018). thus, it is important to differentiate between contextual and conceptual meanings, as well as between connotative and denotative meanings. in addition, meaning can be divided into two: arbitrary and emblematic (schlenker, 2018), (r. k. rahardi, 2019). emblematic meaning is closely connected with onomatopoeia, which includes emblematic sounds, emblematic shapes, emblematic use, and other emblematic aspects (campisi & özyürek, 2013), (k. rahardi & setyaningsih, 2019). take the example of the gecko sound. in javanese, gecko is called ‘tokek’. tokek produces the emblematic sound ‘kek, kek, kek’, from which it gets its name. another example is a plant called “kembang kentut” or “a farting flower”. it gets the name because when touched the flower will emit a strongly bad odor that smells like a fart. sunflowers look like a sun when the flower blooms, which explains how it gets its name. another shrub is called tanaman asar or an ‘asr’ plant because it always blooms around which time the asr praying time is called, at around 3.00 p.m. those are examples of how emblematic aspects can be found in every facet of community life. in this research, such facts are helpful to serve as tools to analyze and interpret the research object. the research aims to describe the emblematic meanings of the names of herbs and shrubs of a given culture, in this case, javanese. it carried out in the perspective of ecopragmatics and will benefit for: (1) document the cultural and local wisdom values contained in the emblematic names of the 17 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) traditional herbs and plants to be preserved; (2) raise awareness among the community if the close connection between linguistic dimensions and local wisdom and cultural values of a given community; (3) develop multidisciplinary linguistic research combining ecology and pragmatics as a new branch of linguistics. ii. methods ecopragmatic research on the emblematic meanings of traditional medicinal herbs is descriptive qualitative research (gall, borg, & gall, 1996). the data is obtained from texts of various types that contain descriptions of local wisdom values found in traditional medicinal herbs and plants. in addition to such texts, it is possible that the researcher, who is the native member of the cultural group, can provide data by describing his intuitive knowledge in this research (sudaryanto, 2015). an interview was carried out with a community figure who understood local wisdom values, especially those related to traditional herb plants, to obtain sufficient data on this ecopragmatic research. based on the description of the data sources, it is clear that the locative research data source includes the texts containing the description of local wisdom values, the community figures who understand the local wisdom values contained in the traditional medicinal herbs, and the researcher who uses his intuitive ability as a data provider. the research data were obtained using two methods, namely observation, and speaking methods. the observation method was carried using the notetaking technique, while the speaking method was carried out using the recording technique. the interview between the researcher and the informants was recorded (mahsun, 2005). the interview method was participatory using the indepth interview technique in this ecopragmatic research to describe the local wisdom values (rahardi, r. kunjana., setyaningsih, 2019). lastly, the data were classified and typified after being identified from the data sources. after all the data were available, the next step was to apply the data analysis method. the data analysis implemented the distributional method and direct element division method to cover the linguistic dimensions of this research. in addition, the data were analyzed using the analysis method, especially extra lingual aspects, to cover the pragmatic dimensions in this research (salzmann, duranti, & goodwin, 1993). therefore, it is clear that the multidisciplinary research of the emblematic names of the traditional medicinal herbs can be solved using two analysis methods. in addition to the distributional analysis method and the pragmatic identity method, the researcher also applied the content analysis method. furthermore, after the data were classified and typified properly, the analysis and interpretation were carried out. the results were explained and described using the informal and narrative description. the description method of this research is informal using verbal narrative, instead of statistical and mathematical symbols, as commonly used in quantitative research. iii. results and discussion the discussion of the emblematic meanings on traditional medicinal herbs in this paper will be classified according to their common characteristics, such as shape, nature, use, size, name, color, origin, blooming time, and direction of the plant’s flowers as seen in the description below. emblematic meanings based on characteristics iler or painted nettle the traditional medicinal herb, plectranthus scutellariodes, is locally known as iler whose emblematic meaning is based on the character of the plant’s sap, which resembles drooling saliva. iler is a javanese word for drooling saliva produced when someone is sleeping or daydreaming. since the plant has a similar characteristic, it is named iler. this garden plant is used to treat hemorrhoids, diabetes, fever, diarrhea, abscess, etc. the heartshaped whorled leaves, alternately arranged along the stem, have puckered edges. the flowers are cream, white or greenish-white and are arranged in ancillary spikes in clusters tapering to the tip. the herbs can grow lavishly in fertile lands and lowlands. let us see the following illustration. jambu biji or guava psidium guajava is commonly known as guava. it is locally known as jambu biji, which literally means “seeded guava”. the emblematic dimension 18 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) fig 1. iler or painted nettle teratai kerdil or water lilies commonly known as water lilies, nymhaeaceae tetragona georgi is locally known as teratai kerdil whose name reflects the character, i.e. dwarf lotus. therefore, it can be confirmed that the name “teratai kerdil” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. this traditional medicinal herb is used to treat hypertension, spasms, and alcoholism. the leaves float on the surface of the water, while on shallow waters the flowers stand erect above the water surface. the leaves are reniform, with toothed edges and green in color. the following image illustrates the meaning. fig. 2. jambu biji or guava fig. 3. teratai kerdil or water lilies fig. 4. adem ati or bollygum emblematic meanings based on functions adem ati or bollygum commonly known as bollywood, bollygum, sycamore, or brown beech, litsea glutinosa is locally known as “adem ati”, which literally means “cool heart.” the name is both emblematic and onomatopoeic. the emblematic dimension lies in the properties of the plant to cool down or as anti-inflammatory. from the research, it was found that several traditional herbs are named based on their special properties. the following illustration confirms signification. of the fruit “jambu biji” lies in the character of the fruit, which has many hard seeds. the fruit gains its name due to its seeds. this fruit is used to treat diabetes, gastric pains, diarrhea, slight cold, incontinence, dengue, and aphtha. guava is a type of hedging which has many branches, twigs, and hardwood. the following image illustrates the emblematic meaning. bunga tasbih or canna commonly known as canna or platanillo, canna indica is locally known as bunga tasbih. the name “bunga tasbih” is emblematic. the emblematic dimension lies in its small round fruit, which has many seeds used as prayer beads, or “tasbih.” therefore, it can be confirmed that the properties or benefits of the fruit is to make prayer beads. in the envirolinguistic study, the naming of a plant that based on its characteristics is called emblematic. the following illustration may clarify it. 19 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) fig. 5. bunga tasbih or canna daun dewa or the leaf of god commonly known as purple passion, gynura is locally known as daun dewa, which literally means “the leaf of god.” the emblematic dimension of the herb lies in the name “dewa” or “god,” which is considered to have power and authority. thus, “daun dewa” is considered to have several properties and uses to cure many diseases. therefore, it can be confirmed that the naming of “daun dewa” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. fig. 6. daun dewa or the leaf of god kelor or drumstick tree commonly known as drumstick tree, moringa oleifera is locally known as “kelor”. the name is emblematic, in which the aspect being iconized lies in the benefit or function. the javanese people believe that the kelor leaves can be used to remove someone’s magic charm, which causes him to have difficulty dying. after it is removed with the kelor leaf, the person may leave the earth peacefully. the name “kelor” may mean that the leaf helps people to go “lor” or north, the direction of which dead people are buried. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 7. kelor or drumstick tree tebu or sugarcane sugarcane or “tebu” is emblematic. the emblematic aspect of the perennial grass lies in its properties to make our hearts contented. the word “tebu” stands for “antebing kalbu” or “conviction of the heart.” therefore, it can be confirmed that the naming of “tebu” is emblematic. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 8. tebu or sugarcane kenanga or cananga commonly known as a fragrant tree, cananga odorata is locally known as kenanga. the emblematic dimension of the tropical tree lies in the properties, namely, to remember the dead family members. the base of the word “kenanga” is “kenang” or to reminisce. indonesian people frequently visit the graves of their dead family members and put roses, jasmine, cananga, etc., on the tombstones. therefore, the word “kenanga” has an emblematic dimension for its benefits to reminisce the dead in the grave. the following image illustrates the point. 20 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) ketepeng kecil or sickle senna commonly known as sickle senna, coffee pod, tovara, cassia tora is locally known as “ketepeng kecil”, or “small pod.” the name “ketepeng kecil” is emblematic. the emblematic dimension lies in the size of the plant. thus, it can be confirmed that the name of the plant is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the expert in the triangulation confirmed the finding of the research. emblematic meanings based on color tahi kotok or mexican marigold commonly known as mexican marigold, tagetes erecta is locally known as tahi kotok, which literally means “chicken crap.” the name is emblematic, and the emblematic dimension lies in the color of the flowers, which is often associated with the color of chicken crap. in addition, this flower has a strong odor like a chicken crap. therefore, it can be confirmed that the emblematic meaning of the traditional medicinal herb is seen from the shape and smell. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 9. kenanga or cananga fig. 10. ketepeng kecil or sickle senna kacapiring or gardenia commonly known as gardenia or cape jasmine, gardenia jasminoides is locally known as kacapiring, which literally means “glass plates.” the name “kacapiring” is emblematic and the emblematicity lies in the shape and appearance of its leaf. the shiny green leaves seem to be made of glass. in a certain cultural community, the evergreen shrub can be used to cure diabetes mellitus, aphtha, and constipation. it can be confirmed that the name “kacapiring” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 11. kacapiring or gardenia fig. 12. tahi kotok or mexican marigold bawang putih or garlic the naming of bawang putih or “white onion” is emblematic. the emblematic meaning lies in its white bulb. the name “bawang putih” is different from that of “bawang merah” or “red onion” or shallot because the name indicates the color of the onions. therefore, it is clear that the name “bawang putih” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following illustration will confirm it. the triangulation expert also verifies the researcher’s statement. 21 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) daun ungu or caricature plant commonly known as caricature plant, graptophyllum pictum is a shrub locally known as daun ungu or “purple leaf.” the name “daun ungu” is emblematic. the emblematic dimension lies in the color of the leaf, which is purple. as illustrated in the picture, the leaves of daun ungu are purple, and therefore the naming of the plant is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following image illustrates the point. the white gondala produces white juice. therefore, red and white gondala can be categorized as emblematic. fig. 13. bawang putih “white onion” or garlic fig. 14. daun ungu or caricature plant jintan putih or cumin in the researcher’s opinion, the name “jintan putih” is emblematic. the emblematic aspect of the plant lies in the color of the cumin seeds, which is white. therefore, it can be said that the name “jintan putih” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following image illustrates the point. gondala merah or red betel commonly known as celebes pepper or red betel, piper crocatum is locally known as “gondala”, which has white and red varieties. the name of this climbing vine is emblematic. the emblematic aspect lies in the color of the fruit juice. when squeezed, red gondala produces red juice, while fig. 15. jintan putih or cumin fig. 16. gondala merah or red betel jarak ulung or bellyache bush commonly known as bellyache bush or cotton-leaf physicnut, jatropha gossypiifolia is locally known as jarak ulung. the emblematic aspect is the color of the plant’s three-lobed leaves, which is “purple” or “ulung”. in the javanese language, purple is called “wulung,” as in bamboo wulung or purple bamboo. the expert in triangulation confirms that the meaning is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 17. jarak ulung or bellyache bush22 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) kamboja or frangipani commonly known as frangipani, plumeria is locally known as “kamboja.” the names “kamboja putih” or white frangipani and “kamboja merah” or red frangipani are emblematic. the emblematic aspect is the color dimension, namely white and red. the following images illustrate the researcher’s statement of the flower’s emblematicity. the expert in triangulation explains that “white kamboja” and “red kamboja” are emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the following images confirm the hypothesis. based on the color dimension is emblematic. in a certain cultural community, the plant is used to cure diabetes, kidney, and rheumatism. the following image can be seen clearly. fig. 18. kamboja or frangipani kayu putih or weeping paperbark commonly known as weeping paperbark, melaleuca leucadendra is locally known as kayu putih or “white treebark.” the emblematic dimension lies in the color of its thick, papery whitish or creamcolored bark and weeping branches. the expert in triangulation confirms that the name “kayu putih” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary. the image illustrates the statement. fig. kayu putih or weeping paperbark kedelai or soybean commonly known as soybean, glycine max is locally called kedelai, which are classified into “white kedelai” and “black kedelai.” the classification fig. 20. kedelai or soybean kembang kertas or “paper flower” bougainvillea is locally known as “kembang kertas,” or paper flower. the name “kembang kertas” is emblematic because the color of the flower resembles the color of the paper. therefore, it can be said that “kembang kertas” is emblematic, instead of arbitrary, which can be seen in the following illustration. in a certain cultural community, the flower can be used to treat dysentery. fig. 21. kembang kertas or paper flower buah merah or red fruit locally known in papua as kuansu, indonesians know this fruit as “red fruit” or buah merah. the name “buah merah” is emblematic. the emblematic dimension lies in the naming, which is based on the fruit’s striking color. therefore, it can be confirmed that the name “buah merah” is emblematic. the following image illustrates the point. 23 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) tembelekan or shrub verbenas commonly known as shrub verbenas, lantanas are known locally as tembelekan. the name is emblematic because the color of the flower resembles the color of a chicken crap, or “tembelek.” therefore, it can be said that the name “tembelekan” is emblematic based on the color dimension. the following image illustrates the statement. ketepeng cina or emperor’s candlestick commonly known as the emperor’s candlestick or candelabra, senna alata is locally known as ketepeng cina. the name is emblematic, where the emblematic dimension lies in origin. investigated further, the plant might have been from china. fig. 22. buah merah or red fruit fig. tembelekan or shrub verbenas asam jawa or javanese tamarind commonly known as tamarind, tamarindus indica is locally known as asam jawa, or “javanese tamarind.” the word “asam” or “asem” in the javanese language means “sour.” therefore, the name “asam jawa” is emblematic, in which the emblematic dimension lies in the sour taste. it also indicates the origin, i.e., java. it can be concluded that “asam” and “asam jawa” are both emblematic. the following image illustrates the point. baru cina or mugwort commonly known as mugwort or common wormwood, artemisia vulgaris is locally known as “baru cina.” the word “cina” in the name indicates fig.24. asam jawa or javanese tamarind fig. 25. baru cina or mugwort the origin of the plant which came from china. thus, the name “baru cina” is emblematic, in which the emblematic dimension lies in the origin of the plant. the expert in triangulation confirms the statement. fig. 26. ketepeng cina or emperor’s candlestick24 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) therefore, the traditional medicinal herb is called “ketepeng cina.” the following image illustrates the point clearly. kol banda the popular tropical ornamental plant pisonia alba spanoghe is locally known as “kol banda.” the indonesian name is emblematic because it contains the origin of the plant, i.e., banda. due to its emblematicity, this evergreen foliage clump, which is used as a medicinal herb, is not arbitrary. the following image illustrates the hypothesis. fig. 27. kol banda patikan cina the name of the small branched, hispidly pubescent, prostate annual herb “patikan cina” is considered as emblematic. the emblematic aspect lies in the origin of the plant, china. it is also worth noting that the epithet “cina” in indonesian almost always means “tiny” or “small.” therefore, it can be confirmed that the small size dimension is the emblematicity signifier. the following image illustrates the point. fig. 27. kol banda emblematic meanings based on blooming time. kembang pukul empat or the four o’clock flower commonly known as the four o’clock flower or the marvel of peru, mirabilis jalapa is the name of the most commonly grown ornamental plant locally known as “kembang pukul empat.” the name is emblematic in which the emblematicity lies on the time when the flower droops every day, namely around four o’clock. in indonesian, it is also known as “kembang asar.” asar refers to the afternoon prayer call from a mosque to invite muslims to pray. this flower blooms again in the morning. based on the observation, there are only a few traditional medicinal herbs which have the emblematicity based on time. the following image will elucidate the point. fig. 29. kembang pukul empat or the four o’clock flower kembang sore or indian mallow commonly known as indian mallow, indian abutilon is locally known as kembang sore, which literally means “afternoon flower.” the name has an emblematic dimension, which refers to the time when the flower blooms in the afternoon. hence, the flower gains its name. the following image clarifies the point. bunga matahari or sunflower commonly known as sunflower, helianthus annuus is locally known as bunga matahari which means the same. the name sunflower may derive from the flower’s head’s shape, which resembles the sun. however, in this research, the emblematic dimension of the name lies in the impression that the blooming plant appears to slowly turn its flower towards the sun as it moves across the sky. in the 25 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) fig. 30. kembang sore or indian mallow fig. 31. bunga matahari or sunflower researcher’s observation, there is only one type of emblematic traditional medicinal herb whose name is associated with the direction of the plant’s flower’s movement toward the sun. the following image elucidates the hypothesis. at the end of this discussion session, once again, it is truly worth to be emphasized that this research contributes to the development of ecopragmatics. the study of meanings cannot be separated from the aspects of ecology, both the naturalistic and the metaphoric ecology. in addition, this ecopragmatic research will also be beneficial to: (1) document the cultural and local wisdom values contained in the emblematic names of the traditional herbs and plants to be preserved; (2) raise awareness among the community if the close connection between linguistic dimensions and local wisdom and cultural values of a given community; (3) develop multidisciplinary linguistic research combining ecology and pragmatics as a new branch of linguistics. iv. conclusion the plants discussed in this paper are emblematic in meanings. the emblematic meaning is determined based on the plants’ characteristics, such as shape, nature, use, size, name, color, origin, blooming time, and direction of the plant’s flower. the research results show that: a) the emblematic meanings are truly found in several traditional medicinal herbs in some parts of indonesia; b) the emblematic meanings of the traditional medicinal herbs is classified based on their shapes, uses, directions of the plant’s flower, the smell of the plants, and the origins. however, this research still has a limitation in terms of expert judgment from validators. in the next research with a similar topic, this limitation will be well-accommodated. acknowledgment the researcher thanks the united board for christian universities in asia for the research fund granted in 2019-2021. references anchimbe, e. a., & janney, r. w. 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(2006). environmental discourses. annual review of anthropology. https:// doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123203 rahardi, r. kunjana., setyaningsih, y. (2019). contextualizing local values of children’s games in the perspective of ecopragmatics to enhance culture-specific based communication. international journal of engineering and advanced technology (ijeat), 9(issue-1, october 2019), 143–151. https://doi.org/doi: 10.35940/ijeat.a1096.109119 rahardi, k., & setyaningsih, y. (2019). today’s local values of traditional children’s games: a methaphorical ecolinguistics view. linguistik indonesia. https://doi.org/10.26499/li.v37i2.102 rahardi, r. k. (2019). pragmatic perspective on phatic functions and language dignity. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 8(5c, may 2019), 261–268. https://doi.org/doi: 10.35940/ijeat.e1039.0585c19 salzmann, z., duranti, a., & goodwin, c. (1993). rethinking context: language as an interactive phenomenon. language. https://doi.org/10.2307/416910 schlenker, p. (2018). iconic pragmatics. natural language and linguistic theory. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11049-017-9392-x senanayake, s. g. j. n. (2016). indigenous knowledge as a key to sustainable development. journal of agricultural sciences. https://doi.org/10.4038/jas.v2i1.8117 sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis (1st ed.). yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. wimberley, e. t. (2017). ecopragmatics. ecopragmatics. https://doi.org/10.18848/978-1-61229-613-5/ cgp wodak, r., & meyer, m. (2016). critical discourse studies: history, agenda, theory and methodology. in methods of critical discourse studies. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0376-7361(09)70018-427 r. kunjana rahardi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) biography dr. r. kunjana rahardi, m.hum., was born in yogyakarta on october 13, 1966. he serves as the head of master program in the indonesian language and literature education, faculty of teachers training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia. besides, he is also currently the head of language and arts departement. he graduated from the doctorate program of gadjah mada university in linguistics in 1999. the linguistic textbooks during his doctorate tenure are: pragmatik: kesantunan imperatif dalam bahasa indonesia (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2006), asyik berbahasa jurnalistik: kalimat jurnalistik dan temali masalahnya (santusta publisher yogyakarta, 2006), paragraf jurnalistik: menyusun alinea bernilai rasa dalam bahasa laras media (santusta publisher yogyakarta, 2006), dasar-dasar bahasa penyuntingan media [gramata publisher jakarta, 2009], penyuntingan bahasa indonesia untuk karang-mengarang [erlangga publisher jakarta, 2009], menulis artikel opini dan kolom di media massa (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2012), fonologi dalam bahasa indonesia (universitas sanata dharma press, yogyakarta, 2014), sosiopragmatik [erlangga publisher jakarta, 2009 kajian sosiolinguistik kode dan alih kode (revised edition) (ghalia publisher indonesia, jakarta, 2010, 2015), bahasa indonesia perguruan tinggi: mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2010), bahasa jurnalistik: pedoman kebahasaan untuk mahasiswa, jurnalis, dan umum (ghalia publisher indonesia, jakarta, 2010; 2015), pragmatik: fenomena ketidaksantunan berbahasa (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2016), pragmatik: fenomena kefatisan berbahasa dalam perspektif sosio-kultural dan situasional (erlangga, jakarta 2018). he did his thoughts in pragmatics, sociopragmatics, ecopragmatics, cyberpragmatics, envirolinguistics and the interesting sides have been exposed in various nasional and international forums documented in various proceedings and international journal articles. he did the research consecutively for five years (in 2013 until 2015 and in 2016 until 2018) on impoliteness in indonesian language, phatic communion in indonesian language, contexts in pragmatics, with the grants given by directorate of research and community service, ministry of research, technology and higher education, republic of indonesia. 28 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 8, 2021 final revision: april 15, 2021 available online: april 25, 2021 this study aims to describe the lingual form, which is a manifestation of the understanding of the speech community of the environment towards its environmental dimension. the theory used in this research is ecolinguistic. data in the form of basic lexicons and affixed lexicons related to the marine environment were collected through interviews with informants. furthermore, the data were analyzed by grouping them based on the word class, environmental category, and the affixation process contained in the affixed words. the results of the study show that many marine environmental lexicons which are divided into noun lexicon and verb lexicon. the noun lexicon is divided into four lexicon categories, namely: (1) marine environmental fauna lexicon (88 lexicons); (2) flora of the marine environment flora (9 lexicons); (3) lexicon of facilities / infrastructure for marine environmental activities (16 lexicons); and (4) nominal environmental lexicon (7 lexicons). the number of vocabulary that is still recorded in the cognition of the barus coastal malay language community indicates that the community is very familiar with its environment and therefore the vocabularies are preserved. keyword coast community, ecolinguistics, linguistic form, marine ecolexicon, correspondence e-mail: dwiwidayati@usu.ac.id articles marine ecolexicon of noun-verb of the coast community in pesisir barus, central tapanuli rosliana lubis1, dwi widayati2 1,2faculty of cultural science, universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.82-92.2021 i. introduction barus is one of the sub-districts in central tapanuli regency, which used to have a long history in indonesia known as “kota tua”. historically, barus is an international port for the camphor (barus) and spices commodity. the term barus was then used for the camphor commodity (suprapti, subagyo, & tanjung, 1995). by its long history, barus has been an object of various researches, including islamic civilization, literature, and culture. additionally, various issues about barus had been discussed in the seminars conducted by the balai bahasa sumatera utara in 2020. it was discussed that barus was the center of islamic civilization in the archipelago and the roots of the indonesian language. of course, as an area that has had a maritime culture since the 6th century, barus certainly has a rich maritime environment lexicon. this wealth needs to be explored to reveal its archaeological footprint. the emergence of the ecolinguistic approach indicates that the language that lives and is used by the community can describe, represent, depict, and symbolically represent the reality in the environment, both the physical environment and the artificial environment (suweta, 2013) hence, ecolinguistics sees the relationship between a community’s diversity and its environment in one unit (haugen, 1972). the physical environment with different social conditions affects language speakers psychologically in their language use (al-gayoni, 2010). from that perspective, language and environment have a decisive relationship due to the interrelation, interaction, and interference of humans, language, and the environment. the parameters of ecolinguistics include (1) the environment, (2) diversity, and (3) interrelationships; interaction; and interdependency (fill and muhlhausler, 2001). theses parameters are adopted from the ecology parameter (odum, 1996). from an ecolinguistic perspective, speech maintains interaction, interrelation, and interdependence with the environment.82 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) as an area located on the coast, marine resources are the main income for the local community. the center for marine product transactions is pasar terandam or kualo (the term refers to a local community) and kade gadang village. barus community has close ties with coastal cultural products, such as pukat payang, pukat pantai/ dogal, pukat kantong, perangkap bubu, rawai, pancing, jaring insang tetap, jaring lingkar and jaring insang hayut. apart from going to sea, fishermen also have other activities such as making baskets, repairing nets and drying fish. communities who live in coastal environments have a marine lexicon treasure. sapir (as cited in mbete, 2013) suggests that a language’s vocabulary mostly reflects the speaker’s physical and social environment. a language’s vocabulary may be represented as a complex inventory of all the people’s ideas, interests, and activities. it is like a complete thesaurus of a particular tribal-given language that reflects society’s physical environment and cultural characteristics. the interactions, interrelationships, and interdependence of people and the sea were encoded in the marine lexicon (mbete, 2013). these lexicons can refer to marine biota (both flora and fauna) and activities relating to the marine environment in a specific language. for example, people in barus use the terms mangayi “catching fish with a hook”, mamukek “catching fish with a trawl”, and manjalo “catching fish using nets”. however, when the relationship becomes twisted or not balanced, then the biota and marine activities will be affected. as a result, the lexicons of society begin to be eroded by changes in the environment. thus, environmental factors also determine lexical sustainability. marine ecolexicon in barus community shows how people understand their environment (widayati and lubis, 2019; widayati, 2019). words can reflect the characteristics of the way of life and way of thinking of the speaker and provide valuable clues to understand their culture (wierzbicka, 1997; cassirer, 1987; lauder, 2004; mbete, 2015). on the other hand, the history and long process of culture have made barus people speak several languages, including minangkabau, malay, indonesian and batak. yet, for daily communication, barus community who live on the coast use malay language. the malay language used in pesisir barus (known also under the acronym of bmpb) reflects the environment and the people’s condition. bmpb plays an important role as a communication device, a unifying device, and expresses the speech community’s identity. as a communication device, bmpb builds a network of interactions between the speech community and the natural environment, the interaction between the speech community and the socio-cultural environment. as a unifying device, bmpb builds harmony in the sociological and ideological functions of the community. bmpb can reflect the identity, which reveals and record everything in the community. in other words, the ecolexicon reflects the cognitive intelligence of the speaker ( renjaan, 2015). the basic assumption of this research is that speakers and interlocutors of any language must know and use a set of words or discourse related to their environment, both the social environment and the natural environment. from this assumption, it is important for the author to reveal the various ecolexical treasures of the marine environment stored in barus district, central tapanuli regency. this is also based on the fact that language contact and interaction between people of different origins and languages raises concerns about the shift and extinction of a language in line with the progress and development of the times (lindo, 2000). responding to the development of information and population mobility in the area of central tapanuli regency which is very high at present which results in heterogeneity of the community, the guidance, development and inventory of the barus coastal malay language is felt to be done immediately to preserve the language, especially those related to the marine environment. ii. research method the data were collected using observational and conversational methods (mahsun, 2005: 90). the data obtained were written data and spoken data, which were collected using recording techniques. the data then analyzed using the identity method relies on the external aspect of language (sudaryanto, 2015). some marine lexicons were analyzed using immediate constituent analysis, which relies on the researcher’s mental competence (sudaryanto, 2015). furthermore, the data are grouped based on lexicon groups and divided into certain linguistic forms.83 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) iii. result bmpb-speaking communities used to be plural and heterogeneous societies since barus was a trading route for a long time, especially at its ports. many traders from local and overseas (arabs, indians, chinese, netherlands among others) interacted in this area. camphor, leather, resin, and rattan were among the important export commodities at that time. as barus became an important trading port city in the xvi century, there was also the interaction between different ethnicities and foreigners. the acculturation proses making of the people a coastal population that has been using the malay language, which was influenced by batak and minangkabau culture. today, although dominated by the batak people, some other workers also come to barus. these marine ecolexicons are analyzed based on ecolinguistic parameters, namely the interaction, interrelation, interconnection, and interactivity of the community with its environment. the following describes the marine environment known to the people of barus, central tapanuli. 3.1 noun nouns are a category or class of words. syntactically, the noun has no potential to join the particle “tidak”, but has the potential to be preceded by the word “dari” (kridalaksana, 2007). in this study, the noun category is a lexical category, or part of speech that belongs to the marine environment’s lexicons in the barus district. lexicons of marine fauna the lexicon of marine fauna is a lexicon group that refers to animals with a close relationship to the marine environment. these lexicons belong to the category of the living environment. the results of the study related to lexicons of marine fauna revealed that there are are 81 lexicons of marine fauna that collectively understood by the community (see appendix 1 for illustration). from the lexicon of marine fauna in appendix 1 above, these lexicons are group into several types, including the fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, bird, insect, and reptile. in ecolinguistics, people’s understanding of interaction and interrelation is influenced by three dimensions: biological, sociological, and ideological. the firts dimension is related to biological diversity with the level of species vitality. as for the sociological dimension it deals with social praxis aspects and how to regulate human beings’ interrelationships. finally, the ideological dimension relates to collective mental, cognition, ideology, and other psychological aspects (mbete, 2013). understanding these three dimensions creates certain lingual forms and meanings. for example, the lexicon bada in indonesian means ‘anchovy’ (stolephorus). conceptually, bada is a dry fish with small size and has little meat. from the biological dimension, bada is associated with the jan bak condo bada ‘don’t be an anchovies’. the meaning of this expression was used since bada is a cheaper commodity (ideological dimension). the lexicon bada derives different linguistic forms, such bada mentol, bada putih, and bada nasi which can be examined from its biological dimension. bada mentol has a pale color and larger than the other bada. however, bada putih has a white color and about the same size with bada nasi. besides bada, the community recognizes several types of garapu based on the variety or species. this biological understanding is coded into other lingual forms: jonang, noneh, sopan, gerotang, minyak, and pano. for instance, jonang refers to grouper which has a reddish color merahan or keorangean. meanwhile, noneh, gerotang, and pano refer to groupers with brownish black bodies figure 1. garupu (resource: own documentation)84 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) (general public understanding of the biological dimension). jonang or sunuk grouper and oil cultivar are grouper fish that have the highest economic value compared to other species. other groupers. this makes jonang or cultivated oil a fairly good commodity in society with the most delicious taste (ideological dimension). by some people, jonang is usually served in a curry dish, such as in the lingual form of manggule jonang ‘gulai jonang’ or gule jonang ‘gulai jonang’ or gule garapu (sociological dimension). kapiting is grouped based on the place of life. according to the variation of its biological form, the crab is classified as kapiting bako, kapiting sungai, kapiting lauk, dan rajungan/ bukong (biological dimension). rajungan is a crab that lives in marine waters but is rarely found in coastal areas. there is another lexicon namely ambe-ambe and anggo. ambe-ambe is a small sand crabs and white like sands and anggo is a crab that looks like a nut. besides daily consumption, kapiting is also commonly served in certain events, such as family gatherings (sociological dimension). like crab, shellfish also have several types with manifestations of linguistics forms based on simple biological and ideological understanding of the community, such as patopato, lokan, simarhuruan, biduan, rimis, and beliung. the people understand that biduan, rimis is white, and beliung is black. lexicons of marine flora flora in the kbbi (2008: 318) is defined as the entire life of a plant species in a particular habitat, area, or geological strata; natural flora. flora is defined as the entire life of a plant species in a particular region, area, or geological level (kbbi, 2008: 318). marine environment flora lexicons refer to plants (plantae) that have a close relationship to the marine environment because they live in areas around the sea/coast of barus. these lexicons belong to the biological environment (living things). as far as the lexicon of marine flora, the result located nine lexicons of marine environment (see appendix 2). ecolinguistically, the lexicon of the flora of the malay pesisir barus marine environment (mbp) is a manifestation of understanding of interaction and interrelation, which is also influenced by the biological, the sociological, and the ideological dimensions. the lexicon of tapak kudo ‘horseshoe’, for example, is an upright plant creeping and forming shrubs. tapak kudo plants can be found in the barus beach. at first glance, the shape of this plant’s leaves looks like horseshoe (biological dimension), so people called it tapak kudo. besides, the same plant is called by the local population as andor palas. as a shrub, the tapak kudo plant is often destroyed from residents’ yards near the shoreline and was only used as a jumping rope game by children in the 1980s. however, by some fishing communities, this plant is used as a material for cleaning boats from dirt or moss and is also used as traditional medicine (ideological dimension). figure 2. kapiting mata tigo (left) and ambe-ambe (right) (resource: own documentation) figure 3. tapak kudo85 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) karambi, or coconut tree, is a plant that is highly valueable. almost all its parts are used for domestic purposes. from a biological dimension, some expressions refer to parts of the plant such as buah karambi ‹coconut›, daun karambi ‹coconut leaves›, aikarambi ‘air kelapa’, sabuik karambi ‹coconut husks›, batang karambie ‘ coconut stems’, and batokkarambi ‘coconut shell’. from the sociological dimension, daun karambi are commonly used to make coconut leaves (janur) at weddings. the coconut leaves that is strung like a crown are tangled on a banana stem. it is used as a point of the location of an event or celebration for guests. in addition, it has also become a common thing, daun karambi are also used to make lontong ketupat, especially on holiday celebrations, such as eid al-fitr and eid al-adha. lexicon of utilities and tools the lexicon of utilities for marine environmental activities refer to tools to support marine activities. these lexicons belongs to abiotic environment that are not living things. then, the lexicons are marked as the function or description of the object. the research shows there are sixteen lexicons of utilities for marine activities (see appendix 3). from the lexicon data above, the lexicon of facilities and infrastructure for marine environmental activities can be in the form of fishing gear for marine resources commonly used by the community, means of transportation, places or buildings, as well as materials/tools for drying fish the utilities for marine activities function as fishing tools, transportation devices, places or buildings, as well as materials / tools for drying fish. fishing gear includes pukek, tangguok, jalo, kanyie, jariang, and payang; transportation devices includes bagan and sapan; buildings includes bagan and sapan; as well as production support tools and materials, such as lantai,langgayan, saringan, garom, dan keramba. for fishing gear, pukat can be grouped based on the quantity of the fishing gear, such as pukat payang, pukat pantai/dogal, pukat kantong. meanwhile, there are also other fishing gears such as perangkap bubu, rawai, pancing, jaring insang tetap, jaring lingkar and jaring insang hayut. in general, barus fishermen are traditional fishermen. the coastal environmenthas been asource of wisdoms that are embedded in their habits. this understanding is also part of the ideological dimension of the language that the community speaks. to make a simple boat, for example barus fishermen know the term calik langkah. this activity term refers to the calculation system of good days for carrying out activities. the activity should be postponed if the counts comes to a bad day. if the fisherman still be carried out, then it will bring disaster. shipbuilding can take between one and two months. for pincalang boat, the wood used are kayu meranti, kayu kapur, or kayu aloban. moreover, the community will held a ceremony for lowering the boat / ship to sea and usually followed by eat together. noun of coastal environment coastal nouns are lexicons which closely related to the coastal environment. these lexicons refers to conditions in the coastal area or entities that are close to the barus coast area. in this respect, the study shows that there are eigth coastal nouns as depicted in the following table. table 1. noun of coastal environtment no. lexicon description 1 bade storm 2 bui sea foam 3 surut down (waves) 4 karang reef 5 luluk mud 6 ombak wave 7 pasang tide (waves) 8 pasi sand pasang, surut, bade, ombak are manifestations of people understanding of natural phenomena. by these lexicons, the community understands that nature can change. therefore, as a community living by the sea, mpb shows its respect for nature. this is an articulations of gratitude to god for the gifts and protection for society. every year, in the month of syafar, the people hold tolak bala. this event is a form of gratitude and prayer to avoid all natural disasters caused by human activity.as a symbol of purity and peace, white flags (panji-panji) are used during the event. besides prayers, the people will bring food to eat together as a form of togetherness and cooperation. in the past, the kenduri laut was also followed by several rituals such as cutting off buffalo heads they washed into the sea (wahyudi, 2011). however, over time people became more educated and knew islamic rules such rituals no longer exist. the activity shifts to islamic rituals, such as prayers, and recitation of the holy koran.86 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) 3.2 verb about marine activities syntactically, verbs can be accompanied by particles tidak and cannot be accompanied by particles sangat, lebih and agak (kridalaksana, 2007). the verb lexicon is obtained from the derivation process of the lexeme which has undergone a morphological process. the following lexicons describe marine verbs (see appendix 4) that reflect the marine activities by the barus community, central tapanuli regency mambagan is a fishing activity. usually, fishers use lamps they hang around their ship to attract fish. when the fish gets close, the net will be lowered the economic activities of fisheries carried out by fishers are generally performed in groups, but some also do it individually. bagan operates in the dark season (moonlight is not too bright), while it does not operate in the bright season (full moon). at this time, fishers usually take the time to repair their fishing gear. based on local people’s knowledge, the bright season occurs in the middle of the month. mamayang is a way used by fishers to catch fish using payang. payang is a type of fishing gear like pukat (trawl), similar to a bag. this wide pocket uses to collect trapped fish, which are then pulled up from the sea. mamukek is an activity of fishing using trawl nets that fishermen use to spread along with the the movement of the boat. then when the nets are about to be lifted, the anchors are thrown into the sea. there are several types of trawlinggodang pukekused by the machines to catch fish on a large scale. for example pukek karang and pukek tarik. pukek karang is trawlers that are held or installed between the reefs in the sea and pukek tarik is trawlers that are pulled into the sea by a trawl boat (sampan). the following is a form of the derivation of mpb marine ecolexicon verbs. table 2 shows mambagan and babagan are lexicons that have undergone a morphological process (affix), including the prefix manand the prefix bar-. this is a derivation that changes its lexical category (part of speech). this can be understood because the lexicon mambagan and babagan come from the basic form, a noun after the affixation, this lexicon is changed to verbs. the lexicons refer to an activity carried out by mpb for fishing using bagan. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon above. a. urang mambagan malam hai. people act-bagan at the evening “people fishing using bagan at the evening”. b. babarapo urang palaut di sikko, babagan tigo. def fisher pre-here pos-bagan num “some fishers here own three bagan.” derivation {pukek} + prefix {man-}, {bar-}, and {di-} no. root lexicon morphological process description 1. bagan (n) mambagan (v) man + bagan (prefix + root ) fishing using bagan babagan (v) bar + bagan (prefix + root) own a bagan derivation {bagan} + prefiks {man-} and {bar-} table 2. derivation {bagan} + prefix {man-} and {bar-} table 3 derivation {pukek} + prefix {man-}, {bar-}, and {di-} no. root lexicon morphological process description 1 pukek (n) mamukek (v) man + pukek (prefix + root) menangkap ikan/hasil laut dengan menggunakan pukat bapukek (v) bar + pukek (prefix + root) memiliki pukat dipukek (v) di + pukek (prefix + root) dipukat from table 3 above it can be explained that the lexicon mamukek, bapukek and pukek derive form the lexicon lexicon of nouns pukek. the morphological process is the affixation, the prefix man-, bar-, and di-. the meaning refers to in the original form is a fishing tool in the form of a trawl. the derivation process refers to catching fish using the pukek ‘pukat’ and having the pukek ‘pukat’ on the bapukek lexicon. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon above. a. pabilo ayah ang pai mamukek ko laut? when father-2tg go akt-pukek pre sea “when did your father go to the sea for fishing using pukek?” b. bagan nan gadang ko bapukek gadang pulo. bagan dem big itu pos-pukat big too “the big bagan has a big pukat.”87 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) derivation {jalo} + prefix {man-}, {bar-}, and {di-} a. manjaring lauk apo mamak kinin? akt-jaring ol/fish whct uncle now “what fish are you fishing (menjaring)?” b. bajaring limo bagan urang ko. pos-jaring num bagan the man def “he owns five bagan”. c. lauk apo nan dijaring kinin, cek? fish what rel pas-jaring now kak? “what fish did you catch (jaring)?” d. timpik nan gadang ko, tajaring jaring anak bagan. tongkol rel big def pas-jaring jaring anak bagan “the fish are trapped in the net”. e. jaringi keramba ko, dik! jaring-i keramba def dik “throw the net to the pool!” derivation {tangguok} + prefix {man-} and {di-} table 4. derivation {jalo} + prefix {man-}, {bar-}, and {di-} no. root lexicon morphological process description 1. jalo (n) manjalo (v) man + jalo (prefix + root) fishing using jalo dijalo (v) di + jalo (prefix + root) passive form from table 4 it can be explained that the lexicons manjalo, bajalo, and dijalo are lexicons that have undergone a morphological process, prefixing man-, bar-, and di-. the lexicons derive from the root noun jalo. the meaning refers to marine activity capturing marine animals using nets. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon above. a. kini ko inyo sadang manjalo lauk ka tapi. now 3tg akt-jala fish pre edge “now, he is getting jalo to the edge.” b. dijalonyo jonang nan gadang tu. pas-jalan-pro fish rel big def “he catch the big fish.” derivation {jaring} + prefix {man-}, {bar-}, {di}, {-i}, {tar-} table 5. derivation {jaring} + prefiks {man-}, {bar-}, {di}, {-i}, {tar-} no root lexicon morphological process description 1 jaring (n) manjaring (v) man + jaring (prefix + root) menjaring bajaring (v) bar + jaring (prefix + root) berjaring dijaring (v) di + jaring (prefix + root) dijaring dijaringi (v) di+jaring+i (prefix + root) + suffix dijaringi tajaring (v) tar + jaring (prefix + root) terjaring from the table 5 above it can be explained that the lexicons manjaring, bajaring, dijaring, and dijaringi have undergone a morphological process by prefix man-, bar, and suffix -i. the lexicon derives form the root noun jariang. the meaning of the lexicon refers to activity of fishing using a fishing gear with a jariang (net) in the lexicon bajariang. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon above. table 6. derivation {tangguok} + prefix {man-} and {di-} no root lexicon morphological process description 1. tangguok (n) manangguok (v) man +tangguok (prefix + root) menangguk ditangguok (v) di + tangguok (prefix + root) ditangguk from table 6 above shows that the lexicon manangguok, and ditangguok are complex forms which are affixed by the prefix manand di. the result of this morphological process derive from the root tangguok. the meaning refers to fishing activity using a tool tangguok. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon above. a. lamo bona waang manangguok lauok nan kociek tu. lama adv 2tg akt-tangguk ol/ ikan rel kecil def “lama sekali kau menangguk ikan yang kecil itu.” derivation {payang} + prefix {man-} and {di-} table 7. derivasi {mayang} + prefiks {man-} dan {di-} no root lexicon morphological process description 1. payang (n) mamayang (v) man +mayang (prefix + root) fising using payang 2. dipayang (v) di + payang (prefix + root) dipayang (passive) table 7 shows that, the lexicons mamayang, and dipayang have been affixed by the prefix manand di-. this process derives from the root payang. the meaning refers to activity of fishing tools using payang. the following is the context for the sentence from the verb lexicon. 88 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) a. mamayanglah kito kiniko, beko patang pulo hari. akt-mayanglah 1jm sekarang nanti petang pula hari. “pergi menangkap ikanlah (dengan payang) kita sekarang, sebentar lagi sore.” derivasi {kai} + prefiks {man-, bar-, di-, di+ i-, man+-ken, and tar-} marine environmental activity, is formed from basic verbs (12 lexicons) and affix verbs (29 lexicons). the lingual forms of the mpb ecolexicon consist of monomorphemic forms, polymorphemic forms, and compound words. noun ecolexicons include morphophonemic forms, for example bajan, gaguk, gambolo, karambi, kateng, karamba, payang, bagan, jalo, and others. ecolexicon consisting of polymorphemic forms, for example, palabuhan, saringan, mamayang, bapukek, and others. ecolexicon consisting of compound words, for example, bajan murai, gajah menong, kalingkaling gadang, lauk sabalah (see appendices 1-4). polymorphemic forms are constructed by adding affixes, such as {man-}, {ber-}, {di-}, {-i}, {tar-}, {di+ -i}, and (man+ ken}. these marine lexicons are a manifestation of the bmpb understanding of the process of interaction, interrelation, and interdependence of society with its environment which is influenced by biological, sociological, and ideological dimensions. the understanding of these three dimensions lowers certain forms and lingual meanings, even leads to expressions passed down from generation to generation by the speech community there, becomes advice, and the delivery of teachings and guidelines in social life. v. conclusion the analysis of marine ecolexicon bmpb shows two part of speech, nouns and verbs, that can be divided into four groups, (1) lexicon of marine fauna; (2) lexicon of marine flora; (3) lexicon of marine utilities and facilities; (4) noun of marine environment, and verb of marine activity. these lexicons manifest mab’s understanding of the process of interaction, interrelation, and interdependence of society with its environment, which is influenced by biological, sociological, and ideological dimensions. the linguistic forms of the bmpb ecolexicon consist of monomorphemic and polymorphemic forms. polymorphemic forms are constructed by adding affixes, such as {man-}, {ber-}, {di-}, {-i}, {tar-}, {di+-i}, and (man + ken}.the number of vocabulary that is still recorded in the cognition of the barus coastal malay language community shows that the community is very familiar with their environment so that these vocabularies are maintained. this condition must be maintained in an effort to preserve vocabulary as well as cultural preservation. table 8. derivasi {kai} + prefiks {man-, bar-, di-, di+ i-, man+-ken, and tar-} no root lexicon morphological process description 1. kai mangai man +panciang (prefix + root) memancing bar + panciang (prefix + root) berpancing di + panciang (prefix + root) dipancing (di + pancing ) + i (prefix + root)+ suffix i dipancingi man + panciang + ken (prefix + root) + suffix memancingken tar + panciang (prefix + root) terpancing table 8 shows that the lexicons mamanciang, bapanciang, dipanciang, dipanciangi, mamanciangken and tapanciang have prefix man, bar-, di-, tar-, and simulfix (di+ -i) , (man + -ken). these lexicons derive from the word panciang (fishing rod) because they refer to the activity using a fishing rod to catch the fish. the following sentence shows the use of these verbs. a. ala pai ayah mangsi, umak? asp go father akt-pancing mother “daddy has gone fishing, mom?” b. dikailah lauk tu! pas-pancinglah fish def “catch the fish”. c. lauk nan di karamba tu dikainyo. fish rel pre keramba def pas-pancing-i 3gt “catch the fish in the pool”. d. alah lamo ambo di siko, takai juo gaguk ko. asp long 1gt pre-sini pas-pancing juga mayung def “after a long time, finally i get the fish”. iv. discussion an overview of the lingual form of the barus malay marine ecolexicon consisting of noun and verb categories. noun lexicon can be divided into four lexicon groups, namely (1) lexicons of marine fauna (81 lexicon); (2) lexicons of marine flora (9 lexicons); (3) lexicon of utilities and tools (16 lexicons); (4) noun of coastal environtment (8 lexicons). the verb lexicon, which is a form of 89 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) references al-gayoni, yusradi usman. 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(1997). understanding cultures through their key words: english, russian, polish, german, and japanese. new york: oxford university press.90 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) appendix 1. lexicons of marine fauna no. lexicon description 1 aso-aso looks like yellowstripe scad 2 bada dried anchovies 3 bajan undulated moray (gymnothorax undulatus) 4 bajan murai muraenasox talabon 5 bango crane 6 balatolang the yellowstripe scad 7 baledang largehead hairtail 8 baledang karing dried beltfish 9 bawa pomfrets 10 bona brackish fish 11 bonta pufferfish 12 buayo crocodille 13 bubu jelly fish 14 bukong crabs 15 bulan-bulan tarpon 16 bulu babi sea urchins 17 cabe-cabe rabbitfish 18 camar seagull 19 cubahak/gerapu epinephelus 20 dencis sardinella 21 ebi dried shrimp 22 gabu giant trevally 23 gaguk ariid catfish 24 gajah menong seahorse 25 gambolo chub mackerels 26 gelimin soldier croaker 27 geromieh live sharksucker 28 gulamo johnius coitor 29 girgak siganus 30 iu shark 31 itik laut merginae 32 karatang reef fish 33 kakap snapper 34 kampua bluespot mullet 35 kanbayam salted fish 36 kape-kape silver biddy fish 37 katung turtle 38 kalilawar bat 39 kaling-kaling gadang cane fish 40 kapah clams 41 kapiting crabs 42 karang clams 43 kira-kira shark 44 lauk sabalah sole 45 lauk bakko mudskippers 46 lauk talang doublespotted queenfish 47 lapu lionfish 48 lidah-lidah tonguefish 49 lokkan clams 50 londu ariid catfish 51 lulu poang hermit crabs 52 macco flat dried fish 53 malong muraenasox talabon 54 mangsi-mangsi squid 55 maning sardinella 56 marang maze rabbitfish (vermiculated spinefoot) 57 mayung ariid catfish 58 olang hawk 59 pari stingray 60 paus whale 61 ramo-ramo silver biddy fish 62 ramung looks like snapper 63 ranjungan portunidae 64 sinangi lihat kuro 65 situhuk sailfish 66 sotong squid 67 sumbilang ariid catfish 68 subang-subang eeltail catfish 69 sumpit-sumpit archerfish 70 sure mackerel tuna 71 suseh fourfinger threadfin 722 taba bibi epinephelus 73 tanggiri spanish mackerels 74 timbo kolong sandfish 75 timpik mackerel tuna 76 todak houndfish 77 tundeman chub mackerels 78 udang shrimp 79 udang baring small shrimp 80 ula laut coral reef snakes 81 umang-umang murex pectin91 rosliana lubis/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) appendix 2. lexicons of marine flora no. lexicon description 1. bakko mangrove 2. batang baru hibiscus tiliaceus 3. cemara sheoaks 4. kapiting terminalia catappa 5. karambi coconut 6. kateng bayhops (ipomoea pes-caprae) 7. pandan pandanus amaryllifolius 8. rumput laut seaweed 9. tapak kudo bayhops (ipomoea pes-caprae) appendix 3. lexicon of utilities and tools no. lexicon function 1 bagan transportasi 2 garam ingredient for drying fish 3 jalo fishing tools 4 jaring fishing tools 5 jaring banam fishing tools 6 kai hook (fishing tools) 7 karamba fish farming 8 lantaran tools for drying the fish 9 palabuhan harbour (site) 10 payang fishing tools 11 pukkek fishing tools 12 rinti tools for drying the fish 13 sampan transportation 14 saringan tools for drying the fish 15 steker port (site) 16 tangguk fishing tools appendix 4. verb about marine activities no. lexicon derivation description 1 bagan · mambagan/mancolok · babagan · fishing using bagan · own the bagan 2 bui · mambui · babui · becoming foam · get foam 3 jalo · manjalo · bajalo · dijalo · fishing using jalo · own the jalo · using jalo (passive) 4 jamuo · manjomuo (lauok) · drying the fish 5 jaring · manjaring · bajaring · dijaring · dijaringi · menjaring (using jaring/net) · berjaring (own the jarring/net) · dijaring (passive) · dijaringi (passive) 6 kai · mangai · bakai · dikai · mangaikan · takai · fishing · own the kai (hook) · passive · active (valency 2) · ergative 7 karang · bakarang · become a coral 8 luluk · baluluk · maluluk · diluluki · mudy · get into the mud · cover with the mud 9 pasi/kasik · bapasi · bakasik · sandy (adjective) · sandy (adjective) 10 payang · mamayang · using payang for fishing 11 pukek · mamukek · bapukek · dipukek · fishing with pukat · own the pukat · verb for using pukat (passive) 12 tangguk · manangguk · ditangguk · menangguk (using tangguk) · ditangguk (passive)92 riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 185 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 20, 2023 final revision: july 15, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 this study aims to investigate the issue of assessment in the moroccan educational system. precisely, it aims at exploring the washback of the secondary national english examination on english teaching and learning practices in the context of upper secondary education in morocco. to attain the objective of the study, questionnaires are distributed to 70 teachers, and a focus group protocol with 20 students was conducted in three high schools. the findings reveal that the examination has a strong negative influence on the students and the teachers. the main harmful washback effect of this exam is found to be the neglect of teaching the skills of listening and speaking as they are not assessed. moreover, the results of the study show that the contents of teaching are highly influenced by the exam. even though the syllabus was changed from grammar-based to communicative-based, english examinations are still grammar-ruled and reading-based. similarly, students are also affected by the washback effect of the national exam because it brings anxiety that can distort their progress and performance, and students might not be able to learn real-life knowledge but instead learn discrete points of knowledge that are assessed. on the basis of these results, a new english exam is suggested, hoping to prompt positive washback and refine the english-speaking performance of moroccan highschoolers. keywords backwash effect, language testing, assessment, upper secondary, morocco correspondence e-mail: riham.belkbir.chaoui@gmail.com article the backwash effect of the national exam on upper secondary moroccan teaching riham belkbir1 1faculty of arts and human sciences, sidi mohamed ibn abdullah university, fez, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.185-195.2023 i. introduction several studies carried out in applied linguistics over different periods of time have pinned down that exams have an influence on the processes of teaching and learning, teachers’ professional background, and preferences of learners and other stakeholders (shohamy, 1993; shohamy et al., 1996; messick, 1996, mcnamara, 2000). in addition, examinations push students and teachers to do something undesirable such as focusing on test-taking techniques, focusing on grammar, reading comprehension, writing, and neglecting the aural/oral aspects of english. from this statement, one can easily understand that the national exam may negatively influence the perception of teachers and learners about the purpose of teaching and learning. many researchers and practitioners in the field of language education and testing have emphasized the impact of tests, especially public examinations and high-stakes tests (klenowski & wyatt-smith, 2012; thompson, allen, 2012; au & gourd, 2013; razavipour & shooshtari, 2020; xiaohua liu, 2021; ). this means that these tests are designed to impact teaching and learning. naturally, when students are faced with exams, they feel anxious and nervous about their performance in that examination, which will determine whether they will pass or fail. in the body of literature on language testing and assessment, the way tests impact the educational system is widespread. this influence, a phenomenon known in language education as washback (alderson and wall, 1993; messick, 1996; hamp-lyons, 1997) is bidirectional—positive or negative—depending largely on several mediating factors, one of which is teachers’ teaching practices, as reported in the riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 186 forthcoming sections. after reviewing a sum of literature related to the fields of language testing in morocco, studies about the impact of high-stake examinations in particular are extremely scarce. there was a study of learning assessment exercises in moroccan life and textbooks. it was conducted by lalla khaddouj yousfi, fatiha kaddari, elachqar and faouzi errachidi (2013). they argued that pupils need to be active participants in the assessment process rather than victims of examinations. this can only be achieved if they develop the skills of self-assessment, understand their learning goal and assess what they need to do to reach it. the object of this study will be the moroccan baccalaureate examination. it is a public examination administered at the last phase of education in morocco after students finished three years of highschool. the exam is wholly designed by the high committee for examinations, which is directly under the authority of examinations department in the ministry of national education, preschool and sports, morocco. generally, students take the test in june after completing the compulsory tasks in all examination subjects including english. considering its weight in the moroccan society, the washback effect of this examination is to be expected. an overview of national tests in europe (2014) indicated that in morocco, as in almost all arab countries, the educational system is mostly test-driven and examinations, especially the public ones, are of huge importance. consequently, the examination is perceived to have a very big influence on society and educational institutions, and this is echoed in the endeavor and money spent by parents on extra hours in order to help their children perform well in the examination. as mentioned previously in the discussion of english assessment in morocco, examinations are considered as positive tools that can be employed to control the educational system. however, policymakers are not aware of the consequences that exist along with the overuse of these examinations. lately, scholars have given attention to examining washback, which has become a widespread educational issue. however, in morocco, scant attention has been given to examining the washback of the baccalaureate exam on teachers’ and students’ practices. until the beginning of the 1990s washback was believed to relate to the quality of the design of examinations, for instance: ‘if it is a good examination, we will have a useful effect on teaching; if bad, then it will have a damaging effect on teaching’ (heaton 1990: 16). bachman and palmer (1996, p.27) define washback to be an aspect of impact on processes of learning and instruction. it is a type of effect, which relates to the effects of examinations on classroom practices, particularly teaching and learning. the term washback (sometimes known as backwash) has been given various definitions by many scholars extending from its influence on teachers’ and students’ practices to the very intricate impact of tests on the educational system and society altogether (green, 2013; fan & song, 2014; allen, 2016, hung & huang, 2019; razavipour & shooshtari, 2020). buck (1988) associates the definition of washback with the limited purview of the effect of tests on the classroom practices of teachers and students. another term that is mentioned in the literature is test impact. wall (1997) differentiated between test impact and test washback. according to him, test impact refers to the impact of tests exerted on policymakers or individuals, and test washback indicates the effects of tests on teaching and learning practices. the current research aims at investigating the issue of assessment in the moroccan educational system. especially, the washback of the secondary national english examination on english teaching and learning practices in the context of upper secondary education in morocco. ii. methods designing a solid research plan was not a simply a matter of opting for eclectic research approaches. gay and airasian (1996) stated that the nature of the question or problem to be investigated determines whether the study is qualitative or quantitative. washback researchers suggest qualitative inquiry to analyze the washback effect of a given test (cheng, 2005). surely, it is also important to refer to quantitative data where and when necessary. in view of the complexity of washback, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed in this study. the former includes the use of student focus group and classroom observation. this approach is preferable because it is used to study the selected issue in its natural setting, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning people riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 187 table 1 shows that the diagram shows that the age category that returned the completed questionnaire is aged between 30 and 35 years old. the number of female participants is equal to the number of male participants. yet, in the research about washback, gender has not been categorized as a crucial constituent that can mediate the washback effect. however, others think that the differences that are related to age, the educational degree held, and their working experience could play a role in fostering various kinds of washback in this study. classroom observations concentrated on highschool teachers particularly those who teach secondyear baccalaureate. the questionnaire targeted the same category of teachers in addition to other teachers from different high schools. focus group discussion was employed, 20 students attended the discussion and tried to give responses to all the questions the researcher forwarded. even though a few students were reluctant to give responses, most of the attended learners actively participated in the discussion using english and arabic. for ethical purposes, informed consent was obtained from all participants before proceeding with any investigation, and confidentiality was ensured. iii. results and discussion given the objectives of the study and the nature of the collected data, general descriptive statistics were employed to quantitatively analyze the responses. the focus was specifically on frequencies and percentages designed based on the examined numerical data. the goal was to eventually interpret the findings following precise quantitative descriptions. this section presents the results of the questionnaire items which will be accompanied by relevant statements from what the students said during the focus group discussion. perceptions of teaching the aim behind this section is to know more about teachers’ viewpoints on teaching and whether they are influenced by the existence of the examination. teachers were inquired first to select from three choices representing their principal consternation when teaching second-year baccalaureate students: students’ knowledge of the english language, students’ use of the english language, or students’ examination preparation. this was followed by two questions in which teachers were asked to differentiate between, on the one hand, tasks they believe enhance language learning, and, on the other hand, activities they think are important to prepare for the english baccalaureate exam. figure 1 shows that students’ examination preparation received the highest rating from 52% of the participants followed by students’ use of english as chosen by 36%, whereas students’ knowledge about the language received the lowest rating. the implication that can be drawn from this is that most teachers are influenced by the presence of the baccalaureate exam. variables categories frequencies gender male 35 female 35 age less than 25 4 25-30 6 30-35 36 30-45 12 more than 45 12 educational level bachelor’s degree 43 master’s degree 18 doctorate degree 9 working experience less than 5 years 8 5-10 years 15 10-20 years 35 more than 20 years 12 teaching levels common core 13 first baccalaureate 21 second baccalaureate 36 table1 the sample’s background information bring to them (denzin and lincoln, 2005), whereas the latter was implemented using questionnaires. a total of 70 high school teachers participated in this study (35 males and 35 females). in addition, classroom observation was conducted to see the overall picture of the teaching-learning process (especially teachers’ language teaching practices under the influence of the baccalaureate exam). finally, a focus group discussion with students was carried out and analyzed to be triangulated with teachers’ responses in the questionnaire and classroom observation. riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 188 however, the advent of clt has revolutionized all aspects of language teaching, giving special importance to functional language wherein the social cultures’ codes of language use are embedded. the main objectives of elt in morocco which are formulated in the official guidelines are thereby articulated to the new conception of communicative competence, adopted by clt and advocated in the standards-based approach. among the outcomes that these guidelines maintain is the application of a communicativelyoriented teaching methodology in which learners will be able to communicate in both oral and written forms, interpret both oral and written messages, show cultural understanding and present oral and written messages, show cultural understanding and present oral and written information to various audiences for a variety of purposes (the moroccan official guidelines, 2007: 5). for this reason, figure 2 materials used to prepare for the baccalaureate exam teachers are aware of the importance of developing students’ communicative competence and their ability to use the language. this fact is confirmed by one of the students, in order to elicit more data, who was asked the following question: “in your opinion, what is the main concern of your english language teacher while teaching? does he/she focus on preparing you for the national exam or do they teach you english to develop your communicative ability?” p3 answered “our teacher takes into account the baccalaureate exam in order to prepare us and help us to get a good mark…. uh! concerning communication, sometimes she teaches us how to use english in our daily life, like asking for directions, how to talk on the phone, how to borrow or lend something, asking for help…” for the next two sub-questions, teachers were asked to employ a five-item likert scale which is a psychometric scale that is used to obtain participants’ degree of agreement with a statement. the researcher opted for this scale because it is easily understood, and the responses are easily quantifiable. the first question ranges from ‘definitely yes’ to ‘not at all’ and the second one from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ so as to distinguish between the sorts of activities they think are important to promote language learning, and the types of activities they think are important to prepare the students for the baccalaureate exam. a close analysis of the figure 2 reveals that the biggest share of the participants (50%) think that textbook activities are unquestionably figure 1 teachers’ main concern when teaching second baccalaureate classes riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 189 teaching content, materials and methodology this section begins with a two-point question in which teachers were required to choose the skills that are given much importance in second-year baccalaureate classes. as illustrated, grammar and vocabulary were ranked first, succeeded by writing then reading comprehension. improving grammar and vocabulary skills appears to be more important for teachers than reading and comprehension skills because the former is more challenging to improve and needs more time and practice. be that as it may, these findings show a clear tendency from teachers towards prioritizing the skills that are more emphasized in the examination since, as was expected; speaking and listening were ranked as the least important skills. in addition, to realize whether grammar skill was given more emphasis in the classroom, the learners were interviewed. according to their responses, english language teachers spend most of their time teaching grammar and vocabulary and doing different year’s national exam papers. examples and class homework as well as classroom quizzes were prepared for national exams. for instance, one interviewee responded “our teacher gives more emphasis to grammar because when we look at the national exam, most of the questions are from the grammar part. that is why our teacher usually focuses on grammar. so, after we learn the grammar, our teacher gives us questions about the lesson we learned from different years’ national exam papers.” according to this response, the national exam figure 3 the most important skills in second baccalaureate classes effective to prepare for the baccalaureate exam and to promote language learning. unexpectedly, it must be noted that 7% of the respondents think that communicative tasks are surely effective for the sake of preparing students for the baccalaureate exam, while another 29% agree with the fact that using multimedia for listening skills and using communicative materials are fundamental to some extent in promoting learning. language games along with role play and group discussion are expected to be a valuable resource for second language learning, offering a large amount of language input in the form of authentic english dialogue. however, 32% claimed that they never use language games for examination preparation and 34% believe that role plays and group discussion may be effective and useful for the examination. as for as authentic material is concerned, the participants believe that it can yield more assistance for examination preparation (34% definitely yes, 32% to a large extent). according to learners’ responses, the reference materials (books) their teachers usually advise them to read in the library were: basic english grammar, understanding and using english grammar, and english grammar in use. they added that most of the time, their teachers teach them from these reference materials and extra worksheets as the activities and notes given in the textbook were not interesting. most of the classroom test items were also prepared from these materials and different years’ national examination papers. all these reference books are completely grammar-based and national exam-related materials. riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 190 is influencing english language teachers to give more focus to grammar than learners’ needs. since a wide part of the national exams was grammar, learners always need to learn grammar rules in order to help them succeed in the exam. as a result, they usually try to force their teacher to skip some other aspects of language skills like listening and speaking and focus more on grammar and vocabulary only. the results of the questionnaire showed that the reading skill was given more emphasis in previous exams. that means it was the second language skill given more emphasis in the previous national examinations. to identify whether the reading skill was given more emphasis, less emphasis, or totally neglected during the teaching/ learning practices in the classroom, learners were interviewed. the responses obtained from the focus group interview support the responses given by teachers. for instance, among the interviewed learners, one student responded “our teacher usually teaches us grammar and reading skill. because most of the time in different years’ national exams, a lot of questions were prepared from reading and grammar. so, she teaches us how to answer questions from the passage. but he gives more emphasis to grammar than reading skills.” concerning the skill of writing, the responses given by students realized that less emphasis was given to the writing skill in the classroom because there were only a few writing skill questions in all previous national exams. for instance, one respondent replied: “most of the time we do not study writing in the classroom because our teacher skips it by telling us that it will not help us in the baccalaureate exam. he teaches us only important points that will help us to answer national exam questions...for example, how to write letters, reports, book reviews…” generally, the point concluded from teachers’ and students’ responses is that the writing skill is given less emphasis in the classroom during the teaching-learning process. only a few writing lessons which may appear in the national exam are taught in the classroom which shows the harmful washback of the national exam on the contents of teaching. the information obtained from the focus group interview also realized that less emphasis was given to speaking. for instance, among students, one respondent reported “yes, but it is only sometimes. our teacher usually skips speaking and listening to save time ... we also want to learn grammar instead of wasting our time on group discussions. we need our teacher to finish the textbook soon and help us by doing different years’ national exam questions.” this response revealed that it was also learners’ interest to give less emphasis to speaking and focus more on grammar, functions, and vocabulary instead. according to this response, students and teachers do not want to waste their time practicing speaking through pair communication or group discussions. what both of them want is to finish the textbook very soon and do different years’ national exam questions. as listening is one of the basic language skills, there are a lot of activities or lessons that can help learners to improve their listening skill. so, teachers are expected to teach and improve their students’ listening skill. this is why, students were interviewed. the responses obtained from them also realized that the teaching and learning of listening were neglected in the classroom. according to their responses, their teachers do not teach them listening in the classroom because they have no time. for instance, one respondent replied “no, they do not teach it. i don’t know but maybe because we don’t have enough time. there are a lot of very important lessons that can help us in the exam. most of the time, our teachers focus more on reading and grammar.” the analysis of the responses given by learners and teachers was almost the same. what can be concluded from the above information was that the teaching of listening in the classroom was totally neglected. according to their responses, the reason why the teaching of this skill was neglected is that teachers have no time to teach other important language skills like grammar and reading. this is an undesirable perception of not looking at all language skills equally which is resulted from the harmful washback of the national exam. regarding this, shohamy et al., (1996) reported that more instructional time is allotted to exam preparation classes, especially in the case of high-stakes tests. riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 191 figure 4 the use of exam-related materials to prepare students for the baccalaureate exam in order to find out the influence of the baccalaureate examination on teachers’ choice of materials, content, and methods, teachers were asked whether they make use of exam-related material in second-year baccalaureate classes. figure 5 types of materials used in english lessons figure 5 shows that teachers relied more heavily on textbooks and past exam papers. it seems that teachers favor using their own materials to help students grasp the rules and practice the language. with reference to the results of classroom observations, the washback effect was observed with three teachers who explained that they always bring past exam papers when the textbook was covered. in order to know more about the learning strategies that teachers recommend the most to their students in order to prepare for the examinations, teachers’ answers were divergent: considering the content and format of the examination, it was expected that using only examrelated materials would receive the highest ratings from teachers as the most recommended learning strategy, followed by memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary. however, it is evident that aspects such as communication, classroom participation, and expressing opinions are also conceived to be valuable regardless of the nature of the examination. in addition, in terms of materials, teachers believe that it is better for students to expose themselves to various english media rather than using examrelated materials only. one learner consents to these facts when he said “our teacher always advises us to memorize grammar rules and vocabulary especially the ones that are repeated in past exams.” analysis of the current english examination the baccalaureate exam, in which the english language is one item, is presumed to have an influence, especially on the pedagogical practices of teachers and students as it has a pivotal role in the lives of the learners. it is a high-stakes test. the grades which the students obtain in this examination have an enduring impact on their school lives as their chances of admission to the university are determined based on their grades. also, the placement of the students at colleges and departments in the universities which the students perceive ‘more prestigious’ or ‘less prestigious’ is established on the basis of their grades. consequently, various stakeholders such as students, teachers, school administrators, parents, and other participants put considerable emphasis on this examination. moroccan teachers confront tensions generated by the demands of learners’ requirements, syllabus specifications, and their own methods of teaching. because of time constraints, teachers are unable to do more than follow the textbook. grammar and writing are the most important aspects of the exam. so, oral communication is often neglected. the classroom environment is in english. teachers are not allowed to use their mother tongue. some students can recite a complicated sentence on the impact of women in society but when prompted on a simpler subject, they may struggle, and the situation becomes more horrifying. communication is very necessary in the job sector. students who studied english for so many years suddenly become helpless. hence, examining the washback of this high-stakes examination on the practices of teachers and students is noteworthy as it is underthe results of the figure 4 shows that an overwhelming majority (92%) confirmed the use of exam-related materials in examination classes. subsequently, when they were asked about what type of exam-related material they were particularly using, the respondents reported the following (see figure 5). riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 192 researched. over the past decade, many educational experts have argued about conducting a reform on the baccalaureate examination, which they think is too-grammar-andvocabulary oriented. despite the fact that some research has actually taken place, the baccalaureate examination, from the writer’s point of view, is still unsatisfactory. an analysis of the national english examination of the past three years is a good instance that more reform is still obligatory. the form of the 2023, 2022, and 2021 baccalaureate english exams remain exactly the same. the exam is a final written achievement test designed to measure what students already know. even though the present (new) syllabus is designed based on clt, the national exam is still traditional and is based on grammar rules. it is based on the standards set forth for the teaching of english in high school. the form, the content, and the tasks of the exam aim at assessing the learners’ knowledge and skills in reading, vocabulary, writing, functions, and grammar. the test paper comprises three main sections: reading comprehension, language (grammar), and writing. this examination of english does not test all language skills. this may be the biggest hurdle for moroccan teachers to be innovative and creative in teaching. there are many formats to test the english language. the most common formats are multiple choices (mc), completion, true/false, short answer, paraphrasing, pairing and matching, error correction, rearrangements, cloze/modified cloze, and editing (hughes, 1989). generally, english language teachers have the opportunity to use all these testing techniques in the classroom to assess whether their students achieved the objective of the syllabus, or the skill tested. in my opinion, multiple choice exams are not really effective for measuring students’ understanding. since they are not based on justifications, students can gamble on any choice that can coincidently be correct and so the assessments’ results will by no means reflect students’ level. the exam paper takes into consideration the syllabus distribution, time allocation, coefficient, test sections, rubrics, and grading for various streams. with reference to the english baccalaureate exam specifications, the tables below show the time allocations, coefficient, and weighting of all streams. the ongoing testing system implemented by teachers in moroccan schools relies only on past papers of the baccalaureate exam model. it is crystal clear that there is not much equality between test content and the contents of the syllabi. teachers became mere trainers of students on how to answer automatically to a typology of questions and activities that are habitually incorporated in the baccalaureate exam paper. the syllabi, intermittently, are based on the incorporation of the four language skills; but when it comes to assessment, we can notice that tests assess only two skills which are reading and writing. as harmer (2007) suggested: “one skill cannot be performed without another. it is impossible to speak in a conversation if you do not listen as well, and people seldom write without reading’ (p. 52). consequently, teachers always follow the highstake exam syllabus and teach according to that. speaking and listening skills are not practiced in the classroom. the main focus is to get good grades on the final exam. design of a new english examination considering the importance of washback in the english teaching/ learning situation and the mediocre results of the present english exam in morocco, the design of a new english exam is an imperative step to enhance moroccan students’ performance in the english language. in order to ameliorate the communicative competence of moroccan highschool students and effectively execute the reforms applied by the ministry of education, it is mandatory to design a national exam that more accurately reflects the prior mentioned objectives. the body of the literature review displays that the bee has a negative washback effect on both teaching and learning since it puts emphasis on grammar and vocabulary. to design this new form, the researcher incorporates some positive sections of the previous baccalaureate examinations, makes some modifications to the already-existing layout, and includes new testing items. the new exam is made table 2. time allocations and coefficient streams coefficient time allocation arts humanities science 4 3 2 3 hours 3 hours 2 hours riham belkbir / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 193 up of the following 5 parts: speaking, listening, writing, reading and language. the total score of the new exam is 50 points, different from the score of the previous exams. the score for each part is as follows: speaking (10pts), listening (10pts), reading (10pts), writing (10pts) and grammar(10pts). unlike the format of the existing exams, the suggested exam will be taken in two separate sessions, one session will be allocated to testing speaking and the other sessions will focus on the other parts. as stated earlier, the first main attribute of the suggested exam is the inclusion of the speaking skill. there are two main motives for taking in a speaking test for the new exam. the first attribute is theoretical. canale & swain (1980) claimed that a good test should address not only the communicative competence but also the communicative performance opting for authentic contexts. the second reason is related to the belief that a speaking test will definitely have a positive impact on both teachers and students. the test consists of three parts, which are outlined as follows: part 1: the test-takers introduce themselves to the assessor who then interacts with each candidate by asking questions related to different topics, such as family, daily routine and school life. hence, during this warm-up stage, the assessment will revolve around interactional short turns of speech. part 2: in this part, each learner is given a map and is asked to give directions to his pair. it is a guided speaking activity with an information gap task, and it is designed mainly to elicit longer acts of speech. it is believed that the use of information gap activities will have a positive washback effect upon learning as it gives a degree of authenticity (a tourist asking for directions). part 3: students will choose a topic randomly and are going to talk about it individually. the topic needs to be of an appropriate level of difficulty and should target stimulating issues related to the themes mentioned in the syllabus. as far as the listening part is concerned, it includes dialogues and conversations by native speakers. teachers should try to implement clt methods to help their students improve language proficiency and prepare them not only for the national exam but also for real-life situations. moreover, the government should make frequent supervision and evaluate teachers’ teaching practices in the classroom to know whether they are implementing the designed syllabus properly or not. in order to make the assessment process more effective, learners should be given more opportunities to show the extent of their knowledge through the use of various tasks. further studies should be conducted in the area of the washback effect on the teaching-learning process. for instance, the washback effect on learners’ language learning motivation and the washback effect of the exam on teachers’ motivation to implement clt. v. conclusion the present study succeeded in evincing the existence of backwash in the moroccan efl context and contributed to the scarce literature on language testing in morocco. by analyzing the possible positive and negative washback that tests might bring about at micro and macro levels, it seems that teachers play an 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(2021). relationships between learning motivations and practices as influenced by a high-stakes language test: the mechanism of washback on learning. studies in educational evaluation, volume 68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100967. maria ulfa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 24, 2020 final revision: april 11, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 the article deals with the interrogative construction in aceh language. this study used a qualitative approach. the study aims to find out; (1) kinds of interrogative words in aceh language (2) interrogative construction in aceh language by using x bar theory. the data in this study are acehnese sentences that contain interrogative words. the data sources in this study are (1) acehnese dictionaries, (2) acehnese book, and (3) acehnese speakers. the data collection process by an interview with the acehnese speaker in langsa and data analysis used x bar theory. the results of the study show that;1) there are eight kinds of interrogative words in aceh language especially in east aceh dialect in langsa such as: a) pue. peue, b) soe, c) hoe, d) pat, dipat, e) pajan, f) pakon, g) padum, h) pane, i) pakiban. there are three categories of interrogative construction;(a) open interrogative, (b) close interrogative, (c) rhetoric interrogative. the structure of the sentence in aceh language constructs by using of the specifier, complement, and verb. specifiers put by np and complement put by auxiliary, pp, or np and adverb can be preposition by pp or np. keyword interrogative construction, aceh language, east aceh dialect correspondence phone: 08126315231 e-mail: mulyadi.usu@gmail.com article interrogative construction in aceh language maria ulfa1, mulyadi2 1,2university of sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.45-50.2020 i. introduction aceh language is one of language in sumatra, this language is a vernacular language that functions as a language connector, which is divided into several dialects; in the north area: aceh besar dialect, pidie dialect, peusangan dialect, and pasai dialect (budiman, et al., 1977). even though there are several dialects, aceh people support each other and maintain good communication with one another. to maintain good communication among the speaker of each dialect, the people use interrogative sentences. each language has specific rules and patterns (denafri, et al., 2019; hammarström, 2016; campbell, 2008; comrie, et al., 2005). the sentence formation processes are also a difference, including interrogative sentences. the interrogative sentence has an important function in the conversation because the conversation itself is asking and answering questions (liu, 2016; cuza, 2016; haddican, et al., 2014; déprez, et al, 2013). furthermore, interrogative sentences also function to affirm, ridicule, shrink, or maintain relationship (bolden, 2016; hintikka, 2002; fava, 1996; maynard, 1994). interrogative is a sentence that contains interrogative intonation and means to ask (. in the written variety, it usually ends question mark (?), in indonesian marked by “whether” and so on (kridalaksana, 2008:148). crystal (1997: 201) also explains that interrogative is a term used in the grammatical classification of sentence types and usually looks different from declarative, ie sentences that refer to verb tenses or types of sentences/clauses that are usually used in question expression. furthermore, siemund (2001: 2) stated that “interrogative construction can be divided into three, there are so-called polar interrogatives (polar questions), interrogative content (content questions), and interrogative alternatives”. sadock & swicky (1996) and aarts (1997) divided interrogative into three types; 1) close 45 maria ulfa/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) interrogative, 2) open interrogative, and 3) rhetoric interrogative. the first is open interrogative: what, wo, why, when, how, where, which consists of new information. it can be a word constituent and phrase constituent. the word constituent has a free formula in a sentence which is combining which syntactical categories such as word, phrase, and clause. the question word can occupy one of syntactical function: subject, verb, object, adverb, and complement. the second is close interrogative: what, what is, and how which can be found in the initial, middle, and final position. the question word does not replace the syntactical function. it also can be replaced by intonations to indicate interogative sentence without changing the structure of the sentence. it consists of old information. the last is rhetoric interrogative: rhetoric construction in syntactical has the same structure with open interrogative construction and close interrogative construction. the question word in this type not function as the question word. in semantic types of rhetoric, interrogative can be in a different meaning (hintikka, 2002). the characteristics of informants are (i) people in his village are known as active bearers, (2) native speakers of the acehnese language, (3) native acehnese tribes, and (4) aged up to 40 years. the instruments used in this study were observation and interviews to identify the data. the data were analyzed using the distributional method by focusing on the syntactic analysis of the interrogative construction. iii.result kinds of interrogative word in aceh language (east aceh dialect) according to sulaiman (1977) in his book of “ bahasa aceh jilid 1” mention that there are five types of interrogative words in aceh language, such as : table 1. kinds of interrogative words by sulaiman no al il eng 1 pa/peue apa what 2 toh mana which 3 pat dimana where(asking place) 4 ho kemana where (asking direction) 5 soe siapa who the question words have a similarity found in langsa region based on east aceh area. in interview result of acehnese speaker found that the question words are: table 2. kinds of interrogative words in langsa region no al eng meaning 1. pue, peue what asking about noun 2 soe who asking about person 3 ho where asking about place or location 4 pat,dipat where asking about direction 5 pajan when asking about time 6 pakon, why asking about reason 7 padum how much asking about amount 8 pane where/how asking about direction and condition 9 pakiban how asking about condition note al : aceh language il : indonesia language eng : english fig. 1. types of interrogative by sadock & swicky several researchers had done research about interrogative construction in several languages (rodiyah and mulyadi, 2018; hafrianto, 2018; harahap and mulyadi, 2018; fitriyani, 2017; tarmini, 2009; chung, 2008; sulaiman, 1997; durie, 1985). however, the researches of interrogative construction in aceh language, especially the dialect, are very limited. then current research focuses on the analysis of interrogative contraction of east aceh dialect. ii.methods this study uses a qualitative descriptive research design. the data were collected from the children’s fable book in acehnese (wildan, 2001). to verify the data, the research also included the interview with the aceh people as informants. 46 maria ulfa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) interrogative construction in aceh language (langsa as the basis of east aceh dialect) several experts provide about the types of interrogative construction. sudock & swicky and art(1996) and aarts (1997) divided interrogative into three types; 1) close interrogative, 2) open interrogative, and 3) rhetoric interrogative. siemund (2001) divided interrogative construction into three kinds such as; 1) polar interrogative,2) interrogative constituent,3) alternative interrogative. durie (1985) found that there are three types of interrogative construction in the dialect of north aceh such as;1) yes/no question,2) other questions,3) rhetorical doubting question. interrogative construction in aceh language in langsa ( east aceh region) not yet discovered by the previous research above. on this occasion, the researcher used the theory of sadock and swicky (1996). interrogative construction in aceh language can be divided into ; (1) open interrogative, (2) yes/no question (close interrogative) (3) rhetoric interrogative. in this study, the interrogative construction took from acehnese speaker in langsa ( east aceh region). w/h question (open interrogative construction) in open interrogative words in aceh language consist of word ;pue/peue ‘what’ , soe ‘who’, pakon ‘why’, pakiban ‘how’,padum ‘how much’, pat,dipat ‘where’.those question words can become word constituents and phrase constituents. question words as constituents of words have a sequence pattern that is not bound in a sentence. question words can join syntactic categories of words, phrases, and clauses; question words can fill one of the syntactic functions, subject, verb, object, complement, and adverb. in open interrogative, construction can be formed by np combining with i ( ip). then interrogative construction also can be formed by the use of complement as the internal structure with a verb. 1a. yahwa heui aneuh geuh bak lampoh np v np pp [ active sentence] ‘yahwa calls his son in the field’ the sentence above as a declarative sentence, which one of the sentences can be changed into an interrogative sentence: 1b. yahwa, hei soe bak lampoh? np v np pp ‘ yahwa ,who did you called in the field?’ the interrogative construction of (1b) can be categories as open interrogative construction because the question needs informative answers. figure 2 shows the x bar of interrogative construction 1(b) the sentence above (1b) showed that the question words come after verb the function of interrogative words as np. 1c has a similar structure of sentence 1a. the word“aneuk geuh” change into “soe” which is the meaning “who” because the word “aneuk geuh” is a noun. the position of np “soe” move at the beginning of the sentence and have fig.1. declarative sentence in (1a), np “aneuk geuh” joining with v and become v` first and the complement of vp. pp joining with v’ and form the second of v and then form become vp because of pp is adverb from vp. vp is complement ip joining with i become i’ and np “yahwa” is joining with i’ and become ip, and it is a specifier. 47 maria ulfa/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the sentence structure of 1b and 1c has a function as a specifier and complement. the function of the specifier because of question word joining with c’ and become cp. if the question word put in the last sentence, the function of the word becomes complement because the question word joining with v and form v’. it can be concluded that the structure of the interrogative sentence in aceh language the question word of; what (pue) ‘who’( soe) ‘when (pajan), why (pakon), where (pat/ dipat), how (pakiban) have the same function and the lexical function as a noun. the example of an open interrogative sentence that analyzes by using xbar is shown that np is a complement from vp because of np join with v and become v’( first v bar). vp is a complement of ip because of joining with i become i’ and ip joining with c and forming c’ that will form cp. the interrogative sentence above omit the use of the second singular person “gata” that functions as np in that sentence. yes/no question (closed interrogative construction closed interrogative construction, only three question words were found, namely, the words, what, what, and how. these interrogative forms are frequently found in the initial position or at the beginning of the sentence. the question word in closed interrogative construction does not fill or replace the syntactic function. therefore, punishing questions with certain intonations can be done without changing the information in question. an example of an analysis of the use of question words in closed interrogative constructions can be seen in the following explanation. 2a. gobnyan jak u blang singoh np v pp np he goes to the rice field tomorrow declarative sentence can be seen from figure 4 above and close interrogative can be seen from the figure 5. x-bar showed that pp is a compliment because combining with v and become v‟. np “singoh” is adverb from vp because of combining with v‟ become v‟ and then, become vp. vp comes from ip and combining with i become i‟. and “kak “ as np is specifier because combining with i‟ and become ip, and then ip` combining with c becomes c` and then c` become cp.fig.3. construction of the movement of interrogative fig.2. construction of w/h question /open interogative the function as a specifier. below showed the movement of interrogative sentence: 1.c soe nyang yahwa heui bak lampoh? np c np v pp (open interrogative sentence) 48 maria ulfa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) 3. a.*gobnyan jak puekeuh u blang singoh? b.* gobnyan jak puekeuh u blang singoh puekeuh in interrogative construction auxiliary,pp or np can be put the position as a complement, as shown below : 4.a pat neu temeng nyan adv p aux v np 4b. gobnyan jak u blang singoh np v pp np rhetorical interrogative rhetorical interrogative construction has similarities with open interrogative construction and closed interrogative construction. in certain cases, syntactically, the rhetorical interrogative construction also has the same structure as the open interrogative construction and closed interrogative construction. semantically, in the rhetorical interrogative type, there are various meanings, including imperative, declarative, and exclamative. question markers in the interrogative type are not used to ask questions. the information submitted is entirely old information. the meanings are different depending on the context of the sentence in question. in rhetorical question, the interrogative form is used to indicate a negative meaning (durie :1985) 5. keneuk keruja mangat na peng pue na masalah? vp i would like to work to get money, that’s your problem? the question word above ‘pue’ is joining with vp, in syntactical, the use of what in interrogative rhetoric almost have the same construction with close interrogative. which is can be joining with syntactical categories as word, phrase, and clause? iv. conclusion the result of data analysis concludes that interrogative construction in aceh language can be divided into three categories; (1) open interrogative, (2) close interrogative, (3) rhetoric interrogative. the structure of the sentence in aceh language constructs by using of specifier, complement, and verb. specifiers put by np and complement put by auxilary, pp, or np and adverb can be reposition by pp or np. most of the interrogative sentences in aceh language do not use the personal pronoun. they omit the use of the pronoun in the sentencing event. the meaning of the sentences is acceptable. fig.4. construction of a declarative sentence fig.5. the movement of a declarative sentence become interrogative 2b. peue keuh gobnyan geu jak u blang singoh? (close interrogative) “peue keuh” as interrogative word can be found in the position in the first sentence the other word that used “pue” for example : “pue=nyoe” [will he/she], “pue=nyoe[what’s that] , “pue=nyan” [ what’s this] . “pue=keuh” that function as complement can’t be found at the end of the sentence. 49 maria ulfa/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) reference bolden, galina b. (2016). “a simple da?: affirming responses to polar questions in russian conversation. journal of pragmatics, volume 100, pages 40-58. budiman, et al. (1977). bahasa aceh. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. banda aceh. campbell, l. poser w. j. ( 2008 ). language classification: history and method . cambridge : cambridge university press . chung, sandra. 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(2019). affixation process in sudannese. jurnal arbitrer. vol 6 n.02 fava, elisabetta. (1996). “questioning interrogative interpretation in some indo-european languages”. language sciences, volume 18, issues 1–2, pages 87-110. fitriyani, d z. (2018). interrgative sentence in minangkabau language: x-bar theory. jurnal retorika ilmu bahasa, 3 (1): 188-200. haddican, bill, anders holmberg, hidekazu tanaka, george tsoulas. (2014). “interrogative slifting in english”. lingua, volume 138, pages 86-106. hafrianto, j. (2018). kalimat tanya dalam bahasa melayu dialek tamiang. litera jurnal penelitian bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 17(2): 186-201 hammarström, harald. (2016). “linguistic diversity and language evolution”, journal of language evolution, volume 1, issue 1, january, pages 19–29 harahap, & mulyadi. (2018). kata tanya dalam konstruksi interogatif bahasa mandailing. school education journal, vol. 8 no. 1 juni 2018. universitas sumatra utara hintikka, jaakko, ilpo halonen, arto mutanen. (2002). “interrogative logic as a general theory of reasoning”, in dov m. gabbay, ralph h. johnson, hans jürgen ohlbach, john woods (eds), studies in logic and practical reasoning, elsevier, volume 1, 2002, pages 295-337. maynard, senko k. (1994). “thematic suspension and speech act qualification: rhetorical effects of stray interrogative clauses in japanese text”. poetics, volume 22, issue 6, pages 473-496, mulyadi. (2010). frasa preposisi bahasa indonesia : analisis x-bar. jurnal kajian sastra, 34 (1): 1– 12. ramlan. 1981. sintaksis. yogyakarta: karyono. siemund, peter. (2001). interrogative constructions. berlin: mouton de gruyter tarmini, wini (2009). kata tanya dalam kontruksi interogatif bahasa indonesia: kajian iintaksis dan semantik”.doctoral dissertation prpgram pascasarjana universitas pajajaran bandung wildan, et al. (2001). dongeng anak anak dalam bahasa aceh: analisis struktur. pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional. jakarta 50 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 24, 2021 final revision: october 20, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 the article aims to describe the implementation blended learning environment in teaching writing skills. the research is based on the blended learning framework that integrates face-to-face methods and online learning methods. the face-to-face method is given to see students’ activeness in delivering ideas and brainstorming before writing essays. the online learning method is used to see students’ ability to elaborate ideas from drafting to become a complete essay. thus, students can be effective in learning in class to discuss their draft an essay and not spend much time writing. the implementation of blended learning was distributed to three session: brainstorming, drafting, and final writing. the evaluation was done for each cycle. after the evaluation, students get feedback for their performance in the previous session. the result post-test shows that students in the experimental class have indicated a significant improvement in essay writing performance with significance 0,06>0,05 with an average score of 76,35. the result of the research is very important as a framework to develop learning models for teaching writing at universities. keyword essay writing, blended learning, writing skills correspondence e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id articles teaching writing in blended environment handoko handoko1, ayumi ayumi2 1,2faculty of humanities, andalas university, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.197-206.2021 i. introduction writing essays in english is very important for university students, for academic purposes, such as continuing studies to higher levels and professional purposes (nourse, 2001; connelly and forsyth, 2012; baghbadorani and roohani, 2014; mcwhorter, 2016) . therefore, the university needs to provide writing skill as one of the graduate profile’s main competencies. to develop writing competency, it is necessary to design a well-developed curriculum for language learning. in general, teaching writing for university students can be divided into three stages: paragraph writing as a core skill, essay writing, critical writing. the series of courses are provided to develop students’ writing skills. many research indicates that writing skills are lower than other skills: speaking, reading, and listening. moreover, many students also consider writing skills is more difficult than listening and speaking. it is because writing is dealing with grammar and vocabulary and related to emotional and cognitive aspects (alluhaybi, 2015). several factors contribute to the fact that writing is considered a difficult subject. among others, writing skill requires formal language, error-free grammar, complete and clear ideas, and logical order (wyrick, 2011; connelly and forsyth, 2012). another aspect that also plays an important role in writing is an emotional aspect. emotional aspects can be seen from students’ perceptions toward the difficulty of essay writing (qashoa, 2014; alluhaybi, 2015; mcwhorter, 2016). it is quite acceptable since that essay writing required a complex series of interconnected ideas. the limited-time allocated for essay writing subject makes students unable to write essays well. in the traditional approach, students are asked to collect ideas, find references, and then write them into an essay. it is time-consuming and may not reach the optimal result. therefore, students must be exposed to the learning environment to improve their writing experience by providing sufficient time (adas and bakir, 2013). space limitations can also hinder students from 197 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) thinking critically when they gather ideas about what will be written. students will find it difficult to observe and find relevant references to support ideas that will be elaborated into their essays in the classroom. time constraints also inhibit students in the writing evaluation process since the number of lecturers and students is not balanced. if the lecturer gives feedback on each student’s draft writing, it will take three to four face-to-face meetings (handoko and waskito, 2018). besides, many students are impatient with writing essays. they tend to ignore the stages of writing an essay because they think it is useless and waste time (alameddine and mirza, 2016). to be able to write a good essay, of course, students must follow the stages of writing essays. there are at least four main stages in writing a good essay, research and gathering idea (prewriting), planning, writing drafts, and revision (cumming, 2006; manser, 2006; wyrick, 2011). writing an essay is not an instant process or a one-step process; students need to revise the essay several times based on the feedback and evaluation from lecturers. therefore, it is necessary to provide the students with an alternative strategy that allows them to be more effective and efficient. with the advance of technology, lecturers can use sophisticated technology to provide a virtual environment that allows students to manage and elaborate ideas and revise the draft without spending time in the class. among the approach that is quite effective is the application of a blended learning model. blended learning combines face-to-face learning methods with online learning (handoko and waskito, 2018). with online methods, students can do the task anytime outside the class. moreover, the method can also facilitate lecturers in examining essays with direct feedback through the online system. however, it must be highlighted that online learning cannot replace face-to-face meetings. face-to-face meetings are still powerful in providing critical thinking, feedback, direct evaluations, and psychological support for the students (stein and graham, 2014). both traditional learning and online learning are the core concept of blended learning or hybrid learning. blended learning can be defined as the integration of traditional learning (face-to-face) with an onlinebased approach to increase the effectiveness, efficiency, and flexibility of learning (pérez-marín, santacruz and gómez, 2012; ramakrisnan et al., 2012; güzer and caner, 2014; stein and graham, 2014). from this definition, it can be seen that blended learning emphasizes not only face-to-face systems but also uses computational instruments to facilitate learning. there is a considerable benefit in developing students’ knowledge and experience in integrating experience in the learning process. with this learning, students learn internal and cognitive knowledge to produce in-depth and comprehensive knowledge (garrison and kanuka, 2004; khlaisang and likhitdamrongkiat, 2015; koraneekij and khlaisang, 2015). blended learning has become a central issue for the last decade, including in teaching the english language. many researchers report that blended learning has a positive impact on student’s performance (garrison and kanuka, 2004; maulan and ibrahim, 2012; ramakrisnan et al., 2012; bakarnordin and alias, 2013; makhdoom et al., 2013; khlaisang and likhitdamrongkiat, 2015; koraneekij and khlaisang, 2015). it provides easy access to learning material and assessment and evaluation for the student, which will improve their english skill. most of the blended learning research in teaching english focuses on a general aspect of competence, such as grammar or vocabulary building. however, some other aspects, such as writing or speaking, are less discussed. this research is focusing on the implementation of a blended learning model to improve writing skills. this research is limited to writing competence, especially writing essays. ii. methods participant the number of participants in the study is 90 students. they were undergraduate students of universitas andalas, who enrolled in english communication. the students were grouped into experimental group and control group. the experimental group consists of 45 students who exposed to a used blended learning environment for essay writing. the control group consists of 45 students who did not use blended learning. this study’s object is the effectiveness of the 198 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) application of blended learning methods in the acceptance and understanding of learning material. the primary data were obtained from the test conducted to measure the student’s ability to write essays, including pre-test (post-test) and post-test (post-test). secondary data comes from the track record of assessing students’ work and lecturer records in both face-to-face and online learning activities. in this study, the subject will take the initial test to see the ability to write his essay. after the implementation of blended learning is complete, it is estimated that the subject will take the final test to involve the significance of improving his essay writing skills in the next three months. design and statistic analysis the research was conducted using a single-factor. the independent variable was the use of blended learning, or non-use blended learning in writing an essay while the dependent variable is essay score. the essay scores included the evaluation of the introduction and thesis statement, main points for body and conclusion paragraph, structure transition, style and diction, and grammar and punctuation. the data are analyzed by using the t-test. rationale and hypothesis the research assumed that blended learning would provide students more time to write a good essay. writing process face to face activities online activities pre-writing finding topics and formulating the outline brainstorming, small group discussion, class discussion reading essay examples watching instruction video discussion forum online quiz writing the outline drafting writing a draft based on the outline presentation direct feedback from the instructors writing the draft, watching instruction video self-review, peer review, detail feedback, private message writing the essay developing the essay based on drafting feedback presentation direct feedback self review (rubric), peer review, annotation feedback discussion forum rewriting improving the writing based on the feedback provide motivation for students, provide one to one discussion peer review, feedback table 1. activities design for blended class by using online media, including video, web page, and online assignments, students will be able to develop writing skills, especially dealing with essay structure and logical order. it is expected that blended learning will have a positive effect on the quality of essay writing. the null hypothesis of the research was: h0: the use of a blended learning environment will not improve the experimental group’s performance in writing an essay. h1: the use of a blended learning environment will improve the performance of the experimental group. blended class design for essay writing the research focuses on the blended class design with applied to experimental class. in the blended class, students develop their writing ability in different context, stating from formulating idea to submitting the final assignment. this class consists of 16 meeting which covers 10 topics. however, for the research purposes only 8 meetings were monitored for both control and experimental group. for control group, all learning activities were done by face to face meeting, while for experimental group, the activities were delivered with both face to face and online. the activities design for experimental class is reflected in table 1. 199 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) table 1 shows some activities that provided during face to face and online meeting which include both synchronous and asynchronous activities. .implementing blended learning models in writing essays can be implemented in four stages of writing, including brainstorming (prewriting), drafting, writing essays, and editing or revision (rewriting). a. brainstorming brainstorming is a critical thinking process to generate ideas that will be used as a material in writing an essay (zemach and rumisek, 2006; wyrick, 2011; connelly and forsyth, 2012; mcwhorter, 2016). here students are invited to discuss by provoking creative ideas through pictures, videos, or articles related to the topic. in the application of blended learning, the stages of brainstorming can be done in class or face to face. lecturers play an active role in directing students to questions that will lead them to certain arguments or conclusions. brainstorming can be done in several ways, such as making lists, writing freely, and mapping. to create a list, the lecturer can ask students to write down words, phrases, or sentences related to the discussion topic. freewriting can be used to provoke students’ creative ideas and also can train their fluency in writing. lecturers can ask students to write down whatever comes to their mind without paying attention to grammar or spelling. finally, the lecturer can use the mapping method, writes students’ ideas around the main topic, then connects ideas with a related topic. after all, ideas are collected, the lecturer can invite students to eliminate irrelevant information with the topics they are going to write. b. make a draft / framework for writing a draft is the starting point in writing that guides the writer to make a good essay. the drafting process started by outlining the topics and objectives which have been gathered through brainstorming. the essay’s outline aims to put ideas about the topic in a well organized and logical sequence (zemach and rumisek, 2006; mcwhorter, 2016). here are the steps in writing an outline: 1. write the topic at the top 2. use roman numerals i, ii, iii to write down the main part of an essay, starting from the introduction, the first main idea, the second main idea, the third main idea, and a conclusion. provide a wide enough distance for each part. 3. in the introduction, write down the ideas about the topic. if the essay aims to be convincing, then give the best argument. if the essay aims to explain the process, write down the steps to understand it. and if the essay aims to inform something, explain the main categories of information 4. next to each roman numeral, write a, b, and c slightly indented, then write down the facts or information that supports the main idea or statement. to help students create this essay framework, lecturers can provide a template skeleton in a blended learning environment that can be accessed and downloaded by students online. with this template, students will be able to collect the essay framework in short. this stage can be done online without having to allocate special time face-to-face to discuss the essay framework. c. essay writing after writing an outline of the essay, students are asked to write their essays based on the outline. students can explain, describe, and provide complete arguments about the topics. keep in mind that each of the important ideas that have been written in the outline is the main sentence that will be developed into paragraphs. to develop the main sentence into paragraphs, it is necessary to add supporting information (supporting detail). a paragraph has a structure consisting of main sentences, supporting sentences, and concluding sentences (zemach and rumisek, 2006). the first paragraph is a very important part because the section provides an overview of the problem and determines whether the essay is interesting or not for the reader. writing a good opening paragraph may consist of five to ten sentences, provide an overview of the essay topic, provide background information on the topic, and give important points to be discussed in the content section. the most important is to attract the attention of readers (zemach and rumisek, 2006; alluhaybi, 2015; mcwhorter, 2016).200 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) besides providing material, such as videos or document files, the lecturer can allocate an assignment for the introduction section in the blended learning environment. students can be grouped and asked to do peer review and provide feedback for each writing. then, the lecture may respond to the feedback and provide a suggestion. do not forget to praise the students for their works. it is a way to engage students in the online environment. after writing the first paragraph, then each main idea should be developed into a paragraph. the main idea contains the main sentence as a core of the paragraph. then, the main sentence must be supported by supporting sentences or supporting details to support the statement of the main sentence. the supporting details may be varied according to the type of sentence. they can be examples, facts, quotations, reasons, or opinions. it is done until all the main ideas that have been written in the framework have become complete paragraphs. finally, an essay is usually ended by writing a conclusion. the conclusion is a summary of the points that have been mentioned and gives the reader a final perspective. the points should not repeat what has been written in the discussion. a good conclusion also describes the author’s opinions, feelings, or perceptions on the topic (zemach and rumisek, 2006; mcwhorter, 2016). in the blended environment, writing an essay can be undertaken via online activities. lecturers can provide an assignment that the students can access at home and can provide direct feedback or suggestion for the writing. it will allow students to have extensive time to consider developing the main idea into a paragraph by providing supporting sentences. d. revision and editing after a series of writing, students need to review and edit their writing. here, students are required to review their essays by considering several technical aspects, such as the logical sequence of paragraphs, cohesion, the format of writing, and grammar and spelling. revision in writing is very critical for english learners because they have limited access to the english language. some students may also have difficulties in finding appropriate dictions while some others have difficulties in writing cohesively. the revision will help them consider the essay, check the order of the ideas, find appropriate diction, improve readability, and check grammar and punctuation. it may take several times until students get their best essays. revision can be done via online activities. lecturers can provide feedback, alternative diction, or grammatical revision. it will allow students to improve their writing by revising grammar and cohesion based on the feedback. besides, it is easy for students to rearrange the sentences or paragraphs by using the online environment. from the series of writing, almost all processes can be carried out through the online learning process. however, face-to-face learning still plays an important role, especially in providing feedback and discussion to solve the problems faced by students in writing essays. with the combination of face-to-face learning and online learning, it is expected that the student’s performance in writing english essays will increase significantly. iii. result pre-test result the main independent variable was the use of blended learning by the experimental group in the essay writing. the independent is the essay score, which includes the introduction (skill 1), the main points in body paragraphs and conclusion (skill 2), the organization (skill 3), style and diction (skill 4), and spelling, grammar, and punctuation (skill 5). the maximum value for each skill is 20. table 2. pre-test result for the control group table 2 reflects the distribution of skills in writing an essay. it can be seen that the mean of each skill is quite low. the lowest score for skill is in skill 1, reflecting the student’s competence in writing engaged and well-structured introduction. moreover, the pre-test result also shows that 59% of students have less than 60, which indicates a low level of competency in essay writing.201 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) table 3 reflects the writing skill of the experimental group. it can be seen that the mean for each skill is quite close to the control group. moreover, the mean for the essay score is also quite close to the control group’s essay score. this indicates that both the control and experimental group have the same level of competency in essay writing. in the experimental class, the lowest skill is skill 1, which is similar to the control class. the result of the pre-test indicates that majority of the students have low skill in writing. about 60% of students have an essay score below 60; most of them are between 50-55. it can be inferred that students have difficulties in writing an essay. based on the essay scores from the pre-test in both the control and experimental group, it can be inferred that writing an essay remains a problem in english learning. students have difficulties in composing ideas with well-structured sentences. moreover, the pre-test result also indicates that students cannot produce a comprehensive and attractive introduction from the five skills used as a measurement. therefore, it is important to provide an appropriate approach to teach essay writing to the students. b. post result post-test was done to figure out the result of the learning process for both control and experimental classes in writing essays. students were exposed to the traditional face-to-face meeting in the control class, while the experimental class uses a blended learning approach. as in the pre-test, post-test also focuses on five aspects of writing an essay, including introduction (skill 1), main points (skill 2), organization (skill 3), style (skill 4), and mechanics (skill 5). the maximum point for each skill is 20 point. table 4 shows that the control class’s writing skill improved, especially for skill 1 and 5. some other skills improved slightly, and the other is decreased. in general, the average score for essay writing skill of control class is 62.39. the post-test result in the experimental class shows there is a significant improvement in writing skills, especially for skill 1, 2, and 3. it indicates that the use of instructional media through blended learning environments significantly impacts students’ performance in essay writing. figure 1 shows the comparison of pre-test and post-test for both control and experimental class. table 3. pre-test essay score for the experimental group table 4. post test result for control group fig.1 result comparisons of pre-test and post-test in control and experimental class the pre-test result indicates that there are improvements for each skill both in control and experimental classes. it can be inferred from figure 1 that students in the experimental class have improved their essay scores higher than the students in the control class. skill 1 and 2 have improved significantly in the experimental class. c. t-test result the t-test is used to figure out the significant difference between control and experimental class. it includes both pre-test and post-test results, which are compared to figure out the result’s significant improvement. from the analysis, the control class’s result shows the mean for the pre-test is 55,23, while the post-test is 62,39. the t-test results of both test are 0.00, which indicates no significant improvement in the control class. meanwhile, the experiment class shows different results. based 202 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) on the t-test analysis, the result shows that the significant improvement is 0,06 with the mean of the pre-test is 55,27, and the post-test is 76,35. the significant improvement of the experiment class indicates that the use of instructional media through blended learning environments can improve students’ competence in writing essays. hence, it can be concluded that the hypothesis 1 (h1) is accepted with a significance score 0,06>0,05. furthermore, regarding the skills in the writing essay, the experiment class indicates different significant results. contemplate and elaborate on their ideas to generate a good introduction. besides the introduction, cohesion and coherence are also necessary to create a good essay. from the result of the research, cohesion and coherence are indicated by skill 2 and skill 3. online environments can be used to deliver descriptions of how to develop a good introduction, while face-to-face meetings can be used to discuss their works and get feedback from the lecturer. in writing the introduction, students can rewrite their writing based on the lecturer’s feedback via the online environment. students can edit their assignments without having to start writing from scratch. regarding coherence and cohesion, blended learning environments enable students to rearrange the sentences and paragraphs into a logical order and add coherence devices, such as conjunctive adverbs and personal references. iv. discussion blended learning environments offer various instructional media, such as real-time collaboration software, online web-based learning, and technology that support performance-based learning by providing learning environments. these features are distributed through the learning management system (lms) using the blended learning environment. there are four features that lms has that are very useful in implementing blended learning (stein and graham, 2014): 1. class management includes student management, assessment, group management, peer review, and learning outcomes analysis. 2. communication and interaction: announcement features, private messages, discussion forums, live chats, video conferences, notifications, and rss feed. 3. learning organization and resources: web page creation, learning distribution, learning outcomes, file uploads, and collaboration. 4. practice and practice: quizzes and tests, surveys, online assignments, selfassessments, and rubrics. the blended learning model consists of various table 5. t-test for pretest and post test for experimental group table 5 indicates that skill 1 has the highest significance improvement, about 0,2 while skill 3 has less significant improvement, about 0,06. it can be seen in table 5 that the use of instructional media through blended learning environments can improve students’ competence in writing an essay. by using an online environment, students can access learning material easily. students can also get direct feedback regarding their assignments and revise the essay based on the feedback. moreover, the online environment enables students to allocate more time to develop their essays, find the references, and do editing. moreover, during the face-to-face meeting, students have more time to discuss within a group, get a peer review, and get direct feedback from the teacher. the use of instructional video in the online environment helped students understand the concepts and strategies in elaborating a good essay. students can replay the video until they get a better understanding of the topic. the result of the current indicates that the skill in writing the introduction is improved significantly. the introduction is very important in writing an essay since it describes the general overview of the essay. writers have to elaborate an interesting introduction to engage the reader. blended learning allows students to 203 handoko/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) learning activities, including face-to-face learning, online learning, and independent learning. as a mixed model, blended learning should provide synchronous and asynchronous learning. in the synchronous mode, lecturers or teachers allow students to be independent learners by using interactive material, such as instructional video, video conference, live chat, animation, and presentation. on the other hand, the asynchronous mode offers a variety of activities such as discussion forums, emails, assignments, quizzes, and wikis (garrison and kanuka, 2004; moreno and mayer, 2007; bastiaens, 2012; stein and graham, 2014). by using the blended learning method, access to learning content can be easier. access to learning materials, assessment, and evaluation can be accessed online. thus, students can study anytime and anywhere. likewise, teachers can also deliver learning material, assessment, evaluation, and communication online. even today, the blended learning environment is accessible with smartphones, making it easier for the teaching and learning process. among the advantages of a specific blended learning model is students’ opportunity to build a sense of togetherness (garrison and kanuka, 2004). in a class that applies a blended learning model, besides face-to-face meetings, students also have the opportunity to communicate with other students by engaging in open dialogue through discussion forums. this facility allows students to trigger their creativity and reasoning skills through critical discussion. other features also allow students to communicate with lecturers or teachers through personal messages and email. these features allow lecturers to provide direct feedback on students’ various learning activities both in face-to-face and online class. the lecturer can share learning materials such as video, audio, text, weblinks, and other material. moreover, the lecturer can also control and monitor students’ progress during the learning, especially in essay writing. v. conclusion writing an english essay is a difficult task for many university students because it is a matter of english proficiency and deals with a technical and psychological aspect. students need extended time to write their essays and instructional media, which can help them improve their understanding of essay writing’s technical aspects. besides, they also need psychological treatment, such as motivation, encouragement, and praise, to keep them engaged in writing. blended learning environment offers both technical and psychological aspects of writing. students can access learning material and undertake writing processes online without limited time and space. they also can get benefit from a face-to-face meeting, including feedback and motivation from the lecturers. both online and face-to-face meetings can help the students to improve their skills in essay writing. however, the use of instructional media through blended learning environments in the experimental class has a significant impact on the student’s performance in essay writing. acknowledgement we acknowledgement the support recieved from lembaga penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat (lppm) universitas andalas with the scheme penellitian dosen pemula 2021. references adas, d. and bakir, a. 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(2013) ‘learning outcomes and student perceptions in using of blended learning in history’, procedia social and behavioral sciences. elsevier b.v., 103, pp. 577–585. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.375. bastiaens, t. j. (2012) design of an authentic e-learning environment, professional education using e-simulations: benefits of blended learning design. pennsylvania: business science reference. doi: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch004. connelly, j. and forsyth, p. (2012) essay writing skills. london: kogan page limited. cumming, a. (2006) goals for academic writing. amsterdam: john benjamins. garrison, d. r. and kanuka, h. (2004) ‘blended learning: uncovering its transformative potential in higher education’, the internet and higher education, 7(2), pp. 95–105. doi: 10.1016/j. iheduc.2004.02.001. güzer, b. and caner, h. (2014) ‘the past , present and future of blended learning : an in depth analysis of literature’, procedia social and behavioral sciences. elsevier b.v., 116, pp. 4596–4603. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.992. handoko, h. and waskito, w. (2018) blended learning: teori dan penerapannya. padang: lptik universitas andalas. khlaisang, j. and likhitdamrongkiat, m. (2015) ‘e-learning system in blended learning environment to enhance cognitive skills for learners in higher education’, procedia social and behavioral sciences. elsevier b.v., 174, pp. 759–767. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.612. koraneekij, p. and khlaisang, j. (2015) ‘development of learning outcome based e-portfolio model emphasizing on cognitive skills in pedagogical blended e-learning environment for undergraduate students at faculty of education, chulalongkorn university’, procedia social and behavioral sciences. elsevier b.v., 174, pp. 805–813. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.664. makhdoom, n. et al. 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(2006) academic writing: from paragraph to essay. oxford: macmillan education. 206 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: december 04, 2020 final revision: december 23, 2020 available online: april 20, 2021 english has won the status of international language. the quality of our expression depends on our use of speaking skills. the importance and value of speaking english have been accepted worldwide. in pakistan, teaching english was mainly focused upon reading and writing skills. but in today’s world, listening and speaking skills have become much more important than in the past. recently, the value of role-play in the classroom situation has become mandatory to make the teaching-learning process easy, attractive, and interesting. the implementation of role-play was expected to be an effective way to improve the learners’ speaking skills. so in the present study, the focus is on this matter whether the use of role play can be beneficial in bringing a positive change in the teaching-learning process of speaking skills for elementary level learners. the collective problems of the teachers and students during speaking english were the main focus of the study. 360 students and twenty teachers of bahawalpur region participated in this study. pre-test, post-test, and questionnaire were used as a tool to collect the data from the respondents. the findings of the study showed that there was a significant difference between pre-test and post-test results. it was suggested that speech practice with the help of role play should be encouraged at the elementary level. keyword improve, investigation, language, listening skills, role play, speaking skills. correspondence e-mail: safdarbhatti2001@gmail.com teaching speaking skills through role play at elementary level: an analysis muhammad safdar bhatti1 1the islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.93-100.2021 i. introduction paradoxically it seems as if english language runs like blood through the veins of nations worldwide. to have good communication skills in english is a burning desire for most of people. communicative competence in the target language is more demanded now than ever before. usually, the educational system at the secondary level follows the medium of instruction in the mother tongue. in pakistan, the students have to study english as a compulsory subject from k.g to graduation level. the value of english language is internationally accepted. it’s a storehouse of world knowledge. it is a medium of international communication and also a custodian of standard terminologies. to get advancement in higher studies, the solidity of english language is admirable. considering the state of this language, it has been a challenge for its teacher. it is very important for an english language teacher to have full command on it. english speaking ability is very important for people interaction where people speak english every day and everywhere. speaking is considered a critical skill from a foreign language learning perspective. it is because of the assumption that the main source of success in learning a language is the ability to speak that language. foreign language learners may have different reasons for learning the foreign language; however, the main thing is to communicate fluently because his language capabilities assess everyone. speaking is one of the important skills that students should master in order to communicate in english fluently and clearly. speaking involves interaction with one or more participants (harmer, 2001:271). this means that effective speaking also involves a good deal of listening. speaking takes place 93 articles muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) everywhere and has become part of our daily activities. speaking is the most difficult skill to be learned by students, among the four skills. in speaking activities, there are two reasons why speaking skills is difficult for the students. the first cause is that students lack motivation in learning english. another reason is caused by the inappropriate techniques used by the teacher in teaching speaking skills. whereas teaching english as a foreign language requires effective learning methods, techniques, language games, or activities that promote speaking skills. the significance of four basic skills for this language cannot be denied. reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills must be taught simultaneously to get outstanding results. speaking skills is not only needed in offices, banks, and hospitals in fact in all over the fields present in today’s most dynamic world. different techniques can be used by language teachers in class to improve the speaking skills of students at the secondary level. to overcome this situation, there is an effective way that teaching speaking skills can be done through various activities that can promote speaking skills. one of them is by using role play activity as a technique in the teaching and learning process. role-play is also a modern technique that can be resulted in impressive grades. according to the need of the topic, students’ involvement not only makes them motivated but also has deep-rooted effects. the current study will divulge the excellency of role-play in learning highly impressive speaking skills. it will be salutary for both the teacher and the learner, generally for all and especially for the secondary level. role play is very important in teaching speaking skills because it allows students to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. it also allows students to be creative and put themselves in another person’s place for a while. role-play technique is the way to teach speaking by setting up the students in the situations in pairs or groups. this means putting two or more students together and giving them a handout sheet, which they can first read and study, take time to look-up unknown words, and ask their friends about meanings and pronunciation. then, give them a little more time to practice speaking, with everybody in the room reading aloud to get a feel for the role they will be playing and get used to the words sounds, phrases, and rhythm of the language. (david holmes, 2004:134). by using role play activities in teaching speaking, the students may improve their knowledge in speaking skills. on the other hand, they will be able to express their ideas or their feelings by using english. furthermore, it will become an easy way for them to master english as an international language for international communication. the nature of speaking skills speaking is one of the skills that have to be mastered by students in learning english. richards (2008:19) states that we tend to be getting something done in speaking, exploring ideas, working out some aspects of the world, or simply being together. if the students can speak english fluently, they can easily communicate and explore their idea. speaking english well also helps students access up-to-date information in science, technology, and health. good english speakers will be in a strong position to help their country’s economy, social and development. in addition, speaking is one of the most difficult aspects for students to master. the students have to master all components of speaking skills in order to speak clearly and fluently. speaking is a productive skill in the oral mode. like the other skills, it is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words. according to chastain (1998), speaking is a productive skill that involves many components, such as grammar, strategy, sociolinguistics, and discourse; for him speaking is more than simply making the right sounds, choosing the right words, or getting the constructions correct (pp. 330-358). speaking is probably the language skill that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as possible. speaking is more frequently used than writing. the main function of spoken language is to socialize individuals. on the contrary to writing, spoken language is produced and processed in real-time, the speaker and hearer have limited time to plan and produce what they want to say and understand what they hear. speech is generally used in faceto-face conversations; it is temporary, spontaneous, 94 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) and variable. spoken language is supported by body languages such as gestures or facial expressions (often called non-verbal communication). we teach speaking as learners consider this particular skill one of the most important and most challenging skills. speaking communication is the most common way of building interpersonal relations. furthermore, speaking is important if we want to get things done, find out information, and give instructions. importance of speaking skills although not a set curriculum is there in most educational institutions, speaking skills have been found to be a fundamental skill necessary for a learner’s success in life. learners often evaluate their success in language learning on the basis of how well they feel they have improved in their spoken language proficiency. matin claims (2011:p.237) someone’s fluency in speaking measures his/ her proficiency in that language. students who can translate their thoughts and ideas into words are found to be more successful in school. without developing good speaking skills, the student has to suffer lifelong consequences because of their inability (wilson 1997; in smith, 2003: p.3). the ability to speak english also plays an important role in developing reading and writing skills. as rivers says, when we read and write, we use what we know of the language orally (1968: p.20). speaking skill is required everywhere, from simple conversation to formal public speaking. as wilson (1997: p.9) argues, talking can be used to connect with others, explore and understand the world and reveal oneself. in bangladesh’s perspective, fluency in speaking english is needed for professional purposes, like doing international business, diplomatic jobs, and higher studies (matin, 2011: p.237). the young generation aspires to professional careers in dominant english communities where the most required qualities of candidates are presentation skills and fluency in speaking. after completing higher secondary education, at the tertiary level, especially at universities, students are encouraged to communicate in english, and most of the lectures are delivered in english. besides students going abroad to pursue higher studies or earn a livelihood, speaking fluently is considered the most advanced facility for them (matin, 2011: p.238). balanced activities approach the goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. they should avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation. to help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output. finally, in a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses various activities from these different categories of input and output. learners at all proficiency levels, including beginners, benefit from this variety, it is more motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective language learning. the nature of role play getting students to talk about their feelings is not always easy. many issues are hard for them to talk about because they may be afraid of ridicule or dismissal. students need to be given permission to play and explore. role-play can help them play with a personal problem. it allows them to be spontaneous by releasing creative energy. role-play, on the other hand, can be quite a simple and brief technique to organize. it is also highly flexible, leaving much more scope for the exercise of individual variation, initiative, and imagination. role-play is also included in simulation as well. role-play is a technique that involves students taking on a role and carrying out a discussion with each person playing their role. for example, the local council wishes to introduce a new system and location for dumping waste. some students play local councilors, others are local residents, others are members of an environmental organization, and others are managers and employees being asked to carry out the work. the teacher describes and sets up the situation. the students prepare in groups, those playing the same 95 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) roles prepare together. they then form new groups to carry out the discussion (lucy pollard, 2008: 36). in playing their role for the first time, the students’ will be nervous when they have to perform in front of others, especially the teacher, but with time, the more role-plays that they do, the more proficient and confident they will become. in the end, they might actually get to like it, especially if they imagine themselves to be rehearsing for a role, just as they would if they were playing a small part in a movie or tv series. this is an attitude that the teacher should cultivate (david holmes, 2004:134). speaking skills is one of the most important skills, and students must indulge in speaking english. the objectives of the present study were as follows: 1. to identify students’ problems in speaking english. 2. to discover whether role play is effective way to overcome students’ speaking difficulties. 3. to assess the impact of role play activities on students to perform better orally. 4. to prove the worth of role-play activities to meliorate the speaking skills. in this investigation, the researcher attempted to give a tentative solution to the problems. the hypothesis could be stated as: the speaking skills of the elementary level students can be improved through role play activities. ii. method 2.1 research design this research is experimental in nature which includes both experimental and control groups. 2.2 population of the study elementary level learners of bahawalpur city were part of the study. this study’s data were collected from the elementary level students in the academic year 2018-19. the study was limited to the bahawalpur city only. 2.3 sampling and procedure in this study, three hundred and sixty students of govt. s.d. high school bahawalpur and workers welfare school (girls) bahawalpur participated. they were further subdivided into 180 males and 180 females. ninety students were selected in the experimental group and the same number in the control group. the experiment lasted for four weeks. 2.4 data collection tools test and questionnaires were the research tools used for this study. the questionnaire was delivered to the teachers about their teaching experiences. their result was also collected on the same questionnaire as their performance. iii. data analysis and results rq1: does there exist any significant difference between the achievement scores of overall pretest and post-test? table 1. comparison between overall pretest posttest results according to table 1, a significant difference was found in students’ achievement scores of pre-test post-test results. the mean achievement score of pre-test participants (m= 64.04, sd= 10.93) and post-test participants (m=68.21, sd=8.64) with (p value<0.05) shows that post-test group students had performed better than that of pre-test group. so the research question, “is there exists any significant difference between the achievement score of overall pre-test and post-test?” answered positive. it revealed that role play activities have a positive impact in enhancing the oral proficiency of elementary-level students. rq2: does there exist any significant difference between the achievement scores of the male group pre-test and post-test? table 2. comparison between male group pre-test posttest results96 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) table 2. depicted a significant difference in students’ achievement scores of pre-test post-test results in the male group. the mean achievement score of pre-test participants (m= 64.26, sd= 10.61) and post-test participants (m=67.99, sd=10.16) with (p value<0.05) shows that post-test group students had performed better than that of pre-test group. so the research question, “is there exist any significant difference between the achievement score of male group pre-test and post-test?” answered positively. it revealed that role play activities positively impact the speaking ability of the elementary-level students in the male group. ho3: does there exist any significant difference between the female group’s achievement scores pre-test and post-test? than that of the pre-test group. it revealed that role play activities positively impact the speaking skills of the elementary-level students in the male group. a significant difference was explored in students’ achievement scores of pre-test post-test results in the female group. the post-test group students had performed better than that of the pre-test group. it exposed that role play activities have a positive impact in enhancing the oral skills of elementary level students in the female group. the present study dealt with teaching speaking skills through role play to the elementary level students of bahawalpur region. from the analysis and interpretation of the information and data, the researcher has found that elementary-level students faced a big problem in speaking skills. the results of the tests supported the major findings of the present study. the obtained comparative percentages indicated the students’ positive changing attitudes and motivation in learning speaking skills through role-play. therefore, the result indicated a good finding in terms of the students’ responses toward role play in learning speaking skills. these findings also indicated that most of the students showed positive attitudes and motivation as well as their active participation in the teaching and learning process. these findings also indicated that teaching speaking skills through role play could improve the students’ motivation, attitude, and interest in learning speaking skills, as it showed in the teaching and learning process. therefore, the findings showed the hypothesis that elementarylevel students’ speaking skills could be improved through role-play was true and clearly accepted. v. conclusions english language is taught as a compulsory subject in pakistani institutions from kg to bachelors’ level. the importance of english language has been emphasized since the creation of pakistan in all the education policies right first education conference 1947 to the last national education policy 2010, the importance of english has been properly recognized. clear and well-defined objectives set the right directions for the teaching-learning process. if objectives are not clear, the whole process is blocked. if the country has to survive honorably in the international community, its system of education table 3. comparison between female group pre-test post-test results table 3. showed a significant difference in students’ achievement scores of pre-test post-test results in the female group. the mean achievement score of pre-test participants (m= 63.82, sd= 11.27) and post-test participants (m=68.43, sd=6.81) with (p value<0.05) shows that post-test group students had performed better than that of pre-test group. so the research question, “is there exist any significant difference between the achievement scores of female group pre-test and post-test?” answered positively. it revealed that role play activities positively impact the speaking skills of elementarylevel students in the female group. iv. discussion and findings a significant difference was found in students’ achievement scores of pre-test post-test results. the post-test group students had performed better than that of the pre-test group. it revealed that role play activities have a positive impact in enhancing the speaking skills of the elementary level students of bahawalpur. the students’ achievement scores of pre-test posttest results in the male group differ significantly. the post-test group students had performed better 97 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) must be well defined. elementary level teaching methodologies are promoting students’ cramming skills to get high scores in the examinations. it does not fulfill all the requirements needed for learning english as a second language. suggestions and recommendations teaching does not depend on the lesson program only. it is not confined to the teaching methodologies but, more importantly, the teacher who presents the lesson and uses various techniques to make the lesson more lively and enjoyable. the important factor is that the learning of students must be according to the needs. the student should not be confined only to the learning of english language skills as an examination point of view, but the language learning should be based on the four language skills, i.e. listening, reading, writing, and speaking, as these are the integrated units of the language. the researcher gives some suggestions for the improvement in language learning as follow:  the teacher should promote interactive techniques while teaching english.  the teacher should emphasize english as a medium of instruction in english classroom.  the teacher should present the language in an enjoyable, relaxed, and understandable way.  students should be encouraged and motivated to learn all the language skills equally.  refresher courses for better teaching for english language must be revised after a certain period of time. the researcher suggests some more suggestions according to the result of the research finding that could be seen as follows: 1. elementary-level english teachers are suggested to apply role play in teaching speaking skills since it is one of the best techniques to improve students’ speaking skills. furthermore, modification or development of the technique can be more beneficial for its implementation and get better achievement for the students. 2. the students are expected to be able to maintain what they have already reached now. they are suggested to use the target language to communicate and interact in the classroom since it is a good way to help them to improve their speaking skills. 3. the other researchers are hoped to do better research on the technique which the researcher in this present study had applied; in addition, it is also expected that role play can be applied not only for teaching speaking skills but also for teaching other skills. 4. the institutions are suggested to improve the quantity of teaching and learning facilities such as books and media in the classroom. those facilities are very important for the teacher and the students in the teaching and learning process. based on the current research findings, several recommendations can be derived as: 1. english is an interesting subject, not a mere name of rote learning, so it can be taught with different activities and some motivational tools to develop their interest in it. 2. teachers should use and adopt new and innovative learning strategies like role play in their classes. 3. teachers should motivate their students to participate in the class on an equal basis. 4. role play activities can reveal students’ hidden talents regarding speaking skills. it is a strategy that needs to be highly promoted in the teaching and learning process. 5. role play activities will motivate and encourage reluctant students to listen and speak carefully. 6. instant instructor feedback is very advantageous in this mode of learning. it is highly recommended. it keeps the learning process streaming throughout the day. 98 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) references alexander, m. 2005. the exemplary high school. new york: 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(2003). the language skills. course code 553 tefl publishing aiou islamabad pakistan pp. 54-60. 99 muhammad safdar bhatti/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) stockwell and minkova d, (2001). english words, uk: university press uk. wilson, julie anne (1997). a program to develop the listening and speaking skills of children in a first grade classroom. research report, [ed415566] valdmain, a(ed) (2004). studies in the second language acquisition. vol-26 no. 3 cambridge university press. 100 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: july 14, 2020 final revision: september 01, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 the current paper examines the syntactic properties of ha stripping: a type of ellipsis. within the minimalist framework, the paper adopts the pf-deletion approach to show that stripping in ha is derived firstly by the movement of the remnant constituent from tp to focus position (fp), and, secondly, by the deletion of the tp. these two operations are licensed by the ellipsis feature (e) located in the focus head f°. thus, on the one hand, the paper contributes to the existing body of literature supporting the hotly-debated issues on the movement of the stripping remnants, and on the other, enriches the very minimal ha studies on ellipsis. the findings show that ha stripped constituents must move to spec, fp, before the tpdeletion process. two pieces of evidence in support of the focus movement to fp spring from island sensitivity and p-stranding facts in ha. keyword hijazi arabic; ellipsis; stripping; pf; deletion; fp correspondence phone: +966(0)506709515 e-mail: m.zah@tu.edu.sa review focus position hosting the stripping remnant mohammad ali al zahrani1, khulud helal al thagafi2 1,2foreign languages department, faculty of arts, taif university, taif, saudi arabia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.221-235.2020 i. introduction research on ellipsis, which features the linguistic phenomenon of unpronounced/missing categories, is still ongoing and exhibits controversial topics. ellipsis “remains difficult to classify, as it appears to involve phonology (due to its similarity to deaccenting), syntax (by virtue of its distribution), semantics (evidenced by its apparent licensing conditions), and pragmatics (because of the cognitive load it imposes)” (smith, 2001: 167). the significance of this paper arises from the significance of the dialect it explores and the hotlydebated phenomenon of ellipsis and its types. hijazi arabic, a variety spoken in makkah province, including the areas of the two holy mosques, has been studied by several linguists since 1970s. within the generative framework, some studies that we are aware of include bardeas (2005), al barrag (2007), al zahrani (2013, 2014, 2015, 2016), al barrag & al zahrani (2017), (al zahrani, 2018, 2020, forthcoming; al zahrani & alzahrani, 2019). these studies have covered some syntactic areas such as complementizers, construct states, modals and modalities, tense and grammatical and lexical aspect, and negation. however, on the one hand, ha studies on ellipsis are extremely minimal. to the best of our knowledge, there is only one study investigating ha sluicing structures in which al zahrani, m., and al thagafi, k. (2020) have explored some sluicing-related topics. on the other hand, stripping in ha, to the best of our knowledge, has never been studied; a gap that the current paper tries to fill. the paper is organized as follows. section 2 presents the linguistic phenomenon of stripping and provides some cross-linguistic examples. section 3 presents an overview of the two competing approaches to stripping. sections 4, 5, and 6, which form the main thrust of the paper, explore stripping in ha and use the sensitivity to island constraints and the p-stranding phenomenon to provide two pieces evidence in support of the movement of the remnant to fp. section 7 concludes the paper. following the sections, two appendices list the ha consonant and vowel sounds, and the abbreviations used in the paper.221 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) ii. stripping in linguistics stripping, first introduced by ross (1969), is the linguistic phenomenon that is also known as bare argument ellipsis (bae). hankamer and sag (1976: 409) define stripping as a “rule that deletes everything in clause under identity with corresponding parts of the preceding clause, except for one constituent, (and sometimes a clauseinitial adverb or negative)”. stripping structures are licensed through structural parallelism between the antecedent and the clausal ellipsis. this parallelism can be focus parallelism and thus the remnant is analyzed under focus. the derivation of stripping structures, in the adopted framework (section 3.2), requires two syntactic operations. first, the remnant phrase moves to fp. second, the deletion of the entire tp takes place. this entails that the movement of the remnant phrase to fp occurs before the deletion process. the implication of the latter process is that there is a hidden/unpronounced structure that undergoes some deletion operation, which, in turn, results in the presence of the elided site. put differently, the paper assumes that there is a syntactic structure in the elided site and for this reason it follows the pfdeletion approach. the minimalist framework (chomsky, 1993; 1995; 2000) obviously supports the analysis of stripping as a pf phenomenon requiring deletion. by way of illustration, gergel (2009: 83) notes that tancredi (1992) and chomsky & lasnik (1993) have presented some significantly stronger evidence in regard to the possibility of the pf component to be substantially involved in ellipsis. tancredi (1992) argues that ellipsis shows a strong instance of deaccenting, which is a pf phenomenon that presents “the instantiation of a focus-related topic” in the ellipsis site; a focus-related topic is indeed the clause whose focus-marked constituents have been substituted by variables (smith, 2001: 178). similarly, chomsky & lasnik (1993) argue that ellipsis exhibits an extreme instance of deaccenting: a process of the phonological component. it is deaccenting in as much as nothing is heard (kanakri, 2018). deaccenting entails a relation between the linguistic phenomenon of ellipsis and the pf articulatory system. according to the principle of economy of articulation, expressions, when possible, are conveyed by the least amount of articulation that is determined by a rule of the pfcomponent that deletes the phonologically redundant information (chomsky & lasnik, 1995). thus, a constituent is pronounced only if the context by itself does not help the hearer to recover the right interpretation (kanakri, 2018). the pf-deletion of the remnant is also supported by evidence in sections 5 and 6. stripping is a cross linguistic phenomenon as the following examples show. the examples in (1) to (4) reveal the following properties. first, the stripped clauses ‘not george’ (1), no hamlet (2), anna-auch (3), zaidan (4), ne petru (5), and nie anne (6) are not full independent clauses. second, these stripped clauses must follow their antecedents in occurrence. third, the missing constituents can be recovered and explained only through their antecedents (see culicover & jackendoff, 2005: 234). this said, stripping can only occur in coordinated structures, but never in subordinate embedded clauses such as the embedded clause ‘because not susan’ in (7). having examined some stripping structures in different languages, the theoretical analysis of stripping is provided in sections (3.2) and (4). the paper now shifts to shed light on the main 222 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) approaches to stripping: non-elliptical and elliptical approaches. iii. approaches to stripping there are two main approaches to stripping: the non-elliptical approach (3.1) that assumes no deletion operation, and the elliptical approach (3.2) that argues for deletion. both approaches presume that stripping is an interface phenomenon that requires some type of movement (al-horais 2000). despite that, the approaches differ in that while the elliptical approach argues for the presence of a fully-fledged syntactic structure deleted at pf and it is thus not pronounced, the non-elliptical approach argues for a covet movement at lf. the next subsections elaborate more on these two competing approaches. 3.1 non-elliptical approach the non-elliptical approach argues that stripping does not involve any clausal deletion, but it simply contains coordination structures of nps (fiengo & may, 1994; may, 1991; mccawley, 1988, 1991; reinhart, 1991). this approach was first introduced by reinhart (1991) who argues that there is no syntactic structure in the second clause, except the remnant, and thereupon there is no clausal ellipsis. she believes that stripping, which is mainly a bare argument ellipsis phenomenon, requires two-place connectives such as and in (8) below. the function of connective elements requires the presence of two constituents that connectives pair together. this said, reinhart (1991) assumes that the coordination of the two constituents is derived via a covert lf movement of the first constituent to the second constituent (al-horais, 2008: 4). consider the example in (8), adopted from kolokonte (2008: 18). (8) “the critics praised your book and the public too.” basically, reinhart (1991) suggests that the remnant np ‘and the public’ is basegenerated and adjoined at the ip (kolokonte: 2008: 18) as is schematized in (9a). the resulted structure in (8) has some elements that have undergone some covert movement at lf according to reinhart (1991), or at d-structure, according to mccawley (1991). that is, underlyingly, the correlate the critics in the first conjunct has moved to join the remnant the public in the second conjunct to form a coordinated structure via lfmovement, as is shown by the schema in (9b), adopted from kolokonte (2008:18) (9) a major problem with the schema in (9a), however, is that it clearly indicates the placement of the remnant np where it does not adjoin to the other np, but to the ip (kolokonte: 2008). in agreement with the derivation in (9b), the conjoined phrases do not violate the conjunction condition that requires the conjoined phrases to belong to the same category and absorb the same case (reinhart 1991: 368). the resulting structure in (9b) has produced the conjunction of the two nps: [the critics [and the public]]. according to reinhart’s analysis in (9b), stripping is not a type of ellipsis because no deletion is involved. alternatively, it presents the resulting dp conjunction [the critics [and the public]] binding a trace in the original position; so basically reinhart (1993) relates the stripped phrase to its correlate and this relation results in a conjoined dp at lf. however, this analysis cannot be without its limitations and challenges.223 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) another major problem of reinhart’s (1991) nonelliptical analysis is rooted in preposition stranding. depiante (2000) claims that p-stranding criteria are obeyed across languages. languages that ban the preposition stranding phenomenon also ban it in stripping. in conformity with this, a p-stranding language allows a fragment dp structure to have correlates insides preposition phrases, or the pp may be pied-piped as is the case in the english example in (10a). by comparison, nonpstranding languages, such as greek, obligatorily require the preposition to be pied-piped in stripping fragments as shown in (10b). may (1991), supporting the non-elliptical approach, claims that (11b) and (12b) are both ungrammatical examples. however, depiante (2000: 115-139) disagrees with him and uses the theta-criterion to account for this disagreement. (11a) is grammatical since the predicate meet requires “two theta roles, or one plural subject theta-role” (depiante: 2000: 138); this also accounts for the ungrammaticality of (11b) where the predicate meet assigns one singular subject theta-role. hence, (11a) can only accept a collective reading, but not a distributive reading. that is, the conjoined nouns in (11) and (12) are plurals; plurals can receive two readings: “the collective reading is obtained if the plural directly refers, and the distributive when the plural is under the scope of a distributor” (heim et al., 1991, cited in depiante 2000: 115). the assumption under the collective reading is what has pushed may (1991) to predict the ungrammaticality of (12b). may (1991) argues that the predicate filled to capacity in (12a) interprets a collective reading only, and accordingly (12b) is ungrammatical, which is not the case as argued by depiante (2000). depiante (2000: 138) argues that “nothing forces the pigs and the cows to form one unit” and thus the plural reading is not forced. the first conjunct has the pigs as its subject and the second conjunct has the cows as its subject (see next section for the theoretical account). these facts cannot be accounted for by the non-elliptical approach that does not assume the deletion of tp. one further argument against the non-elliptical analysis is supported by the casemarking phenomenon. merchant (2001) points out that the remnant in the elliptical clause must bear the same case as its non-elliptical counterpart, as illustrated by standard arabic (13). example (10c) shows the possible case in a nonp-stranding language where the preposition stays in situ and coordinates the dps [ton saki] and [tin anna]. since ha is a non-p-stranding language, we re-visit the p-stranding phenomenon in section ‎6. merchant (2003, 2004) holds that the account for these facts under the non-elliptical approach seems difficult, be it adjoining one string to another at lf as argued by reinhart (1991) or at d-structure as argued by mccawley (1991). conversely, merchant proposes that the stripped clause is a separate clausal ellipsis that is conjoined to the antecedent. another argument against the non-elliptical analysis springs from theta-criterion as illustrated by the set of examples in (11) and (12), adopted from depiante (2000: 137). (11) “philby and burgess met in cambridge.” *“philby met in cambridge, and burgess too.” (12) “the pigs and the cows filled the barn to capacity.” “the pigs filled the barn to capacity, and the cows too.” example (13) illustrates that the remnant xalid-an must bear the same accusative case as zaidan (its correlate). this explains the ungrammaticality of the nominative form *xalid-un. if there is casemarking in the remnant clause, there must be a syntactic structure that accounts for the accusative-224 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) case assignment. in consequence with this analysis, case-marking provides evidence against the nonstructural approach that claims that there is no syntactic structure in the elided site. this section has shed light on the non-elliptical approach and provided clear evidence about its failure to account for stripping/bare argument ellipsis phenomena. the next section briefly presents an overview of the elliptical approach. 3.2 the elliptical approach the elliptical approach is widely referred to as the pf deletion approach. it argues that bae/stripping is derived via a fully-fledged syntactic structure that is deleted at pf. this derivation involves two syntactic processes, namely, movement and deletion. the claim that there is a syntactic structure in the remnant site is one of the main fundamental axioms of generative grammar (transformational grammar, government and binding theory (gb), principles and parameters theory (p&p), and the minimalist program (mp). this fundamental axiom outlines the assumption of syntactocentrism, which is that the sole generative component of language is syntax whereas phonology and semantics are interpretive (culicover & jackendoff, 2005: 56). in view of the fact that stripping can only occur in coordinated structures, it is rather important to recall lasnik’s (1972:74, cited in depiante (2008: 100)) parallel principle about coordinated structures represented in (14). (14) “coordinate structures receive parallel interpretations.” to illustrate the parallel principle, consider the examples in (15), adopted from depiante (2008: 100). (15) a. “john wants to catch a fish.” b. “john wants to catch a fish and bill wants to catch a fish too.” according to lasnik (1972:74), the np a fish (15a) can be interpreted either as specific or non-specific. in (15b), both instances of the np a fish must only receive one interpretation at a time: specific or nonspecific. put differently, they cannot simultaneously have different interpretations: one specific and one nonspecific at one reading. thus, there exists parallelism between the antecedent and the clausal ellipsis as evidenced by the fact that the coordinated structures in (15b) obtain parallel interpretations. parallelism between the antecedent and the clausal ellipsis in stripping, such as those clauses in (1) to (4), (8), (12b) and (13), should cover semantic, syntactic, and focus (kolokonte, 2008; rooth, 1992). syntactically, parallelism should be present between the antecedent and the elided material. thereby, the remnant should have the same function as the antecedent, as in the examples above. semantically, umbach (2004: 9) claims that parallelism requires the two important conditions represented in (16) and (17), and illustrated in (18). (16) “the coordinated elements should be semantically independent in that both should not subsume each other.” (17) “the coordinated elements should be commonly integrated.” (18) a. john had a beer and/but mary had a martini. b. #john had a drink and/but mary had a martini. (umbach, 2004: 9) in (18a), both coordinated structures (with and/ but) are acceptable as they meet the requirements of the two conditions. in contrast, (18b) violates the semantic condition because a martini is a kind of alcoholic drink, so the coordinated elements subsume each other. in relation to focus, the parallelism requirement emerges from the information structure of the remnant (kolokonte, 2000) as the examples in (19) show. (19) a. john bought the books but not peter. b. #john bought the books but not peter. (kolokonte, 2008: 34) considering the focus parallelism, (19a) has the focused subject ‘john’, and the remnant ‘peter’ constitutes an alternative to it. by way of contrast, the focus parallelism is absent in (19b) because the remnant ‘peter’ does not constitute a mutual alternative to the focused constituent ‘books’. the relation between focus and stripping forms the core argument of the derivation of the latter as is shown next. 225 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the basic argument about the derivation of stripping is that the remnant is considered as a focused constituent exhibiting an overt movement to the specifier (spec) position of the focus phrase (fp) followed by pf deletion of tp (depiante, 2000; gengel, 2007; kolokonte, 2008; merchant, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2016). furthermore, merchant (2001) proposes the ellipsis feature [e] in sluicing. he then extends its use to other elliptical structures such as stripping (merchant 2003: 4). the ellipsis feature [e] contains an uninterpretable strong focus feature (uf*) that occupies the head of fp, and a lexical conjunction feature (conj) that distinguishes coordinative conjunctions such as and/but from subordinative conjunctions such as because/after. thus, the [e] feature in stripping derives the following specification given in (20). (20) estripping [uf*, conj] the ellipsis feature [e] enforces the syntactic, phonological and semantic requirements of stripping. in other words, it licenses the movement of the remnant and the deletion of the entire tp. for illustration, example (21) and its representation in (22), adopted from merchant (2003: 1), show the derivation of the remnant ben within the elliptical approach. 21 abby speaks passable dutch, and ben, too. 22. a. and [ben speaks passable dutch] too b. (1991) considers ungrammatical according to his non-elliptical analysis. (23) “the pigs filled the barn to capacity, and the cows too.” in light of merchant’s (2003) analysis in (22), and depiante’s (2000: 138) argument that “nothing forces the pigs and the cows to form one unit” so that the plural reading is not forced, the remnant the cows must move to spec, fp before the deletion of lower tp [filled the barn to capacity]. this analysis is shown in the linear representation in (24), adopted from depiante’s (2000: 138); note that in this linear analysis, ip is used instead of tp, but this does not alter the analysis. (24) [the pigs filled the barn to capacity], and [fp [the cows]i too [ip ti filled the barn to capacity]] note that the analyses in (22a-b) and (24) do not include the conjunction element ‘and’ or the adverbial element ‘too’; this suggests that they are out of the boundaries of the stripping syntactic structure. the conjunction element forms a clausal conjunction (merchant, 2003: 2). contrary to the non-elliptical approach, the elliptical approach shows that stripping contains a syntactic structure from which the remnant escapes to spec, fp before the tp-deletion. the next section explores ha stripping structures in light of the elliptical approach. iv. the syntax of stripping in hijazi arabic as discussed above, stripping is licensed by focus parallelism and the remnant is considered a type of information focus. that is, in (25), the second clause wa ali kama:n introduces new information focus linked to the antecedent clause. theoretically, the remnant ben is extracted before the deletion process has taken place, i.e., the dp subject ben has moved to a position higher than tp, which is spec, fp. the head position of fp contains the abstract [e] feature which licenses for the deletion of the entire tp after attracting the remnant to move to spec, fp. now we shift to account for example (12b) above, repeated here for convenience as (23), which may the remnant site contains [wa ali, kama:n] ‘and ali, too’ forms a part of the entire clause in (25); this suggests that the remnant subject ali has its syntactic features that are identical to that of the subject sami in the antecedent clause. the pf deletion approach proposes that the stripped clause in (25) has undergone two cyclic syntactic processes: movement and deletion (more 226 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) elaboration on movement is given in sections 5 and 6). before both operations have taken place, the underlying structure of the clause in (25) is represented in (26a). then, the syntactic operations are applied cyclically as shown in (26b-c). in (26b) the dp ali has moved to the specifier position of fp (spec, fp), so it has escaped the deletion process that the tp [yisa:fir bistimra:r] has undergone in (26c). the resulting structure in (25) has the linear representation in (26c) and the hierarchical representation in (27). the schema in (27) shows the antecedent tp, the fp projection whose specifier is filled by the dp ali that has moved from the lower spec, tp, and the elided tp. the hierarchical representation indicates that the fp projection dominates the elided tp. the head f° contains the abstract [e] feature that has the uninterpretable focus feature (uf*) that attracts the movement of the remnant and then licenses the deletion of the remaining elements in tp. the antecedent phrase shows that the imperfective verb form yisa:fir stays in v°, and that t° is morphologically empty because, unlike ha past tense, the present tense properties do not require a morphological form in t° (al zahrani, 2013, 2016, 2018; al zahrani & alzahrani, 2019). one can easily notice that the interpretations of the stripping examples in (26) and (27) are “fuller than their surface syntactic struture would permit” (culicover & jackendoff, 2005: 234); the implication of this is that such examples must contain underlying structures that derive the full interpretations. in other words, the analysis given in (26) and (27) implies that the syntactic structure of the remnant is fully projected and that the remnant ali forms a part of a full tp clause whose elements [yisa:fir bistimra:r] lack the phonological realization. hence, ha stripping entails clausal ellipsis. this analysis is based on the pf deletion approach that suggests that there is an underlying structure in the remnant site. in addition to the pf deletion approach, the underlying structure of the clause in (25) is further supported by both the structural uniformity (su) principle in (28) and the interface uniformity (iu) assumption in (29), both adopted from culicover & jackendoff (2005: 6-7) respectively. (28) “an apparently defective or misordered structure is regular in underlying structure and becomes a distorted in the course of the derivation” (29) “the syntax–semantics interface is maximally simple, in that meaning maps transparently into syntactic structure; and it is maximally uniform, so that the same meaning always maps onto the same syntactic structure.” the interface uniformity assumption implies that “uniform factors in interpretation must stem from uniform syntactic sources” culicover & jackendoff (2005: 234). put it differently, the interface uniformity in combination with the syntactocentrism assumptions imply that the perfect interpretation of an utternecance can only be achieved from both the meanings of its lexical items and its syntactic struture. hence, the iu assumption and the syntactocentrism assumptions support the presence of the hidden stripping strtucre in (25) whose full structure is represented in (26a). so far, this discussion has shown that the ha example in (25) contains a hidden structure as outlined in the hierarchical and linear analyses. notice that example (25a) shows a case of a remnant subject. example (30) shows a remnant object. 227 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in (30a) the stripping structure shows the remnant object agla:m ‘pens’. the underlying fuller structure is given in (30b). the movement of the remnant object to spec, fp and then the deletion of tp are shown in (30c-d) respectively. furthermore, ha allows modal elements in stripping as shown in (31). according to al zahrani (2013, 2018, 2020), the epistemic modal mumkin is base generated in emodp (epistemic modal phrase) that dominates tp. this explains why the modal is outside of the tp boundaries as shown in (31b-d). needless to say that the derivation of the remnant object undergoes the syntactic processes discussed in (28). stripping can also occur in more complex structures such as negatives. the literature shows two different analyses to the placement of the negative elements when they occur in stripping. consider the example in (32) containing the ha negative muu. bae/ellipsis structures are not head negatives, (see al-horais, 2008). with this function in mind, i assume that ha muu functions as an adverbial negative in stripping and occupies spec, negp. if this is the case, muu in stripping structures, as in (32), selects for a fp to which the object agla:m moves. after the movement has taken place, the tp is deleted. this is illustrated in (33). what is particular to the negative muu in this function is that it selects for a fp that dominates a tp structure that contains a verbal predicate; this makes it different from the main use of the ha non-verbal predicative negative muu investigated in al zahrani (2014; 2019). this analysis of muu in stripping is compatible with merchant’s (2003: 5) analysis that shows the english not occupying spec, negp: an argument that is widely accepted for the english negative not (see radford, 2009, for another position of the english negative not). another analysis for negatives in stripping is advocated by depiante (2000), mccawley (1991), and al-horais (2008) where both the negator and the remnant form a complex structure. under this view, the negator is base-generated in spec, fp and the remnant subject/object also moves to spec, fp to adjoin to the negative, as linearly represented in (34c). al zahrani (2014; 2019) argues that the ha negative muu occupies the head of negp and can only select for a non-verbal predicative phrase (predp) where it only scopes over the predicative structure that is basically adjectival or nominal. the function of the negative muu in stripping has never been addressed in ha literature (see section 7). it is obvious that it behaves differently in stripping as it does not scope over non-verbal predicates. rather, it functions as a sentential negative particle where it shows contrastive negation: the information following the negative is contrary to the information before it. besides, the literature shows that negatives in what is important to our discussion here is that the two negative stripping analyses require phrasal/ sentential negation, i.e., the negator should be phrasal (merchant: 2003: 7), and that the different placement of the negative does not change the main argument on the derivation of the stripped clause: the movement of the remnant and the deletion of the tp. while both analyses are complex, the first 228 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) one is more complex as it entails the projection of negp; its benefit, however, is that the semantics of negation is completely normal and clear: “negation being a one-place propositional function” (merchant: 2003: 7). the benefit of the second analysis is that it presents a costless analysis that reduces the functional projections (al-horais, 2008: 20). it can be noticed that the ha stripping examples discussed so far exhibit the same syntactic, semantic and focus properties discussed in section (3.2). they show that the remnants in the second conjuncts introduce new informational focus that does not contradict any existing information in the first conjuncts. in addition, ha stripping occurs in coordinative structures, but never in subordinative/embedded structures. this explains the ungrammaticality of (35). be interpreted as “and ali buys cars, too”. having explored the ha stripping structure and its properties within the pf deletion approach, the next two sections provide two pieces of evidence supporting the movement hypothesis of the remnant to the left periphery of its clause. v. ha stripping and sensitivity so far, we have shown that the remnant must move to fp in a position higher than tp. given that there is movement, locality effects and island constraints must be obeyed. recall ross’ (1969) claim that some types of ellipsis, such as sluicing, exhibit island violation. however, this is not the case in ha stripping since its derivation does not violate island constraints, but obeys them. to show this, the paper assumes merchant’s (2004) conclusions that fragment answers are sensitive to islands. his conclusions, according to him, are extended to stripping because the analysis of stripping and fragment answers “appears to have much in common” and provides evidence that stripping shows “a locality effect between the correlate and the bare argument” (merchant, 2016: 9). in light of this, the paper argues that sensitivity arises in both ha fragment answers and stripping and that their derivation obeys island constraints. eventually, the argument showing sensitivity in fragment answers and stripping provides evidence in support of the movement of the remnant to the left edge of its clause, i.e., to spec, fp. with the accented constituents in bold, consider the english examples in (37) and the ha examples in (38). also, being in coordinative structures implies that they obey the parallel principle, represented in (14). that is, the coordinate structures receive parallel interpretations as in (36a) where the interpretation of the underlying full structure shows the object kutub ‘books’ in the first and second conjuncts as non-specific. in (36a), the second conjunct cannot have the object kutub specific (cf. *al-kutub ‘the books’). another property of ha stripping is shown by the ungrammaticality of (36b) that is accounted for by the fact that antecedents in stripping must precede the elided material. furthermore, the semantic parallelism requirements are also witnessed in the ha stripping examples. they obey the two conditions in (16) and (17) as they show that the coordinated elements are semantically independent and commonly integrated. for instance, in (36a) the second conjunct cannot 229 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) merchant (2004) considers the fragment answer in (37b) unacceptable as an answer to a yes/ no question since the correlate ben is contained within a relative clause island. merchant argues that only a sentential answer is acceptable, since in fragments, the movement out of the island is banned. merchant’s argument is applicable to ha. example (38b) is unacceptable whereas the full structure in (38c) is. it is important to note that this analysis considers the fragments in (b) derived from the fuller structures in (c). by contrast, when the fragment answer does not relate to a constituent within an island, both the fragment answer and the sentential answer are acceptable, as the examples in (39) and (40) show. stripping example cannot be derived if the remnant is extracted out of an island domain. note that in (39) the fragment albanian relates to the constituent greek that is not within an island. in like fashion, al-azrag ‘the blue’ in (40) relates to al-aswad ‘the black’ that is not within an island. this suggests that the respective complementizers that and illi occupying c° block the movement in (37) and (38) above. the conclusion to be drawn from the english and ha examples in (37) through to (40) is that each fragment dp is embedded in an island and its movement out of the island domain to a higher position renders the fragment answer ungrammatical. hence, the fragment answers in (39b) and (40b) are sensitive to islands and have obeyed the island constraints; they have undergone a’-movement that is followed by clausal deletion (merchant, 2004: 687). this, in turn, suggests that the remnants in stripping move to fp via a’movement and they obey the island constraints. furthermore, (41) shows that a grammatical in (41) the correlate dp object (al-kita:b) and the remnant (al-agla:m) are in bold. the clause ‎(41) is ungrammatical as the remnant has moved across an island domain to the left edge (spec, fp). this analysis is on a par with other analyses of some arabic varieties including libyan arabic (algryani, 2012), standard arabic (kanakri, 2018), and omani arabic (algryani, 2019). the next section explores ha preposition stranding, which also supports the focus movement of the remnant to the left periphery. vi. preposition stranding and stripping this section uses the p-stranding phenomenon to provide another piece of evidence supporting our argument that ha stripping requires the movement of the remnant to the left periphery. pstranding is a linguistic phenomenon in which the preposition surfaces without its object; it is also known as preposition deferring (see, takami, 1992). according to merchant (2003, 2004), jones (2004) and depiante (2000), the basic assumption is that non-p-stranding languages, which do not allow p-stranding under wh-movement, do not allow p-stranding under fragment answers and stripping. for instance, because english allows p-stranding under wh-movement, as in (42), it allows it under stripping as in (43); examples are adopted from depiante (2000: 107). the english clauses in (42) show that the preposition to is dangling/stranded under whmovement, so in (43), the english prepositions about and in can 230 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) be stranded and have the structures represented in (44). other p-stranding languages include frisian and the scandinavian languages (see examples in merchant (2004: 666). contrary to this, some languages do not allow a preposition to be stranded, as shown in greek (10) above, repeated here for convenience in (45). recall the argument under (10) above that nonpstranding languages, such as greek, obligatorily require the preposition to be pied-piped in stripping fragments. this is further supported by fragment answers, too. that is, while non-pstranding languages do not allow fragment answers without their preposition in cases such as those in (46) and (47), p-stranding languages do so, as in (48), (49) and (50), adopted from merchant (2005: 685-686). extracted out of their domains while the prepositions are left stranded. in contrast, the fragment answers in (46b) and (47b) are grammatical since the prepositions have been pied-piped along with their complements. this obligatory pied-piping is not the case in p-stranding languages as shown in (48), (49) and (50). the examples in (48) (50) show that p-stranding language allow fragment answers with and without their prepositions; this, in turn, suggests that they allow p-stranding in fragments and full answers. ha is a non-p-stranding language, so it behaves, in this respect, similar to greek and german as examples (51) and (52) illustrate. in (46c) and (47c) the fragment answers to the question “with whom has anna spoken?” in (46a) and (47a) are ungrammatical as they appear without their prepositions. this suggests that they have been in (51c) and (52c) the fragment answers ‘ali’ and al-ta:wilah ‘the table’ are ungrammatical as they appear without their prepositions maʕ and ʕala. in light of this, we assume that their full answers cannot appear with the prepositions stranded in situ as shown in (53b) and (54b).231 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the full answers in (53a) and (54a) suggest that the prepositions have been extracted out of their domains along with their complements and preposed, i.e., moved to the left edge of the clause (focus position). now consider the examples in (55). given that ha is a non-p-stranding language, (55a) can only be grammatical if the dp malik is a subject so that the stripped clause [wa malik kama:n] ‘and malik too’ satisfies the semantic identity in the ellipsis site. this explains why the stripped remnant malik must be identical in structure to the antecedent – the subject dp sami. furthermore, in conformity with the parallel principle stated in (14) above, which is, “coordinate structures receive parallel interpretations”, the elided material in (55a) must receive its appropriate subject-reading in which it is parallel to the correlate: subject dp sami. against this background, the stripped clause in (55a) satisfies the ellipsis conditions of recoverability (semantics) and licensing (syntax) suggested by mcshane (2005: 10-15). recoverability indicates that the stripped clause has received the appropriate interpretation, i.e., the meaning of the unpronounced constituents is recoverable (understandable) from the context. licensing indicates that the structural properties of the clause in (55a) have allowed for the stripping phenomenon. so far, this analysis accounts for why example (55a) cannot be grammatical if we consider the dp malik an object. this is further supported by the fuller form of the stripped clause in (56a). in regard to (55b), the remnant malik is the object of the preposition; the entire pp ‘maʕa malik’ ‘with malik’ has been pied-piped to fp before the entire tp has been deleted, as illustrated in (56b). the illustrations in (56) conclude that the prepositions in ha stripping structures must be pied-piped with the remnant to the left periphery due to the fact that ha is a nonpstranding. this analysis is on a par with merchant’s (2003) argument that a preposition must be piedpiped in stripping in non-p-stranding languages. in summary, given that ha is a non-p-stranding language, the remnants preceded by prepositions in stripping clauses cannot move to fp without the prepositions piedpiped with them to the left periphery. vii. conclusions and recommendations adopting the pf elliptical approach, the current paper has explored stripping in hijazi arabic. it has shown that ha stripping can be explained through a focus movement of the remnant to fp that is higher than tp. this movement is followed by deletion of the entire tp. these two operations are motivated by the abstract [e] feature of the head of fp. the paper has also briefly explored some island sensitivity and pstranding issues to provide evidence in support of the movement operation of the remnant to fp. however, future research is needed to deeply investigate island sensitivity and pstranding in sluicing and in stripping as well. also, while the paper has shown some instances of negative and modalized stripping structures, more investigations of negatives as well as different modals (epistemic, deontic and dynamic) in stripping structure is lacking in ha. more specifically, the sentential negation of muu occupying spec, neg, if this is the correct analysis, and selecting for complements containing verbal predicates requires deeper investigation.232 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) references aelbrecht, l. 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(2011). ellipsis and focus in generative grammar (vol. 81): walter de gruyter. 234 mohammad ali al zahrani/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) appendix 1: ha consonants and vowels (adopted from al zahrani (2013) consonants ipa description [ʔ] glottal stop [b] bilabial stop [t] voiceless dental stop [θ] voiceless emphatic dental fricative [ʤ] voiceless retroflex fricative [ħ] voiceless pharyngeal fricative [x] voiceless velar fricative [d] voiced dental fricative [ð] voiced emphatic dental fricative [r] dental trill [z] voiced dental fricative [s] voiceless dental fricative [ʃ] voiceless palatal fricative [sˤ] voiceless emphatic dental fricative [d̪ˤ] voiced emphatic stop [t̪ˤ] voiceless emphatic dental stop [ðˤ] voiced emphatic interdental fricative [ʕ] voiced pharyngeal fricative [γ] voiced velar fricative [f] voiceless labiodental fricative [q] voiceless uvular stop [k] voiceless velar stop [l] lateral dental [m] bilabial nasal [n] dental nasal [h] voiceless laryngeal fricative [w] bilabial glide [j] palatal glide vowels ipa description [a] short low front [a:] long low front [i] short high front [i:] long high front [u] short high back [u:] long high back appendix 2: abbreviations and conventions used in examples and glosses # example is not acceptable. 1 first person 2 second person 3 third person (a) a is optional *(a) a is obligatory acc accusative case bold boldface highlights important material c complementizer: the head position of cp conj conjunction feature/element cp complementizer phrase (projection) d determinative [e] ellipsis feature f feminine fp focus position gen genitive case ha hijazi arabic lf logical form m masculine neg negative nom nominative case p preposition pf phonological form pl plural predp predicative phrase (non-verbal projection) sa standard arabic sg singular spec specifier position of xp strikethrough strikethrough indicates deletion/non-pronunciation t the head position of tp tp tense phrase (projection) uf* uninterpretable focus feature vp verb phrase (projection) 235 lia nurmalia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 09, 2020 final revision: october 28, 2020 available online: april 20 2021 the objectives of this research are to know the errors in the third semester students’ writing of bina sarana informatika university and the most frequent error. it is concerned to the grammatical and semantic and substance errors. the data is analyzed by using james’ theory in (mungungu, 2010). the findings show that errors done by the students are spelling 50.9%, fragment 15.7%, punctuation 9.8%, adjective 3%, subjectverb agreement 3.9%, preposition 3.9%, capitalization 3.9%, tenses 2%, verb 2%, literal translation 2%. it can be concluded that the most frequent error is spelling. it because the students missed a letter, added more letter in a word, and exchange the letter. while in grammatical category, the most frequent error is fragment. it is because the most students do not put a subject in a sentence. keyword linguistics, error analysis, writing correspondence e-mail: lia.lnm@bsi.ac.id articles an analysis of errors in english writing: a case study the third semester students of ubsi lia nurmalia1, cicih nuraeni2 1,2bina sarana informatika university,jakarta,indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.46-50.2021 i. introduction the varieties of students’ ability in writing english make the class condition are more colorful. even though this condition makes students cannot get the same material at the same time. so that the lecturer must find the problem making the lowmotivated students are hard to finish their writing. according to (al-khresheh, 2016) that errors were not explained will definitely be underestimated. therefore, there was a need for another approach to describing foreign language learners’ errors clearly. the researches on grammatical erros has been conducted by many reseaercher (hourani, 2008), (habibullah, 2010), (limengka, p.e., kuntjara, 2000), (mohammed, 2016), (darus & subramaniam, 2009), and (el-farahaty, 2017). grammar is one of the common error in efl students (novita, 2014). some common grammatical error in efl students inculde, tenses, prepositions, articles, and spelling (lennon, 2008), (tizazu, 2014) and, (mungungu, 2010). nunan (2001) mentioned every learners does an error, even though they are master it. but, when they continually learn, improve, and be conscious to their errors, they can handle it by time. hence, it is important for teachers to provide suitable materials for their students based on the most common errors the students make. james (1998) he stated that the errors of writing in efl learners happened in the following things as a grammatical error, syntactic, and semantic, and substance. the grammatical errors involves articles, prepositions, singular or plural, adjectives, irregular verbs, tenses, reported speech, concord, and possessive case). syntactic includes nouns, pronouns, and word order). semantic and substance includes capitalization, punctuation, and spelling. te current research focuses on grammatical and semantic and substance errors. research on error in writing has been done by many researched (al-khasawneh, 2014; mul, 2014; sermsook, liamnimitr, and pochakorn, 2017; yin mei and ung t’chiang, 2001; emmaryana, 2010). al-khasawneh (2014) analyzed the errors in writing paragraphs of students at ajloun national university in jordan. the findings of the study reveal several errors such as spelling, word 46 lia nurmalia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) order, and subject-verb agreement. the results also showed that the most frequent error is improper use of english articles. mul (2014) has done a reserach toward students’ writing ability in smk bakti purwokerto at grade xi could be reflected in this result: none of the student (0% it is about error analysis of students’ english writing. the results show that the mother tongue influences the most common grammatical and lexical errors. it can be concluded that mother tongue impacts students’ efl writing ability. sermsook, liamnimitr, and pochakorn (2017). investigated the written english sentences of thai efl learners. the errors are divided into two types: errors at the sentential level and word level. the errors at the sentential level are tenses, subject-verb agreement, fragment, word order, punctuation, and capitalization. in contrast, errors at the word level are articles, nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, literal translation from thai, part of speech, word choice, spelling, transition words. therefore there are six types of errors to be the most difficult of the participants were punctuation marks, articles, subject-verb agreement, spelling, capitalization, and fragments. yin mei and ung t’chiang (2001) reported about errors made by esl students in their written books. the analysis investigates the incorrect item caused by the l1 and low proficiency of the second language. the errors found in this analysis are an approximation, slang words, language switch, transfer, wrong tenses used, omission, etc. the current research highlights the low-motivated students in the third semester of bina sarana informatika university. low-motivated means the students who are hard to do the task on time get a low score in essay writing. (student motivation — an overlooked piece of, n.d.). hence, the current research focuses on grammatical and semantic and errors of english writing by bina sarana informatika university. ii. methods the data were taken from essays written by the english third-semester students with low writing subjects at bina sarana informatika university. there are 10 essays taken as the sample, the topic essay is “what can you do to make indonesia proud of you”. the data were collected by sorting errors in students writing, such as sentence, word, punctuation, capitalization, etc. then the data were grouped in to grammatical and semantic and substence errors. the data were analyzing using james’s theory (1998). the number of errrors will be counted and measure using percentage. iii. result the result of the error analysis can be seen in table 1 table 1. error analysis types of errors frequency percentage grammatical tenses 1 2% subject-verb agreement 2 3.9% fragment 8 15.7% verb 1 2% preposition 2 3.9% adjective 3 5.9% semantic and substance punctuation 5 9.8% spelling 26 50.9% capitalization 2 3.9% literal translation from indonesian 1 2% total 51 100% it can be seen from the table above that the most common errors done by the students are spelling 50.9%, followed by fragment 14%, punctuation 8.7%, adjective 15.7%, subject-verb agreement 3.9%, capitalization 3.9%, preposition 3.59%, tenses 2%, verb 2%, and literal translation form indonesian 2%. iv. discussion 4.1. grammatical errors the students’ grammatical errors are fragments, subject-verb agreement, the wrong use of adjectives, verbs, tenses, and prepositions. 4.1.1 fragment a fragment means no verb or no subject in the sentence (sermsook et al., 2017) . the case is in the following examples. example (1) parents always say that must be pursued for a sharp future.47 lia nurmalia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the underlined part shows there is no subject in the sentence. the complete sentence must be example (1a) parents always say that we must be pursued for a sharp future. a subject is needed in that sentence. ‘we’ can be added as a subject. example (2) the first support the advancement of indonesia’s education. the underlined part shows there is no verb in the sentence. the complete sentence must be example (2a) the first is support the advancement of indonesia’s education. to be is needed in the sentence. 4.1.2 subject-verb agreement subject-verb agreement means the subject and the verb must agree with each other. deeper explanation as to the following examples; example (5) teaching staff who are less professional… the subject ‘staff’ is singular while the verb is plural ‘are’. it means the subject and the verb are not agree with each other. it might be; example (5a) teaching staff who is less professional… or teaching staffs who are less professional… example (6) he is a people… subject ‘he’ is singular, and to be ‘is’ is also singular, but ‘people’ is plural. the correct sentence might be as the following example; example (6a) he is a person... 4.1.3 adjective there are found three data of adjective error. here is the example; example (9) …speaking soft, polite, ethical,… the underlined part is all adjectives, however, the phrase above needs adverb example (9a) …speaking softly, politely, ethically,… 4.1.4 verb the error of using verb reach 1.7%, here is the data; example (14) to studying the culture of the republic of indonesia…. the underline part above must be ‘verb infinitive’ not ‘present participle’ example (14a) to study the culture of the republic of indonesia 4.1.5 preposition the error of using preposition reach 3.5%, the case is in the following example; example (12) …for all us. the case above need the preposition ‘of’ example (12a) …for all of us. 4.1.6 tenses there is only one data of tenses error found in the analysis. here is the explanation; example (8) indonesia education system has not show good success. the example above is present perfect tense. it should use the participle verb. the correct sentence might as follow; example (8a) indonesia education system has not shown good success. 4.2. semantic and substance errors 4.2.1 spelling spelling is the most errors found in the analysis. one of the causes is because of the omitting a letter and adding a letter. here is the deep explanation; table 2. example of spelling errors no spelling error corrected 1 succeded succeeded 2 adquatly adequately 3 qulity quality 4 canges changes 5 internasional international 6 admistrator administrator 7 the govement’s the government’s 8 meansured measured 9 huma human48 lia nurmalia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the table 2 shows some examples of words from 26 words spelling error. 4.2.2 punctuation punctuation is the second most error in the analysis. the punctuation error can be addition or omission. the deeper explanation can be seen in the following examples; example (3) therefore the substance of education, and management... the error is the addition punctuation category. in this sentence, punctuation is not needed. the correct writing can be; example (3a) therefore the substance of education and management… example (4) other fields such economic, social, cultural and security. in the above example, the error is in the omission punctuation category. it can be seen in the underlined part, it needs a ‘coma’. it might be in the following sentence. example (4a) other fields such economic, social, cultural, and security. 4.2.1 capitalization the capitalization errors found in the analysis are two data. all the errors happen in writing the word ‘i’, deep explanation as to the following example; example (7) i will try to contribute in any aspect i could do. ‘i’ is always capital, so that the sentence above must be as the following sentence; example (7a) i will try to contribute in any aspect i could do. based on the analysis, the capitalization error can be minimized when the students write the essay using microsoft word or other tools with an automatic capitalization system. the errors that happen at the words’ level are spelling, adjective, pronoun, conjunction, preposition, noun, verb, literal translation from indonesian, and word choice. 4.2.4 literal translation from indonesian the case is as the following example; example (15) my bias is siwon the word ‘bias’ comes from indonesian, which means refraction. the figure of siwon inspires the writer. v. conclusion the conclusion can be taken as the following explanations. firstly, the most error made by the students is spelling, 50.9%. the wrong spelling was that the students missed a letter, added more letters, and exchanged the letter in a word. in the grammatical category, the most error made by students is fragment, 14%. the most cause of fragment because the students missed a subject. it might be influenced by indonesian language, indonesian sometimes do not use any subject while making a conversation. in conclusion, the researchers can give a suggestion that in teaching writing for low motivated students, lecturers must intend to the basic understanding, such as vocabulary and arranging a good sentence because they still need used to it. the last, this research is very limited, so it needs a deeper analysis to have a big contribution in teaching writing and error analysis. references al-khresheh, m. h. (2016). a review study of error analysis theory. international journal of humanities and social science research, 2(2). azar, b.s. 1992. fundamental of english grammar. united states of america: prentice hall. darus, s., & subramaniam, k. (2009). error analysis of the written english essays of secondary school students in malaysia: a case study. european journal of social sciences, 8(3), 483–495. el-farahaty, h. (2017). a grammatical error analysis of final year students arabic writing. the language scholar journal of leeds university, (1), 1–29. https://doi.org/2398-8509 emmaryana, f. (2010). an analysis on the grammatical errors in the students ’ writing faculty of 49 lia nurmalia/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) tarbiyah and teachers ’ training ‘ syarif hidayatullah ’ state islamic university jakarta an analysis on the grammatical errors in the students ’ writing faculty of tarbiyah and te. fadi maher saleh al-khasawneh. (2014). error analysis of written english paragraphs by jordanian undergraduate students: a case study. international journal of english language, literature and humanities, ii(viii), 85–100. habibullah, m. m. k. (2010). an error analysis on grammatical structures of the students’ theses.pdf. hourani, t. m. y. (2008). an analysis of the common grammatical errors in the english writing made by 3 rd secondary male students in the eastern coast of the uae. institute of education british university in dubai., 1–80. retrieved from https://bspace.buid.ac.ae/bitstream/1234/225/1/20050055.pdf james, c. (1998). errors in language learning and use. exploring error analysis. longman, london new york. lennon, p. (2008). contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage 1. limengka, p.e., kuntjara, e. (2000). types of grammatical errors in the essays written by fourthsemester students of english department , petra christian university. 230–238. mohammed, m. q. (2016). error analysis: a study on grammatical errors in the writings of iraqi efl learners. european academic research vol. iii, issn 2286-4822. iii(11), 11648–11668. mul, i. r. (2014). an error analysis of students’ english writing. muhammadiyah university of purwokerto. mungungu, s. s. (2010). error analysis: investigating the writing of esl namibian learners. university of south africa. novita, r. (2014). an analysis of grammatical errors in the 1st year students’ writings at english department, andalas university. vivid journal, 3(2), 1–15. nordquist, richard. “what is a grammatical error?” thoughtco, aug. 27, 2020, thoughtco.com/ grammatical-error-usage-1690911. nunan, d. (2001). second language acquisition. carter, r. & nunan, d., (eds.). the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages [c], pp 87-92. cambridge: cambridge university press sermsook, k., liamnimitr, j., & pochakorn, r. (2017). an analysis of errors in written english sentences: a case study of thai efl students. english language teaching, 10(3), 101. https://doi. org/10.5539/elt.v10n3p101 student motivation — an overlooked piece of. (n.d.). 1–12. tizazu, y. (2014). a linguistic analysis of errors in learners’ compositions: the case of arba minch university students. 2(c), 2005–2008. retrieved from http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/ uploads/a-linguistic-analysis-of-errors-in-learners’-compositions-the-case-of-arba-minchuniversity-students.pdf yin mei, c. c., & ung t’chiang, d. c. (university m. (2001). sub-stratum transfer among low proficiency students in written english. (university malaya). retrieved from http://www.melta.org. my/modules/sections/9.doc 50 shafa firda nila / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 21, 2020 final revision: march 29, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 the current research focuses on analyzing the translation techniques of islamic terminologies in bilingual children storybooks from indonesian into english. the source of the data is two selected bilingual children storybooks seri belajar islam sejak usia dini. this study applied a descriptive qualitative approach to analyze the data, to explain the phenomena, and to withdraw the conclusion. the result showes that in ayo belajar manasik haji there are 33 islamic terminologies and 6 translation techniques, while in ayo belajar hadist there are 24 islamic terminologies and 5 translation techniques. keyword translation technique, islamic terminology, bilingual, children book correspondence phone: 081288280387 e-mail: shafa.firda@binabangsa.ac.id article translation techniques of islamic terminologies in bilingual children story books shafa firda nila1, yollanda octavitri2 1,2universitas bina bangsa, banten, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.84-88.2020 i. introduction children’s literature is also an important conveyor of world knowledge, ideas, values, and accepted behavior despite being entertainment and a tool for developing children’s reading skills (puurtinen, 1998). however, translating for children is often viewed as rewriting for different audiences in different times, places, and cultures (stolze, 2003). it includes an attitude geared towards the target language, culture, and addressees that even is meant to influence the perception of the source text, which has to be translated (stolze, 2003). therefore, translators need to ponder on the role and the expectations of the audience, as well as the performance of the translated text (oittinen, 2008). translation is seen as an action between cultures than between languages (pascua, 2003). it is more than an act of communication or text processing. it requires a complex cognitive process of the translators/interpreters and the understanding of the social context of both sl and tl (abumahfouz and al-shboul, 2017, albir and alves, 2009; newmark, 2009, hatim and munday, 2009, katan, 2009). translation practice in indonesia has been evolving in line with the rapid development of global information and technology. moreover, this is supported by the role of both conventional media such as books and modern media such as internet-based media that make the demand for various translation materials increasing (nuraeni, saptaningsih, and al makmun, 2019). djatmika, wibowo, and dewi (2014) explained that composing a text in certain genres requires skills in selecting types of discourse units and how to arrange them appropriately for a certain genre. it also needs good skills in exploiting grammatical and constructions and vocabularies to make a positive contribution to effective learning materials. discursive activity is defined in terms of the perspectives taken on such issues of language in socio-cultural life as globalization, the environment, racism, gender, the commoditization of education, and so on (hatim, 2009). discourse in english can be a barrier for english language learning (ell) students because english serves as content (brice et al., 2008). bilingual book is a medium of learning a foreign language that encourages learners with the help 81 shafa firda nila / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) of their native language to understand a foreign language in particular subjects. therefore, translation functions as a bridge for the two involved languages. bilingual books can be in the form of storybooks that contain religious values or knowledge, in this case, islamic storybooks for children. the subjects of the book may vary from science, religion, and other areas of knowledge. islamic storybooks contain terminologies related to islam, which are originally written in arabic language. as islam is widely spread all over the world, its terminologies are also used or adopted in many languages through translation and transliteration. the process of translation and transliteration may result in the differences in spelling among the target languages. al-hamad and salman (2013) added that the process of translation even gets more complicated by the variation of both languages, stocks of vocabulary, and writing styles. several researchers had researched translation of islamic terms in indonesian to the english language, including storybooks (noerjanah, 2017; farkhan, 2018). however, many of the only focus on the translation process. the current research focuses on the translation techniques of islamic terminologies in bilingual children storybooks from indonesian into english. ii. methods this study is product-oriented, which focused on translation as a product. this study applied a descriptive qualitative approach to describe translation techniques, translation methods, and translation ideology. in qualitative research, the inquirer analyzes words or images (creswell, 2012). in other words, qualitative research is holistically emphasized on data in the forms of words, sentences, or pictures that have meanings (nababan & santoso, 2018). this study is also an embedded-case study because the researcher has decided on the problem and the focus of the research. cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained time (castillo, 2015; stake; yin in creswell, 2014). the data were analyzed using spradley’s methodology of ethnographic analysis: domain, taxonomic, componential, and thematic (mendoza, 2008). the researcher read every composition of the bilingual children’s storybooks, identified the islamic terminologies, classified them, and then analyzed the translation techniques. the source of the data is two selected bilingual children storybooks, seri belajar islam sejak usia dini entitled ayo belajar manasik haji and ayo belajar hadist. the data were analyzed to find out the translation techniques in creating equivalent terms. the translation technique is classified using translation technique classification by molina and albir (2002). iii. result islamic terminologies the islamic terminologies found in this study are commonly known and can be classified into places of worship, rituals of worship, and divinity concepts. the books are aimed to introduce the children about islam and to teach english as well. islamic terminologies referring to places of worship st: mereka datang berhaji ke tanah suci. tt: they come for hajj to the holy land. st: makah adalah kota suci umat islam yang ada di negara arab saudi. tt: mecca is the holy city of muslim in saudi arabia. st: masjid adalah rumah allah di bumi. tt: the mosque is the house of allah on earth. islamic terminologies referring to rituals of worship st: ayah dan bunda akan pergi ibadah haji. tt: father and mother wil go for hajj. st: wukuf yaitu berdiam diri sambil berzikir dan berdoa di arafah pada tanggal 9 dzulhijah. tt: wukuf is silent and remembering allah and praying at arafah on 9th dzulhijah. st: thawaf dilakukan setelah melempar jumroh. tt: thawaf is done after throwing jumroh. st: segera ambil wudhu untuk shalat subuh.82 shafa firda nila / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) tt: immediately take ritual ablution for subuh prayers. st: shalat wajib lima waktu lebih utama dilakukan dengan berjamaah di masjid. tt: the five obligatory prayers are more principal to do in the congregation at the mosque. islamic terminologies referring to divinity concept st: agar mendapat pahala dan terjaga dari dosa. tt: to be rewarded and protected from sin. st: jadilah anak shaleh yang diridoi allah dan ayah bunda. tt: be pious children that blessed by allah and parents. st: allah akan murka jika kita tidak sayang pada hewan dan makhluk allah lainnya yang ada di bumi. tt: allah would be angry if we do not love the animals and other creatures of allah on earth. translation techniques the translation techniques were identified by analyzing the source text and the target text. the findings of the research are as follows: translation techniques in ayo belajar manasik haji there are 6 translation techniques found in ayo belajar manasik haji, namely borrowing, duplet, established equivalence, literal translation, amplification, and generalization. here is the recapitulation of translation techniques found in ayo belajar manasik haji. table 1. recapitulation of translation techniques in ayo belajar manasik haji no. translation technique frequency 1. borrowing 12 2. duplet (combination of two techniques) 9 3. established equivalence 5 4. literal translation 5 5. amplification 1 6. generalization 1 σ 33 translation techniques in ayo belajar hadist there are 5 translation techniques found in ayo belajar hadist, namely duplet, generalization, established equivalence, literal translation, and borrowing. here is the recapitulation of translation techniques found in ayo belajar hadist. table 2. recapitulation of translation techniques in ayo belajar hadist no. translation technique frequency 1. duplet (combination of two techniques) 8 2. generalization 6 3. established equivalence 6 4. literal translation 3 5. borrowing 1 σ 24 iv. discussion the translation techniques found in the two islamic children storybooks are as follow: borrowing borrowing is to take a word or expression straight from another language. it can be pure (without any change) or it can be naturalized (to fit the spelling rules in the target language). in ayo belajar manasik haji, borrowing technique is found in 12 terminologies, whereas in ayo belajar hadist there is only one terminology. the borrowing technique is classified into pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing. thawaf is an example of pure borrowing, while makah (st) – mecca (tt) is naturalized borrowing. established equivalence established equivalence is to use a term or expression recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the target language. there are 5 terminologies in ayo belajar manasik haji and 6 terminologies in ayo belajar hadist. negara arab saudi (st) – saudi arabia (tt) and masjid (st) – mosque (tt) is some examples of established equivalence. generalization generalization is to use a more general or neutral 83 shafa firda nila / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) are amplification and borrowing (1 terminology), and established equivalence and borrowing (1 terminology). meanwhile, in ayo belajar hadist duplet technique is found in 8 terminologies. the duplet in the data is mostly the combination of generalization and borrowing (4 terminologies). others are literal translation and borrowing (3 terminologies), and established equivalence and borrowing (1 terminology). v. conclusion translating religious terminologies is challenging, particularly if the target readers are children. the terminologies found in this study are from arabic language, which was then translated into indonesian and english. therefore it actually involved three languages: arabic, indonesian, and english. in translating the terminologies, the translator – and the writer as well – mostly used the loan words from arabic language in the form of borrowing technique. both the translated terminologies referred to the translation of the holy qur’an in indonesian and english. term. the words pahala and murka were translated into reward and angry, respectively are some examples of generalization. literal translation the literal translation is to translate a word or an expression word for word. tanah suci, kota suci, and shalat wajib lima waktu, which were translated into the holy land, the holy city, and the five obligatory prayers are some examples of literal translation. amplification amplification is to introduce details that are not formulated in the source text. this technique is also known as an addition. there is only one data of amplification technique, i.e. berzikir, which was translated into remembering allah. duplet technique duplet technique is a combination of two translation techniques. in ayo belajar manasik haji, duplet technique is found in 9 terminologies. the duplet in the data is mostly the combination of literal translation and borrowing (7 terminologies). others references abumahfouz, a., & al-shboul, y. (2017). the translatability of schemata in the holy quran: seeing the invisible. awej for translation & literary studies vol. 1 (3): 46-61. albir, a.h., & alves, f. (2009). translation as a cognitive activity. in j. munday (ed.), the routledge companion to translation studies, london: routledge. al-hamad, m.q., & salman, a.m. (2013). the translatability of euphemism in the holy quran. european scientific journal vol. 9 (2): 190-214. brice, a.e,, shaunessy, e., hughes, c., mchatton, p.a., & ratliff, m.a. (2008). what language discourse tells us about bilingual adolescents: a study of students in gifted programs and students in general education programs. journal for the education of the gifted vol. 32 (1): 7-33. castillo, l.m. (2015). acquisition of translation competence and translation acceptability: an experimental study. translating & interpreting journal vol. 7 (1): 72-85. creswell, j. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th edition), boston: pearson education. creswell, j. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th edition), california: sage publication. djatmika, wibowo, a.h., & dewi, i.k. (2014). the quality of english translation version of bilingual books for physics and social science. humaniora vol. 26: 351-361. farkhan, m. translation strategies of islamic terms in indonesian-english research papers. advances in social science, education and humanities research vol. 154: 63-66. hatim, b. (2009). translating text in context. in j. munday (ed.), the routledge companion to translation studies, london: routledge. katan, d. (2009). translation as intercultural communication. in j. munday (ed.), the routledge com-84 shafa firda nila / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) panion to translation studies, london: routledge. mendoza, p. (2008). socialization to the academic culture: a framework of inquiry. revista de estudios sociales vol. 31: 104-117. molina, l., & albir, a.h. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta: translator’s journal vol. 47 (4): 498-512. munday, j. (ed.). (2009). issues in translation studies. the routledge companion to translation studies, london: routledge. nababan, h., nababan, m., & santosa, r. (2018). translation techniques and their impact on the readability of translated bible stories for children. humanus vol. 17 (2): 212-222. newmark, p. (2009). the linguistic and communicative stages in translation theory. in j. munday (ed.), the routledge companion to translation studies. london: routledge. noerjanah, s.l.a., (2017). translation of children’s story book from the skopos theory perspective. elt-echo vol. 2 (1): 84-100. nuraeni, a., saptaningsih, n., & al makmun, m.t. (2019). translating children’s illustrated story books: challenging in translating linguistics and cultural aspects by students of english diploma 3 program uns at ganesa library. advances in social science, education and humanities research vol. 338: 398-407. oittinen, r. (2008). from thumbelina to winnie-the-pooh: pictures, words, and sounds in translation. meta: translator’s journal vol. 53 (1): 76-89. pascua, i. (2003). translation and intercultural education. meta: translator’s journal vol. 48 (1-2): (276-284). puurtinen, t. (1998). syntax, readability and ideology in children’s literature. meta: translator’s journal vol. 43 (4): 1-10. stolze, r. (2003). translating for children: world view or pedagogics?. meta: translator’s journal vol. 48 (1-2): 208-221. biography shafa firda nila, s.s., m.hum. a lecturer of english language at universitas bina bangsa, serang, banten. the author studied english language and literature with translation proficiency concentration at universitas negeri yogyakarta (graduated in 2010) and linguistics of translation studies at universitas sebelas maret (graduated in 2013). her research interests are translation studies, linguistics, and english teaching. research, seminar/conference and publication: hibah penelitian dosen pemula 2017, icolts 2016, icollit 2017, eltlt 2017, prasasti 2018, conaplin 2018, calls 2019. professional associations: member of idri (ikatan dosen republik indonesia), junior member of hpi (himpunan penerjemah indonesia), and member of alti (asosiasi linguistik terapan indonesia). yollanda octavitri, s.hum., m.pd. a lecturer of bahasa indonesia at universitas bina bangsa, serang, banten. the author studied bahasa dan sastra indonesia at universitas diponegoro (graduated in 2012) and pendidikan bahasa indonesia at universitas sultan ageng tirtayasa (graduated in 2018). her research interests are linguistics and language teaching. research, seminar/conference and publication: conference nasional baduy 2017, seminar nasional bahasa dan sastra indonesia 2018, calls 2019.85 microsoft word 137-146 selfa okkkkkk.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.137-146.2019 article designing a learning media of english for specific purpose based on interactive multimedia (macromedia flash 0.8) for agro-industry students selfa idriani1, shally amna2 1english department, bung hatta university padang, indonesia 2 information system department, university of putra indonesia yptk, padang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 14, 2019 final revision: october 19, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 the research objective is to design a learning media of esp using macromedia flash 0.8, which can contribute comprehension in learning esp and presenting the validation of the media. the procedure development referred to development research that uses model 4d by borg and gall. the development consists of 4 steps. they are defined, design, develop, and disseminate. the data ware collected through validation by media experts, material experts, and practitioners using questionnaires and interviews. then, the data are presented by using tables. the result of validation by media expert on the media developed obtained a total score of 87.5 % belonging to valid with no revision, the result of validation by material expert obtained a total score of 90 %belonging to valid with revision and validation by practitioners obtained a total score of 8.589 % belonging to valid with no revision. the result showed that the use of interactive multimedia by using a macromedia flash 0.8 is recommended to be implemented because the students can relatively access to media which is operated with android. the result of this research will be used as a matrix for the next research, which is the development of esp module based on interactive multimedia. keyword interactive multimedia, learning media, esp, macromedia flash 0.8 correspondence e-mail: selfainriani@gmail.com i. introduction english language is one of the compulsory subjects to be taught in schools in indonesia. in a higher level of education, teaching the english language is divided into two types, namely general english (ge) and english for specific purposes (esp). ge usually contains basic english grammar and vocabulary, whereas esp contains english based on the needs of a certain discipline. esp course is also determined by the restriction of “basic skills” which are required by the learners’ purpose (richard, 2001). it means students who dealing with chemistry must learn english for chemistry or if they are technical students, they also need to master english about technical field, and etc. furthermore, dudley-evan and st. john (1998) state that esp is a way of delivering materials and exercises which are appropriate to the students in a specific context. students from the agro-industry department, for instance, should learn english for agroindustry. in this context, the learners learn english not because they want to know the language as a language and the culture in it selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 138 but also because it has a specific goal in the academic and professional fields (robinson, 1991). since the material of esp is set based on students' needs, what students learn in college about english can be implemented in their fieldwork later. in private institutions, especially in the academy of industrial technology (ati) padang, english language is still taught in general english. since esp has a different approach and materials from general english, it can be concluded that the implementation of learning english in ati padang has not been implemented as what it should be. there are also some other problems that researchers found in ati padang, such as: (1) the lecturers focus on textbooks, (2) media used are still limited to flashcards, powerpoint, and whiteboard, (3) the lecturers mostly use lecturing method which causes boredom during teaching and learning process, (4) the lecturers do not use interactive module which causes teaching and learning process become monotonous. furthermore, students in academy of industrial technology padang have english lessons once in a week with two credit hours in their first semester. the number of the meeting is inadequate for them to practice their english. as a result, they need supplementary materials that will enable them to learn english at any time and anywhere. there was a significant difference in a student's test result that students who taught by using multimedia interactive had better scores than students who weren’t taught by using multimedia interactive (dick and carey, 2015). it is well-known that the education world has walked through very rapid science and technological development. learning with digital media at university need to be improved in order to follow technological development. the improvement of technological development, after all, should be balanced with teachers’ ability to teach english. it means that the lecturers will not worry about the time limit in teaching hours because the students can also access and learn their lessons in any place (tim de jong et al. 2008). by using technology in english learning seems promising and bring improvement to the students’ ability in english. many kinds of research have proved that students need interactive multimedia to study with a better result, and they can use it as a self-study. students quickly get bored with the strategy of learning that they have now (rafianti, 2018; munir, 2012; rusman, 2012). in the modern era, lecturers are required to use a computer as an interactive learning media for making the communicative learning environment as a sign of the development of human resources (rusman, 2012). it is a challenge for teachers to be able to integrate computer technology into a learning system, so that learning can be more meaningful and fun. moreover, national education standard agency (bnsp) in arsyad (2014) mentioned that the quality of teaching materials (in this case learning media) must fulfill four elements of feasibility, namely: 1) content feasibility, 2) feasibility of presentation, 3) language feasibility, and 4 ) the feasibility of graphics. the four feasibility elements are elaborated in the form of indicators that have been adjusted to the assessment of the feasibility of the material and learning media in this research. learning media can be defined as any resources that can be used to deliver and channel messages from a planned source to create a conducive learning environment where the recipient can carry out the learning process effectively and efficiently (arsyad, 2014). it can be concluded that learning media are means or educational tools that can be used as an intermediary in the learning process to enhance the effectiveness of the learning process. for a learning process, teaching with media as a tool used will make communication and interaction between selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 139 lecturers and students more effective and efficient. in recent years, the teaching and learning process have used microsoft word and powerpoint platform on pcs and laptops to deliver teaching materials. however, today, there has been an increase in the use of nonwindows based devices in education, such us mobile and tablet. many people know android as a mobile operating system in the world. android seems to be well suited to the classroom. it can be operated at anytime and anywhere. as stated by aditya (2016), in his thesis, android is one of the key advantages of android over other mobile operating systems is that it natively supports the adobe flash platform, which accounts for around 95% of the educational content currently used in schools. the students are provided access to open any sources such as digital books, journals, papers, and many educational sources from many publishers. furthermore, macromedia flash 0.8 is one of the applications which can run on android system, window, and pc. it is one of the popular software in creating animation applications with spectacular effects. yudhiantoro (2006) argues that macromedia flash 0.8 is a program devoted to the designers and programmers who intend to design an animation for web page creation, presentation for business purposes as well as learning to the creation of interactive games as well as other goals that are more specific. it is in line with syahputra et al. (2015). they stated that macromedia flash has characteristics such as (1) software with animation design; (2) it can be operated with windows xp and windows 7, (3) it is easy to operate, (4) it can be used as one of interactive multimedia in learning; (5) it is one of the multimedia designs with attractive animation design. based on the previous research conducted on need analysis of esp for agro-industry students ati padang, the students need instructional materials based on esp, which is by wrapping the exercises into an interesting learning media that is multimedia interactive (macromedia flash 0.8) (amna and idriani, 2019). this media is designed to put the students in a flexible situation, increase their english test scores and automatically increase the students' motivation in learning english. it is relevant to researches that have been done by mualdin (2015) and wiji (2017). they found that multimedia interactive (macromedia flash 0.8) which was used in learning physics and mathematics could increase the students’ scores and the teachinglearning process became more active and fun. in brief, this article aims at designing learning media of esp based on interactive multimedia with macromedia flash 0.8 for agro-industry students in ati padang and at presenting the result of the validation of the media based on media experts and the validation of designing learning media of esp on interactive multimedia for academy industrial technology padang based on material experts. furthermore, the researchers also describe the validation of designing learning media of esp on interactive multimedia for academy industrial technology padang based on education practitioners. ii. methods the procedure development in this research refers to development research that uses a 4d model (four d device) by s. thiagarajan, dorothy s. semmel, dan melvyn i. semmel (1974: 5) combined with borg and gall model (2003). the development consists of 4 steps. they are defined, design, develop and disseminate. this research was only limited to validity on the interactive learning multimedia (macromedia flash 08) at agroindustryy department ati padang. as stated by sugiono (2013) research development produces a specification product that will be useful in many types of field studies which are still being detected low, therefore research development is designed. the subject of the research was media experts, material experts, and practitioners (2 selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 140 lecturers). the instrument used to collect the data in this research consisted of an observation sheet, interview sheet, and a questionnaire sheet. the data that are collected in this research was validation data from experts' judgment and questionnaires. they are related to instructional material and multimedia interactive by using macromedia flash 0.8 the procedure to conduct the research was based on 4d (define, design, develop, disseminate). the first step was to define the need analysis, the second was to design the instructional materials based on esp and media using macro media flash 0.8 and third was to develop learning media based on validation of product by experts and practitioners. 1. the procedure of the research the procedure can be explained as follow; a. define (need analysis) need analysis is the early step before developing the media. it aims to obtain data and support information in developing media, as a result, the media produced will later suit the media users' needs. the objects of the research were 81 students. the instruments of the research were questionnaires designed by using 8 concepts of dudleyevans and st. jhon (1998), interview with the english lecturer and the previous test result. the need for analysis research had been done before this research conducted. the result of need analysis can be seen in part of the result and discussion of this article. b. designing designing should be developed with a learning set and research instrument. it can be explained as follow; 1) instructional material esp based on multimedia interactive is created by using macromedia flash 0.8 which can run on android operation, window and pc. 2) the feature contained in this media included: basic competency (general purpose and specific purpose), materials and evaluation question. 3) needing desktop such as computer or laptop to operate this media 4) android. 2. learning set learning set consists of syllabus, learning implementation plan (rpp), instructional material. 3. research instrument the research instrument developed consists of validation and questionnaire sheets. the validation sheet is purposed to material experts, media experts, and practitioners (lecturers) while the questionnaire is purposed to the practitioners (lecturers) attending the learning using interactive multimedia products. in this research, the researcher used two kinds of data analysis, qualitative and quantitative data. to obtain the data of product validity, three experts completed validation checklists by scoring the content, language understanding, presentation, and writing mechanics. the scores are range from 1 – 4. 1 indicates invalid. 2 indicates fairly valid. 3 indicates valid. 4 indicates very valid. to obtain a final score of product validity, those scores are computed in the following formula proposed by riduwan (2005): 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ,-./01 23450 6-7.686 23450 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (100) gained score = the range score from 1 to 4 given by each of expert maximum score = 4 ideal score = 100 since there were two experts who completed the validation checklist, the final score from the three experts was summed up and divided selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 141 by 2 to obtain an average score of product validity. iii. result and discussion based on the need analysis result, it can be concluded that the lecturers find difficulty in delivering several learning materials creatively. furthermore, lecturers also find difficulty in preparing innovative learning media that can encourage learners’ learning spirit and activity in english in and outside the classroom (amna and idriani, 2019). brown (1995) states that when all the needs have been identified, they would become the goals of the basis to develop suitable materials, media, exercises, tests, and activities. therefore, this research development of learning multimedia interactive is supported with adequate infrastructures such as lcd, laptop/ computer, projector screen, and android handphone. the media can be used by the students either with teachers in class or by themselves out of class. as a result, the media is expected to support the learning process. the students can learn the material more easily and more fun. there are several steps in designing the learning media of english for specific purpose based on interactive multimedia (macromedia flash 0.8) for agro-industry students. 1. preparing prototype of interactive learning multimedia in this stage, the authors have designed interactive multimedia using application macromedia flash 0.8 to be validated and tried out internally later by experts and practitioners. the format of interactive learning multimedia consisted of beginning welcoming slide and topic, main (general purpose and specific purpose, material listening, speaking, reading and writing) and end parts (exercises). the product developed in electronic media using macromedia flash 08 can be accessed using a computer, laptop, android handphone and the display of feature contained in learning media designed is as follows: fig. 1. display of interactive multimedia by macromedia flash 0.8 2. product validation validation was conducted by media experts, material experts, and practitioners. the results of validation are described as follows: a) media expert validation validation made by media experts. it purposes to acquire information about the assessment of interactive learning multimedia in the agro-industry department ati padang. the result of the validation assessment by learning media expert is elaborated in table 1. selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 142 table 1. summary of interactive learning multimedia by using macromediaflash 08. media validation result in agro industry ati padang. no indicator of media assesment assessment scale >𝒏𝒊 >𝑵 % score criteria 1 content 33 38 100 % 86,84% very good 2 objective and benefit 26 30 100 % 86,66 % very good 3 characteristics of learning media 40 46 100 % 86, 95 % very good total score 99 114 100 % 86,84 very good the result of media assessment on the interactive learning multimedia using macromedia flash 0.8 get 34 from the highest score of 40 for the content of the media by media expert. the result of the assessment on the objective and benefit of interactive learning multimedia by media experts is 34 points from the highest score of 40 points. the result of the content on the characteristics of interactive learning multimedia by media experts is 58 points from the highest score of 64. the total score is 126 points from the highest one of 114 points. thus, the score of expert validation is 87,5 %. the scores above show that the product of multimedia interactive (macromedia flash 0.8) based on media expert validation is valid. it can be implemented in the teachinglearning process. however, there were some points that needed to be revised based on the experts' recommendations in the suggestion’s column. the recommendation given by media experts is that the media has been developed attractively, but the performance and display still very simple. it suggests that the researcher should revise the media with a better display. fig..2 display of media before revision fig.3 display of media after revision table 2. summary of interactive learning multimedia by using macromedia flash 0.8. media validation result in agro-industry ati padang. no indicator of media assessment assessment scale >𝒏𝒊 >𝑵 % score criteria 1 content 34 40 100 % 85 % valid 2 language aspects 34 40 100 % 85 % valid 3 characteristics of learning media 58 64 100 % 90,6 % valid total score 99 144 100 % 87,5 % valid selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 143 table 3. summary of interactive learning multimedia by using macromedia flash 08 material expert validation result in agro-industry ati padang. no indicator of media assessment assessment scale >𝒏𝒊 >𝑵 % score criteria 1 content 65 72 100 % 90 % valid 2 language understanding 38 40 100 % 95 % valid 3 presentation feasibility 44 48 100 % 91% valid 4 writing system 26 32 100% 81% valid with revision total score 173 192 100% 90% valid b) learning material expert validation validation by material experts aims to obtain the assessment on instructional material. it purposes to find out whether or not the content of the material in the media developed reflects on the suitability and the appropriateness of material content. the result of learning media validation is presented table 3. the result of the assessment on the feasibility of interactive learning multimedia content by a material expert is 65 from the highest score of 72. the result of the language understanding of interactive learning multimedia using macromedia flash 0.8 by the material expert is 38 points from the highest score of 40. the result on presentation feasibility of interactive learning multimedia using macro media flash 08 by the material expert is 44 points from the highest score of 48. the result of writing mechanics of interactive learning multimedia using macro media flash 0.8 by material experts is 26 points from the highest score of 32. the total score is 173 points from the highest one of 192 points. thus, the score of expert validation is 90 %. it means valid. the score above means that the product of multimedia interactive (macromedia flash 0.8) based on instructional material expert validation is valid. it can be implemented in the teaching-learning process. but there were some points that need to be revised based on the experts' recommendation. the recommendation given by instructional material is that the content, language understanding, presentation feasibility were valid and appropriately good. but the writing system of the media is valid with some suggestions that it should be well organized, reading comprehension questions instruction should have clear instruction and grammar corner should have more examples for each explanation of the materials related to the topic discussed. fig. 4. display of media before revision fig. 5. display of media after revision selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 144 c) education practitioners validation validation conducted by education practitioners aims to explore information about input to find out and analyze the feasibilities of content, presentation, and language used in the media. table 4. summary of interactive multimedia by using macromedia flash 0.8 validation result in agro-industryy class ati padang subject by practitioners (lecturers) no aspect assessment scale >𝒏𝒊 >𝑵 % score criteria 1 content 38 40 100% 95% valid 2 presentation 37 40 100% 92 % valid 3 language feasibility 54 64 100% 84 % valid total score 109 144 100% 89,58% valid from table 4, it can be seen that the result of validation on the interactive multimedia by using macromedia flash 0.8 in agro-industry department ati padang by practitioners (lecturers) shows that the score of content feasibility aspect is 95 %, the presentation feasibility is 92 %, the language learning score is 84. the total score is 89.58 %. all of the results of multimedia interactive by using macromedia flash 0.8 based on practitioner's validation are valid so it implies that the media can be implemented in teachinglearning process without revision. by having the validity of the media, it is hoped to obtain an appropriate interactive multimedia design by using macromedia flash 0.8 in the teaching and learning process. this research was only limited to the developed step. the result of the validation by media expert on the media developed obtained a total score of 87.5 % belonging to valid with no revision, the result of validation by material expert obtained a total score of 90 % belonging to valid with revision and validation by practitioners obtained total the score of 85.89 % belonging to valid with no revision. it can be concluded that the development of a learning media of esp based on interactive multimedia by using macromedia flash 0.8 for agro-industry students ati padang is valid with revision in instructional material such as: writing academic, reading a passage and for grammar corner. iv. conclusion the implementation of interactive multimedia by using macromedia flash 0.8 is considered as a breakthrough in engaging students to be active in english in and outside of the classroom. it needs to be done as a learning media in the classroom. this media now need to be applied by students to see real improvement in students' scores and learning motivation. this research will be continued discussing the response of students after using the media and the comparison of students' test results before and after learning with the media. moreover, the development of learning media development should also be developed for other materials. selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 145 references amna, s & idriani, s. 2019. a need analysis approach in developing esp module based on interactive multimedia for academy industry padang. prosiding iccle. unp. arsyad, azhar. 2014. media pembelajaran. jakarta: rajawali pers borg, w. & gall, m.d. 2005.applying educational research; (5 th ed). usa browns, j.d. 1995. the element of language curriculum: a systematic approach to program development. massachusetts: heinle and heinle publishers. dick, walter. and carey, lou. 2005. the systematic design of instruction. united states of america: scott foresman and company 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dan peneliti muda. bandung: alfabet robinson, p. c. 1991. esp today. uk: prentice hall international ltd. rusman. 2012. belajar dan pembelajaran berbasis komputer. bandung : alfabeta. syahputra, et al. 2015. pengembangan media ajar interaktif biologi berbasis macromedia flash pada materi sistem pencernaan makanan manusia untuk kelas xi sma/ma. seminar nasional xii pendidikan biologi fkip uns. mualdin sinurat, edi syahputra, w rajagukguk. 2015. pengembangan media pembelajaran matematika berbantuan program flash untuk meningkatkan kemampuan matematik siswa smp", jurnal tabularasa, vol.12 no. 2. sugiyono. 2013. metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d", (bandung: alfabeta susilowati, wiji. 2007. pengembangan program macromedia flash 8 pembelajaran fisika di sma.”journal penelitian dan evaluasi vol.10 no.2. syariful fahmi, marsigit, “pengembangan metimedia macromedia flash. thiagarajan sivasailam, dorothy s. semmel dan melvyn i. semmel. (1974). instructional development for training teachers of exceptional children. bloomington: indiana university aditya, d. s. 2016. speak app: an android application model to improve the midwifery students’ speaking competence a thesis. yogyakarta: sanata dharma university. selfa idriani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 146 tim de jong, et .al. 2008. contextualised media for learning. educational technology & society. international forum of educational technology & society. vol. 11 (2), p. 4153. issn 1436-4522 yudhiantoro, d. 2006. macromedia flash professional. surabaya : andi. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 57 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 14, 2021 final revision: april 18, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 this study is to identify the utterances of particularized speech acts and illocutionary functions on joe biden’s speech about covid-19. the writer uses descriptive qualitative design to gain the research. the writer collects the data from the video content on youtube named c-span entitled president-elect joe biden covid-19 briefing and website named rev formed as speech transcript. joe biden or joseph robinette biden is the 46th president of the united states. from the analysis, the writer found three types of speech acts used by joe biden. the data used searle’s theory. they are the locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. then, the writer also found that illocutionary act is divided into five categories. they are assertive (42%), directive (18%), commisive (29%), expressive (9%), and declaration (2%). the most dominant type of illocutionary act is assertive or representative. meanwhile, the most dominant type of illocutionary function used by him is promising function. from this study, it can be found the kinds of facial expressions, posture, and gestures of body language which are expressed by joe biden. keywords speech act, illocutionary function, joe biden’s speech correspondence e-mail: gitayusanti14@gmail.com articles speech act analysis on joe biden’s speech about covid-19 gita yusanti1, nurul aini2, ary setya budi ningrum3, edwin nuvianto al aziz4 1-4iain kediri, kediri, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.57-70.2022 1. introduction people always interact with each other in society because they are social beings. while trying to relate with others they will have communication. communication is the process of delivering ideas, information, messages, and conversation among people (ruler, 2018) . thus, the person who conveys the information always has the purpose of the information or message given. gee (1993) as cited by rabiah in 2012 states the primary function of language is to communicate information. it means the speaker intended meaning the hearer must develop the context of their communication. the context in linguistics known as pragmatic as well as the context of utterance determine kinds of acts uttered by the speakers (wijana, 2021). one of study that is carried out in pragmatics is speech acts. the speech act theory is applied in each daily conversation with context happened among people. speech production and perception share a common link and a common processing strategy. on the other hand, speech or public speaking is the structured way of an individual to speak directly to a group of people with an objective in mind of either informing, influencing, or entertaining them (joy (2016) as cited by abella & cutamora in 2019). according to tutuarima et al (2018), the most significant thing in speech act is the message that the speaker wants to convey. it means when using language is produces not only a sentence but also perform an action. thus, the hearer understands a message from the speaker. the manner of delivery was structured so that it can inform, influence, or entertain the target audience. on the other words, with speech acts contain in our daily life use to make a conversation with other people. speech act concerns on the speech which means it prioritizes the spoken media and the acts of utterances. according to j.l austin (1962), speech acts are actions that appear when declaring something. speech act theory believes in identifying utterances and turns as actual actions (kiuk & ghozali, 2018). speech act divided into three categories; locutionary act, illocutionary act, gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 58 and perlocutionary act (searle, 1969). locutionary or locution is about saying utterance from speaker by using grammar, semantics and phonology, the second one is illocutionary or illocution that is defined as the intended meaning performed by speaker, and the third one is perlocutionary or perlocution that is defined as the perfomance affected by the performance (giyatmi, 2021). there are some reasons why the researcher chooses this topic as the research. first, the speech act is important to learn. according to hussein (2019), the speech acts learned by efl english to develop their ability to succeed in academic or social communication. it is greatly realized about the application of language function that leads to speech acts (widya, 2017). moreover, it is considered in each aspect of life, as well as having different world of context gives impacts to illocutionary (prastio, 2020). second, based on the problem worldwide especially corona-viruses (covid-19) joe biden as president-elect united states america 2020 speech about covid19. the researcher chooses joe biden’s speech because he is the most influential person in the united states. he is the president, so his speech is interesting and it is very concerned by many people. his speech is also interesting because the topic of a social phenomenon issue about covid-19. moreover, his speech is mentioned as phenomenal speech (mufiah, 2018). third, youtube is the world’s third most popular online destination, has transformed from a video-sharing site into a job opportunity for content creators in both new and mainstream media (holland, 2016). fourth, based on the previous study most of the relevant studies focus on speech act in the movie (see, e.g. syahputra 2019; putri, ramendra & swandana 2019, putri, sartini & fajri 2020). the researcher also wants to find the speech act of joe biden’s speech utterance with the theory of speech act by searle (1969). it is considered that speech act is the most probable theory to use in analysing video which expects to reveal what the video wants the listeners to interpret the meaning and to do (fitria, 2019). regarding those previous studies, this present study assists to give the new finding because the researcher uses the types of speech acts and also the illocutionary function theory by searle (1969). by using the theory, the researcher found the types of speech act and the functions of illocutionary. those three researchers conducted their research on speech act theory although they used different genres; youtube and movie. to sum up, the result of the research strengthens putri, ramendra & swandana’s (2019) research and putri, sartini & fajri’s (2020) research. moreover, according to lestari (2017), teaching pragmatics is very important for language learners to keep updated with the pragmatic research trend in order that they can be well-informed with the current solution of teaching pragmatics. english pragmatics in applied linguistics also provide knowledge of language in a provided social interaction that affects choice of personal race in thoughts within words that is conveyed to others (shiddiqui, 2018). retnowaty (2017) argues that everyone should do other activities to increase their pragmatic competence, such as watching english tv-programs or movie and spending time with english speaking with friends. the researcher expects the readers to be able to understand the characteristics of a type of speech act and the function of illocutionary acts. the analysis is categorized from the pattern of normal sentence, subject and verb and inverted version as well to have the context and the meaning of the utterance (syafitri, 2019). furthermore, not only people need to figure out grammar and vocabulary in communication, but they also need to pay attention on the context the word applied (rahmawati, 2021). being conscious or not, people apply pragmatics in their communication. they have certain purposes, implicit or explicit in doing communication. if they can understand the implicit meaning of an utterance, they will get much information unmentioned. therefore, the researcher wants to make an observation about speech act analysis on joe biden’s speech about covid-19. 2. methods this study is categorized as qualitative research in which the data are elaborated descriptively. the research determines qualitative research as the design of this study because the data which are derived can be explained deeply in detail. the explanation will be based on the facts which are derived. the researcher wants to observe about an analysis on speech acts in president-elect joe biden about covid-19 briefing. joe biden orjoseph robinette biden jr. is apresident-elect 47thof the united states.joe biden’s speech communicate his promise to the people of america to control gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 59 covid-19. he promised trying to control covid-19 by re-opening the business safely, distributing vaccines fairly and free, and returning children to school safely.the data sources of this research is from a video content in youtube named c-span entitled president-elect joe biden covid-19 briefing and website named rev formed as speech transcript. the duration of video is 10.25 minutes. the researcher observed the subject itself in terms of expression, posture, and gesture to support the analysis carried out by the researcher. the researcher also read the script of joe biden’s speech and double-check it with the video of c-span (president-elect joe biden covid-19 briefing to understand the utterances will be produced by the research subjects. it conducted to get more accurate data that can support the analysis of this research. the coding scheme was used to answer the types of speech acts, the functions of illocutionary acts, and visual elements of body language in joe biden’s speech. this study uses triangulation to measure the instruments used whether it is reliable and valid or not. denzin & lincoln (1997) as cited by wayuni in 2012 distinguished triangulation into four types such as data triangulation, investigator triangulation, methodological triangulation, and theory triangulation. the researcher uses the investigator triangulation. it means there were different evaluators to decrease the bias in the process of analyzing data. the researcher needs an expert to validate the result of the study. this study validated by nur afifi, m.appling, ph.d. she was lecture in the english department at state islamic institute (iain) of kediri who specialist in linguistics. then asks them to recheck the result of the study for purpose of achieving in the accuracy of the finding. 3. results and discussion the researcher classifies two parts of the findings based on the problem statements in the first chapter. first is the types of speech acts are presented in joe biden’s speech about covid-19 and second is the function of illocutionary acts are presented in joe biden’s speech about covid-19. locutionary act locutionary act is the act of saying something or a locution of a word or sentence based on meaning and the reference, sometimes is called speaker’s utterance. it divided into three types; declarative, interrogative, and imperative. the result of the locutionary acts used by joe biden can be illustrated in the figure 1. fig. 1 the diagram type of locutionary act the analysis of searle’s theory (1969) was used to identify the utterances in joe biden’s speech transcript in video content in youtube named c-span entitled president-elect joe biden covid-19 briefing and website named rev formed as speech transcript. besides, it was used to describe the implied meaning of each utterance. the researcher founds the 88 data utterances in joe biden’s speech. it showed that 88 utterances have been categorized into three; directive forms, interrogative forms, and imperative forms. 83 (94%) of data included in declarative forms, 0% of data included in interrogative forms is not found in joe biden’s speech, and 5 (6%) of data which included in imperative forms. the most dominant type of locutionary acts used by joe biden is declarative forms because joe biden’s speech almost contained declarative forms because joe biden’s speech almost contained declarative utterance. fig. 2 the diagram type of illocutionary act gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 60 88 utterances of the illocutionary function, in order to make it clear in detail, it can be shown on the table 1. in illocutionary act, the researcher found that there are 37 data (42%) of assertive. assertive or representative found 9 data (10,23%) of stating functions, 20 data (22,73%) of reporting functions, 5 data (5,68%) of claiming functions, 1 data (1,14%) of suggesting functions, and 2 data (2,27%) of boasting functions. in conclusion, reporting is the most dominant type of assertive or representative. in the directive type, there are 16 data (18%) of the directive. directive found 9 data (10,23%) of advising functions, 5 data (5,68%) of commanding functions, 1 data (1,14%) of ordering function, and 1 data (1,14%) of requesting function. thus, the data about that advising functions is dominant in table 1. finding of the type of illocutionary act no types of illocutionary acts function of illocutionary act frequency (%) 1 representative/assertive stating 9 10,23% reporting 20 22,73% claiming 5 5,68% suggesting 1 1,14% boasting 2 2,27% complaining 0 0,00% 2 directive advising 9 10,23% commanding 5 5,68% ordering 1 1,14% requesting 1 1,14% recommending 0 0,00% 3 commisive offering 0 0,00% promising 25 28,41% vowing 0 0,00% 4 declaration resigning 0 0,00% dismissing 0 0,00% christening 1 1,14% naming 1 1,14% sentencing 0 0,00% excommunicating 0 0,00% appointing 0 0,00% 5 expressive thanking 4 4,55% congratulating 1 1,14% praising 0 0,00% blaming 0 0,00% pardoning 0 0,00% condoling 3 3,41% total 88 100,00% illocutionary act illocutionary act is a statement, offering, promise, and other utterance or performative expression directly, sometimes is called speaker’s intention. according searle (1969), illocutionary act divided into five types. they are representative, direction, commission, expressiveness, and declaration. the result of the types of illocutionary acts used by joe biden can be illustrated in the figure 2. function of illocutionary acts the figure 2 shows that there are almost all the functions of illocutionary act used by joe biden in his speech about covid-19 after presidentelect. however, there are also some functions of illocutionary acts that is not used by him. there are gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 61 the directive because the listener to take a particular action from the speaker. in the commissive type, there are 25 data (29%) of commissive. it was found that 25 (28,41%) data contained promising functions in joe biden’s speech. in the expressive type, there are 8 data (9%) of expressive. expressive found 4 data (4,55%) of thanking functions, 1 data (1,14%) of congratulating function, and 3 data (3,41%) of condoling functions. to sum up the thanking function is the most dominant in the expressive type. the declaration type found that 2 data (2%) of declaration. declaration found 1 data (1,14%) of christening function, and 1 data (1,14%) of naming function. the frequency of the christening function is the same as the frequency of the naming function. from the findings above, it can be clarified that the most dominant type of illocutionary function used by joe biden is promising function as commisive type because his speech about the appointments to americans to control covid-19. there are around 25 data (28,41%) of reporting functions. perlocutionary act perlocutionary act is an affect that is produces by hearer because utterance sentence and reaction from that, or sometimes is called hearer’s reaction. perlocutionary act can be classified into twelve categories. they are hearer knows something, hearer thinks of something, hearer is doing something, hearer is convinced, hearer feels irritated, hearer feels frightened, hearer is amused, hearer is inspired, hearer is impressed, hearer is attracted, hearer relieves tension, and hearer is giving an answer. the most dominant type of perlocutionary act used by joe biden is hearer is convinced because speaker appointments to americans to control covid-19. thus, the hearer is convinced. analysis of visual elements in “joe biden’s speech” picture according to peirce (1931) as cited by khairuandi in 2020, he stated that visual elements can be classified into qualisign, sinsign and legisign. the researcher focused on the legisgn. non-verbal communication legisgn can be analyzed by facial expression, bodily contact, interpersonal spacing, gestures, postures, appearcance. the result of the visual elements in joe biden’s speech picture can be shown on the table 2. table 2. finding of the visual elements joe biden’s speech picture no visual sign legisign details 1 joe biden’s face facial expression facing to the front, mouth opened, speaking, smile. 2 joe biden’s body posture standing 3 joe biden’s hand motion gesture forefinger raise, hands clenched together, raising his hand toward chest, folding hand, palm toward chest, holding podium, holding a mask fig. 3 function of illocutionary act gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 62 regarding those previous studies, this present study assists to give the new finding because the researcher uses the types of speech acts and also the illocutionary function theory by searle (1969). by using the theory, the researcher found the types of speech act and the functions of illocutionary. those three researchers conducted their research on speech act theory although they used different genres; youtube and movie. to sum up, the result of the research strengthens putri, ramendra & swandana’s (2019) research and putri, sartini & fajri’s (2020) research. moreover, the researcher hopes that the readers can understand the characteristics of a type of speech act and the function of illocutionary acts. 4. conclusion the result showed that the types of speech acts are presented in joe biden’s speech about covid-19 are locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. there are 88 utterances that have been categorized. in the locutionary act, there are around 94% of data included in declarative forms, 0% of data included in interrogative forms, and 6% of data which included in imperative forms. the researcher found 5 types of illocutionary acts performed by joe biden’s speech. they are assertive, directive, commisive, expressive, and declaration. the most dominant type of illocutionary acts used by joe biden is assertive or representative with 37 data (42%). moreover, the illocutionary functions are presented in joe biden’s speech about covid-19 are assertive function, directive function, commisive function, expressive function, and declaration function. the most dominant type of illocutionary functions used by him is promising function as commisive type. there are around 30 data (28,41%) of promising functions. in the perlocutionary act, the researcher found that there are several effects toward the listener that arise when the utterance was produced by the speaker. from this study, it can be found the 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(2017). a pragmatic analysis of speech acts used by english lecturers in languange teaching at stkip ydb lubuk alung. jurnal arbitrer, 4(1), 10-16. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 64 appendix (joe biden’s body language picture) gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 65 appendix 2. the data findings of the speech acts found in joe biden’s speech note: h : hearer in : interrogative rep : representative com : commissive d : declarative im : imperative dir : directive exp : expressive dec : declaration no utterances speech acts locutionary illocutionary perlocutionary d in im rep dir com exp dec 1 good afternoon everyone.   h is giving an answer. 2 as i said on saturday, i’m humbled by the trust this country and the american people have placed in me and vice president elect harris.   h is impressed 3 and we’re ready to get to work, addressing the needs of the american people.   h is attracted 4 today our work begins.   h is convinced 5 it starts with doing everything possible to get the covid-19 under control so that we can reopen our businesses safely and sustainably, resume our lives and put this pandemic behind us.   h is doing something 6 and we just received positive news in this fight, announcement of progress made for a successful vaccine.   h is inspired. h relieves tension. 7 soon, expectation will run the process of [inaudible 00:00:47] and approvals.   h thinks of something 8 and the process results must also be grounded in science and fully transparent so the american people can have every confidence in any approved vaccine is safe and effective.   h is convinced 9 at the same time, it’s clear that this vaccine, even if approved will not be widely available for many months yet to come.   h thinks of something 10 the challenge before us right now is still immense and growing.   h feels frightened 11 and although we are not in office yet, i’m just laying out what we expect to do and hope can be done, some of it between now and the time we are sworn in.   h is attracted. 12 so the purpose of this is to let you know what we’re going to do once sworn in.   h knows something. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 66 13 there’s a need for bold action to fight this pandemic.   h thinks of something. 14 we’re still facing a very dark winter.   h thinks of something 15 there are now nearly 10 million covid cases in the united states.   h feels frightened 16 last week we topped 120,000 new cases on multiple successive days.   h feels frightened 17 infection rates are going up.   h feels frightened 18 hospitalizations are going up.   h feels frightened 19 deaths are going up.   h feels frightened 20 this crisis claimed nearly a thousand american lives a day, nearly 240,000 deaths so far.   h feels frightened 21 the projections still indicate we could lose 200,000 more lives in the coming months before a vaccine can be made widely available.   h feels frightened 22 so we can’t forego the important work that needs to be done between now and then to get our country through the worst wave yet in this pandemic, to reduce the spread, to save lives.   h is doing something. 23 so that’s why today i’ve named the covid-19 transition advisory board comprised of distinguished public health experts to help our transition team translate the biden-harris covid-19 plan into action.   h is convinced. 24 a blueprint that we can put in place as soon as kamala and i are sworn into office on january 20th, 2021.   h is impressed. 25 and we will seek to add other members to this board to bring additional important perspective on public health and expertise throughout the transition.   h is impressed. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 67 26 this group will advise on detailed plans, built on a bedrock of science and to keep compassion, empathy and care for every american at its core, making rapid testing widely available… more widely available, much more widely available, and building a core of contact tracers who will track and curb this disease while we prioritize getting vaccines first to the most at risk populations, developing clear and detailed guidance, providing the necessary resources for small businesses, schools, childcare centers to reopen and operate safely and effectively during the pandemic, protecting both workers and the public, scaling up productive lifesaving treatments and therapeutics.   h relieves tension. 27 and when it’s ready, making sure an approved vaccine is distributed equitably and efficiently and free for every american.   h is doing something. 28 with cases rising once more, it’s imperative that we ramp up our production of personal protective equipment, to make sure our brave healthcare workers have what they need to do battle safely against this virus.   h is doing something. 29 we’re going to get states, cities and tribes, the test and the supplies they need.   h thinks of something. 30 we’re going to protect vulnerable populations who are at risk, most at risk from this virus, older americans and those with preexisting conditions.   h is convinced. 31 we’re going to address the health and economic disparities that mean this virus is hitting the black, latino, asian american, pacific islanders, native american communities, harder than white communities.   h is convinced. 32 focusing on in these communities is one of our priorities, not an afterthought.   h is convinced. 33 the bottom line, i will spare no effort to turn this pandemic around once we’re sworn in on january 20th, to get our kids back to school safely, our businesses growing, and our economy running at full speed again, and to get an approved vaccine manufactured and distributed as quickly as possible to as many americans as possible free of charge.   h is inspired. 34 we’ll follow the science, we’ll follow the science.   h is doing something. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 68 35 let me say that again.   h thinks of something. 36 and we’ll adjust the new data when it comes in and we’ll listen and work in cooperation with governors and local leaders of both parties who are fighting this virus in their communities this very day.   h is impressed. 37 there is so much good work happening at state and local levels across the country, governors, mayors, they’re stepping up.   h knows something. 38 the advisory board will listen and learn lessons from their experience.   h thinks something. 39 because we know that we won’t fully defeat covid-19 until we defeat it everywhere, my advisory council also includes experts on global health security so that we can restore u.s. global leadership to fight this pandemic.   h relieves tension. 40 this is a crisis that affects everyone.   h knows something. 41 as i’ve said throughout this campaign, i will be a president for every american.   h is convinced. 42 this election is over.   h knows something. 43 it’s time to put aside the partisanship and the rhetoric that designed to demonize one another.   h is doing something. 44 it’s time to end the politicization of basic responsible public health steps like mask wearing and social distancing.   h is doing something. 45 we have to come together to heal the soul of this country so that we can effectively address this crisis, as one country, where hardworking americans have each other’s backs.   h is doing something. 46 and where we’re united in our shared goal, defeating this virus.   h is giving an answer. 47 as we work toward a safe and effective vaccine, we know that the single most effective thing we can do to stop the spread of covid is wear a mask.   h is doing something. 48 the head of the cdc warned this fall, that for the foreseeable future, a mask remains the most potent weapon against the virus.   h is doing something. 49 today’s news does not change that urgent reality.   h thinks of something. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 69 50 i won’t be president until january 20th, but my message today is to everyone, is this, it doesn’t matter who you voted for, where you stood before election day, it doesn’t matter your party, your point of view, we can save tens of thousands of lives if everyone would just wear a mask for the next few months.   h is doing something. 51 not democrat or republican lives, american lives.   h thinks of something. 52 maybe we’d save a life of a person who stocks the shelf at your local grocery store.   h s inspired. 53 maybe saves the life of a member of your place of worship.   h is inspired. 54 maybe saves the lives of one of your children’s teachers. maybe saves your life.   h is inspired. 55 so please, i implore you, wear a mask, do it for yourself, do it for your neighbor.   h is doing something. 56 a mask is not a political statement, but it is a good way to start pulling the country together.   h knows something. 57 i want to be very clear, the goal of mask wearing is not to make your life less comfortable or take something away from you.   h knows something. 58 it’s to give something back to all of us, a normal life.   h thinks something. 59 the goal is to get back to normal as fast as possible and masks are critical in doing that.   h is convinced. 60 it won’t be forever, but that’s how we’ll get our nation back, back up to speed economically.   h knows something. 61 so we can go back to celebrating birthdays and holidays together.   h relieves tension. 62 so we can attend sporting events together.   h relieves tension. 63 so we can get back to the lives and connections we shared before the pandemic.   h relieves tension. 64 it doesn’t matter whether or not we always agree with one another.   h feels irritated. 65 it doesn’t matter who you voted for.   h feels irritated. 66 we are americans and our country is under threat.   h feels frightened. 67 we’re now called to do the same thing that generations of proud americans have done when faced with a crisis throughout our history.   h is doing something. gita yusanti / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 70 68 rise above our differences to defend the strength and the vitality of our nation.   h is doing something. 69 that’s the character of patriots, that’s the character of america.   h knows something. 70 we have to do this together.   h is doing something. 71 wearing a mask seems like a small act.   h knows something. 72 maybe you think your individual choice won’t make any difference.   h thinks of something. 73 throughout our history, throughout the history of our nation, we’ve seen over and over how small acts add up to enormous achievements.   h is amused. 74 it’s the weight of many small acts together that bend the arc of history.   h is attracted. 75 i know there’s nothing that the american people can’t accomplish when we work together, as one people, with one mission.   h is convinced. 76 we can get this virus under control, i promise you.   h is convinced. 77 we can rebuild our economy back better than it was before.   h is convinced. 78 we can address race based disparities that damage our country.   h is convinced. 79 it’s in our power.   h thinks of something. 80 so let’s wear a mask.   h is doing something. 81 let’s get to work.   h is doing something. 82 thank you.   h is giving answer. 83 may god bless you.   h is giving answer. 84 and for all those who have lost somebody, our heart goes out to you.   h is impressed. 85 we know what it’s like.   h is impressed. 86 our heart goes out to you.   h is impressed. 87 may god protect our healthcare workers and all americans.   h is convinced. 88 thank you.   h is giving answer. baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 06, 2020 final revision: october 03, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this paper examines the structure of kanuri dp (structure) hypothesis within the framework of abney (1987) and chomsky (1995) minimalist programme (mp). in conducting the research, the researcher uses his native speaker intuition and other three competent native speakers of kanuri to validate the data of this study. the study identifies kanuri determiners as post head modifier language. the study identifies also two types of demonstrative modifiers –near and far demonstratives. the near demonstratives agree with their head nouns while the far demonstratives take both singular and plural head nouns. the far demonstratives do not show any form of agreement morphology between the nouns and their demonstrative modifiers. the analysis of dp hypothesis shows the np complement moves to the specifier position in the surface syntax which give rise to complement-head (c-h) order. the study further analyzes possessives, demonstratives and quantifiers under the dp hypothesis. the outcome of the study reveals that possessive determiner ‘nde’ (our) is base generated at the possessive position, moves and fills the d position under the dp in kanuri while the far demonstrative ‘tudu’ (that) is also base generated at the dem. position of the determiner phrase (dp) -hence the d position is strong head position moves and fills the d position and the noun ‘fato’ (house) moves to the specifier position of the determiner phrase (dp) in order to check agreement feature in kanuri. keyword kanuri, dp, possessive, demonstrative, move, hypothesis, minimalist correspondence e-mail: babakuraalkali1974@gmail.com review kanuri dp hypothesis: a minimalist approach baba kura alkali gazali1 1department of languages and linguistics, university of maiduguri, nigeria under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.203-209.2020 i. introduction kanuri is a member of the saharan branches of the nilo-saharan phylum of african languages (greenberg, 1963) bendo (2000:44) presents the saharan branch according to the following grouping: saharan: kanurikanumbu, daza, teda-tubu, zaghawa-bedeyat-berti. the kanuri language according to cyffer (1998), is the widest spread language in the lake chad region and is spoken in all the countries bordering the lake (cameroon, chad, niger and nigeria). bulakarima and shettima (2012) observe that kanuri is the major language of the people of present day borno and yobe states in nigeria. the kanuri speaking groups are also evident in other parts of nigeria e.g. alkaleri, azare, gamawa and misau local government area in bauchi state, lafia in nasarawa state, bojoga in gombe state. in niger republic, the major groups or dialects of kanuri are bilma, dagəra and manga. kanuri is spoken by quite a large majority of people in the area stretching from zinder in the west down to the lake chad region in the east. in the republic of chad, the kanuri speakers are concentrated in the kanem region. in the republic of cameroon also live a substantial number of kanuri speaking community in the towns of kolofata, marwa, kusuri, mokolo and ngaoundere bulakarima and shettima. kanuri is an amalgamation of several ethnic groups. the ethnic groups that constitute kanuri language according to bulakarima and shettima (2012) are twenty different ethnic groups. the speech forms of the kanuri ethnic groups are further classified 203 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) into six major dialects. the classification of these six major dialects is based on their phonological, phonetic, morphological and semantic differences. the six major dialects according to bulakarima (1991), bulakarima and shettima (2012) are: manga (iv) dagəra mowar (v) bilma suwurti (vi) yerwa this paper analyzes the dp hypothesis of the yerwa dialect of kanuri of kanuri which is the standard form of kanuri and the standard kanuri orthography (sko) is written in yerwa dialect of kanuri (cyffer, 1991). crystal (2008:140) defines determiner as ‘a term used in some models of grammatical description, referring to a class of items whose main role is to co-occur with nouns to express a wide range of semantic contrasts, such as quantity or number. in some generative grammar theories, determiner is regarded as the head in combination with a noun, to produce a determiner phrase (dp). the dp hypothesis is the proposal that noun phrases are projections of the determiner’. the noun phrase is a common structural unit, which is usually headed by a noun, or another word which can act as a noun in kanuri. the noun takes modifiers of different categories. these categories are mostly optional. modifiers have the function to describe or qualify the head noun. the demonstratives (dem) in kanuri have determiner function and constitute rich source of kanuri dp (cyffer 1991, 1998) fannami et al (1999) bulakarima and shettima (2012) gazali & gombe (2020). this paper examines the structure and the ordering of the determiner as specifier adopting abney (1987) dp hypothesis as theoretical approach. cyffer (1991:38) identifies three categories of determiners in kanuri –definite, demonstrative: near speaker and demonstrative: far from speakers in kanuri. the study further identifies singular determiners used as both in singular and plural context to modify different nouns in kanuri. consider the following examples in (1a, b and 2a b) below 1. a. fər adə horse this ‘this horse’ b. fe tudu cow that ‘that cow’ 2. a. fər-wa anyi/adə horse-pl those/this ‘these horses’ b. fe-wa tunyi/tudu cow-pl those/ tudu ‘those cows’ the above examples in (1a,b and 2a b) show distance and number relationship express by determiners ‘adə’ (this) and ‘tudu’ (that) in kanuri. in example (1a and b) the determiner ‘adə’ (this) and ‘tudu’ (that) modify singular nouns while in examples (2a and b) modifying both singular demonstrative and plural demonstrative modifying plural nouns but this study fail short of subjecting near demonstrative in terms of their agreement with nouns they modify. on the relationship between the determiners and their head words in kanuri, cyffer (1991) observes that determiners in kanuri follow the head noun. he further opines that when a noun phrase contains additional modifiers, the determiner stands at the end and concludes the noun phrase. consider the following examples from cyffer (1991:38) in examples (3a-f) below. 3. a. fato adə house this ‘this house’ b. fato kura house big ‘big house’ c. fato kura tudu house big that ‘that big house’ d. kulwu-də gownthe ‘the gown’ e. kulwu bəlin-də gown newthe ‘the new gown’ f. fato-wa kura yakkə anyi house-pl big three these ‘this big three houses’ 204 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the above examples in (3a-f) show determiners and adjectives in kanuri post modify the head nouns in kanuri. the definite article ‘də’ (the) as clinic attaches to whatever word comes last in the phrase, it can attach to a word of any class as in example (3d) it attaches to noun ‘kulwu’ (gown) and in (3e) it attaches to adjective ‘bəlin’ (new). in example (3f) contains complex noun phrase noun plural marker, adjective of size, numerical and determiner which are arranged in linear order. the determiner ‘anyi’ (these) near determiner agrees with the head noun in plural form ‘fato-wa’ (houses) in the above examples. the above study provided us with structural guide on how we analyze the determiner structure in kanuri dp hypothesis. fannami et al (1999:20) observe that the pre-head and post-head slots contain optional modifiers/ specifiers whereas the head slot contains the obligatory element noun or pronoun. consider the following examples in (4a,b and 5a,b) of the prehead and post-head slots below. 4. a. adə fər this horse ‘this is (a) horse’ b. adə tada-nyi this boy-my ‘this is my boy’ 5. a. tada –nyi boymy ‘my boy’ b. kel –nyi trap –my ‘my trap’ the above examples (4a and b) are rather sentences than a phrase –placement of the modifier ‘adə’ (this) pre-head slot before the head word the structure becomes a copular sentence while examples (5a and b) post-head slot is a noun phrase which consists of the head word and post modifier in kanuri. this paper analyzes the structure of determiners in relation to their heads in kanuri as specifier or complement, noun phrase or determiner phrase. gazali and gombe (2020) examine the structure of determiner phrase and noun phrase in kanuri within the framework of minimalist approach and their study identify empty projection principle [epp] in a specifier position under the dp in order to check the phi –features and constraints in moving pp node which cannot be merged as specifier in kanuri and their study identifies kanuri as post head initial language –where all determiners occur post head in kanuri. this paper examines the position occupies by the determiners and noun phrase as specifiers and complements adopting the abney (1987) dp hypothesis as theoretical model. ii. theoretical framework one of the recently introduced concepts in the tradition of syntactic analysis is the notion of the determiner phrase hypothesis (hence forth, dp hypothesis). this hypothesis claims that what was traditionally referred to as a noun phrase (np) [e.g., the tall boy] has the determiner as its head, not the noun. in this kind of analysis, the np is a complement under the dp. radford (2009:454) states that within this hypothesis ‘all definite expressions have the status of dp –not nominal like the president which contains an overt determiner, but not proper names like john’. dp hypothesis was formally introduced in the mit doctoral dissertation of steven abney (1987). within the framework of minimalist syntax, this hypothesis has become the standard for syntactic analysis. the difference between these two analyses is illustrated in analyzing the phrase [all the old men] as shown in (6a and b) below: 6. a b traditional np analysis minimalist dp analysis205 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the above diagrams in (6a and b) explicate some of the key arguments for the dp hypothesis. the goal is to show that within the framework of current formal syntactic analysis, the dp hypothesis is not an alternative but a mandatory hypothesis for consistent and valid syntactic analysis of sentences in natural languages. coene and d’ hulst (2003:1) summarize the significance of the dp hypothesis as thus ‘the basic insights provided by the dp hypothesis have paved the way for fruitful line of research, engaged in unraveling the fine syntax and semantics of nominal constituents in area’s related to the typology of determiner, the relationship between determiners and nouns, adjectival modification, the expression of possessive, the morpho-syntactic relationship between clitics and determiners, the status of number features and many more.’ the dp hypothesis was an attempt and indeed a proposal by abney (1987) who after working on turkish, hungarian and english data, came up with a proposal that there is an agr functional head in the np. abney analogized that just like the clausal infl –head, the np can also have its equivalent, and this was to be the det(ermine) –head which forms the functional category –dp. zamparelli (2000:19) captures this thus ‘the determiner projection becomes the category that introduces the noun phrase, much like ip introduces the sentences; nps corresponding to vps, are embedded inside it.’ it is with this background and initiative by abney that saw the emergence of the dp with the d –heads as its functional element which has selectional properties that enable it to select the np complement or stand on its own’ the kanuri np thus is not left out in the argument that having projected functional dp, it turns out to be complement in the structure (7) below. iii. discussion 3.1 the syntax of dp in kanuri demonstratives in kanuri dp: demonstratives (dem) in kanuri have determiner function and constitute rich source of kanuri dp (hutchison 1976, 981, cyffer (1991), (1998) fannami (1999), bulakarima and shettima (2012) gazali and gombe (2020) to mention a few. this paper discusses their syntactic occurrences for the same function of identity and referenciality of such items. the demonstrative modifiers post modify the head words in kanuri and the near demonstrative modifiers agree with their head noun while the far demonstrative modifiers do not agree with their head nouns in kanuri. consider the following examples in (9a, b and c) below. 9. a. fero adə girl this ‘this girl’ b. *fero-wa adə girl –pl this ‘this girls’ c. fero-wa anyi girl-pl these ‘these girls’ the above examples show demonstratives in kanuri occupy the rightward position. in examples (9a and c) the demonstrative determiner ‘adə’ (this) and ‘anyi’ (these) agree in number with their head nouns but example (9b) is ungrammatical because the plural noun with plural marker -wa does not agree with the singular demonstrative ‘adə’ (this) in kanuri. the demonstratives occupy rightward position in kanuri. the nouns are prepost before the demonstratives. in examples (9a, b and c) thought (9b is ungrammatical in terms of agreement) the demonstratives are post modifiers 7. adopting the abney (1987) framework, the kanuri dp could generate a structure such as (8) below. 8. 206 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) while the ‘fero’ (girl) is noun (n) right adjoins but still the nouns are the head of the functional category. kanuri operates head complement order as it deviates from the universal grammatical forms complement head orders especially english other indoeuropean languages. since kanuri demonstratives especially far demonstratives do not show any form of agreement morphology between the nouns and their associated functional categories, the np complement moves to the spec. position in the surface syntax and given rise to the c-h order. following the abney (1987) dp hypothesis, the determiner det. head takes an np as is specifier. this can be structurally presented in below: paying special attention to the two main operations of merge and move. 3.2.1. possessives possessives show ownership and are determiners in a kanuri dp. chang (2003) observes that possessives are universally based-generated in the specifier position of an intermediate fp between dp and np, and then moves up as functional projection; the so-called (agrgenitive phrase) immediately dominated by dp, for [+poss] feature checking. change (ibid) studies dp hypothesis in korean language which is similar to kanuri as s.o.v. language structure (see gazali 2014). in kanuri, possessives behave the same way as illustrated in example (10) below. 10. rawa-wa nde uncle-pl our ‘our uncles’ the dp hypothesis argument here is that the np is base generated under the possessive phrase and moves to the specifier position under agreement phrase in oreder to check the possessive feature. the np further moves under the agreement phrase to the specifier position under the dp in order to check number features. this study analyzes the kanuri dp within the purview of abney (1987) and chomsky’ minimalist programme. 3.2 the minimalist account of dp structure in kanuri an attempt has been made to use the minimalist programme to analyze the dp in kanuri. in doing so thus, our concern is on the elements that form the dp structure in kanuri. these elements are possessives, demonstratives and quantifiers. the movements of elements to d and specifier positions are also analyzed and discussed. the analysis has been done by drawing the minimalist trees and the above example (10) shows that the d position is strong head which has to be filled with the possessive ‘-nde’ (our). the possessive determiner ‘-nde’ (our) is base generated at the possessive position moves and fills the d position. kanuri possessives are post nominal. this forces the np ‘rawawa’ (uncles) to move upwards to check the possessive feature and then the number features. possessives plus quantifiers in kanuri another grammatical structure function under the dp in kanuri is the noun plus the determiner and quantifiers. these elements are arranged in linear order. this can be illustrated in example (11) below’ 11. kərami-wa-nza samma brother-pl-poss all ‘all their brothers’ 207 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the above structure shows that the np ‘kəramiwa’ (brothers) moves to the specifier position of the qp to check argument features within the quantifier. the demonstrative ‘nza’ (their) further moves to the specifier of the poss d to check the possessive argument, after which the np finally lands in the specifier position of the dp to check the number features –determiner ‘nza’ (their) plural (+plural) and the noun ‘kəramiwa’ (brothers) +plural feature. the quantifier ‘samma’ (all) does not move because it doesn’t require feature checking which adheres to the principle of greet which states that ‘….. an element will not move unless it wants to check its own feature (zwart 1998:2). as such the quantifier ‘samma’ (all) in kanuri remains in situ while the possessive ‘nza’ (their) moves to occupy the strong head d which must be filled. 3.2.2. demonstratives in kanuri kanuri language has two forms of demonstratives – near and far demonstratives. the near demonstratives agree in number with their head nouns while far demonstratives do not agree in number with their head nouns –they take both singular and plural (cyffer 1991, 1998). theoretically giusti (1992) proposes that demonstratives are generated in the determiner position which is projected below the determiner phrase (dp) and they move to d position which is a strong head position. this paper confirms to giusti’s hypothesis. kanuri demonstratives exhibit similar dp movement to d position which is stronger. consider the following structure in example (12) below. 12. fato tudu (np + dem) house that ‘that house’ the above example (12) shows demonstratives ‘tudu’ (that) is base generated at the dem position of the determiner phrase (dp). since the d position is a strong head position, the demonstrative moves to fill it overtly while the np ‘fato’ (house) first moves to the specifier position of determiner phrase (demp) to check agreement with the demonstrative after which it further moves to the specifier position of dp. iv. conclusion the study observed that kanuri is head initial language where determiners, demonstratives, quantifiers occur post head positions in kanuri. the paper discusses the dp hypothesis in kanuri in the light of abney (1987) and chomsky’s (1995) minimalist programme (mp). we discovered that the dp in kanuri is analyzable within the mp. we analyzed elements that can occur under kanuri dp and draw diagrams to account for their descriptive and explanatory adequacies. the study identified elements that move and leave behind traces (presented as ti ) to show movements take place from where the elements have been generated as they move to occupy the spec. and d positions in the trees. the outcome of the study shows that all possessives, quantifiers and demonstratives are all base-generated at the poss1 , qp and demp. positions from where they move and land at their respective d positions which is considered strong head position. the strong head positions are the heads of those phrases called dp.208 baba kura alkali gazali/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) references abney, s.p. (1987) the english noun phrase in its sentential aspect. phd dissertation mit, press bender, m.l. (2000) ‘african languages’. in: heine and nurse (ed.) pp 43-73. bulakarima, s.u. (1991) a study of kanuri dialectology, phonology and dialect distribution in mowar. unpublished phd. thesis, department of languages and linguistics, university of maiduguri bulakarima, s.u. and shettima, a.k. (2012) a sketch of kanuri phonology and tone. desktop publisher’s co-operative society, maiduguri. chomsky, n. (1965) aspect of the theory of syntax. cambridge, ma: mit, press. chomsky, n. (1981) lecutres on government and binding. dordrech. foris. chomsky, n. (1995) the minimalist program. cambridge. ma mit, press. coene, m. and y. d’ hulst (ed.) (2003). from np to dp: volume 11: the expression of possession in noun phrases. benjamins publishing company crystal, d. (2008) a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. sixth ed. basil blackwell, uk cyffer, n. (1991) we learn kanuri. köln, rudiger koppe verlag. cyffer, n. (1998) a sketch of kanuri. köln, rudiger koppe verlag. giusti, g. (1992) heads and modifiers among determiners. evidence from romanian and german. university of venice. working paper on linguistics. 2.1.4, 1-19. gazali, b.k.a. (2014) a descriptive analysis of the various functions of the postpositions in kanuri. phd thesis, department of languages and linguistics, university of maiduguri, nigeria. gazali, b.k.a. & gombe, m. (2020) the structure of determiner phrase and noun phrase in kanuri. journal of linguistics, language and culture. nnamdi azikewe university awka, nigeria. greenberg, j.h. (1963) the languages of africa. the hague. greeberg, j.h. (1977) the languages of africa. the hague. lewis, m. paul (2009) ethnologue: languages of the world. 16th editions. dallas. online version: http:// www.ethnologue.com/. keyne, r. (1994) the auto symmetry of syntax. cambridge, mass: mit, press radford, a. (2009) the sentence structure of english minimalist approach. cambridge cup. mose, e. (2012) the structure and role of the ekegusii determiner phrase: a minimalist approach. unpublished m.a. dissertation, kenyatta university, nairobi, kenya. zamparelli, r. (1995) layers in the determiner phrase. phd thesis, university of rochester. zwart, c. (1998) the minimalist program journal of linguistics 34 (1998), 213 -226 cambridge university, press. 209 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 11, 2020 final revision: march 13, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this paper reports on a quasi-experimental study investigating the effects of a teaching methodology that combines cognitive linguistics (cl) and corpus linguistics (crpl) insights on the acquisition of the two sets of english spatial prepositions of verticality, over/above and under/below. in addition, it is also concerned with learners’ attitudes towards the method of instruction. a total of 55 moroccan first-year university students participated in this study, 22 of which were assigned to the experimental group, and 26 to the control group. the experimental group received what we termed the ipddl instruction, which involves cognitive representations of the prepositions based on image-schemas, the principled polysemy model, and data-driven learning. the control group, in contrast, received a traditional instruction based on definitions and example sentences provided in dictionaries. participants’ performance was measured with pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests in the form of a semantic judgment task and a gap-filling task. the findings demonstrate that the ipddl method of instruction was significantly more effective in helping students acquire vertical prepositions, and its advantages proved durable posterior to two weeks of the instruction period. thus, this study lends support to the applicability of a cl-crpl-inspired methodology in second language instruction. keyword cognitive linguistics, corpus linguistics, data-driven learning, english prepositions of verticality, imageschemas, principled polysemy model correspondence phone: e-mail: bouabida.nihal@outlook.fr article the effect of data-driven learning & image-schemabased polysemy networks instruction on learning spatial prepositions of verticality: the case of moroccan efl learners nihal bouabida1 1applied linguistics & elt, faculté des sciences de l’education, morocco under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.62-70.2020 i. introduction manifold are the possible ways in which the spatial world can conceivably be apportioned and described. such descriptions permeate the human journey considering their manifestations in a wide range of contexts, from locating objects in space to reflecting knowledge acquired through terrene interactions, and ultimately to reasoning about the world (coventry, 2004). for example, spatial terms such as up and down can be used to describe the position of entities in space, which could be extrapolated through the spatial interaction and experience with the world to further refer to a state of being (e.g., i feel down). on such grounds, discerning how these locative expressions are used and understood proves to be a thorny issue. moreover, compared to the myriad of possible meanings that could be entertained, prepositional forms are very limited in number, and each preposition expresses, of necessity, a wide range of meanings (lam, 2009). in addition to their tremendous semantic potential and diverse collocational properties, english prepositions participate in an array of morphosyntactic constructions, rendering them a notoriously difficult aspect to learn for l2 learners. 62 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) with no generalizations emerging, the common strategy employed is the learning of fixed and relatively isolated structures, rather than flexible items within an associated cognitive structure in which new information is linked to the previous knowledge (ausubel, 1968, 2000). another compelling aspect of prepositions is echoed in the differences in use across languages, which sprout from the distinctness of peoples’ perception and conception of space reflected in their peculiar use of spatial lexis, namely prepositions (e.g., brugman, 1983; hill, 1982). consequently, they seldom have perfect equivalents in other languages. for instance, the english front in ‘the front of the tree’ designates the part of the tree facing the observer, while in hausa it refers to its other side (hill, 1982). for second language learners, such cross-linguistic differences may impinge on the interpretation and use of prepositions. many approaches to lexical semantics for spatial terms have attempted to capture their meaning without adequate consideration of how language is grounded in the nature of recurrent, everyday experiences and observations of the world (evans & tyler, 2005; kemmerer 2005; rocca, et al. 2019). traditional accounts have asserted that the semantics of english prepositions are, to a large extent, arbitrary, and difficult to characterize. in other words, the coding of different senses by the same linguistic form (e.g., over) is presumably coincidental. they are treated as unrelated homonyms, much like the form bank is arbitrarily associated with both ‘the sides of a river’ and ‘a type of a financial institution’. such a position has many ramifications as to the theories of word meaning and sentential meaning construction, and ultimately, this has crucial implications as to the theories of language learning and teaching. pedagogical treatments under this paradigm have often resorted to rote learning as the best strategy to teach the multiple senses of spatial prepositions (gvarishvili, 2013). while many linguists would argue that this approach has been fruitful in modeling the structural aspects of language, they also recognize that it suffers from several problems, one of which resides in the daily usage of language which cannot be simply accounted for by the proposed rules, particularly in contexts where more than one preposition is possible (matula, 2007). per contra, cognitive linguistics (henceforth cl) offers an alternative prospect in which prepositions are treated as polysemous words, that is to say, that the distinct senses associated with a given preposition are motivated, and related in systematic and principled ways. it proposes that the differences in expressing spatial relations across different languages can be accounted for in a non-arbitrary fashion (lakoff, 1987; tyler & evans, 2004, fillmore & baker, 2010). in its investigation of the relationship between language, the mind, and socio-physical experiences, cl advances a prolific account for understanding the usage of prepositions, leading to systematization and linkage of their multiple senses. such insights could yield an important impact on the methodologies of second language teaching and learning. the purpose of this study is to present the findings of an experimental study developed, to a large extent, based on a cl-inspired approach to teaching spatial prepositions. the premise is to evaluate the effects of a new pathway to teaching spatial prepositions that combine pedagogical implications of cl-methodology, namely the use of image-schema transformations, along with the principled polysemy (pp) model of english prepositions proposed by tyler and evans (2003). the latter succeeds in uncovering the motivation behind previously random-looking groupings of meanings and sheds light on the mechanisms of meaning change and meaning extension, which have been overlooked in traditional accounts and pedagogical treatments. in conjunction with cognitive linguistic insights, it is also imperative to accentuate usage-based and contextualized instruction as one cannot acquire the semantic motivations underlying the various senses of spatial prepositions without a dive into the environment in which they occur. as such, this study postulates the incorporation of corpus linguistic (henceforth crpl) prospects through the use of corpora in the form of data-driven learning (henceforth ddl) (johns, 1994), because they offer a greater terrain of exploration and apperception of the relations among different uses of a particular word, and the phraseological patterns associated with its senses (boers & lindstromberg, 2008, chen et al., 2019; lee & lin, 2019; romer, 2011).63 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the study sought to investigate the effectiveness of the ipddl method in helping students learn how to use vertical prepositions compared to the trad method. in addition, the paper investigates the extent to which the effects of the ipddl instructional method will prove durable posterior to two weeks of instruction. finally, students’ attitudes towards ipddl-based instruction are explored (kilimci, 2017; song, et al., 2015; tyler, et al., 2011; tyler, 2010). ii. methods 2.1. research design the present study adopted a non-randomized control group, pretest-posttest design, which is defined as a quasi-experimental design that assigns identifiable groups of individuals (intact groups) to the intervention or comparison condition in some non-random way. matching was used to control for the lack of randomization—the researcher selected groups that are as similar as possible on all important variables that may affect the outcomes of the study. additionally, there were no statistically significant differences in the pretest, which denotes a greater degree of pre-experimental equivalency. thus, we could discount selection bias as a threat to internal validity and proceed with the study. altogether, this study employed (for each group) a pre-test, two instructional treatments, two immediate post-tests, and a delayed post-test along with a questionnaire to answer the research queries. the experimental group received a cl-inspired instruction (ipddl) that utilizes image-schemas and the polysemy model of the two sets of english spatial particles of verticality, in conjunction with a corpus as learning resources. the control group received a traditional instruction (trad) based on two online dictionaries (cambridge and oxford online dictionaries). seeing that both programs were delivered in english as a medium of instruction, the intervention was conducted in the english language only. 2.2. participants a total of 55 moroccan first-year university students participated in this study. all the students major in english and pursue the same university program; bachelor of education (cle), rendering them potential candidates for teacher training colleges or for master programs in the country or abroad. moreover, all the informants have been studying english as a compulsory subject for at least 6 years (m=6.09, sd=2.48). on account of the unfeasibility of administering a proficiency test, the researcher used the academic level of the participants as an indicator of their proficiency level, as every one of them was selected based on their baccalaureate grades (i.e. grades obtained in english classes) and their performance in the admission interview to enroll in the cle program. the students who did not complete the tasks, or did not attend the sessions were subtracted. the final sample (22 experimental, and 26 control) comprised 13 males and 35 females, the age of which ranged between 18 and 20 (100%). 2.3. the corpus the british national corpus (bnc) was utilized during the ipddl sessions, as well as for the construction of the tasks. owing to the richness of bnc, which holds about 100-million-word assortment deriving out of a wide range of sources, performing a query on such a platform might be impending. therefore, considering that the participants have never been acquainted with a corpus interface before, the researcher resorted to antconc instead of a web-based corpus for its easy-to-use and intuitive interface. antconc is a unicode compliant freeware corpus analysis toolkit for concordance and text analysis, developed by laurence anthony of waseda university, japan. 2.4. data collection procedures the intervention was carried out over two weeks by the researcher as the classroom instructor. the trad sessions involved the instruction of the various meanings and uses of the target prepositions through definitions and example sentences provided by two online dictionaries, namely cambridge and oxford online dictionaries. however, only the meanings addressed in the polysemy networks adopted in the study were included to guarantee that both groups were introduced to the same items. conversely, the ipddl sessions entailed the use of non-technical cognitive explanations of the senses entertained by the concerned vertical prepositions 64 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) using the image-schema-based polysemy networks. the latter represented the distinct senses of each preposition as radiating from a proto-scene in a related manner. in addition, the experimental group engaged in a data-driven-learning activity whereby they consulted the constructed corpus via antconc to investigate the multiple meanings and uses of the prepositions in various contexts. immediately after each treatment, both groups completed the relevant post-test (either over/above, or under/below tests). two weeks after the experimental implementation stage, each group was delivered a delayed posttest. after the delayed post-test, questionnaires were given to the experimental group to evaluate the ipddl method of instruction. the following table summarizes the experimental procedure. iii. results the present section unfolds the results obtained from the statistical analyses we conducted on the collected data. in addition to descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests and one-way anovas were employed. for all analyses, the alpha level was set at p <.05. 3.1 pre-treatment analysis the overall pretest results show that the scores of both the ipddl group and the trad group were approximately the same. in order to investigate the significance of the findings, an independent samples t-test was conducted. normality of the distribution was tested beforehand using the shapiro-wilk test of normality. the reported results indicated that the data is normally distributed for both the pretest scores of the experimental group (w = .964, p = .586), and the control group (w = .976, p = .789). levene’s test for equality of variances showed a non-significant difference, thus equal variances were assumed. the independent samples t-test revealed no significant difference between the ipddl and trad groups, t (46) = .107, p =0.915. therefore, we conclude that there is no significant difference in the overall knowledge of the english prepositions of verticality among the sample groups. stated differently, the two groups were comparable in their performance before receiving the treatments. 3.2. between-group analysis an independent samples t-test was conducted for the pre-, post-delayed post-test results to investigate the between-group difference in terms of the effect of instruction. the independent t-test conducted on the posttest scores between the experimental (m =36.63) and the control group (m =32.73) indicated a statistically significant in favor of the experimental group, t (46) =2.605, p =.012. the strength of the relationship, as indexed by eta squared, was η2 =0.13. this suggests that 13% of the variance can be accounted for by the independent variable. therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant differences between the ipddl and trad groups in learning vertical prepositions is rejected. similarly, an independent t-test was conducted on the delayed post-test scores between the experimental (m =35.09) and the control group (m =32.65). the results indicated a non-statistically significant difference between the groups, t (46) =1.504, p =.139. 3.3. within-group analysis to investigate the significance of the within-group differences regarding the effect of the instructional treatments on each groups’ performance, the oneway anova test was conducted on the control and the experimental data. first, the assumption of homogeneity of variances was tested and satisfied based on levene’s f test, f (2,63) =.444, p =.643. afterward, a one-way anova was conducted to compare the effect of the ipddl method of instruction on the performance scores of the experimental group in the pre-, post, and delayed post-tests. the results yielded a statistically significant effect, f (2,63) =9.381, p =.000. the strength of the relationship, as indexed by eta squared partial, was η2partial =0.22. thus, 22% of the variance could be accounted for by the independent variable. to further explore where the differences occurred, posthoc comparisons using the tukey hsd test were conducted. tukey revealed that the mean score for the post-test (m =36.63, sd =4.655) was significantly different than the pre-test (m =30.86, sd =4.234). however, the delayed post-test condition (m =35.09, sd =4.819) did not significantly differ from the posttest condition. 65 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) this suggests that the positive trajectory is sustained to the delayed post-test stage, though a slight decrease in overall scores is evident. therefore, the null hypothesis of no effect of the method on the retention of the target prepositions for two weeks is rejected. similarly, the assumption of homogeneity of variances was tested for the control group results and satisfied based on levene’s f test, f (2,75) =.951, p =.391. furthermore, a one-way anova was conducted to compare the effect of the trad method of instruction on the performance scores of the experimental group in the pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests. the results indicated a nonstatistically significant effect, f (2.75) =1.140, p =.325. thus, no observable change in group performance was evident for the control group throughout the study period. the results from the two different instructional interventions (trad versus ipddl) indicated that ipddl instruction was effective, as evidenced by the statistically significant improvement in students’ scores over time. in addition, the effects of the ipddl method on the acquisition of the target prepositions proved durable posterior to two weeks of the instruction period. 3.3. questionnaire results the follow-up survey addressed four aspects of students’ attitudes towards the ipddl method of instruction: (a) the perceived effects of polysemy networks on prepositions learning; (b) perceived effects of image-schemas on prepositions learning; (c) perceived effects of ddl on prepositions learning; and (d) perceived problems in using ddl activities. overall, the majority of the students perceived the ipddl method as useful in learning the target prepositions of verticality. 97.35% of the students evaluated the image-schema-based polysemy networks as helpful resources for the acquisition of the senses of each preposition and for raising their awareness as to the differences associated with the intricate meanings of the target words. in addition, many expressed that such resources helped them retrieve the meaning of the various senses of the target words from memory. furthermore, the use of polysemy networks was deemed more desirable than dictionary definitions and examples. despite the acclamations regarding the ddl activities, students expressed a different viewpoint. 84.2% of the students described ddl activities as effortful and conceded a difficulty in conducting corpus queries due to the cut-off sentences and fig.1. comparison of group performance by pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test. 66 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) incomplete contexts. additionally, 57.9% reported some difficulty in studying concordance lines due to unfamiliar vocabulary in the sentences. despite the contrary, 57.9% of the responses revealed that students do not perceive ddl activities as timeconsuming and boring. iv. discussion the effect of ipddl on the acquisition of spatial particles with respect to the first research question, findings indicate that both the ipddl and trad groups benefited from the two types of instruction they were exposed to. however, the ipddl group achieved significantly higher scores. these results suggest that the image-based polysemy datadriven learning approach was more effective in comparison to the traditional approach. our findings support the contention that learners will acquire extended meanings better than unrelated meanings, and further substantiate the advantages of a cognitive and corpus linguistics inspired instruction. it is important to note that the acquisition of spatial prepositions calls for the categorization of spatial relations in consonance with the spatial cognitive norms conventionalized in the language. consequently, the learning of spatial particles in a second language requires a reconstruction of the spatial system in the cognitive schemata following the target language’s categorization of spatial configurations, together with the language-specific conventions for mapping forms and meanings, and the communicative contexts that impact linguistic structures (achard, 2004; taylor, 1993). such a process may not be evident using the memorization of a list of uses. rather, learners can develop a greater awareness of, and uncover the motivations behind, the meaning chains associated with spatial prepositions through the conceptualization of prepositional uses as the product of general cognitive strategies (lam, 2009). in its conversion of image-schemas, principled polysemy networks, and data-driven learning, the ipddl method offers a prolific and systematic foundation for the acquisition of spatial prepositions. it abridges significantly the amount of arbitrariness traditionally associated with spatial prepositions. consequently, it reduces the need for rote learning on the part of the second language learner. moreover, the representation of the senses as systematically connected gestalt-like scenes and graphic illustrations proved useful for both the language teacher and the second language learner. furthermore, “the model draws heavily on the notion of the experiential basis of meaning and represents the extended senses as arising from observations of the external, spatio-physical world, it reflects the learners’ own experiences with the world” (evans & tyler, 2004). thus, by virtue of its provision of a coherent fundament derived from their own observations of the world, it allows learners to infer the meanings of unfamiliar uses of prepositions. this is accentuated as well through the integration of corpus activities through the data-driven learning approach, which emphasizes learners’ exploratory and discovery learning. the cognitive explanations were further exploited in the investigation of concordance lines. this helped learners discover the lexical collocations and prepositional colligations associated with the target words. as explained in the methodology chapter, the study employed a constructed corpus imported through antconc, instead of the use of a full web-based bnc corpus, intending to ensure a centralized investigation and obviate a wildgoose chase and frustration. the findings indicate that ipddl can be an effective alternative in the acquisition of spatial prepositions. conversely, the control group showed insignificant gains from their exposure to the traditional method. this could be attributed to insensitivity towards this kind of instruction as they had experienced similarly learning the target prepositions before. however, it could also be attributed to the nature of the instruction, which includes dictionary definitions and examples, and relied mainly on rote learning techniques. such a method precludes an effort to integrate new knowledge with relevant prior knowledge held in cognitive structures (cf. ausubel, 2000). furthermore, it lacks a comprehensive analysis of the different senses of prepositions and causes unstable learners’ improvements (cho, 2010). therefore, the trad group were arguably not able to recall all the senses that had been taught.67 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the effect of ipddl on retention of spatial particles concerning the second research question, the findings indicate that the ipddl treatment gains proved durable after two weeks of the period of instruction. that is, the positive trajectory was sustained to the delayed post-test stage, though a slight decrease in overall scores was evident. this is congruous with conclusions drawn from studies in cognitive psychology. these demonstrate that the retrieval of information is facilitated when there is an organizing structure that establishes a relationship among the items, given that such a systematic structure can provide alternative routes that instigate the information desired. therefore, calling attention to the complex form–meaning mappings associated with prepositions may contribute to their retention and recovery, and lead to meaningful and more successful learning. nevertheless, the analysis of the delayed posttests of the experimental and control groups did not yield significant results. these contradictory findings could be an indication that the very limited treatment time (one hour per week for two weeks) was arguably far from sufficient to establish longterm learning. thus, an increase in treatment duration could yield better results. an alternative interpretation of these findings could be attributable to the effect of l1 (conceptual) interference on l2 learning of spatial prepositions since languages differ significantly in the way they carve up and classify spatial configurations. in addition, first languages are often woven, cognitively entrenched, and more frequent in comparison to second languages. for this reason, the influence of l1-specific patterns of mental constructions, and expressions that bilinguals are routinely exposed to in the dominant language prevails. thus, being more substantiated, l1 patterns of conceptualization may resurface while using the second language. subsequently, a longer period of instruction is needed to reinforce l2 spatial conceptualizations and construals of the various senses entertained by english spatial prepositions of verticality. learners’ attitudes towards ipddl the results concerning the effects of the ipddl method were reinforced with insights from the qualitative data elicited through participants’ responses to questionnaires that targeted perceptions and attitudes towards the method. as reflected in the questionnaire, the experimental group perceived the ipddl method as helpful for the acquisition of english spatial prepositions of verticality. overall, the ddl activities were evaluated, in general, as instrumental assets for acquiring the targeted prepositions of verticality (i.e., learning meaning, collocation, and usage patterns of words). this aligns with previous research (e.g., boulton, 2010), which asserts that ddl can be an effective approach in helping learners discover and retain lexico-grammatical patterns. in addition, ddl activities pave the way for a usage-based learning approach, which fosters exemplar-based learning and increase students’ generation, and retention, of more accurate patterns. notwithstanding the acclamations, the nature of corpus exploration can pose difficulties to novice ddl learners as attested in many ddl-based studies. for instance, the technical knowledge required, the cut-off sentences as well as the unfamiliarity of vocabulary encountered in the concordance lines may be problematic, but not insurmountable. these issues were accounted for in so far as possible through the use of a constructed corpus imported in antconc instead of the complete british national corpus. as per boers and lindstromberg’s (2008) suggestion, constructing a corpus through the selection of the concordance lines beforehand may control for the complexity of the vocabulary that learners will be exposed to, and thus it can reduce the unnecessary cognitive load that may impinge on their learning as well as spare them from what may become a time-consuming and laborious task. furthermore, antconc offers a user-friendly interface that requires very little maneuvers to operate. moreover, it allows users to expand the concordance lines to reveal more words as desired. still, 64.51% of the responses indicated that the difficulties were present regardless. for these reasons, a more meticulous ddl method is in order. 68 nihal bouabida/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) v. conclusion in broad outline, the study sought to investigate three issues: whether the ipddl method was more effective a method in helping students learn how to use vertical prepositions compared to the traditional method which relied on dictionary definitions and examples; and whether the ipddl effects proved durable posterior to two weeks of instruction. the study suggests that ipddl significantly more effective in helping students acquire vertical prepositions. moreover, the results indicated that ipddl’s advantages proved durable posterior to two weeks of the instruction period. however, it should be kept in mind that these results need further verification; we concluded that the time allocated to the treatment was not sufficient to assert the effects of the method on retention. furthermore, a substantial number of students experienced some difficulty with regards to the ddl activities. hence, we call for the development of a more rigorous ddl implementation method. at large, english prepositions have long posed a perennial challenge for second language learners and language teachers alike, as attested in several studies related to the teaching and learning of prepositions (boquist 2009). the reasons are multifold. we presume that much of 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(2011). “applying cognitive linguistics to learning the semantics of english to, for and at: an experimental investigation”. vigo international journal of applied linguistics, 8(1), 181–205. tyler, a. (2011). “usage-based approaches to language and their applications to second language learning”. annual review of applied linguistics, vol 30, 270-291. taylor, j. (1993). “some pedagogical implications of cognitive linguistics”, in r. geiger & b. rudzka ostyn (eds.), conceptualizations and mental processing of language (pp. 201–223), berlin: mouton de gruyter. 70 template artikel jurnal optimasi sistem industri jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 1 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.35-44.2019 article students’ strategy in learning vocabulary at english department of stkip pgri nanik sulastri1 1padang state university, west sumatra, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 28, 2019 final revision: may 04, 2019 available online: may 23, 2019 this research was conducted to: (1) to examine the vocabulary learning strategies (2) to find out the most and the least vocabulary learning strategies that used by the (3) to analyze the factors affect the students in choosing the vocabulary learning strategy of english language education program at stkip pgri sumbar. the research applied a descriptive research; the population of this research was the eighth-semester students in academic year 2017/2018. the samples of this research were 49 students chosen by using total sampling technique. the data were analyzed by using descriptive analysis and used power score and estimate stage for academic vocabulary. the research result showed that (1) the students’ vocabulary proficiency; it was classified as late gradation. it can be said that most of the students are in late gradation in percentage 60.71% and only less students who get early gradation. (2) the most learning strategy mostly used by the students was consolidation learning strategies in learning vocabulary on percentage 40,81% students . (3) some factors affect the choosing of vocabulary language learning strategies were found. it was found that the late gradation students chose memory learning strategies as their strategy in learning vocabulary because of believe, motivation and learning experience. it can be concluded that the students’ learning strategy affected their proficiency in vocabulary. keyword students’, strategy, learning, vocabulary korespondensi e-mail: naniksulastri2680@gmail.com i. introduction vocabulary is important thing in learning process, but some students in english department in stkip pgri sumbar do not have any attention to increase their ability in vocabulary. it is evidenced when speaking class. students who have limited in their vocabulary are just silent in the discussion. they are timid to speak because their limitation in grammar and vocabulary. on the contrary, the students who realize how important the vocabulary will consider study vocabulary deeper. they who have attention in developing vocabulary have learning strategy to expand their vocabulary. a more recent study conducted by nirattisai and chiramanee (2014) was used to investigate http://josi.ft.unand.ac.id/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.1.35-44.2019 nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 36 vocabulary learning strategies employed by thai university students. the relationship between the students’ vocabulary strategies and their vocabulary size also was explored. it could be concluded that language learners who use language learning strategies more than others generally achieve greater language proficiency, and good language learners used strategies more frequently and appropriately to enhance their target language learning. therefore, in order to help language students to learn the target language more successfully, and effectively, the relationship between the employment of language learning strategies and language proficiency should be further explored on a worldwide scale. in addition, to help learners function well in language learning, they need to know strategies that may help them acquire english vocabulary. vocabulary learning strategies refer to what learners do to achieve their learning tasks. these strategies are used by them when they learn grammar, literature, vocabulary and others. students might have problems in their communication and cannot write when they want to convey their opinion or idea unless their vocabulary size is adequate. liu (2010) have conducted a research on learning beliefs of chinese university learners with regard to rote learning as a vocabulary learning strategy. the results show that the learners had a strong chinese cultural belief rooted in confucianism and preferred practicing, memorizing, reviewing and repetition. the findings further imply that this learning culture among the chinese english foreign language university learners can be attributed to cultural learning tradition in china, which have their roots in confucius teachings. in learning vocabulary, the students have various strategies. they learn based on their enjoyment in its learning process. learning strategies in vocabulary are different among the students. those strategies will influence their result in english achievement. students who have good strategy in learning vocabulary can understand about what they have learned easier because some aspects of english learning need vocabulary in understanding the meaning. takac (2008) explained that the benefit of strategic training in the fact that most of vocabulary learning strategy can be applied in all learning stages. then vocabulary learning strategies are intended mental strategies that language learners employ to enhance vocabulary learning and retrieve easily new words. language learners attempt several ways to use different vocabulary learning strategies. it is impossible for learners to memorize all the words in any language, and they cannot master the vocabulary of the target language. as a result, they need to use the techniques mentioned before at different stages of learning in order to advance their vocabulary acquisition and remember these vocabulary items. moreover, vocabulary learning strategies vary from one learner to another in terms of different variables such as age, gender, language proficiency level. asgari and ghazali (2011) examined the type of vocabulary learning strategies used by malaysian esl students majoring at teaching english as a second language (tesl) whereby esl students at university putra malaysia is a population that has been rarely included in any previous studies on vocabulary learning strategies. based on the aim of the study, it was decided that the best method for this investigation to better understanding the use of vlss by these particular students is to adopt the qualitative research design. there are several experts who have explored learning strategies of vocabulary through some researches. most of them state that developing vocabulary is an essential and continuing challenge for language learners. language learners need to use strategies to help them acquire new lexical items and to have rich vocabulary. the use of suitable strategies makes a distinction between experienced learners and beginners in many learning areas. it is a necessity for language learners to increase their vocabulary knowledge and to understand words to use nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 37 them correctly. in order to achieve this purpose, emphasis has to shift from language instructors and teaching to language learners and learning (sadighi and zarafshan, 2006). some vocabulary’s taxonomy is developed by several experts related to their findings. these classification systems contribute vitally to the knowledge of vocabulary strategies such as cohen, gu and johnson, schmitt, cook and nation. however, schmitt’s taxonomy of vlss is a comprehensive inventory of vocabulary learning strategies. schmitt took social, memory, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies established by oxford, and invented a new category that is determination strategies. schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies (vlss) are divided into two groups: strategies used to define the meaning of new words and strategies used to consolidate the meaning of the new words when learners come across them again. as social strategies can be employed for both purposes according to schmitt, he includes these strategies in both groups. the first group contains determination and social strategies and the second contains cognitive, metacognitive, and memory. the group of discovery strategies includes determination (such as analyzing part of speech, affixes and roots) and social strategies (such as asking teacher for an l1 translation). it is stated clearly that students choose their own learning strategies in expanding their vocabulary mastery. learners use this category to discover the meaning of new words without asking from another person. consequently, learners attempt to find out the meaning of a new word by using the context, structural knowledge of language, and reference materials. some studies about the vocabulary learning strategy aim to give information about the diversity of learning strategies can cause different result of the students’ vocabulary mastery. therefore, it can be assumed there is specific learning strategy can be powerful for some students. different students’ character, motivation and intention make they choose different learning strategy to be used. ii. methods this research was categorized as a descriptive research since the researcher involved collecting data about the student’s learning strategies in vocabulary at stkip pgri sumatera barat to answer questions about the opinion of people about learning strategies problem. as stated in problems of the research, this research was conducted to describe vocabulary learning strategies that are used by students at the second year. dealing with the term of assessment in this research, the researcher also tried to find out the influences of vocabulary learning strategies by assessing the correlation of those variables to examine the result in term quantitative data. the descriptive study focuses on the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as observation, interviews, and more discursive sources of information. it can be said that in the process of collecting the data, the researcher will involve fully in the context of research and interact with the participants. iii. result students’ vocabulary gradation the data of this research were students’ achievement of vocabulary. the vocabulary test was done two times. the gradation of the students’ vocabulary proficiency is suggested by power score and estimate stage for academic vocabulary. the students’ results were tabulated in table 1. table 1. frequency distribution of vocabulary gradation number of students percentage category 34 students 60.71% late gradation 14 students 25% middle gradation 8 students 14.29% early gradation the number of the students showed that more than half students had good achievement of vocabulary test. from the number of students who got high competence in vocabulary, it can be said that the students were had mastery nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 38 in understanding words. the result of vocabulary test indicated that 60.71 % students are categorized into late gradation student. it can be seen that and 25% students are categorized into middle gradation and 14.29% students are categorized into early gradation students. it can be said that most of the students are in late gradation and only less students who get early gradation. fig. 1. the students percentage of the vocabulary gradation data description of vocabulary learning strategies mostly used by the students there were several description data of students’ vocabulary based on the students’ gradation of vocabulary. the gradation of students vocabulary was high gradation, middle gradation and early gradation. the category of students gradation of vocabulary learning strategies were classified into frequency of the five categories of vls used by late gradation, middle gradation and learly gradation participants frequency. descriptive statistics for the frequency of the five categories of vls used by late gradation participants table 2. vls used by late gradation participants no strategies mean score frequency category rank 1 memory strategy 3,54 high use 1 3 cognitive strategy 3,45 medium use 2 4 metacognitive strategy 3,38 medium use 3 5 social strategy 3,33 medium use 4 6 determination 2,78 medium use 5 mean score 3,296 medium use the descriptive statistics show that the most frequent employed vocabulary learning strategies by late gradation of vocabulary of stkip pgri was memory strategies. as mentioned earlier, in relation to scoring system the vlss were used moderately by the participants. indicates the overall strategy used by the participants with mean of (3,296) indicating they are medium. fig. 2. illustrate the vls mostly used by late gradation student. the graph above shows that the vls mosly used by the late gradation students in mean score 3,54 on category high use is memory strategy. the second one, mostly used by the late gradation students is cognitive strategy in mean score 3,45 on category high use. the next strategy mostly used by the late gradation students is metacognitive strategy in mean score 3,38 on category medium use. after that, social strategy is in mean score 3,33 on category medium use. the least vls is rare to be used as the students’ vls is determination strategy in mean score 2,78 on category medium use. the data imply that most of the late gradation students use group words together as their learning strategy. they do not use words that they get separately. they tend to use the words by grouping them. the strategies in memory learning strategy exposed that the students often used this kind of strategy in their learning. as knowing a word is not merely memorizing its dictionary definition, the learner has to learn how to connect it in related context, how to use it in actual communicaton in its correct form and also how to use the known word in different sentences. the relatively high means showed this group of students did well in this respect. the students were clear that the purpose of 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 early grade middle grade late grade 0 1 2 3 4 det soc cog met mem vlss… nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 39 vocabulary learning is to use a word appropriately. descriptive statistics for the frequency of the five categories of vls used by middle gradation participants table 3. vls used by middle gradation participants no strategies mean score frequency category rank 1 memory strategy 3,41 high use 1 3 social strategy 3,10 medium use 2 4 metacognitive strategy 2,84 medium use 3 5 cognitive strategy 2,81 medium use 4 6 determination strategy 2,55 medium use 5 mean score 2,942 medium use the descriptive statistics show that the most frequent employed vocabulary learning strategies by middle gradation of vocabulary of stkip pgri was memory strategies. as mentioned earlier, in relation to scoring system the vlss were used moderately by the participants. indicates the overall strategy used by the participants with mean of (2,942) indicating they are medium. fig. 3. the vls mostly used by middle gradation student. the graph above shows that the vls mosly used by the middle gradation students in mean score 3,41 on category high use is memory strategy. the second one, mostly used by the middle gradation students is social strategy in mean score 3,10 on category medium use. the next strategy mostly used by the middle gradation students is metacognitive strategy in mean score 2,84 on category medium use. after that, cognitive strategy is in mean score 2,81 on category medium use. the least vls is rare to be used as the students’ vls is determination strategy in mean score 2,55 on category medium use. it is clear that the participants were familiar with these techniques in memory strategies. word form knowledge includes the knowledge of word’s parts, spelling, and sound. regarding word meaning knowledge refers to the concept of the word, what it refers to, which words can be associated with. this list of word knowledge can be achieved by using memory strategies. alternatively, the students can create their own mental images of a word's meaning. it is believed that imagery has been shown to be more effective than more repetition for the new words and sentences. descriptive statistics for the frequency of the five categories of vls used by early gradation participants. table 4 vls used by early gradation participants no strategies mean score frequency category rank 1 social strategy 2,76 medium use 1 3 metacognitive strategy 2,3 low use 2 4 memory strategy 2,22 low use 3 5 cognitive strategy 2,18 low use 4 6 determination strategy 2,04 low use 5 mean score 2,3 low use the descriptive statistics show that the most frequent employed vocabulary learning strategies by early gradation of vocabulary of stkip pgri was social strategies. as mentioned earlier, in relation to scoring system the vlss were used moderately by the participants. indicates the overall strategy used by the participants with mean of (2,3) indicating they are low. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 det soc cog met mem vlss of… nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 40 the graph above shows that the vls mosly used by the early gradation students in mean score 2,76 on category medium use is social strategy. the second one, mostly used by the early gradation students is metacognitive strategy in mean score 2,3 on category low use. the next strategy mostly used by the early gradation students is memory strategy in mean score 2,22 on category low use. after that, cognitive strategy is in mean score 2,18 on category low use. the least vls is rare to be used as the students’ vls is determination strategy in mean score 2, 04 on category low use. the description of the data above show that the students are good enough in using social strategy as their vocabulary leraning strategy. it can be seen that most of the students are often use this strategy as their learning stratagey. only few students who do not use this strategy as their vocabulary learning strategies with some specific reason such as they preffered to learn vocabulary with their own way. theiy prefer to choose to take in order to interact with other learners or native speakers of the language. eventually the strategies can act in specific ways to foster certain aspects of that competence, such as grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic elements. the factor affecting the late gradation students in choosing vocabulary learning strategy some factors affect the choosing of vocabulary language learning strategies were found. it was found that the late gradation students chose memory learning strategies as their strategy in learning vocabulary because of believe, motivation and learning experience. they had high motivation in enriching their vocabulary through their own learning ways. it was proven from their statement that they usually interested in repetition. from four respondents, 100% respondents thought about their next quality if they repeat and practice their vocabulary. they prefer to believe on their own ability rather than depend on their friends to know the meaning of the words found. the factor affecting the middle gradation students in choosing vocabulary learning strategy some factors affect the choosing of vocabulary language learning strategies were found. it was found that the middle gradation students chose memory learning strategies as their strategy in learning vocabulary because of field of study, learning environment and class level. they had high motivation in enriching their vocabulary through building social relationship. it was proven from their statement that they usually interested in doing graph 3. vls mostly used by early gradation student. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 det soc cog met mem vlss of early grad nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 41 cooperative learning. they prefer to ask and imitate what other students do to learn vocabularies. the factor affecting the early gradation students in choosing vocabulary learning strategy some factors affect the early students in choosing vocabulary learning strategies were found. it was found that the early gradation students chose social learning strategies as their vocabulary learning strategy because of many factors such as field of study, course type and class level. it was proven from their statement that they usually ask someone help for difficult words. they prefer to count on others rather than develop their own efforts to learn. iv. discussion based on the research findings that have been collected from three subjects, the researcher knows that students who have medium grade in their result in english have strategy in learning vocabulary. this learning strategy carry them in successful when learning process. as mehrpour (2008) revealed in his research that second or foreign language students who possess good word power or knowledge of vocabulary are usually more successful language students. it shows that the ability of students in mastering vocabulary influence their result in learning language. there are some kinds of strategy that are used by subjects in learning their vocabulary. the researcher takes the learning strategy classification by schmitt’s taxonomy. as schmitt (2002) revealed that there are two kinds of learning strategy generally, those learning strategies are discovery strategy and consolidation strategy. discovery strategies consist of determination strategy and social strategy. consolidation strategies consist of metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and memory strategy. by conducting interview and distributed questionnaire to the subjects, the results are compared with five learning strategies above, the learning strategy that is most frequently used is social strategy. this result is consistent with the findings of huang and naerssen (2007) in which it reported that social strategies were highly used by middle to poor learners as opposed to other strategies. the students were also learning much from other students. contrary with the findings of huang and naersen (2007), wharton’s (2010) found that middle to poor language learners tend to use memory strategy as their learning strategy. as the stkip pgri students are categorized into middle to poor language learners , it is believed that memory strategy is the most common strategies to be used since middle or poor language learners usually depend on learning aids in learning . metacognitive strategies were found to be the least frequent strategies of the vlss to be used by the participants. the reason why metacognitive strategies were the least frequent strategies might be that learners have much exposure to english in classes so they learn it consciously. another reason might affect their usage of this strategy is that they rely on language instructors in classes. it might also be that learners are aware of the learning process even if language instructors adopt the communicative approach in classes. other reflects different findings in which students’ actual strategy use do not rely on students’ beliefs. for example, students believe that the ability to use a word is to use it in real communication appropriately. however, the students rely too much on word form. this implies that students may lack the opportunities to use vocabulary in their real language situation. this is consistent to maesin, mansor, shafie and neyan (2009) who state that “in second language learning, students find difficulties to utilize the language skills outside the classrooms as there are fewer opportunities to do so due to poor language environment.” this seems to hinder their goal in vocabulary learning. regarding attitude, motivation and language learning experience, all these factors seem to nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 42 positively correlate with learners’ vocabulary learning strategy use. the more highly motivated students also employ a wider range of vocabulary learning strategies than the less motivated ones. we may conclude that attitude, motivation and language learning experience appear to affect learners’ vocabulary learning strategy use in the same manner. this may suggest that the use of vocabulary learning strategies should be taught to students with negative attitudes, or those with low motivation and less experience. these students need to develop the skill of using vocabulary learning strategies so that they can make full use of these skills to deal with new or unfamiliar vocabulary items. the situational and social factors mentioned in this paper include field of study, class level, course type, gender and language learning environment. starting with the field of study, it is possible to conclude that it has been found to be related to the strategy preferences of students. this implies that students in different fields of study are likely to have different styles of learning vocabulary. wu (2008) investigated the language learning strategy use of ten vocational english second language learners from a vocational institute in hong kong. the result shows that the learners favored the use of social affective strategies more than cognitive and metacognitive strategies. in this research social affective strategies consist of questioning for clarification, co-operation and positive talk, cognitive consist of grouping, note-taking, summarizing, and translation, then, metacognitive consist of organization, advance preparation, organizational planning and self-management. regarding class level, it emerges as a clear factor affecting learners’ vocabulary learning strategy choice. the findings seem to reflect the fact that the higher class level the students are in, the lesser rote memorization method they use. therefore, it is important for language teachers to know what type of vocabulary learning strategies do the students in the lower classes lack so that the teachers can promote vocabulary learning strategies to them and encourage them to use a wider range of vocabulary learning strategies. rabadi (2016) on english vocabulary learning strategies employed by undergraduate efl jordanian students. this research was a descriptive research which employed both quantitative and qualitative method. the population undergraduate efl jordanian students which consisted of 356 students. the sample for this research was 36 students (10% of the population). the data were collected by using three kinds of instruments: questionnaire, test, and interview. the findings reveal that the students’ preferences of strategies are dominated by cognitive, followed by social and metacognitive strategies. learners’ learning outcomes are dealing with language achievement, language proficiency, and vocabulary knowledge. the findings from previous research works seem to indicate that successful learners employ a larger number and a wider range of vocabulary learning strategies than the less successful language learners. successful language learners often apply vocabulary learning strategy in quite intricate ways to help them acquire new vocabulary items. however, it seems quite risky to infer that the higher language learning outcomes are the result of a larger number and a wider range of learners’ vocabulary learning strategy use. the relationship between learners’ learning outcomes and learners’ vocabulary learning strategy use may be described as bidirectional. in other words, it can either be that the learners’ vocabulary learning strategy use resulted from their learning outcomes or that their learning outcomes can be the result of their vocabulary learning strategy use. v. conclusion it can be concluded that the learning strategies can help the learner to become more selfdirected and contribute to the learning process. however, the students may not have nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 43 the appropriate tools for doing that even though they may acknowledge the meaning of vocabulary in language proficiency. mastering the use of learning strategies the learner can more easily achieve his goal, successful learning. therefore lecturers should enhance the meaning of learning strategies and offer the opportunity to get to know and try out the different strategies so that each learner can find the best strategies for them. references asgari, azadeh and ghazali, mustapha. 2011. the type of vocabulary learning strategies used by esl students in university putra malaysia . english language teaching vol. 4, no. 2; june 2011 ellis, r. 2004. a study on english vocabulary learning strategy used by chinese students. studies in literature and language, vol. 9, no, 1, pp. 111-116. huang, x.-h., & van naerrsen, m. 2007. an investigation of learning strategies in oral communication that chinese efl learners in china employ. unpublished master’s thesis, chinese university of hong kong. liu, jing. 2010. language learning strategies and its training model. international education studies vol. 3, no. 3; august maesin, anis., mansor, mahani., shafie, latisha and nayan, surina. 2009. a study of collaborative learning among malaysian undergraduates. asian social science 5(7) june . marttinen, marika. 2008. vocabulary learning strategies used by upper secondary school students studying english as a second language. department of languages mehrpour, s. (2008). a comparison of the effects of two vocabulary teaching techniques. asian efl journal, 10(2), 192–209 nirattisai, supika and chiramanee, thanyapa . 2014. the contribution of vocabulary learning strategies to university students’ vocabulary size. silpakorn university journal of social sciences, humanities, and arts vol.14(2) : 45-67. rabadi, reem ibrahin. 2016. vocabulary learning strategies employed by undergraduate efl jordanian students. english language and literature studies; vol. 6, no. 1. sadighi, f., & zarafshan, m.a. 2006. effects of attitude and motivation on the use of language learning strategies by iranian efl university students. journal of social sciences and humanities of shiraz university, 23(1), 71-80. schmitt, n. 2006. vocabulary learning strategies. in mccharty, m & n. schmitt (eds).vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. cambridge university press takac, v. p. 2008. vocabulary learning strategies and foreign language acquisition. clevedon, buffalo, toronto multilingual matters ltd. tercanlioglu, l. 2004. pre-service efl teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and how they relate to gender. electronic journal of research in educational psychology, 5 (1): 145-162. thompson, sandee. 2005. the “good language learner. tefl/tesl teaching journal, vol. 3, no 2. nanik sulastri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 1 (2019) 44 wu, manfred man-fat. 2008. language learning strategy use of chinese esl learners of hong kong findings from a qualitative study. electronic journal of foreign language teaching , vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 68–83 article nanik sulastri1 i. introduction ii. methods iii. result iv. discussion v. conclusion dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 283 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 18, 2023 final revision: september 22, 2023 accepted: september 25, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this research aims to explain and describe expressive speech acts in the comment section of the ministry of education and culture’s youtube account “peel through the issue of teacher welfare in the sisdiknas bill”. the comment section contained seventy examples of expressive speaking activities which analyzed using qualitative approach. results indicate the presence of 70 instances of expressive speech acts within the comment column, categorized as follows: expressions of gratitude (36), apologies (1), praise (16), complaints (5), and expressions of happiness or pleasure (12). the present study provides significant contributions to the understanding of the many forms and functions of expressive speech acts in virtual communication environments. through the exploration of the diverse range of expressive speech acts observed inside the comment part of this renowned youtube account, this study enhances our comprehension of contemporary communication dynamics. moreover, the conducted research not only paves the way for future inquiries but also holds significant practical consequences for instructional practices in educational settings. promoting digital literacy and effective communication skills in kids requires an understanding of how people express themselves in digital spaces. educators have the opportunity to integrate these research findings into their instructional programs and facilitate debates regarding internet communication etiquette, thereby cultivating a generation that is more equipped with knowledge and skills in the digital realm. in summary, this study provides light on the nuances of expressive speech acts in digital contexts and establishes the groundwork for future research in this dynamic field of communication. keywords expressive speech acts, comments, social media correspondence e-mail: diniartini@student.uir.ac.id article analyzing expressive speech acts in comments on ‘teacher welfare issues in the national education system bill’ dini artini1, rika ningsih2 1-2language and literature education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, riau islamic university, pekanbaru, indonesia4 faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.283-291.2023 i. introduction language plays a crucial role as the primary means of communication within human civilization, distinguishing them from other living organisms. people can share information and voice their opinions thanks to its ability to transmit messages, ideas, thoughts, and wishes (siti fatikah et al., 2022). any communication procedure that affects the other person should have a clear goal and function. the primary function of communication is to promote comprehension and mutual understanding among people. pragmatics, as a subfield of linguistics, is concerned with the intricate aspects of language utilization within the context of communication. beyond the realm of semantic theory, it investigates aspects of meaning by examining features of speech meaning that cannot be fully clarified by a direct comparison to the truth conditions of uttered sentences (tarigan, 2009). yule (2006) stated pragmatics as a field of study that examines the relationship between language forms and the individuals who employ them. lavinson defined pragmatics as the study of a language from a functional perspective that seeks dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 284 to explain some aspects of linguistic structures concerning several non-linguistic influences and symptoms (nadar, 2008). in the meantime, pragmatics analysis, according to rahardi (2005), is strongly based in the contextual features of language. the relevance of context in interpreting a speaker’s intention during encounters (anggraeni & yudi, 2021). the present context covers the collective information that is exchanged between speakers and their conversation partners, which plays a significant role in forming and adapting speech acts. this component is considered vital within the field of pragmatics. among th imporntant topic in pragmatics is speech act which defined as actions that are displayed through speech (yule, 2006; wijana, 2009; aprilia & lestarini, 2021). meanwhile, badelah et al., (2019) defined speech act as a person’s ability to perform speech acts that have a reciprocal message under certain circumstances. there are three distinct actions performed by a speaker, namely locution, illocution, and perlocution (chaer, 2010). the illocutionary acts is a center of communicative act which displayed through the communicative emphasis of an utterance encompass several forms of communicative intentions, including making declarations, extending offers, providing explanations, and expressing other intentional messages. searle classified illocutionary speech acts into five distinct categories, namely assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and declarative (rahardi, 2005). expressive speech act is a useful speech act to inform the psychological state of the speaker (yule, 2006; tarigan, 2009; chaer, 2010). searle argues that expressive acts function as a way for speakers to express or show their feelings and psychological attitudes towards a situation, such as congratulating, thanking, blaming, apologizing, pardoning, condoling, blaming, condoling, and praising (rahardi, 2005). the advanced of technology has brought about a rapid integration of social media with language and communication. social media has become a prominent platform for individuals to engage in remote communication with other language speakers through the internet (ayuna olenti et al., 2019). the proliferation of technology has led to the emergence and advancement of numerous social media platforms, such as facebook, instagram, whatsapp, twitter, tiktok, youtube, among others. among the various platforms available, youtube is notable for its multiple advantages. this platform offers users the opportunity to access a diverse array of information, entertainment, lifestyles, interests, and education. additionally, youtube exerts a substantial influence on the formation of individuals’ perceptions, emotions, and perspectives, rendering it a captivating medium for its users. the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia is one youtube account that receives a lot of attention from the general population. netizens frequently employ expressions in their comments to highlight the point and intention of the communication. with the advancement of technology, social media and the internet have made it possible for people to meet online and communicate virtually. one platform that facilitates virtual interactions between speech partners and speakers even in the absence of in-person meetings is youtube, which enables virtual interactions through text. one prominent indonesian person who has garnered significant attention is mr. nadiem makarim, commonly referred to as “mas minister.” nadiem makarim, an indonesian entrepreneur, presently holds the position of minister of education, culture, research, and technology. mr. nadiem makarim, being a prominent individual, consistently garners significant attention from society at large. a multitude of perspectives are expressed on mr. nadiem makarim, encompassing both favorable and unfavorable opinions. as the minister of education, obtaining precise performance data is essential for reporting and evaluating the efficacy of his work system. he and his team document their activities, including text messages, photographs, and videos, in order to ensure precision. positive and unfavorable comments are received by the ministry of education and culture on these uploads on their youtube channel. the youtube account is subject to vigilant observation by its users, frequently providing rise to contentious discussions among advocates and opponents. among the the top video which invite pros and cons is about the issue of teacher welfare education system bill. the video has been watched by 371,972 with 2.6 thousand comments and has been liked by 9.4 thousand users. in the video, the minister of education, culture, research and technology (mendikbudristek), mr. nadiem anwar makarim, together with the head of the education standards, dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 285 curriculum and assessment agency (bskap), mr. anindito aditomo, discuss the obstacles and solutions related to teacher welfare. in the dialogue, the minister of education and research and the head of bskap also explained how the sisdiknas bill seeks to create a more inclusive and fair teacher governance, by giving recognition to early childhood educators, non-formal educators, and educators in pesantren. this certainly causes various forms of comments from the indonesian people, one of which is expressive speech. several researces had done analysis related to expressive speech acts (mayhelda & fatmawati, 2023; maryati & ningsih, 2023; widyawati & asnawi, 2023). although expressive speech actions have been studied in a variety of settings in earlier research, the study on expressive speech acts in the youtube comments still limited. the purpose of this study is to determine and analyze the form of expressive speech acts in the comments column of the ministry of education and culture’s youtube account “the issue of teacher welfare in the education system bill”. ii. method the present study utilizes a qualitative methodology, specifically employing content analysis as the selected research method. qualitative research entails the examination and interpretation of verbal expressions, such as words and narratives, as opposed to quantitative data (monica et al., 2022). the research technique of content analysis, as described by bungin (ningsih et al., 2021), involves the systematic examination of communication content within a given context in order to provide reliable and valid insights. the data used in this work comprises of instances of expressive speech present in comments, with a particular emphasis on the original commentators rather than subsequent answers. the primary data utilized in this study is derived from the comments section of the official youtube account of the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia. these comments were collected under the video titled “peel through the issue of teacher welfare in the sisdiknas bill.” several strategies used in data collection, including note-taking, note-taking, and free listening. data analysis is done in multiple steps: (1) identification, in which researchers find utterances that contain expressive speech acts; (2) coding, in which research data is coded; (3) analysis, which involves classifying utterances that contain expressive speech acts in the youtube account’s comment section; (4) a more in-depth examination of utterances made by netizens that contain expressive speech acts; and (5) concluding by finding patterns in the research data and making pertinent conclusions. iii. result based on the results of the study done on expressive speech actions in the youtube comment part of kemendikbud ri’s account, there are seventy data total in the expressive speech acts category, which has been categorized and organized according to the type of expressive speech. this facilitates the work of researchers and provides a comprehensive understanding of the study of expressive speech acts. the existing body of research indicates the presence of several types of expressive speech acts within the comment part of the youtube account belonging to the ministry of education and culture. the modes of expressive speech include expressive speech acts of gratitude, expressive speech acts of apology, expressive speech acts of praise, expressive speech acts of complaint, and expressive speech acts of joy. the following are the results of an analysis of expressive speech acts in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube account’s comment section. no expressive speech acts amount 1 thank you 36 2 apologize 1 3 praise 16 4 complain 5 5 happiness 12 table 1. types of expressive speech acts in indonesian comment sections ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia the findings of this study show that the following are examples of expressive speech acts that can be found in the youtube comment section of the ministry of education and culture: a) expressing gratitude in the context: expressing gratitude for the good deeds that the speaker has done, expressing gratitude for the pleasure that god gives, and expressing gratitude for feeling helped; b) asking for forgiveness in the context: because of an attitude that does not match the speaker’s expectations with the speech partner; c) praising in the context: praising due to the speaker’s dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 286 intelligence; d) complaining in the context: because of feelings of disappointment that arise from reality that does not match expectations; e) happiness in the context. iv. discussion expressive acts of gratitude the purpose of the expressive speech act of thanks is to convey appreciation for the speaker’s assistance, assistance received, and potential assistance from the speech partner. this supports the view held by murti et al. (2018) that expressive speech acts of gratitude are those that take place when the speaker or speech partner is willing to comply with the speaker’s requests, or when the speaker is feeling grateful for the speaker’s kindness in giving something to them, or when the speaker simply appreciates what the speaker has done. data 1: @ sitinuraini: “thank you mr. nadiem, hopefully, it will be achieved, very hopeful for me who has served for 16 years as a kindergarten teacher”. the text was spoken by @sitinuraini in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdiknas bill. the @sitinuarini account expressed gratitude and prayed that the sisdikas bill that was designed could be realized. based on the data 1, it includes expressive speech acts of gratitude marked by the words “thank you, mr. nadiem”. the speech was spoken by @sitinuraini who expressed her gratitude to mr. nadiem makarim for drafting the sisdiknas bill for teachers and she hopes that the sisdiknas bill can be achieved because she has served as a kindergarten teacher for 16 years. the words “thank you, mr. nadiem” spoken by @sitinuraini to mr. nadiem makarim as a form of psychological attitude expressing his pleasure in the form of expressing appreciation and praising as gratitude from a teacher who hopes that the sisdikanas bill will be designed can be realized. in line with that (chaer, 2010) argues that the expressive speech act of gratitude is a speech act that is spoken due to kindness and sincerity. data 2: @suryanto:” thank you to the minister for fighting for the fate of indonesian teachers. may you always be healthy.” the text was spoken by @suryanto in the comment column of the ministry of education and culture’s youtube about mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the @suryanto account expressed gratitude and prayed for mr. nadiem makarim because he had fought for the fate of teachers. data 2 indicates the expressive speech acts of gratitude characterized by the utterance “thank you for mr. minister”. the speech is spoken by @ suryanto to mr. nadiem makarim because he has fought for the fate of indonesian teachers. the speech is expressed as a form of psychological attitude in the form of appreciation, an expression of pleasure and happiness as his gratitude to mr. nadiem makarim because he has paid attention to the teachers. in line with that, according to (chaer, 2010) expressive speech acts of gratitude are speech acts that are spoken due to the kindness and sincerity of the person. expressive acts of apologizing the act of apologizing can be considered an expressive speech act, as it involves the display of a specific attitude that does not align with the expectations of both the speaker and the recipient of the apology. the speaker’s negative feelings against their speech partner for what they did lead to the expressive speech act of apology (trisnawati et al., 2022). the act of apologizing involves the use of verbal communication to express remorse or regret, typically through the use of the word “sorry.” data 3: @henilestari:” sorry, mr. minister, i am an asn teacher with 22 years of service, i did not pass the ppg / up exam in 2018 until 2022. please ask for wisdom because soon i will be retired, thank you, mr. minister”. the speech was spoken by @henilestari in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdiknas bill. based on the data, data 3 includes expressive dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 287 speech acts of apologizing marked by the utterance “i apologize, mr. minister”. the speech was spoken by @henilestari to mr. nadiem makarim because the speaker felt that he had worked as an asn teacher for 22 years but from 2018 to 2022 he had not yet graduated. he also asked mr. nadiem makarim for a policy because soon he would retire from his job. the word “sorry” spoken is a form of psychological attitude because it feels that there is an attitude that is not by the expectations of speech partners related to what has been conveyed or related to policies that have occurred during his service as a teacher. in line with this (chaer, 2010) says that the expressive speech act of saying sorry occurs because the speaker feels guilty about the speech partner, and feels bad feelings for the speech partner. expressive speech acts of praise expressive speech acts including praise can be characterized as instances of flattery, wherein speakers show admiration for various aspects or qualities possessed by their speech partners. according to adha and arief (2020), the act of praising involves the expression of positive words towards an individual. consistent with the aforementioned viewpoint, expressive speech acts manifest when speakers experience a state of happiness, leading to the expression of praise (rahmadhani & purwo yudi utomo, 2020). data 4: @teguhsenju:” a very smart and fair minister“ the text was spoken by @teguhsenju in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdiknas bill. the @teguhsenju account expressed his praise to mr. nadiem makarim because he had fought for the fate of teachers. data 4 includes expressive speech acts of praise characterized by the utterance “very smart”. the speech is spoken by @teguhsenju praising the minister who is very smart and fair regarding the performance that has been done by mr. nadiem makarim. the speech is a form of the psychological attitude of the speaker as an expression of his appreciation in the form of praise and admiration for mr. nadiem makarim regarding the siskdiknas bill that has been designed so that the praising speech comes out. in line with this (chaer, 2010) the expressive speech act of praising is a speech act that occurs due to several factors, including the condition of the speaker by the reality that the speaker wants to make the speech partner happy, and wants to seduce the speech partner because of the good deeds done by the speech partner. data 5: @nikomang r: “mas minister is amazing” the text was spoken by @nikomangrusmianti in the ministry of education and culture ri youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the account @nikomangrusmianti delivered a speech in the form of praise to mr. nadiem makarim because he had fought for the fate of teachers. data 5 includes expressive speech acts of praise characterized by the utterance “mas minister is extraordinary”. the speech is spoken by @nikomangrusminiati giving praise to mr. nadiem because he decided to seek the welfare of teachers in the sisdikanas bill. the speech is a form of psychological attitude spoken to mr. nadiem makarim in the form of appreciation and admiration for what has been conveyed by mr. nadiem makarim related to the sisdiknas bill. as chaer (2010) stated that the expressive speech act of praising is a speech act that occurs due to several factors, including the condition of the speaker the reality that the speaker wants to make the speech partner happy, and wants to seduce the speech partner because of the good deeds done by the speech partner. expressive speech acts of complaining complaints, as expressive speech acts, serve as a means to articulate feelings of distress or dissatisfaction arising from a discrepancy between anticipated and actual circumstances. the act of expressing complaints is a form of speech in which the speaker communicates their grievances to the interlocutor or intended recipient. this is done with the purpose of articulating the distress caused by various negative experiences, such as anguish, disappointment, or pain (dwi saputri et al., 2020). moreover, the act of delivering a complaint speech arises from the subjective experience of enduring a substantial load, be it physical pain or other distressing circumstances (soleh & pratiwi, 2021). dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 288 data 6: @jamaldin: “we are honorary teachers in public schools alone 300k per month is enough for what the minister”. the text was spoken by @jamaldin in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the @jamaldin account complained to mr. nadiem makarim because he felt that the honorary salary he got was not enough for his living needs. data 6 is categorized as expressive speech acts of complaining marked by the utterance “we are honorary in public schools alone 300k per month is enough for what mas minister”, the speech was spoken by @jamaldin as a form of psychological attitude of the speaker due to feelings of suffering due to something that is not by reality which is felt as a burden. the speech act shows that the speaker expresses his sadness about the honorarium salary he gets when teaching in public schools. the expressive speech act of complaining occurs due to the desire to show a sense of disappointment, sadness, and difficulty, which occurs due to pain and reality that is not by the wishes (chaer, 2010). data 7: @hamid saleh: “what about the fate of those of us who are temporarily participating in ppg daljab, is the amount of allowances equalized with those who have never participated in ppg, we are tired now, mr. minister”. the text was spoken by @hamidahsaleh in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the @hamidahsaleh account expressed his complaint to mr. nadiem makarim that he felt tired and complained because the number of allowances obtained was equalized with teachers who did not take ppg. data 7 is considered as expressive speech acts of complaining marked by the utterance “we are tired now, mr. minister”, the utterance was spoken by @hamidahsaleh as a complaint, the complaint occurred because the speaker was saddened by his fate who temporarily participated in ppg, but the amount of allowance was equalized with those who had never participated in ppg, and tired complaints came out. the speech is a form of the psychological attitude of a speaker who is disappointed with government policies related to the salary received not by reality and desire. as chaer (2010) mentioned the expressive speech act of complaining occurs due to the desire to show disappointment, sadness, and difficulty, which occurs due to pain and reality that does not match the wishes. expressive acts of happiness expressive speech of happiness refers to a form of speech that encompasses the articulation of an individual’s emotional state characterized by joy and contentment. the phenomenon of expressing happiness is observed when an individual articulates their experience of pleasure, happiness, and emotional responses towards a particular occurrence (pratiwi & puspitasari, 2023). data 8: @channelpujiyati: “thank god the sisdiknas bill presented by mr. nadiem is good news for all teachers. likewise for us paud teachers who have not been recognized as teachers in the law, hopefully, the sisdikans bill can run smoothly until it is ratified.” the text was spoken by @channelpujiyati in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the account @channelpujiyati expressed her happiness to mr. nadiem makarim because he has fought for the fate of teachers. data 8 includes expressive speech acts of happiness marked by the words “alhamdulilah the sisdiknas bill delivered by mr. nadiem is good news for all teachers”. the speech was spoken by @channelpujiyati because she felt very happy with the sisdiknas bill. she also hopes that the sisdikans bill will run smoothly until it is passed. the speech is a form of psychological attitude caused by a sense of pleasure of the speaker who expresses through speech his happiness and gratitude regarding the sisdinas bill. the happiness that the speaker has given so that the speaker expresses speech in the form of happiness. the use of expressive speech acts of happiness by @channelpujiyati when she expressed her gratitude through the speech act “alhamdulillah”. as chaer (2010) argued that expressive speech acts of happiness occur due to dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 289 in the field of pragmatics if they adhere to the methodologies outlined in this study. in addition, this research contributes to the development of pragmatic scholarship by enhancing our comprehension of expressive speech acts in the context of virtual communication, particularly on online platforms such as youtube. this study contributes to the existing scholarly discourse on speech actions by providing insights into their various manifestations and roles within the digital environment. these findings have the potential to improve educational resources, particularly for pragmaticsfocused institutions. incorporating illustrative examples of expressive speech acts from youtube’s comments section can aid students in comprehending the complexities of language use in online contexts. through this integration, students are assisted in gaining digital literacy and proficient virtual communication abilities. furthermore, this study can be used as a template for more thorough research projects in the future. researchers may choose to replicate or modify the methodology presented here in order to analyze speech acts across diverse online platforms and contexts, thus expanding the scope of this field. in summary, this study not only makes a significant contribution to the scholarly field of pragmatics but also provides valuable implications for educators and emerging researchers. it serves as a blueprint for further exploration of expressive speech acts in digital communication, guiding those interested in exploring this dynamic aspect of language use. v. conclusions based on the results of the research that has been done, it can be concluded that in the comments column of the ministry of education and culture ri youtube account, there are various forms of expressive speech acts. the forms of speech acts found in the ministry of education and culture ri’s comment column are expressive speech acts of gratitude, apologizing, praising, complaining, and happiness. the expressive speech has different functions according to the utterances spoken by the speakers. the expressive speech consists of expressive speech that functions to express what is thought and poured in the form of comments. the comment is used as a means of expressing the speech indirectly. the results that have been a sense of happiness, pleasure, and falling in love. data 9: @yanti yulianti: “masyaallahtabarakallah alhamdulillah, i am happy with all the struggles of the minister and his staff at the ministry of research and technology, hopefully, the welfare of teachers throughout indonesia will soon be realized amminn. may health always be for the minister and his staff and get unlimited rewards from allah swt ammin “. the text was spoken by @yanti yulianti in the ministry of education and culture’s youtube comment column regarding mr. nadiem makarim and mr. anindito aditomo’s discussion regarding the issue of teacher welfare designed in the sisdikas bill. the account @ yanti yulianti expressed her happiness to mr. nadiem makarim and also wished him good health because he had fought for the fate of teachers. data 9 includes expressive speech acts of happiness marked by the words “alhamdulillah, i am happy”, the speech was spoken by @ yantiyulianti because the speaker felt happy after hearing the news from mr. nadiem makarim about the sisdiknas bill designed for the welfare of teachers. the speech is a form of psychological attitude that occurs because of the feeling of happiness, pleasure, and gratitude of a speaker related to what has been conveyed by mr. nadiem makarim about the sisdknas bill. because mr. nadiem makarim has fought for the welfare of teachers in indonesia. the use of expressive speech acts performed by @yaniyulainti is when she expresses her feelings and gratitude through the speech act “thank god, i am happy”. in line with this (chaer, 2010) says that the expressive speech act of happiness occurs due to a sense of happiness, pleasure, and falling in love. the findings of this study have significant implications for various academic stakeholders, including researchers, educators, and scholars with expertise in pragmatics and expressive speech actions. in the first place, this study can serve as an instructive guide for future researchers who are planning to investigate expressive speech actions. it provides a meticulously structured framework and methodological insights, laying the groundwork for future research. future investigations can contribute to the ever-growing body of knowledge dini artini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 290 analyzed and grouped are expressive speech acts of saying thank you as much as 36 data; expressive speech acts of apologizing 1 data; expressive speech acts of praising 16 data; expressive speech acts of complaining 5 data and expressive speech acts of happiness or pleasure as much as 12 data. based on this research, it can be concluded that expressive speech acts that are mostly found are 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(2006). pragmatik (cetakan pertama). pustaka pelajar. la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 39 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: april 14, 2021 final revision: april 18, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 diversity of the flora lexicon in the environment of kaghati is part of the ethnic richness in the form of local knowledge that must be explored for the sake of environmental sustainability. this article intends to: (1) discover and portray the flora lexicon of kaghati; and (2) examine the dynamic of inter-generational comprehension. the researcher used qualitative method and upheld by quantitative method. the information required were gotten by perception, meeting, and poll strategies. at that point, the survey is directed upon 150 respondents. the extent of the respondents’ ages was from 15 to 65 years. in light of information examination, there were two discoveries discovered: (1) the flora lexicon of kaghati comprises of fifteen dictionaries as ostensible and biotic class. (2) there is an alternate degree of between generational comprehension on flora lexicon of kaghati. the old age (46-65 years) 84% (best), the middle generation (25-45 years) 74% (best), and the young generation (15-24 years) 55% (better). keywords flora, lexicon, kaghati, muna correspondence e-mail: laino@uho.ac.id articles flora lexicon of kaghati in muna speech community la ino1, nirmalasari2, lili darlian3, damhuri4, rahmat sewa suraya5, muhammad alkausar6 1-6halu oleo university, kendari, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.39-47.2022 1. introduction language isn’t restricted to correspondence. language contains a social vision: recording, keep up, and acquire the aggregate ideas, verifiable, philosophical, socio-culture and biological estimations of a general public. language is an image and social component that is inborn in human life. in socio-culture terms, language is a part of culture that exists in a genuine manner and can likewise legitimately recognize one ethnic network and another ethnic network. as a social reality, language is a wonder that utilized by the talking network to impart and associate with regards to circumstances and social settings inside of environment (mbete, 2011). in 1912, edward sapir published ‘language and environment,’ becoming one of the first etymologists to look beyond the depiction of language in terms of sound frameworks, word implications, structure, and like to forge a link between nature and language. according to sapir, numerous components of human culture are attributed to the effects of physical conditions in which culture is established. as a result, the interrelationship between the environment’s occupants is represented by various elements, such as clans that live near nature communicating in their regular language. it implies that a language is influenced by its surroundings. as a result, each network may have a different language and culture, and different dialects will have different dictionaries, because they share different societies that inspire unmistakable kinds of understandings (mbete, 2008). language environment consists of the human element, the natural environment, and the sociocultural environment, including the language element which is the reality of the language environment (mbete, 2011). ecolinguistic theory is used in this research. ecolinguistics is a theory related to linguistics and ecology. ecology in linguistics plays a very important role. the importance of ecological linguistics, particularly with regard to linguistic sustainability. this is because speech loss is believed to occur due to environmental degradation. based on these philosophical considerations, the environment is one of the most important studies in linguistics. ecolinguistics is a “general term” that encompasses a wide variety of theoretical approaches. the ecology of language in la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 40 ecolinguistics is related to two things, namely (1) the physical or physical environment and (2) the social environment. the physical environment includes geographic features such as the topography of the area (beaches, valleys, plains, highlands, or mountains), climate, rainfall, and basic human economic needs, including flora, fauna, and mineral resources that can be sustained. by humans. life. the social environment includes various community forces that shape each individual’s way of life and thinking. what is important in this social power are religion, ethics, political organization and art. in ecolinguistic theory, language and community speakers are seen as organisms that live in a system in an environment. language is also regarded as a system that can develop and change according to human development and shift non-stop from time to time (mbete, 2008). in linguistics, these changes can be seen in many ways. one of the simplest things that can indicate a change is the lexical level. the idea reinforces the fact that it is an aspect that is closely related to humans. the existed language is, for this situation, existed one in discernment as well as in informative, gainful, and innovative execution acted, both oral and composed. this implies any language of a specific culture can give portrayal about culture, social network, and regular situation of the speaker, thus does muna language. accordingly, ecolinguistic is utilized as an extension to uncover flora lexicon of kaghati in muna speech communty (msc), with the goal that it will be more clear and keep up the presence of those lexicon for an articulation. regarding the language environment meko mbete (2002) describes the language environment using a logical dimension model (figure 1). the dialogue model is persuasive. this is demonstrated by persuasive bolts, which represent that there are connections between the phenomena (participants, objects and media) in the circumstance, and between the environment and the circumstance, and that these connections are inconsistent. in the model, the course of each rationalistic bolt outlines that the settings of correspondence rule and establish the circumstance and the dialogue yet in addition that the situational exchange impacts the specific situation. the dialog of those constituents is signed by symbol “↔”, that occurs in topos (space, place, and time), with background of three social practice dimensions, namely ideological, sociological, and biological. the three dimensions constitute ecology of language. the three-dimensionality of social practice can easily be used as a theoretical framework for bang & doors. the three dimensions are dialectically determined and determining. the three logical dimensions are interconnected historical and dynamic systems of recurring invariances, patterns, and the ideological dimension refers to our individual and collective mental, cognitive, ideological and psychological systems. the sociological dimension is about the way we organize our relationships to maintain a collective of individuals, whether these individuals love each other (eg. in a family and among friends), to know each other (for example, in political systems such as a region, a state). the biological dimension is about our biological collective and our coexistence with other species (animals, plants, soils, oceans, microorganisms, etc.). furthermore, the view of naturalization from the perspective of language and ecology can be adopted in ecolinguistics (li et al., 2020). furthermore, wenjuan argues that ecolinguistics can create a harmonious life in the life sciences. this will be an important step to increase human bio-ecological awareness and solve the ecological crisis (wenjuan, 2017). furthermore, bang explained that to do about ecology, an ecological theory was needed. to explain the ecological understanding of language that is necessary for a theory of language ecology. through this paper, bang explains about the dialectical theory of language and communication through language fig. 1. logical dimension model la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 41 theory (bang & trampe, 2014). spangler analyzes ecolinguistics based on game simulations. the analysis found that the roots of the ecological crisis can be learned by playing games. because in this game it can be designed to reproduce and reflect the real world (poole & spangler, 2020). furthermore, research conducted by stibbe combines ecolinguistics with critical discourse by establishing a normative framework for assessing discourse ecologically (stibbe, 2014). the research conducted by other researchers who conduct ecolinguistic research include the language myth, and indiscrimination between the two different approaches to language known as cognitive internalism and cognitive externalism (fernández-vázquez, 2021; zahoor & janjua, 2020; khotimah et al, 2021; norton & hulme, 2019; luardini et al, 2019; kravchenko, 2016). a more consistent definition of language ecology is given, based on the biology of cognition as a theory of the living; consequently, the subject area of ecolinguistics is defined differently, with a focus on the nature and function of language as a mode of organization of the living system society, (zahoor & janjua, 2020; nash, 2016; finke, 2014) on the relation of nature and culture (uryu et al., 2014; poole, 2018; urlica & stefanovic, 2018). kaghati is a common game type and an ancient social element in msc that exists today. bieck (bieck, 2002) said that kaghati has been growing for about 4,000 years. kaghati was previously used as a rancher round and was also played after the drive. ensuring the abundance of kaghati in msc is important, both for the sustainability of the muna language and for the preservation of kaghati, with its conventions and culture, which include the importance and social appreciation of past heritage as part of its own character for the younger age. the regular habitat and the socio-cultural environment of msc that are alive and practical up to now are acquired from our progenitors. the presence of msc is impacted by the communication between people in msc and the common habitat and socio-cultural climate. one type of cooperation, interrelation, and association is recorded in greenery lexicon established in the kaghati’s environment. other previous researchers conducted empirical research on kaghati. bieck (2002), “the first kiteman,” focuses solely on the history of kaghati. the implemented theory is not included. puspoyo (2004) in “layang-layang indonesia” not only studied the muna kite, but she also explains the types and history of kites in various areas of indonesia in her book. “tinjauan sejarah tentang kaghati dalam masyarakat muna” investigates the existence of kaghati in muna, the use of kaghati materials, and the kaghati myths. muthalib’s research contains no theories. in this article, ecolinguistic theory, in particular bang and door’s (1996) ecolinguistic theory in relation to language and social practice, has never been used to study kaghati. more precisely, social practice has three components. (1) philosophical measurement, philosophy connected with individual or group mental inquiry, intellectual, mental adherence to a particular expression; (2) sociological measurement, the coherent measurement of how joints classify and control the cycle of interaction in the general public, which gives evidence of mutual appreciation for each other, and (3) organic measurement of natural human presence corresponding to different species, as well as varieties of plants or creatures, similar to that of a registered biological system (particularly the muna language). based on the explanation above, this article expects to: (1) discover and portray the flora lexicon of kaghati; and (2) examine the dynamic of intergenerational understanding on flora lexicon of kaghati. the diversity of lexicon, especially the lexicon in the kaghati’s environment is a part of the ethnic wealth in the form of local wisdom of ancestral heritage and regional peculiarities that need to be explored and empowered for the sake of environmental sustainability. the sustainability of muna’s natural environment with its diversity guarantees human sustainability and muna culture in the future. 2. methods this research was the field work carried out in muna, southeast sulawesi, in two subareas, specifically lohia, liang kobori city; and watopute, wali city. the strategy used was a subjective and quantitative methodology, and information was collected from 150 respondents (youth, center and age) through perception, discussion and survey techniques. a survey was used as a screening tool in this research. the survey is unstructured and organized, and has lexicon arrangements. the age range of the respondents ranged from 15 to 65 years (15-24 years as youth, 25-45 years as middle la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 42 age, and 46-65 years as old age). respondents came from a variety of educational and social backgrounds, including students, ranchers, laborers, network pioneers, business people, homemakers, and merchants. this is done in view of the fact that not all reactions are relevant to this research, so the acceptance cycle is over. from this point on, the selected information is characterized by its phonetic and environmental structures and classifications. at this point, each compiled lexicon is expressly exposed to give semantic data and the social practice element of the kaghati lexicon. the following informational investigation aims to estimate the degree of intergenerational understanding of the kaghati vegetation lexicon with the accompanying definitions, housewives and traders. the investigation of the information is carried out by ordering the information so that it is used and avoided. this is done in view of the fact that not all reactions are relevant to this investigation, so the acceptance cycle is over. from this point on, the selected information is characterized by its phonetic and environmental structures and classifications. at this point, each compiled lexicon is expressly revealed to provide semantic data and the social practice element of the kaghati lexicon. the following informational investigation aims to calculate the degree of intergenerational understanding of the kaghati vegetation lexicon with the associated definition. environment. it has external referential meaning, can be seen, proven, both empirically and visible. bhoru palm palmae: palm found in the area of tropical and subtropical. it has stemmed grows upright and rarely branches. its roots grow from the base of the stem and are shaped like fibers. the stem is segmented and does not have a true cambium. the leaf stalk has a leaf midrib that covers the stem. regarding kaghati, msc, especially the makers of kaghati using bhoru to be used as a sounding device called ‘kamuu’ or kaworu’. the part of palm or bhoru used is the young palm leaf part called bhale. as an identity of pande ghati ‘kaghati’s maker’. in addition, the bhoru lexicon is present in expressions relating to kaghati, namely o kaghati mbali bhoru we ahera ‘kaghati is an umbrella in the afterlife ‘. the meaning of the expression is that msc makes kaghati as much as possible so that it can protect itself from the heat of the sun in the hereafter (philosophy). bhea areca nut areca catechu: the areca tree has a high stem that can reach a height of 15-25m; the trunk is slender and perpendicular to the top. the fruit is green when young and turns orange or yellowish red when is ripe. in kaghati’s environment, the part of the bhea used is the midrib of areca nut or called kulubhea. the midrib is used by the maker of kaghati as the kalampi ‘kaghati coating’. bhea is a symbol of respect, appreciation, and friendship in individual communities with other individuals and also between groups. bhea is the dominant symbol in muna’s conversation, which is always presented in every traditional ceremony, such as marriage customs, karia rituals, and others. bhakeno bhea or ‘betel nut’ is also used by msc as katangkano wangka ‘teeth booster’. msc considers areca nut to represent honesty because it has stems that grow straight. there is a strength and power (philosophy). bhontu waru hibiscus tiliaceus: grows on fertile soil, stems grow straight, but on infertile soils, the stems bend, branch, and the leaves are wider. waru height reaches 5-15 meters. the ability to survive is very high because it is tolerant of dry and wet conditions. bhontu is used in kaghati’s environment as the edge of kaghati or called kasamba, a net that looks like a spider webs or kalolonda, and a balancing rope called kasaa. the part that is used as a rope is the skin table 1. scoring no. score (%) predicate 1 2 3 4 5 85-100 70-84 55-69 45-55 0-44 excellent best better less least source: pengantar statistik pendidikan by sudijono (2005) 3. results and discussion in light of the information assortment, there are a few outcomes contains flora lexicon of kaghati and the dynamic of intergenerational understanding on flora lexicon of kaghati in muna speech community (msc). 3.1 flora lexicon of kaghati the treasure of flora lexicon of kaghati is a wealth of flora lexicon that is used in ke-kaghati-an la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 43 of the waru stem. easy to live wherever you are; as a protector; life giver; and able to unite (philosophy). ghai coconut cocos nucifera: ghai has a single chip seed, rooted in fiber, and is classified as a palm family. in general, ghai ‘coconut’ has no branches and has slippery leaves. ghai is very easy to cultivate and also has many health benefits. in kaghati’s environment, part of ghai ‘coconut’ which is used by the maker of kaghati is coconut shell or called kaghabulu. pande ghati ‘maker of kaghati’ has close interaction with kaghabulu which is used as a place to store the fibers of pineapple leaves which have been cleaned of fine fur. in addition, msc also makes kaghabulu as a traditional game called kalego which is now rarely played by muna children. tree of life; provide benefits for other lives; power provider; and life safety (philosophy). ghue rattan calamus spp.: a plant belonging to a group of palm whose life propagates and is included in the calamoideae subfamily. rattan stems are usually slim with a diameter of 2-5 cm, long sections, not hollow, and many are protected by long, hard and sharp spines. in kaghati’s environment, the young leaves of ghue ‘rattan’ are used by pande ghati as one of the materials to make a sounding device. in order to be able to produce sound as desired, pande ghati sliced thinly and smoothed the young leaves of the ghue. sound produced will also be different, according to the creativity of the maker of kaghati ‘pande ghati’. considered the giver of life; be a fortress of strength; and provide comfort (philosophy). kahitela corn zea mays: a kind of plant that includes the family of grasses (graminae) from the subfamily myadeae. corn has fiber roots, stems that are not branched and cylindrical. corn plants have one or two cobs, depending on the variety. in kaghati’s environment, the maker of kaghati uses a part of kahitela, namely goga ‘corn husk’ which is already dried. goga is used as an ingredient in the making of kalampi or a coating that is placed on kasambano fotu or kasaa to prevent breaking easily. as a counterweight; life balance; and prevent damage or act as a protector (philosophy). kakumboka fern drynaria quercifolia: a fern refers to a group of plants with the vascular system of true (tracheophyta). fern is a plant in the epiphytic plant species, which is a plant whose life attaches to other plants but looks for its own food. aside from being a traditional medicinal plant, kakumboka is one of the raw materials of kaghati. pande ghati uses a dry leaf of kakumboka to make the small kaghati or called bhate kamanu-manu or kaensewoka by using a sprig of grass as its counterweight. this ‘fern leaf’ roo kakumboka is also used by kaghati makers as an alternative or choice for paper or kaghati walls, besides gadung leaves or roo kolope. considered a protector; able to live together; and give peace (philosophy). kasopa a kind of pumpkin: a kind of pumpkin plant, large fruit, round, and feels bitter. its contents are seeded like pumpkin seeds, hard-skinned when old or mature. in kaghati’s environment, pande ghati makes kaghati by imitating the shape of the kasopa fruit. the kite or kaghati is called bhate dhalebha. msc wants a degree change in life; able to improve themselves to be better (philosophy). kolope gadung tuber dioscorea hispida: gadung tuber has round hairy, spiny stems that are spread along the stem and stalks. gadung tubers’ skin is ivory white or yellow. the tubers of stemless yams grow and climb, 5-20 m long. as the main material for making muna kites called kaghati kolope. kolope leaves are used for the wall on kaghati. kolope leaves have two kinds; masculine and feminine leaf. the place of leaf on kaghati’s wall based on the position of the gadung leaf. roo kolope has a symbol that symbolizes the balance of life. human life is not alone. humans in their lives there are always others, humans as social creatures. they are on our left and right. the shape of the right and left yam leaves has the same shape. this is human life in togetherness. regarding the balance position, kaghati fans have the idea that their lives will always be in a balanced, safe, peaceful and peaceful position. roo kolope is analogous to the human body; roo kolope is identical to human skin. if roo kolope on kaghati serves to hold exposed to the wind so that it is balanced in the sky, human skin functions to protect all the substances in our body from the wind or prevent the entry of other substances that can damage body tissues in humans (philosophy). kowala sugar palm arenga pinnata: a kind of plant that is a closed seed plant (angiospermae) and belongs to the family of areca nut (arecaceae). pande ghati uses parts of the kowala plant namely roono kowala or young palm leaves which are la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 44 dried. young palm leaves or roono kowala called bhale in muna can be used for sounding devices on kaghati. able to provide many benefits for life. easy to live anywhere (philosophy). midawa sweet potato ipomoea batatas l.: a plant that belongs to a type of secondary crop which functions as a substitute for staple food (rice). midawa ‘sweet potato’ is a kind of cultivated plant. related to kaghati’s environment shown in the kaghati shape or model, namely bhate dhangkonu or semi-round model. naming bhate dhangkonu by the maker of kaghati is caused by kaghati resembling the round shape of the midawa plant. lexicon dhangkonu is only available in midawa plants because it is not found in other plants. pande ghati has an idea with the kaghati model, midawa as one of the main staples of msc can be maintained and lifted the dignity of the midawa plant to be high, which was above the ground, now in the sky. clever to be grateful; always reminds us that the wheel of life is always spinning, sometimes it is below or above (philosophy). nanasi pineapple ananas commocus: plant of nanasi ‘pineapple’ is classified as an annual monocot class. this plant has a series of flowers found at the end of the stem, and the growth extends using side shoots that develop into vegetative branches. in kaghati’s environment, nanasi ‘pineapple’ is one of the important materials in the process of making kaghati muna. the maker of kaghati uses roo nanasi ‘pineapple leaves’ to be used as kaghati rope known as ghurame. ghurame is a typical rope of muna and is made from pineapple leaf fibers or called kawuu-wuu. the selected pineapple leaves ‘roo nanasi’ are old leaves. magical value: pineapples should not be bypassed. if stepped on, the rope will break easily later. it has a symbol of life: pineapple has selfdefense, that is on the sides of its leaves with thorns and at the tips of the leaves there are sharp and hard thorns. these spines are pineapple’s personal protective devices from outside disturbances. the thorn symbolizes the defense and security of life, not disturbed by outsiders, such as animals or humans. the character of the leaves are straight upright, it seems like humans are raising their hands, as in the atmosphere of praying to god. pineapple also symbolizes kindness and benefits (philosophy). patu betung dendrocalamus asper: a type of bamboo that has a large stem size and is included in the tribe of grasses. in kaghati’s environment, pande ghati used patu ‘betung’ as one of the basic materials for making kaghati, which is to make wings or pani of kaghati. the bamboo character is chosen to be a kites’ wing is hard and thick. the length depends on the size of the kaghati made. the function of the wing ‘pani’ is to make kaghati able to fly to the sky. betung has a strong and long-lasting durability for years. regarding this strength and resilience, the maker of kaghati has the ideology that he also possesses the resilience and life force that the patu ‘betung’ has. patu symbolizes life, the bamboo shoots are delicious as vegetables, the trunks can be used for the floor of the house; can also be used for fencing. msc hopes to have strong endurance through life; although hard and firm but still be wise; and easy to adapt in any environment (philosophy). wulu reed bamboo gigantochloa atter: wulu is refers to a kind of herbaceous plant with cavities and segments on its stem. bamboo is included in the grass family. in kaghati’s environment, pande ghati used wulu to make kaindere ‘middle frames of kite’. kaindere is a pole located in the center of the vertical position. this vertical pole is made from one stem of which is intact and is cut according to the desired height of kaghati. able to live by following the rules of life that have been set; have sincerity of heart. (philosophy). towulambe sugar cane saccharum officinarum: a type of grass and only grows in tropical climates, and where it has high water content. the stem of towulambe is used as an ear material for making kamuu/kaworu ‘sounding device’ and called kapongke ‘the ear’. the length is around 2 cm, its function is to tie the rope of kamuu/kaworu so that it forms an arc and produces sound. as a counterweight in life; alignment; not discriminating each other. as a counterweight in life; alignment; not discriminating against each other; balanced life (philosophy). 3.2 the dynamics of understanding the lexicon of flora in kaghatis’ intergenerational speaking community environment of the muna language in view of the consequences of the survey, kaghati tested 15 lexical things of flora in the discursive network of the language muna in the city of lia. ngkobori and the city of wali. lexical la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 45 tested by 150 respondents include 50 respondents who were 15-24 years old, 50 respondents who were 25-45 years old, and 50 respondents who were 46-65 years old. the level of understanding of the flora lexicon by the three groups of respondents is shown in the fee structure. the distinction in speed level of intergenerational understanding from the flora lexicon is used as the angle limit. for a general picture, the following is the web of speeches, which includes kaghati’s flora encyclopedia. table 2. percentage of flora lexicon flora lexicons of kaghati 15-24 years old 25-45 years old 46-65 years old bhoru 32 100 100 bhea 100 100 100 bhontu 28 64 82 ghai 100 100 100 ghue 52 60 84 kahitela 100 100 100 kakumboka 14 60 72 kolope 36 64 94 kowala 100 100 100 midawa 100 100 100 nanasi 80 86 90 patu 24 40 64 wulu 32 58 74 towulambe 20 38 52 kasopa 0 38 48 in view of the above graph, it can be seen that respondents with an age of 46-65 years have the most remarkable comprehension with a normal value of 84% (useful) for each lexicon tested, followed by respondents aged 25-45 who matured with a normal value of 74% (very good), and then the lowest understandings with a normal value of 55% (sufficient) of respondents aged 15-24 years. in addition, we can also determine the level of understanding among the respondents. the normal understanding of respondents between the ages of 46-65 and respondents of 25-45 years is 10%; the typical perception of the 2545-year-old respondents of the 15-25-year-old respondents is 19%, and the normal understanding of the 46-65-year-old respondents of the 15-24-year-old respondents is 29%. subsequently, it can generally be seen that understanding of the jargon decreases by ± 29%, resulting from the knowledge of respondents with the most critical data compared to respondents with the highest understanding. the result showed that age and mean age have more complete information about the kaghati flora lexicon than adolescence. the elevated level is caused by the extreme network connection, interrelation, interdependence with the element that is the kaghati environment. the ancient and middle ages are the greatest attention to the making of kaghati in the celebration of the dragon. you will have a variety of knowledge or appropriate lexical knowledge about various types of plants used as kaghati material. this research mentioned two novelties below. first of all, it can be explained theoretically that the use of the natural environment in ecological language is closely related to the traditional msc game, namely the kaghati kolope, all of which is obtained directly from the natural environment. language and environment (physical and social environment) are linked as a concept in ecolinguistic theory. whereas language is part of a social activity that involves social practice, that is, a concept that it applies to all actions, creativity, and community behavior, both of the neighbor in the community (social environment) and of the natural environment. the application of three-dimensionality to ecolinguistic studies, (ideological, the biological, and the sociological dimension) are closely related to msc life. second, the biotic on flora lexicon of kaghati are empirically closely related to msc and its physical and social environment. 4. conclusion muna speech community interact and is reliant on the environment, either natural environment or socio-cultural environment (including ke-kaghatian environment). the raw materials of kaghati game are all derived from mother nature. the result of interaction, interrelation, and interdependence of muna speech community and ke-kaghati-an environment is indicated in the diversity of kaghati flora lexicon. preservation of the abundance of kaghati in msc is significant, both for the maintainability of the muna language and for the protection of kaghati with its customs and culture, which is safeguarded in the importance and social estimations of the past legacy as a component of the individual personality, particularly for the youthful age. exploring the ecological language of kekaghatian in the muna linguistic community from an ecological linguistic perspective is something new. there are several difficulties la ino / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 46 associated with this research: kaghati experts, or called as pande ghati; in this case, there are some from the older generation, while the younger generation has very little knowledge of kaghati due to the disruption of the intergenerational process of inheritance. given the limitations of this current study, several studies will need to further examine the relationship between the language, culture and environment of the muna language community to improve this research. through this research, the muna government is also expected to pay special attention to the protection and maintenance of a number of kaghati cultures that were beginning to change, which certainly had an impact on the change in kaghati language. preservation of the kekagatian culture and language can be done by documenting the language through written texts, kaghati lexicon, or teaching materials for students. this should be done as a form of concern so that kaghati culture, which is an ancestral legacy, can continue to be passed down to the younger generation of muna. also, the muna government may pay special attention to kite growers, or pande ghati is declining now. therefore, the government must provide a venue and fully support the pande ghati to continuously pass on the kaghati legacy so that intergenerational causes can minimize the extinction of kaghati culture. references bang, j. chr. dan door, j. 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(2020). green contents in english language textbooks in pakistan: an ecolinguistic and ecopedagogical appraisal. british educational research journal, 46(2), 321–338. https://doi. org/10.1002/berj.3579 microsoft word 87-91 bram danafri.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.87-91.2019 article affixation process in sundanese bram denafri1, mery melati2, sabri koebanu3 1,2,3department indonesian languange and literature, pamulang university, south tangerang, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: june 26, 2019 final revision: september 30, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 this article focuses on the form of the affixation process in sundanese. this study uses a qualitative approach. the data in this study are sundanese sentences that contain affixation. the data sources in this study are (1) sundanese dictionaries and (2) sundanese speakers. the researcher collects data directly involved and is not directly involved in conversations with speakers of sundanese. furthermore, researchers also use note-taking techniques. data analysis using the segmenting immediate constituent technique. prefix in sundanese consists of several types, including men-~{n-}~{ny-}~{m-}~{ng}, pa-, pi-, pang-, sa-, si-, ti-, di-, ka-, ba-, and per-. infix in sundanese includes -ar-, -al-, -um-, and -in-. sufix in sundanese, several types of suffixes including -an, -eun, -na, -keun, -ing, and -ning. confix in sundanese includes ka an, pa an, pang na, pang-keun, pi eun, pika eun, sa eun, sa na, keun, and n keun. keyword morphology, affixation, sundanese. correspondence e-mail: bram@unpam.ac.id i. introduction regional languages function as a symbol of regional pride and identity. henceforth serves as a means of connecting with families and local communities, especially rural areas. besides, regional languages also function as the language of instruction at the beginning (1-3) of elementary school. then the regional languages function as a means of mass media communication (radio, newspapers, magazines). then the main function of regional languages is as a tool for developing and supporting regional culture and national culture. one of the regional languages in indonesia is sundanese. sundanese is the regional language used by community groups in the java region, precisely in the province of west java. the number of speakers of this language is 24,155,962 people. (alwi, in marsono, morphology indonesian and nusantara, 2011: 42). sundanese is an international regional language that is located ranked 33rd in the world based on data from the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco) organization. each language has specific rules and rules and patterns in the formation of individual words that are different from other languages, including sundanese. one of the grammatical forms of sundanese language that is interesting to study is the affixation process. affixation is a form of morphological process. according to chaer (2003: 177), affixation is the process of affixing to a basic word, which becomes the basic word in the bram denafri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 88 affixation process is the smallest form that cannot be segmented again. affixing a basic word can result in changes in form, class of words, and changes in meaning in the basic words. the affixation process is very influential in communication because if there is an affix error, this will make the meaning blurred. therefore, this article focuses on the form of the affixation process in sundanese. research on affixation has been conducted by hardyanti (2017), he compared the process of verb formation with affixation in indonesian and javanese. meanwhile, nuraeni (2013) discusses the affixation process of sundanese and javanese in indonesian. furthermore, munandar (2016) discusses the process of affixation in the form of derivational, which describes how affixes form verbs in sundanese. meanwhile, kulsum (2014) discusses the process of forming sundanese language into in the great indonesian dictionary. this study only focuses on explaining the process of sundanese affixation, while previous studies compare sundanese affixation with other languages. ii. methods this study uses a qualitative approach. the data in this study are sundanese sentences that contain affixation. mallinson and blake (1981: 12-18) explained that there are three sources of data in linguistic research, namely (1) sources derived from books or written information that already exists about the language studied. (2) sources derived from examples used by other authors who are recognized as truth and (3) sources originating from native speakers of the language studied. so, the data sources in this study are (1) sundanese dictionaries and (2) sundanese speakers. the data ware collected using the referential method. data collection techniques using tapping techniques with advanced techniques refer to skillful involvement and skillful inflight listening techniques (sudaryanto, 1993: 133-134). the researcher collects data directly involved and is not directly involved in conversations with speakers of sundanese. furthermore, researchers also use note-taking techniques (sudaryanto, 1993: 135), namely recording the affixation of sundanese in the sundanese language dictionary and classifying it into data cards. the data were analyzed using the immediate constituent technique, where the linguistics units were divided into several parts (sudaryanto, 1993: 31). furthermore, the analysis also used the insertion technique where the affixed were inserted to the sundanese word to figure out the acceptable form of language (sudaryanto, 1993: 37). iii. result this section explains the sundanese language affixation process. 3.1 prefix prefix men~{n-}~{ny-}~{m-}~{ng}. this prefix serves to explain an action or process. the prefix {ka-} serves to explain unintentional actions. the prefix {ti-} serves to explaining the sudden situation. while, the prefix seserves to declare a unit of measurement. furthermore, the prefix {si-} and {ba-} serves to form transitive and intransitive verbs. the prefix {di-} serves to form passive verbs.the sundanese affixation process is described as follows; (1) n+ tutup = nutup ‘close’ (2) ny + cokot = nyokot ‘take’ (3) ny+ jieun = nyieun ‘make’ (4) ny + sisi = nyisi ‘go along the side of’ (5) m+ pacul = macul ‘hoe’ (6) m+ bawa = mawa ‘bring’ (7) ng + karang = ngarang ‘write’ (8) pa+ teupang = pateupang bram denafri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 89 ‘meet’ (9) pi+ wulang = piwulang ‘adage’ (10) pang+ silih = pangsilih ‘each other’ (11) per+ canteen = percanteun ‘believe’ (12) sa+ imah = saimah ‘be under one roof’ (13) sa+ rawu = sarawu ‘handful’ (14) si+ beungeut = sibeungeut ‘wash face’ (15) ti+ teuleum = titeuleum ‘drowned’ (16) ti + guling = tiguling ‘fall down’ (17) ba+ layar = balayar ‘sailing’ (18) di+ tulis = ditulis ‘written’ (19) ka + tincak = katincak ‘stepped on’ (20) ka+ candak = kacandak ‘carried away’ 3.2 infix in sundanese there are several types of infix, namely infix {-ar-,} infiks {-al-}, infiks {-um}, and infiks {-in-}. infix {-ar}serves to form plural meanings. infix {-al-} serves to explain a situation or estimate and form plural meanings. infix {-um-} serve to form active verbs and describe an activity or process. infix {-in-} serves to form passive verbs and explain an unintentional act. example. (1) -ar+ budak = barudak ‘children’ (2) -ar+ maca = maraca ‘many people read’ (3) -ar+ nulis = narulis ‘many people write’ (4) -ar+ sae = sarae ‘good’ (5) -ar+ gunduk = garunduk ‘gather together’ (6) -ar+ diuk = dariuk ‘many people sit down’ (7) -ar+ gelo = garelo ‘lots of crazy people’ (8) -ar+ hejo = harejo ‘many are green’ (9) -ar+ dongo = darongo ‘lots of fools’ (10) -ar+ peuntil = pareuntil ‘lots of immature fruit’ (11) -ar+ nyeuseuh = nyareuseuh ‘many people wash’ (12) -ar+ macul = maracul ‘many people hoe’ (13) -al+ lieur = lalieur ‘a little dizzy’ (14) -al+ dahar = dalahar ‘many people eat’ (15) -um+ geulis = gumeulis ‘act like a beautiful person’ (16) -um+ kaula = kumaula ‘subserve’ (17) -um+ langsung = lumangsung ‘go on’ (18) -um+ tetep = tumetep ‘stay’ (19) -in+ serat = sinerat ‘written’ (20) -in+ tulis = tinulis ‘written’ 3.3 sufix in sundanese there are several types of suffixes that are suffixes {-an}, suffix {-eun}, suffix {-na}, suffix {-keun}, suffix {-ing}, and suffix {-ning}. suffix {-an} serve to form active verbs. suffix {-eun} serves to form passive verbs, form adjectives and explain things that are not intentional. suffix {-keun} serves to form imperative verbs. suffix {-na} severse to describing a thing that has been done, describing their possessions and describing the nature or condition. suffix {ning}forming particles. example. (1) -an = cai + -an = caian ‘irrigate’ (2) -an = gawe + -an = gawean ‘do it’ (3) -an = seuseuh + -an = seuseuhan ‘laundry’ (4) -an = akut + -an = akutan ‘move it’ bram denafri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 90 (5) -eun = cicing + -eun = cicingeun ‘taciturn’ (6) -eun = geunah + eun = geunaheun ‘very delicious’ (7) -eun = kabita + -eun = kabitaeun ‘tempted’ (8) -eun = kengeng + eun = kengengeun ‘allowed’ (9) -keun = sumput + -eun = sumputkeun ‘hide it’ (10) -keun = leutik + -keun = leutikkeun (perkecil) (11) -keun = alit + -keun = alitkeun ‘reduce it’ (12) -keun = beulah + keun = beulahkeun ‘rip apart it’ (13) -keun = candak + -keun = candakkeun ‘take it’ (14) -na = imah + -na = imahna ‘his house’ (15) -na = lanceuk + -na = lanceukna ‘her brother’ (16) -na = anggeus + -na = anggeusna ‘after that’ (17) na = sae + na = saena ‘very good (18) -ing = wireh + -ing = wirehing ‘therefore (19) -ning = wantun + -ning = wantuning ‘because’ (20) -ning = mangka + -ning = mangkaning ‘it turn out’ 3.4 confix in sundanese there are several types of confix found, namely confix ka an, confix pa an, confix pang na, confix pang-keun, confix pi eun, confix pika eun, confix sa eun, confix sa na, confix keun, confix n keun. example. (1) ka+ nyaho + -an = kanyahoan ‘found out’ (2) pa+ caang +-an = pacaangan ‘lighting’ (3) pa+ mandi + -an = pamandian ‘bathing place’ (4) pang+ geulis + -na = panggeulisna ‘the most beautiful’ (5) pang+ beulet + -na = pangbeuletna ‘the dumbest’ (6) pang+ meser + -keun = pangmeserkeun ‘please buy it’ (7) pang+ candak + -keun = pangcandakeun ‘please get me’ (8) pang+ sapu + -keun = pangsapukeun ‘please sweep away’ (9) pi+ omong + -eun = piomongeun ‘the talk’ (10) pi+ ambeuk + -eun = piambeukeun ‘make anger’ (11) pi+ reseup + eun = pireseupeun ‘good personality’ (12) pika+ nyaah + -eun = pikanyaaheun ‘it is unfortunate’ (13) sa+ brak + -eun = sabrakeun ‘only a while’ (14) sa+ weungi + -eun = saweungieun ‘only one night’ (15) sa+ rengse + -na = sarengsena ‘the completion’ (16) sa+ wajar + -na = sawajarna ‘duly’ (17) sa+ daek + -na = sadaekna ‘ at will’ (18) di+ peser + -keun = dipeseurkeun ‘bought’ (19) di+ ageung + keun = diageungkeun ‘glorified’ (20) n+ tumpak + keun = numpakkeun ‘raise’ iv. conclusion based on data analysis, it was found that the affixation process in sundanese consisted of four types, namely: prefix, infix, suffix, and confix. prefix in sundanese consists of several types, namely prefix men-~{n}~{ny-}~{m-}~{ng}, prefix pa-, prefix pi-, prefix pang-, prefix sa-, prefix si-, prefix ti-, prefix di-, prefix ka-, prefix ba-, and prefix bram denafri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 91 per-. infix in sundanese, there are several types of infix, namely infix -ar-, infix -al-, infix -um-, and infix -in-. furthermore, infix arin sundanese shows something that numbered more than one (plural). sufix in sundanese several types of suffixes are suffixes -an, suffix -eun, suffix -na, suffix -keun, suffix -ing, and suffix -ning. confix in sundanese there are several types of confix found, namely confix ka an, confix pa an, confix pang na, confix pang-keun, confix pi eun, confix pika eun, confix sa eun, confix sa na, confix keun, confix n keun. references chaer, abdul. 2008. morfologi bahasa indonesa. jakarta : rineka cipta. mallinson, graham dan barry j. blake. 1981. languange typology : cross-linguistic studies in syntax. amsterdam: north-holland publishing company. hardyanti, sitti, dkk. 2017. perbandingan afiks pembentuk verba bahasa indonesia dan bahasa jawa. journal sastra indonesia volume 6 (1) p.34-40 kulsum, umi. 2014. invesgasting sundanese vocabulary in the great dictionary of the indonesian languange of the languange center in the fourth edition. jurnal metalingua volume 12 (2) marsono. 2011. morfologi bahasa indonesia dan nusantara. yogyakarta : ugm press. munandar, yusuf. 2016. afiks pembentuk verba bahasa sunda. jurnal humanika volume 1 (16) nuraeni. (2013). afiksasi bahasa jawa dan bahasa sunda dalam bahasa indonesia. skripsi : universitas galuh sudaryanto. 1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana universty press. sumantri, maman dkk. 1985. kamus sunda-indonesia. jakarta : pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan microsoft word 130-136 lia nurmalia.edited.docx jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | attribution-noncommercial 4.0 international. some rights reserved doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.130-136.2019 article code switching usage in 50 first dates movie lia nurmalia1, prapti wigati purwaningrum2 1,2universitas bina sarana informatika, jakarta, indonesia submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 16, 2019 final revision: october 05, 2019 available online: october 23, 2019 the objectives of this research are to know the used of codeswitching in 50 first date movie. this research uses a descriptive qualitative method. the final results indicate the three types of code-switching are used in 50 first dates movie, namely tag switching 47.8%, intra-sentential 39.1%, and intersentential 13.2%. the most used type is tag switching, it shows that switching done by the character of the movie, ula, are tag and exclamation. the most reason ula switches the language is that he wants to change the hearers' perception. they are two reasons for code-switching; metaphorical codeswitching 69.6% and situational code-switching 30.4%. the function of switching the code is mostly to involve the hearer directly into the conversation. they are five functions of codeswitching referential 8.7%, directive 39.1, expressive 34.8%, phatic 13.1%, and metalinguistic 4.3%. keyword linguistics, code switching, movie correspondence e-mail: lia.lnm@bsi.ac.id i. introduction the code-switching and code-mixing usually happened in a bilingual or multilingual community. bilingual community is a community consisting people who can speak two languages, meanwhile multilingual community consisting people who are able to speak more than two languages, though it was past perspective, thus now the meaning of multilingual and bilingual are combined that bilingual is the ability of using more than one language to communicate (jendra, 2010). the situation of bilingualism is present in every country, especially in a bilingual community (iqbal, 2011). one of the bilingualism phenomena happens in first dates movie. the movie is a romantic comedy movie that takes place in hawaii. in that movie, some people switch the language from english to hawaiian. they switch their language because some hawaiian people live together with american people; hawaiian people use english to communicate with american people. for instance, ula, one of the hawaiian people, switches his language from english into the hawaiian language when he speaks an impolite sentence to henry, the main character of the movie, wherein that situation there are also children involved in their interaction. thus, to make the children do not understand what ula and henry talk about, ula directly switches the language. to know the used of code-switching in 50 first date movie, the writers analyze three components; they are type, reason, and function of code-switching. there are three types of code-switching. firstly, tag switching lia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 131 involves an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another language than the rest of the sentence. an example is ‘oye' when at the beginning of the text. secondly, intrasentential occurs in the middle of a sentence. lastly, inter-sentential occurs between the sentences (muysken and rene, 2005). there are two reasons why people switch the code are; first metaphorical code-switching happens when the speaker is trying to create a different perception to the hearer or to change the topic. second, situational code-switching appears when there is a change in the situation that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other (jendra, 2010). switching can serve the referential function because it often involves a lack of one language or lack of facility in that language on a specific subject. directive function in that it involves the hearer directly. the expressive function of code-switching serves the particular stressed to express what they mean. phatic function is to make different sense to the hearer. the metalinguistic function is to comment directly or indirectly on the language involved (muysken and rene, 2005). this movie has a lot of code-switching dialogues and scenes. hopefully, by doing this research, the writers can contribute to code-switching understanding. the previous research is done by (iqbal, 2011) about urdu/english code-switching happens during teachers' interaction at the university of lahore city. the results show the teacher mostly uses code-switching at words 31.21%, and the most type used is intra-sentential code-switching 37.15%. other research is done by (waris, 2012). the research is about code switching and code mixing (communication and learning language). it shows that code-switching often happens in daily conversation to make the hearers understand, besides it also can be used in teaching a foreign language, the teacher can switch the language to make the students understand quickly. moreover, teachers switch and mix the language in the process of clarifying specific issues to make them more comprehensible to students (surtati, 2014). the current research focuses on how codeswitching is used to make the hearers more understand, and the object of study is a bilingual community. while in this research, the object of study is dialogues in a movie of bilingual minority communities who live with english native speakers. the switching sometimes used to make other people do not understand and to involve or uninvolved someone in the conversation. ii. methods the data was collected from the dialogue in 50 first date movie. the writers collect the data by watching the movie many times, select the switching dialogues, and analyze the data based on the theories of types, reasons, and functions of code-switching. the research uses a descriptive qualitative approach. by watching, write, and show the result by description. iii. result the results show that there are 23 data found in the movie. the next table is the types of code-switching. table 1. code-switching types in 50 first date no types amount percentage 1. tag switching 11 47.8% 2. intrasentential 9 39.1% 3. intersentential 3 13.1% total 23 100% according to the table above, the most used is tag switching, about 47.8%. next is intrasentential about 39.1%, and inter-sentential about13.1%. the next finding is about the reason why the speaker uses that codeswitching. below is the table of reasons for code-switching usage. lia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 132 table 2. the seasons of code-switching usage in code switching types in 50 first date no reasons amount percentage 1. metaphorical 16 69.6% 2. situational 7 30.4% total 23 100% the table above shows the reason for metaphorical is about 69.6%, and situational is about 30.4%. the last finding is about the function of code-switching. below is the table. table 3. table of functions of code-switching no reasons amount percentage 1. referential function 2 8.7% 2. directive function 9 39.1% 3. expressive function 8 34.8% 4. phatic function 3 13.1% 5. metalinguistic 1 4.3% total 23 100% the table above shows there are five functions of code-switching in fifty-first dates movie. they are referential function is about 8.7% , directive 39.1%, expressive 34,8%, phatic 13.1%, and metalinguistic 4.3%. iv. discussion 4.1 types of code switching the first analysis is the types of codeswitching. the writer uses the theory from (muysken and rene, 2005) they stated that there are three kinds of code-switching based on its grammatical classification, there are tag switching, intrasentential and intersentential. the first discussion is tag switching a. tag switching tag-switches involve an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another language than the rest of the sentence. an example is ‘oye’ when at the beginning of the text. as people know the function and the definition of tag question, it is a mini question to convince. thus when people use other languages in the tag, it can say those people are using tagswitches. the writer finds eleven data from twenty three data, which consist of tag switching in the 50 first dates movie. bellow is the first example of tag switching; henry : okay. what's that have to do with this? relax.-hey! hey! help me, please! ula :-stupid haole! lucy : yeah, that's right. take that!-and that! and that!-and that! and that! henry: you got him. you got him. enough. enough. in line two, ula switches the language from english to hawaiian. the switching is categorized as tag switching since it occurs at the end of the phrase. besides, there is also an exclamation at the end of the phrase. muysken and rene (2005) mentioned that tag-switches involve an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another language than the rest of the sentence. an example is ‘oye’ when at the beginning of the text. b. intra-sentential code-switching the writer finds nine data of intra-sentential code-switching which occur in the middle of a sentence. below are the examples of the data; here is the first example; henry : he has lung problems because he smoked too much turtle weed ula : what? l don't smoke weed.hey, honah lee? how's that hot wahine nympho from ohio? henry : she is great. l dropped her off at the airport this morning. the bold part of the conversation is intrasentential code-switching, since identifying from the theory of muysken and rene that the intra-sentential code-switching occurs in the middle of a sentence, this switching also happens in the middle of the sentence which means the ‘sexy girl' from ohio. lia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 133 c. inter-sentential code-switching the type of inter-sentential code-switching, which is found in the 50 first dates is only three data from twenty-three data. below is the first data of inter-sentential codeswitching; henry : no throwing. come on. ula : stop laughing, you hyenas. let's see what you get. okay, you heard me. go! go! the bold part on that conversation is categorized as inter-sentential code-switching because as the theory from muysken and rene stated that "intra-sentential codeswitching occurs between the sentences…." the position of switching in the conversation is located between the sentences. therefore, it is categorized as inter-sentential. 4.2 the reason of code switching jendra said (2010) there are two reasons of code switching. a. metaphorical code switching metaphorical code-switching happens when the speaker is trying to create a different perception of the hearer or to change the topic. the writer uses the theory from jendra to analyze the metaphorical code switching. the writer finds sixteen data of metaphorical code switching in 50 first dates movie. the writer will serve four examples to be discussed. below is the first example of metaphorical code switching done by ula in 50 first dates movie; henry : or you could call it, shark, they tried to eat my kidney. ula : all right, enough already. you too, willie. give me a poipoi all of you in this context, ula switches the language from english to hawaiian. he switches the language in the aim to make a different perception to the listeners, henry and children. in this situation, ula shows his anger because during the conversation, henry and the children have jested with ula about a shark, and finally, ula is angry with them and switches the language to show that he is angry. that is why this switching is categorized as metaphorical. jendra mentioned that someone who switches the language because he/she wants to change the hearer's perception, it is categorized as metaphorical code-switching. b. situational code switching situational code-switching appears when there is a change in the situation that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other. kid1 : what's wrong with that turtle? henry : he has lung problems because he smoked too much turtle weed......which is bad for you. right, ula? ula : what? l don't smoke weed.hey, honah lee? how's that hot wahine nympho from ohio? henry : she is great. l dropped her off at the airport this morning. the switching above occurs because ula wants to exclude the children from the conversation. the hawaiian phrase ‘wahine nympho from ohio’ means the sexy girl from ohio, in this occasion ula thinks that that phrase is not suitable to be heard by children, that is why he switches the language. the writer relates this switching into theory from jendra about situational code switching, and based on this theory, in can be concluded that the switching above can be categorized as situational type. 4.3 the function of code switching accoding to muysken and rene (2005), there are six functions of code switching. a. referential function switching can serve the referential function because it often involves lack of one language or lack of facility in that language on a specific subject. here, the example of codelia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 134 switching which has referential function below; henry : or you could call it, shark. they tried to eat my kidney. ula : all right, enough already. you too, willie. give me a poipoi all of you. henry : he just cast a spell on us all right. put this on four times a day for two weeks.you can handle that. in this case, ulas switches the language because he does not know how to say the word ‘poipoi' in english, then he decides to use the hawaiian language. it can be related to the theory above that switching can serve the referential function because it involves lack of one language. that is why this switching has a referential function. b. directive function switching serves a directive function in that it involves the hearer directly. based on the theory from muysken and rene, the writer finds eight switching data which serve a directive function. the writer will discuss them one by one. here is the first dialogue; ula : easy, honah lee. hey, l'm a person, not a seal. henry: well, l am a vet, not a doctor. so just hold still, or l won't give you a treat. l know, it's okay you see that, kids? you see what happen when you play with sharks? it can be seen from the context in the dialogue above that ula tries to call henry to include in the conversation by using the hawaiian language. honah lee means ‘brother’, ‘bro’. based on the content of the sentence that ula said, the switching can be categorized as having a directive function. c. expressive function the expressive function of code-switching serves the particular stressed to express what they mean. in this analysis, the writer finds seven data of code-switching, which consist of the expressive function. the first example happens when ula express his unique anger, here is the dialogue; henry : you're the state idiot of hawaii. here you go. bite the fish, chew the fish, love the fish. enjoy. ula : you crack me up, kamaaina! in this example, ula expresses his anger feeling. ula says the word angrily, and he has a strong stressing when he says the word in hawaiian, ‘kamaaina!'. by that word, he expresses his anger and related to the theory from muysken and rene. it can be called that the switching serves an expressive function. d. phatic function switching serves to indicate a change in tone of the conversation, and hence a phatic function, besides the switching, has a purpose of making different sense to the hearer. above is the theory from muysken and rene, the writer will discuss switching data which serves a phatic function. the writer finds three data from 50 first dates movie. here is the first example; henry : he has lung problems because he smoked too much turtle weed......which is bad for you. right, ula? ula : what? l don't smoke weed. hey, honah lee? how's that hot wahine nympho from ohio? henry: she is great. l dropped her off at the airport this morning. on this occasion, ula switches the language in the aim to change henry's perception. ula tries to make a funny sound by switching the language from english to hawaiian. the bold part above is categorized as switching, which serves phatic function. e. metalinguistic function the metalinguistic function of code switching comes into play when it is used to comment lia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 135 directly or indirectly on the language involved, for example, when someone switches the language to impress to the other participants with a show of linguistic skill. here is the only example that the writer found in 50 first dates movie; ula : by the way, cuz, l met this sexy, blond tax attorney at starbucks today. l told her you the kahuna she wanna have fun on this island. you want her number? henry : you pimping tourists for me again? in this switching, ula tries to convince henry that the girl is wanted him. and he says the word ‘kahuna' it is hawaiian word which means a wonderful man, in the aim to says that the word kahuna is more make a linguistic sense than the word man, that is why he switches the language into hawaiian. hence this switching serves the metalinguistic function. after analyzing the code-switching in 50 first dates movie, the writer concludes about the condition which causes the using of codeswitching in that movie. there are many hawaiian people in 50 first dates movie, but they use english as their dominant language. the environment causes it they live. in this situation, many tourists come to visit hawaii. most of them use english to communicate. therefore, the hawaiian people also use english to communicate in every daily interaction. thus they still have their mother tongue, which is the hawaiian language. it caused them to switch the language from english to the hawaiian language. form this phenomenon. the writer knows that when minority communities live together with the majority communities, the minority slowly will abreast of the majority's lifestyle, and so does their language certainly, it will be changed into the majority's language. the phenomenon above makes the writer analyzes the three formulation problems in this thesis. the first results are about types of code-switching based on its grammatical classification; there are three types of them, namely tag switching, intra-sentential codeswitching, and inter-sentential codeswitching. in this case, the writer finds twenty-three data of code-switching. eleven of them are tag switching, nine of them are intra-sentential code-switching, and the rest of them are inter-sentential code-switching. the dominant type that ula used is tag switching. the second problem of analysis is the reasons for code-switching. there are situational code-switching and metaphorical codeswitching. in this analysis, the writer found sixteen data of metaphorical code switching and seven data of situational code switching. most of the causes ula switches the language is to change a topic and to change the hearer's perception. it means the dominant data is categorized as metaphorical code switching. the last discussion is the function of code switching. there are six functions of codeswitching based on the theory from muysken and rene, namely referential, directive, expressive, phatic, metalinguistic, and poetic. in this analysis, the writer found five functions of code-switching done by ula; they are referential, directive, expressive, phatic, and metalinguistic. the writer found two data of referential function, eight data of directive function, seven data of expressive function, four data of phatic function, and two data of metalinguistic function. the writer does not find the poetic function because mostly the switching occurs in an informal situation. and in poetic function, it usually happens in semiformal situation, as the meaning of poetic itself which has special value. v. conclusion in this research, the writers found 23 data of switching dialogues happens in 50 first date movie. the result shows that the speaker frequently uses tag and exclamation, about 47.8%. the reason why he switches the language is to change the hearers' perceptions who are not the hawaiian speakers and some lia nurmalia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 6. no. 2 (2019) 136 time to make them not understand ula's mean. it implies that ula considers the hearers to have a close relationship with him. it can be concluded that switching can also happen to express the feeling, to involve, or uninvolved people in the conversation. to sum up, the writers believe this research is minimal and rarely used. the writers hope this research can give a contribution in a term of codeswitching understanding. references appel, rene and pieter muysken. 2005. language contact and bilingualism, london: amsterdam university press. chloros, penelope gardener. 2009. code switching, new york: cambridge university press. hymes, dell. 1996. ethnography, linguistics, narrative inequality, new york: oxford basil blackwell. iqbal, liaqat. 2011. linguistic feature of code switching: a study of urdu/english bilingual teachers’ classroom interactions. international journal of humanities and social science. vol 1, 188-194. http://ijhssnet.com/journals/vol_1_no_14_october_2011/26.pdf jendra, made iwan indrawan. 2010. sociolinguistics the study of societies’ language, yogyakarta: graha ilmu. kustati, martini. 2014. an analysis of code switching and code mixing in efl teaching of cross cultural communication context. al-ta’lim vol 21, 174-182. https://journal.tarbiyahiainib.ac.id/index.php/attalim/article/view/101/103 m.o, ayeomoni. 2006. code-switching and code mixing: style of language use in childhood in yoruba speech community. nordic journal of african studies vol.1, 9099. http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num1/ayeomoni.pdf wardhaugh, ronald and janet m fuller. 2015. an introduction to linguistics. (7th ed) malden: blackwell publisher waris, ahmad mustamir. 2012. code switching and code mixing (communication in learning language). jurnal dakwah tablig. vol 13, 123-135. http://journal.uinalauddin.ac.id/index.php/tabligh/article/view/299 biography lia nurmalia was born on august 4th in lebak, banten. she finished her strata one at stiba iec on march 2014. because of her interest in language she continued her strata two at the jakarta state university in 2014 and graduated in 2016. she extended one semester because she gave birth to her first child, namely al-hadid. she is a lecturer at university of bina sarana informatika since 2014. she is also a founder of llc (lia learning center). it is located in cileungsi, west java. prapti wigati purwaningrum was born on kebumen, may 3rd. she graduated from jakarta state university in 2012, majoring applied lingustics, magister program. she is a lecturer in universitas bina sarana infromatika, fakultas komunkasi dan bahasa. marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 14, 2020 final revision: april 11, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this study aims to conduct a comprehensive needs analysis on french language for tourism and hospitality programs by looking closely at three points of view, i.e., 120 students of tourism and hospitality program, 7 french lecturers, and 5 hospitality professionals. this research applied a mixed-methods approach to collecting the data. this means that this study deployed a set of qualitative and quantitative measures to attain deep answers. furthermore, the data in this study were collected through multiple instruments, including interviews and questionnaires. the result of the analysis of the data revealed that the french language was one of the significant foreign languages, besides english, that needed to be learned by the students to have a good carrier in the hospitality and tourism industry in the future. along with that fact, speaking was considered as the most important language skill, among the other skills, which have to be developed by the students. moreover, the ideal teaching materials urgently needed to be developed within this context were those equal to the intermediate level. the findings of this study were expected to have a further contribution to the development of comprehensive teaching syllabuses, materials, as well as lesson plans for french-language classrooms in the tourism and hospitality program. keyword need analysis; language for specific purposes (lsp); french for specific purposes (fos), tourism and hospitality industry correspondence phone:085697108412 e-mail: marliza.arsiyna@gmail.com article a comprehensive needs analysis of french course for tourism and hospitality program marliza arsiyana1, nour ardiansyah hernadi2 1s1 hospitality, stipram, yogyakarta, indonesia 2 d3 hospitality, stipram, yogyakarta, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.51-61.2020 i. introduction the rapid growth of the tourism and hospitality industry intrinsically entails a cross-cultural communication between hosts and guests from different linguistic backgrounds, especially for those directly dealing with guests (such as frontline employees, restaurant employees, guide, etc.). as a logical consequence, this situation, in turn, provokes a high demand for employees possessing significantly good communication skills in various languages. furthermore, mastering guests’ languages is recognized as an art, and a key to gain the success in the tourism and hospitality industry, and it has now been a standard feature of commercial hospitality practices (calhoun, o’neill, & douglas, 2018; ghany & latif, 2012; leslie, russell, & forbes, 2002) from the period of january to june 2018, for instance, indonesia was visited by 114 million french-speaking tourists, which was equal to 1.04 % increase from the total number recorded within the same period in the previous year (bps, 2018). the preliminary observation also showed that french-speaking tourists are likely to have a high appreciation for the employees who can speak their language (wirakusuma, 2014). therefore, the french language has long been integrated into the tourism and hospitality undergraduate curriculum in any tourism institute. the ideal french language taught in the tourism 51 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) and hospitality program is supposed to be in concordance with the targeted workplace. thus the inquiries into the development of french language teaching for undergraduate hospitality programs have to be bounded under the umbrella of langage for specific purposes (lsp) framework. the term of french for specific purposes is known as français pour l’objectives spécifiques (fos). therefore, fos is defined as a language teaching in which the subject taught is french for specialization. it means that the students with a solid basic knowledge choose to specialize in his learning in specific areas, i.e., french specifically used in the hospitality and tourism industry. the fos course allows the students to acquire a technical vocabulary, as well as a certain register of a profession. the student is then equipped with a real advantage for his future job (keyong & vandevelde, 2008). from the current interview to the lectures and employees, there was a missing link between classroom learning and real-life situation. it roughly means that the materials taught in the class are rarely related to the tourism and hospitality working field. the syllabus and teaching method concentrate merely on grammar leading to the poor performance of language showed by the students, especially in speaking skills that are significantly needed in the hotel services. other factors that might be related to this situation are the insufficient resources available as well as limited speaking practice opportunities for the students in a large classroom. in order to appropriately meet the needs of students in the tourism and hospitality program, and further applicable to the area of workplace later, it is essential to conduct a need analysis as the important preliminary step of lsp approach. as noted by richard (2001), needs analysis is a foundation to develop a curriculum and language teaching program. hutchinson & water (1992) also adds that needs analysis is the basis of ‘necessities’ and ‘wants’ to classify between what the learners have to know and what the learners feel they need to know. the term needs analysis related to language teaching was firstly appeared in the 1920s and became popular in 70s and early 80s through some of the major publications that were associated with teaching language for specific purposes (lsp) (balaei & ahour, 2018; rahman, 2018). needs analysis or also called needs assessment is an integral part of language curriculum development. it provides the basis for lesson planning, syllabus design, materials evaluation and development, and instructional design and assessment. generally speaking, it is considered as a starting point in language for specific purpose development (boroujeni & fard, 2013; elie, 2011; malicka, gilabert guerrero, & norris, 2019)2002. a wellconducted needs analysis can lead the language program to meets precisely what the students need (serafini, lake, & long, 2015). the study on needs analysis has attracted researchers and educators for many years. the importance and usefulness of such studies have been widely admitted. richards (2001) stated that this study could be used for different purposes, for example: designing course materials (researches conducted by alladin (2016), alsamadani (2017); developing the supported learning media (abdul ghani & wan daud, 2018; ripai, wibawa, & z idris, 2018), etc. all these studies confirm the significance of needs analysis study in developing a language program. mohammed (2016) conducted research on the application of needs analysis in developing eap materials showed that most of the business administration of eap materials in sudanese universities are not based on needs analysis bringing about the irrelevant formulation of the students’ learning materials to the target situation needs. need analysis is also primordial to be undertaken to meet the relevancy of course materials toward the students’ needs. sothan (2015) conducted a needs analysis of 166 undergraduate students at life university and 225 employers. the finding showed that there were some specific english language needs based on students’ insights and employers’insights. the researcher suggested to revise the program considered did not match with students’ needs. alsamadani (2017) conducted a study on english need analysis for saudi engineering students. the researcher also emphasized the importance of needs analysis as a vital asset for teachers of esp to find out their learners’ need and determine the areas in which there are lacking. balai and ahour (2017) conducted 52 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) a study to explore language skills needs among engineering students in the field of information technology computer science at islamiz azad university, tabriz branch. the study found that among four skills, reading is the highly needed skill followed by writing. the findings of the study may help the esp designers to consider appropriate and suitable materials for the undergraduates. the research conducted by mohammed (2016) reported most of the business administration eap materials in sudanese universities are not based on a needs analysis, which causes the materials are not relevant to the students’ learning, and target situation needs. need analysis is also primordial to do to meet the relevancy of course materials toward the students’ needs. there have been abundant researches related to the english language needs analysis for the hospitality and tourism industry undertaken. it can be understood since english is considered as lingua franca in tourism and travel context. some studies related to this field, for example, prachanant (2012) analyzing language use in the tourism industry. his findings revealed that speaking is the most important skill students have to control, compared with listening, reading, and writing. moreover, ma, sarkar, & sohail (2016) explored the english language needs in the hotel industry in pakistan as an evaluation of existing teaching materials. the researchers emphasized that this need analysis is very important in the hotel industry in pakistan, demanding highly developed communication skills in which the majority of students will probably work. ramírez undertakes the most recent work done within this issue, encalada, zou, erazo, & holguin (2019), exploring english language skills required by the hospitality and tourism sector in ecuadorean context. it is clearly seen that there have been inadequate explorations reporting the needs analysis of the french language for tourism and hospitality programs, more specifically in the indonesian context. the most recent research done regarding this issue is done by arsiyana (2019), putting forward the subjective and objective needs analysis of the french course. hence, the researcher is challenged to conduct a need analysis on french courses in a tourism and hospitality program as the basis of developing syllabus and curriculum in the future. the purpose of this study, therefore, is to undertake a need analysis to asses the specific french language needs for indonesian undergraduate students focusing on the area of hotel services especially in the front office’s services and restaurant services in which majority of the alumni work by seeing students’ view, lecturers’ view, and professionals’ view. in this regard, the following research question was posed: “what are the french language needs of students of tourism and hospitality programs?” ii. methods participants in the present study were 120 students majoring in tourism and hospitality programs in yogyakarta, indonesia; 7 french lecturers; and 5 professionals working in five stars hotels in yogyakarta. the sample was chosen based on a convenience sampling system, which gives a chance for participants to take part in this study. the targeted students were exposed to an intensive course of french language during their first year of a university career. this indicates that they were likely to be more aware of their needs. this research followed the pragmatic paradigm (creswell, 2012) and applied a mixed-methods approach for collecting and analyzing the data needed. the instruments of data collection used were interviews and questionnaires. the interview and the questionnaire questions were checked and tested to a group of colleagues for a validity check. ambiguous questions were omitted following the comments of the colleagues. the interview questions were piloted to the professional hotel as the practical insiders. the main information obtained from the hotel professionals interview was used to formulate the questionnaires by following the work of hutchinson and waters (1987) arranged based on target needs and learning needs. the questionnaires of professionals and lecturers were in the form of close-ended questions, composed of range questions, multiple-choice questions, and referred to the linkert scales, while the questionnaire of students was a mixture of 53 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires. an open-ended question was added as supplementary information that students though necessary. meanwhile, professionals and lecturers were interviewed related to their answers to the questionnaire. the quantitative data were analyzed by using statistic descriptive, while qualitative data found from the interview that was recorded and transcribed for analysis. the quantitative data gathered from introductory questions were used to describe the participants’ situation (e.g., gender, age, etc.). the information of target needs and learning needs were analyzed into three categories identified as “the proficiency level”, “the importance level, and “the frequency level” that was derived by giving each category scores from one to four as indicated in table 3: iii. result findings findings of questionnaires and interviews emphasized the language needs of students of tourism and hospitality undergraduate program. the language needs of students the background and previous knowledge of participants the participants of this study were categorized into students, lecturers, and professionals. students were consisted of 36 male and 86 female (n= 120; age mean= 21). lecturers consisted of 2 males and 5 females (n= 7, age mean= 31) from 27 to 34. professionals consisted of 3 males and 2 females (n= 5, age mean= 37). the previous education of students was 109 in senior high school and 3 in diploma. the previous education of lecturers was a master’s degree for all, whereas among professionals were varied (one of them had a master’s degree, whereas two had bachelors’ degrees, the rest had a tourism diploma). the selection of lecturers was grounded on the fact that they had direct contact with their students, and they could provide useful information about their students’ needs of french, which can be useful for defining the goals and specific objectives, of course. the selection of professionals was due to the fact they know better what language needs are required in the area of the workplace. the mean duration of the work of professionals was 12 years. based on the data collection, it was found that 96 % of students were in the beginner/false beginner (a1-a0) level, where they only know few words in french, and 4 % were at the elementary level (a2). while for professionals, 40 % were at the intermediate level, while 60 % were in the elementary level (a2). on the other hand, 74 % of lecturers were in the upper intermediate level (c1), 26 % were at the intermediate level (b2). in the regard of participants’ perceptions of the french language level the students should achieve, it was found that 66 % of students expected their french language level was in the intermediate level (b1), while 29 % of students expected their french language level was in the elementary level (a2), and 5 % expected their french language level was in the upper intermediate level. to find out the the table 1. response scales scores importance level frequency level 1 not important hardly ever 2 less important seldom 3 important often 4 very important always the number of participants was multiplied with its cores. then, the results are divided by the number of participants in all categories. in the other side, the mean was calculated by using the formula below: the mean score of participants’ perceptions toward students’ needs of french was then described by using the following scale: 1 refers to 0 0.50 2 refers to 1.152.50 3 refers to 2.51 3.50 4 refers to 3.51 – 4.00 the data were presented by using a table to see the distribution of the level of frequency and the level of importance of french needs. the data obtained from the interview were added to support the quantitative data or to see the deep explanation of participants’ perspectives. 54 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) level of french language competence needed by the employees at the hotel, the professionals were also asked. 80 % of professionals chose the intermediate level option, and 20 % chose the elementary level option. participants’ perception of the level of importance of french course the first question of the questionnaire was concerned with the participants’perception of the french course in the tourism and hospitality undergraduate program. most of the participants realized that the french course is essential for tourism and hospitality undergraduate students, as indicated in table 2. the table above shows that most of the students (70 out of 120 or 58 %) chose “important” to describe the importance of french course given in the undergraduate hospitality program, whereas lecturers and professionals chose “very important” (lecturers: 5 out of 7 or 71 %; professionals: 4 out of 5 or 80 %). the total average is 3.1, which describes that the french course is at an important level. most of the students chose the “important” category of the necessity of french course in the tourism and hospitality program because they thought that french is a supplementary language after english that can support their future career as indicated by the following students in the questionnaire comment. student 6: menurut saya bahasa prancis merupakan bahasa pilihan kedua setelah bahasa inggris yang penting dikuasai apalagi kita sebagai mahasiswa hospitality yang nantinya rata-rata akan bekerja di indutri perhotelan dan pariwisata. (i think french is the second choice of a foreign language to learn after english, especially for us as the hospitality undergraduate students who later most of us will work in the tourism and hospitality industry.) from professionals’ insight as the pratical insiders thought that french is “very important” to learn for two reasons. first, mastering french can be helpful to serve french-speaking tourists who can not speak english well and second as the hospitality strategy to serve french-speaking guests who were considered more respectful to the one serving them in french as indicated by the following professionals in the interview excerpt: professionals 3 : “tentu saja penting sekali.....saya bisa bahasa prancis, dan itu sangat membantu saya. saya pernah ditarik ke bagian resto sama teman saya karena ada tamu prancis minta penjelasan mengenai menu dan bahasa inggris sangat minim sekali. tahun pertama saya bekerja di hotel saya sering menemui tamu prancis yang tidak dapat menggunakan bahasa inggris terutama tamu yang sudah berusia, kalo sekarang sudah banyak berubah orang-orang prancis teruma yang masih muda dapat berbicara bahasa inggris. namun ketika kita dapat menggunakan bahasa prancis walaupun muma menyapa mereka dengan kata bonjour saja mereka sudah senang sekali.” (of course french is very important... i can speak french and it’s very helpful. i was once drawn to the restaurant section with my friend because there were french guests asking for an explanation of the menu and their english was very poor. the first year i worked at the hotel i often met french guests who could not use english, especially guests who were already old, if now it has changed a lot, the young french people can speak english. but being able to speak french even though only greet them with the word bonjour they are already very happy.) result of above table emphasizes that french table 2. perceptions of the level of french course participants french language skills n total not important less important important very important students 0 24 70 26 120 3.2 lecturers 0 0 2 5 7 3.7 professionals 0 0 1 4 5 3.8 total 0 24 73 35 132 3.155 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) participants’ perception of major language functions, and communicative activities needed to integrate into the french course the five professionals were interviewed about the division of hotels that may need a foreign language when conducting their important tasks. from the interview, it was found that there is two-division who frequently have guests-contact i.e., front-line division and restaurant division. the professionals also were asked about the main duties engaging foreign language proficiency that later was formulated in the questionnaire items, as indicated in table apendix 1. it shows the participants’ insights into the important language functions needed to give to undergraduate students of tourism and hospitality program. the items of the language functions were formulated based on their language needs to carry out their duties in the hotel setting. participants’ perceptions about the most important language skills the main purpose of the questions is to identify the participants’ perceptions of the need for language skills. there are four important language skills in learning foreign languages, i.e.: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. among the four skills, speaking skill is considered as the most important one, especially for the hospitality program. most of the students tend to reflect their success in learning languages by evaluating their improvement in spoken language proficiency, as stated by richards (2008: 19). the data of this research also prove it. most of the participants realize that speaking skill is the most important among the skills as illustrated in the table 5. table 3. the purposes french course at hospitality program students lecturers professionals persuing advance study 7.7 % 0 % 0 % supporting future career 48.1 % 80 % 80 % interacting with foreigners 44.2 % 20 % 20 % present study 0 % 0 % 0 % course is urgently needed in tourism and hospitality undergraduate program to support students’ future career in the hotel. mastering french was considered as the hospitality strategy of gaining the satisfaction rating from french guests. participants’ perceptions of the purposes of the french course given in the hospitality program the purpose of this section is to identify the main purpose of french language teaching given to the undergraduate hospitality program. as richards (2008) states that it is important to clarify the purpose of the language program before starting the class. the purposes of the french class for tourism and hospitality undergraduate program are shown in table 3. table 3, the majority of the participants chose “supporting future career” option as the objective of the french course (students: 48.1 %, lecturers: 80 %, and professionals: 80 %). the “interacting with foreigners” option was ranked as the second choice most preferred by participants (students: 44.2 %, lecturers: 20 %, and professionals: 20 % ). this finding showed that the french language plays an important role in the career of hospitality professionals to give a good service and satisfy french guests. however, from the professional interview, there are only few staff who can speak french. when asked about the availability of french training in the hotel, only one of them got training in the hotel several years ago, and the program has been stopped. the rest received language training when they were studying. this reveals that college is the appropriate place to develop the students’ french language. table 4. the importance level of french language skills participants french language skills listening speaking reading writing students 3.6 3.8 3.3 3.0 lecturers 3.6 4 3.6 3.2 professionals 3.6 4 3.2 2.256 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) as table 4. shows, most of the participants rated the four french language skills as relatively important. the speaking skill was ranked as the most important skills among others; students (m= 3.8), lecturers (m= 4), and professionals (m= 4), followed by listening (overall m= 3.6), and writing ranked as the least important. the students and lecturers realized the importance of speaking skills for supporting students career in the future that will mostly need speaking skills to interact and serve the guests speaking french as indicated by the following interviews: student 5: “keterampilan berbicara dan mendengarkan itu menurut saya sangat penting karena tujuan belajar bahasakan agar dapat berbicara dan mendengarkan lawan bicara. apalagi nanti kemungkinan di dunia kerja sering berinteraksi dengan orang asing.” (i think speaking and listening skills are very important because the reason we learn foreign language is to be able to communicate and listen our interlocutor. moreover later, in the working situation we will interact with foreigners more often.” lecturer 1: “semua keterampilan penting, tapi yang paling penting itu tentu saja keterampilan berbicara. keterampilan lain digunakan untuk mensupport speaking skills mahasiswa. sesuai dengan jurusan mereka, kita memang seharusnya mempersiapkan lulusan dapat berkomunikasi dengan baik dalam bahasa asing.” (actually, all skills are important, but the most important skill, of course, speaking. the other skills aim to support their speaking skill. related to their major they are in, we shuld prepare them to be able to communicate well in foreign language. the answers of students and lecturers were supported by professionals that speaking skills are very needed in work area, as indicated by following professional interview excerpt: professional 1: “speaking skill merupakan keterampilan berbahasa yang paling sangat dibutuhkan bagi mereka yang inging bekerja sebagai hotelier, bisa dikatakan wajib dikuasai. apalagi yang ada guests’ contact-nya, seperti front office dan resto, karena tugasnya melayani tamu”. (speaking skill is skill that is very needed for who want to be a hotelier, we can say it is a must. moreover for those who work in the area who has guest-contact more often, such as front office and restaurant”. this finding showed that speaking skill is the most important skill, followed by listening skill, needed in the hotel, specifically in the front-office division and restaurant division. this finding is in line with a previous study (masoumpanah & tahririan, 2013). this can be understandable because interacting with the guest is an indispensable part of frontoffice employees and restaurant employees. iv. discussion this study aims to explore the french language needs of the tourism and hospitality undergraduate program by regarding the perspectives of 120 students, 7 lecturers, and 5 practitioners in indonesia. french for tourism and hospitality program is intended for all students to acquire knowledge in french for their training or professional development. it allows them to deal with common situations in the tourist field and to better master the communication skills. it corresponds to french-language training content for staff working in the tourism and hotel industry. according to larsson (1992: 54), the goal of french tourism is “to train competent personnel for the tourism industry which, as we know, is constantly growing in economic and social importance”. in this research, we propose an example of an analysis of the language needs of learners in the field of hotel services. based on mangiante & perpette (2004), in conducting needs analysis, the first step that must be done is identifying the category of the learners to which the program is destined. french course provided for the undergraduate tourism students is a compulsory rather than an elective course. the french course is given in the second semester at as many as 3 credit units with 36 hours. from the findings above it was known that most of the participants of the french class learn french for the first time in the class, and they also have less exposure to french. the students only get french for only one semester. to achieve the intermediate level, according to the alliance français guideline, the learners need et least 360 400 hours. that means the duration of learning is still lacking. based on the research of french need analysis conducted by elie (2011) for the tourism 57 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) program in the jordanian university context, the researcher suggests that the duration of learning is eleven months with 480 hours. there are two steps proposed. in the first semester, the learners learn basic french, and then the second semester, the learners learn intensively french related to tourism. the learning program of language for a specific purpose is important since its objective is to acquire as quickly as possible a communication skill to make learners able to behave adequately in the various communication situations related to a given domain (elie, 2011). that means the french course program can be designed based on the urgency needed in the hotel context. based on the interview conducted to the practitioners in the hotel, there were two jobs in the hotel context need the most foreign language mastery i.e., receptionists and waiters. those are certainly having guest-contact frequently. the hotel receptionist job is one of the most important services at the hotel which handles the sale of a room stock; check-in and check out of guests, creating and managing guest cards, any information that interests the guests; preparation of payment documents for services and final settlements with guests; coordination of all types of services provided to guests (oleg, dmytro, oleksandra, & volodymyr, 2018) whereas the tasks of waiters are providing excellent wait service to ensure satisfaction; taking customer orders and delivering food and beverages; making menu recommendations; and answering questions of the guests. concerning the communicative activities chosen by participants. we can see oral communication was considered the most important. there were 11 topics chosen by participants. from the information given in apendix 1 there are 11 topics rated as “very important” by participants are from 3.6 to 4. the topics were rated very important as follows: 1. greeting, welcoming, & offering assistance to guest (m = 3.9) 2. mentioning guest’s name (m = 3.7) 3. responding guest reservation’ request (m= 3.7) 4. informing room rates (m = 3.9) 5. saying farewell (m = 3.9) 6. confirming guest’s reservation (m = 3.8) 7. explaining menu (m = 3.8) 8. responding to guest’ complaint about food (m= 3.7) 9. explaining directions (m = 3.9) 10. informing time (m = 3.7) 11. informing tourism destination (m = 3.9) these data also show differences in the significance of language use according to the students, lecturers, as well as practitioners. according to the students, responding to the guests’ requests, reservation, listening to the guests’ orders, and reading the reservation note are some of the most important things, among the others, that they have to learn. meanwhile, it is known that the practitioners generally agree that the topic of reservation in french is not quite important. it is because the reservations for the french-speaking guests are often taken over by the guests’ travel agencies, moreover, if the guests’ have to make a reservation by themselves, they usually speak english rather than french. more specifically, the findings of this research are projected to have positive impacts on french course design in a hospitality school indonesia. this is, again, due to the lack of literature on french language needs for tourism and hospitality students undertaken based on what the students, lecturers, and employers perceive in the real fieldwork situation. therefore, the result of this study can help both of course designers and syllabus designers to prepare french class, specifically french for tourism and hospitality program. in addition, it is also expected to provide a new insight to develop the materials that fit with the students of tourism and hospitality needs. aside from these, this research will eventually contribute to the improvements in students’ language skills because what students need in future work has been clearly defined. it is important to note that this research can be explored further to maximize its impact, especially to the use of the instruments. it is because this research only used questionnaires and interviews as the instruments to collect the data due to the limitation of the time frame of the research. further research, thus, can extend the data gathering instrument through observation of dialogues between hosts and french tourists in the actual context as experienced by the receptionist as well as the restaurant department. 58 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) furthermore, this research only defined the skills and the topic needed by tourism and hospitality students as well as their general purpose in learning the french language. to get more specific information concerning the french language needs for this particular field program, other aspects also need to be analyzed. these aspects include the linguistics components compulsorily needed by the students, i.e., vocabulary, grammar items, the important common expression used in the hotel context, and the students’ learning preferences. the consideration of these aspects inevitably provides many delicate findings. v. conclusion the present study was conducted to analyze the french language needs of students of tourism and hospitality program. the finding based on the views of students, lecturers, and professionals. based on the findings, it is concluded that students of tourism and hospitality programs have specific needs of french. they need a particular language or registers that are needed to perform some hotelier tasks. the analysis of the data revealed that the french language was one of the significant foreign languages, besides english, that needed to be learned by the students to have a good carrier in the hospitality and tourism industry in the future. along with that fact, speaking was considered as the most important language skill, among the other skills, which have to be developed by the students. moreover, the ideal teaching materials urgently needed to be developed within this context were those equal to the intermediate level. the findings of this study were expected to have a further contribution to the development of comprehensive teaching syllabuses, materials, as well as lesson plans for french-language classrooms in the tourism and hospitality program. acknowledgment the authors would like to thank the financial support provided by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education of indonesia through penelitian dosen pemula (pdp) 2019. references abdul ghani, m. t., & wan daud, 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(2018). developing learning media of cirebonese language. american journal of educational research, 6(9), 1301–1305. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-6-9-9 sala, m., & posner, r. (2018). french language | origin, history, grammar, &amp; speakers | britannica. com. britannica.com. retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/french-language serafini, e. j., lake, j. b., & long, m. h. (2015). needs analysis for specialized learner populations: essential methodological improvements. english for specific purposes, 40, 11–26. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.esp.2015.05.002 wirakusuma, r. m. (2014). analisis karakter wisatawan mancanegara terhadap fasilitas wisata kawasan prawirotaman. jurnal pariwisata, i(1), 42–52. biography marliza arsiyana, m.pd., earned her bachelor degree in french language education at state university of yogyakarta in 2012. in 2013, she cotinued her graduate study in applied linguistics at the same university, specifically foreign language education. now, she teaches french at stipram and other universities. her interests are on language materials development, reflected on her thesis in bachelor degree entitled “french language worksheet for senior high school students based on the character education”. in 2019 she got research grant from dikti with the title “french and english needs analysis for hospitality program. in 2020, she got the second research grant from dikti with the title “the developpement of french language materials based on needs analysis”. nour ardiansyah hernadi, m.pd.b.i., earned his bachelor degree in eglish language education at ahmad dahlan university in 2010 and his master degree was from the the same university in 2015.60 marliza arsiyana/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) appendix 1. students’ need of french language skill usage communicative activity students lecturers professionals average speaking 3.7 1. greeting, welcoming, & offering assistance to guest 3.7 4 4 3.9 2. mentioning guest’s name correctly 3.4 3.7 4 3.7 3. responding guest reservation’ request 3.8 3.6 2.8 3.4 4. explaining hotel’s facilities 3.7 3.3 2.8 3.2 5. apologizing for unavability of room 3.8 3.3 2.8 3.2 6. informing room rates 3.8 3.9 4 3.9 7. saying farewell 3.6 3.9 4 3.9 8. confirming guest reservation 3.8 4 3.6 3.8 9. explaining menu 3.8 3.7 4 3.8 10. responding to guest’ complaints about food 3.4 3.7 4 3.7 11. apologizing for guest’ dissastifactions 3.4 3.6 3.6 3.5 12. explaining directions 3.7 4 4 3.9 13. informing time 3.4 4 4 3.7 14. informing tourism destination 3.7 4 4 3.9 listening 1. guest’s inquiry 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 2. guest’s order 3.6 3.3 3.6 3.5 3. guests complaint 3.4 3.3 3.6 3.5 writing 1. writing a confirmation e-mail/letter for reservation 3.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 2. responding guest’s complaint on website 3.4 2.6 2.6 2.9 reading 1. letters of reservation 3.6 2.4 2.6 2.9 2,8 2. complaint letter 3.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 0 1.5 = not important 2.6 – 3.5 = important 1.6 – 2.5 = less important 3.6 – 4 = very important 61 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: august 13, 2020 final revision: december 23, 2020 available online: april 20, 2021 this study compares the process of forming plural words in indonesian and arabic to determine the similarities and differences in the markers of the two languages’ plural meaning through contrastive analysis studies. the data in this study are fragments of speech that are thought to contain plural meaning. they are taken from the source of data in the form of speech that contains plural meanings in the two languages’ books. the data are analyzed using the split method with the direct element dividing technique and the equivalent method using the determination element determination technique. this study indicates that the formation of plural languages in indonesian and arabic has similarities and differences in rules. the equation includes the addition of affixes, numeral, plural lexical meanings, and changes in pronouns. the differences in the rules of the formation of plural words of indonesian and arabic include reduplication, internal modification, the existence of dualistic forms, gender differences in words, case differences, and subject-predicate relationships. keyword plural, language comparison, indonesian, arabic, contrastive analysis correspondence e-mail: sofianurkhasanah23@gmail.com articles the comparison of the formation of indonesian and arabic plural meanings (contrastive analysis) sofia nur khasanah1, imam baehaqie2 1,2indonesian language and literature department, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.25-34.202 i. introduction language has a very important role in human life, including social life, government, work, and home (miller, 2002). the magnitude of the role of language in human life makes language never separated from all aspects of life, even giving effect. the development of society now allows every member of the language community to interact with other language community members, either directly or through the media. this contact between two or more language communities requires good foreign language skills to interact with each other (thoyib, 2017). one of the most widely studied international languages in indonesia is arabic. indonesian people study arabic because of two factors. the first factor is that arabic is the second largest language in terms of speakers in the semitic language family (mustofa, 2017). arabic is also included in the official language of the united nations. the second factor of arabic is the language of instruction in islam, where most of indonesia’s population is muslim. that’s why arabic becomes important for worship and religious relations. even though it is one of indonesia’s most influential languages, the general assumption faced by people learning arabic is “arabic is difficult” (private, 2013). difficulties in language learning are the many differences in linguistic systems between the first and second languages. the influence of the first language is so strong in the use of one’s language. in learning arabic, learning difficulties include phonetic aspects, vocabulary, writing, morphology, syntax, and even semantics (hidayat, 2012). many problems in learning arabic will certainly make it difficult for students. however, basically every language has elements and rules that are unique and distinctive. it is the elements and rules of each language that distinguish them from other languages. according to lado (1951), the same elements in mother tongue and a second language 25 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) will greatly support second language learning. conversely, different elements will certainly make it difficult for students. therefore, the comparison of indonesian and arabic becomes important to find out the similarities and differences in the elements of the two languages. this comparison is known as a contrastive analysis effort. pure contrastive analysis includes all components or levels of linguistics, ranging from phonological components or systems, grammatical systems (consisting of morphology and syntax), to the lexical and semantic systems (james, 1998). the component or system that is most discussed in contrastive linguistics is the phonological system. this can be caused by the assumption that phonology is very influential in the second language. however, stockwell (in nur, 2016) disagrees with the above view because, according to him, precisely, the main problem lies in the grammatical system and the semantic problem. based on stockwell’s opinion, the writer explores the problems that often arise in learning arabic at the level of morphology and syntax. one of them is in the process of forming plural words. the process of forming plural words in indonesian as an agglutination language is different from arabic as a language of flexion derived from root word developments. arabic as a language of flexion that recognizes the system of the level of number, sex, and cases in the formation of words allows the emergence of plural word-formation systems that are not found in indonesian. the number of things that affect the formation of plural words in arabic is often a problem for arabic learners themselves because it is not found in indonesian. however, due to strong cultural influences, it is also found that indonesian plural word-formation systems are similar to arabic. these similarities and differences need to be known for second language learning. indonesian and arabic contrastive research was previously conducted by humaini (2016) with the title plurals (comparison between arabic and indonesian). this study discusses plural markers in indonesian. in arif’s research, it is explained that the plural markers in indonesian include the reduplication of nouns, verbs, and adjectives and the use of numbers, words, clans, and tenses that show the equality of a number. whereas in arabic, the process of forming multiple meanings is characterized by three things, namely changing letters or harakat, the second removes one of the letters, and the third gives an affix, both in front, in the middle, and behind. humaini’s research has described plural markers in indonesian and arabic in general. however, this research has not explained the aspects of similarities and differences in the plural formation systems in the two languages. other studies that have become literature reviews include cholzy (2005), johansson (2008), laufer (2008), quinn (2010), darheni (2010), nur (2011, 2014, 2016), personal (2013), rohim (2013), hidayah (2013), ferawati (2013), assapari (2014), rudi (2016), soudkia (2017), mancilla (2017), thoyib (2017), hasan (2018), mirdayanti (2018), and suryani (2018). these studies include, among other things, contrastive analytical research that has been carried out, both between indonesian and arabic and between other languages relevant to this topic. in addition, the literature review in this study also explains things that cover constructive analysis, including the concept of contrastive analysis, the implications of the contrastive analysis for the field of education and translation, the existence of indonesian in the present era, the dynamics of indonesian vocabulary development, and the contribution of arabic to language development. these studies are needed as a starting point in this research. apart from that, none of the research conducted in contrastive analysis has revealed the similarities and differences in the process of forming the plural meanings of bi and ba. based on the background description, it is important to compare the process of forming plural words in indonesian and arabic to find out the similarities and differences in the meaning of the plural of the two languages. ii. methods this study uses a synchronous contrastive approach. a contrastive synchronic approach is a language study that examines two languages that are compared from a certain point of view to find out the similarities and differences (rohim, 201. the data in this study were collected by the observational method with the non-participant 26 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) technique (sudaryanto, 2015). as for the data in the form of fragments of speech that are suspected to contain plural meanings in indonesian and arabic, this data is obtained from data sources in the form of speech that allegedly contains plural meanings in indonesian and arabic originating from the books of the two languages. that is the method of dividing by the technique of determining immediate constituent and matching with the technique for the direct element, the method for presenting the results of data analysis using formal and informal methods. iii. results and discussion the data in the form of plural forms in bi (indonesian) and ba (arabic) are identified. then, the analysis of similarities and differences in the process its formation and the following results were obtained. the equality of the formation of indonesian (bi) and arabic (ba) plural meanings indonesian and arabic’s grammatical rules have many similarities, both in sentence structure, word formation, and phonological processes. one of them is in the basic sentence structure pattern, both in indonesian and arabic can be formed by the pattern of the sequence of subject-predicate (sp) and subject-predicate-object (spo), for example, in the following sentence: dia membaca buku = الكتاب يقرأ هو s p o o p s english: he reads a book. kamu seorang pedagang = تاجر انت s p p s english: you are a trader. the relation in the formation of plural meanings and the rules of indonesian and arabic also have many similarities. these equations include the existence of suffixes that form plural meanings, the existence of the word numerals, words that are plural lexically without markers, and changes in the form of pronouns. each of these equation rules will be explained in the discussion below. 1) the addition of suffixes both in bi and ba, plural meanings can be formed by adding suffixes. in bi, suffixes which are markers of plural meanings are suffixes i-, whereas in ba suffixes which are markers of plural meanings are however, there are differences in .ني and ,-نو ,-تا the placement of the suffix. in bi, the suffix ionly enters the verb as in the word beat on the sentence. dia sering pulang malam dalam keadaan mabuk, lalu memukuli anak dan istrinya. he often goes home at night drunk, then beats his wife and children. in contrast, suffixes in ba can only be entered into nouns. the suffix ات is a marker of plural meanings for female nouns, such as sufiks اتwhich is a marker of the plural meaning of the word التجهيزات in the following sentence. وتأمين احتياجات المكتب من التجهيزات واألودات wata’mīnu ‘ihtyājātu almaktabi min altajhīzāti wal’audāti. like the اتsuffix, ون-, and ين suffix are also included in nouns, but only on. an example of using these two suffixes is in the following sentence. وهذا يعني أن شكل الرسالة أوال يجب أن يساعد علي تقبل المضمون haża ya’ni ‘an syakla ar-risālatu prefix yajibu an yusā’idu’ aala taqabbala almaḍmūna. كما أن مسؤوليات الكثيرين من العاملين تجعلهم على: زبائن, موردين,زوار, مراجعين kamaan mas’ūliyāti alkaśirīna minal ‘amalinataj’aluhum ‘ala iḣtikāku mubāsyiru ma’a qaţā’ātu wāsi’atun minal jamāhīri : zabā’inu, mūradīna, zuwwāru, murāji’īna. 2) the existence of numeral word one of the similarities in the formation of plural words bi and ba is the presence of numerals. numeral is a number word that gives plural information in sentences. in arabic, this numeral is called isim adad. for example, in the following sentence. i “pada hari itu,” kata ayah shay dengan lembut, mata yang berkaca-kaca tak tahan meneteskan air mata, “delapan belas anak lelaki itu telah menemukan kesempurnaan tuhan. “in that day,” shay’s father said softly, eyes glazed 27 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) cannot stand the tears,” eighteen boys have found the perfection of god. the word ‘anak laki-laki (boy)’ becomes plural because of the word numeralia in the form of the number ‘delapan belas (eighteen)’. in arabic there is also the use of numeral or isim adad as in the following sentence. قال والد شاي بهدوء: »في ذلك اليوم, لم تستطع الدموع في عينيه إال أن تذرف«, وجد الصبيان الثمانية عشر كمال هللا وقد qala wālidu shei yahdū’i: zalika fi al-yaum, tastaţi’u lam ad-dimū’i fī ‘ainaihi illā an tażrufi ad-dimū’i, wa qad wajada aṣ-ṣibyāni aśśamāniyati’ asyara kamālu allahi. numerals in the sentence above is a number الثمانية .عشر in addition to the numeral in the form of numeric words, there are also other forms of numeral which provide plural information on the words they are leaning on. the form of the numeral in bi includes all, a number, every, many, and several. words that provide plural information on the words they are leaning on are also found in arabic, namely the words َجِمْيًعا, غالبًا , although .َدائًِما and ,ُكلٌّ the words َجِمْيًعا, غالبًا , are not classified َدائًِما and ,ُكلٌّ as isad adad, but the four words syntactically provide plural information on the words they are referring to as isad adad, only the difference in the meaning of the number formed from the words ٌّل كٌّ , َجِمْيًعا, غالبًا is not sure. the example is in َدائًِما and ,ُكلٌّ the following sentence. ومعنى الرسالة هنا يشمل كل انواع األتصال الكتابي wa ar-risālati ma’na yasymiluhuna kullu anwā’ial-iṭṭisāli al-kitabi ash-syafwī ‘arti pesan di sini mencakup semua jenis komunikasi tertulis dan lisan’. ‘the meaning of the message here covers all types of written and oral communication’. 3) lexical meaning of plural words without markers the parallel form of bi and ba plural meanings, which is the existence of lexically plural words. it is easiest to find examples of lexically plural meaning words in bi and ba in pronouns. the pronouns to replace the first, second, or third person have the plural without the need for special markers. in indonesian, plural pronouns include us, us, you, and them. for example in the following sentence. dengan sabar ia meladeni teriakan kami yang minta pelayanannya. he patiently served our cry for help. mereka semua kaget dan merasa ikut senang seperti ibu sekarang,” kata ibu seraya masuk mobil. they are all shocked and feel happy as the mother now, “said the mother as she got into the car. in ba, plural pronouns include هم, هن, انتم (كم-), انتن (نا and ,((كما for example, in the following .(-نحن sentence. وقد دلت األبحاث الميدانية بأن القسط األكبر من wa qad dallatil abḣāṡul mīdāniyyati bi annal qisṭal ‘akbari min waqtil mudayyiri aṡnā’il’ amali yastahliku fi littiṣālātil mubāsyirati ma’a almar’ūsīna wa gaira hum. in addition to pronouns, there are also words that are plural lexically meaningless without markers, such as the words tim (team), pasangan (spouse), pasukan (army), and so on. the example is in the following sentence. saat sepi pelanggan, pasangan suami-istri itu duduk diam. when the customers are quiet, the couple sits quietly. one of the causes of plural meaning in words is because the word is an absorption word from arabic (considering most of the indonesian absorption words are from arabic) which means plural in grammatical terms. for example in the word hadirin (audience). the word attendance is an absorption word from arabic َحاِضِريَن (ḣādirina) which means ‘people present’. َحاِضِريَن is a plural word from the basic form ( ḣādirun) whichَحاِضٌر means ‘one who is present (single)’, then gets an affix in the form of affix ينso that the meaning becomes plural. said حاضرين absorbed into the audience and did not change the meaning, so that the bi word audience was significant plural lexical. 28 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) 4) changes in the form of pronouns the pronouns in arabic have two forms: the pronouns that can stand alone (munfasil) and the pronouns that have to be followed by other words (muttashil). stand-alone (munfasil) are only commonly used on subjects that are at the beginning of a sentence, after the question word, and negation, besides using the conjunctive pronoun (muttasil). therefore, conjunctions (muttasil) are more easily found in ba sentences. the relation to the plural is that the plural pronoun is meaning that changes shape. it is continued with personal pronouns when they become -his. the example is in the following sentence. sebuah ruangan yang terisi penuh bapak dan anak, semuanya mulai menutup mata juga. a room filled with fathers and children, all of them also began to close their eyes. the differences in the formation of plural b1 and ba the formation of plural bi and ba also has many differences. one of the most significant differences is the difference in the meaning of plural in bi and ba. in bi, only has two levels, namely the number of singularand the plural. that is, the meaning of the number of more than one in bi already belongs to the plural category. however, in ba, there are three levels of numbers, namely singular (mufrad), two (tasniyah), and plural (plural). that is, the meaning of the plural number in ba must be more than two. in addition to the differences in the meaning of the plural in plural words, the plural of bi and ba also includes the following things. 1) reduplication one sign of the plural meaning in bi is reduplication. the forms of reduplication have been explained in detail in the previous discussion. for example in the following sentence. teman-teman saya yang lain telah memilikinya, dan mereka tampak gagah dengan mantel itu. my other friends already have it, and they look dashing in the coat. reduplication appears in the words teman-teman (friends) who come from the basic form of a single meaningful friend, so that the meaning of these friends becomes plural. table 4. the forms of ba pronouns the pronoun from the basic form which stands alone (munfassil) to the conjunction pronoun (muttasil) changes in form. these changes include: from the table, we can see the change in the form of pronouns. the relation with pronouns is plural meaning, we can underline pronouns plural meaning which changes from the basic form to its conjunctions, namely second person pronouns of many male sex, انتم being –كم; the second-person pronouns are many female sex, انتن becomes كن-; and the first person pronoun with someone else, for example, we can see in the .-نا becomes نحن following sentence. نرجو أن ترسلو لنا مبلغ (۰۵) ليرة ، قيمة االشتراك السنوي في مجلتنا لنبدأ يارسال المجلة اليكم narjū an tursilū lanā mabligun (50) liyyaratun, qayyimatul isytirākis sanuwiya fiii majlitunā yā rasālu almajillati ilaikum. in the indonesian language also found forms of pronouns that change when connected with the word. changes in the form of indonesian pronouns can be seen in the table 5. table 5. the forms of bi pronouns 29 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) in contrast to bi, in arabic there is no process of reduplication to form multiple meanings of words. therefore it is not permissible to duplicate words if the context of the sentence is in arabic or in the process of translation. for example in the word ustaz, this is the single bi word that is absorbed in ba اُْستَاٌذ (ustaż). although the basic form of the two words is the same both in pronunciation and writing (transliteration) but the plural form is different. in bi, the plural of the word ustaz namely ustaz-ustaz with the markers of the reduplication process, while the plural of the word ba اُْستَاٌذ (ustaż) is اََساتِْيٌذ (asātīż) with a marker in the form of internal modification. turning the word اُْستَاٌذ into .in the context of ba is a mistakeاُْستَاذاُْستَاٌذ 2) internal modification if ba does not recognize the form of reduplication to form plural meaning, in bi also does not recognize the process of internal modification to form the meaning of a plural word. the examples of internal modification processes to form plural ba meanings as in the following sentence. من المؤكد أ, كل عمل من هذه األعمال التي يمارسها السكرتير wa minal mu’akkidu, kullu ‘amalin min hazihil a’māli allatī yumārisuhā assakratīri. the word األَْعَماٌل is a plural word formed by an internal modification process with the اَْفَعاٌل pattern. the word comes from the basic form َعَمٌل which means ‘work’. the basic form َعَمٌل yang then undergoes an internal modification process by adding the console أ (hamzah) at the beginning of the word, ا (alif) after the second letter, as well as changing the first vowel that was originally fathah (a) to a dead letter (without vowels). when َعَمٌل changes to األَْعَماٌل the meaning formed in the word .’is plural, that is ‘works األَْعَماٌل in the process of internal modification, words in ba undergo changes following certain patterns. however, there are no rules that classify these patterns. the use of the pattern is patent based on the logic of arabic speakers (the argument of qiyasi) not based on grammatical rules (the argument of sima’i). therefore, it requires extensive knowledge of vocabulary to understand correctly the plural forms in arabic vocabulary. for example in the word student, in arabic the word student can be translated as تِْلِمْيذ (tilmīżun) or طَالِب (tālibun). the plural of the word تِْلِمْيذ (tilmīżun) that is تِْلِمْيُذْون (tilmīżūna) which by affixation process in the form of the addition of the suffix ون-, while the plural of the word طَالِب (tālibun) namely طاُلَّب (tullābun modification) with the internal pattern modification. if we refine طَالِب by adding the suffix ونto طَالِبُْون or with other internal modification patterns instead of the ال فُعَّ pattern, then the word becomes unacceptable in the logic of arabic speakers or violates the argument of qiyasi. 3) the existence of a dualist form the existence of a dualist form in the level of the number of ba has become its own difficulty in learning ba. this is due to the form that is not found in bi. in addition, the markers for the plural and dualist meanings also have many similarities that have the potential to cause errors. for example, the word noun is male in the case of nasab and jer, both for the plural and dualist meanings, which are marked with the suffix ين-, the only difference being the (harakat) of the word. in the form of plural meaning words end with a (harakat fathah) while for two meaningful words end with vowel i (harakat kasrah). example in the following sentence. واحد اهم المؤهالت والموصفات التى تساعد على النجاح فى كل ميادين العمل والنشاط waḣidan ahammul mu’ahhilāti walmūṣifātii ali wihi ali ali ali ‘ in the sentence, it can be seen in the plural form that is َميَاِدْين with the final vowel in the form of the sound a (fathah). if we change the word to a dualist form, then it becomes َميَاَدْين which does not experience a change of letters, only changes in the vowel at the end of the word to i (kasrah). the existence of dualistic forms in ba also influences the process of translating bi into ba. as the bi plural word which means two both with markers in the form of addition to the conjecture and by adding numerals to each the verb. consider the following data. anak-anaknya mempunyai sikap yang sangat baik, semuanya berdiri antre dengan tertib, dua-dua di belakang orang tua mereka, sambil bergandengan tangan.30 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) her children have a very good attitude, all standing in line in an orderly manner, two behind their parents, holding hands. the word coupled is a plural word with a confix marker, the meaning of the plural word is ‘the act of holding hands carried out by two people reciprocally’. in bi, the word is already in the plural category because it means more than one. however, in ba the word is not yet included in the plural, because the plural in ba must be more than two. when translated in ba, the sentence becomes like this. يمتنع ابناءه بموقف جيد للغاية, وكلهم يقفون في الطابور بطريقة منظفة, حلف والديهم وترديد يدا بيد واثنان yamtani’u ‘abnā’ahu bimauqifun jayyidun lilgāyati, sprinkle fit wa bi kulluhum yuqiffūna ṭarīqati munẓifati, wa’ itnānil ḣalfu wālidaihim watardīdu yaddan biyaddin. 4) the gender differences in words the differences in the formation of plural bi and ba meanings, namely in the process of forming multiple meanings ba recognizes gender differences in words while in bi it does not. in ba there are certain plural meaning markers that specifically enter the words of a certain gender, namely markers in the form of suffixes. the ون and ينsuffixes are only markers of the plural meanings of male nouns while the اتsuffixes only enter nouns with female sex. an example of using the suffix ينin the following sentence. كما أن مسؤوليات الكثيرين من العاملين تجعلهم على: زبائن, موردين,زوار,مراجعين kamaan mas’ūliyāti alkaśirīna minal ‘amalinataj’aluhum ‘ala iḣtikāku mubāsyiru ma’a qaţā’ātu wāsi’atun minal jamāhīri : zabā’inu, mūradīna, zuwwāru, murāji’īna. the word موردين is a plural word which is marked by the suffix ين-. the basic form is the word مورد which is a male noun. the word مورد is classified as male because it does not have a marker that shows it is female. one sign of the word female sex in ba is the presence of ta ‘ta’nis (ة) at the end of the word like the following example. كما أن مسؤوليات الكثيرين من العاملين تجعلهم على: زبائن, موردين, زوار,مراجعين kamaan mas’ūliyāti alkaśirīna minal ‘amalinataj’aluhum ‘ala iḣtikāku mubāsyiru ma’a qaţā’ātu wāsi’atun minal jamāhīri : zabā’inu, mūradīna, zuwwāru, murāji’īna. in the same sentence, there is a word that means plural but is marked with the suffix ات-, which is the word مسؤوليات. the word مسؤوليات is a plural word from the basic form مسؤولية. the word is female because there is ta ‘ta’nis (ة) at the end of the word, so that when it is refined, the markers do not use the suffix ونor ينbut with the suffix ات-. in bi, there is no gender difference in words. this gave rise to different forms during the bi and ba language transfer process. for example in the plural form of sons and daughters, when translated in ba, the word cannot be a combination of words but into two different words. the example is in the following sentence. ya tuhan, ternyata untuk seorang ibu, bersusah payah melayani putra-putri adalah sebuah kebahagiaan. oh god, it turns out for a mother, struggling to serve sons and daughters is a happiness. the sentence above, when translated into ba it becomes the following. اللهم اتضح لألم تكافح من أجل خدمة األبناء والبنات فرحة allahumma ‘attaḍiḣu lil’ummi takāfiḣu min’ ajli khidmatil ‘improā’i wal bannāti fariatun. from the sentence above, we can see that the reformation of sons and daughters in ba becomes the word والبنات is a plural األبناء the word .األبناء word which shows the meaning of a boy who comes from the basic form of األبن. the plural formation uses the internal modification process of the اِْفَعال pattern. the word البنات is a plural form of words that shows the meaning of a girl who comes from the basic form of البنت. the plural formation of the word البنات uses an internal modification with the اٌل pattern. although both are formed through فُعَّ a process of internal modification, the two words have different patterns and cannot be one combined word. 5) the case of the word the rule in arabic that is not in the next indonesian language is the case of the word. in general, there 31 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) are 4 cases in ba, namely rafa ‘, nasab, jerr, and jazem. the cases in the ba grammatical structure also influence the formation of plural meanings of words. its influence is on the male nouns. the plural meaning markers in the form of the suffix can only be entered in the word noun male in -ون the case of rafa ‘ (nominative), while the male noun in the nasab (accusative) and jerr (genetive) case is traced by the suffix ين -. for example in the following sentence. األول: والمطلوب أن تؤكدوا لنا قيمة الديون al-awwalu: walmaṭlūbi an tu’akkidū lanā qayyimatun ad-diyūna. the plural word الديون is a plural word that comes from the basic form of دين. the word is pronounced with the suffix ونbecause it is a noun word of the male sex which is in the case of rafa ‘ (nominative). the example of using plural in sentence with the case of jerr (genetive) is in the following sentence. واحد اهم المؤهالت والموصفات التى تساعد على النجاح فى كل ميادين العمل والنشاط waḣidan ahammul mu’ahhilāti walmūṣifāti allatī tusā’idu ‘alā annajāḣi fī kulli mayadīnal ‘amali wannasyāṭi the word موردين is a word with a plural meaning which signifies the suffix ين-. the root word of the plural form is مياد which is a male gender noun. in the context of the sentence, the word مياد is in the case of jerr (genitive) so that the correct suffix to pronounce it is the suffix ين-. aside from the male nouns, the difference in the case is not to distinguish the plural markers, but only to change the final vowel of the word. it applied for words with rafa’ cases ending with vowel u, nasab cases ending with vowel a, and cases of jerr ending with vowel i. 6) the subject-predicate relationship the last difference in the formation of plural words in bi and ba is the predicate subject relationship. in ba, the subject-predicate relationship also affects the plural meaning of words. the plural meaning of the verb ba is formed depending on the subject of the sentence. if the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb which is the predicate of the subject is also classified as a plural word. the example is in the following sentence. والذين يمارسون عمل إدارة المكاتب والسكرتايا هم من يحتاج الى التمرس بأصول الكتابة واألتصال الذي يكتسب فيه الممارس في كل يوم خبرة جديدة يضيفها إلى خبرته السابقة wallażīna yumarisūna ‘amala idārotu almakātibu wassakratāya hum min yahtāju ilā tumarrisu bi uṣūli alkitābatu wal’ittiṣālu allażi yaktasibu fīhi almumārisu fii kulli yaumin khabratun jadīdatun yuḍaifuhā ilā khabratin assābiqati the word يمارسون is a plural verb with a marker in the form of the suffix ون-. the verb يمارسون is a plural word because it is the predicate of the subject which is also a plural word. the subject of the verb is the plural الذين the word .الذين is the word يمارسون noun of the root الذي. therefore, it can be said that the verb يمارسون becomes plural because the subject of the verb is a plural word. in the indonesian language, the plural meaning of the subject does not give the plural effect on verbs. iv. conclusions the results of this study do not only describe the plural meaning markers of bi and ba at the morphological and syntactic levels, but also succeed in revealing the same and different aspects of the plural formation of the two languages. these aspects need to be considered to become a learning concept that facilitates second language learning. the researcher does not deny that there are still many unexplored problems, both in data coverage and other variations, such as aspects and distribution in sentences. therefore, further research is very necessary to do with contrastive studies. the future research is expected to add data sources and increase the problems revealed. however, what is more important is to increase the amount of data to be able to find more plural meaning markers in both bi and ba. the results of this study can also be a starting point for continuing with the research and development model to create arabic language learning modules for indonesian students. therefore, it is very important to continue this research so that the benefits of this research can be felt by other communities. 32 sofia nur khasanah/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) references assapari, m. mugni. 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(2017). interferensi fonologis bahasa arab “analisis kontrastif fonem bahasa arab terhadap fonem bahasa indonesia pada mahasiswa universitas al azhar bukan jurusan sastra arab. jurnal al-azhar indonesia seri humaniora (4), 2 : 63-71 34 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: march 28, 2020 final revision: october 23, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this research aimed to investigate the relevance between the literature reviews and the research questions of the theses written by the students who graduated in 2019 from seven study programs in stkip pgri sumatera barat. the research design was qualitative research which focused on describing, explaining, and exploring the students’ thesis writings, whether the literature reviews described were relevant to their research questions. purposive sampling was the technique used to select the data that consisted of 13 students’ theses. this research focused on those 13 theses because they were written in a qualitative method, which showed the relevance between research questions and the literature review. here, content analysis was used to analyze the data to show whether the literature review of each thesis discusses the relevant theories to answer the research questions. the result showed that among 13 students’ theses, 6 theses were relevant, and 7 were irrelevant. it means that more students had written with irrelevant theories. it can be suggested to the thesis advisors to give more attention to the quality of students’ theses because the irrelevance can interfere with the qualities of their theses. keyword relevance, research questions, theories correspondence phone: 085274637328 e-mail: yelfiza @stkip-pgri-sumbar.ac.id siska@stkip-pgri-sumbar.ac.id article the relevance between theses literature reviews and research questions written by students of stkip pgri sumatera barat graduated in 2019 yelfiza1, siska2 1,2english department of stkip pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.162-172.2020 i. introduction writing a thesis is an obligatory academic life dimension because the students must complete this task to be considered graduate students. the purpose of writing a thesis is not only as necessary to complete the final task of the bachelor program but also to sharpen the students’ critical thinking and innovative way to communicate or to report their ideas about what they found while researching with effective communication. when writing a thesis, students could better develop their critical and analytical thinking to find out problemsolving with strong argumentation. all these skills are needed to prepare them to compete in getting a successful working life. by writing the thesis, students directly practice their knowledge and capability to create new scientific knowledge to present the evidence or proof of their study interest. kusmana in syahrin, at all ( 2019), stated, “the idea of science must be trusted and accepted by the truth so that it is necessary to present it correctly”. in writing a thesis, the students enable themselves to use the logical argument and thinking to answer the research question and have the capability to link between the problems to the facts so that the problems could be solved accurately and correctly. in other words, good researchers must write relevant thoughts or ideas in each structure and content of thesis writing. perk ( 2015) explains that imrad with the acronym for introduction, method, results, and discussion becomes a more popular structure and thesis writing content. as explained in this research, the introduction must contain the study’s background, problem statement, research question, study aim, or hypothesis. it also includes a literature review. 162 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in the introduction section, the topic or the problem should be stated clearly. the method describes how the research is conducted accurately, including the study area, type or the design of the research, the population and sample, instrumentation, and data processing, consisting of data collection and data analysis. the writer must describe the research’s main outcome to answer the research question in the result section. it can be presented through figures, tables, photographs, and maps. furthermore, in the discussion section, the research results should be interpreted by relating and comparing them within a broader literature context. in stkip pgri sumatera barat, the place where the researchers conducted the research, it was found that the structure and the content of the thesis writing done by the students followed perk’s theory. however, it is a little bit different in the introduction section. this section does not contain a literature review because it becomes a single part of thesis writing that discusses the related theories to answer the research questions. literature review is one of the most important parts or sections of thesis writing because it determined how the researcher could answer the research problem or question. good literature must reflect the students’ works to investigate the areas of study related to the research topic and research problem to find the answer to research questions (faryadi, 2018). young (2017) stated that a review of related literature plays a crucial role in developing a research problem and the whole research process. it is often argued for those research problems which are not grounded in current literature and have weak relevance. relevance can determine whether the process of writing or doing research is well done or not. in other words, to compose a qualified research thesis needs a special concern for the relevance of research problems and the theories to synthesize the problem. in this case, a researcher must have good capability to find out and cite the related theories and present a better understanding or explanation about those theories to strengthen the case for an in-depth investigation of the research problems. to build the relevance between research problems or questions and literature reviews, a researcher must understand or know the principle of writing those research questions and literature reviews. according to anderson (2005), the researcher must find out the theories or citations that show or represent the relevant information to the research topic or problems while doing a research process. it emphasized that the researcher must be aware that all the thesis writing contents must present the relevant criteria of information to link each writing chapter. in this case, it is required that the researcher must have good ideas to review all the sources used in the research by giving the related information or discussion to answer research questions. furthermore, it was supported by yule in dossoumou ( 2018) “the appropriate number of cohesive ties may be a crucial factor in our judgments on whether something is well written or not.” the appropriateness is one of the main criteria to determine whether the literature review in the thesis writing could synthesize all theories to determine the best answer to the research question. a good writing thesis should have ideas, content, or information in the literature review relevant to the research questions. the research problem can be solved using that literature or theories. syahrin et al. ( 2019) agreed that the pattern of creative thinking in students’ scientific works allows them to produce diverse ideas, thus from these ideas, one can choose the most appropriate answer in problem-solving. then, dinler in akkaya & aydın ( 2018)explained that researchers who are confronted with many sources would waste much time, so they need to classify their sources systematically to choose the sources directly related to the research problem. it can be said that to write a more qualified thesis with valuable time. the researcher must use creative thinking to seek more appropriate journals or theories to be considered as acceptable sources relevant to answering the research questions. however, looking for appropriate sources is not a simple task for students since it needs hard work, effort, time, and good background knowledge. sometimes, the students found obstacles when the theories they want are not available in the library and could not be accessed through the internet. alsied & ibrahim (2018) expressed, “most students encounter some hindrances when doing research such as issues related to ethics, knowing how to invest the time required and finding resources they need”. it clarifies that looking for the research sources is not easy because it is a very challenging 163 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) task to do and needs patient and time sacrifice. related to this theory, the students in stkip pgri sumatera barat experienced the same condition in how they sometimes could not find what they wanted to support their research writing, such as the related journal, articles, or books. as a result, their thesis writing could not be completed in the right schedules. this research aims to see or find out the relevant theories used in the literature review in the thesis writing of the students of stkip pgri sumatera barat with their research questions. this research’s finding is really important to determine whether the students’ thesis writing has good relevance, especially between the literature reviews with their research questions. furthermore, it will be the reflection or special feedback on the students’ task for writing a thesis to make the supervisor or advisor aware of writing quality. they can encourage the students to find out more related theories and discuss or extend the ideas to show their relevance and literature review. ii. methods this research used a qualitative approach with the content analysis method because this research described, explained, and explored the student’s research writing to determine whether the content or theories discussed in the literature reviews of their theses were relevant to the research problem questions. after discussing with thesis advisors from seven study programs in stkip pgri sumatera barat, including english, indonesian, geography, biology, sociology, history, and guidance and counseling study programs, each study program agreed to recommend the graduated students as the participants of this research. the participants were chosen through purposive sampling in what case the researchers just needed and focused on the students who wrote or did qualitative research. here, each study program advisor recommended two participants whose thesis writing with qualitative research shows the relevance between theories and research questions. the total numbers of participants in this research were 14 students. unfortunately, this research used 13 participants. one participant was excluded because no data of his thesis was published in the library of stkip sumatera barat. this student did not submit his thesis to the library. this research’s data were the theses writing, especially the research questions and literature reviews of each thesis written by 13 participants as the graduate students in 2019 recommended by seven study programs, as mentioned before. here, the researchers investigated the content of the literature reviews used by the participants and whether those reviews described the relevance between the theories and the research questions. the data were collected using nonparticipant observation. the researchers did not contact the participants directly. the researcher did the library research toward theses collected at the central library of stkip pgri in the form of soft data of the proposed participants. then, the researchers did the content analysis on the content of each thesis’s literature review to prove whether the citation or theories used in the chapter of literature reviews could better explain or discuss the related knowledge or information that can support the problem solving the research question. the relevance between the literature reviews and research questions of each student’s thesis was analyzed based on three main criteria; interrelation, the truth, and the validity of theories used within the review to answer the research question (kivunja, 2018; snyder, 2019). iii. result this section presents the research result after the researchers did the content analysis on the documents exactly the research theses of graduated students in 2019 concerned on the relevance between the research question and its literature review. this relevance was determined from the criteria of interrelationships, true relation, and the validity between theories discussed in the literature review and the research questions. it means that all information stated in the theories or literature reviews were related to research questions and were valuable to answer or to solve the research problems. from the process of this content analysis, the researchers found among 13 theses from the research participants from 7 study programs in stkip pgri sumatera barat. 6 theses contained the appropriateness or relevance between the literature 164 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) reviews the research questions, and 7 theses showed the irrelevances. the representative data of relevance and irrelevance of students’ tasks in writing the literature review and research question in students’ theses writing found through this research can be seen in the following description. relevant literature review and research question p (1) excerpt (1) research question: “how are the levels of passive-aggressive of the tenth-grade students at smkn 4 padang in the academic year 2017/2018?” from the research question in excerpt (1), it is quite clear that the participant (i) would like to see the levels of students passive-aggressive. of course, the theories related to aggressive behavior are needed to discuss that behavior’s level. before finding the level of students’ aggressive behavior, it is very important to know which students who have passive behavior to determine the study object’s accuracy or participants. in her literature review, participant (1) used the theories that explained passive-aggressive behavior first from four experts’ opinions. he tried to review the definition with the theories while describing the characteristic of passive-aggressive behavior so that the knowledge about passive behavior could be delivered clearly in the thesis writing (tenbrink, 2009; crookston, 2012; prasetyono, 2013; hopwood 2009; synder, 2010; and ni, 2015. then, participant (1) continued the literature review by discussing the level of passive-aggressive behavior by explaining the criteria and standards of each level so that the theories given were adequate to design the indicators for measuring the level of students aggressive behavior (withsong, 2016; sally,2011; khasani, et al., 2012. from this literature review, it could be seen that participant (1) was a success in synthesizing the theories by presenting the theories that discuss the problems as stated in the research question so that the research question could be answered clearly. p(2) excerpt (2) research question : “apa saja peyebab masalah social dalam novel gadinggading ganesha karya dermawan wibisono”? (what are the causes of social problems in gadinggading ganesha novel by dermawan wibosono?) the research questions in the excerpt (2) showed that the researcher intended to find out the causes of social problems existing in gadinggading ganesha novel. participant (2) began her literature review by defining the novel and discussing the novel’s element that consists of intrinsic elements and extrinsic elements from some experts (nurgiyantoro, 1995; murdi & hasanudin ws, 1992; atmazaki, 2007; aminuddin, 2011). to ease analyzing the social problems existing in the novel used in this research, the participant cited the theories about the sociology of the literature approach (damono, 1984; wallek& warren, 1989; ratna, 2011). through these approaches, the participant linked the society’s condition in the novel to the real society’s condition in where the novel was released. based on this approach, the literature work, including novels, reflects real social life. in other words, to know about the social problem in the novel, the participant (2) should first know the condition of the real society where the novel was published. then, participant (2) discussed deeply and extensively social problems and their causes by using theories from some experts (soekanto,2012; roucek& warren, 2012 ; phelps, 2012). participant (2) described more detail about the classification of social problems and the factors that cause those problems appeared in the society in the novel by giving some examples and evidence by liking those problems with the real fact happen in the real society. p (3) excerpt(3) research question: “what are the students’ needs on listening material for the students at english department stkip pgri sumatera barat academic year 2018/2019? participant (3) would like to investigate the students’ needs on listening material for english students, as stated in the research question in the excerpt (3). in her literature review, participant (3) cited adequate valuable theories to discuss her study. it is very important to give the learning material based on the students’ needs to achieve achievement better. 165 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) to discuss the students’ needs, participant (3) used the theories about need analysis within english for specific purposes because whatever the students’ material must be appropriate or meet with the student needs. doing need analysis aims to know more detail what is actually needed by the students on learning material (hyland, 2006; basturkmen, 2006; richard, 2014; hutchinson and waters, 2008; dudley-evan&jhon, 2008; halgesen and brown, 2007; nation and jonathan, 2009 through these theories, the participant (3) discussed about the purpose of need analysis, components of need analysis, the target need consisting necessities, lack and want and learning needs. then, in her literature review, participant (3) designed the need analysis instruments based on the target need and learning need. however, before completing the instrument or indicators of the study, the participant (3) linked need analysis theories to the listening material to get the students’ real need on listening material (tosta, 2001; pardo and tellez, 2009, rost, 2002). by having these theories, the participant (3) could enable herself to evaluate the indicators of students needing analysis toward listening material to synthesize the research question. as described above, the literature reviews done by the participants are considered a relevant and systematic review. the participants had the good capability to implement the theories and generalized the ideas by presenting and connecting the research variables. in other words, the theories used can be explained critically to answer research questions. the participants then showed the relevance of theories used in their literature review to the research question based on the criteria of the validity of the sources when the participants used the accurate theories that come from many experts. furthermore, literature reviews described by the participants comprise the theories that contain the truth. it means that all the theories used in the literature review were true and could be better proven. jacard and jacob in kivunja ( 2018) said that “each theory used comprise a common frame of reference that can be used by researchers in a particular discipline as to what is understood to be true or a basis for searching for meaning and truth in our lived experiences and a well-grounded guide for research within the field”. it means that the theories must be able to present the empirical data to show the relationship between what studies in the research and the real-life situation. irrelevant literature review and research question p (9) excerpt (9) research question : bagaimanakah gaya bahasa figurative dalam kumpulan puisi-puisi cintakarya w.s rendra ? (how is the figurative language style in the collection of puisi-puisi cinta written by w.s rendra?) in the literature review, participant (9) implemented the theories that talked about the definition of poetry ( wahyuni, 2014 ; mihardja , 2012). the description did just consists of two paragraphs without more detailed information about the definition of the poetry itself. then, the participant cited the theories that discuss poetry (wahyuni, 2014). the description did not give the specific characters of poetry but discussed it generally. also, the participant showed the structure of poetry ( djojosuroto ,2006). it was also discussed in a short explanation that makes the reader not know the poetry itself. the participant continued explaining the definition of figurative language into four paragraphs ( hasanuddin, 2002; pradopo, 2002 ). then, the participant described the type of figurative language (hasanuddin, 2002). here, the participant did blunt discussion by using one expert to explain the type of figurative language. there was less information presented through this theory because no available examples or no evidence stated in each theory about the type of figurative language. p(10) excerpt (10) research question : bagaimana hambatan guru bimbingan konseling dalam melaksanakan layanan informasi bimbingan karir? (how is the guidance counseling teacher’s barriers in giving career guidance information service?) the participant (10) started her literature review by describing the nature of barriers that consist of internal and external barriers, but no example is provided here. the discussion was just done in 166 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) one paragraph (djoko, 2009). then, the participant (10) continued to describe the definition of a counseling guidance teacher (lumanggo,2011). unfortunately, the discussion was not talking about counseling guidance teachers, but it discussed the counselor’s definition. furthermore, the participant (10) developed the idea to explain the counseling guidance teacher’s function. still, no related information was provided because the theory talked about the counselor’s function, not the function of the counseling guidance teacher (lumanggo, 2011). the participant (10) also stated the theories about counseling guidance teachers (salahudin, 2010) but no review. the participant (10) just stated the genuine theory like the real sources. then, the participant (10) explained the definition of career information service and its purpose (prayitno, 2004; winkel, 2005; yusuf and nurihsan, 2010). however, the theories did not discuss the purpose of the career. it discussed more detail about the purpose of guidance and counseling. then, the participant (10) described the nature of career guidance (walgoti; 2010; hartono, 2016; surya, 2008; salahuddin, 2010) and zunker, 2002). next, the participant (10) discussed career guidance (sukardi, 1987; hartono, 2016). here, the participant (10) gave a good explanation about the purpose of career guidance. the participant (10) talked about the function of career guidance and the principle of career guidance ( walgito, 2010). however, about the principle of career guidance, the participant used no theories; she tried to explain what she understood about the information service principles. finally, the participant (10) discussed implementing career guidance at school ( manrihu, 1988; septya, 2015), but the theories did not give the information about the teachers’ barrier in providing career guidance information service. p(11) excerpt (11) research question: “permasalahan apa saja yang dialami guru sejarah dalam meningkatkan penanaman nilai-nilai pendidikan karakter pada siswa di sman 4 kota solok?” (what problems are faced by history teachers in increasing the inculcation of character education values at the students in sman 4 kota solok ?) based on the research problem, this study is purposed to find out the problems, especially faced by a history teacher. the participant (11) used some theories to discuss this problem. the literature review was begun by explaining the theory of value (adisusilo, 2012), but the explanations were to an extent without any specific information about the value. then, the participant (11) used the theories about character education (yaumi, 2014; muslich, 2011; saptano, 2011; yahya, 2010). unfortunately, the participant (11) did not review the correlation of theories about character education and value because the theories were discussed separately. the participant presented the theories about the value of education, the purpose of education value, the learning experiences, the implementation of the basic education, and the alternative method in implementing the basic education value. (elmubarok, 2009; aryutami, 2014 ). in this discussion, the review did not show the description of education character values and how to implement those values. the participant (11) described the general character values, not education characters’ values, based on the demanded character stated in the curriculum. the participant (11) also offers no theories about the inculcation of the character education values in the teaching and learning process. p(12) excerpt (12) research question “bagaimana koordinasi pengawasan pengelolaan limbah cair rumah sakit tiara sella padang jati kota bengkulu?” (how is the coordination of the supervision of liquid waste management done at tiara sella padang jati, bengkulu ) in this research, the participant (12) would like to find out how to coordinate liquid waste management supervision, especially at tiara sella padang jati. at the beginning of her literature review, the participant stated the theories about social structure and social action wirawan, 2012; giddens, 2000; ), but no theories provide the information about social structure and action existing in the real environment. then, the participant (12) continued her review of sustainable development with the concept of 167 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) keeping the eco-development (abdurahman, 2003; rahadian, 2016; saebani, 2016; budimanta, 2005). after that, the participant (12) continued her theories about environmental pollutions (pemadi, ari, made& r.a. retno), and then the theory about the effort of environmental pollution prevention (taringan, 2014; setoyono & satmoko, 2006). the theory also discussed the impact of environmental pollution, but no expert here, the participant (12), tried to explain it by using her point of view. it was continued with the discussion about the impact of environmental pollution, but no theories were used to support the knowledge or the information. next, in her literature review, no special discussion about the definition of liquid waste and how its management was explained. the last, no discussion about the coordination of liquid waste and how to coordinate them were available in the review. iv. discussion after doing data analysis and description, this research showed the relevances and irrelevances in writing the thesis, specifically discussing the review on the theories used to answer the research question. based on these research findings, the researchers emphasized that the relevance and irrelevance of the literature review and research question could be seen from interrelation, validity, and the truth of the literature review theories to synthesize the research questions. interrelation becomes one of the important aspects to know the relevance of the literature review. literature must bring together ideas interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions to explain the event or the situation by specifying the relations among the research (glanz in kivunja, 2018). glanz in his research about the interrelation between research question with a literature review. the research done by the researchers could also show that the literature review is done by 6 participants represented by the participants (1), (2), and (3) contain the concept of interrelation when the participants developed and constituted the deep broad of knowledge in the disciplines based on their research questions. here, the participants used the theories to clearly define and explain the meaning, nature, and phenomena in educational or social context based on the research variable. the participants enabled to apply the theories by specifying the relationships among variables of their researches. all theories used in the literature reviews done by the participants could better present or discuss more appropriate concepts or ideas to link the literature review with the problem stated in the research question. then, day in akkaya et al., ( 2018) explained that the research must show the result with strongly structure intellectual systems that require the truth of theories. from the literature review done by 6 participants represented by the participants (1), (2), and (3) in this research, it was found that the theories used in their literature review presented the facts or the truth because they made the relationship between the theories and what discussed in the review. all the applicable theories in the literature review related to the research variable, as stated in the research question. here, the participants had a better understanding of their research variable and investigated the empirical data or the field’s knowledge through any particular disciplines. the lived experiences or events constitute the true theories and enable them to explain them factually to answer research questions. for example, when participant (1) wanted to see the level of passive-aggressive behavior through her research, she used the true theories that she found from any particular disciplines from the real journal, article, or other knowledge that were appropriate. she talked about aggressive behavior with its definition, characteristic and could apply the theories about the level of passive-aggressive behavior with its criteria to answer the research question clearly in her research through her literature review. similarly, other participants also applied the true theories to solve their research problems, as explained in the literature review used by participants at the previous discussion. the true theories’ importance in showing the relevance between the research question with a literature review was proven through lomborg’s research ( 2003). he found that the relevance of theories becomes one of the main criteria for evaluating and doing the quality judgment of the theories used in writing empirical writing. here, the relevance indicates that all the theories used should be relevant to the core problem and the research process, and the research area’s action in the reality of social context. then, lomborg 168 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) explained that theories or knowledge based on social context’s reality exist if the theories contain the truth. the theories could be considered when the theories were constructed from the real world or must go to everyday life in the social area under study and collect data from the field. the related research was also done by ghafouri and ofoghi (2016) on the reliability in qualitative research that found the relevant theory could better show the reliability or the truth when the theories adapt with the daily facts obtained from data become authentic and associates with the area of the study. it means that all literature review theories can build clear, rational ideas to discuss the research problems. furthermore, the participants showed the relevance of theories used in their literature review to the research question based on the sources’ validity criteria when the participants used the accurate theories that come from many experts. levy yair & ellis timothy j., (2006)argue that the use of literature should provide the grounds for the legitimization of the research questions proposed in the study as well as validate them. the related literature must consist of all sources containing research publications, journals, quality conference preceding valid to purposed study and discuss issues related to the problem. here, the participants (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6) provided valid information or knowledge through sources or theories to show the relationship between this review and research question by presenting the valuable discussion toward the problems as stated in the research questions. the validity or the accuracy of the literature review, as stated by tranfield in snyder ( 2019), could be determined by presenting the collective evidence in a certain research area. as described in the literature review of participant (1), participant (2), and (3), it was ensured that the participants investigated the valid source because the sources implemented in the review correlated with the research being proposed or developed based on the research variables. as evidence, the research question in the excerpt (2) consists of two variables; the causes of social problems and gadinggading ganesha novel. the participant could add authentic sources from journals, articles, or particular disciplines about society and social problems. this is because in the real society as the fact and link to the society or social problem in the novel by using sociology of literature approach as described in her literature review in the previous paragraph. all the related theories used in the literature review could be proven because they have the website link that could be accessed by the other researchers. the other evidence to show the valid theory occurred when the participant elaborated on the information and developed the literature review by providing the real examples to support the theory to discuss research problems. the literature review could also be considered the relevant review if it contains the theoretical validity that refers to how much theoretical explanation developed through research analysis is consistent with the data (hayashi et al., 2019). through his research (dellinger, 2005) found that the relevance of theories could be evaluated from the validity of theories or how to extend the literature review can provide the evidence and the accuracy of the information or knowledge from many disciplines. in other words, it must use the theories that should be used to develop ideas and discussion that potentially impacts the quality and credibility of the research. wolming and wikstrom (2010) emphasized through his research finding that the validity evidence of the theories can be shown from how far the theories link to the facts with the empirical examples that related to the issues developed in the research into the real practice in the social area where the study can be investigated. the discussion about the relevance between research question with literature review makes the researchers aware that the quality of thesis writing depends on how far the theories relate to research problems, how far the theories contain the truth and how far the validity of theories can be prevented. this idea could be better supported by the research done by manchón ( 2018). in this case, manchon researched giving feedback to l1 and l2 academic writing strategies, and he found that l2 students had a good writing strategy compare to l1 students because they could develop more relevant disciplines or knowledge to build the relevant theories that were closely related to the writing problems. the same research about literature review was also done by nakano & muniz (2018) from the researchers who submitted their papers to the production journal. here, nakano and 169 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) muniz found that literature reviews’ construction is categorized as good or strong literature reviews. the authors put the relevant theories that could be determined by the authors’ rationale and current information or knowledge that address the research questions. besides the relevance between the research question and literature review, their irrelevances were also found during the research. the irrelevance between research questions and theories discussed in the related review can be shown when the participants (9), (10), (11), and (12) from the data above did not present the interrelation theories to the research question. according to baker in costa (2016), theories give rise to research problems or questions, provide interpretative data, and the theories could provide a rationale and related to the study. it means that the theories can be considered relevant to the research question if they are available to provide the related information to answer the research question. however, if the literature review theories did not match with topic or problems, then the theories and research questions are irrelevant (bond, carol & acheson, 2017). it can be seen in participants (9, 10, 11, 12) reviewed the theories used in their theses’ literature. they used some irrelevant theories so that the discussion or description did generally not touchable to the research question. for a specific example, the participant (12) in her research would like to coordinate liquid waste management supervision at tiara sella padang jati, bengkulu. here, the participant (12) should use the theories discussed liquid waste management and how to coordinate liquid waste management. however, the participant (12) developed the literature review by using the theories related to social structure and social action, the concept of sustainable development, and environmental pollution with its impact on society but no theories about the liquid waste and its management and no theories about the coordination of supervision of those liquid waste management. it can be stated that the participant (12) did an inappropriate or irrelevant literature review since she applied the theories without a strong interrelation to the research problem or question. it was supported by costa (2016), who stated that if the study does not have the theories that can better support the research question, it could be considered that those theories are inappropriate and difficult to understand. here, inappropriate shows that the theories do not match or well encounter to the research question. in other words, the irrelevant between the research question and theories existed since it had no explanatory power because no argument was used to enable the participant (12) to interpret the data by appropriate theories. furthermore, the irrelevance between theories in the literature review and the research question can determine how far those theories can be trusted. the theories are based on leading or most appropriate to the research question if it has more transcendent criteria for the truth (morrow, 2005). in other words, if the theories developed in the literature review could not prove the truth based on the fact so that the theories would be considered irrelevant theories to the research question. the truth is doing a literature review can be proven if the researcher can properly use theories in presenting the data or evidence. in the literature review, the researchers must review all theories by using their developing ideas and build a better understanding while discussing the theories to make good indicators for analyzing the problems. otherwise, if the researcher failed to do the review or the theories, it is considered that the researcher’s work is dishonest or not true. in this case, experienced by the participant (10), she implemented the literature review theories like the genuine theory without reviewing. the participant (10) also used limited sources because she just stated one theory or expert for each sub-topic in the literature review, so that this such work did not fulfill the research’s truth. lose & klarskov (2017) stated that the sources include the failure to report or use if it lacks resources, and if plagiarism occurs, it is categorized as scientific dishonest. here, participant (10) seemed to use very limited sources because, in her literature review, the participant just told about the carrier guidance for the working field, not for the students in the school, the discussion grew without focusing on the main problems of the research. the example of the teachers’ barrier to teaching the carrier guidance was not found in the literature review because the participant did not review the theories to link the information from the theory to the research question. still, the participant just copy-pastes from the theories like the real sources.170 yelfiza/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in addition, rahman, (2018) criticized the literature review done by the students. through this study, rahman emphasized that using theoretical or literary references is very acceptable, good, or a must in scientific writing, but the number of references becomes considerable. based on this study, too many references can lead to irrelevant discussions or think; otherwise, the lack of sources could not support the literature review discussion. in this case, it is very important to standardize the theories that must be questionable to show the related knowledge and information to the research questions. finally, the research question and literature review’s irrelevance was seen from participant (11) since this participant used invalid theories. actually, the participant (11) would like to find out the history teacher’s problems to increase the inculcation of students’ character education values, but the theories did not present accurate information about character education values. in her literature review, no theories from valid sources discussed specifically character education theories. otherwise, the participant (11) tended to elaborate on those values based on her own opinions. also, no theories about the inculcation of character education values were found as long as her discussions in her literature review. on the other word, each data presented in her literature review contain no evidence and could not be proven through the real sources like journals, articles, or the others. it can be considered that some information given in the literature review were not valid. this finding is supported by wilson (2001), who had researched to see the theorist view; j.r. kantor and b. f. skinner, toward the theoretical construct. this research’s finding clarified that the irrelevant theories used in the research writing existed if it was found the invalid theories construct in the theoretical review of the theories used were not appropriate to the investigation field. it means that no accuracy between the theories needed and the theories used so that the theories did not contribute to the improvement of research orientation to discuss the research problems. v. conclusion the study of literature review is very important to know the value or the qualities of the students’ scientific writing. one way to ensure whether the students had done good thesis writing is how far the research could link or relate the theories used in the review to the research question. it is believed that thesis writing could be good writing because it has done many advises and revisions that the thesis advisor suggested. however, the different facts appear in the researchers’ research that not all students’ thesis writing in this research showed the relevance between the research question and literature review. among 13 participants, 6 participants succeeded in citing relevant literature to discuss and answer research questions in their thesis writing. the others about 7 participants failed to elaborate on the relevance theories so that the discussions of literature reviews were not critical enough to answer the research question. in this case, the thesis writing with irrelevant theories in the literature section could be rated as low-quality thesis writing. there are still many numbers of graduate students’ thesis writing that have low quality in such areas as theories and discussion in the literature review sections. being aware of this condition, the thesis advisor really needs to give special attention to the students’ tasks in finishing or completing their thesis writing. it is hoped that the thesis advisors give valuable guidance or advice to the style of the student’s writing and the content and how to elaborate the ideas so that each chapter of the students’ thesis writing could be tied strongly. references akkaya, a. & aydın, g, “views of academicians on traits of academic writing “ , educational policy analysis and strategic research, vol. 13, no. 2, 2018, pp. 128–160. alsied, s. m. & ibrahim, n. w, “ exploring challenges encountered by efl libyan 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arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) biography dr.yelfiza, m.pd, is an associate professor working as english lecturer at stkip pgri sumatera barat. she got her undergraduate degree at ikip padang, now called unp in 1989 and her master and doctoral degrees at the same university in 1999 and 2016. she has been teaching english for 30 years. from 1989 to 2002 she taught at academy for foreign languages haji agus salimbukittinggi. then, from 2002 until now she has been teaching at stkip sumatera barat in padang. she has frequently presented her articles in international conferences, held in indonesia or overseas. she has also published her articles in the areas of linguistics and education both in national and international journals. siska,s.s.,m.pd, is an english lecturer at stkip pgri sumatera barat biography appears here. she graduated from her undergraduate degree at unp in 2003 and her master degrees at the same university in 2011. she has been teaching english for 10 years at stkip pgri sumatera barat in padang. she has followed both national and international conferences with the publication of journals and proceedings in the areas of education. also, she had published the book which derived from the result of her research. recently, one of her journals had been published in international journal. 173 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 29, 2021 final revision: march 18, 2021 available online: april 25, 2021 this study is aimed at investigating how indonesian writers in multidiscipline use reporting verbs (henceforth rvs) and reporting signals (henceforth rss) in their research article introductions in english. fifty research articles (henceforth ras) were chosen on purpose from the recent edition of five different english language journals in multi-disciplines published in indonesia (i.e., 10 from applied linguistics, 10 from medicine, 10 from animal husbandry, 10 from engineering and technology, and 10 from geography). the results reveal that the most frequent groups of rv found in the ra introductions are show and argue groups; while the most frequent rs is reporting noun. it is also found that indonesian writers in the data of this research tend to use rvs in present and past tense. these findings are similar to those of previous studies where there is no important difference between english native and non-native speakers in using rvs in their ras. this implies that indonesian writers of the articles used in this study have used rvs in a similar way to english native speakers. this is because the ras used in this research were taken from reputable international journals indexed by scopus and/or web of science. keyword reporting verbs, reporting signals, introduction section, research article, academic texts correspondence e-mail: safnil@unib.ac.id articles citing others’ works in academic texts: how non-native writers of english across-disciplines use reporting verbs and reporting signals in their research article introductions safnil arsyad1, syahrial2, husnul hakim3 1,2,3english education postgraduate program, university of bengkulu, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.59-71.2021 i. introduction citing other author’s works is one of the most crucial characteristics of scholarly texts such as essays, thesis, dissertation, seminar papers, and articles (arsyad & adila, 2018; dontcheva-navratilova, 2016; hyland, 1999; kamimura, 2014; kwan, 2009; kwan et al., 2012; shooshtari et al., 2017). it is almost impossible to write an academic text without reviewing or citing other author’s works. in the introduction section of a research article, for example, writers cite the work of others especially in the literature review part of the section to argue convincingly that their research topic is crucial and/ or attractive and their research project is needed based on critical analyses of previous relevant studies (swales, 2004). therefore, in this section writers need to highlight gaps in previous studies on the same or similar topics and reflect on other works done in a particular area of study (berhail, 2017). in citing other author’s work, one of the most important aspects to consider is the use of appropriate rvs; this is because writers must match the choice of rvs with their position or stance toward the information cited in the reference (ramoroka, 2014). in other words, the choice of rvs will enable writers to position their work in connection with the works of other writers in a particular field of research (yeganeh & boghayeri, 2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras. hyland (2002) claims that rvs are used to express the author’s point of view 59 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) and connect it to the reader’s ideas but writers in a particular discipline or language may use rvs differently from writers in other disciplines or languages do (hyland, 1999; ramoroka, 2014). similarly, according to thomas & hawes (1994), rvs are used to imply the author’s belief or opinion and to show his or her position towards other author’s works. the use of rvs in academic writing can be for several purposes: 1) to present what research has and has not been done on a particular topic in a particular field; 2) to show the author’s familiarity with the field being or to be investigated; 3) to convince or persuade readers that their research topic and/or research project is essential and attractive; and 4) to position their work in a larger research context (berhail, 2017). using these functions, writers can justify their works by showing the gap of knowledge obtained from previous study results and accordingly the ways to report and evaluate previous relevant studies appropriately and effectively become a central skill of academic writing (zhang, 2009). however, according to yeganeh & boghayeri (2015), non-native speakers sometimes misuse or use rvs interchangeably. even though they have been professional writers and have successfully published papers in internationally indexed journals, indonesian writers can face the same difficulty when writing in english. in other words, indonesian writers can use rvs differently than international writers which will have an impact on the quality of their english articles. this is why it is crucial to understand how indonesian writers from various fields use rvs and rss in articles that have already been published in reputable or indexed international journals. with this in mind, this research aims to find answers to the following questions.which rv groups are most commonly used in english ra introductions written by indonesian writers in a variety of disciplines? 1. in multidiscipline ra introductions, which rss (reporting noun, reporting adjective, and reporting adjunct) are most frequently used by indonesian writers? and 2. in their english ra introductions in multidiscipline, which tenses of rvs (present tense, past tense, and present perfect tense) do indonesian writers most frequently use? the ways writers cite and use rvs in academic texts have been scrutinized by many investigators previously such as, by malcolm (1987), shaw (1992)aspect, or voice of verbs in academic writing often seems to be related to degrees of generality or relevance or to signal discourse functions like transition or foregrounding. the introduction sections of some ph.d theses were examined to determine the significance of verb form in reporting verbs like find or show. when forms were classified in relation to sentence function some correlation with tense was found. however, there were also correlations between tense and voice (past going with active and perfect with passive, thomas & hawes (1994), thompson & yiyun (1991), loan & pramoolsook (2015), jaroongkhongdach (2015), yeganeh & boghayeri (2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras, jafarigohar & mohammadkhani (2015) and yilmaz & özdem erturk (2017)few of those studies have been on the use of reporting verbs by turkish efl researchers. the purpose of this study is to investigate (1. these studies mainly investigated linguistic and discourse aspects of rvs such as tense and voice, forms and functions, and denotative and evaluative potentials of rvs found in academic texts. some studies descriptively investigated how writers in a particular or group of disciplines in a particular language used rvs in their academic texts while others compared the ways native and non-native writers of english used rvs in their academic writings. studies by hanania & akhtar (1985)a feature which has been demonstrated across different genres of science writing, is here examined within one genre, reporting of research work in master of science theses. for this purpose, a sample of 20 theses in biology, chemistry, and physics was divided into five rhetorical sections (introduction, review, methods, results, discussion, malcolm (1987), and shaw (1992)aspect, or voice of verbs in academic writing often seems to be related to degrees of generality or relevance or to signal discourse functions like transition or foregrounding. the introduction sections of some ph.d theses were examined to determine the significance of verb form in reporting verbs like find or show. when forms were classified in relation to sentence 60 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) function some correlation with tense was found. however, there were also correlations between tense and voice (past going with active and perfect with passive were oriented on the use of tenses of the rvs such as present tense, past tense, and present perfect tense. malcolm (1987), discovered that present tense was used when writers address a general claim or claims already widely accepted by a particular discourse community; past tense was used when addressing specific claims while present perfect tense was used to refer to the conclusion of the findings of several studies in the past. besides, swales (2004) suggests that past tense is used to refer to a single study, the present tense is used as a reference to an area of inquiry and present perfect tense is used to refer to the state of current knowledge. similarly, weissberg & bucker (1990) found that writers tended to use a past tense to address the findings of a single study while present tense was used when they addressed information already accepted as scientific fact. the types and functions of citation and reporting in academic texts have also been investigated such as by weissberg & bucker (1990), petrić (2007), and yeganeh & boghayeri (2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras. three functions of citation have been proposed; these are 1) providing background information about a particular study, 2) showing that writers are already familiar with the research area being investigated, and 3) connecting a particular study to the available literature (weissberg & bucker, 1990). petrić (2007) found that poorly-written theses tended to have descriptive rather than the analytic style of citations while well-written theses had citations for various rhetorical functions and purposes. also, gilbert (2015) suggests that writers use references to convince readers that their work is valid and important and therefore, they should read it. loan & pramoolsook (2015) investigated the denotative and evaluative potentials of rvs used in tesol master theses written in english by vietnamese students. they found that rvs classified as discourse acts were most dominantly used by the vietnamese postgraduate students followed by research acts and cognition acts rvs consecutively. according to loan and pramoolsook, this may be because the students were not aware of the rhetorical functions of rvs and their limited vocabulary of rvs. besides, jaroongkhongdach (2015) found that expert writers in applied linguistics tended to use factive rvs (i.e., the cited writers are believed to present true information or correct opinion) and nonfactive rvs (i.e., writers do not give a clear attitude or stance toward the information provided by the cited writers) while thai novice writers tended to use factive rvs. according to jaroongkhongdach, the more frequent use of factive rvs by thai novice writers implies that they avoided being critical towards the cited writers for academic, language competence, or cultural reasons. comparative studies on the use of rvs by native and non-native writers of english were conducted by yeganeh & boghayeri (2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras, jafarigohar & mohammadkhani (2015), and yilmaz & özdem-erturk (2017) few of those studies have been on the use of reporting verbs by turkish efl researchers. the purpose of this study is to investigate (1. yeganeh & boghayeri (2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras found that, unlike persian speakers, english native speakers used argue group of rvs more frequently in social science than natural science texts while the use of find/show group of rvs was more frequent in natural science than in social science texts. also, compared to persian speakers, english native speakers used argue group of rvs more frequently in both social and natural science articles. jafarigohar & mohammadkhani (2015) found that native and nonnative writers of english language teaching and applied linguistics use equally frequently rvs in their journal articles. according to jafarigohar and mohammadkhani, unlike the findings of previous studies, the diversity of linguistic competence between native and non-native writers of english did not affect the use of citation in their academic writings. however, yilmaz & özdem erturk (2017)few of those studies have been on the use of reporting verbs by turkish efl researchers. the purpose of this study is to investigate (1 found that english native writers used a more diverse range of rvs 61 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) than non-native writers did when they compared how english native speakers and turkish speakers used rvs in their english ras in english language teaching (elt) published in international journals. they found that turkish writers tended to overuse rvs like ‘revealed’, ‘indicated’ and ‘observed’ but in general, six out of ten most frequently used rvs by turkish and english speakers were the same. thus, comparative studies on the use of rvs in academic texts by native and non-native speakers of english reveal inconsistent findings; some found differences while others found similarities. this is probably because of the different quality of texts investigated, such as articles published in national journals compared with those published in international journals. if the same quality of texts becomes the object of analyses then the results will possibly be the same or similar. in the indonesian context, studies on how writers cite other people’s works in their academic writings have also been conducted such as by safnil (2003), adnan (2009) reflective reading journals (or reading logs, arsyad et al. (2018), and arsyad & adila (2018). arsyad (2003) found that indonesian writers in social sciences and arts & humanities cited other’s works for several different purposes: 1) to prepare reader’s schemata by defining key terms, description of research topic history, and stating government policy relating to the research topic; 2) to back the concern of research topic by assuring readers that the issue raised in the study exists; 3) to essentially display to readers that they are already intimate with the research topic being investigated. in other words, by citing other author’s works indonesian writers implicitly tell readers that they are already familiar with the latest research developments on the topic of their research and therefore, they are eligible to research the topic. a citation is a quote from or reference to an academic source, such as a book, article, or author, in the form of words, phrases, sentences, or groups of sentences, particularly in academic work. according to thomas and hawes (cited in nanyue, 2013), reporting is ‘the attribution of propositional content to a source outside the author of the article in the current situation and the marking of this by the presence of any of several signals of attribution (p.13).’ nanyue goes on to say that citation and reporting are subtly different, even though they both serve the same objective of linking current work to previous work in the literature. the difference, according to nanyue, is that citation requires a specific source of knowledge, such as a book, a text, an essay, a study, or a thesis, a dissertation or author/s explicitly stated in the texts but not in reporting. nanyue provides the following examples to clarify the similarity and difference between a citation and reporting as the following taken from nanyue (2013). 1. some researchers have discovered that learning techniques are critical in the acquisition of a second language. 2. native speaker norms in german and english vary, according to kasper (1981). 3. according to previous studies, native speaker norms in german and english vary (kasper, 1981). 4. in german and english, native speaker norms vary (kasper, 1981). according to nanyue, sentence 1 in the above example is called reporting because it uses an rv (have found) and is written from a specific source of knowledge (some scholars), while the other three sentences are both citation and reporting because they indicate the source of cited information (the cited author’s surname and the date of publication) and use rvs. thus, almost all citations are considered reporting but not all reporting can be considered a citation. other linguistic signals determining whether or not a statement is counted as reporting, according to thomas & hawes (1994) are the use of ‘reporting nouns’ such as previous studies, the scholar in this field, ‘reporting adjectives’ such as socalled, concerned and ‘reporting adjuncts’ such as according to, in the words of. in this research, only rvs are used to consider whether or not a statement is reporting. in other words, unlike in nanyue, this research considers reporting in a more specific sense. adnan (2009) reflective reading journals (or reading logs argues that, unlike international writers, indonesian writers seldom criticize other writers’ works in their ra introductions to create a research space; this is likely because indonesian writers believe it is unnecessary to do so. after all, there 62 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) is a culturally more appropriate way to persuade readers that their research activity is significant. they just need to show that there was a serious practical issue on a significant subject that needed to be researched or solved. another explanation may be that indonesian writers do not have to fight as hard for publication in an indonesian research journal. thus, the literature review style contained in the indonesian ra introduction is influenced by the context of the study and the style of journal article writing in indonesia, not by the language of the article. finally, arsyad et al., (2018) and arsyad & adila (2018) investigated the ways indonesian writers in medical, science, and engineering cite relevant references in their english ra introductions published in reputable or indexed international journals. they found that similar to adnan (2009) reflective reading journals (or reading logs, indonesian writers when citing other people’s works tended to present positive justification rather than critiquing them. also, unlike english writers, indonesian writers preferred using a non-integral type of citation to the integral one and tended to use present tense than other tenses in citing the relevant literature. according to arsyad & adila (2018), this entails that albeit writing articles in english, the indonesian writers still utilized the rhetorical style common in indonesian academic tradition. although there have been studies on how indonesian writers cite relevant references in their academic texts as discussed above, to the knowledge of the present writers, no comparative study has been conducted particularly on how indonesian writers in multidiscipline use rvs and rss in their english ra introductions. this is the rationale of this study; that is to investigate how indonesian writers in multidiscipline use rvs and rss in their english ra introductions published in international reputable or indexed journals. this is important to educate indonesian new faculty members and postgraduate students from various fields to use rvs appropriately following the common citation style in their field. according to jaroongkhongdach (2015), new writers need to be taught and trained how to use rvs and rss correctly and appropriately when writing academic texts in english such as thesis, dissertation, seminar papers, and journal articles. ii. methods the corpus of the study the articles in the data of this research were taken from five different english journals published in indonesia; these journals are categorized as international reputable or indexed journals because they are already indexed by scopus. the distribution of the articles in the corpus of this research is shown in the following table. table 1 shows that ra introductions in the field of applied linguistics have the most words, with an average of 1.572 words per article, and hence the most cited references. the articles chosen from the five journals were taken from recent issues to reflect the current characteristics of the articles published in the journals and the disciplines. these five journals were selected based on several considerations as the following: 1) the journals publish ras written in english by indonesian writers for both indonesian and foreign readers; table 1: the articles in the corpus of the study no. journals code discipline # of articles average # of words/article average # of references/ article 1. indonesian journal of applied linguistics ijal applied linguistics 10 1.572 40.9 2. acta medica indonesiana ami medicine 10 315.5 25.5 3. indonesian journal of geography ijg geography 10 726 30.2 4. tropical animal science journal tasj animal husbandry 10 568 33.1 5. journal of engineering and technological sciences jets engineering and technology 10 609 22.263 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) 2) the journals publish ras in a variety of fields. 3) the journals are open-access, which means that the papers can be freely read and downloaded; 4) the journals are mainstream and prestigious in indonesia, as shown by the fact that they are indexed in several databases i.e., introduction, methods, results, and discussion or imrd. the reason for choosing 50 papers included in the data of this study is because it is thought that with this number of articles, they will reflect the citing style used by journal editors, the debate group, and the writers when writing their introduction sections. according to corder & foreman (2014), the number of texts needed for quantitative analysis must be at least 30. for example, a study looking at the terminology used to prove knowledge statements and the language used to prove arguments in high-impact physic journals by parkinson (2011) included only 30 articles. data analyses procedure to answer the first research question about the frequency of rvs used by indonesian writers in english ra introductions across disciplines, an attempt was made to pick rvs that appeared frequently in the study’s data. the list was compiled by looking up all rvs in the data of the study that was used in each ra introduction. the rvs were listed after collecting a list of the most widely used rvs from the ra introductions following francis and hunston (1996) as follows. 1. argue: verbs that deal with speech, writing, and other means of communication, such as argue, say, point out, write, infer, assert, retain, recommend, imply, note, and so on. 2. think: verbs that deal with thought, such as belief, expect, feel, carry, believe, and so on.s 3. show: verbs that signify a fact or condition, such as “show,” “demonstrate,” and “reveal,” among others. 4. find: verbs that apply to knowing or thinking about something, such as find, observe, discover, or suggest. 5. add: verbs that describe the relationship between something said or written and something else said or written, such as add, repeat, check, and so on. the second research question was answered by identifying other linguistic signals used by the indonesian writers when referring to other authors’ work in their texts other than rvs, such as reporting nouns, reporting adjectives, and reporting adjuncts following nanyue (2013) as discussed above. a complete checklist as a research instrument is attached in the appendix. then, the average frequency of the rss from each discipline was calculated to see the difference (if any) among the disciplines of the articles. finally, to compare how indonesian writers and international writers use rvs and rss in their ra introductions, the data from previous studies were used as a comparison. besides, to answer the third question, the tenses of the rvs (present tense, past tense, and present perfect tense) were identified by looking at the verb form used in the reporting statement. validating the data analysis results to validate the data analysis results, an independent coder was used in this study. the independent coder was a lecturer with a doctorate in english education from the education faculty of bengkulu university. the independent coder was first introduced and trained on how to recognize probable rvs in the texts as well as the tenses of the rvs using examples. she was then given two weeks to complete the rvs identification processes for all ten randomly selected ra introductions from the corpus of this research. after that, the inter-coder correlation relationship was measured, and the results showed an excellent agreement of 80 percent (kanoksilapatham, 2005). the only difference was in classifying the rvs in the ra introductions, although there was almost no difference in coding the rss and rv tenses. a full agreement was eventually reached after several meetings between the researcher and the independent coder. iii. results and discussion results reporting verbs in the five groups of articles data analysis results show that rvs’ average frequency in the articles from five different fields is different. the data is displayed in the following table. table 2 shows that among five sets of articles the article from the field of animal husbandry used rv most frequently with a total of 69 or 6.9 per 64 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) no. field of discipline argue think show find add total average 1 engineering & technology 11 1 12 6 18 48 4.8 2 medicine 0 0 10 8 0 18 1.8 3 animal husbandry 20 1 29 5 14 69 6.9 4 geography 13 1 3 2 2 21 2.1 5 applied linguistics 41 3 10 9 2 65 6.5 total 85 6 64 30 36 221 table 2: the frequency of reporting verbs in the articles article followed by the field of applied linguistics with 65 or 6.5 per article, and then engineering & technology with 48 or 4.8 per article. it is also apparent that among the five rv groups (argue, think, show, find, and add), the verb group argue and show are the most frequently used by indonesian writers and the least frequently one is the verb group think. the examples of ‘show’ and ‘argue’ taken from the articles in this study’s data are given below. extract 1 according to olsen and kagan (1992), cl would be more successful if it is assisted by five key structures: aims, incentives, students’ tasks, materials, and laws (ijal-5). the above example is taken from the field of applied linguistics with the title ‘integrative and instrumental but low investment: the english learning motivation of indonesian senior high school students’, attained from indonesian journal of applied linguistics, vol. 9(3), 493-507. the use of the verb ‘argue’ in the context above is to give reasons or evidence as support to a statement, belief, or idea. besides, it is inclined to persuade others (readers) to respond. therefore, the use of the verb ‘argue’ in the context above is categorized as rvs. extract 2 data from the directorate general of plantations in 2012 shows that 3% of the rubber-wood plantations in indonesia are replanted annually, resulting in approximately 844,500 m3 of rubber-wood waste (jets-3). the above example is taken from an article in the field of engineering & technology with the title ‘torrefaction of rubber-wood waste: the effects of particle size, temperature & residence time’, published in the journal of engineering and technological sciences itb, vol. 52(2), 137152. the use of verb ‘shows’ in the context above indicated the fact or situation which has been informed or shown by data from the directorate general of plantations. therefore, the verb ‘shows’ in the context above is classified as an rv. the use of reporting signals (rss) in the five sets of articles data from the articles also show that the use of rss in the five groups of articles is different from one discipline to another. the average frequency of rss in the articles is given in the following table. table 3 shows that the most frequent rs type used in the ras is reporting nouns with 96 or 74.42%. the example of reporting nouns in the ra introduction is given below. table 3: the use of reporting signal types in the ra introductions no field of discipline reporting nouns reporting adjectives reporting adjuncts total average 1 engineering & technology 16 2 1 19 1.9 2 medicine 14 3 17 1.7 3 animal 14 3 7 24 2.4 4 geography 22 9 31 3.1 5 applied linguistics 30 8 38 3.8 total 96 5 28 129 65 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) extract 3 a previous study detected adiponectin in catheter-injured vascular walls of rats but not in intact vascular walls (ami-8). the above example was taken from the field of medicine with the title ‘plasma concentrations of adiponectin in patients with coronary artery disease and coronary slow flow’, attained from acta medica indonesiana, the indonesian journal of internal medicine, october 2019, 51(4): rs nouns example: the phrase a previous study indicates a reporting noun because it refers to a reference in or outside the text. therefore, it is classified as an rs. the tenses of the reporting verbs data analysis results show that the tenses of the rvs in the five different sets of the article also vary as can be seen in the table 4. table 4: tenses of the reporting verbs in the ra introductions no. field of discipline present tense past tense present perfect tense total average/ article 1 engineering & technology 7 14 27 48 4.8 2 medicine 2 10 6 18 1.8 3 animal 37 26 6 69 6.9 4 geography 11 10 21 2.1 5 applied linguistics 36 25 4 65 21.67 total 93 85 43 221 % 42.08 38.46 19.45 100 table 4 shows that present tense is the most frequently used tense by the indonesian writers in using rvs with 93 or 42.08% followed by past tense with 85 or 38.46%. the examples of rvs in present tense and past tense are given below. extract 4 data from the directorate general of plantations in 2012 shows that 3% of the rubber-wood plantations in indonesia are replanted annually, resulting in approximately 844,500 m3 of rubber-wood waste (jets-6). extract 5 food and agricultural organization (fao) reported that animal products should be increased by 60%-70% to fulfill the demand for the worldwide population in 2050 (makkar et al., 2014)(tasj-2). extract 4 in the above example was taken from ra introduction in the field of engineering & technology with the title of ‘torrefaction of rubber-wood waste: the effects of particle size, temperature & residence time, retrieved from the journal of engineering and technological sciences itb, vol. 52(2), 137-152. the verb shows in the context above uses the verb in the form of present tense and therefore, it is categorized as present tense. extract 5 was taken from ra introduction with the title of ‘immune responses and egg productions of quails fed rations supplemented with larvae meal of black soldier fly (hermetia illucens)’, attained from the journal tropical animal science journal, march 2020, 43(1), 4349. the use of the verb reported indicates a past tense. therefore, the verb reported in this context is classified as past tense. iv. discussion the first question addressed in this research is what groups of rv are frequently used in the introduction section of english ras written by indonesian writers in multidiscipline. the results show that the most frequently used groups of rv are argue and show groups. this is probably because, the verb groups of show are used to express validity, effect, and sort of confirmation to what has been found and to emphasize and demonstrate research findings thomas & hawes (1994). according to junnak (2016), writers use these two groups of rv when referring to research findings on similar topics. these findings confirm hyland’s hypothesis that writers in the social sciences and humanities tend to use rv groups of argue than those in other rv groups (hyland, 2002). this finding resembles that of yeganeh 66 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) & boghayeri (2015)this study investigated the frequency of the most used reporting verbs and their function in the introduction and literature review sections of research articles (ras, who revealed that like english native speakers, iranian writers used argue group of rvs more frequently in social science than natural science texts while the use of show group of rvs was more frequent in natural science than in social science texts. according to jafarigohar & mohammadkhani (2015), the diversity of linguistic competence between native and non-native writers of english did not affect the use of citation in their academic writings. this implies that the ras used in this study, although written by indonesian writers or non-native speakers of english, are already similar to those written by english native speakers in terms of the use of rvs. this is because, the journals from which the articles were taken for the corpus of this research, are already reputable international journals indexed by international journal indexing organizations such as scopus and/or web of science. the second question put forward in this study is what rss (reporting noun, reporting adjective, and reporting adjunct) are most frequently used by indonesian writers in their english ra introductions. the results show that the most frequent rss used in the data of this research are reporting nouns. according to nanyue (2013), reporting noun is different from reporting verb in which it does not use a verb to refer to cited reference but a noun phrase such as ‘previous studies’ and ‘scholars in the field’ (p.14). this finding may imply that the indonesian writers are more familiar with reporting nouns in academic texts such as journal articles than reporting adjectives and reporting adjuncts. nanyue claims that reporting adjectives (e.g. so-called, concerned) and reporting adjuncts (e.g. according to, in the words of) are more often found in spoken language than in written one. thus, the indonesian writers may have met samples of reporting nouns in the references they read more often than reporting adjectives and reporting adjuncts. the last question posed in this study is what tenses of rvs (present tense, past tense, and present perfect tense) are most frequently used by the indonesian writers in multidiscipline in their english ra introductions. the results show that the most frequent tenses of rv found in the ra introductions are present tense and past tense. this is probably because of a convention in academic writing that when writers cite research results of previous studies they use a past form of rv when they cite writers’ opinion or idea they use a present form of rvs, and present perfect tense of rvs are used when pointing at an area of analysis (swales and feak, 2012). according to swales and feak (2012) the change from past tense to present perfect tense and then to present tense shows that the cited information is near the author’s investigation in various forms, such as near the author’s assumption, near the topic or the author’s research results, or near the theory that is commonly admitted. this implies that the indonesian writers of the ras in the data of this research prefer citing research results and general information or knowledge rather than referring to an area of inquiry in their ra introductions. similar findings were reported by un-udom & un-udom (2020)the current study aimed at investigating (1, who revealed that 50.21 % of rvs found in their applied linguistics articles were in past tense. according to un-udom and un-udom, this could be because of the characteristic of the literature review in ra introduction which focuses on what people have done; therefore, the use of past form verbs are commonly found. however, this finding is different from that of arsyad et al. (2018), who found that the most frequent tenses of rv in their medical ras written by native speakers of english are present tense and present perfect tense. according to arsyad et al., this is because the ra writers in the corpus of their study prefer citing general knowledge and information from collective writers rather than citing the findings of a particular research. v. conclusion from the results and discussion, it can be concluded that 1) the most frequently used groups of rv are ‘argue’ and ‘show’ groups, 2) the frequent rss used in the ra introductions included in this study are reporting nouns, and 3) the most frequent tenses of the rv found in the ra introductions are present tense and past tense. these findings are similar to those of previous relevant studies and this implies that indonesian writers in multidiscipline have complied with international standards in using rvs and rss when writing in english and published in 67 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) reputable international journals. in other words, indonesian writers in multidiscipline who have successfully published articles in reputable journals in indonesia have no or minimum problems in using rvs and rss when writing in english. thus, the indonesian writers published in reputable international journals in multidiscipline have been familiar with the citing style including the use of rvs used by international writers probably because they always read and cite articles published in international journals in english. suggestion this research included only articles already published in reputable international journals in multidiscipline written by indonesian writers and therefore, the results do not imply that all indonesian writers such as young faculty members and postgraduate students have no or minimum problems in using rvs and rss when writing ras in english. to know whether or not young researchers and postgraduate students have problems in using rvs and rss in their ras, a further study on the same or similar topic is needed to include articles in multidiscipline written by postgraduate students and newly recruited faculty members. besides, although it is found that, the majority of indonesian writers in multidisciplines published in reputable or indexed international journals in english do not have problems in using rvs and rs in their ra introductions it may not be the case for indonesian young faculty members and postgraduate students. therefore, it is important to introduce them to how to use rvs and rss appropriately when writing journal articles especially those to be submitted to a reputable journal. this is because the choice of rvs and rss in a journal article will affect the quality of the article and therefore will determine whether or not the article can be accepted to be published in a particular journal. the introduction can be through explicit teaching on how to use rvs and rss in ras or via indirect teaching while the students or the young faculty members read published ras in english. acknowledgments this research was financially supported by the english education postgraduate program of education faculty of the university of bengkulu in 2020. therefore, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to them. references adnan, z. 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(2009). a contrastive study of reporting in master’s theses in native chinese and in native english. august. 70 safnil arsyad/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) appendix research instrument article code : article number : 1. the use of reporting verbs reporting verb groups description & examples frequency paragraph and line numbers argue verbs dealing with speaking, writing and other forms of communication, e.g. argue, suggest, point out, write, conclude, claim, maintain, propose, imply, and mention. think verbs dealing with thinking, including, having a belief, knowing, understanding, hoping, fearing, e.g. think, assume, feel, hold, and believe. show verbs indicating a fact or situation, e.g. show, demonstrate, and reveal find verbs referring to coming to know or thinking something, find, observe, discover, and indicate add verbs concerning with the relationship of something that is said or written to something else that has been said or written, e.g. add, repeat, and verify 2. the use of reporting statements types of reporting statements examples frequency paragraph and line number reporting nouns e.g. previous studies, scholar in this field, etc. reporting adjectives e.g. so-called, concerned, etc. reporting adjuncts e.g. according to, in the words of, etc. 3. tenses of reporting verbs tenses description and examples frequency present tense reference to state of current knowledge e.g., native speaker norms in german and english differ (kasper, 1981). past tense reference to single studies e.g., kasper (1981) showed that native speaker norms in german and english differ present perfect reference to areas of inquiry e.g., some scholars have found that learning strategies are crucial in second language learning.71 nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 130 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this paper aims to explain the variation of the numeral form, which means ‘one’ in the numeral classifier of the batak angkola language of pintu padang isolect and to describe the pattern of use of each of these forms. data was collected by using observation and interview methods. observation is done by listening to speakers communicate with each other. interviews were conducted by directly asking three informants who met specific requirements and with several other sources. data analysis was carried out using segmenting immediate constituents technique by dividing the lingual unit into numerals and classifiers. based on the study results, it can be concluded that in the batak angkola language of pintu padang isolect found, ten variations of the numeral form, which means ‘one’ followed by a numeral classifier. the variation of the numeral form, which means ‘one’, is determined by the initial phoneme of the numeral classifier it follows in this case, the addition of a phoneme similar to or the same as the following phoneme. however, it is still limited to specific numeral classifiers. the numeral form still dominantly used is the form that has not experienced the addition of a phoneme. keywords batak angkola language; numeral classifier, numeral means ‘one’, phoneme, variation correspondence e-mail: nadra@hum.unand.ac.id article the variation of numeral form mean ‘one’ in numeral classifiers of the batak angkola language nadra nadra1, sri wahyuni2, radhia elita3, khofifah aisyah amini4 1-3faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 4postgraduate student of the department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1. introduction this research has two main purposes those are to define the bound numeral classifier form variations meaning ‘one’ and the use of each form in batak angkola language. the batak angkola language is one of the regional languages in indonesia spoken in the region of angkola, south tapanuli regency, north sumatra province. this research is urgent to do as one attempt to identify both language universality and particularity in order to learn the existence of the numeral classifier. the numeral classifier is a post-posed word of numeral by it conforming to a phrase numeral phrase (ramlan, 1993). it always appears with the numeral. this is accordingly to mizuguchi’s statement (2004:26) that “numeral classifiers are the classifiers that occur with a numeral or a quantifier”. likewise, miho (2004) said that the numeral classifier is one of the post-posed words following numbers showing both nature and type of object based upon both form and meaning. the numeral classifier functions to group, and to count the objects. of course, both grouping and counting deal with the objects concerned. so many are the object types measured, that a number of researchers divided numeral classifiers into various categories. the research on numeral classifiers was already done in many languages across the globe among other by hopper (1986) investigating numeral classifier in malay, huang and ahren (2003) did a research in chinese, yamamato and keil (2000), and miho (2006) did it in japanese. prihantoro (2012), did a research over mankind’s classifier in korean with several comparisons to indonesian, lambisa (2018) conducted a research on numeral classifier in siamese and its use, and the last one is park (2022) did a research on two types of plural and numeral classifier in languages, mainly, in korean. in indonesia, the study in numeral classifier is still quite limited. this was ever done among others by marnita (1996), wahyuni received: september 28, 2022 final revision: october 21, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.130-136.2022 nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 131 (2006), maryani and wijana (2011), nadra cs. (2014), nadra and wahyuni (2015), and wahyuni cs. (2017a, 2017b, and 2018), oktariantika (2019), and kasih (2021). compared to the languages existing, the research on numeral classifier is quite a few let alone compared to the number of languages available in indonesia, it goes to the second rank of the most languages across the world next to papua new guinean (eberhard dkk. (2022). this paper focuses on the bound numeral form variations meaning ‘one’ in numeral classifier of batak angkola language, particularly spoken at pintu padang isolect, south tapanuli regency. this is interesting to investigate for there are many bound numeral form variations meaning ‘one’ as it attached to the numeral classifier. 2. methods the type of this research is field one. the data of this research is obtained from the informants originating from the area of pintu padang namely one of the batak angkola speech areas populated by indigenous batak angkola native speakers living in south tapanuli regency, north sumatra province. the method used in data collection is participant observational and interviews. the observation is done by listening to batak angkola language speakers communicating among them (observational method). the results observed are bugged by taking-note and whose techniques are called note-taking and bagging techniques. the interviewing technique is structurally done by raising direct questions to the already selected informants under a conditioned requirement such as the native speaker of the language concerned, s/he is not highly educated, s/he has perfect speech organs/ apparatus (nadra and reniwati, 2009). a number of questionnaires are prepared earlier in order to facilitate the data collection in the field, the eliciting technique is also used in interviewing method. the questionnaire previously prepared is in form of conversational material in order to elicit the informants to speak the data expected (sudaryanto, 2015). the informant’s answer is recorded on the note prepared earlier. besides, the interview is done not in a structured way with some other speakers in order to recheck the data validity already obtained. 3. results and discussions the naming of a numeral is bound to the meaning ‘one’ in a numeral classifier based upon the fact that numeral itself does not appear alone but it always joins the numeral classifier it follows. the bound numeral form depends upon the classifier it follows. the free numeral to mean ‘one’ in pintu padang isolect is sada. never is it used together with the numeral classifier. thus, the phrasal form of *sada batu tarutung ‘one fruit of durian’ is not recognized so is the phrasal form *sada ikur manuk ‘one tail of chicken’ not recognized. as to refer to the same phrase, thus, sambatu tarutung ‘one seed of durian’ and saikur manuk ‘one tail of chicken’ are used. the followings are the research results on the bound numeral form variations meaning ‘one’. 1) form sam‘one’ these forms are found in classifier such as: a. sambatu example: (1) sambatu arambir one-cl coconut ‘one fruit of coconut’ (2) sambatu tarutung one-cl durian ‘one seed of durian’ (3) sambatu mangga one-cl mango ‘one seed of mango’ b. sambola example: (1) sambola botik one-cl papaya ‘one fruit of papaya’ (2) sambola parira one-cl durian ‘one fruit of petai’ (3) sambola arambir one-cl coconut ‘a fruit of coconut’ c. sambuhu example: (1) sambuhu jari one-cl finger ‘a node of finger’ d. sampagul example: sampagul salak one-cl salak ‘a bunch of salak’ nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 132 e. sambaris example: sambaris alak one-cl people ‘a line of people’ based upon the data shown above, the form sam‘one’ attaches to the numeral classifier to /p/ and /b/ phonemes initial. however, it does not applies for classifier such as batang ‘tree’, bunbun ‘stack (paddy)’, bukkus ‘pack’, pastak ‘area’ (18 x 18 m)’, and pasang ‘pair’. those forms take the use of form sa‘one’. example: (1) sabatang sigaret one-cl cigarette ‘a piece of cigarette’ (2) sabunbun eme one-cl paddy ‘a stack of paddy’ (3) sabukkus indahan one-cl rice ‘a pack of rice’ (4) sapastak saba (18 x 18 m) one-cl rice field ‘a portion of (18 x 18 m) rice field’ (5) sapasang sipatu one-cl shoe ‘a pair of shoes’ 2) form san‘one’ these forms are found in numeral classifier such as following. a. sanjopput example: sanjopput sira one-cl salt ‘a bit of salt’ b. sanjojar example: sanjojar parira one-cl petai ‘a strap of petai’ c. sanjokkal example: sanjokkal tali one-cl tie ‘a finger-span of tie’ form san‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier phoneme /j/ initial. (3) bentuk sang‘one’ these form are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sangulas example: sangulas ute one-cl orange ‘a slice of orange’ b. sangaum example: sangaum indahan one-cl rice ‘a sap of rice’ c. sanggolom example: sanggolom indahan one-cl rice ‘a grab of rice’ the form of sangas in the example above is attached to the numeral classifier that begins with the vowels u, a, and consonant g. 4) form sat‘satu’ the form are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sattalbu example: sattalbu jaung one-cl corn ‘a cob of corn’ b. satciat example: satciat pisang one-cl banana ‘a bunch of banana’ c. sattakkil example: (1) sattakkil burangir one-cl betel ‘a stalk of betel’ (2) sattakkil parira one-cl petai ‘a sprig of petai’ (3) sattakkil ancat one-cl lansium fruit ‘a stalk of lansaium fruit’ d. sattupak example: sattupak eme one-cl paddy ‘a stack of paddy’ the form sat‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier of phonemes /t/ and /c/ initial. besides, form sa‘one’ is also found in numeral classifier of phoneme /t/ initial as follows. nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 133 e. satabung example: sattalbu jaung one-cl corn ‘a cob of corn’ note: satabung danon ‘a tube of rice’ in a count of this isolect equals to 16 takar ‘calibration’, and one takar of rice equals to one tin sweetened condensed milk. f. satumba example: satumba lomang one-cl bamboorice ‘a stick of bamboo rice’ the numeral classifier of tumba is the particular one for lemang. 5) bentuk sar‘one’ those forms are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sarruang example: sarruang tarutung one-cl durian ‘a segment of durian’ b. sarruas example: sarruas tobu one-cl sugar cane ‘a node of sugar cane ’ c. sarratting example: sarratting laksiaklamod one-cl little chili ‘a twig of little chili’ example: the form sar‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier of phoneme /r/ initial. 6) form sak‘one’ these forms are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sakkodong example: (1) sakkodong bulung arambir one-cl coconut leaf ‘a piece of coconut leaf ’ (2) sakkodong baju one-cl shirt ‘a piece of shirt’ b. sakkaut example: sakkaut rimbang one-cl rimbang ‘a grab of rimbang’ c. sakkamata example: sakkamata botik one-cl papaya ‘a fruit of papaya’ the form sak‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier of phoneme /k/ initial. other than that, sa is also found in the numeral classifer of phoneme / k/ initial as follows. (1) sakilo example: sakilo lasiak one-cl chili ‘a kg of chilli’ (2) sakodi example: sakodi seng one-cl roofing ‘one score (the normal quantity of wholesale purchase of clothing or roofing) roofing’ (3) sakubik example: sakubik pasir one-cl sand ‘a cubic (meter) of sand’ (4) sakumpulan example: sakumpulan alak one-cl people ‘a group of people’ 7) form sal‘one’ these forms are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sallambar example: (1) sallambar bulung one-cl leaf ‘a piece of leaf ’ (2) sallambar karote one-cl paper ‘a piece of paper’ (3) sallambar papan one-cl board ‘a sheet of board’ b. sallobong example: sallobong arambir one-cl coconut ‘a half of coconut’ the form sal‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier of phoneme /l/ initial. however, the form nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 134 sa‘one’ of numeral classifier of phoneme /l/ initial as follows. (1) salupak example: salupak saba one-cl rice field ‘a portion of rice field’ (2) salappis example: salappis tire one-cl curtain ‘a piece of the curtain’ 8) form sas‘one’ these forms are found in numeral classifier as follows. sassusuk example: (1) sassusuk sate one-cl sate ‘a stick of sate’ (2) assusuk cenel one-cl cenel ‘a stick of cenel (a kind of snack)’ the form sas‘one’ attaches to numeral classifier of phoneme /s/ initial. 9) form sap‘one’ these forms are found in numeral classifier as follows. a. sappoul example: sappoul indahan one-cl rice ‘a grab of rice’ b. sappipil example: sappipil jaung one-cl corn ‘a grain of corn’ example: the form sapattaches to numeral classifier of phoneme /p/ initial. hence, the bound numeral meaning ‘one’ as it attaches to the numeral classifier of /p/ initial having three variations as well namely sam-, sap-, and sa-. 10) form sa‘one’ the form sa‘one’ is not only found in the numeral classifier such as already described in the previous analysis and there was found in the numeral classifier of phonemes /m/ and /g/. the following items are the examples of numeral classifier phoneme /m/. example: (1) samayang pisang one-cl banana ‘a bunch of banana’ (2) samakkuk bubur one-cl porridge ‘a bowl of porridge’ (3) samotor pasir one-cl sand ‘a truck of sand’ the next one is the example of numeral classifier of phoneme /g/ initial. example: (1) sagalas aek one-cl water ‘a glass of water’ (2) sagalendong bonang one-cl thread ‘a roll of thread’ (3) sagonggam danon one-cl rice ‘a grab of rice’ (4) sagarombolan bodat one-cl monkey ‘a group of monkey’ (5) sagandeng arambil one-cl coconut ‘a splice (consisting of two) coconut’ the other numeral classifiers also use sa-. example: (1) saikur manuk one-cl chiken ‘a chicken’ (2) sadorngok aek one-cl water ‘a sip of water’ (3) saippal sira one-cl salt ‘a lump of salt’ example: (1) based upon the description above, there are found ten variations of bound numeral form meaning ‘one’ in the isolect of batak angkola language at pintu padang. all the ten forms are (1) sam-, (2) san-, (3) sang-, (4) sat-, (5) sar-, (6) sak-, (7) sal-, (8) sas-, (9) sap-, and (10) sasuch variations are influenced by the numeral classifier following the bound numeral meaning ‘one’. the form samis found when it is followed by both of /p/ and /b/ phonemes initial. the form nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 135 sanis found as the numeral classifier following it is phoneme /j/ initial. the form satis found is found when it is followed by /t/ and /c/ phonemes initial. next one is the forms sar-, sak-, sal-, sas-, and sapare found accordingly to the same phoneme as the numeral classifier they follow namely sar is found if it is followed by the numeral classifier of phoneme /r/ initial, the form sakis found if it is found with numeral classifier of phoneme /k/ initial, the form salis found if it starts with phoneme /l/, the form sasis found if it is followed with the numeral classifier of phoneme /s/ initial, and the one of sap is found if it is followed with the numeral classifier initially starts with phoneme /p/. the last form is sa-. the form sais the most general one. although it is said that the form variations from (1) to (9) is found suitable with the initial phoneme of numeral classifier following it, in fact, such a thing does not applies to all numeral classifier if follows. they are found in the data mentioned above and the form sais used for other numeral classifier. 4. conclusion based upon the bound numeral form analysis meaning ‘one’ in batak angkola language at pintu padang, there are found ten variations. the appearance of such variations is due to the initial phoneme of the numeral classifier it follows. it is caused by the phonemic addition in the bound numeral. the additional phoneme meant is in the form of assimilation or modification to the initial of the numeral classifier so that it falls into homorganic phoneme resembling the initial phoneme of the numeral classifier it follows. however, such an addition does not occur at the all bound numeral classifiers. hence, it is necessary to conduct a further research in order to elaborate more deeply the numeral classifier forms such as what causes the change of form to happen in the bound numeral classifier. acknowledgement this article was part of our research with the title “numeral classifier study of the angkola batak language as a reflection of the nation’s cultural character and supporters of cultural resilience”. this research was funded by andalas university through the rpb scheme (first term/year, 2022). we would like to say thank you very much for funding this research. we also would like to express our deep gratitude for the fund provided for this research. expression of thanks also goes to those who helped this research. without the help and support from others, this research may not be done properly. references eberhard, david m., gary f. simons, & charles d. fennig (eds.). (2022). ethnologue: languages of the world. online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. hopper, paul j. (1986). “some discourse function of classifiers in malay”, noun classes and categorization (ed. craig). amsterdam: jhon benjamins. huang, c.r. & ahren, k. (2003). “individuals, kinds and events: classifier coercion of nouns”. language science. vol. 25, pages 353 -373. kasih, arum rindu sekar. (2021). “kata penyukat dalam bahasa jawa”, medan bahasa, vol. 15, no. 1, pages 1-9. lambilsa, arporn & cholsy. (2018). “kata penyukat dalam bahasa thai dan pemakaiannya”. tesis magister linguistik, universitas gadjah mada. yogyakarta. marnita, rina. (1996). “classifier in minangkabau”. m.a. thesis. canberra: australian national university. maryani, zulisih & wijana, i dewa putu. (2011). kata penyukat dalam bahasa indonesia. thesis. repository universitas gadjah mada. miho, tadao. (2006). kazoekata no nihonshi. tokyo: yoshikawa koubunkan. mizuguchi, shinobu. 2004. individuation in numeral classifier languages: a case of japanese classifiers and plurals. tokyo: shohakusha. nadra & reniwati. (2009). dialektologi: teori dan metode. yogyakarta: elmatera publishing. nadra & sri wahyuni. (2015). “numeral classifier used in the cookbooks”. international journal of nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 136 linguistics. vol. 7. no. 6, pages 19-37. nadra, sri wahyuni, & mahsun. (2014). “bentuk dan penggunaan kata penggolong benda di pasar induk tradisional di jakarta dan surabaya”. litera. vol. 13, no. 2, pages 237-249. oktariantika. elsa. (2019). “kata penyukat hasil pertanian dalam bahasa minangkabau di kecamatan lembah gumanti, kabupaten solok”. skripsi jurusan sastra minangkabau, univeritas andalas. padang. park, so-young. (2022). “two types of plurals and numeral classifiers in classifier languanges: the case of korean’, journal of east asian linguistics, vol. 31, pages 139-177. ramlan, m. (1993). tata bahasa indonesia: penggolongan kata. yogyakarta: andi offset. sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. wahyuni, sri. 2006. “indonesiago no ruibetsushi numeral classifier in indonesian”. journal memoir of the faculty of education shimane university. vol. 39, pages 101-118. wahyuni, sri, nadra, & ria febrina. 2017a. “the mensural numeral classifier based on the local wisdom of minangkabau community at tanah datar regency”. international journal of linguistics. vol. 9, no. 5, pages 261-281. wahyuni, sri, nadra, & ria febrina. 2017b. “the minangkabau local wisdom in numeral classifier for food ingredient counter case of halaban isolects, lima puluh kota regency”. proceeding 3rd international seminar on linguistics (isol-3). wahyuni, sri, nadra, & ria febrina. 2018 “numeral classifier bahasa minangkabau isolek aia bangih”, presented in kongres bahasa indonesia xi, jakarta. yamamoto, kasumi & frank keil. 2000. the acquisition of japanese numeral classifier: linkage between grammatical form and conceptual categories”. journal of east asian linguistic, vol. 9, pages 379 409. tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 15, 2020 final revision: march 20, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 this paper aims to discuss the comparison between possessive constructions in russian and indonesian noun phrases. since both of the languages have different grammatical systems, their possessive constructions may also be different. the differences are discussed using a contrastive analysis approach. however, the similarities between them are also taken into consideration following one of the practical purposes of contrastive analysis, namely, to aid the translation process. the theory employed in this research is eclectic. the research method employed in this research is descriptive method with contrastive analysis model. in addition, for translation analysis, word-for-word and literal methods are used here. the data in this research are collected from the russian national corpus and some selected literary works in russian and indonesian. the result suggests that there are some structural differences and similarities between russian and indonesian in terms of word order, attributive categories, and grammatical categories of the elements constituting noun phrases. the results of this comparison can be referred to in the translation of possessive construction of both languages so that the closest equivalent is found following the rules of each language. keyword possessive construction, noun phrase, russian and indonesian, contrastive analysis, translation correspondence phone: 08122006207 e-mail: t.yulianty@unpad.ac.id article possessive construction in russian and indonesian noun phrases: contrastive analysis and translation tri yulianty karyaningsih1,2 1,doctoral student of faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia 2russian department, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas padjadjaran, bandung, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.86-99.2020 i. introduction in the era of globalization, cooperation between countries is increasingly open. russia and indonesia have maintained cooperation in various fields and continue to increase. even though there have been various technological aids and tools that help overcome a language barrier, language as a means of communication is still relevant in an interaction. therefore, being fluent in the russian language helps support these cooperations. however, for indonesians speakers who learn russian as a foreign language, the most difficult challenge they usually face is the difference between the grammatical systems of the two languages. this situation is in line with the assumption of contrastive analysis, which views grammatical differences is one of the significant factors in language learning. contrastive analysis is a branch of linguistics that compares languages by focusing on contrast (james, 1980: 2). comparison through contrastive analysis can be applied to certain levels or units of language, including possessive construction. possessive construction is a universal phenomenon (setiawan, 2015: 1) found in many languages. possessive, narrowly-defined, refers to the semantic relationship of ownership, whereas its broader definition encompasses genitive semantic relationships in general, including partitives, subjective, and objectives (kobozeva, 2015: 249251). the semantic relationship of possessive can be in the form of predicative and attributive or adnominal constructions (stassen, 2001, in wang and xu, 2013: 8). the scope of this research is limited to the discussion on the possessive 86 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) construction asserting ownership and focused on possessive construction in noun phrases (nps) or in the form of attributive construction. possessive construction in nps is also found in many languages as reviewed by grashenkov (2007) on a cross-language typology of possessive construction and by helmbrecht (2016) on siouan languages. however, since every language has a different grammatical system, possessive construction in every language may vary, including in russian (ru) and indonesian (in). the following are some examples of possessive constructions in ru and in (translation) nps. (1) a. moja komnata my room pron.1s.f.s.nom n.f.s.nom b. kamar saya room my n pron.1s ‘my room’ (2) a. otčova komnata father room adj.f.s.nom n.f.s.nom b. kamar ayah room father n n ‘father’s room’ for example (1) and (2), ru possessive constructions moja komnata and otčova komnata are both np with the noun komnata ‘room’ serving as the head. similarly, in the in translation, the possessive construction is an np with the noun kamar ‘room’ serving as the head element of the phrase. for example (1), both attributive elements in ru (moja ‘my’) and in in (saya ‘i/my’) are pronouns (pron). however, in example (2), the attributive element of the ru noun phrase, otčova ‘(owned by) father,’ is an adjective, whereas in the in translation, it is a noun. this is one of the differentiating characteristics between ru and in. in addition to that, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (adj) in ru have grammatical categories of gender, number, and case, whereas in in, they do not. these grammatical categories form a syntactic connection between the nouns as the head and their attributes (kostomarov & maksimov, 2010: 482; walgina, 2003: 50). as indicated by the linguistic markers below each ru nps above, pronouns and adjectives correspond with their feminine (f) gender, singular (s), and nominative (nom) case. grammatical categories that constitute the concordance connection are also related to the word order in that the head is placed after the attribute (krylova & kavronina, 1988: 33, 40). such a category also does not exist in the indonesian grammatical system. in the in, word order generally follows the rules of the modifiedmodifier rule (dm). that is another differentiating character between the two languages. differences between the two languages can be understood as the uniqueness of each language. even more, russian and indonesian are genetically, morphologically, and syntactically different. as stated by karyaningsih (2018: 2), these differences can be a problem when both languages are used simultaneously as in language learning and translation activities. although contrastive analysis focuses more on the differences as stated above, but for practical purposes such as translation, contrastive analysis also considers the similarities. therefore, this research focuses on the contrastive analysis of possessive construction in ru and in noun phrases to identify the differences and similarities. based on the examples above, there are differences in terms of attributive categories and word order and how they are determined. other than those three, possessive construc-tion in np has a specific use, which may also involve cultural factors. for example, the in personal pronoun saya ‘i/my’ in example (1), has a variant, namely aku/-ku, which is usually used in a more intimate conversation. such variant does not exist in ru. they will be observed in this research in a view to getting a proper comparison model that serves the purpose of contrastive analysis. comparison model derived from this contrastive analysis is the characteristic of contrastive analysis as “pure” or theoretical linguistics (james, 1980: 8), the result of the analysis can be utilized in the field of translation (nur, 2016: 4) as the application of contrastive analysis (james, 1980: 8). baker (1998, in sukirmiyadi, 2018: 32) states that the relationship between contrastive analysis and translation was bidirectional, i.e., specific pieces from translation result can provide the data for 87 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) contrastive analysis. otherwise, contrastive analysis can provide explanations of difficulties encountered in translation. williams and chesterman (2002, in karyaningsih 2018: 5) explain that the comparison model is one of the theoretical models in seeking translation equivalence. this model also views translation as an alignment problem through the selection of the target language elements that are more equivalent to ones in the source language. therefore, this approach is closely related to contrastive analysis. in any language, the relation of possessive meaning is usually expressed by more than one construction (helmbrecht, 2016: 423). different possessive constructions and their various uses can be a problem in translation (kostadni, 2012: 104). in light of that, by making use of the contrastive analysis result of possessive constructions in ru and in noun phrases, this research will also discuss the translation of that possessive construction in both languages. discussions on possessive constructions are usually found in grammar books, such as conducted by alwi (2003) and kostomarov and maksimov (2010), especially the ones specialized in a syntax such as conducted by chaer (2015) and walgina (2003), in the chapter about phrases. however, very few of them discuss this topic in detail. there has been some previous relevant research on possessive construction in ru. kobozeva (2015) and sushkova (2007) discussed the semantic relations of predicative and attributive possession. also, kakvaeva (2009) discussed possessive construction in the comparative study of the genitive meaning in lak and ru. in possessive construction has been discussed by setiawan in his research (2015), in which he described the possessive constructions used in lte’s in some newspapers in indonesia. in addition, salamun (2019) also made a comparison between the possessive patterns in ambon dialect in dan standard in. a contrastive analysis of the ru and in in translating the noun phrase with an adjective as its attribute (karyaningsih, 2018). these sources are used as references in this study. there have not been any specific discussions on the comparison between ru and in possessive constructions. therefore, this research aims to obtain a more accurate and more detailed description of the subject in finding the adequate equivalences which can be used in ru-in translation and vice versa. furthermore, this research can also be used as a model of language studies through contrastive analysis for other language phenomena, specifically in ru and in, the results of which can be used for theoretical and practical purposes. ii. methods the method employed in this research is descriptive method. the data are collected through reading and writing techniques, as stated by sudaryanto (2015: 6-8). the data are texts derived from the russian national corpus (www.ruscorpora.ru.). they are then analyzed using the contrastive analysis method with two main steps, namely description, and comparison (james, 1980: 27). at the step of description, possessive construction in nps of each language is described in detail. the sentences/clauses in which there are noun phrases with possessive construction are provided as supporting data. this is carried out to get the proper context related to the np as a language unit that serves the syntactic function in a clause/ sentence, as well as concerning grammatical categories, particularly in ru. therefore, syntactic analysis is carried out in this step of the research with the immediate constituent analysis as the basic technique (in sudaryanto, 2015: 35) to determine the syntactic function of np with possessive construction in a clause/sentence, as well as morphological analysis related to grammatical categories. in the comparison step, it includes the description of the differences and similarities of possessive constructions in np of both languages. at this step, the equivalence method is used with determinant in the form of another language (sudaryanto, 2015: 15-18). to reach a form that does not exist in in, ru is used as the point of departure in the comparison by providing equivalent lingual units in in to identify the differences and similarities. np with possessive construction that is compared is derived from the data in the form of clauses/sentences. the final stage in this step is formulating the comparison. the final step in this research is to translate np with possessive construction in a ru and in clause/88 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the following data sample. (3) dedova krovat’ stojala grandfather bed stood adj.f.s.nom n.f.s.nom s p v perednem uglu, ... in front corner adv (maksim gorky. detstvo. in russian national corpus) ‘‘grandfather’s bed was in the front corner, ...’ (4) i on pošel v kuhnju, nadejas’ and he went to kitchen hoping nayti tam maminu sumku. find there mother bag adj.f.s.ac n.f.s.ac p adv o (v.f. panova. pro mityu i nastyu. in russian national corpus) ‘and he went into the kitchen, hoping to find mother’s bag there.’ on the data (3) it seems that the function of the syntactic subject (s) filled by np with possessive construction dedova krovat ‘grandfather’s bed’. the attributive adjective dedova is formed from noun ded ‘grandfather’ by adding suffix and adjectival flexion as the marker of grammatical categories of gender, number and case. similarly, in example (4), the np maminu sumku ‘mama’s bag’ is a possessive construction, in which the adjective maminu is formed from noun mama ‘mama’. however, the syntactic function of that possessive construction is object (o). the syntactic functions can also be seen through the grammatical category of cases, namely nominative to s, accusative (ac) for o. besides, as shown in the linguistic markers listed under these phrases, the head corresponds to the attribute in terms of grammatical categories of gender, number and case, thus form a concordance relation. therefore, the noun’s position is behind the attributive adjective so that the pattern of the possessive construction is adj + n. 2). np with pronouns as attributes pronouns are classified into nine different types. one of them is possessive pronoun ‘prityazatel’nye mestoimeniya’, which in its combination with nouns in an np expresses the meaning of sentence. in translation, the term source language (sl) and target language (tl) are known. in this research, both ru and in can be the sl and tl because in this research, observed how possessive construction on ru noun phrases translated into in, and vice versa. the method applied in this translation is a word-for-word translation method, then a literal translation method to reach the nearest grammatical equivalences (see newmark, 1988: 45-46). the data as an example of the translation material derived from the russian and indonesian literary works. iii. result and discussion contrastive analysis of possessive construction in russian and indonesian nps semantic relation in possessive construction, both in ru and in, is generally a possessum (possessed) relationship with the possessor (kobozeva, 2015: 1; setiawan, 2015: 77). in np, the possessum as the head is a noun, while the possessor can be certain categories. possessive construction in russian nps possessive construction stating the meaning of ownership in ru nps can be realized through the relation of meaning between the head noun with adjectives, pronouns, and nouns as attributes of the phrase (sushkova, 2007: 118). 1). np with adjectives as attributes adjectives are categories that are generally used as an attribute on the np because of its main function in characterizing objects. in general, adjectives are categorized into three types: (1) qualitative adjectives that directly characterize objects such as krasivyj ‘beautiful’, sinij ‘blue’; (2) relative adjectives that indirectly characterize objects, employing their relation to something else such as material (kirpicnaja stena ‘brick wall’), time (utrennij spektakl’ ‘morning performance’); and (3) possessive adjectives asserting ownership by a person or animal (kostomarov & maksimov, 2010: 483-484). of the three types, possessive adjectives are particularly used to express the possessive meaning. possessive adjectives are formed morphologically from nouns by adding suffixes and adjectival flexion, as can be seen in 89 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the syntactic function of the subject. while in (6), np with possessive construction tvoego syna ‘your son’ has a syntactic function as an object. it can be seen from the accusative case. as in (5), pronoun as the attribute of np in (6) shows the concordance relation in gender, number, and case with the noun. therefore, its position is in front of the head (pron + n). 3). np with nouns as attributes nouns are also used to express the possessive construction in the np. the attributive noun is standing in the genitive (gen) form of grammatical categories as the possessor (sushkova, 2007: 118), and morphologically differentiator of the head noun. the syntactic relation between these phrase’s elements is government relation, i.e., the attribute takes the form of certain cases due to the head demands (kostomarov & maksimov, 2010: 449). in related phrases such, the head is placed in front of the attribute. it can be said that the possessive construction in nps is patterned n + n. here are some examples of sentences with np as the possessive construction. (7) komnata otča stojala pustaja, room father stood empty n.f.s.nom n.m.s.gen s p comp (d. s. likhachev. vospominaniya. in russian national corpus) ‘father’s room was empty,...’ (8) valja razvešivaet na verevocke valya hangs on string s p adv postirannoe bel’je – rubašku washed clothes shirt n.f.s.ac sergeja i dve mayki. sergei and two t-shirt n.m.s.gen (a. n. arbuzov. irkutskaya istoriya. in russian national corpus) ‘on the line, valya hangs the washed clothes – sergej’s shirt and two t-shirt.’ in sentence (7) and (8), komnata otča ‘father’s room,’ as the subject, and rubašku sergeja ‘sergei’s shirt’, as an object, are np with otča ‘father’ and sergeja ‘sergei’ as the attributive nouns. the ownership (kostomarov & maksimov, 2010: 515) of property by someone or something. as well as personal pronouns, possessive pronouns also refer to 1st, 2nd, 3rd person, singular, and plural (p). however, they are different in forms, namely ja ‘i,’ ty ‘you’, on/ona/ono ‘he/she/it(m/f/n)’, my ‘we’, vy ‘you’, and oni ‘they’. these forms are classified as personal pronouns, whereas moj ‘my’, tvoj ‘your’, ego/ejo ‘his/her’, naš ‘our’, vaš ‘your’, ih ‘their’ are possessive pronouns. moreover, the possessive pronoun svoj ‘own’ used in a sentence/clause refers to a person’s own self, for example, nina ubrala svoju komnatu. ‘nina cleaned her own room’. the possessive pronoun has the grammatical categories of gender, number, and case, which in combination with the noun, indicates the concordance relation through the flexion (except the third person). therefore, the noun head is placed behind the attribute (pron+n). here are examples of possessive constructions in np with a possessive pronoun as attributes. (5) moj brat ros krasivym my brother grew handsome pron.1s.m.s.nom n.m.s.nom s p podrostkom zapadnoevropejskogo teenager west europe tipa. (sergey dovlatov. 1983. nashi. type in russian national corpus) ‘my brother grew up as a handsome teenager of the west european type.’ (6) kažetsja, ja ljublju its seems i love s p tvoego syna, ... your son pron.2s.m.s.ac n.m.s.ac o (galina shcherbakova. 2001. mal’cik i devocka. in russian national corpus) ‘i think i love your son,...’ in example (5), moj brat, as the subject of the sentence, is the np, which possessive pronoun moj ‘my’ as its attribute. the flexion -oj is a grammatical category’s marker of masculine (m), singular, and nominative case, which shows the concordance relation with the head noun brat ‘brother’. hence, the position of the head is after the attribute. except that, through nominative case can be determined by 90 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) flexion of a genetive case on the attributive noun, i.e., a or -ja, can express the possessive meaning explicitly. the establishment of an attributive noun, in this case, forms the head noun demands that the syntactic relation of which is government. in such relation, the head positioned in front of the attribute, as shown in (7) and (8), so that the pattern of possessive constructions in this phrase is n + n. the syntactic function of phrases can be viewed through the flexion of the head noun cases. in (7), -a (komnata ‘room’) is a marker of the nominative case that shows the function of the subject. in (8), -u (rubašku ‘shirt’) is a marker of the accusative case that shows the function of the object. possessive construction patterned n + n such as komnata otča ‘dad’s room’ synonymous with (possessive) adj + n pattern such data (2) above, namely otčova komnata ‘dad’s room’ (walgina, 2003: 38). however, such a possessive construction used in colloquial (kostomarov & maksimov, 2010: 484). possessive constructions patterned n+n can be expanded as additional explanatory of other elements, such as komnata otča ‘dad’s room’ becomes komnata moego otča ‘my dad’s room,’ but possessive constructions patterned adj+n can not be expanded to *moja otčova komnata. possessive construction in indonesian nps possessive construction of in can be realized by nps with nouns and pronouns as its attributes (setiawan, 2015: 81). 1). nps with nouns as attributes the grammatical meaning of ownership to the np has a pattern of n+n (chaer, 2015: 123) with n, who plays behind an attribute as the owner (wijana, 1991: 13). chaer (2015: 123) said that the first n has a meaning component (+possessed objects), and the second n is (+human) or (+institution). mcgregor (2009, in setiawan, 2015: 78) and wijana (1991: 13) adds that the second n might also not human beings, but animals. word order as a pointer of the relation between phrase’s elements is generally patterned dm (modified-modifier) (salamun, 2018: 54) and applies strictly, so changing the word order in a phrase can significantly change the meaning or even bring a non-grammatical form. therefore, word order in this np with possessive construction cannot be exchanged. the relation of possessive meaning in np can be made explicit with the insertion of the word milik ‘belong to’ or dari ‘from’ as a relator (chaer, 2015: 123). the following are some examples in which there is np with possessive construction. (9) rumah maria agak jauh dari house maria rather far from n n s p kampus, di sebelah selatan kota. campus on side south city (damono. 2015: 98) ‘maria’s house is rather a distance from the campus, in the south of the city.’ (10) di kantor polisi ia diterima in office police he received baik-baik karena menyatakan well because state bahwa ia kakak rusdi. that he brother rusdi n n s p (damono. 2015: 108) ‘at the police station, he was well received because he said that he was rusdi’s brother.’ in sentence (9) and (10), nps rumah maria ‘maria’s house’ and kakak rusdi ‘rusdi’s brother’ are constructed with nouns (maria and rusdi) as the attributes. the attributive noun phrases are determined by its placement behind the head noun (dm pattern) is fixed. this can be seen in repositions of the phrase elements, which will bring the nongrammatical form (*maria rumah, *rusdi kakak). the possessive meaning in that both phrases can be made explicit with the insertion of the word milik ‘belong to’ or dari ‘from’ (rumah milik maria, kakak dari rusdi). np serves the syntactic function in a sentence and in in is generally determined by word order. shown in (9), rumah maria is a subject in the sentence and the position is in front of the predicate. in (10), kakak rusdi is a predicate, which the position is behind the subject of the sentence. 2). nps with pronouns as attributes attributes of the nps with the possessive meaning can be realized by personal pronouns and can also be enclitic as its variant forms, such as -ku ‘my’, 91 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) -mu ‘your’, -nya ‘his/her’, -kau ‘your’ (wijana, 1991: 13). attributive pronouns in these fns are positioned behind the head noun or patterned dm (salamun, 2019: 54). the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person, singular and plural of personal pronouns can have more than one form, such as saya/aku ‘i’, kamu/ engkau/anda ‘you’, ia/dia/beliau ‘he/she’, the use of which related to the formality, social relationships such as age, social status, and familiarity. also, the 1st plural person, there are two forms, namely kami (exclusive) and kita (inclusive); on the 2nd plural person there are kalian ‘you’, kamu sekalian, anda sekalian ‘you all’ which also the use is related to age and social status (alwi et al, 2003: 249-258). the following are examples of the noun phrase with possessive construction in a sentence. (11) saya sungguh tidak tahu apakah i do not know whether segalanya itu menunjukkan bahwa everything that shows that nasib saya telah menjadi fate my has become n pron.1s s p korban takdir manusia. victim destiny human comp (damono. 2015: 5) ‘i do not know whether everything shows that my fate has fallen victim to human destiny.’ (12) orang tua mereka merasa bangga parents their feel proud n pron.3p s p anak-anak mereka ikut berjuang,... children their join struggle n pron.3p s p (damono. 2015: 26) ‘their parents feel proud that their children join in the struggle.’ in the sentences above, nps nasib saya ‘my fate’ in (11) and orang tua mereka ‘their parents’ and anak-anak mereka ‘their children’ in (12) are the possessive construc-tions. the attributive personal pronouns are a 1st singular person (11) and 3rd plural person (12), which is positioned after the head noun (dm pattern). the exchange of that position can cause grammatical errors (*saya nasib) or change the structure of the phrase into a sentence/clause or change the attributive structure into predicative (mereka (adalah) orang tua ‘they are parents’, mereka (adalah) anak-anak ‘they are children’). the positioning of the pronouns after the head can be argued as a possessive marker in both of the sentences above. in order to make the possessive meaning more explicit, one can insert the word milik/dari (nasib milik/dari saya, orang tua/ anak-anak dari mereka). like phrases in general, this np construction is a single unit with one syntactic function in a sentence and generally can be determined by the word order. in the sentences above, nasib saya, orang tua mereka, anak-anak mereka are noun phrases that serve as the subjects and are placed before the predicates. comparison of possessive construction in russian and indonesian noun phrases based on the description in the previous section, the following is the comparison of possessive construction in ru and in nps. the ru possessive constructions, which are classified by attributive categories, are used as the point of departure in this following discussion. each lingual unit in the in possessive construction counterparts is compared here. nps with adjectives as attributes for example, the ru noun phrase in (3) dedova krovat’ ‘grandfather’s bed’ suggests possessive meaning. it’s similar to the same lingual unit in in noun phrase in (9), rumah maria ‘maria’s house’. the phrases above are compared as follows. russian indonesian dedova krovat’ grandfather bed adj.f.s.nom n.f.s.nom ‘grandfather’s bed’ rumah (milik) maria house(belongs to) maria n rel n ‘maria’s house.’ it can be seen that in the ru possessive construction, the attribute is expressed by adjective, whereas in uses noun to express possessive. in ru, this attribute is placed in front of the head related with the grammatical categories of gender, number, and case. through these grammatical categories, this phrase shows the syntactic relation of concordance 92 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) between noun and adjective, namely masculine, singular, and nominative case. on the other hand, such grammatical categories do not exist in the in. the relation between phrase elements is determined by word order, in that attribute is placed after the head, following the rule of in. possessive meaning in the ru noun phrase can be seen from the possessive adjective implying ownership. no relator is required. on the other hand, possessive meaning in the in noun phrase is implicit in that a relator can be inserted between the phrase elements. based on the above description, the formula of comparison between ru and in possessive construction can be argued as follows: russian indonesian • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive adjectives is adj+n. • there are grammatical categories of gender, number, and case forming concordance relation related to word order. • relator is not inserted among the elements of the phrase. the relation of meaning can be determined through the basic lexical meaning of the possessive adjective. • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive nouns is n+n. • no grammatical categories. word order follows the general formal rules of modified-modifier (dm). • a relator can be inserted (optional) to make possessive meaning explicit. nps with pronouns as attributes following is the comparison of possessive construction in nps with the attributive pronouns in ru and in. russian np in example (5) and indonesian np in example (11), are used here as an example. russian indonesian moj brat my brother pron.1s.m.s.nom n.m.t.nom ‘my brother’ nasib saya fate my n pron.1s ‘my fate.’ it can be seen that the ru possessive construction is constituted by a noun serving as the head and a possessive pronoun, i.e. 1st singular person moj ‘my’, serving as the attribute. like an adjective, a pronoun is placed before the noun related to the grammatical categories of gender, number, and case, so that the syntactic relation between phrase elements is a concordance. as seen in the linguistic markers of the np above, the grammatical category it is masculine, singular, and nominative. possessive meaning is explicitly expressed morphologically by the possessive pronoun that inherently expresses the meaning of ownership. while the counterpart in the in, the possessive construction in np is attributed to a personal pronoun with a position behind the noun (dm rule). it also applies as the revealer of a possessive relation. there are variants of this possessive form so that the possessive construction can also have variants, namely personal pronoun saya (nasib saya ‘my fate’) and enclitic -ku ‘my’ which derived from aku (nasibku, nasib aku ‘my fate’). the use of both variants must be observed related to the social status, age, or proximity, i.e., aku further demonstrates familiarity. based on the descriptions of possessive constructions in nps with attributive pronouns, the following is the formulations of the comparative results. russian indonesian • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive (possessive) pronouns is pron+n. • no variations. • there are grammatical categories of gender, number, and case forming concordance relation related to word order. • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive (personal) pronouns is n+pron. • there are variations associated with formality, social status, age, familiarity. • there is no grammatical category. word order follows the general formal rules of modifier-modified (dm). nps with nouns as attributes the following example is the possessive construction in np derived from the ru data (8), as well as a comparable lingual unit in in derived from the data (9).93 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) russian indonesian rubašku sergeja shirt sergei n.f.s.ac n.m.s.gen ‘sergei’s shirt’ rumah (milik) maria house(belongs to) maria n rel n ‘maria’s house’ for example (8), attributive noun is placed behind the head noun. it appears that the noun has grammatical categories of gender, number and case, but this does not form a concordance relation to the np. relation between phrase elements is the government relation, which is the head noun demanding attributive noun standing in the genitive case. this case can explicitly express the possessive meaning. therefore, the attribute is placed behind the head. at comparable in in, possessive construction in the np (9) is also attributed by noun with the position behind the head. this word order tends to be strict with dm rule. possessive meaning can be made explicit with the insertion of the word milik ‘belong to’ (rumah milik mari ‘house belong to maria) as an optional relator. referring to the explanation, the comparison of possessive construction in nps with attributive noun can be formulated as follows. russian indonesian • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive nouns is n+n. • attributive noun standing in the genitive case form due to the syntactic relation of government, which is related to the word order and making possessive meaning explicit. • the pattern of possessive construction in np with attributive nouns is n+n. • there is no grammatical category of cases. word order follows the general formal rules of modified-modifier (dm). the relator can be inserted to make the possessive meaning explicit. translation of possessive construction translation from russian to indonesian here are some examples of the ru clause in which there are possessive constructions in the np to be translated into in. the data are taken from the short story by anton chekhov entitled ispoved ‘ and na gvozde. (13) cerez mesjač ejo mamen’ka selang bulan dia mama after month her mother pron.3s.m n.f.s.nom adv s byla už moej teščej ... become has my mother-in-law pron.1s.f.s.ins n.f.s.ins p comp (chekov, ispoved’) in data (13) there are two possessive constructions in the np, namely: ejo mamen’ka and dia ibu her mother pron.3s.m.nom n.f.s.nom moej teščej saya mertua my mother-in-law pron.1s.f.s.ins n.f.s.ins the possessive constructions are built from nouns serving as the head and possessive pronouns serving as the attributes which are positioned in front of the head. in the linguistic markers under russian nps, grammatical categories can be related to the word order based on the syntactic relation of concordance between the head noun and the attributive pronoun. in the translation into in, possessive constructions in both of the above phrases can also be expressed by the third person of persoal pronoun, namely enclitic -nya ‘his/her’ instead dia ‘he/she-his/her’, and the first person, i.e. saya ‘i/my’ or enclitic -ku ‘my’ used when showing intimacy. the absence of grammatical categories of gender, number and case in indonesian grammar led to a relation of phrase elements is based on the word order in general, that the attribute is follow the head (dm rule). so, possessive constructions in the np in in are: ‘ibunya’ and ‘mertua saya/-ku’ mother her mother-in-law my n pron.3s n pron.1s syntactic function in the ru can be seen through a grammatical category of cases. np possessive constructions in the data (13), ejo mamenka ‘her mother’ stands in the nominative case as a pointer function of the subject, while the phrase moej teščej ‘my mother-in-law’ stands in the 94 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) instrumental case (ins) that in the clause serves as a complement (comp) predicate byla uz ‘has become’. meanwhile, the syntactic function of words in in is based on the pattern of word order in sentences that generally puts the subject in front of the predicate and complement accompanying predicate. based on this, the ru clause (13) can be translated into in becomes sebulan kemudian ibunya sudah menjadi mertua saya: ... or sebulan kemudian ibunya sudah menjadi mertuaku: ... ‘a month later her mother became my mother-in-law’. (14) cinovnye želudki sžalis’ pegawai perut mengerut clerk stomach constrict adj.p.nom n.p.nom s p ot gorja: golod ne tetka, ... karena derita lapar bukan main because suffer hungry extreme adv (chekov, ispoved’) possessive construction in data (14) is: cinovnye želudki pegawai perut clerk stomach adj.j.nom n.j.nom attribute in np above, cinovnye, is a possessive adjective formed from noun cinovnik ‘clerk’ by adding suffix and adjektival flexion -ye. the linguistic markers under the np show that between phrase elements appears the syntactic relation of concordance. this relation can determined through the grammatical categories that can be related to the word order in a phrase, that is the attribute is positioned in front of the head. in there translation into in, possessive construction on that np embodied by the noun serving as attribute. the absence of grammatical categories in in makes the relation between phrase elements based only on the word order in general, that the attribute is behind the head (dm rule). therefore, possessive construction in the np in in is: ‘perut pegawai’ stomach clerk n.s n.s however, the adjektival flexion of -ye and nominal flexion -i in the ru noun phrase show the plural. therefore, to express the meaning of the plural in the in can be realized among others through lexical reduplication or by adding a word with the plural meaning. therefore, the ru phrase in in becomes: ‘perut para pegawai’ stomach clerks n.s np grammatical categories of cases in ru can be the marker of syntactic functions, namely nominative case as the marker function of the subject. while the syntactic function of words in in, as well as the word order in a phrase, referring to pattern of the word order, which is the subject generally precedes the predicate. therefore, the ru clause in (14) can be translated into in becomes perut para pegawai mengerut karena menderita: lapar bukan main, ... ‘the clerk’s stomachs constricted because of suffering: extremely hungry ...’ (15) ..., vsjo pereportila kar’era semua merusak karier everything ruined career n.f.s.nom o p s struckova! struchkkov n.m.s.gen (chekov, na gvozde) in clause (15), the possessive construction is: kar’era struckova karier struchkkov career struchkov n.f.s.nom n.m.s.gen a seen above, np is constructed of a head with a noun as an attribute to the position behind the head. the linguistic markers show that there are grammatical categories in the ru phrase that can be related to the word order based on the syntactic relation between the phrase elements. in (15), np forms a government relation, which is the head noun demands the attributive noun standing in the genitive case. this case inherently can also contain the grammatical meaning of possession. in their translation into in, possessive construction in the np is also expressed by a noun that is also positioned behind the head. however, this position is not related to the grammatical category that 95 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) does not exist in the in grammar. it is based on the general rules of the word order in in phrase, which is the attribute is behind the head (dm rule). therefore, the possessive construction such as ru in in are: ‘karier struchkov’ career struchkov n.s n.s np syntactic function can be seen from the grammatical category of noun cases in the head noun. in (15), the head noun kar’era ‘career’ stands in the nominative case, so this syntactic function of np is subject, although the np position after the predicate in that sentence. while the syntactic function of words in the in can be viewed through the word order in a sentence, which is usually the subject is placed before the predicate. therefore, the clause ru in data (15) can be translated into in: ..., karier struchkov telah merusak segalanya! ‘struchkov’s career has ruined everything.’ or can be expressed in passive: ..., semua telah dirusak oleh karier struchkov. ‘everything has been ruined by struchkov’s career.’ translation from indonesian to russian here’s an example of a sentence that included a possessive construction in in noun phrase, which translates into ru. sentence of this data is taken from the novel of sapardi djoko damono entitled trilogi soekram (2015). (16) dan kau kan sudah menjual i ty ved’ uže prodal s p barangbarangmu ... vešč’ n.j pron.2s o (damono, 2015: 10) possessive construction in sentence (16) is: barang-barangmu vešč’ tvoj belonging your n.p pron.2s attribute of the np above provided by pronoun are prepared by the enclitic -mu ‘your’ as shortening of kamu ‘you/your’. attribute stands behind the head corresponding general rule of the word order in an in phrase, which is patterned dm. while the translation into ru, possessive pronoun serves as the attribute on this phrase, but with the position in front of the head. it is because of having the grammatical categories which is it must conform to the grammatical categories of noun or forming a syntactic relation of concordance. therefore, the possessive construction in ru is: tvoj vešč’ kamu barang your belonging pron.2s.m.s.nom n.f.s.nom however, because between the noun and pronoun is connected by the concordance relation, the pronoun must adjust to the grammatical categories of the noun. the head noun in the in phrase, namely barang-barang ‘belongings’, indicating the plural, then the translation in ru morphologically manifested through flexion of the plural marker. thus, in possessive construction is translated to the ru becomes: tvoi vešči kamu barang your belonging pron.2t.j.nom n.j.nom syntactic functions in in sentence are generally determined by the word order in a sentence, while in ru syntactic functions can be seen from the grammatical categories of cases so that the word order is not the primary determinant. in sentence (16), the syntactic function of possessive construction is the object, which in in generally stands after the predicate. while the ru, the object function is expressed by the accusative case. because the form of the accusative case of the unanimate nouns (barang ‘belonging’) equal to the form of the nominative case, then the np structure above can be used. therefore, in sentence in (16) is translated into ru: i ty ved ‘ uze prodal tvoi vešči. .. ‘and you’ve already sold your belongings to go home’. however, please note that the sentence contained personal pronoun kamu/ty ‘you’ as subject or agent. in such sentences in the ru, the existence of a possessive pronoun usually refers to the subject/agent so used the possessive pronoun svoj ‘own’. thus, in sentence in (16) is usually translated into ru becomes: ‘i ty ved’ uže prodal svoi vešči.... ‘and you’ve already sold your belongings ...’.96 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) (17) suara soekram menghentikan golos sukram ostanovil voice sukram stopped n.s n.s s p khayalan ibunya. grezy materi ego daydreams mother his n.s n.s pron3s o (damono, 2015: 18) possessive constructions in the sentence on the data (17) are: suara soekram and khayalan ibunya golos sukram grezy mat’ ego voice sukram daydreams mother his n.s n.s n.s n.s pron3s the first possessive construction is a combination of head noun with the noun as the attribute standing behind the head according to the rule of the word order in an in phrase, which is patterned dm. the possessive meaning in this np is implicit. in their translation into ru, possessive construction in this phrase can be noun as the attribute with a position behind the head. however, this placement is related to the syntactic relation between phrase elements, namely the government, which is the head demands the form of the attributive noun cases. it also deals with the relation of meaning. the meaning of possession in the ru can be made explicit by a genitive grammatical category through the flexion -a as a marker of the masculine, singular. so, this in possessive construction in the ru is: golos sukrama suara soekram voice sukram n.m.s.nom n.m.s.gen meanwhile, the construction of the 2nd np is contained of the head noun and the combination of noun and pronoun. the pattern of this phrase is n + np (n + pron), with enclitics pronoun -nya ‘her/ his’. this pattern corresponding general rule of the word order in an in phrase, which is patterned dm. in their translation into ru, possessive construction with the noun head in front of the attributive noun is also combined with possessive pronoun. this word order is related to the syntactic relation between phrase elements, namely the government relation, which is the noun head demands the form of the attributive case, such as the genitive as a marker of the possessive meaning. while the combination of noun and pronoun also form a possessive meaning, pronoun are placed in front of the noun. therefore, the 2nd in possessive construction of (17) in ru patterned n + np (pron + n), with the 2nd n, mat’ ‘mother’, stands in the genitive case becames materi. as an attribute, possessive pronoun ego ‘his’ is the 3rd singular person, masculine, which is refers to soekram (soekram’s/his mother). so, this second in possessive construction in the ru becomes: grezy ego materi khayalan -nya ibu daydreams his mother n.j.nom pron3s.m n.f.s.gen syntactic functions of phrases in in are determined by the word order in a sentence, which is generally subject precedes predicate and an object behind the predicate. while in ru, syntactic function in the sentence is related to the grammatical category of cases in the head noun. since both the np in in sentence occupy the function of subject and object, the head noun in translation in the ru must stand in the nominative case (subject) and accusative case (object) that’s unanimate nouns of the same form with the nominative case. therefore, in sentence in (17), can be translated into ru becomes golos sukrama ostanovil grezy ego materi. ’sukram’s voice stopped her mother’s daydreams.’ iv. conclusion possessive construction in ru and in noun phrases show the differences, that is, in word order, attributive categories, and grammatical categories, which relate to each other in the ru. grammatical categories can be related to make possessive meaning explicit and the syntactic relation between phrase elements that affect the word order. so, the syntactic function of the phrase in the sentence, which can be seen from the grammatical category of cases. while the system of grammatical category does not exist in in, the relation between phrase elements is indicated through the word order. it is generally patterned dm strictly so that the relation of meaning to the phrase is more implicit. similarly, 97 tri yulianty karyaningsih / jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) the syntactic function in the sentence is determined by word order. while the similarities are in the construction of np with the noun head attributed by a noun and the word order (n+n). however, this is merely due to the nature of language itself, not because of their similarity in grammatical. in contrast, differences in the two languages related to the possessive construction are due to the differences in grammatical. this can be seen as the difference of language typology, i.e., the ru is an inflected type, whereas in is an agglutinative one. the formulation of the comparison results showed these contrasts could help in the translation of the possessive constructions in both languages, so we get an adequate translation following the rules of each language. ru translation of in to more grammatically complex, because it is not only the categories and word order can be different, but it should also be observed grammatical categories in the ru, which does not exist in in. while the translation of possessive constructions with the pronoun serving as an attribute of in to ru, should be examined variants that may be related to social distance, formality, and intimacy. in this study, the semantic aspect of possessive relations is not discussed thoroughly. also, there are different forms, but synonymous. it can be traced through the semantic features of the phrase elements so that various types of semantic relations of possessiveness can be specified, and the forms of synonym can be distinguished. acknowledgments some material of this article has been written as part of the author’s ongoing dissertation project. for that, the authors would like to thank prof. dr. i dewa putu wijana, s.u., m.a. and dr. amir ma’ruf, m.hum. as the promoter and co-promoter. references alwi, hasan, et al. 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(1991). frase nomina beratribut nomina. laporan penelitian. fakultas sastra universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta. 99 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 09, 2020 final revision: november 10, 2020 available online: april 20, 2021 it is a fact that language is dynamic, and nothing can not stop it from changing. this dynamism has implications for the use of various languages among indonesians. the youth mostly uses it because they are active and massive users of technology and social media. this research aims to describe the form and character of the linguistic variation of slang which is popularly used by the millennial generation. in this study, data is taken from social media, and direct informants then analyzed using a qualitative descriptive method. the results showed that four types of linguistic variation of slang which is popularly used by the millennial generation such phonology (32,29%), morphology (22,92%), syntax (4,17%), and semantics aspect (40, 63%). based on the results, the millennial generation’s most dominant type of semantics aspect with 39 data (40, 63%). it means that millennials preferred using more slang utterances modified in semantic elements. millennials did not completely change or create many new meanings. they retained the meanings of existing references only in the forms of new terms. keyword slang, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics correspondence e-mail: dosen02404@unpam.ac.id articles indonesian lingual variation use among millennials in the industrial revolution era 4.0 ratna juwitasari emha1, dede fatinova2 1,2universitas pamulang, banten, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.35-45.2021 i. introduction indonesia is currently in the era of the industrial revolution of 4.0. this era is also known as the era of advancements in the field of technology. such an obvious issue also has an impact on other scientific fields, such as linguistics. basically, language is a purely dynamic human product. such constant change has significant implications for the use of varied languages among indonesians. slang is a language variation phenomenon that shows a shifting or changing in a language form and meaning that occurs temporally. adolescents use it to show their social identities (wirawan & andriany, 2019; larasati, 2018; preece, 2018; setyawati, 2014; eble, 2006; drake, 1980, allen, 1998; mattiello, 2005, 2008; smith, 2011). eble (1996) has a similar perspective with the previous statement that slang is an ever-changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness within a group or with a trend fashion in society at large. it can be said that slang that exists and popular nowadays will change continually because this phenomenon is changing dynamically. indonesian slang phenomenon has existed since the 1970s (preece, 2015; manns, 2010: 79), it has developed among adolescents as an identity and culture. there are several differences between indonesian slang in the past and the era of the 4.0 industrial revolution: slang distribution area, the scope of slang community, and media. in the indonesian slang distribution perspective, it was only known by a limited scope in the past. it is only spread among the youth communities in big cities. today, slang has spread widely, not only in big cities (suhardianto & suryani, 2018; zhuo & fan, 2013). in the perspective of indonesia slang use, it is used to be only popular in the informal sector in a particular community, while currently slang is also used in the formal sector, such as schools and offices (suhardianto & suryani, 2018: 164; wijana, 35 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) 2011). in the perspective of how indonesia slang’s spread, it spread through the media of fiction books adapted by the movie then spread through radio, which was then used by certain youth communities. today, slang can spread massively due to technological advances and social media use (suhardianto & suryani, 2018: 164; zein & wagiati, 2018: 243). there is another perspective that is the most interesting issue to discuss the indonesian slang that developed in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0, it is called the form of indonesian slang. the variations of the linguistic form of slang that emerged in indonesia and were popularly used by the millennial generation in the industrial revolution 4.0 have unique and different characteristics from the previous ones. the linguistic form varies in all internal linguistics levels, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. in the phonological aspect, there are variations in phoneme changes. in the morphological aspect, there are variations in affixation, while in the syntactic aspect, there is a change in the type of word class, while in semantics, new words or terms appear but still have existing meanings, or vice versa. researchers are interested in analyzing the lingual variation of slang in the indonesia millennial generation from this background. ii. methods the data in this study are the linguistic variations of popular indonesian slang among millennials. nonetheless, the current research focuses on studying slang languages in terms of four internal linguistics levels. the data are taken from social media and direct informants. the data collection technique was an observation method by listening to language use (mahsun, 2005). the techniques that are used in this research were a recording technique and a taking note technique. it was done to record linguistic variations of the slang language used by the informants. this research was analyzed using a qualitative approach with descriptive analysis. descriptive analysis is a method that describes, describes a phenomenon that is currently occurring by using scientific procedures actually to answer problems (sutedi, 2009). it can systematically describe the informants’ slang language’s linguistic variations, which were then classified according to certain patterns. in this study, the writer will also describe the lingual variation data qualitatively. iii. result the dynamics of indonesian lingual variation use in the current millennials can be categorized as slang phenomena. such an obvious phenomenon is not a new issue in indonesia, yet as time evolves, slang language has changed from time to time because it is temporal (chaer & leonie, 2010: 67). various forms of slang language can be in the form of words, phrases, or clauses. here are some examples of popular slang languages before the era of the industrial revolution 4.0: maknyus, sakitnya tuh di sini, wanipiro, hujan becek ga ada ojek (swandy, 2017: 9). based on data sources, the researchers found that occur in four internal systems of language; phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics that use among millennials. it will be summarized in the following table 1. tabel 1. distribution of indonesia slang-formation analyzed by four internal linguistics aspects distribution of indonesia slang-formation aspects f % phonology 31 32,29 morphology 22 22,92 syntax 4 4,17 semantics 39 40,63 total 96 100,00 1) phonology the dynamics of indonesian lingual variation use of millennials occur at the phonology level as a branch of linguistics that examines the smallest unit of language, the phoneme (muslich, 2010: 1). it focuses on the existence of changes in language sounds in some vocabularies that emerge in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0. the language change occurs in several classifications of language sound changes, including zeroization, metathesis, and phoneme replacement. table 2 shows the detailed distribution and frequency of data included in the phonological study.36 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) in table 2, it could be highlighted that in terms of phonological aspects, language use among millennials was dominated by pr (phoneme replacement), with a percentage of 9,38%. each of the categories will be explained in more detail in the subsection below. a) zeroization it is the elision of phonemic sounds to shorten pronunciation. it is considered a non-standard word form in indonesian (muslich, 2010: 123). it is divided into three categories, apheresis, apocope, and syncope. apheresis (aps) apheresis is the process of phonemic elision located at the beginning of a word. indications of such apheresis occur in the following data. (1) sa ae lu the clause “saaelu” actually consists of three words, “bisaajelu”. the term “sa” is apheresis of the word “bisa”, phonemes /b/ and phonemes /i/ are deleted from the word to shorten pronunciation. (2) khan maen the phrase “khan maen” consists of two words, “bukan” and “main”. the term “khan” is the apheresis of the word “bukan”, phonemes /b/ and /u/ are deleted from the word in order to shorten pronunciation. apocope (apo) it is a phonemic omission process located at the end of words. these indications occur in the following data. (2) halu the word “halu” comes from the word “halusinasi”, then the word experiences an apocopial process, thus the phoneme /s/, /i/, /n/, /a/, /s/, /i/ experiences elision in order to shorten pronunciation. syncope (synco) syncope is a phoneme elision located in the middle of a word. these indications occur in the following data. (1) sa ae lu the word “saaelu” consists of three words, “bisaajelu”. furthermore, the word “aje” experiences a syncope process, the phoneme elision of /j/to shorten pronunciation. (2) mon theword “mon” is derived from the word “mohon”, then the word experiences a syncope process, thus the phonemes /h/ and /o/ are deleted to shorten pronunciation. b) metathesis (mts) it is a change in the phonemic order of a word thus it becomes two competing words. these metathesis indications occur in the following data. (1) kuy the word “kuy” is derived from the word “yuk” which undergoes a metathesis process, and therefore the order of the words gets changes. at first, the word order is phoneme /y/, /u/, /k/to/k/, /u/, /y/. (2) woles the word “woles” comes from english which refers to slow. furthermore, this word experiences a metathesis process, from the beginning, the phoneme sequences /s/, /l/, /o/, /w/ become /w/, /o/, /l/, /e/, /s/. the emergence of phonemes /e/ between phonemes /l/ and /s/ is an anaptiksis process, the addition of vowels between two consonants to facilitate speech. (3) sabi the word “sabi” has the standard form “bisa”. the word “bisa” consists of two syllables, /bi + sa/, then the word experiences metathesis process become / sa + bi/. in this case, the metathesis process takes place in the form of syllables. tabel 2. phonological data classification and percentage 37 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) c) phoneme replacement (pr) it is a phoneme change that occurs randomly and without a pattern. this type does not include the previous classification mentioned. indications of phoneme change occur in the following data. (1) santuy the word “santuy” is a non-standard form of the word “santai”. in this regard, the phoneme /ai/ in the word “santai” is changed to /u/ and /y/. the reason is that the sound /i/ in diphthong /ai/ which is pronounced as /y/. (2) sangad the word “sangad” comes from the word “sangat”, where the phoneme sound /t/ changes to the phoneme /d/. this happens because the phoneme sound /t/ as apikodental is adjacent to the phoneme /d/ as apicoalveolar sound. (3) misqueen the word “misqueen” is a non-standard word of “miskin”. furthermore, due to the same pronunciation in indonesian of the phonemes /k/ and /q/ it is so-called dorsovelar. the phoneme /ee/ is the result of an adaptation of english which is pronounced as the sound [i]. d) combination of sound changes (csc) the combination of sound changes is a process of deleting and adding phonemes to a word. in the combination process of phoneme sound changes, there are three types categorized in such idea, apheresis + phoneme replacement, apocope + phoneme addition, syncope + phoneme addition, syncope + replacement + phoneme addition. apheresis + phoneme replacement (aps+pr) apheresis and phoneme replacement is a word that results from the process of apheresis and phoneme replacement. the indications of apheresis and phoneme replacement can be seen in the following data. (1) cius the word “cius” is derived from the word “serius” that experienced the process of apheresis, the elision of the phoneme /s/ and /e/ which is at the beginning of the word. subsequently, the phoneme /r/ is changed to phoneme /c/. based on such an indication, it can be seen that this phoneme modification occurs without a particular pattern. it is because, in a phonological way, the phonemes /r/ and phonemes /c/has no similar place of articulation. (2) udin the word “udin” comes from the word “sudah”. this word undergoes the process of apheresis, the elision of the phoneme /s/ at the beginning of a word. moreover, the phonemes /a/ and /h/ at the end of the word are replaced by the phonemes /i/ and /n/. apocope + phoneme addition (apo+pa) apocope and phoneme addition is a process in which there is a phoneme elision process at the end of a word which then experiences phoneme addition at the end of the word. indications of apocope and phonemes can be seen in the following data. (1) bangsul the word “bangsul” is derived from the word “bangsat” which experiences an apocopial process, the elision of the phoneme /a/ and /t/ at the end of the word, and thus the word becomes “bangs”. furthermore, phonemes /u/ and /l/ are added, then become “bangs”. the phoneme modification that occurs in the word “bangsat” aims to refine the use of the word in a speech. (2) cembokur the word “cembokur” comes from the word “cemburu” which undergoes an apocopial process, the elision of the phoneme /u/ at the end of a word, and thus the word becomes “cembur”. furthermore, the word is added to the phoneme /o/ and /k/ before the last two phonemes, then becomes “cembokur”. this also happens to the word “sendokir” which comes from the word “sendiri”. syncope + phoneme addition (synco + pa) this process is a combination of syncope and phoneme addition in a word. these indications can be seen in the following data. (1) jokul the word “jokul” comes from the word “jual” which experiences a syncope process, the elision of the phoneme /a/ in the middle of the word, thus it becomes /jul/. next, phonemes /o/ and /k/ are added between the first and third phonemes, and thus they become “jokul”. this also happens to the word “bokul” which comes from the word “beli”.38 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) syncope + phonem replacement + phoneme addition (synco + pr + pa) the combination of syncope, phoneme replacement, and phoneme addition is a process in which a word occurs three processes at once. these indications can be seen in the following data. (1) keles: /kɛləs/ the word “keles” is a non-standard form of the word “kali”. the word experiences a syncope process, that is, the elision of the phoneme /a/ and being replaced by the phoneme /ɛ/ into “kɛli”. then the phoneme /i/ is changed to phoneme /ə/ then to / kɛlə/, then the phoneme /s/ is added to the word and becomes /kɛləs/. 2) morphology morphology is a branch of linguistics that examines larger structures above the morphemes, which are the smallest units of language. based on in the current project, it is found there are three morphological processes: affixation, abbreviation, and acronym. details of distribution and frequency of data included in the morphological study were summarized in the following table 3. a) affixation indonesian prefix + english root word a new word-formation that results from the affixation process that involves an indonesian prefix added to the english root word. this indication can be seen in the following data. (1) sefruit = se+ fruit the word “sefruit” undergoes a morphological process of affixation called prefixes. in this regard, the prefix which is an affix in indonesian is gathered with the word fruit which is derived from english and has the indonesian meaning “buah”. thus, the word “sefruit” has the meaning of “sebuah”. english prefiks + indonesia root word english prefix + indonesian root word is a new word formation resulting from the affixation process which involves prefixes or english prefixes added with indonesian root words. these indications can be seen in the following data. (1) unfaedah = un+ faedah the word “unfaedah” experiences affixed morphological processes, called prefixes. in that word the first unwhich is an affix in english which has the meaning “no” next to the word “faedah” which comes from indonesian, thus the word “unfaedah” has the meaning tidak ada faedah atau tidak bermanfaat/no avail or useless”. (2) autongakak = auto+ ngakak the word “autongakak” experiences a morphological process called prefix. in that word the prefix autowhich is an affix in english has the meaning “directly” and is coupled with the word “ngakak” which means “to laugh”, and thus the word “autongakak” has the meaning “to laugh directly”. english suffix + indonesian root word english suffix + indonesian root word is a new word-formation that results from an affixation process that involves an english suffix that previously contained indonesian root words. this indication can be seen in the following data. (1) pelukable = peluk + -able the word “pelukable” experiences a morphological process of affixation, such as suffix. in the above example, the basic word is “peluk” in which it gets tabel 3. morphological data classification and percentage table 3 above demonstrated that from the review of morphological studies, indonesian lingual variation use among millennials has experienced many modifications which are dominated by shortening some vocabulary in the form of acronyms, with a percentage of 14,58%. each of the categories will be explained in more detail in the subsection below.39 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) an affix at the end of the word in the form of “able” which has the indonesian meaning “bisa”, thus the word “pelukable” has the meaning “evoking a desire to hug close”. b) abbreviation an abbreviation is typically a shortened form of words or a combination of letters used to represent the whole. these indications can be seen in the following data. (1) ootd term “ootd” morphologically experiences an abbreviation in a gradual type process. this is because the term ootd is a combination of initial letters of four words, called “outfit of the day”. this term is generally intended to a fashion context means what she/he wore today. c) acronym an acronym contains a set of initial letters from a phrase that usually form another word. this indication can be seen in the following data. (1) mantul the word “mantul” is a combination of two words, “mantap” and “betul”. this word then experiences an acronym process by taking the first syllable (man) from the first word, then it combines with the last syllable of the second word (tul). afterward, it becomes a new word, which is “mantul” which gives an extraordinary new meaning, yet it does not mean a backlash because it hits. (2) swag the word “swag” comes from english and is a combination of four words, “silver, wine, art, and gold”. this word is categorized as an acronym because it is a combination of words that originate from the initial letters of each word which can then be pronounced as a word. the use of this word is quite common among youths in indonesia. in its use, this word is used as an expression to express a cool or elegant figure. (3) curanrek the word “curanrek” is a combination of two words, “pencurian (thieft)” and “korek (lighter)”. the word includes an acronym because it experiences a morphological process, prefix omission of “pen” at the beginning of the word “pencurian” and phonemes /i/ on the rest of such word omission, and then it is combined with the last syllable from the word “korek”, that is “rek”, thus the term “curanrek” occurs. 3) syntax syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies structure that is higher than morpheme. syntactic studies focus on words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. in the data within the current project, the syntactic process is found, for example, changes of one-word class to another word class. a) change in word class it is a process of changing the category of words that arise due to differences in context in a sentence. this indication can be seen in the following data. details of the distribution and frequency of data included in the syntax study were summarized in the table 4. tabel 4. syntactic data classification and percentage in table 4 above, it could be seen that in terms of syntactic aspects, the indonesian language used by millennials was entirely a change in word class, with a percentage of 4,17%. each of the categories will be explained in more detail in the subsection below. (1) bucin a. jangan berperilaku seperti “bucin”! (do not act like a “bucin”!) jangan berperilaku seperti bucin! adv v p n predicate adverb b. bastian steel ungkap hal paling “bucin” pada shafa haris. (bastian steel revealed the most “bucin”-stuffs to shafa haris)40 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) bastian steel ungkap hal paling bucin n v n adv adj subject predicate object pada shafa haris prep n adverb in the two data, it can be seen that there are differences in word classes in the word “bucin”. in data (a) the word “bucin” belongs to the noun wordclass because it is preceded by words that have particle word class, whereas in data (b) the word “bucin” belongs to the adjective category. after all, it is preceded by words that have an adverbial word class. and therefore, it can be assumed that the word “bucin” has an adjective category if not previously preceded by words that have a particle word class. 4) semantics the data found there are three semantic indications: semantic shift, absorption of foreign terms, and new word-formation. details of the distribution and frequency of data included in the semantic study were summarized in the table 5. a) semantic shift indications of expansion, constriction, connotation, synesthesia, and association meaning of words are still in one field of the meaning formation process. it indicates that the meaning in a shifting of natural reference does not change but has an expansion or narrowing (parera, 2004: 107). the data found the expansion of meaning and the connotation of meaning. these indications can be seen in the following data. expansion of meaning the expansion of meaning is an indication of a shift in meaning, however, the meaning that emerges does not change from the essence of the previous meaning. (1) terciduk a. jentik nyamuk itu “terciduk” oleh ibu di bak mandi. (the mosquito larvae “is taken with a scoop” by mommy in the bathtub) b. muda mudi itu terciduk polisi di hotel melati. (the youth-unmarried couple “were caught” by the police at a hotel room) in the data (a) and (b) there are differences in the meaning of the word “terciduk” which is quite contrasting. in the data (a) the meaning of the word “terciduk” has a literal meaning (kbbi) “scooping up water with tools, can use coconut shells or other tools”. meanwhile, the word “terciduk” in data (b) has the meaning of being caught doing something that is not commendable. this indicates that the word “terciduk” experiences an expansion of meaning because the new meaning of such word in data (b) still has the same meaning as the word “terciduk” in data (a) which is taking something. (2) sultan a. sultan hamengkubuwono x berkunjung ke bandung untuk berwisata. (sultan hamengkubuwono x “king” visited bandung for a tour) b. sultan mah bebas! balap sepeda sambil bagibagi uang juga bisa. (sultan “a very rich man” can do anything! even spreading the money while riding a bike, they probably can do that.) tabel 5. semantics data classification and percentage in table 5 above, it could be seen that in terms of semantics, the use of indonesian among millennials was dominated by the creation of new words included in the category of new words with old meanings (pre-existing), with a percentage of 18,75%. each of the categories will be explained in more detail in the subsection below. 41 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) in data (a) and (b) there are significant differences in the meaning of the word “sultan”. the word “sultan” in the data (a) literally means the king (kbbi). while in data (b) the word “sultan” experiences an expansion of meaning into an expression that refers to someone who has a lot of wealth or a great power. components of the same meaning in both words are the character of the “sultan” who has wealth and dominance. (3) kaleng-kaleng a. mobil perang terbuat dari material baja “bukan kaleng”. (the car war was made from steel, it was not made from the thin-iron) b. anak kecil itu menyabet juara pertama taekwondo. kemampuannya bukan “kalengkaleng”! (the little boy won first place in taekwondo. his skills are “incredible”!) the word “bukankaleng” in data (a) and (b) has a different meaning. in the data (a) the word “bukankaleng” literally means not made of thincoated iron material (kbbi). meanwhile, in data (b) the word “bukankaleng” is a term that refers to something of high quality or extraordinary. this indicates that the word “bukankaleng” in data (b) experiences an expansion of meaning because it has the same meaning component in the word “bukankaleng” in data (a) which is not involving high cost or cheap. the connotation of meaning it is one type of change in meaning that experiences degradation or correction in the user community, or an idea that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning. in this regard, the meaning ultimately has a low final value or negative connotation. (1) cabe-cabean a. ibu membeli berbagai jenis cabe-cabean di pasar (mommy bought some variant of chilies “kind of vegetables” in the market) b. aku melihat sekelompok cabe-cabean berpakaian seksi. (i saw a group of chilies “the naughty underage girl” inappropriate-dressed) the meaning of the word in “cabe-cabean” experiences pejoration. in the data (a) it can be seen that the meaning of the word “cabe-cabean” does not have either a negative context nor condition of worsening or degenerating. according to the kbbi “cabai” means a kind of vegetable with a long round and pointed shape at the end, it has a spicy taste. meanwhile, the word “cabe-cabean” in data (b) is associated with the girl’s teenagers who wear sexy dresses and might start to work in prostitution. b) absorption of foreign terms the phenomenon of language use in millennial generations also originates from many foreign languages. the indications of this language can be found in the following data. (1) haul the word “haul” comes from english in urbandictionary.com is a shopping spree in that given area, showing products or clothing. then, this word is absorbed by the younger generation to show the collection of goods that he has bought in the form of clothing or other items. although at first the word “haul” is a foreign term, but along with the popular use of this word in millennials, this word sounds familiar nowadays. (2) sepik “sepik” comes from the english word “speak” which has the meaning of speaking. furthermore, this word is absorbed into indonesian by adding phonemes /ə/ between phonemes /s/ and phonemes /p/ to facilitate pronunciation. although in the beginning the word “sepik” has the meaning of speaking, however along with the popularity of its use by millennials, in certain contexts the word “sepik” has a different meaning, such as lobbying or persuading (to someone for particular purpose). (3) prank the term “prank” is derived from english which has the meaning of mischievous deeds. among the millennials in indonesia nowadays, “prank” is slightly used as a term for ignorant or provocative acts towards a victim and then secretly recorded and published for entertainment purposes. in indonesia, the word “prank” is very popular to be used as the title of video content that contains mischievous acts towards someone on a youtube channel. c) new word formation it arises from three possibilities, (1) a new form 42 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) with an old meaning, (2) a new meaning with an old form, (3) a new meaning with a new form (merchand in sulaeman, 2014). as for the data collected in this study, there are only two types, the new form with the old meaning and the new meaning with the old form. new forms with old meanings new forms with old meanings on new words or terms used by millennials actually have meaning in existing indonesian entries. this indication can be seen in the following data. (1) skidi papap the term “skidipapap” is a new term that is popular among millennials. in terms of meaning, this term has the same meaning as the term that has existed in the indonesian language entry which is sexual intercourse. (2) sue the term “sue” can be categorized as swearing words or expletives. at present, millennials use the term “sue” as a new term as meaning the same thing as the “sial (sue)” entry that has been listed in the kbbi. new meanings with old forms new meanings with old form means that the terms used by the millennial generation have already existed but contain different new meanings, with the meaning of entries that have been listed in kbbi. this indication can be seen in the following data. (1) receh the term “receh (coins)” is an old entry that has been listed in the kbbi which refers to the means of exchange or a legal standard for measuring values, issued by the government of a country in the form of silver or other metals. however, the current “receh” entry has a new meaning when it is used by millennials, such as something that less valuable or something not classy. as in the sentence: “guyonannya sangat receh (the joke sounds very bad)”. iv. discussion from all the data above, it can be concluded that there are four internal systems of language; phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics that use among millennials in the phonological aspect, language use among millennials was dominated by pr (phoneme replacement), with a percentage of 9.38%. this indicated that millennials tended to modify the form of words more by replacing some phonemes from the existing indonesian vocabulary as a form of creativity in language. uniquely, substitute phoneme does not have any specific pattern characters and it also can even be replaced with another phoneme. in several cases, the phoneme may be changed dynamically as long as it has a similar sound. for example the indonesian lingual variation of word ‘miskin’ can be modified to ‘misqueen’ or even misqin, both modifications have similar pronunciation. phoneme replacement was commonly used by the youth in text-form. in the morphological aspect, indonesian lingual variation use among millennials has experienced many modifications which are dominated by shortening some vocabulary in the form of acronyms, with a percentage of 14.58%. this showed that currently, millennials prefer to shortening forms of communication, both verbal and written. for example, the indonesian lingual variation of phrase ‘mantap betul’ is transformed as the word ‘mantul’, even in a bigger constituent such as a clause ‘sebatang (rokok) dulu’ is transformed as a word ‘sebatbut’. indonesian youth are more interested in using unique vocabularies (sudarmaningtyas & rochiyati, 2006: 90-101). in the syntactic aspect, the indonesian lingual variation used by millennials was entirely a change in word class, with a percentage of 4.17%. as the word “bucin” mention previously, it can be used as a noun or an adjective depending on the context of the sentences. this showed that the influence of changes in the vocabulary used by millennials is a change in the type of word class, such as a change from noun word class (n) to adjective word class (adj). and last but not least, indonesian popular lingual variation in the semantic aspect was dominated by the new-terms with the old-meaning which is created by the youth, with a percentage of 18,75%. it indicates that the indonesian youth tend to create the new form of words but with the exist meanings. as mentioned previously, the term “skidipapap” is refer to the sexual intercourse. even the term is popular recently but the meaning of ‘sexual intercourse’ is already known by the public. this indicated that the phenomenon of lingual variations 43 ratna juwitasari emha/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) were caused by youths’ habit in creating the new terms with the old-meaning, then they spread it in social media, thus it is caused changes in indonesian vocabulary. this indicates that millennials preferred using more lingual variation both in verbal and written communication. basically they did not change or create many new meanings completely, but they retained the meanings of existing references only in forms of new terms. v. conclusion based on the analysis obtained in this line of research, the phenomenon of the use of indonesian slang among millennials occurred in four levels of internal linguistics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantic. such obvious findings disclosed that the indonesian experienced a modification of form and meaning in the industrial revolution era 4.0. to address such a situation, there were phonemes elimination, phoneme addition, foreign language affixation, or changes in word classes. on account of such obvious matters, in the modification meaning, there was a creation of new meanings in existing terms and the creation of new terms in existing meanings. this indicated that indonesian is absolutely a living language because a living language is a language that is constantly undergoing change or dynamic. the change of indonesian lingual variation in word-forming and word meaning that emerged and popularized by millennials in the industrial revolution era 4.0 was expected to be an initial consideration for indonesia language and book development agency (pusat bahasa) to bring up new entries in kbbi, for complementing new indonesian-vocabularies dan indonesian-meaning necessaries. references allen, i. l. 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(2014). pemakaian bahasa gaul dalam komunikasi di jejaring sosial. sasindo: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 2(2). smith, r. 2011. ‘urban dictionary: youth slanguage and the redefining of definition: what’s up with meep and other words in the urban dictionary.’ english today, 27(4), 43–48 sudarmaningtyas, & rochiyati, a. e. (2006). penggunaan akronim dan singkatan pada acara selebritu di televisi. semiotika, 7(1). suhardianto, & suryani, m. s. (2018). penggunaan bahasa slang remaja dari masa ke masa di batam. snistek, 1, 163–168. sutedi, d. (2009). pengantar penelitian pendidikan bahasa jepang. bandung: upi. swandy, e. (2017). bahasa gaul remaja dalam media sosial facebook. jurnal bastra, 1(4), 1–19. wijana, i. d. p. (2011). the development of bahasa indonesia in multicultural context: a case study of adolesence’s slang. humaniora, 23(1). wirawan, g., & andriany, u. n. (2019). fenomena penggunaan bahasa gaul di sman 4 singkawang kalimantan barat: suatu tinjauan psikolinguistik. retrieved from http://repositori.kemdikbud. go.id/10205/ http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/10205/ zein, d., & wagiati. (2018). bahasa gaul kaum muda sebagai kreativitas linguistis penuturnya pada media sosial di era teknologi komunikasi dan informasi. jurnal sosioteknologi, 17(2), 236–245. zhou, yanchun, and yanhong fan. (2013). a sociolinguistic study of american slang. theory and practice in language studies, vol. 3, no. 12, pp. 2209-2213. 45 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 94 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this study investigates the realisation of the refusal speech acts addressed by the native speakers of tanjung tanah (tj. tanah) dialect of kerinci to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. twenty-five native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect; 10 males and 15 females whose ages between 19 to 26-year-old were selected to be research participants. data were collected by means of an open role-play. then, the role-play’s data were transcribed and were classified according to the taxonomy of the refusal strategies formulated by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). the results showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect employed two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to refusal. in addition to this, they made different frequency of the semantic formulas when declining the wish of the interlocutors of different social status. mostly, they made higher frequency of ‘reasons’, direct ‘no’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘elaborative reasons’ to the interlocutors of high and low social status. in contrast, they made higher frequency of direct ‘no’, ‘reasons’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘persuasion’ to the interlocutors of equal social status. clearly, the social status of the interlocutors affects the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. keywords kerinci dialect, refusal strategies, role-play, speech act, sociopragmatics correspondence e-mail: mar@siswa.ukm.edu.my article the realisation of the refusal speech act in tanjung tanah dialect of kerinci marniati1, mohammad fadzeli jaafar2 1,2linguistics department, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, bangi,malaysia 1. introduction communicating with one another is a vital part of people’s lives. most of people communicate to express their thoughts, give orders, share ideas and provide information (mowlana, 2013). this activity takes place in different contexts, involves people from different social backgrounds, and happens among interactants of different social relations (holmes, 2017). nevertheless, this activity cannot simply be seen as how people utter a ‘true’ sentence to give apprehensible meanings rather than as how people reveal a meaningful action through their utterances. for this reason, this activity is argued as the way people express speech acts, e. g, thanking, inviting, apologising, giving a command, making a request, and stating a refusal (austin, 1962; nelson, 2002; felix-brasdefer, 2008). these speech acts are universal and are present in every language. however, the realisation of these speech acts are denoted as contextually distinctive because they are greatly influenced by social factors and socio-cultural norms such as speech contexts and situations, social status of interlocutors and the traditions of a society (moaveni, 2014; morkus, 2009). furthermore, among the types of the speech acts, a refusal is presumed as one of the prevalent occurrences, which reveal the discrepant exchanges between two communicative interactants. since the last three decades, much attention has been given to the production and to how this speech act has been expressed chiefly against a request, an invitation, a suggestion, and an offer (al-kayed, al-zubi, & al-kayid, 2020; živković, 2020). subsequently, the speech act of refusal is denoted as culturally distinctive because it is expressed differently in different language and culture (felix-brasdefer, 2003; nassar, saad, & nordin, 2020). in addition to this, the speech act of refusal is assumed as a negative response (abuarrah & lochtman, 2019; received: july 20, 2022 final revision: october 10, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.94-106.2022 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 95 sattar, lah, & suleiman, 2011; siebold & busch, 2015). also, it is considered as a conflict trigger as some potential misunderstandings are often discernible throughout its offensive occurrences (beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz, 1990). for this reason, the refusers might soften the force of their refusal illocutions. to this end, some degree of indirectness may occur (houck & gass, 1996). remarkably, the use of particular modalities in the realisation of the refusal speech acts can be described as the realisation of the refusal strategies. to date, the realisation of the refusal strategies has been studied from different contexts, in different languages and cultures, and in different speech communities. nonetheless, most of the previous studies tended to look at the realisation of the refusal strategies from the perspective of cross cultural pragmatics. for examples, nassar et al. (2020), al-shboul & maros (2020), moafian, yazdi, & sarani (2019) and wijayanto (2019). meanwhile, other studies focused on how the language learners performed the refusal strategies in the target languages such as hashemian (2021), nurjaleka (2020) and hariri & moini (2020). these studies found that the cultural norms of speakers greatly governed their native, and simultaneously influenced their target language’s refusal. driven from these findings, it is clear that every language has its own native refusal strategies. therefore, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in one language can be deemed as a significant research aim. however, some of the monolingual studies on the refusal strategies have previously been conducted. among them, felix-brasdefer (2006) examined the linguistic components of refusal and politeness strategies by male speakers of mexican-spanish both in formal and in informal situations. sattar, che lah, & suleiman (2010) investigated the orders, the frequencies and the contents of semantic formulas of refusal strategies expressed by native speakers of iraqi arabic. triana & aman (2011) investigated the realisation of refusal strategies made by the youngsters of minangkabau in west sumatera, indonesia. izadi & zilaie (2014) investigated the refusal strategies expressed by iranian speakers of persian. however, these studies only investigated the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, english, mexican-spanish, persian, and minangkabau. although minangkabau is a regional dialect of indonesia, it has officially been recognised as the standard language of minang (antoni, irham, & ronsi, 2019). this means that the refusal strategies in non-standard dialects have almost not been investigated. driven from this fact, this current study investigates the refusal strategies in tanjung tanah dialect (henceforth tj. tanah dialect) of kerinci. the refusals are considered because of their defiant nature in which performing ‘appropriate’ refusals require ‘appropriate’ strategies. likewise, the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is chosen due to its non-standard regional dialect category. specifically, it is a variant of the kerinci dialect; the kerinci dialect originates from a malayo-polynesian variety of malayic, a branch of the austronesian language family spoken in kerinci regency. thus, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci enables this study to present more recognisable novelties in the studies of the refusal speech acts. furthermore, as this study employs the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci, its main objectives are set to discover the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect in the context of declining an offer, a request and an invitation from the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. the findings of this study are expected to be recognisable novelties of the pragmatics studies of speech acts in general and of the sociopragmatics studies of refusal speech acts in particular. in addition to this, the results of this study will make important contributions to the enrichment of linguistic inventories mainly on the types and patterns, and on the varieties of the refusal strategies in one of the non-standard dialect variants of kerinci. 2. methods research design this study is typically a quantitative research. specifically, this study implemented a survey design, which is also referred to as a descriptive design (edmond & kennedy, 2017). this design provides a quantitative description of trends, behaviours, attitudes, or opinions of a population marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 96 (creswell & creswell, 2018). in this procedure, researchers gather numerical or quantitative data and statistically analyse the data to generate the final outcomes (creswell, 2011; mills & gay, 2019). in this present study, the descriptive design was implemented to analyse the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. then, the refusal strategies produced by the participant were grouped and transformed into numerical data for further computation. later, the amount the refusal strategies produced by the participant were analysed quantitatively using descriptive statistical analysis. participants the participants of this study were purposively selected based on two main criteria. firstly, they were the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. secondly, they were the undergraduate students of universities/colleges in indonesia whose age between 19 – 26 years old by the time of data collection. based on these two main criteria, 25 native speakers of tj. tanah dialect who met the criteria were selected to be the participants. they were 10 males and 15 females who were born and grew up in tj. tanah, speak the tj. tanah dialect, and were the first up to the final year undergraduate students of public universities and colleges in kerinci, palembang, jambi, bengkulu and in west sumatera. for the purpose of data collection, each participant was coded using an ‘r’ that stands for ‘respondent’ followed by his/her sequence roleplay’s turn. for example, ‘r01’, which is read as ‘the respondent 01’. however, gender of each participant was excluded from the coding. instruments the primary data collection instrument of this study was an open role-play adapted from the discourse completion test (dct) by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). however, some modifications were made to suit with the scope and the design of this study. later, this role-play instrument was assessed by a linguistics expert from department of linguistics universiti kebangsaan malaysia. the assessment resulted that this roleplay contained three initiating acts and three social variables within nine role-play situations. these nine role-play situations contained an act of refusing an offer, a request and an invitation from an interlocutor of high, low and equal social status. the contexts of the role-play were set up to be the interpersonal communication between the interactants of close social distance but they were different in term of social status. based on this particular context, the refusal strategies intended for this study were expressed by a person of low to a person of high social status (low-to-high), by a person of high to a person of low social status (high-to-low) and by a person of equal social status (equal-to-equal). the brief scenarios of this roleplay are disclosed in appendix. procedures the role-play performances were held at a multi-purpose hall in tj. tanah village of kerinci. the participants were invited to perform the role-plays at different times. each participant was required to fill a form prior to performing the role-plays. this form contained some demographic profiles such as age, gender and background of education. later, he/she would sign a consent letter attached on the form. after that, a role-play scenario written in english was handed to the participant and he/she was required to comprehend the contents of the scenario such as the context of the interactions, the initiating acts, the social status he/she was going to ‘role-play’, and the social status of the interlocutor he/she was going to engage with. to help to the participant to comprehend the contents of the scenario, the researchers would verbally translate them into bahasa indonesia followed by a verbal translation into the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci. then, the participant was informed that the role-plays would take several turns and would be audio recorded. due to this matter, he/she was advised to perform the refusal strategies as he/she always does in his/her real life. analysis the verbal data obtained from the role-plays were transcribed on the basis of the international phonetic alphabet (ipa) following the work of salmani-nodoushan (2006). this work was selected because there were no standard orthographic transcription systems of the tj. tanah dialect, which could be a reference. based on salmaninodoushan (2006), the characters included into the transcriptions represented the sound produced by the participants. likewise, the characters marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 97 included into the transcription of these role-plays represented the sound produced by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. then, the corpus of data were sorted based on semantic formulas. this semantic formulas can be a form of words, phrases, or sentences, which meet a particular semantic criterion or strategy (cohen, 1996). later, each semantic formula was coded using the initial ‘h’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of high, ‘l’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of low and ‘e’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. after that, this code was placed next to the participant’s codes and his/her sequence numbers followed by a dash and the sequence numbers of the semantic formulas he/she had expressed. for example, ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t) is read as ‘the semantic formula 01 was expressed by participant 07 to an interlocutor of high social status’. next, the categories of the semantic formulas were determined based on the taxonomy of the refusal strategies by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). finally, the descriptive statistical analysis was performed to obtain the final outcomes. 3. results the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the direct and the indirect refusal strategies, and the adjuncts when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. these three refusal strategies yielded twenty semantic formulas, which were two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to the refusals (the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies were written in square braket). the direct refusal strategies contained direct [no] as in ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’,‘r01h-16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’ (no) and [negative willingness] ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t). the indirect refusal strategies contained [apology] ‘r12h-12 mintek maaf yea: lah’ (i’m so sorry), [reasons] ‘r06h-18 akau sibuk nyan’ (i’m so busy), [elaborative reasons] ‘r10h-12 akau pun (..) deksea knoh angai dek, bisea jadi:: penyakait’ (i can’t get through the wind, can be disease), [conditional acceptance] r06h-02 klok dkeat boleh lah (.) (if it is near, i can), [future acceptance] ‘r24h-03 slagin, mauh koh’ (next time, i want), [principle]‘r19h-20 akau lah sudeah janjei duleu’ (i have promised), [lack of empathy] r04h-14 dək ikao adeo teah! (are not you there!), and [critic] ‘r05h-02 tmpek nih jeuh nian dək’ (this place is very far away). other indirect refusal strategies were [request for understanding] ‘r01e-51 yeu dək usah lah dək’ (please, don’t. i’m begging you), [persuasion]‘r16e-67 apao yaseo yea. ikao yea lah’ (take it easy, do it yourself, [alternative]‘r04e-54 tau akau meli ngan baheu’ (let me buy a new one), [indefinite reply] ‘r11e-52.2 tao lah kau ngatao’ (i will tell you later), [inquiring further information]‘r17l-40 minggu dateh?..’ (next week?), and [lack of enthusiasm] ‘r04e-67 akau maleah nyan akau tibeo’ (i’m so lazy to come). meanwhile, adjunct to refusals appeared in form of [positive opinion] ‘r08h-35 akau sebenae nyan mbao::h, tapi’ (i wan’t, but…), [empathy]‘r03e-53 dək apao lah..’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] ‘r08h31 we:h’, and [solidarity reference] ‘r02e-64 ilaok lah kawa’ (you are better). table 1. the frequency of the semantic formulas the refusal strategies h l e f f f no 58 53 55 negative willingness 44 38 41 apology 25 37 17 reasons 65 54 46 elaborative reasons 46 46 24 conditional acceptance 17 20 16 future acceptance 10 17 10 principle 22 31 13 lack of empathy 28 24 31 critic 31 24 12 request for understanding 13 28 27 persuasion 26 24 39 suggestion of alternative 13 11 15 indefinite reply 23 15 20 request for further information 15 20 28 lack of enthusiasm 44 17 23 positive opinion 23 26 14 statement of empathy 10 12 39 pause fillers 32 35 25 solidarity reference 37 13 22 total 582 545 517 furthermore, the results of descriptive statistical analysis showed that the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made different frequency of the semantic formulas when addressing the refusal marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 98 strategies as presented in table 1. specifically, an ‘h’, ‘l’ and ‘e’ placed on the first right colum of the table 1 stand for the social status of the interlucutors namely ‘high’, ‘low’ and ‘equal’. meanwhile, an ‘f’ placed on the second right colum of the table 1 stands for ‘the frequency distribution’. meanwhile, the percentages of each semantic formula of the refusal strategies were presented in the table 2. table 2. the percentage of each semantic formula the refusal strategies h l e % % % no 10.0% 9.7% 10.6% negative willingness 7.6% 7.0% 7.9% apology 4.3% 6.8% 3.3% reasons 11.2% 9.9% 8.9% elaborative reasons 7.9% 8.4% 4.6% conditional acceptance 2.9% 3.7% 3.1% future acceptance 1.7% 3.1% 1.9% principle 3.8% 5.7% 2.5% lack of empathy 4.8% 4.4% 6.0% critic 5.3% 4.4% 2.3% request for understanding 2.2% 5.1% 5.2% persuasion 4.5% 4.4% 7.5% suggestion of alternative 2.2% 2.0% 2.9% indefinite reply 4.0% 2.8% 3.9% further information 2.6% 3.7% 5.4% lack of enthusiasm 7.6% 3.1% 4.4% positive opinion 4.0% 4.8% 2.7% statement of empathy 1.7% 2.2% 7.5% pause fillers 5.5% 6.4% 4.8% solidarity reference 6.4% 2.4% 4.3% total 100% 100% 100% based on the table 1 and 2, the total semantic formulas revealed from this study were 1644. 582 of them were addressed to the interlocutors of high social status, 545 others were addressed to the interlocutors of low social status, and 517 of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. evidently, the highest numbers of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and finally the interlocutors of equal social status. specifically, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of high social status were the [reasons] 11.2%, followed by the flat [no] 10%, [elaborative reasons] 7.9%, [negative willingness] 7.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 7.6%, [solidarity reference] 6.4%, [pause filler] 5.5%, [critic] 5.3, [lack of empathy] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.5, [apology] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 4.0%, [positive opinion] 4.0%, [statement of principle] 3.8%, [conditional acceptance] 2.9%, [inquire further information] 2.6, [statement of alternative] 2.2%, [request for understanding] 2.2%, [future acceptance] 1.7% and the least refusal strategies was [statement of empathy] 1.7%. likewise, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of low social was also the [reasons] 9.9%, followed by the flat [no] 9.7%, [elaborative reasons] 8.4%, [negative willingness] 7.0%. nevertheless, the next semantic formulas fell to the statement of [apology] 6.8%, [pause fillers] 6.4, [principle] 5.7%, [request for understanding] 5.1%, [positive opinion] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.4%, [lack of empathy] 4.4%, [critic] 4.4%, [conditional acceptance] 3.7%, [request further information] 3.7%, [future acceptance] 3.1%, [lack of enthusiasm] 3.1%, [indefinite reply] 2.8%, [solidarity reference] 2.4%, [statement of empathy] 2.2% and the lowest one was [alternative] 2.0%. in contrast, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed the interlocutors of equal social status was direct [no] 10.6% followed by [reasons] 8.9%, [negative willingness] 7.9%, [persuasion] 7.5%, [statement of empathy] 7.5%, [lack of empathy] 6.0%, [require for further information] 5.4%, [request for understanding] 5.2%, [pause fillers] 4.8%, [elaborative reasons] 4.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 4.4%, [solidarity references] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 3.9%, [apology] 3.3%, [conditional acceptance] 3.1%, [suggestion of alternative] 2.9%, [positive opinion] 2.7%, [statement of principle] 2.5%, [critic] 2.3% and the least semantic formulas fell to the [future acceptance] 1.9%. based on these descriptive statistical results, the frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies made by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect were dissimilar. in addition to this, the frequency of similar semantic formulas expressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutor of different social status were also different. nonetheless, these marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 99 differences were obtained on the basis a comparison made among the percentages of similar semantic formulas addressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status as showed in figure 1. the figure 1 showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the highest frequency of the direct [no] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and the interlocutors of low social status. a similar situation occurred when they addressed the [negative willingness]. these similarities showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect tended to be more direct to the interlocutors whom they shared similar rather than to the interlocutors of the opposite social status. concerning to the indirect refusal strategies, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect made the highest frequency of [apology] to the interlocutors of low rather than to the interlocutors of high and equal social status. in the similar contexts, they made the highest frequency of [reasons] to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. interestingly, they also opted for the [elaborative reasons]. precisely, the highest frequency of these extended reasons were addressed to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to interlocutors of equal social status. this can be assumed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently lengthened their reasons to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to the interlocutors whom they share similar social status. furthermore, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the [conditional acceptance] to the interlocutors of low followed by the interlocutors of equal and high social status. a similar situation happened when they made the [future acceptance]. in contrary, they addressed the highest numbers of [principle] to the interlocutors of low compared to the interlocutors of high and equal social status, and comfortably made the highest numbers of [lack of empathy] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest frequency of [critic] to the interlocutors of high, and low rather than to the interlocutors of equal social status. in contrary, they made the highest frequency of the [request for understanding] to the interlocutors of equal and low rather than to the interlocutors of high social status. they also persuaded the interlocutors. yet, the highest frequency of [persuasion] was addressed to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the [alternative] was another strategy employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to justify their refusals. based on the figure 1, they addressed the highest numbers of the [alternative] to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. whereas, they made the highest numbers of the [indefinite reply] to the interlocutors of fig. 1. the percentage of each semantic formula marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 100 high and equal, followed by the interlocutors of low social status. moreover, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made the [request for information]. specifically, the highest frequency of this strategy was addressed to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of low and high social status. meanwhile, they addressed the highest frequency of [lack of enthusiasm] strategies to the interlocutors of high rather than to the interlocutors of equal and low social status throughout their refusal exchanges. in the light of adjuncts, they native speakers of tj. tanah dialect mostly addressed the highest frequency of the [positive opinion] to the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutor of high and the interlocutors of equal social status. beside this, they also expressed the statement of [empathy]. predominantly, the [empathy] was address to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of low and high social status. furthermore, they also postponed their refusal exchanges through some [pause fillers]. obviously, these [pause fillers] occurred when the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect declined the wish of the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutors of high and equal social status. as well, they also made the [solidarity references] alongside the refusal strategies. as showed on the figure 1, this last adjunct was mostly addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. to sum up, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed similar types but diverse frequency of the semantic formula of the refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. 4. discussion previously, the single language studies of the refusal speech act tended to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, americanenglish, british-english, mexican-spanish, persian and minangkabau language. as the results, the diversity of the refusal strategies of the standard languages have frequently been the predominant novelties of the refusal speech act studies meanwhile the variation of those strategies in the non-standard dialects are left unobserved. to fill this gap, this study investigates the refusal speech act in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci and reveals that the realisations of the refusal strategies in this non-standard dialect are more varying. the remarkable varieties take place on the types and on the frequency of the semantic formulas employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the semantic formulas to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. meanwhile, the least numbers the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. the different in the amount of the semantic formulas prove that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently negotiated or perhaps mitigated and lengthened their refusals when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high and low rather than the wish of the interlocutors of equal social status. driven from these facts, the researchers claim that the social of the interlocutors affected the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. this claim is in line with chen (2019) who said that the variety of the refusal strategies occurred because of the social factors and the contextual influences in which the interactants would employ various strategies to suit the situation. furthermore, other observable varieties take place on the types and the categories of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies. in the light of the direct refusals, there are five direct [no] appeared across the role-plays. these [no] are ‘r06l-03 dæk ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’, ‘r01h16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’, ‘r14e-37 mekgeh’ and they are always expressed in different situations. specifically, ‘dæk’ was frequently expressed at the beginning or after the participants received the interlocutors’ messages meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ frequently occurred at the intense level of refusal negotiations. based on these situations, the researchers assume that the single ‘dæk’ is a spontaneous or, perhaps, a negotiable [no] meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ appear to be an unnegotiable one. this means that, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed ‘dækdæk’ to genuinely decline the wish of the interlocutors. beside this, ‘dendæk’, ‘dəksəa dək’ and ‘mekgeh’ are the other types of the direct [no]. specifically, dendæk’ and ‘dəksəa’ were expressed alone or followed by ‘dək’ marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 101 while ‘mekgeh’ was frequently expressed as ‘mek’. remarkably, the particular use of these [no] proves that the tj. tanah dialect has its own diverse direct refusal strategies. unfortunately, the equivalent variation of these [no] have never been revealed in the previous studies of the refusal speech acts including in the works of felix-brasdefer (2006), satter, che lah, & suleiman (2010), izadi & zilaie (2014). another type of the direct refusal strategy in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is the statement of the [negative willingness]. for example, ‘r02h-29 akau deak’ (i will not). nonetheless, the performative pattern ‘i refuse’ as suggested by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), moafian et al., (2009) and bella (2014) do not appear in the role-plays. the absent of this ‘performative’ leads to the conclusion that the native speakers of the tj, tanah dialect do not say ‘akau nulak’ (i refuse) when performing the direct refusal. equally, the predominant occurrences of the non-performative [no] and the [negative willingness] justify that these two semantic formulas are the only direct refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect. in the light of the indirect refusal strategies, there are three different categories of [apology] revealed in the role-plays, which are all marked by ‘maaf’ (sorry). the first ‘maaf’ followed by ‘yealah’ as found in ‘r06h-20 maaf yea lah’ (sorry). the second one is preceded by ‘ntək’ as found in ‘r14l-29 ntək maaf (want/intendedly sorry)’. whilst, the third one is followed by a long and deep expression of ‘nia:n/nyan’ as in ‘r14e-50 maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise). specifically, ‘maaf yea lah’ was expressed after the participants received the interlocutors’ message. thus, it can be assumed as a common apology. likewise, ‘ntək maaf’ was also expressed the way of ‘maaf yea lah’. however, it belongs to the category of the intended apology as ‘ntək’ means ‘want’. ‘maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise), on the other hand, occurred after the constant realisation of ‘maaf yea lah’ and ‘ntək maaf’. evidently, this third ‘maaf’ is a regretful apology as the word ‘nia:n/nyan’ following ‘maaf’ implies the participants’ repentance as well as their attempt to seek a forgiveness for declining the wish of the interlocutors. driven from these facts, it is clear that there are three categories of [apology] in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci that represent the indirect refusals. the first one is the common apology, the second one is the intended apology and the third one is the regretful apology. nonetheless, regardless of its categories, expressing an apology is an appropriate way to mitigate the refusal exchanges (al kayed et al., 2020) beside this, there are two different categories of the reasons occurred in the role-plays. the first [reasons] are shorter and more general as in ‘r02h-04 akau (.) banyeak lao ngan ndək akau weat siko neh’ (i have a lot of things to do here). often, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed these [reasons] to provide general excuses. another one is the [elaborative reasons] as in ‘r07l-45 akau pun adeo jadwal lain, diubeah lao nanti jadwal lain pun kelam kabeut jadi den’ (i have another schedule, changing this one will ruin up another one). in comparison with the [reasons], the [elaborative reasons] are longer and more complex, contain complete information including the statements of cause and effect. interestingly, the [elaborative reasons] resemble ‘elaboration on the reasons’ revealed by (kwon, 2004). frequently, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [elaborative reasons] to validate their [reasons]. furthermore, the use of the [reasons] and the [elaborative reasons] throughout the roleplays prove that native speakers of the tj. tanah attempted to emphasise appropriate strategies throughout their refusal exchanges. the possible reason is that, the appropriate refusal strategies can stand as the conflict avoidance (wang, 2019). due to this matter, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect obviously emphasise appropriate refusal strategies to avoid dissension and conflict. furthermore, the [conditional acceptance] is another indirect refusal strategy revealed in the role-plays. particularly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed this strategy to convince the interlocutors about their ability to fulfil the wish of the interlocutors if the wish fits certain condition. for examples ‘r08e-91 kalok dæk banyak gawe mbaoh akau pgin’ (if i don’t have lots of job, i will go) and ‘r06l-49 dæk sibuk mbaoh koh gin’ (not busy, i will go). similarly, the [future acceptance] also occurs in the role-plays multiple of times. in contrary, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed this strategy to marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 102 show their inclination in fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors at certain course of time in the future. for examples, ‘r07h-28 slagin yealah’(next time) and ‘r12e-70 tauh rateh pulao gin (next year, i will go). interestingly, the [future acceptance] resembles the future possibility in the work of moaveni (2014). this similarity is an observable evidence, which shows that some of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect resemble those in the standard languages. moreover, the [principle] as in ‘r03l-32 akau jenh akau lah’ (i just want my schedule, the statement of [lack of empathy] as in ‘r04e69 maleah akoh’ (i’m not impressed) and the statement of [critic] as in ‘r02l-54 ikao neh lah salah jadwal’ (you offered the wrong schedule) also were also revealed in the role-plays. remarkably, these three indirect refusal strategies look more oppressive and can be assumed as ‘the offensive formulas’ although the defiant nature of these strategies are more endurable than the direct [no] and the statement of the [negative willingness. mostly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [principle], [lack of empathy] and [critic] to show their ‘self-rule’ of standard conduct, detachment and resistant. through these strategies, they did not state but inexpressively required the interlocutors’ understanding of their declination. besides that, the [request for understanding] as in ‘r05h-16 gayeu lah wo’ (please understand me), [persuasion] as in ‘r02h-19 kalok prato ilaok lah kayao lah prato’ (if delivering a speech, you are better), and [alternative] as in ‘r01h-12 ilaok lah nalek ha lai’ (better you find another one) also appear in the role-plays. unlike the previous ones, these indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as more ‘delicate rather than offensive’. they were employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to convince and perhaps compel the interlocutors to reconsider their wish, encourage the interlocutors to frame the possible solution and offer the interlocutors the possible way out by means of refusals. in addition to this, the [indefinite reply] as in ‘r11h-20 manan ji yeah?’ (what could i do?), [request for further information] as in ‘r02l-46 minggu rateh neh?’, and [lack of enthusiasm] as in ‘r01h-20 akau dæk ugeo tenga dæk’ (i’m not dare) also appear in the roleplays. the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed these strategies to provide obscure, bewilder, and despondent returns. these three last indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as ‘the counterfeiting responses’ because participants pretended to be dispirited to avoid fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors. in the respect of the adjuncts, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci address the [positive opinion] as in ‘r17l-30.2 ilaok lao tapi’ (it’s good, but…), the statement of [empathy] as in ‘r03e-53 dək apao lah...’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] as in ‘r01e-61 eh:’. these three adjuncts are similar with the original and the modified version of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the works of beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), kwon (2004), and moafian et al., (2019). beside this, [solidarity references] is the last adjunct revealed in the role-plays. this adjunct is the realisation of personal pronoun of the tj. tanah dialect alongside with the refusal strategies such as ‘kayao’, ‘kawa’ (you) and ‘kantai’ (i). on the basis of the role-plays data, ‘kayao’ was frequently addressed to the interlocutors of high social status [l to h] by means of showing a respect or a recognition of the interlocutors’ higher social position. ‘kawa’ was frequently employed by the interactants of close social distance by means of showing a recognition of equal social position between them. whereas, ‘kantai’ was employed the interactants regardless the social status of the interlocutors. in brief, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect used these adjuncts to show respect and to recognition particular social status and distance with the interlocutors throughout the refusal exchanges. 5. conclusion the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed similar types but different frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, they addressed the highest percentages of the indirect refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. in contrary, they addressed highest frequency of the direct refusal strategies to the interlocutors of equal social status. adjuncts to the refusal, on the other hands, were equally addressed to the interlocutors of all social status. marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 103 furthermore, some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies revealed in this study are the new findings. meanwhile, some others are similar with the original theory and the resemble the findings of the previous works. this can be concluded that some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect are distinctive and have its own forms and patterns. whilst, some others are similar with those of the other languages. however, this study only investigates the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect addressed to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status using the role-plays data. for this reason, further studies should be performed to generate more extended outcomes. thus, the next researchers are highly recommanded to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in two or more dialects using natural occuring data from perspsective of universal or discursive politeness theory. therefore, the novelties of the studies of the refusal speech act will be more expandable. references abuarrah, s., & lochtman, k. 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(2020). variation in refusal strategies produced by english and serbian speakers. studia neophilologica, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393274.2020.1780939 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 106 appendix appendix 1. brief scenario of the role-play initiating acts no. scenario social status of refusee offer 1 declining a job promotion offer from a manager. high 2 declining a perfume discount from a staff low 3 declining a new book offer from classmate equal request 4 declining a speech delivery request from a leader of an organisation. high 5 declining a student’s request to change the teaching hour low 6 declining a request of becoming a master of ceremony from a colleague. equal invitation 7 declining a seminar invitation from a professor high 8 declining a wedding invitation from a staff. low 9 declining a birthday invitation from a close friend. equal appendix 2. the modified version of the refusal framework by beebe at al. (1990) direct refusal indirect refusal adjunct to refusal no apology positive opinion negative willingness reason statement of empathy elaborative reason pause fillers conditional acceptance solidarity reference future acceptance principle lack of empathy critic request for understanding persuasion suggestion of alternative indefinite reply request for further information lack of enthusiasm novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: february 27, 2020 final revision: march 24, 2020 available online: april 26, 2020 spoken by a few members of the pagu ethnic group in north halmahera province, pagu is one among endangered languages in indonesia worth saving from extinction (perangin-angin, 2018). this study examines the preservation of pagu by caring for the literary wealth in the language, i.e., folktales. using ecosophy as a theoretical trajectory, the analysis of the five pagu folktales studied show that (1) two creation fables are anthropocentric because the intention is to teach and impart values to people; (2) the other two are morality tales calling for people’s care for and attention to the environment and all the ecosystems which have so far supported people’s life. this study concludes that not only do traditional tales enhance language research and character education, they also deliver transformative power to call for an ethic of care – caring for the language and caring for the environment. thus, the maintenance of the local culture, such as folktales, complements the language preservation efforts. keyword landscapes, animals, pagu, ecosophy correspondence phone: +62-274-513301 e-mail: novitadewi@usd.ac.id article of landscapes and animals: an ecosophical analysis of pagu folktales novita dewi1, dalan perangin-angin2 1graduate program in english language studies, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia 2 english letters department, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.1.71-80.2020 i. introduction since the 1980s, unesco has begun to emphasize the importance of language diversity as an important element of the world culture. language extinction has become a concern of the world community. in the early 1990s, stephen wurm, a member of the intangible cultural heritage section, launched a program called “red book of languages in danger of disappearing”. next, on the 31st unesco general conference in 2001, the universal declaration of cultural diversity was established together with its action plan. the declaration stipulates that each government must respect linguistic diversity by paying attention to its mother tongue at all levels of education (rachman, 2006, pp. 354–355). only in february 2009 did unesco launch the online edition of atlas of endangered languages, which covers languages all over the world, contains more information than the print edition by providing users with continually interactive feedback or updates online. the language death phenomenon is a reality across the globe with which saving the local/minority languages is deemed necessary (renkó-michelsén, 2013; ridanpää, 2018) if a language is on the brink of extinction, efforts must be made to preserve and document it, although the language has limited functions, for example, as a sacred language used in rituals (lauder, 2011, 2018). over time, hundreds of languages with their local culture will be endangered if there is no effort, in various ways, to care for and preserve it (sunarto, mukarto, bismoko, & dewi, 2018). in addition, local languages and cultures also contain a variety of local wisdom and. most indigenous people who live close to the forest, for instance, have their wisdom in terms of preserving the forest, herbal medicines, farming methods, natural coloring, 71 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) and many more. as shown by almos, ladyanna, & pramono (2018), the gradual destruction of the ecosystem also affects the loss of species-related lexicons. similarly, studies on the ecolinguistic approach to local culinary have contributed not only to the appreciation of the local cuisine but also maintenance of the lexicons used (widayati, 2019). thus, by learning and preserving the local wisdom and ecological knowledge, languages in danger of extinction are automatically preserved. in the indonesian context, the maintenance of regional languages is a major political concern of the government, as stated in article 32 of the 1945 constitution, which reads, “the state respects and maintains regional languages as part of national culture”. law no. 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system also mandates the use of regional languages, as stated in article 33, which reads, “regional languages can be used as a language of instruction at the beginning of education”. local governments, likewise, should develop, foster, and protect their respective regional languages and literature. the policy is ascribed by article 42, law no. 24 of 2009, concerning the national flag, language, and national anthem, which reads thus “the regional government is obliged to develop, foster and protect regional languages and literature”. the law requires every citizen to respect cultural and linguistic diversity by way of maintaining regional languages and literature throughout the republic of indonesia. thus, the government should respect and preserve regional culture, language, and literature. although the preservation of regional languages has a strong legal basis, there are still many local languages that have not been protected from extinction. a language can become extinct because its speakers diminish, steadily lose its speakers, and eventually, the language disappears. as an important cultural element, language is directly related to aspects of human cognition, so that it plays a major role in every movement and process of cultural development and humanity at the same time. one of the endangered languages in indonesia is the pagu language in north halmahera (hisyam, m., d. purwoko, usman, 2012). this language is spoken by the pagu people, which is one of the nine ethnic groups in the north halmahera regency, which amounts to around 5,200 people. the pagu tribe lives in 13 villages that spread over 5 sub-districts with different populations, tribes, and languages. the scattered settlement, on the one hand, is a blending factor of culture and language, which also means the unifying force. on the contrary, this varied aspect is a weakening factor of language and cultural resilience. communication among speakers of different languages in remote villages is not easy. they find it easier to use the ternate dialect, malay as a lingua franca, or indonesian to communicate with residents in neighboring villages with diverse tribes and mother tongues. as a member of the mainland sub-group of north halmaheran languages, pagu belongs to one family with galela, tobelo, modole, tabaru, loloda, and sahu (d. perangin-angin, 2020, p. 4). according to (voorhoeve, 1988, p. 19), the other branch of this sub-group includes ternate and tidore languages spoken by people from two smaller islands to the west of halmahera. the pagu language is endangered due to the lack of speakers. several factors causing its extinction include (1) the government of the republic of indonesia requires the use of indonesian as the national language; (2) the presence of multinational companies invites outside communities to settle fig. 1. map of halmahera; pagu region is shown in the square 72 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) and communicate in non-local languages; (3) pagu language does not have authority; (4) the indonesian government regulation on the pagu language taught as local content in schools hardly operate; and (5) given that the society has little awareness of the loss of language, the annihilation of culture and knowledge of the ancestors lies ahead (hisyam, m., dwi purwoko, usman, & dalan perangin-angin, 2012). with the possible extinction of pagu in mind, it is important to hold it back. multamia lauder uses the term “empowerment” to give understanding to the wider community of the importance of language retention efforts as one of the ancestral heritages (lauder, 2011, p. 11). this ancestral heritage also seals a substantial identity as traditional proprietor the natural resources where they live for a generation. like lauder, “language maintenance,” according to leanne hinton, is used to designate an effort to encourage and strengthen the language that is still used by young speakers but has slowly begun to show its decline (hinton, 2011, p. 19). in its development up to now, the pagu language has declined in use due to the language environment (language ecology), which lacks support for its vitality, social change, and other negative factors. this present study would argue that folktales told in pagu are worth preserving to prevent the language from impending disappearance. in folktales, truth values (morality) are shown, and traditional views are usually passed down across generations. the truth is that folktales often serve as moral, traditional teachers with local insights that must be defended in an increasingly materialistic international community. indeed, population growth and rapid progress in technology and industry are among the threats to ecological balance people face today. arne naess proposed ecological wisdom to define a personal way of life to guide people’s conduct and attitude toward nature. ecosophy calls for consciousness in maintaining equal and sustainable relationships between people and nature (naess, 2009). the theoretical trajectory used in this study is, therefore, ecolinguistics, i.e., an interdisciplinary study that connects linguistics and ecology to examine the interdependence of language and interpretation of the environment in which we live. as argued by stibbe (2015), we are now crammed with various narratives called “story-we-live-by” or a story that passes through the minds of many cross-cultural individuals who are unwittingly impartial on the environment. for example, if sale increases during holiday seasons, it (trading) is considered good. conversely, if the sale goes down, it is said that the economy is sluggish. in fact, from ecological perspectives, it might be better if people spend time with friends and family at home or explore the beauty of nature, rather than spending money on culinary tours or unnecessarily giving away gifts. this kind of narrative is thus in favor of people, not the planet (nature). the tasks of ecolinguistics thus include exploring linguistic phenomena found in narratives about humans and the surrounding environment with an ecoperspective, namely a commitment to care for the environment for the integrity of creation (stibbe, 2015). this present study will discuss the preservation of the pagu language by caring for the literary wealth in the language to save it from extinction. in addition to the practicality of folktales to teach language and character education, traditional tales often deliver transformative power to call for an ethic of care – caring for culture (language) and caring for the environment. as one literary genre, selected folktales in pagu will be examined in this study with an ecosophy approach. ii. method this descriptive-qualitative study utilizes data sources from the existing research on pagu. the project in question was “saving endangered languages in eastern indonesia,” whereby one of the present writers was the member (hisyam, m., dwi purwoko, usman, & dalan perangin-angin, 2012). the primary data consists of five folktales obtained from pagu native speakers. the secondary data include scientific journal articles, books, and various news that are relevant to this research. the research procedure is as follows. first, the narratives were collected from two speakers of pagu, i.e., keliopas badiri, 53, from wangeotak village and samuel woyo, 50, from gayok village. both sources are the pagu traditional leaders from their respective villages. secondly, the 73 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) narration was recorded with a video by dalan m. perangin-angin in the project for documentation of the pagu language and culture by pmb-lipi. marlina pinky lopa and yusak ngato transcribed the recording, which was then transcribed into the elan program into the local malay language. thirdly, the simple concordance program was used to look for some specific words used in the folktales to analyze. finally, the collected data were grouped and interpreted using ecological philosophy (ecosophy) as an approach. the folktales fall into two different categories, namely, fables and morality tales. in light of ecolinguistics’ task of probing how language interaction upholds the co-existence of humans, other species, and their physical environment, the five folktales will be analyzed. iii. result and discussion natural landscapes: friend and foe the distribution of the type and number of landscape (land and water) is presented in table 1. the presence of the distinctive features of the landscape is taken into account, i.e., mainland, mountain, sea, seaport, beach, river, creek, lake, etc. it is worth mentioning that the landscapes in the five folktales also include the vegetation growing on it, such as a tree, plants, grass, etc. the above table shows that the words (noun) associated with landscape occur quite frequently in the five folktales in between 10% to 33%. this is to say that the people of pagu rarely think of nature as something outside themselves. they live close to nature. there are times when the narratives unravel their intimacy to nature. on other occasions, nature becomes a threat to people. the natural landscape is a friend to human beings, as shown in the following. (1) genakadau ma naoko nena after.that rnl fish this i-tagi-ou doka o 3nh.go.certain sewards nrnl babalen-ika, yaika de port-das 3nh-das and ma akele yo-si-onoonokoka de rnlwater 3pl-cause-take.water and ‘then he gets there, the fish goes to the seaport where people usually get water.’ (2) ma igono ma pidas-oka rnl coconut rnl inside-there daku ma lewang-oka downward rnl coconut.peeler-there de i-ma-songodak-ika-u. and 3nh-refl-fill-das-certain ‘the rat jumps into coconut whole through coconut peeler. (3) samangau nage nanga-soulu k.o.tree that 1pl.ex-medicine jaga wa-aye ngone often 1pl-take we ‘samangau is tree we often take for medicine.’ (4) o balubalusu yo-singasu nrnl elders 3pl-let.know o gota gena moimoini ka nrnl tree that all just ma ena gena i-kuasa. rnl exist that 3nh-power ‘old men say that this tree is among all trees that indeed has power.’ (5) tofafen nena wo-datomo waktu tofafen this 3ms-plant when o goasaoko de wa-datomo nrnl low.tide and 3sm.3no-plant dai o beleoloka. landward nrnl estuary ‘tofafen planted bananas during low tide on the beach near the estuary.’ (6) ma tofamia touna nena rnl tofamia his this wa-teanga, de wa-aye 3sm.3nho-cut and 3sm.3nho.bring ma sowoko rnl fruit ‘tofamia cut down the tree and took the fruit.’ table 1. type and number of natural landscapes in the five folktales no title landscape total % 1 the fish and the rat seaport (1), water (13), mainland (4), tree (3) 21 15 2 the half-bodied man grass (4), palm tree (3), paddy (4) 11 10 3 the stork and the dog river (2), mountain (2), forest (4) tree (14) 18 33 4 fated to death by a crocodile tree (12), forest (14) 26 23 5 tofafen and tofamia water (2), mainland (2), banana (5), plant (8) 17 18 74 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) data (1) and (2) show that people make use of, respectively, water and coconut in their daily life. a variety of plants growing in pagu land are also useful, for example, medicinal herbs called semangau as shown in data (3) and (4), as well as a banana in data (5) and (6). however, nature can be seen as an enemy. in the three pagu folktales that belong to fables variety (“the fish and the rat”, “the stork and the dog”, and “tofafen and tofamia”), nature often comes across as being unfriendly to the animals. meanwhile, in folktales with morality tale genre (“the half-bodied man” and “fated to death by a crocodile”), nature becomes hostile to human beings because of the latter’s ignorance to the former. here we see that ecosophy helps reveal the two different modes of narrativization, i.e. against nature and pro nature. the natural landscape as an enemy is seen below. (7) ma gosomanga gena kadau rnl crocodile that to.there i-lepe ma akel-oka. 3nh-a.lot rnlwater-there ‘there are many crocodiles in the river’ (8) ma igono ma timiku rnl coconut rnl beneath.downward ma gosomanga i-lepe rnl crocodile 3nh-a.lot ‘under the coconut tree, many crocodiles.’ (9) jadi maile naga wo-si-sonenge so some there 3sm.s-cause-dead de o gotaku and nrnl tree-downward wo-otakuku eko 3sm.sfall-downward and.then o gosomanga i-na-goli. nrnl crocodile 3nh.s-3pl-bite ‘so some died from falling from trees, and some died from being eaten by crocodiles.’ (10) o gasi i-yao-oka-u nrnl sea.water 3nh.bring-there.certain ma loese gena. rnl trunk that ‘the sea has washed away the trunk of the tree. as shown in data (7), (8), and (9), the fierce landscape is evident: a river teeming with crocodiles, a tree with crocodiles roaming underneath, and a tall tree from which people may fall and die. both the fish and the rat (representing human) have to deal with ferocious nature in (7) and (8). while in data (9), people are not immune to the force of nature, in data (10), the seawater destroys the banana plants tofafen tries to grow. to compare, in morality tales, human beings are at fault with which natural landscape and its vegetation become unfriendly, as shown in the data below. (11) awi-wola o kugete 3sm.poss. house nrnl k.o.grass ya-rangirangi mangale 3pls.3nh.o-round because o dingoto yo-si-sese. nrnl packet 3pl-cause-open ‘his house is rung by grass because he often opens somebody else’s packet.’ (12) ami-inomo, ami-bila 3sf.poss.food 3sf.poss-rice i-yafafa, ma lakeme 3nh.empty rnl flesh koiwa mangale empty because mo-sukuru-wa ma jou-ka. 3s.f.-thank-not rnl god-to.there ‘her rice grain is empty because she never thanks god.’ (13) de o tetengoli wi-make, and nrnl another 3sm.s-3sm.o-see o daluku awi-porete nrnl k.o.palm 3sm.poss-back ya-dawango, mangale o gereja 3pls-grow because nrnl church ma wange ma ka wo-tagi nrl day but just 3sm.s-go wo-peoto. 3sm.s-harvest.date then he met another man with a palm tree growing on his back because on sunday he went to harvest the dates.’ (14) ani-loese ma sononga 2s.poss-body rnl half genakadau mia-tuumung-uku after.that 1pl.ex-hold-downward mangale ani-ela because 2s.poss-mother o leletongo ma ka nrnl lightning but just doana de ka mangamo. curse and just angry ‘we keep half of your body here because your mother often cursed and scolded the flash of lightning.’ (15) ha nako ngona ani-ponata nah if 2 2s.poss-roof i-saisaili mangale 3nh.fly because i-jaga ma-sowono. 3nh-often have-adultery ‘well, the roof of your house often flies because you often commit adultery.’75 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) (69%). the presence of different animals and the varied settings here help promote sustainability. schuster has this to say: literature, especially that which entails and discloses intra-active processes of multi-species co-creation, can play a part in this by contributing to that shift in underlying attitudes, assumptions, values and desires which would be conducive to the safeguarding of planetary boundaries in the interests of the renewed flourishing of earth’s diverse more-than-human life (schuster, 2017, p. 70). however, all cultures are essentially anthropocentric, that is, exhibiting no equitable relationship between human and non-human, for instance, landscapes and animals (dewi, 2017; okoye, 2014; pilgrim, 2013). ecosophy, on the contrary, locates human beings and other creatures on equal footings. using this ecosophical lens, the analysis of the five folktales is as follows. (16) “e, ngoi nena kiani ka hey 1s this merely just o gosomanga ma gatele.” nrnl crocodile nrl heart “ah, the only medicine to cure my tummy ache is crocodile liver.” (17) oli una wo-temo nena then 3sm 3sm.s-say this ka utu ka o gota i-temo, just talk just nrnl tree 3nh-talk “o ngoaka nena ala nrnl child nena later ya-goli o gosomanga.” 3nh-bite nrnl crocodile “then he said, “this child will be bitten by a crocodile.” (18)ya-si-budito somoawa, 3nh-cuase-badluck nothing duga-duga o gosomanga ya-goli. but.only nrnl crocodile 3nhs-bite ‘he will be harmed not because of anything, but be bitten by a crocodile.’ one ecosophical tenet being “everything is connected one another” is true in “the halfbodied man”, echoing as it does some relevant religious teachings. data (11) and (12) describe how nature has refused to collaborate with people. tall-stalked grass grows wild around the house of a dishonest man whose habit is unwrapping packets sent to other people. next, a woman finds her rice grains empty because she does not show gratitude to the creator. as pagu people are predominantly christian, biblical ring is strong in this folktale as further shown in data (13) about ignoring the lord’s day. instead of going to church on sunday, a man goes to his field to work; as a result, a palm tree grows on his back. data (14) and (15) describe some religious teachings on good manners and moral conduct. closeness to nature is especially clear in data (14) whereby lightning is a natural occurrence people have to cherish. indeed, lightning and thunder are signs that rain is likely to come. people need rain. at this stage, it is thus sufficient to say that forces of nature can be either friendly so as to support people’s benefits. but nature is, at the same time, so fierce that human beings can hardly withstand. such is the kind of narrative that the pagu storytellers live-by. next, it is also important to know further how animals are present in their stories to which discussion we now turn. animal story: anthropocentrism? all five folktales have animal characters. there are in total 8 animals, i.e. fish, rat, chicken, crocodile, stork, dog, turtle, and monkey. the distribution of the type and number of animals is shown in table 2. it shows that animals of different kinds invariably appear in the five folktales. one folktale, “the half-bodied man” has no animal character (0%). “the stork and the dog” being a fable, has the highest frequency of words denoting animals table 2. type and number of animals in the five folktales no title animal total % 1 the fish and the rat fish (14), rat (10), crocodile (11), chicken (2) 37 27 2 the half-bodied man n/a 0 0 3 the stork and the dog fish (14), rat (10), crocodile (11), chicken (2) 37 69 4 fated to death by a crocodile dog (1), crocodile (14) 15 14 5 tofafen and tofamia turtle (26), monkey (22) 48 5076 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) (19) “to-ma-sitinga-ka o 1s-refl-keep.away-to.there nrnl ngaili nena la uwa river this so.that not la o gosomanga sigadono so.that nrnl crocodile until uwa nia-donika”. not 3pl-reach “i keep away from the river so that crocodiles cannot reach us”. data (16), (17), (18), and (19) reveal that human beings are vulnerable to wild animals, in this case, crocodile. taken from the same traditional tale “fated to death by a crocodile”, the story tells of a child who is destined to die by nothing else but a crocodile attack. framing is used here: crocodile is cruel. non-human can be dangerous to humans. the child needs protection. while it is true that anthropomorphism is common in fables, the attribution of a human form or personality to the animal characters somehow underlines human beings’ superiority to the nonhuman entities. the creation of fables under study are not immune to this anthropocentric tendency. in terms of modality, data (20) and (21) below show the negative narration of the animal behavior, although the story is meant to be a parable. (20) tanu wa-gelelo secara o nyawa if 1pl-see manner nrnl human tanu i-maka-manaki ma, if 3nh-recip-friend but ma deakad-oka i-maka-sosonenge, but inside-there 3nh-recip-kill i-maka-budi. 3nh-recip-cheat ‘if we look at it from a human point of view they are friends, but in fact in their minds, they want to kill each other, they cheat each other.’ (21) ma wo-temo i-maka-riwo, but 1pl.in-saya 3nh-recip-help ma ma deaka, i-maka-budi kogena. but rnl inside 3nh-recip-cheat like.that ‘we can say they help each other, but inside their hearts, they cheat each other’ superiority of human beings over animals is shown here by the use of the exclusive pronoun “they” to refer to all non-human creatures in the folktales who behave badly. indeed, it looks normal to give beastly character to people who misbehave, e.g., “office rat”, “crocodile tears”, “loan shark”, etc. conversely, when an animal is clever and useful, it is common to call a dog “man’s best friend”, to mention some examples (huggan, 2015). however, the pagu folktales discussed also depict animals in positive modes as follows. (22) nena o tofafen de o this nrnl tofafen and nrnl tofamia nena o bole tofamia this nrnl banana yo-datomo yo-maka-niiki. 3pl-plant 3pl-recip-help ‘tofafen and tofamia help each other to plant banana trees.’ (23) ah genakadau ala de ah after.that then and yo-tagi samasama yo-maka-niiki 3pl-go together 3pl-recip-help yo-tagi yo-maka-niiki. 3pl-go 3pl-recip-help ‘well, since then they always go together to help each other.’ (24) oli toena dugaduga and.then exist approximately ma jarita gena ya-ika rnl story that 3nh-to.there o kaso de o tumala nrnl dog and nrnl stork i-maka-jaji. 3nh-recip-invite ‘so that’s the story of the dog and the stork inviting each other to eat.’ data (22) and (23) show that the turtle and the monkey help each other, although they are often caught fighting with one another. data (24) is evidence that the dog and the stork conduct themselves politely. they invite and serve their respective guests despite their real intentions. here, the narrators’ positive evaluation of the animals as to help or invite each other, somehow show that the presence of the animals is not always bothersome for people. this finding corresponds with the wealth of research on harmonious relationships between human beings and animals, especially pets (cai, 1993; karniol, 2012; storie, 2014). in sum, the modality and the appraisal in depicting the animals in the five folktales is varied. on the one hand, when used as a metaphor of human behavior, the animals exhibit both positive and negative traits. on the other hand, the animals in the folktales are also portrayed as being inferior and often dangerous to human beings. the above analysis applies ecosophy of which the goal is to develop a linguistic theory by looking 77 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) at humans not only as part of society but also as part of a larger ecosystem on which life rests. as an implication, this study has shown how linguistics can be used to tackle ecological problems that are increasingly deteriorating, from climate change and biodiversity loss to environmental in(justice), as evident in the five pagu folktales under discussion. v. conclusion as one of the non-austronesian (papuan) endangered language family spoken in north halmahera, north maluku province of indonesia, pagu language has its local wisdom and values worth preserving as inscribed in its literature, especially folktales. the five folktales examined in this study comprise of stories about a variety of natural landscapes and animals in pagu land. using ecosophy, the research has shown that the language, culture, and literature of pagu alongside its environment need to be well-looked-after before they gradually disappear. like any world fables, three out of five pagu fables are anthropocentric because the intention is to teach and impart values to people. the other two are morality tales that call for people’s care for and attention to the environment and all the ecosystems which have so far supported people’s life. all living things depend on one another for sustainability. folktales are told from one generation to the next. therefore, to keep the pagu folktales alive means sustaining the language and environment of the pagu land. given that this study limits itself to examine the five folktales of only two different sub-genres, i.e. fables and morality tales, the results may not be sufficiently conclusive as to answer why anthropocentrism remains intact. from the interviews, it was found that the folktales collected are no longer popular now to be transmitted to the younger generation. not all parents know and remember certain folktales to retell to their children. the speakers usually need several days to recall the stories they hardly heard from their older generation. more data are needed to enrich the discussion by focusing specifically on, respectively, landscape, plant life, wildlife, and other living creatures. as such, future research can further pursue pagu folktales of different sub-genres by using ecosophy as the theoretical path. in this way, while saving the endangered language, three-way benefits are certain: culture (language and literature), people, and the planet. references almos, r., ladyanna, s., & pramono, p. 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(2017). sustainability after extinction: on last animals and future bison. in literature and sustainability: concept, text and culture. storie, d. (2014). bear’s loose tooth by k. wilson and j. chapman. the deakin review of children’s literature. https://doi.org/10.20361/g24k61 sunarto , e., mukarto , f. x., bismoko , j., & dewi , n. (1998). trilingual textualization to deliver indonesian local cultures to high school students . language and language teaching journal. https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.2018.210109 voorhoeve, c. l. (1988). the languages of the north halmaheran stock. in papers in new guinea linguistics 26. widayati, d. (2019). diversity of culinary ecolexicon of main cuisine in malay communities on the east coast of north sumatra. jurnal arbitrer. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.6.2.113-121.2019 79 novita dewi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 1 (2020) appendix the following are synopses of the five pagu folktales. the rat and the fish this fable is about the rat and the fish that seem to help each other. but when opportunity arises, they also try to harm one another. one day, the rat says that he is sick and needs an egg for medicine. the fish rushes off to look for the egg to help. but after the fish gets the egg with difficulty, the rat says he is cured. two days later, the fish says he gets sick and needs a crocodile liver to cure him. after much effort, the rat helps to get it. at this time, the fish announces that he is healed. the half-bodied man this religious story tells of a person who only has half-part of the body (left without right) who is on his way to heaven while looking for his missing part of the body. on his way, he meets different people who are worse off than he is, and they are all in a bad state because of their bad character and behavior while living on earth. finally, he finds his half-part of the body, the answer why he has lost it, and helps other people to repent for their mistakes. the stork and the dog this fable is of aesop variety. the dog and the stork invite each other to eat at their respective places. but deliberately the banquet is not to satisfy the others. the dog serves two plates of meal too shallow for the stork’s long beak. similarly, the stork later serves some meal in a narrow jug that the dog cannot get his mouth in. although both are equally disappointed, they cannot say anything. fated to death by a crocodile this is a morality tale about a father who lost his child. the child was destined to die eaten by a crocodile according to an oracle the father had heard from a tree. with all his efforts the man tried to avoid that fate, but the child eventually died by a wooden crocodile toy made by the father. tofafen and tofamia the characters in this creation fable are anthropomorphized. two friends, tofafen (a turtle) and tofamia (a monkey), plant banana trees, but one fails and the other succeeds. they like to be together but often fight over food. only later do they realize that they should collaborate instead of deceiving one another.80 ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 80 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t the exercise of power in leadership may involve conflicts, especially in precarious situations. politeness strategies come into practice to cushion the aftermath of face-threatening acts that presumably trigger tension. this study aims to shed light on female leaders’ linguistic strategies in managing problematic discourses involving older male subordinates in the indonesian university context. the naturalistic data was obtained from recorded meetings. the study results depict that the female leader employs both direct and indirect strategies in handling problematic issues, especially when the female leader has to face up to senior subordinates. she adopts direct strategies to convey important messages that have to be obeyed by the employees. on the other hand, she adheres to the cultural norms that oblige younger people to show respect to older people by using indirect strategies. the politeness strategies employed in her utterances show how culture shapes communication approaches. in general, a female leader has to have a range of sophisticated linguistic competence in a high-rank managerial position. keywords women, leadership, linguistic, communication, politeness correspondence e-mail: ernanda@unja.ac.id article when women are the bosses: linguistic strategies in managing problematic discourses ernanda1, delita sartika2 1,2faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia 1. introduction leadership is favored as a masculine area in a patriarchal society, especially in the indonesian culture. male stereotypes (i.e., ambitious, confident, and assertive) are considered leadership qualities (williams & tiedens, 2016). gender stereotypes have been discussed in a myriad of publications (cépeda et al., 2021; kotek et al., 2021; eckert & mcconnell-ginet, 1992; ide, 1992, among others). also, research on language and gender defines stereotypes of male and female language. female speakers are more emphatic, indirect, and cooperative by using tag questions, hedges, and softeners (crosby & nyquist, 1977; carli, 1990). men are more aggressive, direct, blunt, and assertive (case, 1995). females tend to avoid conflict by supporting and agreeing, whereas males are more confrontational, competitive, and deal with conflict. in workplace interactions, masculine traits are characterized by domination, interruption, confrontation, and competitiveness (burrell et al., 1992). thus, masculine styles are valued highly and become workplace norms (case, 1993). other studies confirm that gender behaviors in organizations shift depending on the situation. both females and males in positions of authority may adapt their leadership styles accordingly (eagly & karau, 2002; anderson & galinsky, 2006). moreover, patriarchy is not a static phenomenon and can be transformed or modified over time in different mediums (benstead, 2021). this patriarchal bargain currently endows women with opportunities to occupy leadership positions. many women take part in leadership, which is considered a masculine spot, with greater social acceptance (hejase et al., 2013). leaders, who have authority over others, use language to control and constrain subordinates’ contributions (fairclough, 1989). they employ sets of language strategies to enact leadership received: august 15, 2022 final revision: october 21, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.80-93.2022 ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 81 practices. communication in leadership takes place in many organizational activities. one of the essential activities in an institution is meetings. meetings can be arenas where leaders authorize their power, give instructions, and control the institution. on the other hand, subordinates, as meeting participants, can also share opinions, get information, and report problems. strategic decisions are made in an organizational meeting, and work-related problems are solved (asmuss & svennevig, 2009). problems in the workplace are diverse in urgency and complexity. meeting participants raise issues, and communication takes place in the negotiation process. negotiation in meetings among participants comprises various points of view and is not always palpable. meeting members with goals and interests will likely defend their opinions. on top of that, disagreement and tension are inevitable consequences. disagreement, disputes, and refusals in verbal communication may result in conflict (sornig, 1977; pearson, 1986; brenneis, 1988). they are instances of dispreferred acts because these acts may shake social harmony and affect group solidarity. they are classified as face-threatening acts (fta). brown and levinson (1987) introduce the concept of ‘face’ whereby people have a positive face that needs to be enhanced by others and a negative face that needs to be maintained. communicative acts, positive or negative, affect ‘face.’ sets of lexicons used to disagree, dispute, and refuse are also considered ftas. interactions in meetings involve many ftas. people generally tend to protect the face and avoid conflicts by indirectly expressing potentially threatening face acts and mitigating their propositions to save face, which is linguistically termed ‘politeness strategies’ (brown-levinson, 1987). to be polite, one has to minimize the threat to face and use more indirect methods in delivering messages, especially when the message may generate tensions. previous studies have covered the array of social contexts where people deal with problematic discourses or controversies in interactions. angouri and locher (2012) study the form of disagreement (i.e., mitigated/unmitigated and explicit/implicit). sifianou (2012) argues that disagreement is perplexing since it is a multidirectional and multifunctional act. not only face-to-face interaction but disagreement on social media such as twitter is also analyzed by almutairi (2021). refusals have also obtained growing attention. félix-brasdefer (2006) investigates the use of refusals in formal and informal contexts in the mexican spanish community. daly et al. (2004) reveal the socio-pragmatic strategy in expressing refusals, whinges, and complaints in nz factories. scholars have also explored language use in light of gender differences in problematic communications. in workplace contexts, men are more aggressive than women (i.e. holmes, 2000). various factors have been revealed in selecting particular communication strategies in problematic discourses, such as gender, culture, age, power, distance, the weight of imposition, contexts, and so forth. further to this, thimm et al. (2003) claim that gender is not always the most salient factor determining linguistic strategies. the weight of imposition is one of the important factors in selecting communication strategies scollon and scollon (2001). the weight of imposition is the urgency level of the issue. leaders generally hinge on the imposition’s weight and avoid taking risks that may threaten the organization. furthermore, age and seniority are significant variables in asian countries (samransamruajkit & getkham, 2015), and the same holds for the indonesian context (wardani & uyun, 2017). parents teach children to respect older people, listen to them, and be polite. from a sociolinguistic perspective, coupland and coupland (1988) claim that intergenerational differences may favor senior people. older adults are considered more experienced and have more achievements. to quote dwyer (2020: 151), “the more senior a person, the more power they have.” therefore, senior colleagues have ‘power’ even though they are in lower rank positions. the age of the interlocutor could influence communication strategies. with gender stereotypes postulated, what discursive strategies women use in leadership communication in indonesia remains an enigma. hence, attempting to fill a gap in the literature, this study addresses the following question: what linguistic strategies do indonesian female leaders utilize in managing problematic discourses that involve older male subordinates at the university ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 82 level? this study will contribute to understanding female leaders’ communication approaches in higher-educational institutions in indonesia. 2. methods this qualitative study aims at gaining insights into female leaders’ linguistic strategies. there was no attempt to generalize the information. however, the data represents a wide array of communication strategies. linguistic strategies of the woman leader under investigation are elicited in different meetings on various academic issues with conflict potentials. this study draws on video recordings of faculty meetings at a university in indonesia. the dataset contains more than eight hours of online meetings conducted between june 2021 and october 2021. the details of the meetings and sensitive issues are not discussed to protect confidentiality. the name of participants, places, locations, and everything that indicate the actual setting in the excerpts are pseudonyms. participants the participants of this study are a 40-years old female faculty leader (maia) and male heads of departments (yannie and edi) who are in their 50s and 60s. maia is the meeting chair who prepares a structured agenda, topic, and goals for the meetings. she often employs a more prolonged, uninterrupted, monologic communication style associated with masculine discourse. in leading the meetings, maia starts with a brief introductory talk on the meetings’ agenda and main points. she later allows meeting participants to ask questions and raise problems during the discussion session. she goes through each of the participants’ questions and ideas and provides recommendations and decisions for them with a brief explanation and reason. the other participants, yannie and edi, lead two departments under the faculty management. both of them are more senior and older than maia. yannie, the head of department x, had a long career as a headmaster in a local school before joining the faculty. edi is the head of department y. he has thirty-seven years of work experience and will retire in the next three years. furthermore, meeting attendees were mixed-sex, with female and male heads of departments and study program coordinators. around 25 to 30 participants attended each of the regular coordination meetings held by the faculty. procedures the video recordings were transcribed at the initial stage using the elan annotation tool. conversations containing problematic issues were selected. then, utterances containing linguistic devices threatening the hearer’s face were identified. the utterances are produced by either the female leader or the senior male subordinates as meeting participants. the female leader under investigation was interviewed. the identified excerpts were consulted with her. the female leader commented on our linguistic analysis and recounted her intentions in considerably ambiguous utterances. finally, the selected linguistic strategies were established and the data was interpreted. 3. results and discussion this study is constructed from the video recordings of the regular meetings at the faculty discussing problematic issues around the implementation of the new national educational policy called ‘merdeka belajar – kampus merdeka’ (mbkm or independent learning – independent campus). this new policy allows university students to complete up to three semesters – or equal to 60 credits out of their mandatory 144 credits – through various models of off-campus learning, including research assistant, teaching assistant, internship, entrepreneurship projects, and student exchange. the discussions centered around students’ teaching-assistant fieldwork for one semester in some schools in the province. both senior male heads of departments, yannie and edi are not content with the implementation of the new policy. given their long work experience and seniority, they believe the old ways are still reliable and solid. during their discussion, yannie and edi express their hesitancy to accept the policy changes and negotiate ways to implement them. the data is provided in the appendix section. excerpt 1 yannie expresses his disagreement against the teaching-assistant fieldwork offered to his students as a part of the implementation of mbkm. students who join the fieldwork do not ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 83 attend regular classes. their 20 credits for that semester are completed through fieldwork. in yannie’s opinion, the students will not be able to accumulate sufficient knowledge to achieve the fifth semester’s learning target through fieldwork alone. thus, yannie believes that students who sign up for the fieldwork will still need to attend lectures available for that semester to learn knowledge from theoretical perspectives (lines 4-5). by drawing attention to his extensive experiences as a school principal, yannie tries to convince maia about his authority on the issue. he asserts that not all school principals and teachers have excellent competencies in their field to qualify as competent mentors for the fieldwork students during their teaching assistant program (lines 1516). students learning processes and targets may be at risk in this case yannie highlights his superiority publicly in the meeting to demonstrate to maia and other participants that his concern and disagreement have reasonable grounds. yannie’s way of highlighting his status can be seen as patronizing instead of a persuasive act (line 6). he uses the expression “ibuk yakinlah… [you have to trust me]” to further strengthen his standing. in this situation, his condescending style appears to threaten maia as the leader of the meeting and a person of a higher status in the faculty’s managerial. to reinforce his opinion, yannie states that he had an extensive experience as a school principal prior to his career at the university (line 6). malang melintang is an indonesian phrase commonly used to emphasize one’s well-established reputation in a field. yannie further expresses his disagreement against maia’s concern that lecturers may use their authority to force fieldwork students to do the same amount of classroom work as non-fieldwork students if they are required to join regular classrooms. this circumstance may unfairly create an extended study load as the students must also satisfy the fieldwork’s learning requirements (lines 10-12). yannie accuses maia of placing negative assumptions or, in yannie’s words, “prasangka buruk” (line 10) on their fellow lecturers. according to rees-miller (2000), the use of accusatory force is a part of the aggravated disagreement. in expressing an accusation, a speaker usually uses indexical second-person pronouns. however, yannie’s typical use of the inclusive pronoun “kita” [we] actually helps soften his critique of maia’s decision (line 11). this helps displace the pressure from maia as the target of the critique to ‘all of us’. composing age and seniority factors, excerpt 1 displays that power is negotiable. people with lower institutional rank may exercise their power by expressing their disagreement in a blunt and direct way to their superiors. excerpt 1 provides some evidence that age and seniority may outweigh hierarchical power. different from theories on language and power suggesting that lower-status individuals use a more indirect and polite style (holmes, 1995), our data demonstrate that the speakers of a lower rank but older choose not to soften their arguments when speaking to their younger superior. even further, they utter a form of accusation toward their superior. in this situation, defending one’s point of view is more crucial than saving the addressee’s face and the speaker does not mitigate disagreement (kotthoff, 1993). maia responds in several steps before finalizing her decision regarding yannie’s request to instruct fieldwork students to learn theories by joining regular classes during their fieldwork. firstly, maia thanks yannie for raising his opinions (line 17). secondly, maia expresses reciprocity as an involvement strategy to proclaim that she is on the interlocutor’s side. she expresses her agreement with yannie’s points regarding the necessity of theoretical knowledge for fieldwork students (lines 18-19). despite being directly ‘attacked’ by her older subordinate, maia chooses to maintain politeness and saves the interlocutor’s face by using the two strategies. furthermore, maia’s choice to use the word ‘pembekalan’ (line 20) depicts another strategy to avoid direct opposition to yannie’s ideas. the word ‘pembekalan’ means ‘orientation’, or in other words, pre-fieldwork sessions, which is different from requiring the students to attend conventional classroom learning during their fieldwork, as suggested by yannie. this word choice reflects maia’s strategy to avoid conflict. in this case, she facilitates yannie’s opinion about students’ need to learn the theories. however, she suggests that the theory should not be taught by requiring fieldwork students to sit in regular classes but in specific pre-fieldwork orientation classes ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 84 (lines 18-20). even though maia assiduously avoids direct confrontation with the senior subordinate, she enhances her face by defending her position and carefully rejecting yannies accusation. maia straightforwardly repudiated yannie’s claim that her decision was based on negative assumptions. maia says, “…saya tidak berasumsi jelek sebenarnya…” [i didn’t make a negative assumption actually] (line 21). she repeats this statement by saying, “jadi tidak e atas asumsi e saya…” [so it is not based on my own assumption…] (line 25). she further explains that her concern came from students’ complaints (lines 21-24). maia uses a clear directive style when communicating non-negotiable matters, such as ensuring students’ safety, “nah dosen pengampu itu juga harus direm… [and the lecturers must also be controlled…]” (line 27) and “…tidak ada panggilan-pangggilan harus datang ke tempat… [there must not be any requirement (for the students) to be physically present in classes]” (line 37). meanwhile, when doing the authority sharing, she uses the conditional clause “jika [if]” several times as in “kalo memang itu dipikir perlu oleh prodi… [if the department considers it necessary] (line 19), “kalo memang mereka pengen mahasiswa ikut dalam perkuliahan… [if they (the lecturers) want the students to join classes…” (line 28), and “(if) jurusan dan prodi itu berkeputusan bahwa itu wajib… [(if) the department and the program consider it compulsory…” (line 39). by doing this, maia seeks a compromise by resorting to the flexibility of the policy and giving the departments the opportunity to examine their situations and decide what is best for the students. however, these are only allowed by obeying non-negotiable conditions that she mentioned before, such as the necessity to run the sessions online to prevent students from traveling from fieldwork to their campus, which may risk their safety. maia also reminds yannie about the necessity to use a flexible approach in dealing with potential problems that may occur if they run online sessions, such as a bad internet connection, as fieldwork sites are mostly in remote areas. as she points out, “…tapi kan kalo di lapangan ya seperti itu. nanti mahasiswa lapor sinyalnya tidak bagus itu memang harus banyak peng pemakluman… [… but that’s the reality in the field. if later the students report they have a bad internet connection, it must be understood…]” (lines 30-32). maia questions how the theory sessions will be organized (lines 34-41). this includes how many sessions are required and what learning model is going to be implemented. these questions prepped her to continue pointing out the complexity of that situation. maia implies several cautions for departments that want to run theory sessions for the fieldwork students. she demands that a straightforward procedure on how the sessions will be run must be carefully drawn and agreed upon by all relevant parties to guarantee students’ focus on the fieldwork and their safety. in this part of the response, maia tries to balance using her authority to give direct instructions on non-negotiable matters, such as prioritising safety, ensuring the meetings are run online, and sharing the authority with yannie and other department heads as well as lecturers. running the meetings online is important as the fieldwork is part of the national program where university students are sent to underprivileged schools mostly located in remote areas to allow them to experience learning from real problems in the diversity of indonesian educational situations. using normatively feminine linguistic strategies, maia involves meeting participants to maintain social harmony in the team. in particular, she observes that yannie raises a number of complaints that she needs to address directly but tactfully, as any decision in the meeting would significantly affect the students’ situation. maia is directive about making students’ safety a priority but allows room for the departments and lecturers to draw detailed procedures. what concerns her more is the importance of making the procedures clear to all parties, as she asserts, “…silakan dibuatkan di dalam dokumen kesepakatan [please put all these in the fieldwork contractual agreement]” (lines 3940). in this excerpt, a senior male subordinate, despite his lower status, is not concerned with face-saving. without softening his utterance, he directly expresses his disagreement and accuses his superior. on the other hand, maia, as the superior, with the attack from her subordinate, utilizes a more polite style. she respects yannie as an older ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 85 subordinate. even though the issue discussed has a high weight of imposition, she appreciates the good intentions and shows considerable flexibility regarding yannie’s proposal but facilitates the borderline. she avoids showing aggression even toward her subordinates. excerpt 2 excerpt 2 comprises a discussion on the 20-credit teaching assistant program. edi sends 13 of his fifth-semester students to do the program for one semester. according to the new policy, the maximum number of credits for fieldwork, such as the teaching assistant program, is 20 credits per semester. in this excerpt, edi negotiates if the 13 students can be allowed to register for another 2-credit course because the regular credit load for semester 5 is 22 credits. this means edi asks for discretion to allow students to combine the 20-credit teaching assistant program and the 2-credit course of regular classroom learning. edi delivers his inquiry in a confrontational way. throughout the exchange, he repeatedly asks maia to confirm that some regulations regarding how mbkm is carried out are a follow-up of her previous statements. edi uses the statement “kata ibu tadi… [as you said, maam]” and emphasizes, “kan itu [correct?]”. with this emphasis, “correct?”, edi places maia at a point to directly respond and acknowledge her statements. edi actually waits until maia says “yes” before continuing his talk, as seen in lines 1 to 5. aiming to confront maia’s initial idea, edi escalates the tension by using the word kasar ‘blunt/rude’ (line 1). in the context of this meeting, where people involved are not only seeking clarification about the implementation of the new policy but also negotiating flexibility in that implementation, edi’s use of the tag question “kan itu… [correct/right/ isn’t it so?]” at the end of his statements can be understood in multiple ways. a tag question can be used to confront an addressee to accept the speaker’s proposition (heritage, 2002). heritage (2002) adds that speakers can use this type of question to articulate their points of view or positions. the tag question may also mean clarification seeking or one’s intention to verify his/her understanding of the policy. nevertheless, the exchange between edi and maia may also reflect edi’s strategy to lead maia into a decision that favours his situation. this intention can be identified from the way edi built his proposition by firstly highlighting how the obligation to obey the policy has placed him with minimal choice. as he says in lines 4-5, “we’re no longer free”. here, edi points out that the word “merdeka”, which means independence or freedom, in the policy’s name contradicts the situation where edi and other department heads actually do not have an option other than obeying the policy even though some aspects of its implementation appear to disadvantage their students. in accordance with muntigl and turnbull (1998), the strategy of disagreement displayed in the data falls into contradiction (i.e., if a utters p, then b utters ~p). here, maia is placed in a difficult position as she needs to mitigate the situation and admit the weakness of the proposed implementation scheme. it is understandable if she will need to allow room for edi’s negotiation. the way edi challenges maia’s proposition is a face-threatening act. to counter it, maia has some options; carrying out an “offensive” or “defensive” strategy (culpeper et al., 2003). maia responds to each of edi’s question tags with a brief answer, “yes”. this simple ‘yes’ shows that maia is careful not to add a further explanation and chooses to let edi complete his statement. considering what edi’s inquiry may mean, further explanation from maia may appear defensive or even trigger a debate. in this case, her simple “yes” can be seen as an intention to lead edi to move to his actual inquiry, which he does. in this part of their exchange, edi continues to discuss the disadvantage on the students’ side if they are asked to strictly follow the maximum 20-credit regulation. edi explains in lines 10 to 11 that students who choose to join the teaching assistant program will have to wait for one year until the 2-credit course x is offered again in the next odd semester. the students will also miss an opportunity to attend a national seminar with their classmates, which is one of the course’s requirements. in this context, edi’s disagreement is cloaked in the guise of an unfavorable impact on maia’s agenda. edi expresses his actual inquiry in lines 20 to 24. edi asks what he has to do if the thirteen ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 86 students interested in registering for the teaching assistant program also want to register for the x course. this means maia has to make an exception and allows the students to register for 22 credits for the semester. edi repeats the question in line 26. in lines 21-24, he also explains a strategy he had used for students who signed up for another mbkm program in the previous semester. while the students were allowed to do the extra two credits in addition to their 20-credit program, the two credits’ registration and grade were not formally recorded that semester but were delayed until the next semester. so the study load they formally reported for the semester still met the mbkm regulation of a maximum of 20 credits. in lines 25 to 26, edi asks if maia allows him to use the same strategy for the thirteen students joining the mbkm’s teaching assistant program. again in this part, he proposes the request by highlighting that he does not have many options because mbkm is mandatory. this last statement is a strategy to place more weight on his proposition. after listening to edi’s complete inquiry, maia responds by firstly saying thank you. she does not directly respond to the inquiry but leads edi to answer her questions as she seeks more clarity on the situation (lines 28-29). maia also seeks clarification on the course structure for fifthsemester students in edi’s department. then maia seeks clarification about the national seminar that edi mentioned as a part of the x course. she asks whether the course requires students to prepare for the seminar before attending it or if they still need to attend weekly lecture meetings, which are usually run for 16 sessions per semester (lines 3537). edi confirms that in their curriculum, semester 5 offers 22 credits (line 42). after the clarifications, maia decides that edi’s students should be offered the x course in semester 6. in making this decision, maia firmly guarantees that the faculty will take care of potential problems that may occur, including if they need to communicate and coordinate with the finance and it departments. she guarantees that the academic and finance system will allow a class to be run for thirteen students, so they do not have to wait for one year until the course is offered again in the odd semester. in refusing edi’s request to let students sign up for 22 credits, maia shows that she is careful about the situation’s details. her long exchange with edi mostly involves clarification seeking of students’ actual needs and situations and the study requirements according to the department’s curriculum. she wants to ensure that students really focus on their teaching assistant program without the extra study load they need to attend the campus. the long exchange between her and edi also reflects that her decision is well-thought, and she has considered multiple factors. the data shows that edi, disregarding the asymmetrical power, expresses his dispute without politeness devices attached. edi’s interaction with maia reflects that age and working experience overweight institutionalized power. on the other hand, given the institutionalized power, maia goes in the opposite direction and does not apply aggravated forms. the data displays that a woman leader still perceives that maintaining respectful communication with subordinates is important even in situations that involve face-threatening acts. her strategies lessen the potential of confrontational situations and drive the discussion towards achieving agreement and solutions. this practice is in line with goldberg et al. (2009). unlike her subordinates, she avoids using linguistic devices that may insult the interlocutor. however, she is being direct in giving clear solutions to an issue that exhibits a high weight of imposition. in general, both excerpts showed that the participant’s age contributes more crucially to determining their politeness strategies in communicating ideas. this happened despite the asymmetrical power system between them as the heads of departments and the female leader representing the faculty’s top management. the older the participants are, the more direct they can communicate with people, including those of a higher rank. their seniority enhances their competitive approach toward the female leader. their work experiences boost their self-confidence to challenge the institution’s hierarchy without considering face-saving. on receiving tactless critiques in front of other meeting members, the female leader does not use her authority to respond with equal bluntness. instead, she remains tactful and polite ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 87 in her responses, reflecting her respect for the older subordinate. the cultural norms require younger people to respect older people regardless of their lower status in the hierarchy. she behaves in a way that saves both parties’ faces. she even utilizes partial agreement to minimize the tension that might trigger conflict. she utilizes direct strategies to make instructions clear for everyone, particular ones concerning students’ safety and the clarity of the program’s procedures. however, in a facilitative manner, she also prioritizes cooperation and compromises with the subordinates regarding the details of the implementation of the institution’s agenda. flexibility is acceptable if it is executed with proper and legitimate methods. in short, the female leader applies direct and indirect strategies and alternates between both in dealing with the problematic discourse that involves senior male subordinates. direct strategies make her messages unambiguous to achieve institutional goals. in defending the institution’s agenda, which exhibits a high weight of imposition, the female leader uses a more instructive style that reflects her higher authority. the findings of this study reflect those of baxter & al a’ali (2016) who also found that female leaders utilize mixed strategies, both feminine stereotype strategies and masculine styles, in their communication. this study is also in line with marra et al. (2006), who presented that skilful female leaders use direct masculine ways to achieve the organization’s goals and indirect feminine styles to cooperate with people. the present study provides additional evidence to enhance our understanding of female leaders’ communication strategies in higher-educational institutions in indonesia. 4. conclusion this study demonstrates the linguistic strategies used by indonesian female leaders in managing problematic discourses during meetings in the university context. theories of language and power suggest that people of a lower rank tend to communicate more indirectly (steffen & eagly, 1985; lee, 2002). however, this study found that older male subordinates are more likely to use direct style (i.e., being blunt, accusing, patronizing, challenging, disputing, aggravating). in responding to the senior male subordinates, the female leader adopts indirect strategies as signals of solidarity to maintain the older participants’ faces to gain support and engage all parties in accomplishing the tasks. in this case, she compensates for her directness by offering choices at the implementation level. the seniors can decide which one is more suitable for their conditions. in this way, she shares authority and saves the faces of the seniors. this study presents evidence that women leaders demonstrate their ability to manage problematic issues, which require tactful use of a range of discursive competence and politeness strategies. the flexibility in building communication is the strength of women’s leadership quality, particularly in the indonesian context that adheres to the cultural value which places respect on older colleagues. foremost, although this study represents a wide array of communication strategies, all possible alternative linguistic practices employed by female leaders in broader contexts might not have been examined. further research could explore the female leader’s linguistic approaches in other social domains. references almutairi, s. 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(1985). implicit theories about influence of style: the effects of status and sex. personality and social psychology bulletin, 11(2), pp. 191-205. thimm, c., koch, s. c., & schey, s. (2003). communicating gendered professional identity: competence, cooperation, and conflict in the workplace. in j. holmes & m. meyerhoff (eds.)., the handbook of language and gender (pp.528-549). uk: blackweel publishing. wardani, f. l. r., & uyun, z. (2017). “ngajeni wong liyo”: menghormati orang yang lebih tua pada remaja etnis jawa. indigenous: jurnal ilmiah psikologi, 2(2), pp.176-183. williams, m. j., & tiedens, l. z. (2016). the subtle suspension of backlash: a meta-analysis of penalties for women’s implicit and explicit dominance behavior. psychological bulletin, 142(2), pp.165-197. biography ernanda holds a phd in linguistics from leiden university, the netherlands and an m.a in linguistics from radboud university nijmegen, the netherlands. she was formerly a research associate at the hong kong polytechnic university, hong kong, and is currently an assistant professor in the faculty of teacher training and education at universitas jambi, indonesia. she received an eldp grant from soas london. her documentary collections can be accessed through the digital endangered languages archive (elar). her research interests include micro linguistics, language and gender, and critical discourse analysis. delita sartika is an assistant professor at english education department at universitas jambi, indonesia. she received a master’s degree in translation studies and a phd in literary and cultural studies from monash university in melbourne, australia. she is interested in women and language in culture, society, and literary works. ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 90 appendix excerpt 1 yannie 1 hmm… gini bu maia, kita harus tahu bahwa mahasiswa kita yang semester 5 ikut 2 km ini sesunguhnya dia tu ingin kuliah kita itu hanya 1 semester yang tatap muka 3 selanjutnya daring, ya. [hmm… so bu maia, we have to understand that our fifth-semester students who joined the teaching assistant program only had offline classroom learning for one semester. the rest were carried out online]. 4 jadi, pengalaman-pengalaman penelitian yang didapat itu masih minim sekali 5 kalo tidak ada dibekali dengan teori-teori. [so, students’ experiences gained through the fieldwork will be very insufficient if they are not taught from a theoretical perspective as well.] 6 ibuk yakin lah, kami sudah malang melintang di kepala sekolah. [you have to trust me. i have extensive experience as a school principal] 7 biasa kepala sekolah itu banyak bantuan dari para managerial lo. bagaimana dia 8 akan memberikan informasi pada siswa mahasiswa sementara mahasiswa kita juga 9 tidak tahu. nah, ini nantik akan menjadi permasalahan. [it is very common that the school principals were helped by others in carrying out managerial tasks. how are they going to provide knowledge for our students while the students know nothing about it? so, this is going to be a problem later.] 10 alangkah baiknya kita jangan berpasangka buruk deh kalo dosen menggunakan 11 otoritas begini-begini saya kira tidak saya kira nantik kita lebih lebih e lebih anu aja 12 lebih enjoy aja. [it is better that we don’t use a negative assumption that lecturers will use their authority in such a way. i don’t think they will do that. i believe we will do this in an enjoyable way.] 13 memberikan apa teori-teori memberikan teori-teori apa nya sebelum pembekalan 14 kepada mahasiswa atau memang benar-benar mahasiswa tu tetep bagus gitu lo 15 karna tidak semua kepala sekolah atau guru itu dalam tanda petik memahami 16 tugas yang fungsinya sangat maksimal begitu bu. [providing the students with theories as preparation so they can be more knowledgeable because not all principals or teachers have a good understanding of their jobs and responsibility, ma’am.] maia 17 baik pak yannie, terima kasih ini nya hmm apa gambaran pandangannnya. 18 saya sepakat sebenarnya, pak yannie bahwa ada beberapa hal mungkin yang perlu 19 dibekali. nah, kalo memang itu dipikir perlu oleh prodi silahkan dibuat dalam 20 prosedurnya seperti apa pembekalannya seperti apa kegiatannya. [okay, pak yannie, e.. thank you for sharing your perspective. i actually agree, pak yannie, that the (fieldwork) students need orientation regarding some matters. so, if the department considers it (the orientation) necessary, please draw up what the procedure is and what kind of orientation is going to be given.] 21 saya tidak berasumsi jelek sebenarnya. tapi memang sudah ada mahasiswa yang 22 mengadukan seperti itu, "buk, gimana caranya saya ikut kampus mengajar 2 tapi 23 dosen saya masih berharap kami melakukan mata kuliah", seperti itu. 24 jadi laporan seperti itu tu ada. 25 jadi tidak hmm... atas asumsi hmm... saya yang berpraduga bersalah 26 terhadap dosen yang menggunakan otoritas gitu. [i didn’t make a negative assumption. however, some students have reported their problems like this: “maam, how am i supposed to join kampus mengajar (the name of the fieldwork program) while my lecturers still expected us to attend lectures.” so there are real complaints in this case, not only me assuming that lecturers will use their power authoritatively.] 27 nah, dosen pengampu itu juga harus direm. 28 kalo memang mereka pengen mahasiswa ikut dalam perkuliahan daring, 29 kalo bisa daring. 30 tapi kan kalo di lapangan, ya seperti itu. 31 nanti mahasiswa lapor sinyalnya tidak bagus. itu memang harus banyak 32 pemakluman. 33 nah, itu dimasukan silahkan di dalam dokumen kesepakatan ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 91 [and the lecturers must also be controlled. if they (the lecturers) want the students to join online classes, do it online if possible. but that’s the reality in the field. if the students later report having a bad internet connection, it must be understood. it must be included in the program contract.] 34 apakah memang mahasiswa di jurusan pak yannie itu harus diwajibkan misalnya 35 bertemu dengan dosen pengampunya selama 3 kali misalnya, dalam model apa. 36 yang penting keselamatan mahasiswa itu harus di nomor satu kan. 37 tidak ada panggilan-pangggilan harus datang ke tempat seperti itu. 38 jadi biar dia fokus kalo memang bisa difasilitasi daring. 39 dan hmm... jurusan dan prodi itu berkeputusan bahwa itu wajib silahkan dibuatkan 40 di dalam dokumen kesepakatan. 41 jadi itu diketahui oleh semua gitu. [do we really need to require the (fieldwork) students from your department to meet with the course lecturers, for example, for three sessions, but how will the meetings be run? it is important to prioritize students’ safety. there must not be any requirement for them to be physically present in classes so they can focus (on their fieldwork). so, if the department believes the sessions are important and is able to run them online, please proceed with drawing up the procedures to be agreed upon by all the parties involved.] excerpt 2 edi 1 2 kata ibu tadi kita tidak.. sebenarnya kita e udah diwajibkan. itu aja kasarnya tidak e udah diwajibkan untuk melakukan ini, kan itu? [you said we don’t.. we’re obliged to do that. that’s a blunt way to express it... we.. e.. have been instructed to do this, correct?] maia 3 iya. [yes]. edi 4 5 nah, apa pun alasan kita kayak pak yannie tadi kalok kita sudah terikat ndak bisa lagi kita, ndak bisa lagi merdeka yang ada di dalam ini, kan itu? kan itu kan? [so, whatever the reason as yannie said just now we’re obliged, we’re no longer, no longer free here, right? correct?] maia 6 iya, pak. yes, sir. edi 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 nah sekarang. mahasiswa prodi x yang 13 orang yang ngambil km2 itu adalah semester 5. mereka itu pada semester 5 ini ada 22 sks. kalo bu maia mengatakan tadi memang diwajibkan 20, mereka tinggal 1 mata kuliah wajib prodi yaitu x yang mana outputnya nanti kalau keluarannya adalah melaksanakan seminar nasional. nah sedangkan mereka hanya 13 orang berarti mereka akan ditunda untuk mengontrak mata kuliah x ini pada semester 7 nanti. kan itu jadinya? kalo memang diwajibkan hanya 20. kata bu maia tadi, mereka tidak dibolehkan keluar dari arena km dia takut dia terjadi permasalahanpermasalahan, kan itu? edi [ok. now about the 13 students who registered for the teaching assistant program. they are now in semester 5. there are 22 credits offered for that semester. if you said they could sign up only for a maximum of 20 credits, they have to leave out two credits of the compulsory course, the x course. at the end of this course, the students will be registered to attend a national seminar. if they cannot register for the course in semester 5, they have to wait for semester 7 as the course is only offered in odd semesters. so because they can only register for the 20 credits. as you said, they cannot commute between the school where they do teaching assistant and their campus to join the 2-credit class.] maia 14 iya, pak edi. maia [yes, sir.] edi 15 16 17 18 haa sekarang bagaimana kalau mahasiswanya mau juga yang 13 orang ini mengontrak mata kuliah x tersebut. apa yang mau kita lakukan? karena dia nanti ndak mungkin dia akan melakukan seminar propoo… nasional dengan adeknya di bawah. karena komunikasinya lagi lain lagi. kan itu? [ok now what if these thirteen students want to register for the x course? what shall we do? because it’s impossible for them to join the national seminar with junior students (the next year). because the communication will be different.] maia 19 oke [okay] ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 92 edi 20 21 22 23 24 nah, kalo mereka mau mengikutin, bagaimana? ini yang pertama. kedua sebenarnya php2d tadi, itu ada anak saya ikut sama rombongan dengan bu yanti dulu. saya kalok dikatakan di… di… tam… itulah yang dikatakan oleh teman tadi dari ilmu sejarah, dia menabung. saya akan mengeluarkan nilainya baru semester ini. karna dia saya konversi kepada ppl di luar sekolah. seperti iwan yang yang nomer e juara 3 di tingkat nasiol se universitas ni kemaren. [so, if they want to join, how? this is the first question. the second one is regarding php2d program. one of my students joined that program with madam yanti’s (another lecturer) students. so in my situation, as one of our colleagues from the history department just said, we used a strategy of delaying the grade. i will submit their grade this semester because their program is recognized as an off-school teaching internship. the case is like iwan’s, who won third place in a competition last year.] edi 25 26 27 nah jadi ini yang saya mintak ke ibu maia karna ini sudah merupakan wajib. ndak ada musta mustas nabi ila ndak ada pengecualinya lagi. kalo ya saya keluarkan 13 atau bagaimana. haa gitu kira-kira bu maia. [so, this is what i request from you because this is an obligation. no excuses. if you agree, then i will let these thirteen students register for the program.] maia 28 29 ya makasih pak edi. ee tadi pertanyaan pertama e semester 5 itu punya 22 sks ya pak ya? [yes, thank you, edi. eee, the first question, in semester 5, your students are offered 22 credits, is that right?] edi 30 iya ya ya. [yes yes yes.] maia 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 kalo misalnya prodi memang sudah bisa memastikan 22 sksnya itu bisa dikonversi dari semester 5 saja bagus lah berarti kan tidak tidak mengganggu semester 6 dan 7. sementara prodi-prodi lain mungkin tadi e akhirnya terpaksa membuka itu kayak jalur tol 5 6 dan 7 itu biasa dikontrak oleh mahasiswa km 2 gitu. kalok di di prodi bapak itu sudah menjaminkan bisa konversinya hanya ke mata kuliah semester 5 sebanyak 20 sks silahkan. yang pertanyaan saya yang kedua itu mata kuliah yang luarannya seminar nasional tadi itu mungkin perlu penjelasan dikit pak edi apakah memang cukup mahasiswa itu melakukan seminar saja di di e akhir apakah dia hmm ada ngikutin perkuliahan reguler lagi. [if your department has made sure that the 22 credits can be fully converted from semester 5, that is great. that means we don’t have to touch courses for semesters 6 and 7. in other departments, they will need to open like a toll road for fifth-semester students to select courses from semesters 5, 6, and 7. if your department can make the conversion of the teaching assistant program into courses available in semester five only, go ahead. my second question is regarding the x course. the output is students’ attendance at a national seminar. i need more explanation on that. during the course, do students only need to make preparation for attending the seminar? or do they follow a typical class structure, meaning they must attend the weekly lectures? edi 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 ee begini bu e mata kuliah x itu luarannya nantik dia akan melaksanakan dengan mungkin dia semua peserta seminar itu akan melakukan seminar tingkat nasional maka mendatangkan narasumbernarasumber dari nasional tentang x itu sendiri. nah itu setiap semester ganjil kami lakukan. nah sekarang karena tadi itu mata kuliah itu kami tawarkan pada semester 5 ini. kalo semester 5 kata ibu maia tadi wajibnya hanya 20 sedangkan di kami sekarang ini hanya 22 sks. salah satunya mata kuliah x tadi itu yang saya tanya karna kata ibuk tadi ada kalimat usahakan anakanak tidak keluar dari km kan itu. [ee here the x course will require students to attend a national seminar in which we invite speakers at a national level to deliver a talk about issues in x. we run the seminar every odd semester. the course is offered in the 5th semester. so, you said that students are only allowed to sign up for 20 credits, while in our curriculum, we offer 22 credits, including the x course. that is what i asked because you said students could not be allowed to commute between the schools where they do teaching assistant and campus to attend lectures.] maia 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 oke pak. kalok memang dilaksanakan mata kuliahnya itu ada kewajiban seperti biasa 16 kali pertemuan di kelas dan sebagainya mohon coba prodi cermati kembali bisa ndak itu dipindahkan karna ada 13 orang kan udah cukup 1 kelas. sebenarnya tu pak dengan sistem remun ini kan tidak lagi di diberatkan dengan bahwa 1 kelas itu harus sekian sekian sekian gitu kan asal dia terdaftar terverifikasi apalagi ini mbkm nanti kalo memang ada masalah silahkan dilapor saja ke ke dekan nah kita coba e diskusi dengan sistem di lptik dan dan warek 1 mungkin gitu. jadi e artinya gini jadi untuk 13 anak semester 5 tadi ke e rekomendasi saya sama biarkan mereka fokus dengan kampus mengajar untuk mata kuliah sisa yang 2 sks itu boleh pak edi pindahkan nanti ke semester 6 kalok memang load-nya masih cukup 24 sks karna semester 6 dia balek lagi ndak ke kampus gitu kan km 2 nya sudah selesai. nah itu pindahkan saja ke ernanda / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 93 54 55 56 57 58 59 semester 6 cukup dia satu satu kelas itu 13 orang kalo mungkin itu diakomodir. jadi e itu adalah ramburambu rekomendasi dari fakultas. fakultas bisa memberikan pola tapi seperti saya bilang juga ke pak yannie tadi kalo memang ada kekhususan sekali di prodi bapak ibuk silahkan dibuatkan e apa namanya skema sendiri yang tidak keluar dari rambu-rambu utama tapi kem kemudian tolong didokumentasikan di dalam kesepakatan dengan mahasiswa atau da dalam prosedur yang dibuat prodi dengan mahasiswa gitu pak edi. [okay sir. if the course is run per a regular structure, students are required to attend 16 lecture meetings, please see if the 13 students can be asked to register for the course in the next semester. thirteen students are a large enough number to run one class. actually with our new payment system, we no longer have to meet the minimum number of students to run one class as long as students register. in the mbkm case, if a problem occurs, we can report to our dean, and we will discuss the system with the it department and the vice chancellor. so, for your thirteen students, i recommend they must focus on doing their teaching assistant activities. for the 2-credit course they need to leave out, you can offer the course to these 13 students in semester 6, so they don’t have to commute between school and campus. so that is the procedure from our faculty. faculties can decide their procedures to run mbkm. as i told yannie, the department can also design their procedures as long as they don’t contradict the general procedures and must be stated in students’ contracts between the programs.] edi 60 oke bu okay, ma’am. agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 411 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 21, 2023 final revision: december 29, 2023 accepted: december 30, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this article examines the activation of a schema based on the game, the realization of the schema theory in the game character named eunie, and the proof of eunie’s status as the primary character in the game. the study analyzes the factors that trigger the activation of a schema and how it relates to the game’s structure. it explores how the schema theory manifests in the game character eunie, highlighting her role as the central character. the research provides evidence to support the claim that eunie is, in fact, the main character in the game. the study at hand utilizes the schema theory components introduced by j. piaget to investigate the research on cognitive stylistics. in order to characterize the themes that are realized in the game xenoblade chronicles 3, the research is carried out utilizing a qualitative descriptive design with case study. the research focuses on a schema that influences how people see their surroundings and the world around them. it suggests that in order for a player to completely understand an idea or a tale from the game, that player’s prior knowledge is necessary. there are seven components in the schema theory that must be outlined: figure and ground, prototypicality, resonance and ambience, metaphor and framing, simulation and projection, mind-modeling, and text-worlds. the result emphasized the importance of schemas in aiding readers to interpret the game’s world and characters’ accents. this study highlights the significance of schema theory in cognitive stylistics as a valuable framework for comprehending character development and literary analysis in video games. keywords cognitive, language, schema theory, schema correspondence e-mail: ridhorambe20@gmail.com article a schema theory analysis of the game character eunie from ‘xenoblade chronicles 3’ agung olaf ridho rambe1, rahmadsyah rangkuti2 1,2universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.411-418.2023 i. introduction in contemporary society, the pervasive influence of technology has led to widespread engagement in gaming among teenagers. this phenomenon, often perceived as a mere pastime or even a waste of time, has evolved considerably over the years. today, the educational potential of video games has garnered significant attention, particularly in the realm of linguistics (ang & zaphiris, 2008; casañ pitarch, 2017; mukundan et al., 2014). this study delves into the utilization of video games as a pedagogical tool for linguistic learning, with a focus on the language employed in game character names and the underlying conceptual framework of the games. as video games have transformed from being perceived as children’s entertainment into a versatile tool employed in various contexts, including education, it has attracted the attention of both younger and older individuals, as well as businesses and educators (de aguilera & mendiz, 2003; jayakanthan, 2002; kenwright, 2017; utoyo, 2021). consequently, video games are no longer viewed solely as a pastime but as a valuable means of improving literacy, particularly for young language learners (gee, 2015). language plays a pivotal role in video games, influencing players’ cognitive engagement and the development of positive cognitive effects that is sherry turkle, a psychologist and sociologist, has examined the impact of technology on human behavior and cognition, including discussions on video games and their effects on social interactions agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 412 and cognitive development the names of game characters, for instance, often incorporate humor and creativity, becoming distinctive features of the games and even transcending into other forms of media. furthermore, applying schema theory to the interpretation of literary texts challenges readers’ preconceived notions and highlights the dynamic relationship between background knowledge and interpretation variability (harrison, nuttall, stockwell, & yuan, 2014). language plays a crucial role in video games across various aspects, such as narrative and storytelling. language is a primary tool for conveying the game’s story, characters, and world-building. through dialogues, written text, and voice acting, games use language to immerse players in rich narratives. the next is instructions and guidance. in-game instructions, tutorials, and prompts are often conveyed through language. clear and effective language helps players understand game mechanics, objectives, and how to progress through the game. and then, cultural and linguistic diversity. games often include diverse characters and settings, showcasing different languages and cultures. this exposure can broaden players’ understanding and appreciation of linguistic diversity. and the last one is emotional impact. well-crafted dialogues and narratives can evoke emotions, creating a deeper connection between players and the game’s characters or storyline. to illustrate the relevance of these concepts, this study will examine xenoblade chronicles 3, an action role-playing game with a vast open world and unique gameplay mechanics. this game’s incorporation of linguistic elements, along with its engaging world and character building, serves as a compelling example of how video games can contribute to linguistic learning and literary analysis that includes cognitive that focuses on mental processes like perception, attention, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. it’s highly relevant to understanding how players process information, strategize, and navigate game environments. the theoretical and practical implications of this research hold significant value within the field of pragmatics and cognitive stylistics. this study is expected to contribute to and enrich our understanding of schema analysis theories, a key component of cognitive stylistics, which examines style from a cognitive perspective. cognitive stylistics operates on the premise that a text’s purpose and meaning are intricately linked to its formal features, encompassing formal description, its connection to a specific spatial and temporal context, and a distinct cognitive framework (emmott, 2014; gavins & steen, 2003; gibbs, 2006). in addition to its innovative gameplay, the xenoblade chronicles series stands out for its distinct use of accents, particularly british accents. the incorporation of diverse english dialects outside of the typical american context has not only enriched the gaming experience but also redefined the series’ identity. as we explore this fascinating linguistic aspect within the xenoblade chronicles series, the study aim to underscore the significance of language in gaming and its potential impact on language learning and literary analysis. many writers have written about videogame analysis in the journals and books. some of these are james p. gee, who investigated video games through studies with the title of “thomas was alone” (2015: 21–24) and “metal gear solid 4” (2009). the focus of those two studies is different. the first one, by james p. gee, concentrates on the game’s cut scene and examines every aspect of it, including the various outcomes that can follow from choosing to perform or refrain from performing certain activities. in his explanation, he also places emphasis on the design of video games, which means that all of your gameplay decisions affect how successful you are at achieving your objectives (or missions). alberto is the second researcher who uses the video game as the subject (2012). he talked about how various video games translate text. alberto used translational techniques to explain translation in a number of video games in his studies. he places emphasis on features of translations such literal translation, transcreation, no translation, domestication, and foreignization. he included an explanation of the impacts of translation in numerous games that cause the loss of meaning since jokes and puns might not work in another culture. moreover, this research aims to incorporate schema theory, a cognitive linguistics theory, to systematically analyze literary language and text. by employing schema theory, this study endeavors to offer stylisticians and language enthusiasts a methodical approach to analyze literary texts and agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 413 enhance their comprehension. it also investigates how schema theory can be applied to interpret literary works and explore the connections readers establish between the textual world and their own experiences, bridging the gap between discourse and text worlds. ii. methods the research employs a qualitative descriptive design with a case study approach to provide an in-depth exploration of the themes and topics depicted in the video game xenoblade chronicles 3. qualitative research serves as the primary data source, emphasizing the researcher’s role as the key instrument. this approach focuses on gathering data expressed in words, rather than numerical data, with the goal of understanding how theories are manifested in various phenomena and their significance to individuals in their natural context (sugiyono, 2013). the primary source of data for this study is the video game xenoblade chronicles 3, developed by nintendo, a prominent japanese multinational video game company. the game offers a rich open world and allows for the involvement of up to seven party members, including unique “hero” characters. these aspects distinguish it from earlier installments in the xenoblade series, where the party size was limited to three characters. the data in this study primarily pertains to the utterances found in the game, with a specific focus on the character named eunie. data collection involves the use of documentary techniques, as only data relevant to addressing the research question is acquired. the process includes retrieving information from the game, applying schema theory for data correlation, extracting pertinent points from the theory, and classifying and organizing the selected discourses or literary texts that align with the study’s objectives. the realization of the schema theory elements such as figure and the ground, prototypicality, resonance and ambience, metaphor and framing, simulation and projection, and text-worlds, all of it will be used to analyze literary language and text from eunie, using dialogues and utterances from the game or narration to help players analyze and comprehend literary texts. eunie is chosen as the main character due to the use of british accents and speech patterns to create their personalities and the universe in which they lived. iii. result and discussion the theoretical framework for this study is grounded in cognitive stylistics, a multidisciplinary approach that merges rigorous linguistic analysis typical of the stylistics tradition with a theoretically informed exploration of the cognitive structures and processes underlying the use and interpretation of language. specifically, a cognitive stylistic approach is applied to the characterization of fictional video game characters, seeking to combine linguistic analysis with cognitive insights to illuminate how these characters are constructed and comprehended within the context of video games. in this study, a cognitive stylistic approach is adopted, and schema theory serves as a key theoretical framework. this approach aims to demonstrate the applicability of schema theory in the interpretation of literary language and, in this context, the language used in video games. the study seeks to uncover how readers form connections between the textual world presented in the game and their own experiences and background knowledge, effectively bridging the gap between the discourse world and the text world (mcvee, dunsmore, & gavelek, 2005). table 1 the matrices provide a detailed stylistic element description metaphors examines metaphoric language used in game narratives and its impact on players’ cognitive interpretations dialogue structures analyzes how different dialogue structures influence players’ cognitive engagement and decision-making symbolism explores symbolic elements within games and their influence on players’ cognitive and emotional responses narrative framing investigates how narrative framing shapes players’ cognitive understanding of game worlds and characters table 1. cognitive stylistic elements in the game analysis of the cognitive stylistic components present in games and how they affect various aspects of gameplay. through this structured presentation, one can gain a better understanding of the intricate relationship between these elements and their influence on the overall gaming experience. table 2. highlights the ways in which cognitive stylistics can influence the gaming experience. it shows how the use of metaphors, symbolism, agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 414 and the ground being used. the perception refers to the visual system’s propensity to reduce a scene to the main object we’re focusing on (the figure) and everything else that makes up the backdrop (or ground). eunie said to riku by just looking because of she knew about manana being good at cooking. eunie decided to choose manana as the figure for riku as she hoping for the team. manana as the figure to be followed by riku and then the ground is the one behind the meaning of the topic in the dialogue, which is being good at cooking food. prototypicality another aspect discussed is “prototypicality,” a cognitive linguistic concept highlighting how people categorize objects based on their best fit within a category. the article provides an example from the game where characters’ prototypicality is evident in their language use. the characters’ reactions to a situation reflect how readers may have varied responses to fictional characters based on how well they fit the prototypical characteristics associated with certain attributes or behaviors. the example for prototypicality can be found in chapter 2 in the story of the game: after hours of trekking through the dry badlands of the fornis region as one of the places in the game (with the heat-hating mio hilariously almost losing the will to go on) the party happens upon an oasis. the girls and the nopon jump at the chance to cool off and quickly go for a swim. unfortunately for them, lanz also decides to jump in, and him being so much bigger and heavier causes an almighty splash that soaks everyone. once he’s resurfaced eunie erupts in what can only be described as an explosion of cockney rage. the dialogues are: eunie: (gasp) you muppet! lanz: ha ha ha! eunie: never do that again! lanz: c’mon! you’re already soaking wet, anyway! what difference does it make? eunie: the difference is, you’re an arsehole! from the dialogues that happened in the paragraphs above that eunie is one of a kind language users as cockney english, cockney represents the basilectal end of the london accent and can be considered the broadest form of london local accent. cockney is a regional english accent and dialect that is mostly used by working-class and lower-middle class londoners. in this case, table 2. impact of cognitive stylistics on gameplay cognitive aspect influence of stylistic elements in games engagement and immersion metaphors, symbolism, and narrative framing impact players’ immersion and engagement decision-making dialogue structures influence players’ decision-making processes during gameplay emotional responses symbolism and narrative framing evoke emotional responses and shape player experiences comprehension metaphors and stylistic devices affect players’ understanding and interpretation narrative framing, and dialogue structures affects players’ experiences during gameplay. it suggests that the stylistic elements in games play a significant role in shaping players’ understanding, interpretation, and emotional responses to the game. cognitive stylistics can be used in creating an immersive and engaging gaming experience. moreover, stylistics acknowledges the crucial role of the reader and the reader’s contextual background, aligning with reader response theory. it recognizes that the act of reading involves the generation of textual meaning by the reader, influenced by the reader’s sociocultural position and background knowledge. the study emphasizes the reader’s role in contributing to the meaning-making process, which is influenced by prior textual and discourse knowledge and the application of cognitive structures such as schemata and metaphorical mapping, as defined within the discipline of cognitive stylistics (cook, 1994). iv. discussion figure and the ground one critical aspect of schema theory is the concept of “figure and the ground.” this relates to the reader’s ability to distinguish between the main focus (figure) and the background (ground) in a text, a matter of mental patterning. in this case, one of the scene from the game in chapter 1 from the story in the game: manana introduces herself, she explains that she’s the team chef, responsible for keeping spirits up through good food. and then eunie glares at riku, clearly thinking “why don’t you do anything like that?” he just glares right back. this one refers as the perception of the figure agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 415 she said about muppet which is a nicer way to say you are an idiot, or a retard. she also said about arsehole which is a british english for asshole. from the dialogue shows that we can categorize eunie is being one of the english accent users which used the cockney english as the best fit, prototypicality in this case is that eunie is being the one because of the examples such as muppet and arsehole. these words are always being used by local british english speakers. resonance and ambience the study also delves into the concepts of “resonance and ambience,” which are built upon the foundation of figure, ground, and prototypicality. these concepts contribute to cognitive grammar models that explain various literary effects. an in-game scene from chapter 3 illustrates how characters’ responses to taion’s cooking reflect different perspectives, creating a sense of resonance and ambience. the reader’s imaginative engagement with the text allows for varied interpretations and emotional connections, emphasizing the reader’s role in shaping the literary experience. in one of the scene from the game, especially from chapter 3, manana explains that taion is a terrible cook, which is why she started cooking. naturally, taion disputes this. the dialogues are : taion: actually, my cooking just focuses more on efficient absorption of nutrients and convenient portability. and i’ve actually optimized it. eunie: ...you mean it used to be even worse? mio: h-hey now, i like taion’s cooking! it’s... unique! noah: it’s ok. swallow it down quickly and you’ll probably be fine. sena: do you... do you really think you’re helping...? from these dialogues they can be concluded as the resonance and ambience, because of the vary use of clause such as from the words “it’s… unique!” and “you’ll probably fine” is simply telling about not everything can simply be labeled as bad. to explain more about resonance and ambience in this case, the characters mio and noah has experienced and knew that taion is a terrible cook, so in this case the characters are just being polite, or in a setting where criticism is discouraged. this can be happened because of something that happened before that can make another character make their own perspective on it based on what happened. its also can be used as trolls or cynical critics who prefer to use witty insults. from the words by eunie by saying “you mean it used to be even worse?” we can see that eunie is imagining that taion’s cooking wasn’t good and already guessed it right, that’s why taion insist that he already optimize his skill in terms of cooking. from here we can see that based only the experience it can be concluded that taion wasn’t good in terms of cooking so from this his friends realized that and tried to support taion while, eunie in this case just straight insult him. the dialogues use grammatical forms as a triggering tool to literary effects. it works at the clausal level as well as discourse level and all the points between them. metaphors and framing metaphors are fundamental to human communication and cognition, as they help convey, reflect, and reinforce various ways of understanding different aspects of our lives. this central role of metaphor is often metaphorically described as “framing.” the concept of framing has been widely discussed and employed in various fields, including sociology, artificial intelligence, and semantics, and it involves the use of specific lexical and grammatical choices in language. in this context, a “frame” represents a portion of background knowledge related to a specific aspect of the world. it generates expectations and inferences in communication and actions. in one scene from the game, which occurs in chapter 4, eunie expresses her displeasure about their exit strategy during a discussion about raiding keves castle. eunie’s statement, “more snuffin’ water. every time we run, why do we always end up getting drenched? i mean, feathers are a bitch to dry,” exemplifies the use of metaphor. here, the word “bitch” does not refer to a woman trying to please men. instead, eunie employs it as a metaphor to convey her frustration and annoyance whenever her feathers (around her head) get wet. her feathers are difficult to dry, and this becomes a source of irritation for her. another instance of framing through metaphor occurs when they arrive in a city within the game, also in chapter 4. valdi refers to the city’s inhabitants as “eyepatch folks.” this can be seen as framing because the term “eyepatch folks” is a way of categorizing the people in the city as those who wear eyepatches. this choice of terminology shapes expectations and inferences in communication and actions. in the same scene, zeon expresses the feeling of being watched, to agung olaf ridho rambe / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 416 which eunie responds, “guess they’ve never seen folks with wings before. they’re the weird ones, just stare back.” eunie’s statement emphasizes the contrast between her group with wings and the city’s inhabitants, highlighting their differences. this metaphorical framing underscores the impact of knowledge and experience on communication, as the city’s residents are regarded as “weird” by eunie’s party due to their unique characteristics. metaphors and the concept of framing are significant in understanding how language shapes our perceptions and interactions. the metaphors used in these scenes in the game demonstrate how individuals frame their experiences and the world around them, and how specific linguistic choices can influence expectations and inferences in communication and action. simulation and projection the phenomenon of readers being emotionally impacted by fictitious events and the experiences of the characters in literature can be explained through simulation. when we read literary works, we don’t experience made-up happiness, sadness, or other feelings; however, literary reading does evoke real emotions, moods, and other genuine impacts. in cognitive stylistics, specific textual patterns that enable these experiences can be identified, often through the examination of a text’s deictic elements. deictic elements encompass all the passages in a text that delineate the various perspectives of the author, the narrator, the fictional characters, and the readers. to construct a reader’s imagined viewpoint relative to this deictic centerpoint, readers must be able to conceive and adopt the character’s perspective using personal pronouns as well as the spatial and temporal features of the text. the stylistic method that allows a reader to immerse themselves in the imagined scene and keep track of every person in it is known as deictic projection. in a scene from the game, the hero characters offer various observations and thoughts about the places they visit, some of which can be quite amusing. for example, cammuravi has a unique perspective on the behavior of children in the park: cammuravi: “this is a warzone for these little ones. they fight each other for territory.” noah: “i didn’t realize parks were such dangerous places...” from the dialogue, the kids around the park are “fighting” each other to get their own territory. simulation accounts for the counterintuitive phenomenon that readers are moved emotionally by those fictional events as though they experience them. in this case the player realized that the park itself is a place where the kids are fighting for their own territory. even though the player cannot feel the real fight by getting real hit, but it can be imagined that it always happened like that way. while the projection in this case is the park where the fights between the kids always happened. eunie, a character in the video game, was chosen for further study due to her unique speech patterns and british accents, which added depth to her character. the study highlighted the role of schemas in aiding readers to interpret the game’s world and how the characters’ accents and speech patterns shaped their personalities and the game’s universe. in essence, schemas allow readers to streamline their understanding of the extensive information presented in the game’s environment. in essence, this study underscores the significance of schema theory within cognitive stylistics as a valuable framework for understanding literary analysis, character development, and the cognitive processes underlying reading experiences in a video game. v. conclusion the exploration of cognitive stylistics within video games unveils a profound relationship between stylistic elements and players’ cognitive experiences. findings consistently highlight the pivotal role played by narrative engagement, linguistic impact, dialogue structures, and stylistic devices in shaping players’ immersion, emotional engagement, decision-making, and comprehension during gameplay. the integration of cognitive stylistics into game design emerges as a 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(2015) the oxford handbook of cognitive approaches toliterature, new york: oxford university press. hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 169 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 16, 2023 final revision: july 09, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 this study discusses linguistic phenomena regarding the lexical variations of the agam tanah datar dialect found in nagari gunuang, padang panjang city. the research conducted in nagari gunuang covered four villages as observation points, namely ekor lubuk village, sigando village, ganting village and ngalau village. this study describes the forms of lexical variations of the agam tanah datar dialect of the minangkabau language found in nagari gunuang, padang panjang city. the data of this study are the dialects spoken orally by nine informants. the informants of this study were the natives of nagari gunuang who directly explained 851 glosses of vocabulary, phrases and sentences. this research is a qualitative as well as quantitative research. the method of providing data used is the method of observing, noting, and speaking. the method of data analysis uses dialectometric calculations, in order to determine the percentage of speech differences between observation points. in this study, 172 lexical variations were found from 851 glosses which were grouped into: two twosymbol etimonsss, two three-symbol etimonss, two four-symbol etimonsss and three three-symbol etimonss. in the dialectometric calculation, it was found that the overall average percentage was below 25% which was classified as a speech difference. keywords variation lexical, dialectology, dialectometry, dialect agam tanah datar, nagari gunuang correspondence e-mail: genrejateng.niko@gmail.com article lexical variation of agam tanah datar dialect in nagari gunuang of padang panjang city hijrianda niko larizky1, chattri sigit widyastuti2 1-2universitas sebelas maret, central java, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.169-175.2023 i. introduction indonesia is a country known for a variety of linguistic characteristics in each region. this is known from various tribes, religions, cultures, and social groups. this diversity represents communication and national identity through groups of speakers, one of which is variation in a dialect which can be identified through a regional mapping. so the existence of cultural complexity in indonesia makes communication and cultural interaction increasingly massive and complex, so it needs to be the basis for understanding basic insights 2023). the results of linguistic research conducted by the indonesian ministry of education, culture, research, and technology in 2018, show that there are 718 regional languages in indonesia. this illustrates how communication is established in each group of speakers of a particular language. the diversity of regional languages and dialects in indonesia has given rise to many variations of the language. these language and dialect variations can then be identified through language mapping. language mapping represents a variety of languages that are unique to an area. language mapping on the basic cultural vocabulary plays an important role in underpinning society to preserve the vitality of language (zabadi, 2021). this variety of dialects is an object of study in the field of linguistics which can be an attraction for the development of linguistic insights, so that it becomes an indication related to the study of dialect geography in order to know that language plays an important role in running a social system in an area. the study of dialectology addresses the variety of languages in the scope of society in a region or area, so that the study of dialectology covers every subsystem of the field of linguistics underlying between generations (sohabudin & darmawan, hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 170 linguistics, including phonology, semantics, syntax and morphology. lauder reveals that “dialectology is a variety of language that is based on a unit of space in which variations in research is carried out to obtain conclusions that can be known factually” (lauder, 2001: 1). theoretically, previous research related to dialectological studies, traced the derived forms of vocabulary compared through phonological rules between dialects (suryati, mbete, lauder, & dhanawaty, 2012). thus it can be said that dialectology can identify similarities and differences in the use of sign systems, namely through elements that coincide with certain languages. through mapping language in an area, dialectology studies can be linked to a unit of place in order to create a variety of language uses. the explanation related to dialectology is stated by ayatrohaedi (1983: 29) that dialect geography is a comparison in language studies which has a relationship in the variety of languages. based on a map to find out the dividing line on language mapping, the observation points that are known to have a variety of speeches are marked (chambers and trudgill, 2004:24). through geographical location, unique isolects are often found, so the role of dialect geography is important in identifying a region (saddhono & hartanto, 2021) this research examines the minangkabau language, located in the region of west sumatra. in this area, the minangkabau language is used in conversations between children, parents, relatives and colleagues. minangkabau language is a part of the melayu language constituting a family of austronesian languages. the minangkabau language is used as the mother tongue in west sumatra province, while the malay language family covers almost the entire island of sumatra. through previous research, the uniqueness of the minangkabau language, known as migrants, has been explored, so that the language units brought by nomads affect differences or variations between regions through the surrounding isolects and it is the process of creating dialects that differentiates one noviatri, aslinda, & midawati, 2016). it can be said that the minangkabau language has many dialect variations. previous research emphasized language mapping. language mapping aims to verify the novelty of differences in the number of dialects in a region, one of which is through dialectological studies (budiono, novita, & syarfina, 2023). then, through verifying the geographical language mapping, the minangkabau language also has various dialects such as the agam tanah datar dialect, the pasaman dialect, the lima puluh kota dialect, the koto baru dialect, and the pancung soal dialect. traditionally, the minangkabau region has its own characteristics, i.e. there is an autonomous regional structure that regulates the deliberation system according to customary traditions, the existence of nagari based on the application of minangkabau customary law and norms. nagari is a concept that shows a thorough understanding of the indigineous law community units that have been stipulated in regional regulations (hasanuddin, azwar, akmal, & handoko, 2023). in addition, this is based on previous research finding that the minangkabau people use nature as a way of life in giving birth and the norms in acting and thinking (firdaus, lubis, susanto, & soetarto, 2018). through previous research providing the origins of the minangkabau language, one of which were influenced indian traders who came to padang, it can known that there is an interaction between minang people and indians who mingle quickly, resulting in code mixing which is shown in the minang people’s current communication style (aditiawarman & yuli, 2020). the observation in this research was carried out on the use of the minangkabau language, the agam tanah datar dialect in nagari gunuang, padang panjang city. nagari gunuang is known for historical wealth preserved continuously and unique culture. this can be seen from the use of various languages between villages in nagari gunuang. the dialect research in nagari gunuang was divided into four observation points consisting of four villages: ekor lubuk, sigando, ganting and ngalau. at these observation points, various dialects were found related to lexical variations, especially the field of lexicon which underlies the form of communication in each group of speakers. the lexical differences occur because the lexicons represent a meaning from a different etimonss. therefore, the difference in a lexicon identified through the fields of phonology and morphology can be determined (nadra and reniwati, 2009: 22). region from another in minangkabau (reniwati, hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 171 the identification of lexical variation in this study refers to the opinion put forward by zulaeha (2010: 46) that if the lexeme used in realizing a meaning coming from more than one etimons, this will be due to differences in perspectives between speakers in influencing the lexical variation spoken. this research focuses on the lexical variations of the agam tanah datar dialect in nagari gunuang. an example of vocabulary found in the agam tanah datar dialect is the word brave having two ethimones and two symbols of lexical variation: [baraŋ] spoken in ekor lubuk and ganting villages, and [baga?] spoken in sigando and ngalau villages. previous research discussing lexical variations was carried out by amri (2020) who explained the lexical variations of the agam tanah datar nagari tuo pariangan dialect in tanah datar district. the research conducted by amri found that the lexical variation of the agam tanah datar dialect found in nagari tuo pariangan shows the realization of speech differences between observation points. this study is different from amri’s as it provides a description of the lexical distribution at the observation points in the nagari gunuang area. previous research also related to lexical variations in the sasak language emphasizing the use of the dialectometric method and isogloss bundles. another previous research concluded that geographical factors influence lexical differences (zulkarnaen, dhanawaty, & putra, 2021). still another previous study on dialectometry in the authentication of weleri dialect in kendal regency concluded that through dialectometric calculation, weleri cannot be verified to be dialect as it shows only 27% value, so that the existence of weleri region has different speech] (lestari & munawarah, 2022). this study seeks to preserve and record the lexical variations of the agam tanah datar dialect found in nagari gunuang, padang panjang city. thus, this study aims to describe the forms of lexical variations existing in nagari gunuang to find out indications of the occurrence of lexical diversity. ii. methods this dialectology study uses qualitative and quantitative research types to determine the lexical variations of the agam tanah datar dialect found in nagari gunuang. this research is also descriptive in nature. pribady (2018: 61) says that the quantitative method is an approach that produces descriptive data in the form of written or oral data on phenomena existing in society, while it is said to be descriptive because the data collected is in the form of words that are explained scientifically. in addition, quantitative research is used to calculate dialectometry constituting the formula in this study. the data of study were oral utterances in the form of vocabulary delivered directly by nine informants from nagari gunuang. the research data is also based on the swadesh vocabulary list from nothofer, with a total of 851 glosses in the form of vocabulary, phrases and sentences. to classify the data, it is necessary to number the observation points in order to map lexical variations in the vocabulary with information depending on the observation points through the map depicted (nadra and reniwati, 2009:74). in this study, researchers used a bottom-up numbering system. this is adjusted to the shape of the base map of nagari gunuang, namely: ekor lubuk village (observation point 1), sigando village (observation point 2), ganting village (observation point 3), and ngalau village (observation point 4). the data analysis method used is the equivalent method obtained through conversation, with sorting technique to find out the lexical variations associated with the contrast-to-differentiation technique and the comparison-to-equal technique. the data analysis method used is the dialectometric method. this is intended to determine the percentage of speech differences between observation points. this study refers to the dialectometric calculation formula proposed by seguy (in zulaeha 2010:37) as follows: information : s = the number of differences in observation points n = amount of comparative data d = number of dialects in percentage >70% : considered a language difference 51—70% : considered to be dialect differences 31—50% : considered to be subdialectal differences 21—30% : considered to be a speech difference < 20% : considered no difference hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 172 2) the two-etimonss three-symbols group based on the data found, 19 out of 851 glosses belong to the two etimonss two symbol group. this group of two etimonss and three symbols is a gloss with three phonological variations and two lexical variations. the following is the vocabulary of belongin to the two etimonss and three symbols group. this formula is a guideline based on nadra and reniwati (2009: 92) stating that “the results obtained are in the form of the percentage distance of linguistic elements between observation points”. it is in line with previous research finding that the dialectometric method pioneered by seguy calculates the aggregate distance in dialect application in an area (wieling, nerbonne & baayen, 2011). the dialectometric method aims to analyze corpus-based statistics and computations at the point of observation (eddington, 2022). iii. result and discussion specific lexical variations in the agam tanah datar dialect can be found in two two-symbol etimonsss, two three-symbol etimonsss, two four-symbol etimonsss and three three-symbol etimonsss. this study found lexical variations of 142 glosses for two etimonss with two symbols, 19 glosses for two etimonss with three symbols, 1 gloss for two etimonsss with four symbols and 10 glosses for three etimonss with three symbols. lexical variations can be identified in the lexicon which represents a meaning from a different etimonss. then, it can be determined that the differences in a lexicon are identified through the fields of phonology and morphology, and grouped data can be explained in indonesian. because the grouping at each observation point requires a dialectometric method, this study also found that the overall average percentage was below 25% so that it could be classified as a speech difference. forms of lexical variation to classify lexical variations, they can be classified into two: two etimonss and three etimonss. each etimonss can be divided based on symbols classified based on the data found in each op (observation point). 1) the two-etimonss two-symbols group based on the data found, 142 out of 851 glosses belong to the group of two etimonss two symbols. the group of two etimonss and two symbols is known as a gloss with two phonological variations and two lexical variations. the following is the vocabulary belonging to the two etimonss and two symbols group. table 1.two-etimons two-symbols variation table 2. two-etimonss three-symbols variation 3) the two-etimonss four-symbols group based on the data found, 1 out of 851 glosses belongs to the group of two etimonss four symbols. this group of two etimonss and four symbols is a gloss with four phonological variations and two lexical variations. the following is the vocabulary belongs to the two-etimonss and four-symbols group. table 3. two-etimons four-symbols variation 4) the three-etimonss three-symbols group based on the data found, 10 out of 851 glosses belong to the three-etimonss and three-symbol group. this group of three etimonss three symbols hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 173 is a gloss with three phonological variations and three lexical variations. the following is the vocabulary belonging to the three etimonss and three symbols group. there are indications that these lexical variations are influenced by these variations, i.e. geographical factors and social factors. this is proven through the percentage of dialectometric calculations at each observation point. the group of two-etimonss two-symbols, as exemplified in the brave glosses in table 1, shows that there are differences in phonological and lexical variations: [baraŋ] is spoken in the ekor lubuk village and sigando village, while [baga?] is spoken in ganting village and ngalu village. in the group of two-etimonss three-symbols, it can be exemplified that the glosses are not good, ugly in the data above meaning that there are differences in phonological variations, namely, [inda?elo?] spoken in kampung ekor lubuk and kampung ganting, [burua?laku] spoken in kampung sigando, and [hurray?] spoken in kampung ngalau. in the two-etimonss group, the four symbols can be exemplified in the glosses you all in the data above showing differences in phonological variations, namely, [sadoño] spoken in the areas of ekor lubuk village and ganting village, [kasadoño] spoken in sigando village, [kamisa ?adelahño] is spoken in kampung ngalau, and [kamisa?adela?ah] is spoken in kampung ganting. in the group of three ethimones, three symbols can be exemplified by the gloss a cubit in the data above showing differences in phonological variations: [saheto] spoken in ekor lubuk village, [sabahu] spoken in sigando village, and [satampo?] spoken in kampung ekor ganting and ngalau village. based on dialectometric calculations, each observation point has an average percentage below 25%. the calculation results of op i and op ii finds a percentage of 22.3%. this explains that there are differences in speech. the results of calculating op i and op iii show a small percentage of 8.6%. this indicates no difference. the results of calculating op i and op iv show a percentage of 24.6% explaining the difference in speech. the results of calculating op ii and op iii show a percentage of 24% indicating a difference in speech. the calculation results for op ii and op iv show small percentage, 4.8%. thus, they do not explain the difference. the results of calculating op iii and op iv show the largest percentage of 26.5%. this finding indicates that there are differences in speech in that area. this table 4. three-etimons three-symbols variation dialectometric calculations to determine the status of differences at each observation point, a dialectometric calculation is required which is defined in the form of a percentage. this dialectometric determination is obtained through the formula proposed by seguy. the followings are the results of the overall dialectometric calculations carried out at each observation point in the nagari gunuang area. table 5. dialectometric calculations op percentage op i op ii 22,3 % op i op iii 8,6 % op i op iv 24,6 % op ii op iii 24 % op ii op iv 4,8 % op iii op iv 26,5 % op : observation point information >70% : considered a language difference 51—70% : considered to be dialect differences 31—50% : considered to be subdialectal differences 21—30% : considered to be a speech difference < 20% : considered no difference iv. discussion based on the results of the lexical variation found in this study, it can be said that the form of lexical variation can describe the different forms of etimonss phonologically and lexically shown in the form of symbols. in addition, a total of 172 lexical variations can be found from 851 glosses, and hijrianda niko larizky / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 174 is because the phenomena with a high probability of occurrence of these variations are geographical factors and social factors, as evidenced by the background of the research location which provides supporting explanations that the mobility and the conditions of observation area influence the occurrence of variations. this result is different compared to previous research conducted by amri (2020) finding that dialectometric calculations in nagari tuo pariangan have no difference through the results of 219 lexical variations in a total of 991 basic vocabularies. this is different from the results of this study, due to geographical factors and also differences in the number of vocabulary that is the result of the analysis. v. conclusion based on the result and the discussion, it can be concluded that there are 172 lexical variations of 851 glosses in the form of lexical variation in the agam tanah datar dialect. this form of variation can be classified into two-etimons two-symbols, two-etimons three-symbols, two-etimons foursymbols and three-etimons three-symbols groups. the grouping performed at each observation point utilizes dialectometric calculations. from dialectometric calculations in this study, it is also possible to find the overall percentage, that is, on average below 25%. thus, it can be said that the differences occuring are considered as differences in speech. references aditiawarman, m., & yuli, a. 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(2016). pengantar dialecttologi: pedoman penelitian dengan metode dialektometri. caps. sohabudin, a., & darmawan, w. (2023). narasi alternatif dalam pembelajaran sejarah untuk pendidikan multikultural di indonesia. indonesian journal of history education, 8(1), 62-78. suryati, n., mbete, a. m., lauder, m., & dhanawaty, n. (2012). phonological and lexical varieties of lio language in flores, east nusa tenggara: a study of geographical dialect. e-journal of linguistics, 6(1), 1-27. wieling m, nerbonne j, baayen rh (2011) quantitative social dialectology: explaining linguistic variation geographically and socially. plos one 6(9): e23613. zabadi, f. (2021). pemetaan penguasaan kosakata budaya dasar penutur jati bahasa kafoa sebagai wahana pemelajaran bahasa daerah. imajeri: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 04(1), 34-43. zulaeha, ida. (2010). dialektologi: dialek geografi dan dialek sosial. graha ilmu. zulkarnaen, dhanawaty, n., & putra, a. p. (2021). variasi leksikal bahasa sasak di kecamatan karangasem: kajian dialektologi. humanis, 25(2), 201-213. biography hijrianda niko larizky was born in boyolali, april 5, 2000. he is an active student of indonesian literature, faculty of cultural studies, universitas sebelas maret. some of the achievements that have been achieved include: pioneer of tourism village mbkm ministry of education and culture (2021), chairman of forum genre jawa tengah bkkbn jawa tengah (2022) harapan 2 mahasiswa berprestasi universitas sebelas maret (2021). with this research it is important to record the glosses of the tanah datar agam dialect in nagari gunuang, padang panjang city. dra. chattri s. widyastuti, m.hum, born in jepara, december 31, 1964. gratwoted from bachelor of indonesian literature, faculty of letters, universitas sebelas maret, 1989, and gratwoted master of descriptive linguistics, 2008 from universitas sebelas maret. teaching several subject areas including introduction to general linguistics, indonesian language morphology, comparative historical linguistics, history of language studies, and indonesian language. some of his scientific writings include: indonesian language and mental revolution in the perspective of indonesian spirit (2015) (paper presented at pibsi univ sanata dharma yogyakarta), impoliteness in language in criminal trials in the ex-karesidenan surakarta area (2015), representation of pancasila in the perspective of cognitive metaphors (2018), pitch movement in javanese language use: lesson learned from people across-generations in yogyakarta municipality (inscription seminar 2018), the intensity of imperative sentences in javanese language (basa international seminar 2018), konseptualisasi pancasila dalam metafora bahasa indonesia: sebuah kajian awal (journal of kandai, vo. 15, no. 2, november 2019). majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: august 21, 2021 final revision: october 12, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 this paper examines the tone in harar oromo, a language widely spoken in ethiopia. the focus is on tone in nouns. the examination implements acoustic analysis of tone using pitch contours, which helps in determining the type and position of tone in roots and in nominative and accusative case. the results show that roots can have either l or h tone, while case suffixes always have h tone. this suggests that tone is predictable in suffixes, but not in roots. the analysis suggests that harar oromo has a restricted tone system that is similar to stress-like languages. keyword tone, harar oromo, case, stress correspondence e-mail: msolami@kau.edu.sa articles the prosody of harar oromo nouns majed al solami1 1king abdulaziz university, saudi arabia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.107-130.2021 i. introduction oromo is the fourth most widely spoken language of africa after arabic, hausa, and swahili. together with amharic, it is the most important language of ethiopia, where it is a national language and lingua franca (geshe & devardhi, 2013; jamaica, 2020). the focus of this paper is tone in nouns in the harar dialect of oromo. this variety has not received much linguistic attention in general. available studies of harar oromo included a section on prosody (tone or stress). of relevance to this study, two analyses of nouns in harar oromo are reviewed, owens (1985) and de lacy (2002). other works that tackle similar topics of oromo, which are not discussed here, include (jamaica, 2020; youssouf, 2019). in ‘a grammar of harar oromo’, owens (1985: 2654) devoted a sizeable section to tone. he examined the variability of tone in nouns, depending on their context and syllable structure. focusing on tone in citation forms, or what owens called the ‘basic tone’, (p. 26), the focus of this paper, owens recognized four tonal patterns in nouns. he noted that nouns that end in a short vowel in accusative case, which is the case used in citation forms in this language, have a high tone on that vowel, as in (1). in all examples in this study, the acute accent (v́) indicates (h)igh tone, while the absence of such a mark indicates (l)ow tone. the asterisk (*) represents lexical accent in noun roots, which is realized as a h tone on the surface. (1) basic tone patterns in harar oromo nouns ending in a short vowel (owens 1985: 26) [namá] ‘man’ [addá] ‘forehead’ [intalá] ‘girl’ [angáfá] ‘eldest brother’ he identified the following tone patterns in words that end in a long vowel, focusing on two syllable words, as in (2). (2) basic tone patterns of disyllabic nouns ending in a long vowel (owens, 1985: 27) lh [gará:] ‘stomach’ [abdí:] ‘hope’ [e:rú:] ‘farm’ [abbá:] ‘father’ hh [mállá:] ‘cheek’ [hárré:] ‘donkey’ [hútʃtʃú:] ‘clothes’ [dámé:] ‘branch’ in three-syllable words ending in long vowels, the following patterns arise, as in (3).107 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (3) basic tone patterns of trisyllabic nouns ending in a long vowel (owens, 1985: 27) llh [maki:ná:] ‘car’ [hanga:sú:] ‘lightening’ [sagalé:] ‘sound’ lhh [xe:súmá:] ‘guest’ [k’urtúmmí:] ‘fish’ [okkóté:] ‘pan’ owens concluded that only the final two syllables of a word can bear h tone. he stated that the tone of a word can be identified based on the tone of the penultimate syllable (1985: 29). he suggested that only the penultimate syllable needs to have its tone specified underlyingly and if it is h then the final syllable is also high and if it is low then the final syllable must be high. this is similar to pitch behavior in pitch-accent languages because the basic tone is crucially located on one particular syllable. in his discussion of whether harar oromo is a pitch accent or a tone language, owens concluded by referring to harar oromo as a pitch-accent language underlyingly because tone on only one syllable is crucial for determining the overall tone pattern of the word (35-37). furthermore, he referred to harar oromo as a tone language on the surface because a word can have more than one h tone. his analysis of harar oromo as underlyingly a pitch-accent language was based on the culminativity feature of accentual languages, which indicates that in pitch-accent languages any given word has only one prominent syllable unlike tonal languages that could have more than one prominent tone bearing unit, tbu, (hyman, 2009). de lacy (2002) provided a formal analysis of pitch in nouns in harar oromo. citing examples from owens (1985), given in (4), he referred to the suprasegmental element in harar oromo as stress. de lacy suggested that stress in harar oromo is predictable. stress falls on the penultimate syllable if the final vowel is not [a(:)] as in (4-a). otherwise, stress falls on the ultimate when the final vowel is [a(:)] as in (4-b). (4) harar oromo noun stress (de lacy 2002, p. 125) a. [áblé:] ‘knife’ [kíltí:] ‘kettle’ [hantʃ’ábí:] ‘ice’ [kúrs í:] ‘chair’ [háré:] ‘donkey’ [okó:té:] ‘pan’ [hulálé:] ‘door even’ [xálé:] ‘liver’ b. [adá:] ‘forehead’ [namá] ‘person’ [gurbá:] ‘boy’ [intalá] ‘girl’ [hulá:] ‘door’ [lolá] ‘battle’ [ibidá:] ‘fire’ [maná] ‘house’ in harar oromo, de lacy indicated, high tone associates with stressed syllables and spreads rightward and thus is predictable entirely in examples such as those in (4-a). as a result, words with a stressed penultimate syllable, as in [áblé:] ‘knife’, have high tone on the penultimate and final syllables, but words with final stress as in (4-b) have high tone on the final syllable only. to examine tone patterns in nouns in harar dialect, this study focuses on tone in nouns in citation forms, i.e., nouns in isolation, or nouns in the accusative case. it also includes the nominative case as well as noun roots, implementing the autosegmental framework of goldsmith (1976) to frame the discussion. it will be shown that nouns can have h tone on noun roots, roots without h tone surface with l tone, and nominative and accusative case suffixes are always marked with h tone in citation forms. this is attributed to lexical accent associated with noun roots and predictable tone with suffixes. this study, in addition, suggests an alternative classification of harar oromo noun prosody motivated by a property-driven prosodic system (hyman, 2009) to account for lexical and predictable tone in the language. before examining tone, nouns in harar oromo need to be introduced. nouns in harar oromo consist of roots that are followed by suffixes of various types. important to this work are the nominative and accusative case suffixes. in addition, nouns are also differentiated by gender. the noun root in harar oromo carries the lexical meaning of the word. the root is a morphologically simple unit and has no case information and cannot be decomposed into further smaller units (stroomer, 1987: 37). griefenow-mewis (2001: 41) defined the noun root in oromo as a form with no case ending or affix, which is usually found in dictionaries. the language consultant of this study indicates that noun roots are not used in any context without case markers. owens (1985: 16) included examples of noun roots; some examples are shown in (5).108 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (5) harar oromo noun roots (owens 1985: 16) man ‘house’ add ‘forehead’ ade:r ‘uncle’ xe:sum ‘guest’ since there is no context in which the morphological representation of the noun root can be examined, the morphological representation of the noun root in harar oromo is controversial. gragg (1976: 194) suggested that all roots in oromo end in a consonant. this view is supported by the following sets in (6). (6) root morphological representation gabb ‘fat’ [gabbis] ‘make fat’ [gabbat] ‘become fat’ [gabbíná] ‘fatness’ all words in (6) of different lexical categories have the same root, (gabb). therefore, a given root can belong to a number of grammatical classes depending on what suffixes are added to it. in other words, as owens (1985: 241) indicated, this suggests that nouns are stored in the lexicon as classless roots that do not have inherent grammatical classification. additional examples are given in (7). (7) classless roots in oromo returning to the analysis that all lexical entities are roots unmarked for category and ending with a consonant, this analysis faces two problems. the first is related to lexical accent assignment in nouns. noun roots in harar oromo can have lexical accent or can be accentless, as in (8). (8) noun roots accent xa̽l ‘liver’ ʔa̽d ‘sun’ ʔa:r ‘smoke’ xudr ‘vegies’ as can be seen in (7), tones can be introduced through suffixes. if one concludes that there are no lexical accents on roots, this will be problematic as noun roots must clearly be differentiated for tones. if roots are not classified as nouns, there is no way of knowing what tone will be assigned on the root. for instance, if a root such as (dirr) does not have lexical accent, it is not possible to distinguish the noun root (di̽rr) ‘simple’ from the noun root (dirr) ‘rib’. the root for ‘simple’ has h tone and ‘rib’ does not. in other words, lexical accent, which is implemented in the language to convey different grammatical classes and different meanings of the root, is lost if it is assumed that roots are inherently toneless. while this problem might be addressed by allowing lexical accent on roots, another problem in this analysis is related to noun gender. as noted above, nouns ending in a long vowel are feminine while nouns ending in a short vowel are masculine in oromo, as in (9). (9) masculine & feminine nouns in harar oromo feminine masculine [ʔebélé:] ‘rain’ [ʔarrabá] ‘tongue’ [horóró:]‘walking stick’ [harmá] ‘breast’ according to the view that all roots are consonant final and toneless, the nouns in (9) have the roots in (10). (10) classless roots in harar oromo ʔebel ‘rain’ ʔarrab ‘tongue’ horor ‘walking stick’ harm ‘breast’ nouns in harar oromo consist of roots that are followed by suffixes of various types. important to this work are the nominative and accusative case suffixes. in addition, nouns are also differentiated by gender. the noun root in harar oromo carries the lexical meaning of the word. the root is a morphologically simple unit and has no case information and cannot be decomposed into further smaller units (stroomer 1987: 37). griefenow-mewis (2001: 41) defines the noun root in oromo as a form with no case ending or affix, which is usually found in dictionaries. the language consultant for this study indicates that noun roots are not used in any context without case markers. owens (1985: 16) included examples of noun roots; some examples are shown in (5). (5) harar oromo noun roots (owens 1985: 16) man ‘house’ add ‘forehead’ ade:r ‘uncle’ xe:sum ‘guest’ since there is no context in which the morphological representation of the noun root can be examined, the morphological representation of the noun root in oromo is controversial. gragg (1976: 194) suggests that all roots in oromo end in a consonant. this view is supported by the following sets in (6). (6) root morphological representation (owens1985: 240) gabb ‘fat’ [gabbis] ‘make fat’ [gabbat] ‘become fat’ [gabbíná] ‘fatness’ in (6) all these words of different lexical categories have the same root, (gabb). therefore, a given root can belong to a number of grammatical classes depending on what suffixes are added to it. in other words, as owens (1985: 241) indicates, this suggests that nouns are stored in the lexicon as classless roots that do not have inherent grammatical classification. additional examples are given in (7). (7) classless roots in oromo root ɗuf ‘arrive’ [ɗuf-á] ‘arrival’ noun [ɗuf-a] ‘he arrives’ verb lol ‘fight’ [lol-á] ‘fight’ noun [lol-a] ‘he fights’ verb gat ‘ignore’ [gat-u:] ‘throw away’ verb [gát-ú:] ‘ignored’ adjective da:r ‘ash’ [da:r-á:] ‘ash’ noun [dá:r-á:] ‘naked’ adjective examples in (7) show that a given root can have different lexical categories based on the type of suffix it takes, and tone is category formative in this regard as well. before discussing the problems with this analysis, it is worthwhile to introduce the topic of gender. nouns in oromo are divided into two gender categories, masculine and feminine. the gender of a noun can be determined through agreement with determiners, adjectives and verbs. there are some phonological properties that differentiate gender as well. generally speaking, nouns ending in a long vowel are feminine and those ending in a short vowel are masculine (stroomer 1995: 37). returning to the analysis that all lexical entities are roots unmarked for category and ending with a consonant, this analysis faces two problems. the first is related to lexical accent assignment examples in (7) show that a given root can have different lexical categories based on the type of suffix it takes, and tone is category formative in this regard as well. before discussing the problems with this analysis, it is worthwhile to introduce the topic of gender. nouns in oromo are divided into two gender categories, masculine and feminine. the gender of a noun can be determined through agreement with determiners, adjectives, and verbs. there are some phonological properties that differentiate gender as well. nouns ending in a long vowel are feminine and those ending in a short vowel are masculine (stroomer, 1995: 37). 109 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) under the assumption that category is not indicated for a root, the noun roots in (10) do not include gender information. however, there are roots that are identical in form, differing only in gender, as in (11), where every pair shares the same root, but no reference is made to gender information. (11) masculine and feminine noun roots masculine feminine [ga:f-á] ‘horn’ [ga:f-í:] ‘question’ [ʔe:l-á] ‘oasis’ [ʔé:l-é:] ‘well’ [dirr-á] ‘rib’ [dírr-é:] ‘simple’ [da:r-á] ‘clothes’ [da:r-á:] ‘ash’ even if tone is included, the final gender is not predictable as in (ʔintal) ‘girl’ masculine and (ʔalha̽d) ‘sunday’ masculine, (gar) ‘stomach’ feminine and (da̽m) ‘branch’ feminine. it thus appears that gender must be part of the nouns lexical entry in order to know which nouns are masculine and which are feminine. this is problematic if roots end in a consonant and carry no information about category. in this paper a different treatment of the morphological representation of noun roots is proposed. root is inherently a noun root and carries both tone and gender information, as in (12). in addition, roots can end in either a consonant, masculine nouns, or a vowel, feminine nouns. (12) root lexical and gender information in harar oromo and (ʔe:l) ‘oasis’ can be differentiated based on h tone on the first and l tone on the second as well as by root shape. the root final vowel in (ʔe̽:le) indicates that this is a feminine noun while (ʔe:l) is a masculine noun. in a similar way, the noun root (da:ra) ‘ash’ is different from the noun root (da:r) ‘clothes’ based on gender information. this analysis of including lexical accent and gender information as part of the noun root in harar oromo, therefore, means that noun roots are stored in the lexicon with grammatical class information. the noun root in oromo can be inflected for case (stroomer, 1987: 91), which results in a morphologically complex stem that contains the root and the suffix. owens (1985: 18) defined the accusative case in harar oromo, which is the unmarked case, as the case that occurs on nouns in the citation forms which is used in the object paradigm. nouns in accusative case in oromo end in a short low vowel [a] or long vowels (gragg, 1976: 194). nouns in oromo that are used in subject position take different inflectional morphemes for nominative case. the phonological realizations of the accusative and the nominative case markers in harar oromo are predictable on the basis of the phonology of the root, as in table 1. even if tone is included, the final gender is not predictable as in (ʔintal) ‘girl’ masculine and (ʔalha̽d) ‘sunday’ masculine, (gar) ‘stomach’ feminine and (da̽m) ‘branch’ feminine. it thus appears that gender must be part of the nouns lexical entry in order to know which nouns are masculine and which are feminine. this is problematic if roots end in a consonant and carry no information about category. in this paper a different treatment of the morphological representation of noun roots is proposed. i will assume that root is inherently a noun root and carries both tone and gender information, as given in (12). i further assume that roots can end in either a consonantmasculine nounsor a vowelfeminine nouns. (12) root lexical and gender information in harar oromo (a) feminine (b) masculine noun root noun root [ga:f-í:] ‘question’ ga:fi [ga:f-á] ‘horn’ ga:f [ʔé:l-é:] ‘well’ ʔe̽:le [ʔe:l-á] ‘oasis’ ʔe:l [dírr-é:] ‘simple’ di̽rre [dirr-á] ‘rib’ dirr [da:r-á:] ‘ash’ da:ra [da:r-á] ‘clothes’ da:r in this paper, the root is suggested to include lexical accent as well as gender information. feminine gender is represented by the final short vowel in the root. in (12-a) all feminine noun roots end with a short vowel. see also appendix a and appendix b. it will be shown below that the final long vowel in feminine noun stems in harar oromo is attributed to the noun root final vowel and the case marker that takes on the same vowel quality of root final vowel. root final consonant indicates that the root is a masculine noun, as in (12-b). the lexical accent and gender information on the noun root distinguish nouns in column (a) from those in column (b). therefore, noun roots (ʔe̽:le) ‘well’ and (ʔe:l) ‘oasis’ can be differentiated based on h tone on the first and l tone on the second as well as by root shape. the root final vowel in (ʔe̽:le) indicates that this is a feminine noun while (ʔe:l) is a masculine noun. in a similar way, the noun root (da:ra) ‘ash’ is different from the noun root (da:r) ‘clothes’ based on gender information. this analysis of including lexical accent and gender information as part of the noun root in harar oromo, therefore, means that noun roots are stored in the lexicon with grammatical class information. the noun root in oromo can be inflected for case (stroomer 1987: 91), which results in a morphologically complex stem that contains the root and the suffix. owens (1985: 18) defines the accusative case in harar oromo, which is the unmarked case, as the case that occurs on nouns in the citation forms which is used in the object paradigm. nouns in accusative case in oromo end in a short low vowel [a] or long vowels (gragg 1976: 194). nouns in oromo that are used in subject position take different inflectional morphemes for nominative case. the phonological realizations of the accusative and the nominative case markers in harar oromo are predictable on the basis of the phonology of the root as given in table 3 with examples. table 3. harar oromo case suffixes root accusative case nominative case (a) (masc.) c man ‘house’ mux ‘tree’ tab ‘game’ -á [maná] [muxá] [tabá] -ní [manní] [muxní] [tabní] (b) (femin.) v ʃe:na ‘remorse’ ba:ti ‘month’ dʒo:lle ‘children’ bara̽ttu ‘student’ ʔa̽kko ‘grandmother’ +v́ [ʃe:ná:] [ba:tí:] [dʒo:llé:] [baráttú:] [ʔákkó:] +v́n [ʃe:ná:n] [ba:tí:n] [dʒo:llé:n] [baráttú:n] [ʔákkó:n] (c) (masc.) cc rife:ns ‘hair’ bine:ns ‘animal’ ʔibidd ‘fire’ fard ‘horse’ -á [rife:nsá] [bine:nsá] [ʔibiddá] [fardá] -í [rife:nsí] [bine:nsí] [ʔibiddí] [fardí] table 1. harar oromo case suffixes in this paper, the root is suggested to include lexical accent as well as gender information. feminine gender is represented by the final short vowel in the root. in (12-a) all feminine noun roots end with a short vowel. it will be shown below that the final long vowel in feminine nouns stems in harar oromo is attributed to the noun root final vowel and the case marker that takes on the same vowel quality of root final vowel. root final consonant indicates that the root is a masculine noun, as in (12-b). the lexical accent and gender information on the noun root distinguish nouns in column (a) from those in column (b). therefore, noun roots (ʔe̽:le) ‘well’ examples in table 1, in (1) show that when a noun root ends in a consonant it takes -á suffix in accusative case and -ní in nominative. similarly, a noun root ending in a consonant cluster or in a geminate, as in (c), takes -á in the accusative case but only -í in the nominative case, i assume that the /n/ of the nominative is not syllabified in these forms to avoid unacceptable syllable structure 110 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in the language as in *fardní or *rife:nsní. all noun roots ending in a vowel take a vowel as an accusative suffix +v́, which takes on the quality of the final vowel of a root, resulting in a long vowel, as in (b). noun roots that end in a vowel have +v́n as a nominative case suffix in which the vowel also takes on the quality of the final vowel of a root, as in (b). this is simplified in table (2). table 2. harar oromo case suffixes summary root accusative suffixes nominative suffixes c-á -ní cc-á -í v+v́ +v́n as suggested by table 2, there is just one accusative marker, i.e., a short vowel [a], and if the root ends in a vowel, then this vowel takes on the quality of this vowel and then it is lengthened, while there are different nominative case markers, -ní with consonant-final root, -v́n with vowel-final root and -í after consonant cluster. the nominative case markers might have the same form underlyingly; which is beyond the scope of this paper. to summarize, roots in oromo that end in vc, those that end in cv and those that end in cc all take the same suffix in the accusative case but different nominative case markers. the roots are assumed to have lexical accent and gender information. ii. methods this section outlines the methodology employed in this study. it begins with information about the language consultant in 2.1 and in section 2.2 the stimuli are discussed. section 2.3 presents recording equipment and data processing information. 2.1 speaker the language consultant is a male native speaker of harar oromo dialect. the dialect he speaks is the one spoken in haramaya town in ethiopia, specifically. the participant is 55 years old, speaks the dialect natively and reports no speech or hearing impairment. 2.2 stimuli as previously mentioned, the focus of this paper is tone in noun roots in accusative and nominative case in words with two and three syllables in citation forms. disyllabic nouns in this analysis are nouns with two syllables in the accusative form, and trisyllabic nouns are those with three syllables in the accusative case; this distinction is not based on the number of syllables in the root. the data collection process in this study had two phases. the initial phase involved collecting disyllabic and trisyllabic nouns in accusative case. two syllable and three syllable nouns were chosen because they are the most common shapes of nouns in oromo (gamta, 1999: 179-181). these nouns were elicited with the language consultant with the aid of owens (1985), which provided a glossary of harar oromo words in accusative case. then, the nominative case of these nouns was elicited. lastly, noun roots were elicited. note that noun roots do not occur on their own, but the consultant provided them without any difficulty. as was discussed in the introduction, noun roots in harar oromo end in a consonant or a vowel. in this study, all noun roots were recorded with a consonant finally, as exemplified in table 3. this form focuses on the locus of tonal contrast in noun roots since case marked nouns always have h tone on the final syllable. this section outlines the methodology employed in this study. it begins with information about the language consultant in 4.1 and in section 4.2 the stimuli in this study is discussed. section 4.3 presents recording equipment and data processing information. 2.1 speaker the language consultant is a male native speaker of harar oromo dialect. the dialect he speaks is the one spoken in haramaya town in ethiopia, specifically. the participant is 55 years old, speaks the dialect natively and reports no speech or hearing impairment. 2.2 stimuli as previously mentioned, the focus of this paper is tone in noun roots in accusative and nominative case in words with two and three syllables in citation forms. disyllabic nouns in this analysis are nouns with two syllables in the accusative form, and trisyllabic nouns are those with three syllables in the accusative case; this distinction is not based on the number of syllables in the root. the data collection process in this study in general had two phases. the initial phase involved collecting disyllabic and trisyllabic nouns in accusative case. two syllable and three syllable nouns were chosen because they are the most common shapes of nouns in oromo (gamta 1999: 179-181). these nouns were elicited with the language consultant with the aid of owens (1985), which provides a glossary of harar oromo words in accusative case. then the nominative case of these nouns was elicited. lastly, noun roots were elicited. note that noun roots do not occur on their own, but the consultant provided them without any difficulty. as previously discussed in section 2.2, noun roots in harar oromo end in a consonant or a vowel. in this study, all noun roots were recorded with a consonant finally, as exemplified in (18). this form focuses on the locus of tonal contrast in noun roots since case marked nouns always have h tone on the final syllable. (18) noun roots elicitation roots recorded form nouns in accusative case a. xo̽fo ‘trousers’ ma̽lla ‘cheek’ ba̽:lli ‘feather’ ʔada̽re ‘town name’ ʃimbı̽rro ‘bird’ b. xo̽f ma̽ll ba̽:ll ʔada̽r ʃimbı̽rr c. [xóf-ó:] [máll-á:] [bá:ll-í:] [ʔadár-é:] [ʃimbírr-ó:] noun roots were recorded without the final vowel, as shown in (18-b), because the language consultant was more comfortable this way. in addition, as discussed further below, the h tone on noun roots is always found on the penultimate syllable of the noun stem after suffixation, as indicated by examples in (18-c). therefore, analyzing the root, the locus of contrastive pitch, in this way seems reasonable since it does not influence tone or the syllable shape of the stem. more than two hundred nouns were collected in this phase. in the second phase one hundred nouns were selected to represent the target syllable number. in particular, these nouns are noun stems inflected for accusative and nominative case in disyllabic and trisyllabic nouns. in addition, noun roots were examined to see if roots bear any tone and if tone is influenced by morphological changes induced by case. a sample of the stimuli is given in table 5. full stimuli are given in appendix a. table 3. noun roots elicitation noun roots were recorded without the final vowel, as in (b) in table 3, because the language consultant was more comfortable this way. in addition, as discussed further below, the h tone on noun roots is always found on the penultimate syllable of the noun stem after suffixation, as indicated by examples in (c). therefore, analyzing the root, the locus of contrastive pitch, in this way seems reasonable since it does not influence tone or the syllable shape of the stem. more than two hundred nouns were collected in this phase. in the second phase, one hundred nouns were selected to represent the target syllable number. in particular, these nouns are noun stems inflected for accusative and nominative case in disyllabic and trisyllabic nouns. in addition, noun roots were examined to see if roots bear any tone and if tone 111 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) is influenced by morphological changes induced by case. a sample of the stimuli is given in table 4, full stimuli are given in appendix a. table 4. sample of stimuli table 5. sample of stimuli 1. disyllabic noun stems root accusative case nominative case gender sa̽re ‘dog’ [sáré:] [sáré:n] feminine da̽sa ‘shack’ [dásá:] [dásá:n] feminine ʔu̽ra ‘hole’ [ʔúrá:] [ʔúrá:n] feminine wa̽nna ‘thing’ [wánná:] [wánná:n] feminine bar ‘year’ [bará] [barrí] masculine mux ‘tree’ [muxá] [muxní] masculine tab ‘game’ [tabá] [tabní] masculine ga:f ‘horn’ [ga:fá] [ga:fní] masculine 2. trisyllabic noun stems root accusative case nominative case gender bartʃ'u̽m ‘stool’ [bartʃ'úmá] [bartʃ'úmmí] masculine fokkı̽n ‘ugliness’ [fokkíná] [fokkínní] masculine guddı̽n ‘bigness’ [guddíná] [guddíní] masculine ʔalha̽d ‘sunday’ [ʔalhádá] [ʔalhánní] masculine bine:ns ‘animal’ [bine:nsá] [bine:nsí] masculine balʔin ‘width’ [balʔiná] [balʔinní] masculine k’allu:n ‘fish’ [k’allú:ná] [k’allú:nní] masculine 2.3 equipment and procedure tone in this study is investigated both impressionistically and acoustically. to explore tone on an impressionistic basis, the language consultant was asked to read the stimuli and to give his opinion regarding the type of tone on each word. the second step of examining tone consists of an acoustic analysis of data. the data presented in this paper were collected during the field linguistics course in 2013, during the summer of 2014 and in the winter of 2015. data collection took place at two locations, a soundproof booth in the phonetics lab at university of toronto as well as the residence of the language consultant. in both locations the language participant was asked to speak into a at831b lavalier cardioid condenser microphone via an xlr cable connected to a sound devices usbpre2 or a marantz pmd660 digital recorder, keeping a constant distance between the speaker’s mouth and the microphone. the words were randomized prior to the recording sessions. the participant was requested to say the words at a normal speech rate. each word was repeated three times by the participant. a total of 900 tokens were obtained, i.e. 3 noun forms (1 root and 2 stems) x 3 repetitions x 100 nouns. the recording sessions of the participant were digitized into a wave file at 44 khz sampling rate and 16-bit quantization for further analysis. praat (boersma & weenink 2014) was used to generate pitch contours of the words under examination. pitch was set to range from 75 hz to 300 hz, which is optimal for detecting pitch contours for male speakers (boersma & weenink 2014). figure 1 shows an example of pitch traces of the token [ʃimbírró:] ‘bird’. 2.3 equipment and procedure tone in this study is investigated both impressionistically and acoustically. to explore tone on an impressionistic basis, the language consultant was asked to read the stimuli and to give his opinion regarding the type of tone on each word. the second step of examining tone consists of an acoustic analysis of data. data collection took place at two locations, a soundproof booth as well as the residence of the language consultant. in both locations the language participant was asked to speak into a at831b lavalier cardioid condenser microphone via an xlr cable connected to a sound devices usbpre2 or a marantz pmd660 digital recorder, keeping a constant distance between the speaker’s mouth and the microphone. the words were randomized prior to the recording sessions. the participant was requested to say the words at a normal speech rate. each word was repeated three times by the participant. a total of 900 tokens were obtained, i.e., 3 noun forms (1 root and 2 stems) x 3 repetitions x 100 nouns. the recording sessions of the participant were digitized into a wave file at 44 khz sampling rate and 16-bit quantization for further analysis. praat (boersma & weenink, 2019) was used to generate pitch contours of the words under examination. pitch was set to range from 75 hz to 300 hz, which is optimal for detecting pitch contours for male speakers (boersma & weenink, 2019). figure 1 shows an example of pitch traces of the token [ʃimbírró:] ‘bird’. in some nouns, short vowels in final syllable position preceded by a voiceless consonant were devoiced, making it difficult to generate pitch contours using praat, as illustrated in figure 2. figure 1. sample pitch traces of the token [ʃimbírró:] ‘bird’ figure 2. pitch tracks and wave form of [ʔoge:ssá] ‘expert’ pitch contours that show clear pitch tracks are given in the paper, while those that do not show clear contours the judgment of the language consultant was the only feasible measurement of tone. iii. result and discussion in this section tone patterns of the stimuli are discussed. the discussion starts with noun stems with two syllables and then moves to noun stems with three syllables as well as noun roots. this is followed by a phonological analysis to account for tone realizations in 3.2. 3.1 surface tone realizations results of the acoustic experiment are discussed in terms of syllable number with no consideration to final vowel length because vowel length does not play a role in tone patterns in this language as shown below.112 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) 3.1.1 disyllabic noun stems tone patterns of disyllabic noun stems and noun roots are given in table 4 with selected examples, with figures 3-10. to make it easier to follow, under each figure the tone pattern is indicated. in figure 3, the noun root (ga̽:nge) ‘mule’ bears h tone as can be seen in the increase of the pitch on vowel [a̽:]. figure 4, on the other hand, shows how the pitch on the noun root (dʒo:lle) ‘children’ does not show such increase. the two noun roots, as a result, surface with different tones. in (ga̽:nge) ‘mule’ the noun root has h tone, while (dʒo:lle) ‘children’ surfaces with l tone. similar patterns are found in figures 5 & 6.root accusative case nominative case gender k’o̽ri ‘plate’ [k’órí:] [k’órí:n] feminine ʔa̽du ‘sun’ [ʔádú:] [ʔádú:n] feminine xa̽le ‘liver’ [xálé:] [xálé:n] feminine ʔe̽:ge ‘tail’ [ʔé:gé:] [ʔé:gé:n] feminine ʔe̽:le ‘pot’ [ʔé:lé:] [ʔé:lé:n] feminine k’o̽:ka ‘isolated camel’ [k’ó:k’á:] [k’ó:k’á:n] feminine ʔa̽kko ‘grandmother’ [ʔákkó:] [ʔákkó:n] feminine ga̽:nge ‘mule’ [gá:ngé:] [gá:ngé:n] feminine root accusative case nominative case gender k’o̽ri ‘plate’ [k’órí:] [k’órí:n] feminine ʔa̽du ‘sun’ [ʔádú:] [ʔádú:n] feminine xa̽le ‘liver’ [xálé:] [xálé:n] feminine ʔe̽:ge ‘tail’ [ʔé:gé:] [ʔé:gé:n] feminine ʔe̽:le ‘pot’ [ʔé:lé:] [ʔé:lé:n] feminine k’o̽:ka ‘isolated camel’ [k’ó:k’á:] [k’ó:k’á:n] feminine ʔa̽kko ‘grandmother’ [ʔákkó:] [ʔákkó:n] feminine ga̽:nge ‘mule’ [gá:ngé:] [gá:ngé:n] feminine root accusative case nominative case gender man ‘house’ [maná] [manní] masculine bar ‘year’ [bará] [barrí] masculine mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] masculine ga:f ‘horn’ [ga:fá] [ga:fní] masculine xara ‘road’ [xará:] [xará:n] feminine ʃe:na ‘remorse’ [ʃe:ná:] [ʃe:ná:n] feminine ba:ti ‘month’ [ba:tí:] [ba:tí:n] feminine dʒo:lle ‘children’ [dʒo:llé:] [dʒo:llé:n] feminine table 4. tone patterns in disyllabic noun stems 1. hh surface tone pattern 2. lh surface tone pattern as shown in table 4, all suffixes bear h tone regardless of the tone on the noun root. in all hh examples in table 4 noun roots are disyllabic with accented root. in lh tone patterns, noun roots are accentless (l tone) and case suffixes bear h tone and thus the noun stem has lh tone pattern. no monosyllabic noun roots with h tone are found in harar oromo and, therefore, all monosyllabic noun roots with short vowel such as (man) ‘house’ are accentless and surface with l tone. l h figure 3. pitch track of (ga̽:nge) ‘mule’ root figure 4. pitch track of (dʒo:lle) ‘children’ root figure 5. pitch track of (ba̽:lli) ‘feather’ root h l figure 6. pitch track of (man) ‘house’ root in figure 5, the noun root (ba̽:lli) ‘feather’ shows that the pitch track increases on vowel [a̽:] which is realized as h tone on the surface. in figure 6, monosyllabic noun root (man) ‘house’ has a l tone as the pitch does not show any noticeable increase. in all examples in table 4, noun stems end in a h tone. this tone is found in accusative and nominative case markers. therefore, accented noun roots, realized with h tone, will have hh tone pattern and noun roots with l tone have lh tone pattern after suffixation, as given in figures 7-10. the noun root (xa̽le) ‘liver’ is accented and bears h tone. when this noun root is suffixed with the accusative case marker, as in figure 7, it has hh tone pattern. however, when a noun root with l tone, as (man) ‘house’, is suffixed it will have lh tone pattern, as in figure 8. similarly, when a nominative case marker is attached, the noun stem will always have h tone on the final syllable. in figure 9, the noun root (ba̽:lli) ‘feather’, which has h tone, is suffixed with -ín 113 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) 3.1.2 trisyllabic noun stems tone patterns of trisyllabic noun stems and noun roots are given in table 5. pitch contours are given in figures 11-18. hh figure 7. pitch track of [xálé:] ‘liver’ accusative lh figure 8. pitch track of [maná] ‘house’ root for nominative case and therefore it has hh tone pattern in the noun stem [bá:llí:n] ‘feather’. in figure 10, the tone pattern of [ga:rrí] ‘mountain’ is lh because the noun root is accentless and surfaces with l tone (ga:r) and it receives h tone on the final syllable of the noun stem due to suffixation which makes the tone pattern lh in [ga:rrí] ‘mountain’. to sum up, in disyllabic noun stems, noun roots with h tone will have hh tone pattern after suffixation. noun roots with l tone will surface with lh tone when marked with case suffixes, which always have h tone. this shows that tone is predictable on suffixes, always h, but it is unpredictable on noun roots in which it can be either h or l. hh figure 9. [bá:llí:n] ‘feather’ nominative figure 10. [ga:rrí] ‘mountain’ nominative lh table 5. tone patterns in trisyllabic nouns 1. lhh surface tone pattern 2. llh surface tone pattern root accusative case nominative case gender ɗe:re̽n ‘tallness’ [ɗe:réná] [ɗe:rénní] masculine galga̽l ‘day hours’ [galgálá] [galgállí] masculine saga̽le ‘sound’ [sagálé:] [sagálé:n] feminine ʔindʒı̽re ‘lice’ [ʔindʒíré:] [ʔindʒíré:n] feminine wallı̽ftu ‘singer’ [wallíftú:] [wallíftú:n] feminine ʔoro̽mo ‘oromo people’ [ʔorómó:] [ʔorómó:n] feminine root accusative case nominative case gender ɗe:re̽n ‘tallness’ [ɗe:réná] [ɗe:rénní] masculine galga̽l ‘day hours’ [galgálá] [galgállí] masculine saga̽le ‘sound’ [sagálé:] [sagálé:n] feminine ʔindʒı̽re ‘lice’ [ʔindʒíré:] [ʔindʒíré:n] feminine wallı̽ftu ‘singer’ [wallíftú:] [wallíftú:n] feminine ʔoro̽mo ‘oromo people’ [ʔorómó:] [ʔorómó:n] feminine root accusative case nominative case gender ɗi:tʃtʃis ‘dance’ [ɗi:tʃtʃisá] [ɗi:tʃtʃifní] masculine ʔibidd ‘fire’ [ʔibiddá] [ʔibiddí] masculine ʔokkote ‘cooking pot’ [ʔokkoté:] [ʔokkoté:n] feminine maga:la ‘market’ [maga:lá:] [maga:lá:n] feminine ʔutuba ‘supporting pillar’ [ʔutubá:] [ʔutubá:n] feminine as in disyllabic noun stems, trisyllabic noun stems always surface with h tone on the last syllable. table 5 shows that noun roots can be accented as in (1) or accentless as in (2). accented noun roots have lhh tone pattern after suffixation. llh tone pattern, on the other hand, results from accentless noun roots suffixed with case markers. lh figure 11. (ʔoro̽mo) ‘oromo people’ root ll figure 12. (ʔutuba) ‘supporting pillar’ root figures 11 & 12 show noun roots of (ʔoro̽mo) ‘oromo people’ and (ʔutuba) ‘supporting pillar’, respectively. as can be seen in figure 11, (ʔoro̽mo) has a h tone indicated by the increase of pitch over vowel [o̽], while in figure 12 the pitch on vowel [u] in (ʔutuba) does not have such increase.114 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) noun stems [galgálá] ‘day hours’ and [ʔintalá] ‘girl’ have lhh and llh tone patterns, respectively. these tone patterns are the result of suffixes, which bear h tone, and noun roots tones that are h in [galgálá] and l in [ʔintalá]. in conclusion, tone in noun roots and suffixes is independent. this is seen when noun roots have l tone while suffixes always have h tone. monosyllabic noun roots always have l tone. in accented noun roots, the overall tone pattern is hh in disyllabic noun stems and lhh in trisyllabic noun stems after suffixation. accentless noun roots have lh or llh tone pattern after suffixation. these tone patterns are accounted for in terms of phonological rules in the following section. 3.2 phonological analysis in this section the surface realizations of tone patterns in section 3.1 are accounted for in terms of phonological rules. the analysis begins with lexical accent on noun roots in section 3.2.1, then phonological rules of tone in case suffixes are presented in section 3.2.2. 3.2.1 noun roots lexical accent as indicated in the above discussion, harar oromo nouns consist of a root and an inflectional suffix to mark accusative or nominative case. noun roots can be lexically accented as in (galga̽l) ‘day hours’ lhh figure 13. [ʔorómó:] ‘oromo people’ accusative llh figure 14. [ʔutubá:] ‘supporting pillar’ accusative after suffixation with accusative case, the stems of [ʔorómó:] ‘oromo people’ and [ʔutubá:] ‘supporting pillar’ surface with final h tone, as in figures 13 & 14. the overall tone pattern in these two noun stems is lhh in [ʔorómó:] and llh in [ʔutubá:]. the same pattern is found in nominative case in [ʔorómó:n] and [ʔutubá:n]. lh figure 15. (galga̽l) ‘day hours’ root ll figure 16. (ʔintal) ‘girl’ root llh figure 18. [ʔintalá] ‘girl’ accusative lhh figure 17. [galgálá] ‘day hours’ accusative in a similar pattern, noun roots (galga̽l) ‘day hours’ and (ʔintal) ‘girl’ differ in lexical accent type. the former is accented and has a h tone while the latter is accentless and has l tone, as in figures 15 & 16.115 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) and (k’urtu̽mmi) ‘frog larva’ or accentless as in (balʔin) ‘width’ and (ʔintal) ‘girl’. furthermore, monosyllabic noun roots, such as (mux) ‘tree’ and (tab) ‘game’ are accentless. consequently, noun stems in harar oromo that are cv.cv do not have h tone on the noun root (first syllable). this suggests that there can be a lexical accent in the noun root as in (13). (13) root lexical accent assignment in (14-c) the penultimate syllable is accented in v final noun roots. the accented noun root is realized with h tone. in all nouns, the lexical accent, if there is one, will be on the penultimate syllable of noun stems after suffixation, as in (15). (15) lexical accent on penultimate syllable al solami 34 lexical accent, when there is one, is carried by the final syllable if the root is c final or penultimate syllable if the root is vfinal while monosyllabic roots are accentless, as shown in (20). (20) root lexical accent position in (20-a) monosyllabic noun roots are always accentless and surface with l tone. in (20-b) the final syllable is accented in -c final noun roots while in (20-c) the penultimate syllable is accented in -v final noun roots. the accented noun root is realized with h tone. in all nouns, the lexical accent, if there is one, will be on the penultimate syllable of noun stems after suffixation; this point is discussed further below, as shown in (21). (21) lexical accent on penultimate syllable (a). ⇤ −! h (b). −! l (a). monosyllabic noun roots −! l (b). cfinal noun roots ⇤ −! h (c). vfinal noun roots ⇤ −! h al solami 34 lexical accent, when there is one, is carried by the final syllable if the root is c final or penultimate syllable if the root is vfinal while monosyllabic roots are accentless, as shown in (20). (20) root lexical accent position in (20-a) monosyllabic noun roots are always accentless and surface with l tone. in (20-b) the final syllable is accented in -c final noun roots while in (20-c) the penultimate syllable is accented in -v final noun roots. the accented noun root is realized with h tone. in all nouns, the lexical accent, if there is one, will be on the penultimate syllable of noun stems after suffixation; this point is discussed further below, as shown in (21). (21) lexical accent on penultimate syllable (a). ⇤ −! h (b). −! l (a). monosyllabic noun roots −! l (b). cfinal noun roots ⇤ −! h (c). vfinal noun roots ⇤ −! h the prosody of harar oromo nouns 35 in (21-a) monosyllabic noun roots always surface with l tone. it is a feature of oromo disyllabic nouns, with cvc-v shape, to have l tone, such as [maná] ‘house’ and [muxá] ‘tree’. in (21-b) cfinal noun roots can have lexical accent on the final syllable and after suffixation the lexical accent is realized on the penultimate syllable as in [ʔaré:dá] ‘chin’. noun roots that end in vowel, as in (21-c), can have a lexical accent on the penultimate syllable, which is also realized on the penultimate syllable of the stem as in [ʔadáré:] ‘town name’. unaccented noun roots such as (ʃe:na) ‘remorse’ surface with l tone as in [ʃe:ná:]. 5.2.2 tone on suffixes (a). monosyllabic noun roots man −! [maná] “house” accusative tab −! [tabá] “game” accusative mux −! [muxá] “tree” accusative (b) cfinal noun roots par ⇤ ab −! [parábá] “arab” accusative par ⇤ e:d −! [paré:dá] “chin” accusative badi:ns −! [badi:nsá] “badness” accusative (c). vfinal noun roots pad ⇤ are −! [padáré:] “town name” accusative simb ⇤ irro −! [simbı́rró:] “bird” accusative se:na −! [se:ná:] “remorse” accusative s ⇤ are −! [sáré:] “dog” accusative in (13-a) the noun root is accented, marked with an asterisk, and is realized as h tone, while in (13-b) it is accentless and surfaces with l tone. therefore, it is assumed that tone on the noun root is lexical and thus unpredictable; it is realized as h tone when accented or surface as l tone when unaccented. lexical accent, when there is one, is carried by the final syllable if the root is c final or penultimate syllable if the root is v final while monosyllabic roots are accentless, as in (14). (14) root lexical accent position in (14-a) monosyllabic noun roots are always accentless and surface with l tone. in (14-b) the final syllable is accented in c final noun roots while in (15-a), monosyllabic noun roots always surface with l tone. it is a feature of oromo disyllabic nouns, with cvc-v shape, to have l tone, such as [maná] ‘house’ and [muxá] ‘tree’. in (15-b), c final noun roots can have lexical accent on the final syllable and after suffixation the lexical accent is realized on the penultimate syllable as in [ʔaré:dá] ‘chin’. noun roots that end in vowel, as in (15c), can have a lexical accent on the penultimate syllable, which is also realized on the penultimate syllable of the stem as in [ʔadáré:] ‘town name’. unaccented noun roots such as (ʃe:na) ‘remorse’ surface with l tone as in [ʃe:ná:]. 3.2.2 tone on suffixes noun roots in harar oromo, as discussed above, are suffixed to mark accusative and nominative cases. the resulting noun stems always have h tone on the suffix, as in (16). 116 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (16) examples of case suffixes in (21-a) monosyllabic noun roots always surface with l tone. it is a feature of oromo disyllabic nouns, with cvc-v shape, to have l tone, such as [maná] ‘house’ and [muxá] ‘tree’. in (21-b) c final noun roots can have lexical accent on the final syllable and after suffixation the lexical accent is realized on the penultimate syllable as in [ʔaré:dá] ‘chin’. noun roots that end in vowel, as in (21-c), can have a lexical accent on the penultimate syllable, which is also realized on the penultimate syllable of the stem as in [ʔadáré:] ‘town name’. unaccented noun roots such as (ʃe:na) ‘remorse’ surface with l tone as in [ʃe:ná:]. 5.2.2 tone on suffixes noun roots in harar oromo, as discussed in section 2.2, are suffixed to mark accusative and nominative case. the resulting noun stems always have h tone on the suffix, as given in (22). (22) examples of case suffixes root accusative nominative gender a. ʔilı̽lli ‘flower’ [ʔilíllí:] [ʔilíllí:n] feminine falʔa̽:n ‘spoon’ [falʔá:ná] [falʔá:nní] masculine barsı̽:sa ‘teacher’ [barsí:sá:] [barsí:sá:n] feminine b. mux ‘tree’ [muxá] [muxní] masculine mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] masculine xarfaffu ‘storm’ [xarfaffú:] [xarfaffú:n] feminine in (22) all suffixes bear h tone. the tone on the suffix is independent from the tone on the root. nouns in (22-a) have h tone on the root and also a h tone on the case suffixes. in (22-b), on the other hand, noun roots are accentless while case suffixes bear h tone. case suffixes in harar oromo have different tone in other contexts, such as in equational sentences. equational structure is a non-verbal sentence with only a noun phrase, as found in arabic (al-nassir 1993). examples are given in (23). (23) arabic equational sentences (b) cfinal noun roots par ⇤ ab −! [parábá] “arab” accusative par ⇤ e:d −! [paré:dá] “chin” accusative badi:ns −! [badi:nsá] “badness” accusative (c). vfinal noun roots pad ⇤ are −! [padáré:] “town name” accusative simb ⇤ irro −! [simbı́rró:] “bird” accusative se:na −! [se:ná:] “remorse” accusative s ⇤ are −! [sáré:] “dog” accusative in (21-a) monosyllabic noun roots always surface with l tone. it is a feature of oromo disyllabic nouns, with cvc-v shape, to have l tone, such as [maná] ‘house’ and [muxá] ‘tree’. in (21-b) c final noun roots can have lexical accent on the final syllable and after suffixation the lexical accent is realized on the penultimate syllable as in [ʔaré:dá] ‘chin’. noun roots that end in vowel, as in (21-c), can have a lexical accent on the penultimate syllable, which is also realized on the penultimate syllable of the stem as in [ʔadáré:] ‘town name’. unaccented noun roots such as (ʃe:na) ‘remorse’ surface with l tone as in [ʃe:ná:]. 5.2.2 tone on suffixes noun roots in harar oromo, as discussed in section 2.2, are suffixed to mark accusative and nominative case. the resulting noun stems always have h tone on the suffix, as given in (22). (22) examples of case suffixes root accusative nominative gender a. ʔilı̽lli ‘flower’ [ʔilíllí:] [ʔilíllí:n] feminine falʔa̽:n ‘spoon’ [falʔá:ná] [falʔá:nní] masculine barsı̽:sa ‘teacher’ [barsí:sá:] [barsí:sá:n] feminine b. mux ‘tree’ [muxá] [muxní] masculine mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] masculine xarfaffu ‘storm’ [xarfaffú:] [xarfaffú:n] feminine in (22) all suffixes bear h tone. the tone on the suffix is independent from the tone on the root. nouns in (22-a) have h tone on the root and also a h tone on the case suffixes. in (22-b), on the other hand, noun roots are accentless while case suffixes bear h tone. case suffixes in harar oromo have different tone in other contexts, such as in equational sentences. equational structure is a non-verbal sentence with only a noun phrase, as found in arabic (al-nassir 1993). examples are given in (23). (23) arabic equational sentences (b) cfinal noun roots par ⇤ ab −! [parábá] “arab” accusative par ⇤ e:d −! [paré:dá] “chin” accusative badi:ns −! [badi:nsá] “badness” accusative (c). vfinal noun roots pad ⇤ are −! [padáré:] “town name” accusative simb ⇤ irro −! [simbı́rró:] “bird” accusative se:na −! [se:ná:] “remorse” accusative s ⇤ are −! [sáré:] “dog” accusative [sáré:] ‘dog’ ‘accusative’ [tun sáre: ɗa] ‘this is dog’ figure 19. [sáré:] ‘dog’ in isolation and equational sentence [ʔisní:ná] ‘monday’ ‘accusative’ [kun ʔisní:na] ‘this is monday’ figure 20. [ʔisní:ná] ‘monday’ in isolation and equational sentence examples in (17) show that in any noun stem in harar oromo that is in an equational sentence h tone is realized on either the penultimate or initial syllable. a h tone on the penultimate syllable in a noun in a citation form does not change in equational sentences, as in (17 a & c). as in figures 19 & 20, nouns [sáré:] ‘dog’ and [ʔisní:ná] ‘monday’ have h tone on penultimate syllable in citation forms, i.e. hh and lhh tone pattern, which means that haðihi tʃadʒaratun this tree ‘this is a tree’ haða dʒabalun this mountain ‘this is a mountain’ harar oromo has a similar structure (owens 1985: 79), as given in (24) with pitch tracks given in figures 19-22. (24) harar oromo equational examples root tone in citation forms tone in equational sentences (a) sa̽re ‘dog’ femin. hh [sáré:] hl [tun sáre: ɗa] this dog ‘this is dog’ (b) man ‘house’ masc. lh [maná] hl [kun mána] this house ‘this is house’ (c) ʔisnı̽:n ‘monday’ masc. lhh [ʔisní:ná] lhl [kun ʔisní:na] this monday ‘this is monday’ (d) k’ille:ns ‘wind’ masc. llh [k’ille:nsá] hll [kun k’ílle:nsa] this wind ‘this is wind’ in (16) all suffixes bear h tone. the tone on the suffix is independent from the tone on the root. nouns in (22-a) have h tone on the root and a h tone on the case suffixes. in (22-b), on the other hand, noun roots are accentless, while case suffixes bear h tone. case suffixes in harar oromo have different tone in other contexts, as in equational sentences. equational structure is a non-verbal sentence with only a noun phrase, as found in arabic (al-nassir, 1993), as in (17). (17) arabic equational sentences haðihi tʃadʒaratun haða dʒabalun this tree this mountain ‘this is a tree’ ‘this is a mountain’ oromo has a similar structure (owens, 1985: 79), as in (17) with pitch tracks given in figures 19-22. (17) harar oromo equational examples 117 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) the noun root is accented in both words. these two nouns have h tone on the penultimate syllable in equational sentences while there is no h tone on final syllable. [maná] ‘house’ ‘accusative’ [kun mána] ‘this is house’ figure 21. [maná] ‘house’ in isolation and equational sentence [k’ille:nsá] ‘wind’ [kun k’ílle:nsa] ‘this is wind’ figure 22. [k’ille:nsá] ‘wind’ in isolation and equational sentence however, if a noun in citation form does not have h tone on the penultimate syllable, as in [maná] ‘house’ and [k’ille:nsá] ‘wind’, then in equational sentences h tone is found on initial syllable as in figures 21 and 22 and sentences (17 b & d). in summary, in equational sentences, nouns do not have a final h tone on case suffixes. lexical accent on nouns is maintained on the penultimate syllable in equational sentences. however, if the noun does not have h tone on the penultimate syllable a h tone is found on the first syllable. in other words, nouns in equational sentences must have one h tone on the surface. if the noun has a lexical accent, then it takes priority but if the noun does not have a lexical accent, then a h tone is realized on the initial syllable. it seems that at least the accusative suffix does not inherently have h tone. the final h tone on suffixes is more like a floating h tone related to noun case. in citation forms, this floating h tone associates with suffixes in accusative and nominative case, as in (18). (18) floating h tone (25) floating h tone in (25-a) the noun roots have lexical accent. after suffixation, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffixes. the overall tone pattern of the noun, as a result, is hh on the surface. in (25-b) the noun root is monosyllabic and thus does not have lexical accent. the final h tone in the tone pattern of lh is the floating h tone, which is found on the case suffix. (a) surface hh tone pattern (d ⇤ arre) “weak” /d ⇤ arre+v+´/ −! [dá h rré:] h accusative /d ⇤ arre+vn+´/ −! [dá h rré:n] h nominative (j ⇤ aro) “time” /j ⇤ aro+v+´/ −! [já h ró:] h accusative /j ⇤ aro+vn+´/ −! [já h ró:n] h nominative (b) surface lh tone pattern (man) “house” /man+v+´/ −! [man l á] h accusative /man+ni+´/ −! [man l nı́] h nominative in (18-a) the noun roots have lexical accent. after suffixation, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffixes. the overall tone pattern of the noun, as a result, is hh on the surface. (25) floating h tone in (25-a) the noun roots have lexical accent. after suffixation, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffixes. the overall tone pattern of the noun, as a result, is hh on the surface. in (25-b) the noun root is monosyllabic and thus does not have lexical accent. the final h tone in the tone pattern of lh is the floating h tone, which is found on the case suffix. (a) surface hh tone pattern (d ⇤ arre) “weak” /d ⇤ arre+v+´/ −! [dá h rré:] h accusative /d ⇤ arre+vn+´/ −! [dá h rré:n] h nominative (j ⇤ aro) “time” /j ⇤ aro+v+´/ −! [já h ró:] h accusative /j ⇤ aro+vn+´/ −! [já h ró:n] h nominative (b) surface lh tone pattern (man) “house” /man+v+´/ −! [man l á] h accusative /man+ni+´/ −! [man l nı́] h nominative118 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in (18-b) the noun root is monosyllabic and thus does not have lexical accent. the final h tone in the tone pattern of lh is the floating h tone, which is found on the case suffix. in (25-c & d) the overall tone patterns are lhh and llh, respectively. the noun roots in (25-c) are accented and therefore have h tone and after suffixation the floating h tone is realized on the (c) surface lhh tone pattern (hants ⇤ abbi) “ice” /hants’ ⇤ abbi+v+´/ −! [hants’ l á h bbı́:] h accusative /hants’ ⇤ abbi+vn+´/ −! [hants’ l á h bbı́:n] h nominative (haf ⇤ u:r) “breath” /haf ⇤ u:r+v+´/ −! [ha l fú: h rá] h accusative /haf ⇤ u:r+ni+´/ −! [ha l fú: h rrı́] h nominative (d) llh surface tone pattern (du:me:s) “cloud” /du:me:s+v+´/ −! [du: l me:s l á] h accusative /du:me:s+ni+´/ −! [du: l me:sn l ı́] h nominative (maga:la) “market” /maga:la+v+´/ −! [ma l ga:l l á:] h accusative /maga:la+vn+´/ −! [ma l ga:l l á:n] h nominative in (18-c & d) the overall tone patterns are lhh and llh, respectively. the noun roots in (18-c) are accented and therefore have h tone and after suffixation the floating h tone is realized on the case suffixes and the tone pattern, therefore, is lhh. in (18-d) the noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone and the final h tone in llh is attributed to the floating h tone. in equational structure the floating h tone associates left to initial syllable of the noun if possible. as a result, case suffixes surface with l tone and a h tone is realized on the initial syllable, as in (19). (19) floating h tone in equational sentences case suffixes and the tone pattern, therefore, is lhh. in (25-d) the noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone and the final h tone in llh is attributed to the floating h tone. in equational structure the floating h tone associates left to initial syllable of the noun if possible. as a result, case suffixes surface with l tone and a h tone is realized on the initial syllable, as shown in (26). (26) floating h tone in equational sentences root accusative equational sentences morm ʔa:r ʔada:d hirjja hanga:su [mormá] [ʔa:rá] [ʔada:dá] [hirjjá:] [hanga:sú:] in (26) noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone. in citation forms, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as noted above. in equational structure, however, this floating h tone is realized on the first syllable of the noun. therefore, a noun such as [mormá] ‘neck’ acc., which has an accentless tone root (morm) ‘neck’, has a h tone on the accusative case marker [á] due to the floating h tone. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is realized on the first syllable as in [kun mórma] ‘this is neck’. similarly, the noun root (hanga:su) ‘lightening’ does not have a lexical accent on the root and thus surfaces with l tone. after suffixation in accusative case the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as in [hanga:sú:] ‘lightening’. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is found word initially as in [tun hánga:su:] ‘this is lightening’. accented noun roots in equational sentences maintain the lexical accent, as given in (27). (27) floating h tone in equational sentences with accented noun roots root accusative equational sentences bude̽:n hama̽rti ʔara̽b wallı̽ftu [budé:ná] [hamártí:] [ʔarábá] [wallíftú:] in (27) noun roots are accented, as in (ʔara̽b) ‘arab’ and (hama̽rti) ‘finger ring’, and therefore have h tone on the penultimate syllable of the noun stems. in addition to the lexical accent, in citation forms these nouns bear h tone on case suffixes from the floating h tone, as in [ʔarábá] ‘arab’ and [hamártí:] ‘finger ring’. in equational sentences it is expected that the floating h tone would be /´+ morm+v/ −! [mórma] [kun mórma] “this is neck” /´+ pa:r+v/ −! [pá:ra] [kun pá:ra] “this is smoke” /´+ pada:d+v/ −! [páda:da] [kun páda:da] “this is aunt” /´+ hirjja+v/ −! [hı́rjja:] [tun hı́rjja:] “this is age friend” /´+ hanga:su+v/ −! [hánga:su:] [tun hánga:su:] “this is lightening” /´+ budd ⇤ e:n+v/ −! [buddé:na] [kun buddé:na] “this is bread” /´+ ham ⇤ arti+v/ −! [hamárti:] [kun hamárti:] “this is finger ring” /´+ par ⇤ ab+v/ −! [parába] [kun parába] “this is arab” /´+ wall ⇤ iftu+v/ −! [wallı́ftu:] [tun wallı́ftu:] “this is singer” in (19) noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone. in citation forms, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as noted above. in equational structure, however, this floating h tone is realized on the first syllable of the noun. therefore, a noun such as [mormá] ‘neck’ acc., which has an accentless tone root (morm) ‘neck’, has a h tone on the accusative case marker [á] due to the floating h tone. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is realized on the first syllable as in [kun mórma] ‘this is neck’. similarly, the noun root (hanga:su) ‘lightening’ does not have a lexical accent on the root and thus surfaces with l tone. after suffixation in accusative case the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as in [hanga:sú:] ‘lightening’. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is found word initially as in [tun hánga:su:] ‘this is lightening’. accented noun roots in equational sentences maintain the lexical accent, as in (20). (20) floating h tone in equational sentences with accented noun roots case suffixes and the tone pattern, therefore, is lhh. in (25-d) the noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone and the final h tone in llh is attributed to the floating h tone. in equational structure the floating h tone associates left to initial syllable of the noun if possible. as a result, case suffixes surface with l tone and a h tone is realized on the initial syllable, as shown in (26). (26) floating h tone in equational sentences root accusative equational sentences morm ʔa:r ʔada:d hirjja hanga:su [mormá] [ʔa:rá] [ʔada:dá] [hirjjá:] [hanga:sú:] in (26) noun roots are accentless and surface with l tone. in citation forms, the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as noted above. in equational structure, however, this floating h tone is realized on the first syllable of the noun. therefore, a noun such as [mormá] ‘neck’ acc., which has an accentless tone root (morm) ‘neck’, has a h tone on the accusative case marker [á] due to the floating h tone. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is realized on the first syllable as in [kun mórma] ‘this is neck’. similarly, the noun root (hanga:su) ‘lightening’ does not have a lexical accent on the root and thus surfaces with l tone. after suffixation in accusative case the floating h tone is realized on the case suffix as in [hanga:sú:] ‘lightening’. in equational sentences, the floating h tone is found word initially as in [tun hánga:su:] ‘this is lightening’. accented noun roots in equational sentences maintain the lexical accent, as given in (27). (27) floating h tone in equational sentences with accented noun roots root accusative equational sentences bude̽:n hama̽rti ʔara̽b wallı̽ftu [budé:ná] [hamártí:] [ʔarábá] [wallíftú:] in (27) noun roots are accented, as in (ʔara̽b) ‘arab’ and (hama̽rti) ‘finger ring’, and therefore have h tone on the penultimate syllable of the noun stems. in addition to the lexical accent, in citation forms these nouns bear h tone on case suffixes from the floating h tone, as in [ʔarábá] ‘arab’ and [hamártí:] ‘finger ring’. in equational sentences it is expected that the floating h tone would be /´+ morm+v/ −! [mórma] [kun mórma] “this is neck” /´+ pa:r+v/ −! [pá:ra] [kun pá:ra] “this is smoke” /´+ pada:d+v/ −! [páda:da] [kun páda:da] “this is aunt” /´+ hirjja+v/ −! [hı́rjja:] [tun hı́rjja:] “this is age friend” /´+ hanga:su+v/ −! [hánga:su:] [tun hánga:su:] “this is lightening” /´+ budd ⇤ e:n+v/ −! [buddé:na] [kun buddé:na] “this is bread” /´+ ham ⇤ arti+v/ −! [hamárti:] [kun hamárti:] “this is finger ring” /´+ par ⇤ ab+v/ −! [parába] [kun parába] “this is arab” /´+ wall ⇤ iftu+v/ −! [wallı́ftu:] [tun wallı́ftu:] “this is singer” in (20) noun roots are accented, as in (ʔara̽b) ‘arab’ and (hama̽rti) ‘finger ring’, and therefore have h tone on the penultimate syllable of the noun stems. in addition to the lexical accent, in citation forms these nouns bear h tone on case suffixes from the floating h tone, as in [ʔarábá] ‘arab’ and [hamártí:] ‘finger ring’. in equational sentences it is expected that the floating h tone would be realized on the first syllable of these nouns as in accentless noun roots in (19). however, noun stems that have h tone on the penultimate syllable do not allow the floating tone to be realized on the first syllable. therefore, noun roots which have a lexical accent, such as (bude̽:n) ‘bread’, are realized with only a h tone on the penultimate syllable in equational sentences, as in [kun budé:na] ‘this is bread’. in (20) the lexical accent on the penultimate syllable takes priority over the floating h tone and only the lexical accent is realized. lloret (1988: 98) suggested that the l tone on the last element in the equational structure is a copula, which is only realized on the short vowel [a] in the macca dialect of oromo, see also (youssouf, 2019). therefore, if the sentence ends with a noun that ends with the short vowel [a] the tone is lowered on the final syllable of that noun and in nouns that end in a long vowel the particle [ɗa] is inserted to bear 119 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) this l tone. while there might be some dialectal differences, in harar oromo this does not seem to be the case. in equational structure in harar oromo nouns that end in a long vowel, as in [k’ut’usú:] ‘younger brother’ and [maga:lá:] ‘market’, are followed by the particle [ɗa] but they still undergo the same process in which suffixes do not bear h tone and the initial syllable bears h tone if the penultimate is accentless, as in (21). (21) nouns ending in a long vowel in equational structure realized on the first syllable of these nouns as in accentless noun roots in (26). however, noun stems that have h tone on the penultimate syllable do not allow the floating tone to be realized on the first syllable. therefore, noun roots which have a lexical accent, such as (bude̽:n) ‘bread’, are realized with only a h tone on the penultimate syllable in equational sentences, as in [kun budé:na] ‘this is bread’. in (27) the lexical accent on the penultimate syllable takes priority over the floating h tone and only the lexical accent is realized. lloret (1988: 98) suggests that the l tone on the last element in the equational structure is a copula, which is only realized on the short vowel [a] in the macca dialect of oromo. therefore, if the sentence ends with a noun that ends with the short vowel [a] the tone is lowered on the final syllable of that noun and in nouns that end in a long vowel the particle [ɗa] is inserted to bear this l tone. while there might be some dialectal differences, in harar oromo this does not seem to be the case. in equational structure in harar oromo nouns that end in a long vowel, as in [k’ut’usú:] ‘younger brother’ and [maga:lá:] ‘market’, are followed by the particle [ɗa] but they still undergo the same process in which suffixes do not bear h tone and the initial syllable bears h tone if the penultimate is accentless as shown in (28). (28) nouns ending in a long vowel in equational structure root accusative case equational sentences k’ut’usu ‘younger brother’ [k’ut’usú:] [tun k’út’usu: ɗa] this younger brother ‘this is younger brother’ maga:la ‘market’ [maga:lá:] [tun mága:la: ɗa] this market ‘this is market’ if the l tone functions as a copula and is realised on the short vowel [a] then it is expected that the nouns in (28) maintain their tone pattern as in citation forms, which is not the case. it seems that in harar oromo equational sentences are marked with h tone on initial syllable and the penultimate syllable takes priority if it is accented. to sum up, noun stems in harar oromo can bear lexical accent tone on the penultimate syllable and always bear h tone on case suffixes in citation forms. any syllable that does not bear lexical accent underlyingly surfaces with l tone. specifically, noun roots can be accented which is realized as h tone or accentless which surface as l tone, while suffixes always bear h tone in citation forms. as indicated above, there is a floating h tone that is related to noun case. this floating h tone is realized on case markers in nouns in the accusative and nominative cases. therefore, in citation forms if the noun root is accented then hh or lhh tone patterns surface. on the other hand, lh and llh tone patterns surface if the noun root does not have a lexical accent. in equational sentences, this floating h tone is realized on the first syllable of the noun if the penultimate syllable is not accented, i.e. does not have h tone. in nouns that have accented roots, i.e. h tone on the penultimate syllable in noun stems, this floating h tone is not realized on the first syllable as the accented penultimate syllable takes priority. this suggests that suffixes do not inherently have h tone, not present lexically, but get h tone from this floating tone. this shows that while tone on the noun root is unpredictable, i.e. lexically assigned, tone on suffixes is always h in citation forms and therefore assumed to be predictable through the placement of the h morpheme. if the l tone functions as a copula and is realized on the short vowel [a], then it is expected that the nouns in (21) maintain their tone pattern as in citation forms, which is not the case. it seems that nouns in equational sentences in hara oromo are marked with h tone on initial syllable and h tone on the penultimate syllable takes priority if it is accented. to sum up, noun stems in harar oromo can bear lexical accent tone on the penultimate syllable and always bear h tone on case suffixes in citation forms. any syllable that does not bear lexical accent underlyingly surfaces with l tone. specifically, noun roots can be accented which is realized as h tone or accentless which surface as l tone, while suffixes always bear h tone in citation forms. as indicated above, there is a floating h tone that is related to noun case. this floating h tone is realized on case markers in nouns in the accusative and nominative cases. therefore, in citation forms if the noun root is accented then hh or lhh tone patterns surface. on the other hand, lh and llh tone patterns surface if the noun root does not have a lexical accent. in equational sentences, this floating h tone is realized on the first syllable of the noun if the penultimate syllable is not accented, i.e., does not have h tone. in nouns that have accented roots, i.e., h tone on the penultimate syllable in noun stems, this floating h tone is not realized on the first syllable as the accented penultimate syllable takes priority. this suggests that suffixes do not inherently have h tone, not present lexically, but get h tone from this floating tone. this shows that while tone on the noun root is unpredictable, i.e., lexically assigned, tone on suffixes is always h in citation forms and therefore assumed to be predictable through the placement of the h morpheme. iv. classifying harar oromo harar oromo is suggested to have a pitch-accent system in owens (1985: 35). this was attributed to a main feature of pitch accent languages in which the overall tone pattern of a word can be predicted based on the tone specification of a single syllable. based on this feature of pitch accent languages, owens concluded that harar oromo has the characteristics of pitch accent languages. he indicated that harar oromo has this property where tone on the penultimate syllable in nouns can influence the overall tone of the word. if the penultimate has h tone, then final syllable gets h tone by tone spread to the right in nouns, as in (22). (22) hh tone patterns in nouns (owens, 1985) [ádú:] ‘sun’ [xófó:] ‘trousers’ [barnó:tá] ‘education’ [falʔá:ná] ‘spoon’ as discussed in section 3, tone on final syllables of non-equational sentences is always h on the surface regardless of the tone type on the noun root. this is supported by the existence of nouns that bear h tone word finally despite l tone on the root, as in (23), which show that tone spread is not the source of h tone on the final syllable. (23) lh and llh tone pattern in harar oromo root accusative case sodda [soddá:] ‘in-law’ ʔabdi [ʔabdí:] ‘hope’ maki:na [maki:ná:] ‘car’ ʔada:da [ʔada:dá:] ‘aunt’ nevertheless, oromo can be classified as a pitch accent language phonologically since a morpheme has at most one h tone underlyingly, marked in this paper as (*).120 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) a point that is problematic in classifying harar oromo as a pitch accent language on the surface is culminativity property. the main phonological feature that distinguishes stress languages from tone languages is culminativity (hyman, 1977). culminativity means that each prosodic word has only one prominent syllable, i.e., one primary stress. in languages that have more than one stressed syllable per word such as dutch and romanian, only one syllable has primary stress. tone languages, on the other hand, can have more than one high tone in the word. languages that share some qualities of both tone and stress languages are called pitch accent languages. stress languages and pitch accent languages are usually grouped under accent languages (hyman, 1977). pitch accent languages are similar to stress languages in having one culminative prominent point and they are similar to tone languages where this prominence is lexically contrastive. however, pitch accent languages differ from stress languages in the contrastive use of pitch, and they differ from tone languages in the specification of lexical accent on tbu (tone bearing unit) (beckman, 1986). in tone languages every tbu is specified for a tone while in pitch accent languages the overall pattern of tone in a word can be known from tone specification on a single syllable (mccawley, 1987). harar oromo does not fit this description since a word in this language can surface with more than one h tone. owens (1985: 37) acknowledged this point and suggested classifying harar oromo as a pitch accent language underlyingly and as a tone language on the surface to account for the fact that harar oromo nouns can have more than one h tone on the surface. this could be justified since harar oromo has a pitch accent system property of having one lexical accent underlyingly and has a tone system property of having more than one h tone on the surface. based on the discussion in section 3, in nonequational sentences, the final syllable in noun stems always has a h tone, as in (24). (24) harar oromo accusative and nominative noun examples i analyzed the suffix h tone as a morpheme that signifies that the noun has case. lexical accent on roots is clearly unpredictable, as discussed earlier, with further examples in (25). accented noun roots are realized as h tone on the surface while noun roots that are not accented underlyingly surface with l tone, as exemplified in (25). (25) harar oromo noun roots examples since pitch accent system does not accurately describe harar oromo on the surface, it is suggested in this paper to analyze harar oromo according to main prosodic features that characterize languages, suggested by hyman (2009: 220), given in (26). (26) properties of prosodic systems of languages 1. obligatoriness (at least one prominent syllable per word) 2. culminativity (at most one prominent syllable per word) 3. privativity (h vs. ø or h vs. l) 4. metricality (positionally restricted, subject to reduction/subordination in compounding or when out of focus) 121 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) as hyman (2009: 233) argued, languages that satisfy all the properties in (26) are the prototypical stress languages, while languages that do not adhere to any of these properties are the most tonelike languages. as for languages that satisfy only some of these properties they can be considered as restricted tone systems (voorhoeve, 1973). hyman (2009: 219) defined tone in such a system as being subject to significant constraints, such as culminativity in somali (hyman, 1981). following takara (2012: 42), the suggested restricted tone system by (voorhoeve, 1973) can be defined in (27). (27) restricted tone system definition a restricted tone system is one that follows one, two, or three of the following properties: obligatoriness (obl), culminativity (cul), privativity (priv), and metricality (met). the number of properties a language has determines the prosodic system type of that language in the following ways in (28). (28) properties of prosodic systems • a language with three properties of (26) is more stress-like language • a language with one property of (26) is more tone-like language • a language with 2 properties of (26) is what hyman (2009) referred to as an intermediate language system. this can be summarized and illustrated in table 6, where +/means the presence or the absence of the feature, respectively. these properties are discussed in terms of harar oromo tone patterns in nouns. the first property is obligatoriness (obl), which indicates that at least one prominent syllable per word should be found. an example of a language with this property is chuave (papua new guinea) where every word must have at least one h tone 4. metricality (positionally restricted, subject to reduction/subordination in compounding or when out of focus) as hyman (2009: 233) argues, languages that satisfy all the properties in (33) are the prototypical stress languages, while languages that do not adhere to any of these properties are the most tonelike languages. as for languages that satisfy only some of these properties they can be considered as restricted tone systems (voorhoeve 1973). hyman (2009: 219) defines tone in such a system as being subject to significant constraints, such as culminativity in somali (hyman 1981). following takara (2012: 42), the suggested restricted tone system by (voorhoeve 1973) can be defined in (34). (34) restricted tone system definition a restricted tone system is one that follows one, two, or three of the following properties: obligatoriness (obl), culminativity (cul), privativity (priv), and metricality (met). the number of properties a language has determines the prosodic system type of that language in the following ways in (35). (35) properties of prosodic systems a language with three properties of (33) is more stress-like language a language with one property of (33) is more tone-like language a language with 2 properties of (33) is what hyman (2009) refers to as an intermediate language system. this can be summarized and illustrated in table 9, where +/means the presence or the absence of the feature, respectively. these properties are discussed in terms of harar oromo tone patterns in nouns. table 9. restricted tone system features prosodic systems obl, cul, priv, met prototypical stress ++++ restricted tone system more stress-like +++ intermediate ++- more tone-like ---+ prototypical tone --- the first property is obligatoriness (obl), which indicates that at least one prominent syllable per word should be found. an example of a language with this property is chuave (papua new guinea) where every word has to have at least one h tone (swick 1966: 2, donohue 1997: 355-357), as shown in (36). (36) chuave tone patterns (swick 1966: 2) σ σσ σσσ h [fwí] ‘salt’ hh [gáán] ‘child’ hhh [gíngódí] ‘snore’ hl [gáam] ‘skin’ hhl [dénkábu] ‘mosquito’ lh [kubá] ‘bamboo’ hlh [énugó] ‘smoke’ hll [kóiom] ‘wing’ lhh [amámó] ‘yam’ lhl [komári] ‘before’ llh [koiyóm] ‘navel’ 4. metricality (positionally restricted, subject to reduction/subordination in compounding or when out of focus) as hyman (2009: 233) argues, languages that satisfy all the properties in (33) are the prototypical stress languages, while languages that do not adhere to any of these properties are the most tonelike languages. as for languages that satisfy only some of these properties they can be considered as restricted tone systems (voorhoeve 1973). hyman (2009: 219) defines tone in such a system as being subject to significant constraints, such as culminativity in somali (hyman 1981). following takara (2012: 42), the suggested restricted tone system by (voorhoeve 1973) can be defined in (34). (34) restricted tone system definition a restricted tone system is one that follows one, two, or three of the following properties: obligatoriness (obl), culminativity (cul), privativity (priv), and metricality (met). the number of properties a language has determines the prosodic system type of that language in the following ways in (35). (35) properties of prosodic systems a language with three properties of (33) is more stress-like language a language with one property of (33) is more tone-like language a language with 2 properties of (33) is what hyman (2009) refers to as an intermediate language system. this can be summarized and illustrated in table 9, where +/means the presence or the absence of the feature, respectively. these properties are discussed in terms of harar oromo tone patterns in nouns. table 9. restricted tone system features prosodic systems obl, cul, priv, met prototypical stress ++++ restricted tone system more stress-like +++ intermediate ++- more tone-like ---+ prototypical tone --- the first property is obligatoriness (obl), which indicates that at least one prominent syllable per word should be found. an example of a language with this property is chuave (papua new guinea) where every word has to have at least one h tone (swick 1966: 2, donohue 1997: 355-357), as shown in (36). (36) chuave tone patterns (swick 1966: 2) σ σσ σσσ h [fwí] ‘salt’ hh [gáán] ‘child’ hhh [gíngódí] ‘snore’ hl [gáam] ‘skin’ hhl [dénkábu] ‘mosquito’ lh [kubá] ‘bamboo’ hlh [énugó] ‘smoke’ hll [kóiom] ‘wing’ lhh [amámó] ‘yam’ lhl [komári] ‘before’ llh [koiyóm] ‘navel’ (swick 1966: 2, donohue 1997: 355-357), as in (29). (29) chuave tone patterns (swick, 1966: 2) table 6. restricted tone system features if obligatoriness refers to surface h tone, then it is satisfied in harar oromo because no noun in citation form surfaces without a h tone either because of a lexical accent or because of the floating h tone realized on case suffixes in noun stems. however, if obligatoriness only considers lexical accent then, as shown earlier, harar oromo noun roots can be accentless and thus this property is not satisfied in the language. based on the discussion of obligatoriness in hyman (2009: 218), obligatoriness is examined in noun stems. therefore, in this analysis both lexical accent and predictable tone are considered. therefore, no noun in harar oromo surfaces with only l tone because suffixes always associate with a floating h tone in citation forms and noun stems, thus, have at least one prominent syllable per word, as shown in (30). therefore, although harar oromo noun roots can be accentless underlyingly, it satisfies the property of obligatoriness on the surface. (30) tone patterns in harar oromo noun stems a. hh [xálé:] ‘liver’ lhh [ʔadúrré:] ‘cat’ b. lh [dubrá] ‘girls’ llh [refe:nsá] ‘hair’ the second property of prosodic systems is culminativity, which indicates that at most one prominent syllable per word is allowed. an example of a language that satisfies this property is tinputz (papua new guinea) where a word has only one h tone at most regardless of the number of syllables (hostetler and hostetler, 1975: 6-9), as shown in (31).122 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) if obligatoriness refers to surface h tone then it is satisfied in harar oromo because no noun in citation form surfaces without a h tone either as a result of a lexical accent or as a result of the floating h tone realized on case suffixes in noun stems. however, if obligatoriness only considers lexical accent then as shown earlier harar oromo noun roots can be accentless and thus this property is not satisfied in the language. based on the discussion of obligatoriness in hyman (2009: 218) obligatoriness is examined in noun stems. therefore, in this analysis both lexical accent and predictable tone are considered. as a result, no noun in harar oromo surfaces with only l tone because suffixes always associate with a floating h tone in citation forms and noun stems, thus, have at least one prominent syllable per word, as shown in (37). therefore, although harar oromo noun roots can be accentless underlyingly, it satisfies the property of obligatoriness on the surface. (37) tone patterns in harar oromo noun stems hh [xálé:] ‘liver’ lhh [ʔadúrré:] ‘cat’ lh [dubrá] ‘girls’ llh [refe:nsá] ‘hair’ the second property of prosodic systems is culminativity, which indicates that at most one prominent syllable per word is allowed. an example of a language that satisfies this property is tinputz (papua new guinea) where a word has only one h tone at most regardless of the number of syllables (hostetler and hostetler 1975: 6-9), as shown in (38). (38) tone patterns in tinputz (hostetler and hostetler 1975: 6-9) σ σσ σσσ σσσσ l [yà] ‘lime’ ll [bàwà] ‘to call’ lll [kwìànèn] ‘village name’ llll [kàkàsìlè] ‘yellow’ h [twáʔ] ‘to cut’ lh [kèús] ‘baby’ llh [bòskòlén] ‘shoulder’ lllh [àpwènpwànhé]‘when’ lhl [kwàʔwétèʔ] ‘boy’ lhll [bùtómbàmèn]‘sibling’ llhl [tòlàhlúà] ‘nut tree’ as indicated above, harar oromo noun roots can have only up to one lexical accent underlyingly and no noun root can have more than one lexical accent. if only lexical accent is considered then harar oromo satisfies this property. however, in the same way that noun stems are considered in obligatoriness, if culminativity is analyzed based on tone on noun stems, i.e. lexical accent and predictable tone, then harar oromo does not satisfy this property. a noun stem in harar oromo can have more than one h tone on the surface, as given in (39). therefore, it is assumed that harar oromo does not satisfy the property of culminativity on the surface. (39) more than one h tone in harar oromo noun stems hh [bímbé:] ‘mosquito’ lhh [wallíftú:] ‘singer’ next, the property of privativity (priv) is considered. hyman defines this property by the example of a language that has the feature h vs. ø rather than the binary feature h vs. l (2009: 224). the outcome of /h/ vs. /ø/ is h tone and l tone surfaces in the absence of h tone while the outcome of /h/ vs. /l/ includes a combination of tones such as hl or lh on the same tbu. in other words, in languages that satisfy this feature only h tone needs to be specified lexically and other syllables bear l tone phonetically on the surface. puinave language (colombia) can have h, hl or lh tones on the same tbu, which means l tone is assigned lexically. this language has the following underlying and surface tones in (40). (40) puinave underlying and surface tone patterns (hyman 2009: 224) (31) tone patterns in tinputz as indicated above, harar oromo noun roots can have only up to one lexical accent underlyingly and no noun root can have more than one lexical accent. if only lexical accent is considered, then harar oromo satisfies this property. however, in the same way that noun stems are considered in obligatoriness, if culminativity is analyzed based on tone on noun stems, i.e., lexical accent and predictable tone, then harar oromo does not satisfy this property. a noun stem in harar oromo can have more than one h tone on the surface, as in (32). therefore, it is assumed that harar oromo does not satisfy the property of culminativity on the surface. (32) more than one h tone in harar oromo noun stems hh [bímbé:] ‘mosquito’ lhh [wallíftú:] ‘singer’ next, the property of privativity (priv) is considered. hyman (2009: 224) defined this property by the example of a language that has the feature h vs. ø rather than the binary feature h vs. l. the outcome of /h/ vs. /ø/ is h tone and l tone on the surface in the absence of h tone while the outcome of /h/ vs. /l/ includes a combination of tones such as hl or lh on the same tbu. in other words, in languages that satisfy this feature only h tone needs to be specified lexically and other syllables bear l tone phonetically on the surface. puinave language (colombia) can have h, hl or lh tones on the same tbu, which means l tone is assigned lexically. this language has the following underlying and surface tones in (33), (hyman, 2009: 224). (33) puinave underlying and surface tone patterns since puinave has a single tbu that bears hl or lh tone pattern this language is considered to not satisfy the privativity property. in harar oromo, noun roots can be accented or unaccented, with accented roots surfacing phonetically with h tone and unaccented roots surfacing phonetically with l tone. case suffixes get h tone from the floating h tone as noted above. therefore, in harar oromo nouns, if no h tone is present lexically on the noun root, noun stems in citation forms surface with lh or llh tone patterns after suffixation and realization of the floating h tone. thus, since harar oromo nouns are either accented or unaccented, the property of privativity is met. the final property to be considered is metricality. metricality has two features as hyman (2009) suggests. the first refers to the condition where tones are placed or otherwise affected by metrical process, such as word edge. tone placement in some languages is attracted to a metrically strong position either to the right edge of the word, as in bantu, or to the left edge of the word, as in mayo (mexico) (hyman 2009: 221). the second feature of metricality is whereby the prominent features are reduced or deleted in different contexts. an example of this is found in haya (tanzania), as given in (41). (41) haya tone in different contexts (hyman and byarushengo 1984: 69) a. [ba-kóm-a] ‘they tie up’ b. [ba-kom-a káto] ‘they tie up kato’ [bá-á-kóm-a] ‘they tied up’ [ba-a-kom-a káto] ‘they tied up kato’ in (41-a) a verb may have one or more h tones, however, when the same verb forms are followed by a complement ‘kato’ as in (41-b) the tone shifts to the right edge of the word. discussion of metricality allows us to return to an unsolved problem, why monosyllabic noun roots with a short vowel in harar oromo are always unaccented, with at least two vowels present for a root to carry accent. in harar oromo, monosyllabic roots with short vowels are all lexically accentless, while the longer roots can bear lexical accent, as given in (42). (a). / ⇤ / h −![h] / ⇤ / hl −![hl] / ⇤ / lh −![lh] // l −![l] (b). / ⇤ h / l −![h-l] / l ⇤ / h −![l-h] / ⇤ hl / l −![hl-l] / l / l −![l-l] (c). / ⇤ h l / l −![h-l-l] / l ⇤ h / l −![l-h-l] / l l ⇤ / h −![l-l-h] / l l / l −![l-l-l] since puinave has a single tbu that bears hl or lh tone pattern this language is considered to not satisfy the privativity property. in harar oromo, noun roots can be accented or unaccented, with accented roots surfacing phonetically with h tone and unaccented roots surfacing phonetically with l tone. case suffixes get h tone from the floating h tone as noted above. therefore, in harar oromo nouns, if no h tone is present lexically on the noun root, noun stems in citation forms surface with lh or llh tone patterns after suffixation and realization of the floating h tone. thus, since harar oromo nouns are either accented or unaccented, the property of privativity is met. the final property to be considered is metricality. metricality has two features, as hyman (2009) suggested. the first refers to the condition where tones are placed or otherwise affected by metrical process, such as word edge. tone placement in some languages is attracted to a metrically strong position either to the right edge of the word, as in bantu, or to the left edge of the word, as in mayo (mexico) (hyman, 2009: 221). the second feature of metricality is whereby the prominent features 123 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) are reduced or deleted in different contexts. an example of this is found in haya (tanzania), as in (34). (34) haya tone in different contexts (hyman and byarushengo, 1984: 69) since puinave has a single tbu that bears hl or lh tone pattern this language is considered to not satisfy the privativity property. in harar oromo, noun roots can be accented or unaccented, with accented roots surfacing phonetically with h tone and unaccented roots surfacing phonetically with l tone. case suffixes get h tone from the floating h tone as noted above. therefore, in harar oromo nouns, if no h tone is present lexically on the noun root, noun stems in citation forms surface with lh or llh tone patterns after suffixation and realization of the floating h tone. thus, since harar oromo nouns are either accented or unaccented, the property of privativity is met. the final property to be considered is metricality. metricality has two features as hyman (2009) suggests. the first refers to the condition where tones are placed or otherwise affected by metrical process, such as word edge. tone placement in some languages is attracted to a metrically strong position either to the right edge of the word, as in bantu, or to the left edge of the word, as in mayo (mexico) (hyman 2009: 221). the second feature of metricality is whereby the prominent features are reduced or deleted in different contexts. an example of this is found in haya (tanzania), as given in (41). (41) haya tone in different contexts (hyman and byarushengo 1984: 69) a. [ba-kóm-a] ‘they tie up’ b. [ba-kom-a káto] ‘they tie up kato’ [bá-á-kóm-a] ‘they tied up’ [ba-a-kom-a káto] ‘they tied up kato’ in (41-a) a verb may have one or more h tones, however, when the same verb forms are followed by a complement ‘kato’ as in (41-b) the tone shifts to the right edge of the word. discussion of metricality allows us to return to an unsolved problem, why monosyllabic noun roots with a short vowel in harar oromo are always unaccented, with at least two vowels present for a root to carry accent. in harar oromo, monosyllabic roots with short vowels are all lexically accentless, while the longer roots can bear lexical accent, as given in (42). (a). / ⇤ / h −![h] / ⇤ / hl −![hl] / ⇤ / lh −![lh] // l −![l] (b). / ⇤ h / l −![h-l] / l ⇤ / h −![l-h] / ⇤ hl / l −![hl-l] / l / l −![l-l] (c). / ⇤ h l / l −![h-l-l] / l ⇤ h / l −![l-h-l] / l l ⇤ / h −![l-l-h] / l l / l −![l-l-l] since puinave has a single tbu that bears hl or lh tone pattern this language is considered to not satisfy the privativity property. in harar oromo, noun roots can be accented or unaccented, with accented roots surfacing phonetically with h tone and unaccented roots surfacing phonetically with l tone. case suffixes get h tone from the floating h tone as noted above. therefore, in harar oromo nouns, if no h tone is present lexically on the noun root, noun stems in citation forms surface with lh or llh tone patterns after suffixation and realization of the floating h tone. thus, since harar oromo nouns are either accented or unaccented, the property of privativity is met. the final property to be considered is metricality. metricality has two features as hyman (2009) suggests. the first refers to the condition where tones are placed or otherwise affected by metrical process, such as word edge. tone placement in some languages is attracted to a metrically strong position either to the right edge of the word, as in bantu, or to the left edge of the word, as in mayo (mexico) (hyman 2009: 221). the second feature of metricality is whereby the prominent features are reduced or deleted in different contexts. an example of this is found in haya (tanzania), as given in (41). (41) haya tone in different contexts (hyman and byarushengo 1984: 69) a. [ba-kóm-a] ‘they tie up’ b. [ba-kom-a káto] ‘they tie up kato’ [bá-á-kóm-a] ‘they tied up’ [ba-a-kom-a káto] ‘they tied up kato’ in (41-a) a verb may have one or more h tones, however, when the same verb forms are followed by a complement ‘kato’ as in (41-b) the tone shifts to the right edge of the word. discussion of metricality allows us to return to an unsolved problem, why monosyllabic noun roots with a short vowel in harar oromo are always unaccented, with at least two vowels present for a root to carry accent. in harar oromo, monosyllabic roots with short vowels are all lexically accentless, while the longer roots can bear lexical accent, as given in (42). (a). / ⇤ / h −![h] / ⇤ / hl −![hl] / ⇤ / lh −![lh] // l −![l] (b). / ⇤ h / l −![h-l] / l ⇤ / h −![l-h] / ⇤ hl / l −![hl-l] / l / l −![l-l] (c). / ⇤ h l / l −![h-l-l] / l ⇤ h / l −![l-h-l] / l l ⇤ / h −![l-l-h] / l l / l −![l-l-l] in (34-a) a verb may have one or more h tones, however, when the same verb forms are followed by a complement ‘kato’ as in (34-b) the tone shifts to the right edge of the word. discussion of metricality allows us to return to an unsolved problem, why monosyllabic noun roots with a short vowel in harar oromo are always unaccented, with at least two vowels present for a root to carry accent. in harar oromo, monosyllabic roots with short vowels are all lexically accentless, while the longer roots can bear lexical accent, as in (35). (35) harar oromo monosyllabic noun roots(42) harar oromo monosyllabic noun roots root accusative case nominative case bar ‘year’ [bará] [barrí] man ‘house’ [maná] [manní] mal ‘trick’ [malá] [mallí] mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] in (42) nouns have final h tone while no lexical accent is found because roots are monosyllabic. it seems that a two-syllable domain in noun roots is required to have lexical accent1. noun roots that do not meet this condition are always accentless and surface with only final h tone. the twosyllable requirement to bear accent is metrical in natureit is similar to saying that a foot must be binary. another metrically motivated tone pattern in harar oromo is found in the position of accent in lexically accented noun stems: the accent must be penultimate. for accented roots, then, the position of the accent is predictable: vowel-final roots have penultimate accent and consonantfinal roots have final accent. thus, it is important only to know whether the root is accented or not. based on the above discussion of metricality in harar oromo nouns, therefore, it is assumed that harar oromo nouns satisfy the property of metricality. table 10 summarizes the discussions of each of the four properties in harar oromo. table 10. prosodic properties in harar oromo obligatoriness culminativity privativity metricality + only h tone is present + lexical accent is affected by number of syllables phonological roots can be accentless + one lexical accent underlyingly surface + all nouns surface with at least one h tone more than one h tone per noun can be found as shown in table 10, the prosodic properties of obligatoriness and culminativity can be considered phonologically, i.e. underlyingly, or phonetically, on the surface. phonologically speaking, harar oromo does not satisfy the obligatoriness property. the property of obligatoriness indicates that at least one syllable should be prominent. underlyingly, noun roots in harar oromo can be accented or accentless. accented roots are realized as h tone while accentless roots surface with l tone. on the surface, i.e. phonetically, noun stems can have a h tone on the penultimate syllable, due to accented noun roots, and a h tone is realized on the case suffixes. therefore, the 1 actually noun roots might be analyzed in terms of moras since monosyllabic nouns with long vowels in harar oromo can bear h tone. these nouns are at least bimoraic as in fó:n ‘meat’, ló:n ‘cattle’ and ʔé:s ‘river name’. however, since monosyllabic nouns are not included in the analysis, reference to syllable number will be used. in (35) nouns have final h tone while no lexical accent is found because roots are monosyllabic. it seems that a two-syllable domain in noun roots is required to have lexical accent1. noun roots that do not meet this condition are always accentless and surface with only final h tone. the two-syllable requirement to bear accent is metrical in nature. it is similar to saying that a foot must be binary. another metrically motivated tone pattern in harar oromo is found in the position of accent in lexically accented noun stems; the accent must be penultimate. for accented roots, then, the position 1 noun roots might be analyzed in terms of moras since monosyllabic nouns with long vowels in harar oromo can bear h tone. these nouns are at least bimoraic as in fó:n ‘meat’, ló:n ‘cattle’ and ʔé:s ‘river name’. however, since monosyllabic nouns are not included in the analysis, reference to syllable number is used. of the accent is predictable; vowel-final roots have penultimate accent and consonant-final roots have final accent. thus, it is important only to know whether the root is accented or not. based on the above discussion of metricality in harar oromo nouns, therefore, it is assumed that harar oromo nouns satisfy the property of metricality. table 7 summarizes the discussions of each of the four properties in harar oromo. as in table 7, the prosodic properties of obligatoriness and culminativity can be considered phonologically, i.e., underlyingly, or phonetically on the surface. phonologically speaking, harar oromo does not satisfy the obligatoriness property. the property of obligatoriness indicates that at least one syllable should be prominent. underlyingly, noun roots in harar oromo can be accented or accentless. accented roots are realized as h tone while accentless roots surface with l tone. on the surface, i.e., phonetically, noun stems can have a h tone on the penultimate syllable, due to accented noun roots, and a h tone is realized on the case suffixes. therefore, the property of obligatoriness is satisfied on the surface. the culminativity property, which indicates one prominent syllable at most per word, is satisfied underlyingly where only one lexical accent is assigned. however, if this property is considered on the surface, then it is not satisfied because noun stems can have more than one h tone on the surface. the properties of privativity, in which only h tone needs to be specified and l tone surfaces in the absence of h tone, and metricality, in which monosyllabic noun roots do not have lexical accent, are both satisfied in harar oromo. in both phonetic and phonological analyses, harar oromo satisfies only three prosodic properties: obligatoriness or culminativity, privativity and metricality. therefore, as suggested by table 6, harar oromo can be classified as a restricted tone system and under restricted tone system harar oromo is a more stress-like language. in other words, the prosodic system in harar oromo has stress-like properties in which nouns do not surface without at least one prominent syllable. in addition, syllables that are not prominent surface with l tone 124 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) (42) harar oromo monosyllabic noun roots root accusative case nominative case bar ‘year’ [bará] [barrí] man ‘house’ [maná] [manní] mal ‘trick’ [malá] [mallí] mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] in (42) nouns have final h tone while no lexical accent is found because roots are monosyllabic. it seems that a two-syllable domain in noun roots is required to have lexical accent1. noun roots that do not meet this condition are always accentless and surface with only final h tone. the twosyllable requirement to bear accent is metrical in natureit is similar to saying that a foot must be binary. another metrically motivated tone pattern in harar oromo is found in the position of accent in lexically accented noun stems: the accent must be penultimate. for accented roots, then, the position of the accent is predictable: vowel-final roots have penultimate accent and consonantfinal roots have final accent. thus, it is important only to know whether the root is accented or not. based on the above discussion of metricality in harar oromo nouns, therefore, it is assumed that harar oromo nouns satisfy the property of metricality. table 10 summarizes the discussions of each of the four properties in harar oromo. table 10. prosodic properties in harar oromo obligatoriness culminativity privativity metricality + only h tone is present + lexical accent is affected by number of syllables phonological roots can be accentless + one lexical accent underlyingly surface + all nouns surface with at least one h tone more than one h tone per noun can be found as shown in table 10, the prosodic properties of obligatoriness and culminativity can be considered phonologically, i.e. underlyingly, or phonetically, on the surface. phonologically speaking, harar oromo does not satisfy the obligatoriness property. the property of obligatoriness indicates that at least one syllable should be prominent. underlyingly, noun roots in harar oromo can be accented or accentless. accented roots are realized as h tone while accentless roots surface with l tone. on the surface, i.e. phonetically, noun stems can have a h tone on the penultimate 1 actually noun roots might be analyzed in terms of moras since monosyllabic nouns with long vowels in harar oromo can bear h tone. these nouns are at least bimoraic as in fó:n ‘meat’, ló:n ‘cattle’ and ʔé:s ‘river name’. however, since monosyllabic nouns are not included in the analysis, reference to syllable number will be used. table 7. prosodic properties in harar oromo and metricality influence prominence in harar oromo. this conclusion justifies why harar oromo is described as a stress language in de lacy (2002) to summarize, this section provided arguments to how harar oromo is characterized in terms of prosodic properties of the world languages. it is argued that positing a pitch accent account for harar oromo does not fit the pitch behavior in the language since harar oromo prosodic system does not possess what has been suggested to be the main features of pitch accent languages which are tone predictability based on tone assignment on a single syllable and culminativity in which no more than one h tone per word is allowed. it is shown that harar oromo exhibits a restricted tone system in which obligatoriness is satisfied on the surface but not phonologically while culminativity is satisfied underlyingly but not on the surface. together with privativity and metricality properties these prosodic properties indicate that harar oromo has a restricted tone system that is more stress-like. v. conclusion in conclusion, the pitch feature in harar oromo has been analyzed by approaching the suprasegmental phonology of the language from different angles focusing on either stress or tone. implementing an acoustic research methodology, this study included both floating h tone and lexical accent in explaining pitch patterns in nouns in the language. tone patterns in harar oromo nouns are examined in isolated forms in accusative and nominative case as well as in noun roots. the tone system of harar oromo nouns is argued to represent a language with a restricted tone system. this is supported by the fact that this language is a more stress-like language, lacking only the culminativity property of stress languages on the surface in which one prominent syllable occurs per word. other properties of stress languages, i.e., obligatoriness on the surface, privativity and metricality, are satisfied. despite the results provided by this study, it has some limitations. this study focused only on a portion of the tone system of harar oromo covering only a part of the case system in nouns. further research is needed to focus on other cases in the language such as the remaining four types of cases in oromo: genitive, dative, ablative and vocative (nordfeldt, 1947: 22). furthermore, verb system needs to be included in future works. other major lexical categories such as adjectives, demonstratives, pronouns, postpositions, prepositions, and adverbs should be incorporated in future research for the analysis to be more comprehensive. a further point that has potential for further investigation is the status of 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(2019). the copula in the oromo language (oromic). international journal of innovative research and development, 8(12), 1-16. 127 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) appendix a: a. tone patterns in disyllabic noun stems 1. hh tone pattern root accusative case nominative case gender da̽me ‘branch’ [dámé:] [dámé:n] feminine sa̽re ‘dog’ [sáré:] [sáré:n] feminine da̽sa ‘shack’ [dásá:] [dásá:n] feminine ʔu̽ra ‘hole’ [ʔúrá:] [ʔúrá:n] feminine wa̽nna ‘thing’ [wánná:] [wánná:n] feminine xa̽le ‘liver’ [xálé:] [xálé:n] feminine ʔa̽du ‘sun’ [ʔádú:] [ʔádú:n] feminine xo̽:fo ‘trousers’ [xófó:] [xófó:n] feminine k’o̽ri ‘plate’ [k’órí:] [k’órí:n] feminine ja̽ro ‘time’ [járó:] [járó:n] feminine ʔe̽:ge ‘tail’ [ʔé:gé:] [ʔé:gé:n] feminine ʔe̽:le ‘pot’ [ʔé:lé:] [ʔé:lé:n] feminine k’o̽:k’a ‘isolated camel’ [k’ó:k’á:] [k’ó:k’á:n] feminine ha̽rre ‘donkey’ [hárré:] [hárré:n] feminine ha̽ttu ‘thief’ [háttú:] [háttú:n] feminine ʔa̽ble ‘knife’ [ʔáblé:] [ʔáblé:n] feminine di̽rre ‘field’ [dírré:] [dírré:n] feminine da̽rre ‘weak’ [dárré:] [dárré:n] feminine bi̽mbe ‘mosquito’ [bímbé:] [bímbé:n] feminine ʔa̽kko ‘grandmother’ [ʔákkó:] [ʔákkó:n] feminine ma̽lla ‘cheek’ [mállá:] [mállá:n] feminine ku̽mbi ‘tusk’ [kúmbí:] [kúmbí:n] feminine ba̽:lli ‘feather’ [bá:llí:] [bá:llí:n] feminine ga̽:nge ‘mule’ [gá:ngé:] [gá:ngé:n] feminine 2. lh tone pattern root accusative case nominative case gender man ‘house’ [maná] [manní] masculine bar ‘year’ [bará] [barrí] masculine mux ‘tree’ [muxá] [muxní] masculine tab ‘game’ [tabá] [tabní] masculine ga:f ‘horn’ [ga:fá] [ga:fní] masculine ga:l ‘camel’ [ga:lá] [ga:llí] masculine ʔa:r ‘smoke’ [ʔa:rá] [ʔa:rrí] masculine ʃe:na ‘remorse’ [ʃe:ná:] [ʃe:ná:n] feminine ro:b ‘rain’ [ro:bá] [ro:bní] masculine ba:l ‘leaf’ [ba:lá] [ba:llí] masculine baʔa ‘weight’ [baʔá:] [baʔá:n] feminine ʔabba ‘father’ [ʔabbá:] [ʔabbá:n] feminine xara ‘road’ [xará:] [xará:n] feminine ba:ti ‘month’ [ba:tí:] [ba:tí:n] feminine128 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) da:ra ‘ash’ [da:rá:] [da:rá:n] feminine ho:la ‘sheep’ [ho:lá:] [ho:lá:n] feminine dʒo:lle ‘children’ [dʒo:llé:] [dʒo:llé:n] feminine dʒa:l ‘mate’ [dʒa:lá] [dʒa:llí] masculine ga:r ‘mountain’ [ga:rá] [ga:rrí] masculine mi:l ‘foot’ [mi:lá] [mi:llí] masculine dʒa:r ‘men’ [dʒa:rá] [dʒa:rrí] masculine ɲa:t ‘food’ [ɲa:tá] [ɲa:ttí] masculine ʔadd ‘forehead’ [ʔaddá] [ʔaddí] masculine fard ‘horse’ [fardá] [fardí] masculine dubr ‘girls’ [dubrá] [dubrí] masculine morm ‘neck’ [mormá] [mormí] masculine mirg ‘right’ [mirgá] [mirgí] masculine xudra ‘vegies’ [xudrá:] [xudrá:n] feminine b. tone patterns in trisyllabic noun stems 1. lhh tone pattern root accusative case nominative case gender bartʃ’u̽m ‘stool’ [bartʃ’úmá] [bartʃ’úmmí] masculine fokki̽n ‘ugliness’ [fokkíná] [fokkínní] masculine guddi̽n ‘bigness’ [guddíná] [guddíní] masculine ʔalha̽d ‘sunday’ [ʔalhádá] [ʔalhánní] masculine galga̽l ‘day hours’ [galgálá] [galgállí] masculine dalla̽j ‘fence’ [dallájá] [dallájní] masculine nagga̽d ‘trade’ [naggádá] [naggánní] masculine ʔisni̽:n ‘monday’ [ʔisní:ná] [ʔisní:nní] masculine budde̽:n ‘bread’ [buddé:ná] [buddé:nní] masculine barno̽:t ‘education’ [barnó:tá] [barnó:nní] masculine bara̽ttu ‘student’ [baráttú:] [baráttú:n] feminine hama̽rti ‘finger ring’ [hamártí:] [hamártí:n] feminine ʔili̽lli ‘flower’ [ʔilíllí:] [ʔilíllí:n] feminine ʔadu̽rre ‘cat’ [ʔadúrré:] [ʔadúrré:n] feminine biʃi̽nga ‘grain’ [biʃíngá:] [biʃíngá:n] feminine dongo̽ra ‘hoe’ [dongórá:] [dongórá:n] feminine kotʃtʃu̽ma ‘stomach’ [kotʃtʃúmá:] [kotʃtʃúmá:n] feminine ʔindʒi̽re ‘lice’ [ʔindʒíré:] [ʔindʒíré:n] feminine barsi̽:sa ‘teacher’ [barsí:sá:] [barsí:sá:n] feminine ɗanɗa̽:rra ‘camp fire’ [ɗanɗá:rrá:] [ɗanɗá:rrá:n] feminine ga:ddi̽ddu ‘shadow’ [ga:ddíddú:] [ga:ddíddú:n] feminine hirri̽:b ‘sleep’ [hirrí:bá] [hirrí:bní] masculine dʒire̽:ɲɲ ‘existence’ [dʒiré:ɲɲá] [dʒiré:ɲɲí] masculine ba:ski̽l ‘bike’ [ba:skílá] [ba:skíllí] masculine dʒabe̽:ɲɲ ‘power’ [dʒabé:ɲɲá] [dʒabé:ɲɲí] masculine sa:hi̽b ‘friend’ [sa:híbá] [sa:híbní] masculine di:mi̽n ‘redness’ [di:míná] [di:mínní] masculine ɗe:re̽n ‘tallness’ [ɗe:réná] [ɗe:rénní] masculine129 majed al solami/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) la:fi̽n ‘softness’ [la:fíná] [la:fínní] masculine sa:bu̽n ‘soap’ [sa:búná] [sa:búnní] masculine hafu̽:r ‘breath’ [hafú:rá] [hafú:rrí] masculine kita̽:b ‘book’ [kitá:bá] [kitá:bní] masculine ʔade̽:r ‘uncle’ [ʔadé:rá] [ʔadé:rrí] masculine wara̽:n ‘spear’ [wará:ná] [wará:nní] masculine ʔare̽:d ‘chin’ [ʔaré:dá] [ʔaré:nní] masculine maga̽:l ‘brownish’ [magá:lá] [magá:llí] masculine ʔama̽t ‘year’ [ʔamátá] [ʔamánní] masculine ʔara̽b ‘arab’ [ʔarábá] [ʔarábní] masculine dami̽:n ‘chief’ [damí:ná] [damí:nní] masculine ʔoro̽mo ‘oromo people’ [ʔorómó:] [ʔorómó:n] feminine ʔada̽re ‘town name’ [ʔadáré:] [ʔadáré:n] feminine saga̽le ‘sound’ [sagálé:] [sagálé:n] feminine ʃimbi̽rro ‘bird’ [ʃimbírró:] [ʃimbírró:n] feminine ʔerga̽nno ‘messenger’ [ʔergánnó:] [ʔergánnó:n] feminine hantʃ’a̽bbi ‘ice’ [hantʃ’ábbí:] [hantʃ’ábbí:n] feminine walli̽ftu ‘singer’ [wallíftú:] [wallíftú:n] feminine k’urtu̽mmi ‘frog larva’ [k’urtúmmí:] [k’urtúmmí:n] feminine 2. llh tone pattern root accusative case nominative case gender badi:ns ‘badness’ [badi:nsá] [badi:nsí] masculine refe:ns ‘hair’ [refe:nsá] [refe:nsí] masculine bine:ns ‘animal’ [bine:nsá] [bine:nsí] masculine ʔintal ‘girl’ [ʔintalá] [ʔintaltí] masculine balʔin ‘width’ [balʔiná] [balʔinní] masculine k’allu:n ‘fish’ [k’allú:ná] [k’allú:nní] masculine ʔibidd ‘fire’ [ʔibiddá] [ʔibiddí] masculine k’ille:ns ‘wind’ [k’ille:nsá] [k’ille:nsí] masculine ɗi:tʃtʃis ‘dance’ [ɗi:tʃtʃisá] [ɗi:tʃtʃifní] masculine ʔokkote ‘cooking pot’ [ʔokkoté:] [ʔokkoté:n] feminine hanga:su ‘lightening’ [hanga:sú:] [hanga:sú:n] feminine xarfaffu ‘storm’ [xarfaffú:] [xarfaffú:n] feminine k’ut’usu ‘younger brother’ [k’ut’usú:] [k’ut’usú:n] feminine ʔutuba ‘supporting pillar’ [ʔutubá:] [ʔutubá:n] feminine du:me:s ‘cloud’ [du:me:sá] [du:me:sní] feminine ʔada:da ‘aunt’ [ʔada:dá:] [ʔada:dá:n] feminine maki:na ‘car’ [maki:ná:] [maki:ná:n] feminine maga:la ‘market’ [maga:lá:] [maga:lá:n] feminine hirijja ‘age friend’ [hirijjá:] [hirijjá:n] feminine130 fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: agustus 20, 2020 final revision: october 10, 2020 available online: april 25, 2021 jane eyre’s novel was published in 1847 written by (charlotte, 1983), in the early years of the victorian period. this research sample is all of the communication strategies of warning that find in the novel jane eyre. it can be informed of dialogue between characters or inform of phrases and words related to politeness and communication strategies (brown & levinson, 1987). the results show that each character of jane eyre can be different from one to another in delivering a warning statement. they tend to give greetings before warning their addressee to respect the addressee, give information or advice toward the addressee, or impose the addressee with a threatening word. based on basis finding data from 65 forms of speech acts of warning, it is concluded that brown and levinson’s communication strategies exist in the way of characters’ communication in warning their hearer. the strategies are classified into four strategies; bald on the record appear 8 times or 12,3%, positive politeness appears 32 times or 46,2%, negative politeness appears 18 times or 28,6%, and off the record appear 7 times 10,7%. positive politeness strategy is the most frequent strategy used by characters with the elaboration of several sub-strategies. the substrategy most often used is to give reason 7 times or 10.7%. keyword communications strategies, speech act, warning, jane eyre novel correspondence e-mail: fadlul.rekinan@gmail.com articles communication strategies of warning in novel jane eyre by charlotte bronte fadlul rahman1, santi kurniati2 1foreign institut seni indonesia padangpanjang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.1.51-58.2021 hence this study highlights the analysis of warning communication strategies pragmatically. it deals with speech acts and politeness, principles as basic. the warning is one of the excercitives representing the exercising of a right, power of influence such as warn and advice (austin, 1962) . meanwhile (searle, 1980) labels warning as one of the directive speech acts in which the speaker tries to make the hearer do something with such words as ask, warn challenge, advice, suggestions, etc. in having communication, people also need some strategy. according to (brown & levinson, 1987) there are some strategies in making the communication. they are (1) bald on record, the speaker utters directly addressed to the others as means of expressing speaker needs, (2) positive politeness, the strategy that function to keep positive face, (3) negative politeness, the strategy that function to keep negative face, (4) off record, i. introduction jane eyre was published in 1847 written by (charlotte, 1983), in the early years of the victorian period. the novel revolutionized prose fiction by focusing on its protagonist’s moral and spiritual development through an intimate first-person narrative, where a psychological intensity colors actions and events. it contains social criticism and approaches class, sexuality, religion, and feminism (teachmen, 2001). jane eyre is widely considered as a classic work. it gave new truthfulness to the victorian novel with its realistic portrayal of a woman’s inner life, noting her struggles with her natural desires and social condition (reid, 2020). as one of classic literature, this novel reflects the agitation for women’s rights for women. it showed how communication strategies in warning used by society at that period. fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the speaker uttered are not directly addressed to the other or ambiguously. there are two kinds of face, a self-image that every member wants to claim for himself state by (brown & levinson, 1987): (1) negative face: the basic claim territories, personal preserve, rights to non-distraction i.e. to freedom of action, and freedom from imposition. (2) positive face: the consistent positive self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self–image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants. brown and levinson also divided positive and negative politeness into some sub-strategies. positive politeness consists of 15 sub-strategies they are (1) notice, (2) exaggerate, (3) intensify interest to h, (4) use in group identity marker, (5) seek agreement, (6) avoid disagreement, (7) presuppose, (8) joke, (9) assert of presupposing s’s knowledge of and concern for h’s want, (10) offer promise, (11) be optimistic, (12) include both speaker and heare in the activity, (13) ask for a reason, (14) assume or assert reciprocity, (15) give to h (good, sympathy, understanding, cooperation). negative politeness consists of 10 sub-strategies they are: (1) be conventionally indirect, (2) question hedge, (3) be optimistic, (4) minimize the imposition r, (5) give deference, (6) apologize, (7) impersonal s and h, (8) state the fta as a general rule, (9) nominalize, (10) go on record as incurring debt or as not indebting h. the study of politeness phenomena can provide insight into widely differing issues; the focus of interest correspondingly differs widely. they include analyses of the sequential development of politeness in natural interaction, the study of crosscultural pragmatics and misunderstanding, the ethnography of speaking of face and politeness in different cultures and contexts (brown, 2015). several studies on speech act and politeness principles in different aspects and objects are (licea-haquet et al., 2019and proposes that this allows an efficient (good-enough; simon & dejicacartis, 2015; syafitri, 2019; tsoumou, 2020; ali et al., 2017; kwan & dunworth, 2016; john et al., 2019; blitvich & sifianou, 2019; ferenčík, 2017; caballero et al., 2018)research on im/politeness has primarily focused on the role of linguistic strategies while neglecting the contributions of prosody and acoustic cues for communicating politeness. here, we analyzed a large set of recordings \u2014 verbal requests spoken in a direct manner (lend me a nickel. meanwhile, the speech act of warning has been researched by (al-khafaji, 2017), who researches the speech act of warning in imam hussain’s speech. the results showed that imam hussain rarely uses explicit warn, but warn in better conveyed by using implicit forms. the current research focuses on how speech act and communication strategy are used in daily communication, social media, and political values. none of these studies focuses on language from the victorian period. meanwhile, this research object of study is language from the victorian period as classic literature jane eyre has many communication strategies of warning between characters. hopefully, by doing this research, the writer can contribute to the pragmatic study of communication strategies understanding, especially in classic literature’s perspective language use. this novel also reflects society and culture at that time. ii. method this research uses a qualitative method. the writer compares and analyses the database on the theory used. this research sample is all of the speech act and communication strategies of warning in the novel jane eyre. the data can be informed of dialogue between characters or inform of phrases and words. the data were collected from jane eyre novel by reading the novel and finding the warning speech act. after collecting the data, the data were sorted based on the forms. then select the relevant data with the form of the speech act of warning and the strategy used in communication. the final step was analyzing and interpreting the data based on the theory. iii. result based on data collected, the writer finds that every character has a different way of delivering warning statements to their hearer. these differences are influenced by social factors such as topic, participants, where, and when this statement happens. fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) 3.1 form of speech act of warning used by characters of jane eyre the form of warning used by the characters of jane eyre is different from one to another. in deliver a warning statement, jane eyre’s characters give address, use threat and wise words to her or his addressee. it can be seen from the following data (charlotte, 1983): (1) ‘i had better not stay long, sir; it must be near eleven o’clock. oh! are you aware, mr rochester, that a stranger has arrived here since you left this morning?’ je: 232 (2) ‘all’s right!all’s right!’ he cried. ‘it’s mere rehearsal of “much ado about nothing” ladies keep off, or i shall wax dangerous.’ je: 236 in data (1) the writer analyzes the speaker’s use word ‘mr rochester’ in address her addressee to showing her respect toward the addressee. the speaker warns the hearer from the sentence ‘are you aware, mr rochester, that a stranger has arrived here since you left this morning?’. this dialog happens in mr rochester’s office between jane and mr rochester. there is a distant relationship between jane and mr rochester because jane is mr rochester’s daughter’s teacher. from sentence (2) ‘ladies keep off, or i shall wax dangerous’, the writer analyses that the speaker uses the word ‘ladies’ to address his hearer to show his admire and soften her warning to the women. the participants are mr rochester and his guest. mr rochester tries to warn his guest to stop practicing drama because he feels uncomfortable with this situation. in delivering warning statement, the speaker also gives information to his or her addressee. it can be seen in the following data: (3) ‘…. st. john look quiet, jane; but he hides a fever in his vitals. you would think him gentle, yet in some things he is inexorable as death; and the worst of it is, my conscience will hardly permit me to dissuade him from his severe decision: certainly….’ je: 383 (4) ‘… do you believe him? have you accepted him? … i could never have thought it. he is a proud man; all the rochesters were proud; and his father at least, liked money. he, too, has always been called careful. he means to marry you?’ je: 293 in dialogue (3) the writer sees that the speaker (diana rivers) try to inform the personality of her brother, st john river, by saying ‘you would think him gentle, yet in some things he is inexorable as death’ to the hearer (jane eyre) this conversation happens in ferndean manor, river’s house. diana warns jane that her brother not as good as jane imagine because there is a close relationship between them. diana does not want jane to misunderstand her brother’s behavior. in phrase (4) the writer assumes that the speaker tries to inform mr. rochester’s personality by saying ‘he is a proud man; all the rochester were proud’. the participants are mrs. fairfax and jane. mrs. fairfax tries to make jane aware that all of mr. rochester’s family are materialistic. both of them have a close relationship. mrs. fairfax does not want jane to make a wrong decision in her life to show her love. this dialog happens in jane’s room in thornfield house. the other form used by jane eyre’s characters in warning his or her hearer is by imposing the addressee. it can be seen from the following data: (5) ‘if anyone asks me how i liked you, and how you treated me, i will say the very thought of you makes me sick, and that you treated me with miserable cruelty.’ je: 68 (6) ‘i will tell anybody who asks me questions this exact tale. people think you good woman, but you are bad, hard-hearted. you are deceitful!’ je: 69 from data (5) and (6) in warning the addressee, the speaker tends to use threatening words to impose the addressee by saying ‘i will say the very thought of you make me sick and that you treated me with miserable cruelty’ and ‘people think you good woman, but you are bad, hard-hearted. you are deceitful’. the speaker provides no effort to minimize the threat to the addressee’s face by explicitly telling the addressee’s bad characters. the participants are jane and her aunt mrs. reed. here the writer sees that between the speaker and the addressee, there is a distant relationship. jane warns her aunt to make mrs. reed worry and follow what jane wants. here speech act of warning employed by the fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) character depend on ther social status, reliationsho, and situation betwen speaker peand hearer. jane eyre’s characters may give greeting before warning their addressee to respect the addressee, give information or advice toward the addressee, or impose the addressee with threaten word. 3.2 communication strategy used by characters of jane eyre in deliver warning statement the speaker should think about communication strategy that they will be use. communication strategy consist of on record and off record strategy (brown & levinson, 1987). 3.2.1 bald on record strategy from the data the writer find using of speech acts of warning that conveyed without redressive action or bald on record strategy. the speaker directly warns her or his hearer as mean of expressing of speaker needs. it can be seen in the following data: (7) ‘helen burns, if you don’t go and put your drawer in order, and fold up your work this minute, i’ll tell miss scatcherd to come and look at it!’ je: 91 in data (7) the speaker directly warn the addressee by mention name of addressee ’helen burns’, beside that the speaker warn the addressee in front of addressee’s friends. it means the speaker tend to threat’s addressee’s face. the participants are monitor girl and helen burns. there is distance relationship between them. it happens in dormitory of lowood institutions table 1: bald on record strategies used by characters of jane eyre type of strategies frequency % frequency bald on record 8 times 12,3 % from table 1 it can be seen from 65 data that writer found and analyzed, bald on record strategies appears eight times and show 12,3% used by the characters of jane eyre. this strategy mostly applied between superior status to the inferior, such as teachers to students or landlords to housemaids. 3.2.2 positive politeness strategy positive politeness strategy consist of 15 sub strategies (brown & levinson, 1987). in this research the writer found there are some sub strategies that is used by characters of jane eyre. the sub strategies are (1) notice, (2) use in group identity marker, (3) seek agreement, (4) avoid disagreement, (5) include both speaker and hearer in activity, (6) offer promise, and (7) give reason. notice in deliver warning statement some speakers give notice of aspects of addressee condition such as his interest, wants, needs, etc. the strategies deliver by using direct and indirect speech act. it can be seen in the following data: (8) ‘but you comprehend me?’ he said. ‘it is a village school; your scholars will be only poor girls – cottagers – children at the best, farmers’ daughters. knitting, sewing, reading, writing, ciphering, will be all you will have to teach. what will be all you will have to teach. what will you do with your accomplishments? what with the largest portion of your mind – sentiments – tastes?’ je: 381 from dialogue (8) the writer find that the speaker indirectly warn the hearer by saying it is a village school; your scholar will be only poor girls cottagerschildren at the best, farmer’s daughters’. the speaker tries to make the addressee consider that her job will not as good as she imagines. the speaker gives description of addressee’s job to soften fta’s and to show her respect to the addressee. this situation happens in ferndean manor between mr john river and jane eyre. use in group identity marker the use of group identity marker can be find in many ways; speaker can implicitly claim the common ground with addressee that is carried by definition of group. the strategies are delivered by using direct speech act. (9) ‘ah! sir, she sees you!’ exclaimed grace: ‘you’d better not stay.’ ‘only a few moments, grace: you must allow me a few moments’’ ‘take care then sir! – for god’s sake, take care!’ je: 321 data (9) the speaker (grace) warn the addressee (mr. rochester) directly by saying ‘you’d better not stay’ and ‘take care then sirfor god’s sake, fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) take care’. grace use word “for god’s sake” to emphasize that mr. rochester will get into serious problem if he not allows her warning. this dialog happens in grace room. ‘ah! sir, she sees you!’ exclaimed grace: ‘you’d better not stay.‘only a few moments, grace: you must allow me a few moments’ seek agreement another way in deliver warning statement the speaker try to seek ways in which it is possible to addressee agree with speaker. the speaker use direct and indirect sentence in communicate. (10) ‘it is my opinion, the fiddler david must have been an insipid sort of a fellow; i like black bothwell better: to my mind a man is nothing without a spice of the devil in him; and history may say what it will of james hepburn, but i have a notion he was just the sort of wild, fierce, bandit her whom i could have consented to gift with my hand.’ je: 208 in example (10) the speaker state “it is my opinion” to seek agreement to the addressee. the speaker uses indirect sentence in warn her addressee by saying ‘to my mind a man is nothing without a spice of the devil in him’ this speaker delivers this statement in order give her opinion and to make the addressee aware not all man in this house are good. this dialog happens in thornfield house between mary and her friend. avoid disagreement in communicate people tend to avoid disagreement toward their hearer. it also happens in give warning; the speaker prefers to avoid disagreement from his or her addressee. it can be seen in the following data: (11) ‘well, tonight i excuse you; but understand that so long as my visitors stay, i expect you to appear in the drawing room every evening; it is my wish; don’t neglect it. now go and send sophie for adele. good night, my...’ je: 210 from dialogue (11) from the statement ‘tonight i excuse you’ but understand that so long my visitor stay, i expect you to appear in the drawing room every evening; it is my wish don’t neglect it’ the speaker use word ‘but..’ to avoid disagreement from the hearer. the speaker (mr rochester) agree if the addressee (jane) leave drawing room tonight, but not for tomorrow night. this dialog happened in mr rochester’s house in drawing room. include both speaker and hearer in activity in some situation people will be include them and speaker into the activity. the speaker uses direct and indirect sentence in deliver warn. (12)‘i am sure she is something not right!’ they cried, one and all. ‘ she told us such things! she knows all about us!’ and they sank breathless into the various seats the gentlemen hastened to bring them. je: 222 in dialogue (12) from miss ingram’s statement ‘she told us such things! she knows all about us!’. the writer sees the speaker use word ‘us’ not only to warn her addressee but also the speaker self. the speaker considers that she also in bad position. this conversation happens in thornfield house between miss ingram and her friend. offer promise in order to redress the potential threat of some fta’s speaker may choose to stress his cooperation with hearer in another way offers and promise are the natural outcome of choosing this strategy. (13) ‘speak! but if you look up and smile with that countenance, i shall swear concession before i know to what, and that will make a fool of me.’ je: 290 in sentence (13) the speaker offer promise toward the addressee by use word ‘i shall swear concession before i know to what, and that will make a fool of me’. the speaker uses indirect sentence to soften this warning statement. the participants are mr rochester and jane that happen in mr rochester’s office. give reason the speaker will give reason in warning his or her hearer in order to make the hearer cooperate with them. the speaker uses direct sentence in deliver warning. (14) ‘oh, no, child! it is not likely; and now it is time you to come in; you’ll catch the fever if you stop out when the dew is falling.’ je: 111 fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) from data (14) the speaker directly warn the addressees and give reason why the addressees should follow speaker warning. miss temple and her students, jane and helen. miss temple asks them to go to bed if they do not want get sick by saying ‘you’ll catch the fever if you stop out when the dew is falling’. this dialog happen in dormitory of lowood institutions. table 2: positive politeness strategies used by characters of jane eyre type of strategies frequency % frequency positive politeness 32 times 46, 2% substrategies of positive politeness notice 3 times 4,6 % use in group identity marker 6 times 9,2 % seek agreement 6 times 9,2 % avoid disagreement 5 times 7,6 % include both speaker and hearer in activity 2 times 3,1 % offer promise 3 times 4,6 % give reason 7 times 10,7 % table 2 above shows the positive politeness strategy used 32 times or 42% of the 65 data collected, this strategy is most frequent strategy used by characters with the elaboration of several sub strategies. the sub strategy most often used is give reason 7 times or 10.7%. this strategy 3.2.3 negative politeness negative politeness strategy is the strategy that function to keep negative face or his want to have his freedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded. here the writer finds some sub strategies that used by characters of jane eyre. they are: conventionally indirect, question hedge, and be pessimistic. coventionally indirect the speaker deliver warn with conventionally indirect way in order to make warning more soften. the speaker use indirect way in deliver this strategy. (15) ‘one instant, jane. give one glance to my horrible life when you are gone. all happiness will be torn away with you. what then is left?’ je: 343 from data above the speaker indirectly warns her addressee by saying ‘give one glance to my horrible life when you are gone. all happiness will be torn away with you. what then is left?’. it show that the speaker does not impose the addressee in deliver warning but impose himself. this situation happen in thornfield house between mr rochester and jane. hedge the speaker use hedge form to express his or her command and suggestion. it can be seen from the following data: (16) ‘let her come to me,’ i entreated: ‘she will, perhaps, trouble you, sir: there is plenty of room on this side.’je: 295 from dialogue ‘she will, perhaps, trouble you sir’ data (16) the writer sees that the speaker use hedge ‘perhaps’ in order to softening her warning statement. the speaker use this hedge because between addressee and speaker have different status. the speaker is grace pool, servant of mr rochester (the addressee). this dialog happen in one of room of thornfield house. be pesimistic this strategy give warn to addressee negative face by explicitly expressing doubt that the condition for the appropriateness of speaker’s speech act obtain. it can be seen from the following data: (17) ‘no; i know i should think well of myself; but that is not enough; if others don’t love me, i would rather die than livei cannot bear to be solitary and hated…’ je: 101 data (17) shows that the speaker pessimistic in faces her live by saying ‘if others don’t love me, i would rather die than livei cannot beat to solitary and hated’. the participants are jane and helen in lowood institution. jane tell all of her problems because there is close relationship between jane and helen. by tell her problems jane want helen aware that she can do anything dangerous for herself. in table 3 it can be seen that the negative politeness strategy is quite often used, namely 18 times or 27.6%. this communication strategy used to soften the warning statements between the addressee and fadlul rahman/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) hearer. the sub strategy most often used is be pessimistic 8 times or 12.7%. table 3: negative politeness strategies used by characters of jane eyre type of strategies frequency % frequency negative politeness 18 times 27,6 % substratgies of negative politeness conventionally indirect 4 times 6,1 % question, hedge 6 times 9,2 % be pessimistic 8 times 12,3 % 3.2.4 off record off record strategy deliver by the speaker indirectly or ambiguously toward the addressee. in many cases the speaker gives the addressee some comments and invites the addressee to search for interpretation what the speaker really want. the speaker uses indirect sentence in deliver this strategy. (18) ‘she took her hand from my arm, and gazed at me as if she really did not know whether i were child or fiend. i was now in for it ‘my uncle reed is in heaven, and can see all you do and think; and so can papa and mamma; they know how you shut me up all day long, and how you wish me dad.’ mrs reed soon rallied her spirits: she shook me most soundly, she boxed both my ears, and then left me without a word.’ je: 60 from phrase above (18) the speaker indirectly warn her addressee by saying ‘my uncle reed is in heaven and can see all you do and think; and so can papa and mamma; they know how you shut me up all day long and how you wish me dad’. although it is indirectly sentence but the speaker still impose the addressee by her statement. the participants are jane eyre and mrs reed. jane warn her aunt, mrs reed, by telling what her husband will feel if he still life. from all datas abpve, it found that in delivering speech act of warning characters of jane eyre tend to give threat and wise words, and information phrases. they also intend to use direct way, avoid their status, and also impose their addressee based on the situation. beside that communication strategies used in this novel, can bee seen on chart below: table 4: off record strategies used by characters of jane eyre type of strategies frequency % frequency off record 7 times 10,7 % table 4 showed off record strategies appear seven times or 10,7% of 65 data. off record strategy allows hearers to interpret the speaker by themselves are not directly addressed to them. iv. conclusion this present study focus on language used in victorian period in term of communication strategy in giving warning used by characters of charlotte bronte’s novel. in order to respect the hearer before warning the character like to give information or advice toward hearer, or impose the hearer with threaten word. in term of communication strategies, the writer found 65 data which are classified into four strategies they are bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off record. furthermore, study about communication strategies not only limited to politeness strategies and politeness factors in this novel. this strategy could be research in many languages, cultures, and situations. finally, the writer hopes this study will give contribution for the following writer who interesting in communication strategies especially in english classic literature. references ali, s., kristina, d., & surakarta, k. 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(2020). analysing speech acts in politically related facebook communication. journal of pragmatics, 167, 80–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2020.06.004 lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 176 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 27, 2023 final revision: june 22, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 in the digital age, assessment becomes one of the most important factors to consider when planning english courses virtually. in actuality, however, many english teachers struggle to manage and administer online writing assessments efficiently and successfully. this article will give a general overview of the difficulties associated with online writing assessments and their workable solutions. qualitative principles of data gathering and analysis were applied to provide answers to the issues and served as valuable references. the finding reveals three main problems with online writing assessments: academic integrity, limited facilities and infrastructure, and a lack of digital literacy. however, despite the drawbacks of online writing assessments, students are gaining more benefits and knowledge in digitalizing education. thus, practical solutions such as using task performance, particular strategies to overcome technical issues, and increasing teacher awareness of digital literacy must be properly implemented. keywords assessment, challenges and solutions, english language teaching, online writing assessment correspondence e-mail: lailatulabidah26@gmail.com review administering online writing assessments in english language teaching: challenges and solutions lailatul abidah1, hartono hartono2 1-2english language education department, universitas muhammadiyah malang, malang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.176-184.2023 i. introduction behind the pain left behind, the existence of the covid-19 pandemic has altered and reshaped the landscape of world education (abduh, 2021). since the beginning of 2020, practically all education systems have moved from on-site to online learning (al-bargi, 2022; zhang et al., 2021); english as a foreign language (efl) has been no exception. educational institutions have turned to information and communication technology (ict) for assistance when traditional teaching methods are no longer practical (hazaea et al., 2021; irza, 2021). both students and teachers were compelled to participate in ict-based instruction during the pandemic (moorhouse & wong, 2022)using an online survey of elementary and secondary school english language teachers (n = 73; education now cannot escape discussing online teaching and learning. even after the covid-19 pandemic has stopped, this modification has significantly impacted the english language learning designers can implement. in fact, ict-based learning was widespread in several developed countries before the pandemic, and research on online teaching remained a priority (wu & wang, 2021). nevertheless, the covid-19 pandemic has prompted all teachers worldwide to implement digital learning, from instruction to assessment. papadakis (2021) believes that the dynamic technologies of today provide participatory, immersive learning methods that mirror students’ innate constructivist learning. additionally, intelligent learning tools can develop an engaging and successful learning environment for instruction in academic contexts. at this point, the issue of how the assessment is carried out online becomes an interesting topic for research. assessment is the focal point of the teaching process, and efforts to collect information on teaching and learning process and outcomes to assess students’ proficiency and learning systems are performing (handayani & syarif, 2021). as a result, assessments should not only present the outcomes of empirical research but also serve as an lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 177 effective teaching instrument to promote learning (kulprasit, 2022). in the same vein, anasee & rhandy (2020)the student will be able to meet the challenges and demands of other science courses that are taught in the english language in the firstyear program as well as the subsequent bachelor’s programs. in order to prepare students for academic success, the tendency at most saudi universities is to use international, mostly us or uk, publishers to provide the resources for its curriculum which is based on the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr held a similar viewpoint, arguing that assessment is crucial to the teaching and learning process since it serves as a baseline for teachers to identify and assess students’ performance and accomplishment levels to track their progress. additionally, it aids students in tracking their development and determining their degree of comprehension. due to the importance of assessment in evaluating students’ learning outcomes, it is pertinent for english teachers to design and administer online writing assessments in an effective manner. however, writing assessments in which conducted remotely occur suddenly without adequate planning might be challenging for english teachers. since designing student digital learning assessments is considerably different from face-to-face learning in terms of assessment methods (rambe, 2021), those who typically administer written tasks to students in person for writing assessments must be able to design and implement an online assessments that is genuinely valid and reliable for measuring students’ writing abilities (handayani & syarif, 2021). the absence of internet integration training for writing assessments and teachers’ resistance to converting in-person activities to online settings are two significant obstacles for teachers that limit the use of online writing assessments (al-bargi, 2022). nevertheless, all of these constraints can be addressed with the development of language assessment literacy, which needs knowledge and the capacity to internalize language assessment principles and comprehend the social context of language assessment (anasee & rhandy, 2020) the student will be able to meet the challenges and demands of other science courses that are taught in the english language in the first-year program as well as the subsequent bachelor’s programs. in order to prepare students for academic success, the tendency at most saudi universities is to use international, mostly us or uk, publishers to provide the resources for its curriculum which is based on the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr. thus, english teachers must be able to consider gaps and various assessment strategies that can be done remotely while accurately assessing students’ writing abilities. in light of the preceding backdrop, this paper aims to provide an overview of writing assessments dealing with a virtual environment, starting with exploring the principles in administering online assessments. in addition, this paper aims to investigate the obstacles english teachers face during online writing assessments and present ideas for designing online writing assessments for english teachers who may need help constructing a practical assessment. three sorts of questions served as a guide for gathering the data: (1) what are the concepts and principles to conduct online assessments? (2) what challenges do english teachers face while assessing students’ writing online? (3) what feasible alternatives exist to overcome the problems in online writing assessments? subsequently, qualitative data gathering and analysis principles were applied to answer these questions and served as valuable references. ii. methods the current research employs a library research under a descriptive qualitative methodology. the secondary data were utilized in the data collection process for this investigation. seven journal articles have been selected and reviewed to answer the research questions of the current study, as mentioned in the table 1. the selection of articles considers several criteria: relevance to topics, publications in leading journals (indexed in scopus or scimago), and recency (publication of the most recent fouryear-old articles). herein, the researchers gathered relevant information about the concept of writing assessment and investigated the empirical results in online writing assessment studies. the researchers reviewed, characterized, categorized, and drew lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 178 conclusions based on empirical evidences. thus, an approach based on content analysis was employed to provide rigorous and exhaustive study results. 3. result before conducting remote assessments, english teachers serving as assessors must have some knowledge of the underlying concepts and principles; this will make it simpler for them to provide adequate and relevant assessments. the concept of online assessments al-maqbali & hussain (2022) notes that online assessment is the process of developing, delivering, storing, or recording student assessment activities, responses, scoring, and feedback in a virtual setting. it is broadly referred to as any technique used to assess student performance in a fully online credit course and internet-based, provide feedback, or advance students’ learning. these tests may be entirely online, like an online exam, or require online submission, such as an essay. online assessments can be taken on a range of platforms, including desktop or laptop computers, tablets, and ipad-style digital devices. it can also be administered in various multimedia formats, such as sound, video, graphics, and text document types (handayani & syarif, 2021). thus, assessing student performance in the learning process using ict, such as computers, laptops, and smartphones, in online mode through an internet connection is hence referred to as “online assessment.” as one of the most significant and effective components of the educational process, assessment gives observable proof of learning, gauges student progress, and shows comprehension of the curriculum (joshi et al., 2020). according to them, the primary goal of online assessment is the same as that of traditional assessment; it might take the form of awarding marks, attaining learning outcomes, obtaining certification, and getting formative feedback for students. therefore, the utilization of online assessment within a pedagogical setting should not be seen as merely an additional activity to be completed. hence, its use must be based on academic reasons and supported by diverse online learning approaches in school curricula, departments, and institutions to enhance the students’ learning experiences. the principles in administering online assessments learning designers should use multiple criteria when designing tests for efficient online assessments. rahim (2020) provides several guidelines for english teachers to follow when constructing online assessments that adhere to the principles.evaluating the online assessment’s context is the first thing. for the online assessment to be practical, english teachers as course developers must include the crucial prerequisites: instructor and institutional preparation. institutional regulations, assets, and behavior all impact its readiness. on the other side, teacher readiness is just as crucial. consequently, they must learn effective assessment methods to implement the available online tools. the second step is for the course designer to confirm that the assessment tasks correspond to stated learning goals. the assessments should be structured to use the given instructional objectives as their foundation. thirdly, the assessment must take into account the various student circumstances. english teachers should be fully conscious of this diversity to avoid stereotyping students who lack proper support for online learning. lastly, the assessors should design formative and summative assessments in a proper ratio. in more detail, joshi et al. (2020) referred to the pedagogical online assessment guidelines, modeled by the canadian association for community education (figure 1) as guidance to educators who want to conduct online assessments successfully. table 1. rqs and journal articles to review rqs sources the concept of online assessment al-maqbali & hussain (2022), handayani & syarif (2021), joshi et al. (2020) the principles to conduct online assessment joshi et al. (2020), rahim & fuad (2020) challenges in online writing assessments al-maqbali & hussain, (2022), anasee & rhandy (2020), handayani & syarif (2021), hosseini et al. (2020), wu & wang (2021) solutions to cope the problems in online writing assessments al-maqbali & hussain, (2022), anasee & rhandy (2020), handayani & syarif, (2021), hosseini et al. (2020), wu & wang (2021) lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 179 apart from being valid, reliable, and focused on learning objectives, good online assessments must also vary according to the needs of students. in addition to using different online platforms, various learning styles beyond surface learning, such as problem-based learning, portfolios, simulations, and many others must be considered. in addition, the entire assessment process must be based on students’ competency and carried out with the proper mechanism, namely by providing frequent and timely constructive feedback. in the meantime, authenticity is defined as original assessments, avoiding copyright violations, and referring to a well-designed evaluation in students’ real-time situations. thus, some training is necessary for assessors to create online practice assessments. challenges faced by english teachers in online writing assessments by gathering various sources of data relevant to the research topics, and investigating the empirical results in online writing assessment studies, the researchers found several challenges english teachers face in online writing assessment, including 1) academic integrity, 2) limited facilities and infrastructure, and 3) the need for digital literacy. (1) academic integrity the first is the problem of cheating or students’ academic dishonesty. many researchers agreed that the issue of cheating and plagiarism in online assessments represents the greatest obstacle to managing and implementing a distance learning environment (e.g. al-maqbali & hussain, 2022; handayani & syarif, 2021; hosseini et al., 2020). using numerous monitors and cell phones, impersonation, taking screenshots, and transmitting information to friends are just a few examples of the various cheating techniques that may be used during examinations (handayani & syarif, 2021). in addition, in addition, according to hosseini et al. (2020), many students utilize google or other search engines on their laptops and mobile devices to obtain solutions to teacher-assigned tasks. this renders the assessment invalid and unreliable, as it cannot gauge the actual capabilities of the students. (2) limited facilities and infrastructure an issue that frequently emerges, particularly in emerging nations, is the limited facilities and infrastructure for online learning. in addition, technical constraints in online writing are also a concern. wu & wang (2021) reported that those who view ict as a performance appraisal channel focus on weaknesses in ict technology features such as “poor signal.” they only use ict because it is the only method available for carrying out assessments during covid-19, and they see ict as nothing more than a technological tool. meanwhile, students who experience technical difficulties during online assessments are just some fig 1. pedagogical online assessment guidelines lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 180 of the ones who find the situation stressful; teachers must also deal with student complaints. technical concerns become problematic when remote monitoring software is employed in assessments. it is essential to highlight that remote surveillance software’s technical infrastructure was not widely established during the covid-19 outbreak (hosseini et al., 2020). the widespread adoption of online platforms may exacerbate hardwareand software-related technical problems. (3) need for digital literacy the final issue is the need for digital literacy and proficiency in using learning tools (anasee & rhandy, 2020)the student will be able to meet the challenges and demands of other science courses that are taught in the english language in the firstyear program as well as the subsequent bachelor’s programs. in order to prepare students for academic success, the tendency at most saudi universities is to use international, mostly us or uk, publishers to provide the resources for its curriculum which is based on the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr. this pertains to the relative scarcity of contextual information in online writing assessments, the insufficiency of experience teachers have with online writing assessments, the digital skills needed by both students and teachers, and the utter lack of online writing skills in the writing school education system. wu & wang, 2021 reported that there is a strong connection between learning practices and the personal characteristics of teachers, including their educational backgrounds, years of teaching experience, professional knowledge, teaching expertise, and beliefs. this individualization and belief on the part of teachers is intimately tied to how they embrace information and communications technology (ict), and the usage of such things as teaching tools. however, online assessment becomes something challenging if they are used to doing conventional assessments. likewise, students with limited familiarity with online assessments will face worry (hosseini et al., 2020). practical solutions to overcome the problems in online writing assessment emergent problems emerged as education moved toward using technology and collaborative learning platforms; many scholars addressed the problems and looked for solutions. some of the solutions discussed below are closely related to some of the challenges described in the previous section. (1) the solutions to academic integrity dealing with students’ academic integrity, english teachers should have efficient strategies to lessen attempts at cheating (handayani & syarif, 2021). besides that, policies on academic integrity can raise students’ awareness of the value of being truthful (hosseini et al., 2020). according to reports, the two most important objectives of any effort to resolve problems with academic integrity should be prevention and education. the previous studies reported that schools with academic integrity commitments are less likely to disclose students who cheat on assessments. the results also demonstrate that cheating can be less common if students are exposed to its adverse effects on a regular basis. the definition of academic dishonesty and its repercussions should be made clear to students by teachers, who should also provide an academic integrity policy to prevent students from cheating on exams. to solve these issues, teachers must acquire pedagogical knowledge for online assessment. hosseini et al.(2020) recommend teachers to create authentic questions that are not derived from a question bank; this is what prompts students to search for solutions on google. they also suggested doing virtual proctoring where students are required to turn on the camera. (2) the solutions to limited facilities and infrastructure there are two ways to reduce technical issues when taking online assessments (hosseini et al., 2020). initially, teachers should consider the grace period option for submitting assignments, such as an additional ten minutes in an exam that reminds students to finish the test within the designated grace time. the extra warning period aims to address potential technical problems or internet crashes. secondly, be ready for technological difficulties by making a strategy in advance and outlining the tools’ technical requirements, such as the software used during the online evaluation. lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 181 it is crucial to educate students about various technological issues they might encounter and how to fix them. educating students about anticipated technical problems and their fixes could significantly reduce complaints from them. (3) solutions to the need for digital literacy one of the most critical roles of 21st-century teachers in this digital age is to assist students in adjusting to the new testing environment. it includes integrating information and communication technology (ict) and providing a seamless changeover from on-site assessments to online assessments (hosseini et al., 2020); this also answers the challenge of teachers’ need for digital literacy. thus, in addition to internalizing the fundamentals of language assessment, teachers should also be aware of the social and historical background of language assessment in a digital environment (anasee & rhandy, 2020)the student will be able to meet the challenges and demands of other science courses that are taught in the english language in the first-year program as well as the subsequent bachelor’s programs. in order to prepare students for academic success, the tendency at most saudi universities is to use international, mostly us or uk, publishers to provide the resources for its curriculum which is based on the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr. even, teachers in the twenty-first century must acquire this digital literacy skill in order to keep up with extremely rapid technology advancements. a study conducted by wu & wang (2021) revealed that most respondents agreed that teachers’ attitudes toward ict and their ict knowledge and proficiency would impact online performance assessments. previous researchers have proposed several online platforms that can be easily used in writing assessments, namely the use of learning management systems (moodle, google classroom) and social media (whatsapp group, facebook). meanwhile, several types of assignments that can be used in online writing assessments include essays, e-portfolio, and quizzes. on the other hand, al-maqbali & hussain (2022) emphasized the role that students play as a crucial stepping stone on the path to a successful transition to online learning. students need to have enough abilities in information technology (it) as well as time management in order to successfully navigate the assessment issues presented by the move to online learning. the information technology abilities of learners are absolutely necessary to ensure that they will be able to successfully manage their education in an online setting. iv. discussion since each mode of assessment has its own charasince each mode of assessment has its own characteristics, the switchover from face-to-face to online tests represents a change in the assessment scheme. hence, english teachers must reconsider texts and the criteria by which they can be evaluated in light of the transition from traditional textual writing to electronic textual writing. specifically, they must consider the kinds of skills, fundamental knowledge of writers, and specific strategies required to be literate in a technological environment (anasee & rhandy, 2020). teachers regard cheating as the primary issue, which is largely irrelevant in remote assessments (şenel & şenel, 2021). although english teachers do not object to the online remote writing assessment in and of itself, they express concern when the students are not monitored (al-bargi, 2022). teachers questioned the accuracy of the online written work and the validity of remote and unsupervised writing assessments compared to inperson assessments. nevertheless, task performance is one of the effective techniques used in online assessment (rambe, 2021). it can prevent students from cheating or plagiarism and be used as an exact test that produces reliable results and scores. for example, the teacher can provide a problembased learning that students must complete within a particular time frame. online peer feedback is a promising writing assessment approach to enhance students’ understanding of and ability to write argumentative essays (latifi et al., 2021); it is a form of writing that is frequently used to encourage students to think critically. previous research has demonstrated that argumentative essay writing adds more to learning than other types of writing since it takes a high level of cognitive processing and higherlailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 182 writing assessment no longer meets the educational demands of students. in this situation, english teachers must focus on expanding their knowledge and literacy, exploring various resources to facilitate more adaptive online writing assessments. along with examining students’ writing deficiencies and skill development, teachers must possess “digital literacy” skills. these skills refer to the knowledge and ability to use technology to write across multiple media types, including graphics, audio, video, and hypertext. thus, teachers can also select a variety of technological tools and options that their students in online writing assessments can effectively utilize in addition, teachers can specify the precise actions to take when administering online writing assessments. thus, zhang and his colleagues (2021) suggested english teachers must adjust their assessment methods and improvise during the learning process due to the dynamic nature of classroom situations. moreover, handayani & syarif (2021) proposed several procedures to manage online writing assessments effectively (figure 2). order thinking skills. when writing argumentative essays, students must recall their prior knowledge of a specific issue, investigate new information, and explain their conclusions from their perspective. obviously, this might be one of the efforts to prevent plagiarism and cheating in students’ online writing tasks (noroozi et al., 2022). pertaining to limited facilities and infrastructures, hazaea et al., 2021 found that in low-tech nations, the issues associated with online assessments stem from a lack of infrastructure and pedagogy. accordingly, english teachers should research the relevant online resources, learning management systems (lms), and various writing assessment models (khansa & mukaromah, 2022) might be conducted easily by their students. these decisions also were made in response to multiple factors, such as students’ motivation, digital proficiency, and familial or personal circumstances, all of which may have made conciliation more challenging (garcía-alberti et al., 2021). as a consequence, teachers are currently required to leave their comfort zone since conventional fig 2. the procedures to administer online writing assessments initial assessment, planning, and design are the first steps. the teacher should construct a type of written test that is planned for students from the beginning of teaching. the assessment must cover both the learning objectives and the curriculumbased content. additionally, english teachers must be able to create learning objectives, learning phases, and assessment rubrics that are crystal clear. the directions provided in the test ought to be comprehensive, logically organized, and simple for students to understand. in order to guarantee that all students have equal access to material, online writing tests for students should also provide areas for them to post questions, such as discussion boards. the teachers can decide to employ a variety of writing assessments to give students a chance to show what they have learned in several different contexts. lastly, the teachers should provide feedback that helps students improve the quality of their writing and make suggestions for future enhancements. v. conclusion along with the changing demands of the times, the educational environment continues to evolve, as reflected in how work is performed. it means that whenever there is a paradigm shift in education, teachers must be prepared to design an effective pedagogy based on the needs of their students, including conducting practical assessments. the shift from on-site to online learning presents an opportunity for professional growth and to improve teaching competence in both environments, given the challenges that emerged lailatul abidah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 183 during the covid-19 pandemic that required the transformation of online learning. due to these circumstances, teachers benefit considerably from online teaching and learning in terms of knowledge and experience, especially in light of the concerns of this study, namely investigating the issues english teachers have in online writing assessments and proposing some practical answers. as we know, writing assessments in an entirely online context is a different experience. while this is happening, students are also gaining from it by learning more about how education works in a digital world. they can experience different platforms accessible for online writing assessments. the authors recommend that future researchers review more literature on efficient techniques for assessing online writing, particularly those that address the 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(2021). efl teachers ’ online assessment practices during the covid-19 pandemic : changes and mediating factors. the asia-pacific education researcher, 30(6), 499– 507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00589-3 biography lailatul abidah, s.pd in 2012, she graduated with a bachelor’s degree in the english language education department, teacher training, and education faculty at universitas pgri kanjuruhan malang. in 2013, she began teaching english at a private islamic junior high school in siak regency, riau province, for two years. then, since 2015 to the present, she has been serving as a civil servant at smkn 1 bunga raya. currently, she has an opportunity to pursue her master’s degree in the english language education department at universitas muhammadiyah malang batch 2021, funded by bpi (beasiswa pendidikan indonesia). she has published a book with her colleagues entitled “bunga rampai: berelasi dengan kolega guru” (2020, isbn: 978-6236713-87-7). her first journal article, entitled “ improving distance learners’ writing skills through comic strip creation: a project-based learning,” was published in 2022. she is interested in undertaking research in all areas of the teaching and learning of english, particularly those concerning technology and ict-based learning. assoc professor dr. hartono, m.pd is a lecturer at english language education department, postgraduate program of the university of muhammadiyah malang (umm), indonesia. currently, he is the head for center for education development and policy. he was born in kediri, east java, in 1962. he got his bachelor degree from ikip malang, east java in 1986 and master degree at the same institution in 1993. in 2001, he got summer institute fulbright scholarship at new york university in the united states of america. then, he continued his study for his doctoral degree at state university of malang, indonesia in 2009. when doing his research project for his dissertation, the indonesian government granted him a sandwich program at curtain university, west australia. so far, he has published several books, among others english for civic and law (umm press, 2019); english for animal husbandry (umm press, 2020); english for agribusiness (umm press, 2022) and articles such as “language: a mirror of society and its application to english language teaching” (linguistics and culture review, 5(1), 93-103, 2021); ”learning life skills through english materials: integrating life skills in english pedagogy” (asian journal of community engagement, 6(2), 262-277, 2022). nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 437 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 14, 2023 final revision: december 25, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 a cleft lip is a disorder caused by the incomplete joining of the lips or palate during fetal development. this condition can result in a variety of physical impairments, speech impairments, and even psychological impairments that can affect a person’s life. patients with cleft lip usually suffer from dental problems, speech problems, and breathing and hearing problems. this condition can certainly lead to emotional and social problems that require attention from various parties, including surgeons, dentists, speech therapists, and psychologists, essential. patients with cleft disorders usually have an inability to produce speech sounds due to the insufficient amount of air pressure passing through the oral cavity. the severity of the disorder depends on various factors such as the intensity of the cleft, age at the surgery, and hearing loss. early support and treatment can greatly improve patients’ quality of life. it is necessary to conduct comprehensive research to address the different issues associated with cleft lip/palate. this involves not only healthcare professionals, such as speech-language pathologists, surgeons, orthodontists, and pediatric dentists, but also communication experts, such as linguists, to develop effective treatments and strategies. this review article discusses the relationship between clefts and speech production, as well as the factors that play a role in improving the quality of life of patients with cleft. the article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of clefts, serving as a reference for dentists, surgeons, linguists, and other professionals who work with cleft patients. keywords speech production, cleft, medical interventions, velopharyngeal mechanism correspondence e-mail: nelvi.yohana@dent.unand.ac.id understanding of speech production in cleft lip/palate: a review nelvi yohana1, handoko2 1faculty of dentistry, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.437-446.2023 i. introduction cleft lip and palate (clp) disorders happen when the upper lip or hard palate does not form completely during fetal development, resulting in a gap or split in the lip/palate. this condition can affect either the hard palate or the soft palate due to incomplete fusion of the tissues that make up the palate (leal et al., 2020; vyas et al., 2020). cleft lip disorder is a common birth abnormality that affects around 700 babies worldwide each year (mc goldrick et al., 2023; muzammil et al., 2021). studies indicate that more male babies than female babies are born with cleft lip. moreover, asian and native american populations are more vulnerable to this condition than caucasians (fritzsche, 2019). clp is a congenital disorder that occurs during fetal development. it can cause various physical and functional problems, including dental issues like misaligned teeth, malocclusion, and tooth loss. in addition, cleft disorders can also interfere with functional processes, such as speech, swallowing, eating, and breathing. these conditions can significantly impact patients’ quality of life and require specialized medical treatment and therapies (berrezueta reyes eva estefanía et al., 2023; handoko & yohana, 2023). patients may experience speech impairment due to air escaping from the mouth when speaking, but coming out of the nasal cavity resulting in mispronunciation, nasalisation of sounds, and excessive nasal resonance (hypernasality). in addition, cleft lip can also result in a condition where the muscles at the review nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 438 back of the throat do not close completely when speaking, called velopharyngeal insufficiency (vpi). patients with cleft palate may have difficulty articulating specific sounds due to the lack of air pressure in their oral cavity. this results in them being unable to produce certain sounds, interfering communication and social interaction (phippen, 2023). numerous studies have shown that infants born with clp experience difficulties in speech input processing compared to infants born without clp. therefore, it is necessary to provide early treatment for infants with clp to anticipate worse conditions. according to meinusch (2011), early language intervention and speech therapy can improve communication quality in children with cleft lip and palate who have undergone reconstructive surgery. bessell (2013) also mentioned the important of speech and language therapy interventions for children with cleft palate. hardin-jones (2019) highlighted the feedback from speech and language pathologist regarding to the assesment and treatment for clp patients to improve their communication. furthermore, williams (1999) emphasized the importance of speech and language therapy for post surgical patient to provide positive speech outcomes. by analysing various factors, both medical and nonmedical, speech and language therapy can improve language and sound production in patients who have received cleft lip and palate surgery (sand et al., 2022). this review paper aims to provide an overview of the relationship between medical aspects and non-medical aspects in clp cases and provide an overview of treatments and interventions that can be done to improve the communication skills of patients with clp. the aim of this article is to provide information and knowledge to those who are involved in the treatment of cleft lip and palate (clp) patients, as well as to the general public who may be interested in issues related to clp and communication disorders in these patients. ii. discussion cleft lip/palate cleft lip and palate is a complex condition that affects the facial structure of newborns and infants. although the exact cause of this disorder has yet to be established, several studies have concluded that genetics and environmental factors play an important role. it can also be caused by exposure to substances during pregnancy. such as drugs and alcohol, or certain genetic mutations that affect the development of facial and oral structures. despite the various factors that may cause clp, medical professionals have developed treatments to address clp problems that allow patients to live a healthier and better life (martinelli et al., 2020). genetic factors have also been reported to contribute to clp disorders, such as chromosomal abnormalities and family history (blue, 2012; askarian, 2022; ganatra et al., 2021). certain genetic variants such as tbx22, irf6, and pvrl1 have also been reported to be associated with clp risk (askarian, 2022). family history of being born with clp and consanguineous marriage are also strong factors that can trigger the disorder (jamilian, 2017). maternal exposure to alcohol, tobacco and drugs during pregnancy is also affect and contributes to clp in infants. prenatal exposure to folic acid is also reported in many cases of clp (leite, 2002). in fact, direct or indirect exposure to alcohol and tobacco increases the risk of medical and developmental disorders in foetal development, including the risk of clp (glantz, 2006). these substances are strongly associated with increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and sudden infant death syndrome (bailey, 2011). consumption and exposure to alcohol and nicotine during pregnancy can exacerbate neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation in the foetus. the risk of clp has been associated with alcohol and nicotine consumption during pregnancy (costa, 2023; regina altoé et al., 2020). these studies suggest a complex relationship between genetic and environmental factors in the development of clp. lip and palate clefts can occur in the upper lip, palate, or both. this condition can be classified into two types. a cleft lip only or a cleft lip and palate (clp). the severity of the cleft varies depend on the cleft, and can be categorised as complete or incomplate. in complete clp, the cleft in the palate opens from the front to the back of the mouth, while in incomplete clp the cleft tends to be smaller. this condition can cause difficulty in eating, speaking, and hearing, and need surgery to cerrect the structure. figure 1 shows the different types and severity of cpl. cleft palate can be categorised by the location of the cleft where the nasal and oral cavities meet. the first type is known as primary plate clefts nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 439 which occur at the front of the incisive foramen. the second type is called secondary clefts which affect the back of the incisive foremen.there is no point of fusion between the maxilla and nasal septum in a bilateral complete cleft of the secondary palate (zheng et al., 2019). understanding the location of the cleft is important for proper diagnosis and treatment. (clp). this helps them identify any abnormalities and determine the severity of the clefts. early diagnosis allows doctors to create an appropriate treatment plan for a better future. to confirm a diagnosis of cleft lip and palate, physicians or pediatricians can perform a physical examination. during pregnancy, an ultrasound scan can also be done to monitor the development of the fetus. further tests may be recommended by doctors, such as amniocentesis, to detect genetic disorders that could cause clp (haj et al., 2020; mak & leung, 2019). speech therapy is often used to improve the outcomes of surgeries for patients with cleft lip and palate (clp). infants born with clp often experience difficulties in speech, including impairment. however, through speech therapy, patients can improve their pronunciation and reduce communication disorders associated with cleft lip. while surgery can help patients physically, specialised training and treatment are required to improve the function of the speech organs. this will help patients communicate with confidence and interact better with society (wanchek & wehby, 2020). anatomy and physiology of velopharyngeal mechanism the undertstanding of anatomy and physiology of velopharyngeal mechanism is very important to address in this review. it will help people to undertstan how the sounds produces and increase the speech therapy oourcomes. during the process of speaking, many muscular tissues are involved, known as the velopharyngeal mechanism. this mechanism works in tandem to maintain the separation between the oral and nasal cavities, allowing people to articulate sounds clearly and effectively (rohde & friedland, 2022). the structures responsible for organising the various functions of this mechanism are divided into three parts, namely the soft palate (velum), the lateral pharyngeal walls, and the posterior pharyngeal wall, as shown in figure 2. the soft palate is a covering muscle that extends from the back of the hard palate to the uvula which serves to close the nasopharynx during speech. the lateral pharyngeal which is located on the side of the pharynx is a muscle that functions to stabilise the soft palate and also initiates to close the velopharyngeal. then the posterior pharyngeal wall helps stabilise the soft palate (perry, 2011). figure 1. classification of cleft lip/palate (mccarthy et al, 2021) figure 1 illustrates the classification of clp. figure a shows a secondary palate cleft, there is a small gap in the palate towards the back. figure b depicts a complete cleft of the secondary palate, there is a gap that extends all the way to the incisive foramen. figure c is an incomplete cleft of the primary and secondary palate, there is a gap that extends from the front of the mouth to the back of the mouth, but it does not completely separate the two palates. figure d is a unilateral complete cleft of the primary and secondary palate, one side of the palate is completely separated from the other side, while the other side is not separated. figure e is a bilateral complete cleft of the primary and secondary palate, there is a gap that extends across the entire palate, separating the two palates completely. diagnosing a baby born with clp is challenging. this is because the cleft may not be immediately visible and may only become apparent when the baby opens their mouth widely. doctors usually conduct a comprehensive physical examination of an infant’s mouth, nose, and surrounding areas to diagnose cleft lip and palate nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 440 a set of muscles and tissues help regulate the opening and closing of the nasopharynx, known as the velopharyngeal mechanism. several muscles contract to move the velopharyngeal mechanism, namely levator veli palatini, tensor veli palatini, palatopharyngeus, and salpingopharyngeus (figure 3). the inferior surface of the petrous section of the temporal bone and the medial border of the eustachian tube are the origins of the levator veli palatini. the levator sling, which comprises most of the muscular mass in the palate, is the main muscle responsible for velopharyngeal closure. its direction and function are critical for normal velopharyngeal function (gelany & abd el naeem, 2019; perry, 2011; raol & hartnick, 2015). the lateral margin of the eustachian tube and the medial pterygoid plate are the sources of the tensor veli palatini. it runs anterior and lateral to the levator and ends. the soft palate is stabilized and tensed by the tensor veli palatini during velopharyngeal closure. the palatoglossus, which is also referred to as the anterior tonsillar pillar, begins its journey into the tongue in the anterior soft palate, where it forms a continuous plane with the contralateral muscle. it then proceeds laterally, inferiorly, and anteriorly. the lateral pharyngeal wall and the soft palate are joined by the palatopharyngeus. it helps to pull the soft palate downward and backward during velopharyngeal closure. the muscle known as the salpingopharyngeus comes from the cartilaginous portion of the auditory tube, specifically from the inferior portion that encloses the nasopharyngeal opening of the tube. it inserts by merging with the palatopharyngeus muscle in the oropharynx as it runs inferiorly. the eustachian tube and the soft palate are connected by the salpingopharyngeus. it facilitates the opening of the eustachian tube while swallowing and keeps the soft palate from blocking it during speaking (gelany & abd el naeem, 2019; perry, 2011; raol & hartnick, 2015). the velopharyngeal mechanism is responsible for closing the nasopharynx, which forces air to escape the mouth and produce sound when people speak. this process involves various muscles, including the levator veli palatini muscle, which raises the soft palate, and the tensor veli palatini muscle, which tenses it. additionally, the palatopharyngeus muscle draws the soft palate backward and downward, while the salpingopharyngeus muscle opens the eustachian tube to equalize air pressure in the middle ear. during swallowing, the velopharyngeal mechanism opens the nasopharynx, allowing food and liquids to enter the esophagus. once the process is complete, the muscles that make up the velopharyngeal mechanism relax, and the soft palate returns to its resting posture.(barthadoering et al., 2020; olszewska & woodson, 2019; shprintzen, 2013) effect of cleft on speech production people born with clp usually experience various difficulties in producing sounds, one of which is hypernasality. hypernasality is a disorder that occurs due to excess air flowing through the nasal cavity when speaking which results in figure 2. velopharyngeal valve (gelany & abd el naeem, 2019) figure 3. velopharyngeal mechanism muscles and the nasal surface of the velum in a person with normal anatomy (olszewska & woodson, 2019) nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 441 nasalisation of sounds. hypernasality can occur due to disruption of the velopharyngeal mechanism caused by underdevelopment of the soft palate. the soft palate is responsible for closing the nasopharynx when speaking. if the soft palate is too short or underdeveloped, it cannot close the nasopharynx and air escapes from the nose (gart & gosain, 2014). in other words, if the velopharyngeal mechanism is not working properly, air will flow into the nasal cavity when speaking (wang et al., 2019). due to the resonance of sounds, listeners may find it hard to understand the speaker. nasalization, resulting in impaired articulation due to the escape of air through the nose, is one of the speech problems that can arise from velopharyngeal insufficiency (pereira & sell, 2023). it is estimated to occur in 20-40% of children with cleft palate (ysunza et al., 2015). hypernasality can be treated with speech therapy or surgery, depending on the severity of the condition (phippen, 2023). regarding sound articulation, there are several classes of articulation mistakes that can occur when a person speaks, namely omissions, substitutions, and distortions. omissions occur when a person omits certain sounds when speaking. for example, a child with clp may find it difficult to produce the /b/ sound so they say “ee” instead of “bee”. this can be frustrating for both the child and the person they are communicating with. therefore, people need to be patient when communicate with clp patiens to understand what they are trying to say. the second common mistake is substitution, which is the changing of sounds. children with clp may find it difficult to pronounce some sounds, such as the /ʃ/ sound. for example, when pronouncing the word “shoe” children with clp will find it difficult and tend to replace it with other sounds such as the /t/ sound. so they will say “too” instead of “shoe”. these issues can arise from a number of underlying causes, one of which is related to problems with the soft palate. the soft palate plays a crucial role in the production of speech sounds, and when it is affected by clp, it can lead to difficulties with speech production (kummer, 2023; phippen, 2023). children with clp may have other difficulties related to speech production due to sound resonance and articulation compensation. the soft palate plays an important role in directing sounds when articulated in the oral cavity. however, when the soft palate is unable to function properly, the sound produced from air resonance will be trapped in the nasal cavity. children with clp may develop compensatory articulations, which are changes in the way they produce sounds in an effort to overcome their velopharyngeal insufficiency (vpi) or misarticulations. however, these compensatory articulations can further affect their speech comprehension (fujiki & thibeault, 2023; kummer, 2023; pereira & sell, 2023). speech difficulties in individuals with clp can vary based on the type of cleft, age of palate surgery, severity of cleft, and hearing loss. children with bilateral clefts are likely to face more speech difficulties as compared to those with unilateral clefts. in addition, the age at which a child receives cleft surgery can also affect the severity of the condition. early treatment can lead to better speech. in certain circumstances, hearing loss may also exacerbate speech production in people with clp (shaffer et al., 2020). intervention for speech production issues in clp early treatment is essential for people with clp to achieve better speech production and improve their communication skills. experts recommend a multidisciplinary approach to address problems related to cleft lip and palate by involving various professionals such as pediatric dentists, surgeons, speech-language pathologists, and orthodontists. with proper treatment, most people with clp can speak clearly and effectively (frederick et al., 2022; lee et al., 2014). one of the most important interventions is speech and language therapy. speech and language therapy experts can help people with clp to improve their articulation skills and learn how to deal with velopharyngeal dysfunction. treatment through speech and language therapy can begin at a very young age, even before the palate closes. therapy in newborns may focus on the development of feeding and oral-motor abilities, while therapy in older children may focus on helping them improve their ability to produce sounds and improve communication skills (sell et al., 2021). a speech-language pathologist can provide various types of exercises, such as velopharyngeal closure exercises, speech amplification, and articulation therapy (kotlarek & krueger, 2023). articulation therapy is also very important to help children with clp overcome speech difficulties. nelvi yohana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 442 the design of the therapy depends on the individual and is tailored to their condition to improve good speech articulation skills. many exercises can be done in articulation therapy, such as blowing bubbles, whistling, and playing with toys that involve lip and tongue movement. the therapist should pay attention and identify the sounds that the patient has difficulty pronouncing and then adjust the intervention accordingly. with intensive help and practice, the child can learn to speak clearly and confidently which can certainly improve their quality of life (hardin-jones et al., 2020). the muscles involved in velopharyngeal closure should also be strengthened with velopharyngeal closure exercises to maximise velopharyngeal function in producing sounds (hardin-jones et al., 2020). speech amplification tools, such as cochlear implants or hearing aids, can also be used to help children with hearing loss to produce seppech by improving their ability to hear and process speech sounds (löfkvist et al., 2020). medical treatment in the form of surgery can be done to overcome the problem of the gap in the palate and the function of the velopharyngeal valve. the aim is to divide the nasal and oral cavities so that the velve can function properly (shaw et al., 2019; shkoukani et al., 2014). thus, the patients can improve their speech and swallowing ability. to treat infants with hearing loss, further surgery is required. it is recommended to perform surgery between three to six months of age, but it is important that it is done before the baby turns one year old. this is because the first year is an important period for language acquisition in children so early intervention can improve the development of their speech and language ability (shkoukani et al., 2014). furthermore, orthodontic treatment can also be performed on people with clp to correct dental malocclusion that plays a role in speech production difficulties. malocclusions such as crowding and spacing can affect the position of the tongue and lips when speaking, making it difficult for the patient to produce certain sounds. after the permanent teeth appear and the palate is closed, dental procedures can be performed. the aim of dental orthodontic treatment is to balance occlusion so that the tongue and lips can produce sounds properly (mason, 2020; handoko & yohana, 2023). apart from the interventions already discussed, there are several other methods that are also effective for cleft management. psychological support is also very important and effective in dealing with the psychological and emotional problems that accompany clp. social skill training can help patients to be able to communicate and build interpersonal relationships with others because people with clp may experience difficulties and challenge in social interaction. in addition, hearing training is equally important, especially for people with clp. by improving their listening skills, they can get along better and communicate more effectively (lane et al., 2022; stock et al., 2020). iii. conclusion a congenital craniofacial defect known as clp can affect the production of speech in various ways. cleft lip/palate may cause problems like hypernasality, velopharyngeal insufficiency (vpi), articulation errors, resonance issues, and voice problems. the severity of speech production issues may vary depending on the type of clp and the individual. early identification and intervention are crucial to achieving optimal speech outcomes for children diagnosed with clp. a comprehensive approach involving multiple disciplines is required for this intervention. speech-language pathology plays a vital role in addressing the speech production issues caused by clp. references askarian, s., gholami, m., khalili-tanha, g., tehrani, n.c., joudi, m., khazaei, m., ferns, g.a., hassanian, s.m., avan, a., & joodi, m. 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(2019). the prenatal diagnosis and classification of cleft palate: the role and value of magnetic resonance imaging. european radiology, 29(10), 5600–5606. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s00330-019-06089-9 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: february 28, 2021 final revision: august 20, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 this study aims to analyze the meaning of isis names in the arab mass media from the break theory perspective. the research data were taken from two syrian mass media: tishrīn and ‘inab baladī. the name dā’ish is used as the primary discourse, while the name tanẓīm al-dawlah is a secondary discourse. the data was collected by observing the basic technique of tapping and the advanced technique of note-taking. data analysis was carried out using identity method. the findings show that the meaning of primary discourse is structured through the eclectic use of theory on aspects of sound, form, meaning construction, and meaning changes. the analysis found that primary discourse has a negative meaning tendency and is contrary to religion’s moral values (islam) and state. meanwhile, the meaning of secondary discourse is carried out by combining the theory of nominal groups, word structures, nominal relations, and stylistics. secondary discourse has an ambiguous meaning because it represents isis as an entity that can be understood in two domains at once: organization and state. the comprehensive analysis of break has shown clear linguistic stages of meaning so the meaning of isis names can be clearly understood. keyword dā’ish, tanẓīm al-dawlah, break, isis, arab mass media correspondence e-mail: reflinaldi@uinib.ac.id articles dā’ish vs tanẓīm al-dawlah: break analysis of the names of isis in arab mass media reflinaldi1, sawirman2, fajri usman3 1,2,3department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, andalas university, padang, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.157-167.2021 i. introduction the names of isis in the arab mass media are a unique linguistic phenomenon. the name الدولة الشام و العراق في al-dawlah al-islāmiyah) اإلسالمية fī al-’irāq wa al-shām) ‘islamic state of iraq and syria’ which is the origin of isis is very rarely used. the various existing mass media tend to name isis with a number of variants of diction according to their wishes and objectives (mashuri, 2014). two major mass media in syria called isis by two different names. tishrīn named isis داعش (dā›ish), while ‘inab baladī named isis تنظيم الدولة (tanẓīm al-dawlah). dā’ish is an acronym for the real name isis that is long enough to be mentioned. in various literature studies, dā’ish (adapted to daesh) is more widely used to refer to isis (macdonald et al., 2019; marcellino et al., 2016). apart from being easy to pronounce, this name also carries implications for the meaning does not like by isis. meanwhile, the name tanẓīm al-dawlah tends to be less popular in various media. isis prefers the name tanẓīm aldawlah to dā’ish. one of the strong reasons is that the name tanẓīm al-dawlah is more appropriate to represent them as an islamic state. in the scope of linguistic research, the two variants of the isis name have been studied by several researchers (altakhaineh, 2017; rahmawati, 2017; yuliani, 2017) semantic, and pragmatic features of acronyms in arabic. acronyms in arabic have appeared quite recently as a result of globalization and exposure to or contact with, mainly, english via radio stations and tv channels, which are broadcasting in english and in some countries, for example, morocco in both english and french. through in-depth analysis, it has been observed that acronyms in arabic are subject to different 157 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) via radio stations and tv channels, which are broadcasting in english and in some countries, for example, morocco in both english and french. through in-depth analysis, it has been observed that acronyms in arabic are subject to different restrictions: (athe previous studies draw relatively similar conclusions in terms of the ideological justification behind the name isis (yuliani, 2017; rahmawati, 2017; altakhaineh, 2017), these conclusions are not based on strong and sufficient linguistic analysis. the three researchers jumped to macro conclusions without any maximal analysis at the micro-level. the same is also found in several studies on isis discourse in social media (bodinebaron et al., 2016; guthrie, 2018; ridha, 2016; madrazo, 2018; mamdud, 2018; al-manaseer and shaban, 2018; georges, 2020). based on these facts, some of the research that has been mentioned above still leaves a gap analysis. the meaning of isis names has not been studied extensively and in depth so that the process of meaning that creates a negative image for isis is unknown. in line with that, this study raises a problem of the process of meaning the names of isis in the arab mass media. the researchers used the break theory (sawirman, 2014), emphasizing an eclectic approach in explaining lingual facts. by using this approach, the researchers aim to explain the process of meaning for the names of isis so that a negative impression appears on these names. in a practical context, this study addresses the spread of isis and other terrorism ideas in indonesia (galamas, 2015; schulze & liow, 2019). the meaning and value of the names isis in the arab mass media will become educational materials for the public to know this terrorist organization. ii. methods this research is categorized into qualitative research. the data was taken from online arab mass media in syria. determination of data sources is based on the fact that most of the isis actions are the topic of news coverage in the mass media in syria (besenyő, 2015; khan & ruiz estrada, 2016; neer & o’toole, 2014)often times it is called unsuccessful. the operation started ten years ago, and in addition to other donors, the eu took an important role in the advocacy, not to mention the fact that it launched its own support operation. this restrictions: (a. yuliani (2017) used norman fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (cda) to study the khilāfah discourse in al-jazeera and alarabiya mass media coverage. she explained that the isis name shows the ideology and tendencies of the two data sources. the nameتنظيم الدولة اإلسالمية tanẓīm al-dawlah al-islāmiyah fī) في العراق و الشام al-›irāq wa al-shām) ‘islamic state of iraq and syria organization’ chosen by al-jazeera indicates their neutral attitude towards isis. meanwhile, the dāish name used by al-arabiya shows the assertiveness in rejecting the existence of isis. in the same perspective, rahmawati (2017) used cda van dijk to examine the al-jazeera and cnn arabic mass media’s tendencies and ideology in reporting isis violence. she explained that the isis name is one of the variables marking the tendency and ideology of the two data sources. al-jazeera named isis withاإلسالمية الدولة تنظيم (tanẓīm al-dawlah al-islāmiyah) ‘islamic state organization’ was concluded to be neutral to isis, while cnn arabic, which named isis with dā’ish, was declared to be against isis. in fact, those researchers did not examine the linguistic structure of the names before concluding the tendencies and ideologies behind it. on the other hand, (altakhaineh, 2017)semantic, and pragmatic features of acronyms in arabic. acronyms in arabic have appeared quite recently as a result of globalization and exposure to or contact with, mainly, english via radio stations and tv channels, which are broadcasting in english and in some countries, for example, morocco in both english and french. through in-depth analysis, it has been observed that acronyms in arabic are subject to different restrictions: (a explained the linguistic features of the dā’ish name as an organizational name in the arab mass media. among altakhaineh’s key findings was the compatibility of dāish with arabic phonotactic rules. semantically, the name does not have a homophonic meaning relation with pre-existing words. meanwhile, pragmatically, the dā’ish name is used to attract the attention of the newsreaders. although semantic, and pragmatic features of acronyms in arabic. acronyms in arabic have appeared quite recently as a result of globalization and exposure to or contact with, mainly, english 158 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) was the second operation of the eu in africa. it worked with less people than the artemis operation did, but it lasted for nearly three years. although the operation had to face several challenges, it can be called effective from the perspective of the european union and its member states. they could utilize the lessons learned from the mission related to further operations. however, several pieces of research have been made on the european union’s activity in darfur, but the participants of the mission did not share their experiences except for one or two conferences and articles. i (the author. based on the data source selection parameters above, the arab mass media selected as data sources are tishrīn and ‘inab baladī. apart from their status as the popular mass media in syria, the two mass media were also selected to consider representation. the mass media tishrīn is the official mass media owned by the government, while the ‘inab baladī mass media were independently initiated and developed by journalists and civil society. these two different representations are an important consideration for presenting a variety of perspectives and variations in data. the research data were collected using observing the basic tapping technique and the advanced technique of note-taking. researchers looked at the language phenomenon in the form of the use of isis names in the mass media of data sources without determining the process of data formation and appearance. the data collection technique is broken down into the following work stages: reading and observing; data sorting; data storage and printing; data rereading; determination of research subjects. after going through all the data collection stages, the researchers chose the research subject for each data source. in tishrīn mass media, the selected data is dā’ish, while in mass media ‘inab baladī, the selected data is tanẓīm al-dawlah. the name dā’ish is then used as the primary discourse, while tanẓīm al-dawlah is used as a secondary discourse. data analysis was conducted using the identity method. data accuracy is measured by contextual aspects that exist outside of language. the data analysis framework is carried out by tracing the systematic work of break theory and using a critical linguistic approach. the data analysis work refers to the qualitative analysis stages, consisting of data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. the results of data analysis are presented using informal and formal methods. the arabiclatin transliteration used in writing refers to the ala-lc romanization standard. iii. result break is a critical discourse analysis theory that focuses on discourse movement (sawirman, 2014). break is a relatively new theory in the critical discourse analysis approach and was born from the construction of the e-135 philosophy paradigm (sawirman, 2016). the name break is an acronym for the five features of analysis systematized in theory: basis (basic); relasi (relation); ekuilibrium (equilibrium); aktualisasi (actualization); and keberlanjutan (sustainability). break is an academic manifestation of dissatisfaction with critical discourse analysis theory, which only concerns descriptive analysis without providing alternative solutions to the problem of discourse domination (reflinaldi, 2020). the existing analytical features are used to contribute to linguistics in overcoming various human problems. in the basis analysis feature, break emphasizes linguistic-based data analysis. this analysis is carried out by explaining primary discourse and secondary discourse from various perspectives of micro linguistic and macrolinguistic theories. in this basis analysis feature, the analysis is carried out eclectically using existing theories, as long as the theory can adequately explain the data. by using these features, the analysis has a strong linguistic basis. the meaning of isis names in this research will be able to explain the stages so that they arrive at a final meaning. as a theory focuses on discourse movement analysis, break analysis requires more than one discourse. the main discourse is called the primary discourse. meanwhile, the next discourse, which is a comparison, is called a secondary discourse. in the context of this research, the name isis is used as the primary discourse is dā›ish. while the name isis is used as a secondary discourse is tanẓīm aldawlah. the application of break analysis to the primary discourse and secondary discourse is 159 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) explained as follows. primary discourse word formation analysis in arabic word formation theory, primary discourse is naḥt ‘acronym’ (nasser, 2018). primary discourse is constructed by taking the dominant letters in the original name and making it a new word that can be read in its entirety. the following is the process of the formation of the primary discourse. which the derivation is based. skeletal element is arrangements of sounds that define categories. the vowel element is a vowel that determines semantic meaning. the three supporting elements of the primary discourse construction apply in the arabic word construction system, which has a nonconcatenative morphological form. the following is a primary discourse construction based on the theoretical perspective. table. 2 the primary discourse construction based on the theoretical perspective element root d ʕ ʃ skeletal c v v c v c vocal a a i construction da:ʕiʃ dā’ish word categories analysis from the perspective of word categories in arabic, the primary discourse has an active participle pattern (ism al-fā’il) which implies agent (boudlal et al., 2010). primary discourse is a derivation of trilateral root verbs (al-fi’l al-thulāthī al-mujarrad). the root form is represented by three letters: ف (fa), which are arranged into the (lam) ل and ,(ain‘) ع construction of the verb فعل (fa’ala). in this context, it is unknown what form of action the primary discourse takes as an agent. it is because da’asha as the primary discourse root form does not have lexical references. the following shows the change from the verb root form to the noun derivation form of primary discourse. arabic phonotactic analysis from the perspective of the arabic phonotactic system, there is a modification in the form of replacing consonant sounds to vowels in primary discourse. the basic word in arabic is a sound construction consisting of a root in the form of a consonant and a sound symbol in the form of a vowel (cv). in basic words, the cv construction should not be more than three rows (cvcvcv) (alathwary, 2017). the results in primary discourse that has a total of four consonant lines in the form of [d], [ʔ], [ʕ], and [ʃ] being modified in the form of replacing one of the consonant elements into a vowel. the following is a modification in one of the elements of primary discourse. table. 1 the modification in one of the elements of primary discourse basic modification form of modification c ([d]) c ([d]) replacement of the glottal consonant sound [ʔ] to a vowel [:]c ([ʔ]) v ([:]) c ([ʕ]) c ([ʕ]) c ([ʃ]) c ([ʃ]) prosodic morphology analysis from the perspective of prosodic morphology theory, primary discourse construction consists of root, skeletal, and vocal elements (mc carthy, 1981). the root element is the consonant on fig. 1 the process of the formation of the primary discourse fig. 2 the the change from the verb root form to the noun derivation form of primary discourse meaning construction analysis the inexistence of lexical references to primary discourse is due to its reality as a pseudoword (rathvon, 2004). the primary discourse has been 160 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) following the phonological and morphological principles applied in arabic but has no meaning that can be referred to. the meaning of primary discourse is constructed by associating it with existing words to cover up these linguistic features’ inexistence. meaning associations are built based on sound similarities, pattern similarities, and context suitability between primary discourse and existing words. the first word associated with primary discourse is داعس (dā’is). the similarity of sound and the similarity of the word pattern to the primary discourse can be seen in the following analysis. table. 3 the similarity of sound dā’is to the primary discourse element root d ʕ s skeletal c v v c v c vocal a a i construction da:ʕis dā’is the word dā’is has the meaning of “who stepped on”. the meaning of this word is properly associated with primary discourse if it is related to the context of violent actions committed by isis. in various reports and reports on the syrian conflict, isis is recorded as carrying out brutal acts of violence (cheterian, 2015; foster & minwalla, 2018; minwalla et al., 2020). given this contextual reality, the meaning of ‘who stepped on’ in the relevant dā’is word is associated as the first meaning of primary discourse. meanwhile, the second word associated with primary discourse is داحس (dāḥis). the similarity in sound and the similarity of the word pattern to the primary discourse can be seen in the following analysis. table. 4 the similarity second word dāḥis to the primary discourse element root d h s skeletal c v v c v c vocal a a i construction da:his dāḥis the word dāḥis has the meaning of ‘who spreads enmity’. the meaning of this word is properly associated with primary discourse if it is related to the context of isis’s attitude, which is hostile to all groups outside themselves. in isis’s view, their islamic doctrine is the most correct. based on this doctrine, hostility should be directed at nonmuslims and all muslims who belong to different sects (abdulrazaq & stansfield, 2016; heath-kelly, 2018). on that basis, the meaning of ‘who spreads enmity’ in the relevant word dāḥis is associated as the second meaning of primary discourse. meaning changes analysis in terms of changing meaning, primary discourse is a form of pejoration (finkbeiner et al., 2016). primary discourse contains negative values that contradict the original form it represents (castroviejo et al., 2020). the substance of pejoration in primary discourse can be measured from the change in the meaning of the word al-islāmiyah, which contains the substances of ‘peace’ and ‘accommodation.’ the meaning of “peace” in the original form of primary discourse is related to the principles of the prophet muhammad saw in spreading islam. the da’wah of the prophet muhammad saw stands on the principle of ‘no compulsion in religion’. this method forms the image of islam as a ‘peaceful and anti-coercion religion.’ in the primary discourse, the original meaning changes to ‘who spreads enmity.’ it is related to the da’wah pattern of isis which is based on the principle of war. in the hands of isis, the da’wah dogma turned into ‘islam as the only religion’. this method transformed the image of islam into a “enmity religion.” changes in meaning have an impact on primary discourse and have an impact on substance. the original form of primary discourse contains the substance of ‘peace.’ it makes islam appear as a “friendly and nurturing religion. “in the primary discourse, this substance is degraded into ‘enmity.’ this reality presents islam as an “angry and violent religion.” the meaning and degradation of substance in the primary discourse can be seen in the following analysis. fig. 3 the meaning and degradation of substance161 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) the meaning of ‘salvation’ in the original form of primary discourse relates to the principle of the prophet muḥammad saw in treating the nonmuslim population. social interaction stands on the principle of islam as a religion of “mercy for the universe”. this method portrays islam as a “compassionate religion.” in the primary discourse, the original meaning changes to “who stepped on.” it is related to the intimidating and discriminatory treatment of isis against non-muslim populations. in the hands of isis, the dogma of social interaction has turned into ‘torment for the different’. this orientation grows the image of islam as an ‘oppressive religion.’ the change in the meaning of primary discourse also has an impact on substance. the original form of primary discourse contains the substance of ‘accommodation.’ islam accommodates all forms of existing differences. it makes islam appear as a ‘nurturing religion.’ in the primary discourse, this substance is degraded into “domination.” islam wants to control those outsides of it. this situation presents islam as an ‘exploiting religion.’ the meaning and degradation of substance in the primary discourse can be seen in the figure 4. crimes committed by isis. primary discourse contains contradictory meanings with the origin name isis. isis basically claims to be a state that implements islamic law. however, in the primary discourse, islamic values are lost and replaced by vandalistic values opposed to islam. secondary discourse nominal group analysis from the perspective of nominal group analysis, the secondary discourse has an experiential classifier structure (halliday & matthiessen, 2013). in the secondary discourse, the noun aldawlah has a role in determining the type of noun tanẓīm. semantically, the secondary discourse has the meaning of ‘state organization (islam)’. meanwhile, based on the noun group analysis, the meaning of secondary discourse is “an organization called a state (islam)” the following is an analysis of the noun group on secondary discourse. classifier tanẓīm al-dawlah ‘organization’ ‘state’ thing classifier noun noun ‘organization called the state (islamic)’ there are two sides to the discourse producers’ experience that underlie the experiential structure of secondary discourse. the first experience is the travel history of isis. the origin of isis is a jihadi organization founded by abū muṣ’ab al-zarqāwī in jordan. this organization moved to iraq to resist the us invasion and enter syria to fight the government of bashār al-asad (tonnessen, 2015). the second experience is the response of various parties to the establishment of isis. isis’s claim to be al-dawlah’s “state” gained criticism and resistance from other countries. isis’s claim to be the bearer of the value of al-islāmiyah ‘islam’ is also not accepted by the majority of authoritative scholars in various countries. on the other hand, isis was convicted of destroying islam’s identity and image in the eyes of the world (rumman, 2016). word structure analysis from arabic word structure, secondary discourse is included in construct phrases (iḍāfah) (ryding, fig. 4 the meaning and degradation of substance in the primary discourse from analyzing the change in meaning above, the primary discourse has clearly changed islam’s representation and image. this reality can be seen in the figure 5. concerning the analysis using several of these perspectives, it is found that the meaning of the name isis in the primary discourse is an oppresses and spreads hostility organization. as a name, the meaning of primary discourse construction is supported by the context of acts of terrorism and fig. 5 the meaning change in the primary discourse 162 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) 2005). secondary discourse consists of two nouns (ism) which in composition explain each other (mubarak et al., 2020). the first tanẓīm noun is called annexed (muḍāf). this category can assume the status of nominative (marfū’), accusative (manṣūb), genitive (majrūr) according to their function in the sentence. the annexed should always be indefinite (nakirah). it should not be preceded by the article alif and lam definite markers (ma’rifah) and ended with the double vowel nunation (tanwīn) (ni’mah, tt.). the second noun al-dawlah is called the annexing (muḍāf ilayh). this category can only have genitive status. the descriptive category must always be definite and in some situations may end in nunation (ni’mah, tt.). the following is a secondary discourse analysis based on the structure of these construct phrase. tanẓīm al-dawlah ‘organization’ ‘state’ annexed (muḍāf) annexing (muḍāf ilayh) noun noun indef-nom/acc/gen def-gen nominal relation analysis from the perspective of the relations between nouns that form the meaning of construct phrase, secondary discourse has a type of identity relation (ryding, 2005). in this relation, the first noun represents the object’s identity is referred to, while the second noun represents the specification, definition, boundaries, and description of the identity of the first noun. based on this concept, the first noun tanẓīm represents isis’s identity as an organization. the second noun al-dawlah means that isis is an organization that defines itself as the founder of an islamic state. secondary discourse analysis based on the perspective of relations can be seen in the analysis below. tanẓīm al-dawlah ‘organization’ ‘state’ identity definition ‘organization that defines itself as the founder of the state (islam)’ stylistic analysis from the perspective of rhetorical language style, secondary discourse contains oxymoron (abdumalik, 2020). the secondary discourse contains conflicting meanings through the use of the words tanẓīm and al-dawlah. the contradiction between the two words can be seen from the meaning components that make it up. the word tanẓīm means a forum for movement with a common vision and goal and is organized in a structural division of responsibilities. socially, tanẓīm is a community engaged in certain fields. meanwhile, the word al-dawlah is defined as a community with territory under legitimate political and government institutions. the word al-dawlah is understood by society as a state structure whose power derives legitimacy from the people. from the meaning, the following shows the contradiction between the two words combined in the secondary discourse. table. 5 contradiction between the two words combined in the secondary discourse tanẓīm al-dawlah • has an organizational structure • has no territory • only obtain legitimacy from members of the organization • doesn’t require recognition from other countries • only engaged in certain areas of life • has an organizational structure • has a territory of power • obtaining legitimacy from the people • requires recognition from other countries • taking care of the whole aspect of people’s lives related to the multiperspective analysis, it was found that the literal meaning of the name isis in secondary discourse is ‘state organization.’ the meaning builds an interpretation that isis is an organization that claims to be a state. the meaning of this secondary discourse construction is supported by the historical reality of the journey of isis and the world’s response to the existence of isis. the meaning of the name isis in secondary discourse becomes problematic because of the existence of the diction of al-dawlah. it is due to a clash of meanings between tanẓīm and al-dawlah. this situation opens the opportunity for multiple interpretations and can be used by language users to support their political interests. iv. discussion based on the analysis, it can be seen that linguistic studies of primary discourse can be carried out 163 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) from various theoretical perspectives: sound (alathwary, 2017; mc carthy, 1981); form (boudlal et al., 2010); construction of meaning (rathvon, 2004); and meaning changes (castroviejo et al., 2020; finkbeiner et al., 2016). the use of these theories eclectically makes a whole process of linguistic meaning to primary discourse. the result of this meaningful process shows that primary discourse tends to have negative meanings. the meaning in primary discourse is contrary to the moral values of religion and state widely accepted in the world. as a symbol, the primary discourse represents isis as an entity that contradicts the state order’s social, cultural, and political values at the time of the prophet muhammad. meanwhile, analysis of secondary discourse can also be carried out from several theoretical perspectives: nominal group (halliday & matthiessen, 2013); word structure (mubarak et al., 2020); nominal relation (ryding, 2005); and stylistics (abdumalik, 2020). eclectically, using these theories in analyzing secondary discourse shows the confusion of meaning and instability of interpretation. the analysis from these various perspectives shows that secondary discourse has ambiguous meanings. on the one hand, there is a diction recognizing isis as a state structure on the secondary discourse. however, on the other hand, in the secondary discourse, there is a diction rejecting the statehood of isis and only accepting their reality as a non-state organization. as a symbol, the secondary discourse represents isis as an entity that can be understood in two domains at once: organization and state. microlinguistic analysis of primary discourse confirms the findings of previous researches (yuliani, 2017; rahmawati, 2017; altakhaineh, 2017). this analysis is key to a linguistic interpretation of the popular isis name, da’ish. as stated earlier, yuliani (2017) and rahmawati (2017) did not present a linguistic analysis of the name isis. the two researchers went straight to the contextual conclusion that the name dā’ish contained a counter or negative intention to isis. meanwhile, altakhaineh (2017) only discusses the compatibility of the name dā’ish as an acronym with some arabic linguistic features. based on these facts, break analysis has contributed significantly in closing the gap analysis in the three previous studies. comprehensive analysis of the existing lingual elements has shown clear stages of meaning so that the meaning of the name dā’ish can be understood well. on the secondary discourse, break analysis expands the findings of yuliani (2017) and rahmawati (2017). these two studies indicate the use of the names tanẓīm and al-dawlah as a form of neutrality towards isis. in the linguistic analysis explained by the researchers, the use of the name shows a neutral attitude towards isis and represents pragmatism in the construction of meaning. the secondary discourse of tanẓīm aldawlah is ambiguous and contains contradictory meanings. this lingual fact opens up opportunities for double of interpretation. on the one hand, the name can be used as a symbol of neutrality against isis, but on the other hand, it can also be used as a symbol against isis. secondary discourse is a political lingual fact that can be drawn in various contexts according to the speaker’s goals and wishes. based on these findings, break analysis of isis names in the arab mass media provides a new perspective on meaning that is different and broader than previous research. it is supported by an analytical orientation that emphasizes indepth linguistic studies of data (sawirman, 2014). linguistic analysis must be done first before making macro and contextual interpretations (sawirman, 2014). the mistake that often occurs in several critical discourse analysis studies today is the lack of linguistic analysis of the data. break analysis is an effective solution to overcome these problems. researchers must understand that the consequence of linguistic studies that make lingual facts as data is that it is imperative to prioritize linguistic analyzes over other analyzes (baker, 2012; lin, 2014). v. conclusion the break analysis shows differences in the intensity of the meanings of isis names in the arab mass media. as an acronym, primary discourse construction emerges as a form of language creativity. primary discourse contains negative meanings due to its association with other 164 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) words suitable with several linguistic features. the negative meaning of primary discourse is strengthened by the change in the values contained in it. the primary discourse turns isis’s claim as an islamic state into an entity contrary to islamic values. secondary discourse construction is as an annexed constituent and an annexing constituent. the relationship between the two words illustrates a clash of meanings which leads to 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(2017). tendensi dan ideologi al-jazeera dan cnn berbahasa arab dalam pemberitaan kekerasan islamic state of iraq and syria (isis). state islamic university syarif hidayatullah. rathvon, n. (2004). early reading assessment. reflinaldi, r. (2020). pelabelan isis dalam media massa arab (analisis pergerakan wacana). andalas university. ridha, h. (2016). propaganda isis: analisis wacana kritis terhadap teks arab dalam buku pelajaran isis. state islamic university syarif hidayatullah.166 reflinaldi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) biography reflinaldi is a graduate of the linguistics masters department, faculty of humanities, andalas university. currently, he is a lecturer in the arabic language and literature department, faculty of adab and humanities, imam bonjol state islamic university, padang. he has published several articles in reputable national and international journals. one of his most recent articles is “the representation of women in covid-19 discourses: the analysis of sara mills’ critical discourse on media coverage”. sawirman is a lecturer at the faculty of humanities, andalas university. he completed his doctoral studies at udayana university. he is precursor of philosophy of e-135 which is the philosophical foundation of the break theory and several other theories of linguistic analysis. he has published several articles in reputable national and international journals. one of his most recent articles is “experiences around the clauses: a transitivity analysis of four famous people’s suicide notes.” fajri usman is a lecturer at faculty of humanities, andalas university. he completed his doctoral studies at udayana university. he is an expert in the field of anthropolinguistics and cultural studies. he has published several articles in reputable national and international journals. one of his articles that attracted many scholars’ interest is “bentuk lingual tawa pengobatan tradisional minangkabau (analisis linguistik kebudayaan).” rumman, s. a. (2016). sirr al-jadzibiyah: daish, al-di’ayah wa al-tajnid. muassasah friedrich ebert. ryding, k. c. (2005). a reference grammar of modern standard arabic. cambridge university press. sawirman. (2014). e135 reader: media meliput teror. penerbit erka. sawirman. (2016). filsafat wacana. penerbit erka. schulze, k. e., & liow, j. c. (2019). making jihadis, waging jihad: transnational and local dimensions of the isis phenomenon in indonesia and malaysia. asian security, 15(2), 122–139. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14799855.2018.1424710 tonnessen, t. h. (2015). heirs of zarqawi or saddam? the relationship between al-qaida in iraq and the islamic state. perspectives on terrorism, 9(4), 48–60. yuliani. (2017). wacana khilafah dalam diksi pemberitaan media online arab (analisis wacana kritis pasca pemroklamiran isis tahun 2014). state islamic university syarif hidayatullah. 167 devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 300 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 14, 2023 final revision: december 27, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this study is about what particular people belong to the particular ethnic have in mind as their ideology to see the environment, reflected from traditional fishing ritual in acehnese speech community under the eco-linguistic perspective. in addition, with reference to social praxis, ecolinguistics recognizes three dimensions, namely ideological, sociological, and biological dimensions relating to the exploitation of the environment for fishing through ritual speech. the purpose of this study is to determine the ideology reflected in the speech. the study employed a qualitative research methodology, utilizing a phenomenological approach. the study makes use of verbal expressions expressed by naval commanders, gathered through a combination of participatory observation and comprehensive interviews at a central location of fish market and sanctuary in banda aceh, aceh indonesia. the data collected serve as the basis for the analysis and interpretation of the research findings. the respected ideology was then compared to the concept of ecosophy. the results of the analysis show that the ritual holistically contains the ideology of environmental preservation. the efforts to assist the natural, social, and spiritual preservations, specifically in marine environments, are obviously detected in the discourse. the ideology offered is in accordance with the concept of ecosophy, which includes beneficial discourse. however, part of the utterances also reflect the ambivalent discourse, but not the destructive one. keywords ideology, environment, ecolinguistics, social praxis, three dimensions correspondence e-mail: devipratiwy@sastra.uisu.ac.id article ideology in marine ritual discourse of acehnese speech community devi pratiwy1, anastasia wiwik swastiwi2, m.manugeren3, pardi4, asnani5 1,3,4,5fakultas sastra, universitas islam sumatera utara, medan, indonesia 2fakultas ilmu sosial dan politik, universitas maritim raja ali haji, tanjungpinang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.300-308.2023 i. introduction the various issues concerning ecology and the environment keep on emerging day in every media surrounding. wildfire, plastic waste, air pollution, toxic waste, deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and all the impacts of pollution always appear in various media, like the internet, tv, newspapers, and so on. it is assumed that all environmental problems are derived from the negative behavior of human beings who have a great contribution to destroying the environment, whether it is aware or unaware. thus, the core problem of the environment is basically the interaction and reciprocal relationship between humans and the environment. every element, including language, in human life can drive the existence of the environment. environmental issues are regarded as crucial and urgent to discuss. linguistic trends nowadays also discuss language problems, which come into change along with environmental change, and this problem is studied in ecolinguistics. ecolinguistics is the interdisciplinary study, which relates language and the environment where it lives. ecolinguistics sees language as the receptacle to accommodate all the cognitive knowledge of the environment, including the natural, cultural, and social environment. stibbe (2015) ecolinguistics studies the relationship between organisms and their physical environment. language plays a crucial role in linking humans to each other, to other organisms, and to the environment. furthermore, devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 301 language has an influence on how people see the world in the story we live by, which affects how people think and act, whether it can destroy or protect the environment or ecosystem that life depends on (wu, 2018). through language, it is obviously seen how people think about the environment whether they view the world is under human domination, the human being as the center of life, or people think that human beings are a part of an ecosystem who live side by side with another organism in a certain environment which all the life depends on (keraf (2002). in its relation, ecolinguistics describes language as the complex symbol which reflects the whole physical and social background of a particular speech community and the influence of the background to the community (see sapir, 1912; fill and muhlhausler, 2001: 13). in other side, environment can not only influence the people but also the communal characters. furthermore, as an approach, ecolinguistics combines the language study with ecology (lindo and bundsgaard (ed), 2000:40). they added that ecolinguistics studies as a whole which includes the three dimensions, namely sociology, biology, and ideology (bang and door, 1993; steffensen, 2007) which is adopted in this study. the following is the table of the social dimension proposed by bang and door (1993) of human communication, consequently, this dialogue becomes the smallest unit of text analysis. interpretation was conducted through utterances, sentences, words or morphemes which are related to dialogical background which involved four constituents; speaker, hearer, object of the speech and anonymous. the three dimensions include 1). ideological dimension which refers to the individual and collective mental, cognitive, ideological and psychic system; 2). sociological dimension refers to the way how people make interaction with other elements in environment and to maintain the collective relationship; 3). biological dimension refers to collectivism and coexistence between human being and other elements of environment (lindo and bundsgaard (eds); 2000). in line with it, stibbe (2015) argues that ecolinguistics focuses on the interconnection and interdependence among all the system, including economy, social, religion, culture, linguistics and eco-system. focus on ideology, it is understood as the view of how world was in the present and how it will be in the future shared by human beings altogether in a certain groups in society (stibbe, 2015). analysing ideology basically concerns to the critical discourse analysis as proposed by fairclough (1993) and van dijk (1995). fairclough (1993) comes with the argument that critical discourse analysis focuses on the three elements; the text, discourse practice and sociocultural practice. while, van dijk (1995) comes with the idea that critical discourse analysis is ideology analysis with three parts, they are social analysis, cognitive analysis, and discourse analysis. both two theories of critical discourse analysis refer to the general discourse and general issue. keraf (2002) states biocentrism and cosmo-centrism view nature as having the right to ethical treatment, regardless of its value to humans. it suggests that nature should be protected as a place of residence for humans. adopting a biocentric perspective helps us recognize that humans are an integral part of nature, encouraging responsibility, respect, and care for life’s continuity and sustainability in the universe. (keraf, 2002). accordingly, ideological discourse is divided into (1) destructive discourse, as economical discourse, advertisement, magazine about life style, and also agricultural industry, (2) ambivalent discourse, in which it has two opposite natures, in one side it gives benefit to the environment, and the other side it harms the environment, the figure 1. model of three dimension of social praxis (bang & door, 1993) figure 1. explains that language becomes the unity of the dimensions that is language and the three dimensions of environment cannot live apart. dialogue is regarded as the smallest unit devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 302 zoo discourse. this discourse refers to ecological conservation, however it also hurts the animals that those are separated from their habitats, and (3) beneficial discourse as vacuum cleaner advertisement with the announcement money buys happiness. this ad tells that life is not only a matter of clean and tidy but also a matter of lough, cry, love and dance. thus, use quick click tool to save you from spending too much energy and time, and you can enjoy your time and day. ecosophy is derived from the acronym of ecological philosophy which was first introduced by arne naess (1995, in stibbe, 2015). it contains the meaning of values, norms and wisdom which relate to ecology. ecosophy describes a set of principles of philosophy which consider much to ecology. the concept of ecosophy in this study refers to the concepts proposed by stibbe (2015), namely to consider the interaction between human being and other species, and human and physical environment to keep and support their lives. ecological consideration here means that ecolinguistics bases its contribution to culture; local or global, namely (1). to contribute cooperatively, (2) the concept of sharing, (3) democratic dialogue, (4) peace and without discrimination, (5) equality in every level of life, and (6) ecological sustainability. however, principles, values, norms and wisdom of ecosophy from a certain discourse will be determined by the researcher herself. thus, the concept of ecosophy is able to be the indicator to criticize and to check the available utterances from the ritual as the destructive, ambivalent or constructive texts. various articles are aimed to explore ideology from a discourse, however the theories used were different from that of in this study. the study written by horvart accessed from www.cs.columbia. edu, observes speech of barack obama (former american presient) horvat’s study aims to see the persuasive strategies proposed by obama, and also the ideology contained in his speech. horvart’s study is based on norman fairclough’s thought in critical discourse analysis. fairclough (1993) states that a discourse is a social practice. another research which observed ideology is conducted by yazgan and utsku (2017),that is a research which aims to study the online news about gang wars in copenhagen, denmark. this research observes discriminative aspects of the discourse of online news which bases on the analysis model of critical discourse proposed by van dijk. this research exposes that the online discourse has a perspective of anti-immigrant, which affects to raise the ideology of racism, marginalisation, exclusion and negative social capital. the research concludes that it has a capital to persuade public ideology through language. however, the research conducted by astawa (2018) aims to explore the ideology in the discourse of awig-awig text (bali customary law). astawa’s research is based on the ecosophy concept proposed by stibbe (2015). the concept refers to whether the discourse comes with beneficial or preservative, destructive or ambivalent ideology. the awig-awig has an important role to maintain and bring the preservative ideology which is required to be promoted. in the global context, various studies that link utterances or discourses with ecology or the environment have been conducted. some of them are bhattacherjee and sinha (2021) did on jataka tales (buddha stories) to reveal the environment philosophy, stibbe (2007) did an analysis of the representation of animals, plants, and nature in japanese haiku as the manifestation of life, zang and he (2020) explored the dynamic relationship between human beings and their living place. furthermore, various local types of research relating to environmental issues have also been conducted (genua et al., 2018; yuniawan, 2017; mantiri and handayani, 2018). the analysis of ideology in this study is aimed to seek for the answer of what ideology is exposed behind the utterance of traditional fishing ritual khanuri la’ot and does the ideology encourage people to preserve or in contrast destroy the environment (especially marine environment). the traditional fishing ritual in the acehnese speech community has been known as khanuri la’ot. this ritual is actually led by a commander of the sea, known as panglima la’ot. khanuri la’ot is understood as the existence of lingual performance in a set of ritual activity relating to fishing. the lingual performance in this ritual is dominantly spelled by the panglima la’ot. the performance is recognized as unique that it contains utterances relating to the ecology or environment through the lexicons, or the texts, as: [1] //.ta tron u la’ot ta kalon bintang…// when go fishing, first please see the condition of weather devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 303 [2] “geumeuhoi petuah geumeuhoi pawang” we ask some advises from the knowledgeable person. [3] “awakkah di ek keno lam pukat. meuikot-ikot mandum syedara, yang ladum ureung wahe oh rakan” hai all my relatives, come on to the boat with full of people. the above texts were evaluated as the cognitive understanding of the speech community, which shows the relationship between members of the community and the environment, which includes social, biological, and ideological or spiritual environment. the research aims to fill the gap in empirical evidence by answering the following questions. firstly, the study seeks to identify the types of ideological discourse that are present in traditional texts related to fishing rituals. secondly, the research examines how ecological preservation is interpreted and applied in these texts. by answering these questions, the study hopes to provide valuable insights into the traditional practices of fishing communities and their beliefs about environmental sustainability. ii. method the research design used in this study is a qualitative method with a phenomenology approach creswell, 1998). applying the approach, the research is focused on the description of every phenomenon that existed during the research in the social and cultural community, which was taken from the experience and actualized in the form of utterances spoken by the members of a particular speech community. the researcher then described all the responses from the respondent’s experience texturally and structurally. under consideration of setting, actor, event, and process, the site location of this research was determined to be conducted in a fishermen village name lampulo, located in kuta alam district, banda aceh municipality. gampong lampulo is a central place of fish market and sanctuary in banda aceh, aceh indonesia. additionally, various cultural festivals are always held in this area. those statements become the reasons for choosing lampulo as the location of this field research. the data were gathered through observation when the event of khanuri la,ot took place. all the visuals and audio were recorded during the event. the interview was conducted with five respective and knowledgeable respondents. they participated in giving their cognitive understanding of the object of analysis. the data used in this study were in the form of lexicons, sentences, and speech with cultural context. then, the data were analyzed by following the steps offered by stibbe (2015). first, the set of prototyped text collected was analyzed based on the linguistic features. the linguistic features used were the lexicons (as a pronoun, modality, and so on), the relationship among words, transitivity, assumption and presupposition, how events and participants were performed, intertextuality, and also genre and figure of speech as well. all the multimodal elements bound to the data were also analyzed to reveal the meanings attached to them. next, the ideology revealed from the linguistic features and multimodal elements was compared to the concept of ecosophy, whether it is opposed to the concept or stands side by side. based on this indicator, it can be identified whether the utterances will preserve the environment or destroy it. iii. result the function and meaning of ideology in a language environment should have related to the mental of individual, collective, ideological, and also psychological systems (lindo and bundsgaard (ed.) 2000: 11). fairclough’s statement that ideology in general perspective shows how a group of community tries to get support from the public, and how other groups are marginalized through language and particular grammatical structure. however, ideology based on a critical eco-linguistic perspective is understood as the basic ideas that can be a guide to the human mind and behavior as the agent of life to support environmental conservation or to destroy it in contrast. this study analyses ideology from the critical eco-linguistic perspective of stibbe’s version (2015), which states that ideology does not focus on finding the correct or wrong ideology, but to reveal the ideology of the community taken from the text whether it lives in harmony with ecosophy or stands aside with it. in relation to this study, the results show that the ritual utterances produce the ideology reflection. some of them reflect the preservation of the environment. however, the ritual also produces the ambivalent ideology through utterance. devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 304 iv. discussion from the results of the analysis, the ritual revealed the interactions, interrelationships and interdependencies that occur between the acehnese fishing community and their environment. referring to the eco-linguistic perspective, the targeted environments arre the natural environment, the social environment and also the spiritual environment. from the results of the analysis, the utterances contain preventive meanings and ideologies in those three environmental domains. the relationship that exists both vertically and horizontally is an effort to preserve and maintain the surrounding environment where the speech community lives and interacts. this is done in order to create a harmonious relationship between the speech community and its environment. ideology of preservation from the field observation, the recorded utterances spelled by the panglima la’ot were recognized containing meaning and ideology of preservation referred to the three domains, namely natural, social, and spiritual domains. when the text was attended closely, it contained the substance to preserve the environment, which can be seen as follows. ideology of natural environment preservation interaction, interrelation, and interdependence in the acehnese community with the natural environment were dominantly seen in the daily life of the community in the research location. the natural environment and resources, including the biotic and abiotic, deliver the stories we live by that are played by the members of the community by showing high respect for them. respect is delivered for having all the resources to fulfill the need to support life. the effort to preserve and assist the natural environment becomes one of the local wisdom of the acehnese ethnic. the quotation speech from the panglima la’ot below shows the meaning and ideology, which refers to the natural preservation dimension. [4]. //lon peusan kepada seluruh nelayan…bek peubeut yang hana diizinkan oleh pemerintah…bek pukat harimau, bek bom, bek bius bek potas…// “ i advise to all the fishermen…do not do anything prohibited by the government…no trawl, no bom, no drug, no potassium…” the commander, as the text producer, thinks that the sea environment should be kept in a good way. fishermen can take benefit from the sea, like fish, but the environment should be preserved. the verb peusan “advise”[4] is used to precede the imperative verb bek “negation” to give polite request, instead of using the imperative verb directly. even the meaning reflected in the discourse is a very strong prohibition. this is the acehnese culture that they often use a refined diction or word to instruct someone to do something. the ideology of natural preservation identified here is that the text producer prohibits not to the use of illegal tools for fishing because it can damage everything living under the sea, including all kinds of fish and coral reefs, which can have a bad impact environmental ideology utterances meaning ideology of preservation natural environment preservation lon peusan kepada seluruh nelayan… bek peubeut yang hana diizinkan oleh pemerintah…bek pukat harimau, bek bom, bek bius bek potas i advise to all the fishermen…do not do anything prohibited by the government…no trawl, no bom, no drug, no potassium. social environment preservation meunyo jak u la’ot, bek na sengketa, bek na karu//…//bek kaem eungkot ata kawe ureung ta cue ta paso ata tanyo if going fishing, please avoid quarrel, fighting, don’t take other fish. spiritual environment preservation oh watee geujak geulake do’a bak sidro tuhan. geupeusijuk rijang geuteupong tawa deungon seugera when we go fishing, don’t forget to pray for god by conducting a ritual. ideology of ambivalence tulong, meunyo tamong u sabang sesuai deungon adat istiadat sabang, meunyo tamong u lhokseumawe sesuai deungon adat istiada lhokseumawe//…//maka nyan sesalu kamo imbau dan adat istiada gampong gob, jadi kita menghormati leubeh dari segalagalanya please, if you enter sabang, adjust to sabang customs, if you enter lhokseumawe. according to lhokseumawe customs... then we always urge you to obey the customs of other people’s villages. so we respect more than anything table 1. environmental ideology marine ritual discourse of acehnese speech community devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 305 on environmental preservation and sustainability. by using language as the power to control the damage, the commander has given a ban to everybody who goes fishing. the text is in the form of clause bek pubeut yang hana diizinkan oleh pemerintah, bek pukat harimau, bek bom, bek bius, bek potas. [4]. the lexicon bek delivers the meaning of strong prohibition. by uttering the lexicon bek, the commander as the text producer prohibits the fishermen as the recipients to do the illegal way of fishing which can harm the sea life. the wrong deed will also have an impact on human beings as members of a particular community. furthermore, by uttering this clause, the commander actually offers the hope of keeping and maintaining the environment of the sea’s sustainability. it is in line with the eco-linguistic parameters and principles of ecosophy in which the text can be categorized as a beneficial discourse. besides, the ideology of natural environment preservation is also revealed in the text. the text gives the order to keep and protect the environment of the sea and all that live in it in order that the next generation is still able to get the merit from it. [5] //sesuai deungon yang kana cara penangkapan eugkot nyan kah geu yue, ngon nyan ta mita raseuki, seubab nyan untuk masa depan aneuk cuco geutanyo..// “it is in accordance to the ways to catch the fish which were guided by the ancestor and government officially, with this way we make a living, cause it is to our children and grandchildren (next generation)” the passive verb geu yue [5] becomes the central lexicon, which delivers the meaning that the ancestor has given the guide on how to get the fish and how to live in harmony with the sea. it shows the wisdom of the local community. the ideology revealed from the quotation above [5] is included in natural preservation, which can also be categorized as a beneficial discourse of ecosophy. ideology of social environment preservation based on the social dimension praxis, the traditional fishing ritual also contains the ideology of maintaining reciprocal relations from human to human. this relationship is developed to give a comfortable feeling from both sides. the human being, as social creature, needs interaction, interrelation, and interdependence with another human. this relationship is shown in the following quotation: [6] //meunyo jak u la’ot, bek na sengketa, bek na karu//…//bek kaem eungkot ata kawe ureung ta cue ta paso ata tanyo//…// seubab nyan yang ta ba u aneuk ngon inong//…//meunyo geutamong gampong gop, sesuaikan ngon adat istiadat, lapor bak syahbandar//… “when we go fishing, avoid to make problem with other fishermen…do not steal other’s fishes and keep them to ours, because those we will bring to our family,…when we enter other’s village, follow the rule, and let the syahbandar know” the sentences bek na sengketa, bek na karu [6] are imperative sentences showing the prohibition to all fishermen not to make problem with others. the commander thinks that it is a must to keep good relation one another so that all human beings can live in peace and harmony. the imperative sentence bek ata kawee ureung ta cue ta paso ata tanyoe [6] has the core meaning that fishermen are prohibited to do a wrong deed which can harm other fishermen. the negation forms bek na sengketa, bek na karu, and bek cue are identified as lexicons that refer to an environmental preservation in the social dimension. the other quotation shows how a man as the leader of a family, a father and husband, should behave a good manner toward the members of the family, as follows: [7] //…nyan yang ta ba u aneuk ngon inong, nyan mesti yang get-get, meunyo dari phon ta bie yang get, inshaallah aneuk pih jadeh get, menyo yang brok, jadeh brok…/// //…that (what we bring from the sea) what we bring and give to our children and wife, it must be the good one. god’s shake, the children will become the good one in the future…. if we give the bad, it becomes bad…// the above quotation delivers an ideology to create a harmonious life in the family. he thinks that a good life can be achieved if the food or meals fed to the family are from a good source. the good life here means all the members of the family live healthy physically, mentally, and also behavior or attitude. small problems will potentially create disharmonious life among the members of the family. the above quotation also explains the responsibility of a father and husband as the leader of a family. the responsibility is on his shoulders to give the good one to the family. the ideology reflected from the quotation is that the father’s responsibility to the family is also to live under the cultural and spiritual rule. the quotations [6] and [7] present the devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 306 the beginning, adat is not about cultural heritage, but more as a government system. however, the whole acehnese government system should be based on islamic teaching. in this context, most of the ulama’s opinions or justifications were referred to as hukum (law) (see bustamam & ahmad, 2017). that is why the role of ulama is very important. the figure of ulama is commonly analogized by the name of syiah kuala, who was very famous and outstanding in aceh in the past. in line with the above, all the dimensions reflected in the ritual discourse are actually based on the close relation between humans, in this context, the commander of the sea and also acehnese fishermen, and the god, the lord of the universe. the islamic teaching, the dominant religion followed by acehnese, reflects the ways of life, that it contains the reciprocal relationship between human beings and the natural environment, and between human beings and the social environment. the relationship between human beings and the spiritual environment covers all other relationships, as the commander said: [9] //wal adabu faqral ilmu//…// adab nyan yang utama, daripada ilmu// “the manner is more important than the knowledge” the above speech uttered by the commander proves that the relationship among human beings and with various domains of the environment should be put first the adab (manner), whether it is with nature, other social creatures, and also with the creator. adab brings to itself a positive meaning. acehnese believes and has cognitive knowledge that when adab is adopted in people’s lives, they will live in peace and harmony with nature, social relations, and, of course, with the lord of the universe. it is in line with the ecosophy concept that the ideology reflected in the speech belongs to beneficial discourse. ideology of ambivalent even it is not examined obviously, but also it is still recognized implicitly that some lines of the speech offer the ambivalent meaning, as said by the commander: [10] //adat istiadat gampong gop//…// setiap daerah yang keuneuk tamong//…//ta hormati lebeh dari segala-galanya// “when we come to other’s village, we have to put high respect more than everything” in this utterance, it is examined that it reminds the audiences to behave in a good manner when description that the commander thinks that it is a must to keep the harmonious relationship between the fishermen with other fishermen and fishermen with their families. the ideology of spiritual environment preservation. from the spiritual dimension of human relation to god, the creator of the universe, the acehnese community shows a high respect to the lord of the universe by conducting a fishing ritual. this ritual is performed to express gratitude to god for the bounties of the sea, which sustain life. this relation can be examined from the following quotation [8] //…la’ot jih han tem kuto//… //la’ot jih ek yang getget// “the sea does not want something dirty”… “ the sea likes something clean” the sea here is actually the metaphorical expression that refers to the place gifted by the lord of the universe. this gift should be maintained and preserved in order to give human beings benefits to the next generation. the above clause [8] reflects that there is a god above us who controls what we do and will give reward and punishment based on our deeds. the commander, as the text producer, thinks that a sea is a clean place. thus, it only welcomes all the clean things, the clean thoughts, the clean heart, and also the clean deeds. those who come to this place should bring cleanliness. the commander thinks it needs to keep the sea clean, that it will be possible to generate the benefit of the sea to the next generation. the ideology reflected in this quotation is the spiritual relationship between human beings and the creator. the relationship should be maintained by the members of the acehnese community, especially the fishermen. this is the preventive action in order that a clean sea can support life. the cleanliness and the sustainability of the sea should be maintained as the ancestor being addressed. the other quotation shows how acehnese always base everything in their life on their faith, that is, islamic rule. in the case of fishing activity, they will start fishing by praying. they do fishing by following the rules based on the holy qur’an and sunnah, as reflected in acehnese proverb adat bak peuteumeureuhom, hukom bak syiah kuala. it delivers the meaning that culture is customary based on the ruler (king or sulthan at the time). in devi pratiwy / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 307 they enter other’s domain, especially the culture. people should put high respect the local costumes, as presented by the verb format, “put respect.” it brings a positive meaning. however, this utterance also emphasizes the respect we offer to other cultures more than everything. it is seen that we have to leave our culture behind, as presented by the phrase lebih dari segala-galanya “more than everything”. ideologically, it brings two sides of coin, first it delivers the beneficial discourse. on the other side, at the time, we have high respect for other cultures, and it harms our own culture. the ecosophy concept includes such kinds of discourse as ambivalent. interpretation of ideological preservation in the text in this facet of analyzing text, it is identified that the speech from panglima la’ot (the commander of the sea) as text producer is full of advice directed to the fishermen in the fishing community in the aceh area. the advice is presented by the lexicon peusan “advise” at the very beginning of his speech. by referring to the acehnese culture, it shows that it is a local wisdom that performing a persuasive utterance, by constructing a polite or refined sentence is more acceptable in acehnese people and culture. then, the imperative sentences used by the text producer were constructed by the lexicon of negation bek. this lexicon occurs in every part of instruction to maintain all the environmental dimensions. the ideology of environmental preservation occurs dominantly in the text. however, the ambivalent discourse still occurs in the text, in which it still contributes to environmental preservation on one side and affects environmental damage on the other side. when we refer to the acehnese culture, environmental preservation actually has happened as the traditional wisdom in which the cognitive traditional knowledge has been generated from one generation to another. it is proved by the presented lexicon geu yue ”be ordered”. it is understood that the order has been directed by the ancestor, and the knowledge has been generated. it is obvious that the destructive text is absent in the discourse. it is due to that the ritual is loaded with local wisdom. it was the ancestors’ way of respecting nature, the cultural elders’ way of preserving it. v. conclusion theoretically, the lingual forms used to construct the ritual discourse spelled by panglima la’ot (the commander of the sea) produce three forms of environmental preservation: natural preservation, social preservation, and spiritual preservation. the effort of preservation is not least as to keep life running in peace and harmony. however, a new empirical fact found in the field is that the spiritual dimension dominantly covers all aspects of life. in other words, the spiritual dimension is regarded as the umbrella that governs the other dimensions: natural and social. it is proved that the relationship between acehnese fishermen and the environment in which they live is ruled by islamic rule (god’s rule), and so is the relationship between acehnese fishermen and other social creatures. the discourse presented in the traditional fishing ritual has values accepted by the concept of ecosophy, namely constructive or beneficial discourse. however, an ambivalent value at once occurs in the text. acknowledgment the authors would like to express their gratitude to prof. dr. aron meko mbete from universitas warmadewa for his great contribution of eco-linguistic knowledge and discussion to this research paper. the graceful thanks are also delivered to prof. mulyadi, m.hum, and dr. dwi widayati, m.hum, for their great contribution to methodology and manuscript writing. 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(2020). human-nature relationship in experiential meaning: transitivity system of chinese from ecolinguistic perspective. journal of world languages. 6:3, 217-235, https://doi.org /10.1080/21698252.2020.1819519 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 94 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this study investigates the realisation of the refusal speech acts addressed by the native speakers of tanjung tanah (tj. tanah) dialect of kerinci to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. twenty-five native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect; 10 males and 15 females whose ages between 19 to 26-year-old were selected to be research participants. data were collected by means of an open role-play. then, the role-play’s data were transcribed and were classified according to the taxonomy of the refusal strategies formulated by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). the results showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect employed two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to refusal. in addition to this, they made different frequency of the semantic formulas when declining the wish of the interlocutors of different social status. mostly, they made higher frequency of ‘reasons’, direct ‘no’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘elaborative reasons’ to the interlocutors of high and low social status. in contrast, they made higher frequency of direct ‘no’, ‘reasons’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘persuasion’ to the interlocutors of equal social status. clearly, the social status of the interlocutors affects the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. keywords kerinci dialect, refusal strategies, role-play, speech act, sociopragmatics correspondence e-mail: mar@siswa.ukm.edu.my article the realisation of the refusal speech act in tanjung tanah dialect of kerinci marniati1, mohammad fadzeli jaafar2 1,2linguistics department, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, bangi,malaysia 1. introduction communicating with one another is a vital part of people’s lives. most of people communicate to express their thoughts, give orders, share ideas and provide information (mowlana, 2013). this activity takes place in different contexts, involves people from different social backgrounds, and happens among interactants of different social relations (holmes, 2017). nevertheless, this activity cannot simply be seen as how people utter a ‘true’ sentence to give apprehensible meanings rather than as how people reveal a meaningful action through their utterances. for this reason, this activity is argued as the way people express speech acts, e. g, thanking, inviting, apologising, giving a command, making a request, and stating a refusal (austin, 1962; nelson, 2002; felix-brasdefer, 2008). these speech acts are universal and are present in every language. however, the realisation of these speech acts are denoted as contextually distinctive because they are greatly influenced by social factors and socio-cultural norms such as speech contexts and situations, social status of interlocutors and the traditions of a society (moaveni, 2014; morkus, 2009). furthermore, among the types of the speech acts, a refusal is presumed as one of the prevalent occurrences, which reveal the discrepant exchanges between two communicative interactants. since the last three decades, much attention has been given to the production and to how this speech act has been expressed chiefly against a request, an invitation, a suggestion, and an offer (al-kayed, al-zubi, & al-kayid, 2020; živković, 2020). subsequently, the speech act of refusal is denoted as culturally distinctive because it is expressed differently in different language and culture (felix-brasdefer, 2003; nassar, saad, & nordin, 2020). in addition to this, the speech act of refusal is assumed as a negative response (abuarrah & lochtman, 2019; received: july 20, 2022 final revision: october 10, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.94-106.2022 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 95 sattar, lah, & suleiman, 2011; siebold & busch, 2015). also, it is considered as a conflict trigger as some potential misunderstandings are often discernible throughout its offensive occurrences (beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz, 1990). for this reason, the refusers might soften the force of their refusal illocutions. to this end, some degree of indirectness may occur (houck & gass, 1996). remarkably, the use of particular modalities in the realisation of the refusal speech acts can be described as the realisation of the refusal strategies. to date, the realisation of the refusal strategies has been studied from different contexts, in different languages and cultures, and in different speech communities. nonetheless, most of the previous studies tended to look at the realisation of the refusal strategies from the perspective of cross cultural pragmatics. for examples, nassar et al. (2020), al-shboul & maros (2020), moafian, yazdi, & sarani (2019) and wijayanto (2019). meanwhile, other studies focused on how the language learners performed the refusal strategies in the target languages such as hashemian (2021), nurjaleka (2020) and hariri & moini (2020). these studies found that the cultural norms of speakers greatly governed their native, and simultaneously influenced their target language’s refusal. driven from these findings, it is clear that every language has its own native refusal strategies. therefore, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in one language can be deemed as a significant research aim. however, some of the monolingual studies on the refusal strategies have previously been conducted. among them, felix-brasdefer (2006) examined the linguistic components of refusal and politeness strategies by male speakers of mexican-spanish both in formal and in informal situations. sattar, che lah, & suleiman (2010) investigated the orders, the frequencies and the contents of semantic formulas of refusal strategies expressed by native speakers of iraqi arabic. triana & aman (2011) investigated the realisation of refusal strategies made by the youngsters of minangkabau in west sumatera, indonesia. izadi & zilaie (2014) investigated the refusal strategies expressed by iranian speakers of persian. however, these studies only investigated the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, english, mexican-spanish, persian, and minangkabau. although minangkabau is a regional dialect of indonesia, it has officially been recognised as the standard language of minang (antoni, irham, & ronsi, 2019). this means that the refusal strategies in non-standard dialects have almost not been investigated. driven from this fact, this current study investigates the refusal strategies in tanjung tanah dialect (henceforth tj. tanah dialect) of kerinci. the refusals are considered because of their defiant nature in which performing ‘appropriate’ refusals require ‘appropriate’ strategies. likewise, the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is chosen due to its non-standard regional dialect category. specifically, it is a variant of the kerinci dialect; the kerinci dialect originates from a malayo-polynesian variety of malayic, a branch of the austronesian language family spoken in kerinci regency. thus, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci enables this study to present more recognisable novelties in the studies of the refusal speech acts. furthermore, as this study employs the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci, its main objectives are set to discover the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect in the context of declining an offer, a request and an invitation from the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. the findings of this study are expected to be recognisable novelties of the pragmatics studies of speech acts in general and of the sociopragmatics studies of refusal speech acts in particular. in addition to this, the results of this study will make important contributions to the enrichment of linguistic inventories mainly on the types and patterns, and on the varieties of the refusal strategies in one of the non-standard dialect variants of kerinci. 2. methods research design this study is typically a quantitative research. specifically, this study implemented a survey design, which is also referred to as a descriptive design (edmond & kennedy, 2017). this design provides a quantitative description of trends, behaviours, attitudes, or opinions of a population marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 96 (creswell & creswell, 2018). in this procedure, researchers gather numerical or quantitative data and statistically analyse the data to generate the final outcomes (creswell, 2011; mills & gay, 2019). in this present study, the descriptive design was implemented to analyse the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. then, the refusal strategies produced by the participant were grouped and transformed into numerical data for further computation. later, the amount the refusal strategies produced by the participant were analysed quantitatively using descriptive statistical analysis. participants the participants of this study were purposively selected based on two main criteria. firstly, they were the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. secondly, they were the undergraduate students of universities/colleges in indonesia whose age between 19 – 26 years old by the time of data collection. based on these two main criteria, 25 native speakers of tj. tanah dialect who met the criteria were selected to be the participants. they were 10 males and 15 females who were born and grew up in tj. tanah, speak the tj. tanah dialect, and were the first up to the final year undergraduate students of public universities and colleges in kerinci, palembang, jambi, bengkulu and in west sumatera. for the purpose of data collection, each participant was coded using an ‘r’ that stands for ‘respondent’ followed by his/her sequence roleplay’s turn. for example, ‘r01’, which is read as ‘the respondent 01’. however, gender of each participant was excluded from the coding. instruments the primary data collection instrument of this study was an open role-play adapted from the discourse completion test (dct) by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). however, some modifications were made to suit with the scope and the design of this study. later, this role-play instrument was assessed by a linguistics expert from department of linguistics universiti kebangsaan malaysia. the assessment resulted that this roleplay contained three initiating acts and three social variables within nine role-play situations. these nine role-play situations contained an act of refusing an offer, a request and an invitation from an interlocutor of high, low and equal social status. the contexts of the role-play were set up to be the interpersonal communication between the interactants of close social distance but they were different in term of social status. based on this particular context, the refusal strategies intended for this study were expressed by a person of low to a person of high social status (low-to-high), by a person of high to a person of low social status (high-to-low) and by a person of equal social status (equal-to-equal). the brief scenarios of this roleplay are disclosed in appendix. procedures the role-play performances were held at a multi-purpose hall in tj. tanah village of kerinci. the participants were invited to perform the role-plays at different times. each participant was required to fill a form prior to performing the role-plays. this form contained some demographic profiles such as age, gender and background of education. later, he/she would sign a consent letter attached on the form. after that, a role-play scenario written in english was handed to the participant and he/she was required to comprehend the contents of the scenario such as the context of the interactions, the initiating acts, the social status he/she was going to ‘role-play’, and the social status of the interlocutor he/she was going to engage with. to help to the participant to comprehend the contents of the scenario, the researchers would verbally translate them into bahasa indonesia followed by a verbal translation into the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci. then, the participant was informed that the role-plays would take several turns and would be audio recorded. due to this matter, he/she was advised to perform the refusal strategies as he/she always does in his/her real life. analysis the verbal data obtained from the role-plays were transcribed on the basis of the international phonetic alphabet (ipa) following the work of salmani-nodoushan (2006). this work was selected because there were no standard orthographic transcription systems of the tj. tanah dialect, which could be a reference. based on salmaninodoushan (2006), the characters included into the transcriptions represented the sound produced by the participants. likewise, the characters marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 97 included into the transcription of these role-plays represented the sound produced by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. then, the corpus of data were sorted based on semantic formulas. this semantic formulas can be a form of words, phrases, or sentences, which meet a particular semantic criterion or strategy (cohen, 1996). later, each semantic formula was coded using the initial ‘h’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of high, ‘l’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of low and ‘e’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. after that, this code was placed next to the participant’s codes and his/her sequence numbers followed by a dash and the sequence numbers of the semantic formulas he/she had expressed. for example, ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t) is read as ‘the semantic formula 01 was expressed by participant 07 to an interlocutor of high social status’. next, the categories of the semantic formulas were determined based on the taxonomy of the refusal strategies by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). finally, the descriptive statistical analysis was performed to obtain the final outcomes. 3. results the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the direct and the indirect refusal strategies, and the adjuncts when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. these three refusal strategies yielded twenty semantic formulas, which were two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to the refusals (the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies were written in square braket). the direct refusal strategies contained direct [no] as in ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’,‘r01h-16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’ (no) and [negative willingness] ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t). the indirect refusal strategies contained [apology] ‘r12h-12 mintek maaf yea: lah’ (i’m so sorry), [reasons] ‘r06h-18 akau sibuk nyan’ (i’m so busy), [elaborative reasons] ‘r10h-12 akau pun (..) deksea knoh angai dek, bisea jadi:: penyakait’ (i can’t get through the wind, can be disease), [conditional acceptance] r06h-02 klok dkeat boleh lah (.) (if it is near, i can), [future acceptance] ‘r24h-03 slagin, mauh koh’ (next time, i want), [principle]‘r19h-20 akau lah sudeah janjei duleu’ (i have promised), [lack of empathy] r04h-14 dək ikao adeo teah! (are not you there!), and [critic] ‘r05h-02 tmpek nih jeuh nian dək’ (this place is very far away). other indirect refusal strategies were [request for understanding] ‘r01e-51 yeu dək usah lah dək’ (please, don’t. i’m begging you), [persuasion]‘r16e-67 apao yaseo yea. ikao yea lah’ (take it easy, do it yourself, [alternative]‘r04e-54 tau akau meli ngan baheu’ (let me buy a new one), [indefinite reply] ‘r11e-52.2 tao lah kau ngatao’ (i will tell you later), [inquiring further information]‘r17l-40 minggu dateh?..’ (next week?), and [lack of enthusiasm] ‘r04e-67 akau maleah nyan akau tibeo’ (i’m so lazy to come). meanwhile, adjunct to refusals appeared in form of [positive opinion] ‘r08h-35 akau sebenae nyan mbao::h, tapi’ (i wan’t, but…), [empathy]‘r03e-53 dək apao lah..’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] ‘r08h31 we:h’, and [solidarity reference] ‘r02e-64 ilaok lah kawa’ (you are better). table 1. the frequency of the semantic formulas the refusal strategies h l e f f f no 58 53 55 negative willingness 44 38 41 apology 25 37 17 reasons 65 54 46 elaborative reasons 46 46 24 conditional acceptance 17 20 16 future acceptance 10 17 10 principle 22 31 13 lack of empathy 28 24 31 critic 31 24 12 request for understanding 13 28 27 persuasion 26 24 39 suggestion of alternative 13 11 15 indefinite reply 23 15 20 request for further information 15 20 28 lack of enthusiasm 44 17 23 positive opinion 23 26 14 statement of empathy 10 12 39 pause fillers 32 35 25 solidarity reference 37 13 22 total 582 545 517 furthermore, the results of descriptive statistical analysis showed that the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made different frequency of the semantic formulas when addressing the refusal marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 98 strategies as presented in table 1. specifically, an ‘h’, ‘l’ and ‘e’ placed on the first right colum of the table 1 stand for the social status of the interlucutors namely ‘high’, ‘low’ and ‘equal’. meanwhile, an ‘f’ placed on the second right colum of the table 1 stands for ‘the frequency distribution’. meanwhile, the percentages of each semantic formula of the refusal strategies were presented in the table 2. table 2. the percentage of each semantic formula the refusal strategies h l e % % % no 10.0% 9.7% 10.6% negative willingness 7.6% 7.0% 7.9% apology 4.3% 6.8% 3.3% reasons 11.2% 9.9% 8.9% elaborative reasons 7.9% 8.4% 4.6% conditional acceptance 2.9% 3.7% 3.1% future acceptance 1.7% 3.1% 1.9% principle 3.8% 5.7% 2.5% lack of empathy 4.8% 4.4% 6.0% critic 5.3% 4.4% 2.3% request for understanding 2.2% 5.1% 5.2% persuasion 4.5% 4.4% 7.5% suggestion of alternative 2.2% 2.0% 2.9% indefinite reply 4.0% 2.8% 3.9% further information 2.6% 3.7% 5.4% lack of enthusiasm 7.6% 3.1% 4.4% positive opinion 4.0% 4.8% 2.7% statement of empathy 1.7% 2.2% 7.5% pause fillers 5.5% 6.4% 4.8% solidarity reference 6.4% 2.4% 4.3% total 100% 100% 100% based on the table 1 and 2, the total semantic formulas revealed from this study were 1644. 582 of them were addressed to the interlocutors of high social status, 545 others were addressed to the interlocutors of low social status, and 517 of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. evidently, the highest numbers of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and finally the interlocutors of equal social status. specifically, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of high social status were the [reasons] 11.2%, followed by the flat [no] 10%, [elaborative reasons] 7.9%, [negative willingness] 7.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 7.6%, [solidarity reference] 6.4%, [pause filler] 5.5%, [critic] 5.3, [lack of empathy] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.5, [apology] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 4.0%, [positive opinion] 4.0%, [statement of principle] 3.8%, [conditional acceptance] 2.9%, [inquire further information] 2.6, [statement of alternative] 2.2%, [request for understanding] 2.2%, [future acceptance] 1.7% and the least refusal strategies was [statement of empathy] 1.7%. likewise, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of low social was also the [reasons] 9.9%, followed by the flat [no] 9.7%, [elaborative reasons] 8.4%, [negative willingness] 7.0%. nevertheless, the next semantic formulas fell to the statement of [apology] 6.8%, [pause fillers] 6.4, [principle] 5.7%, [request for understanding] 5.1%, [positive opinion] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.4%, [lack of empathy] 4.4%, [critic] 4.4%, [conditional acceptance] 3.7%, [request further information] 3.7%, [future acceptance] 3.1%, [lack of enthusiasm] 3.1%, [indefinite reply] 2.8%, [solidarity reference] 2.4%, [statement of empathy] 2.2% and the lowest one was [alternative] 2.0%. in contrast, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed the interlocutors of equal social status was direct [no] 10.6% followed by [reasons] 8.9%, [negative willingness] 7.9%, [persuasion] 7.5%, [statement of empathy] 7.5%, [lack of empathy] 6.0%, [require for further information] 5.4%, [request for understanding] 5.2%, [pause fillers] 4.8%, [elaborative reasons] 4.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 4.4%, [solidarity references] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 3.9%, [apology] 3.3%, [conditional acceptance] 3.1%, [suggestion of alternative] 2.9%, [positive opinion] 2.7%, [statement of principle] 2.5%, [critic] 2.3% and the least semantic formulas fell to the [future acceptance] 1.9%. based on these descriptive statistical results, the frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies made by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect were dissimilar. in addition to this, the frequency of similar semantic formulas expressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutor of different social status were also different. nonetheless, these marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 99 differences were obtained on the basis a comparison made among the percentages of similar semantic formulas addressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status as showed in figure 1. the figure 1 showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the highest frequency of the direct [no] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and the interlocutors of low social status. a similar situation occurred when they addressed the [negative willingness]. these similarities showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect tended to be more direct to the interlocutors whom they shared similar rather than to the interlocutors of the opposite social status. concerning to the indirect refusal strategies, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect made the highest frequency of [apology] to the interlocutors of low rather than to the interlocutors of high and equal social status. in the similar contexts, they made the highest frequency of [reasons] to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. interestingly, they also opted for the [elaborative reasons]. precisely, the highest frequency of these extended reasons were addressed to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to interlocutors of equal social status. this can be assumed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently lengthened their reasons to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to the interlocutors whom they share similar social status. furthermore, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the [conditional acceptance] to the interlocutors of low followed by the interlocutors of equal and high social status. a similar situation happened when they made the [future acceptance]. in contrary, they addressed the highest numbers of [principle] to the interlocutors of low compared to the interlocutors of high and equal social status, and comfortably made the highest numbers of [lack of empathy] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest frequency of [critic] to the interlocutors of high, and low rather than to the interlocutors of equal social status. in contrary, they made the highest frequency of the [request for understanding] to the interlocutors of equal and low rather than to the interlocutors of high social status. they also persuaded the interlocutors. yet, the highest frequency of [persuasion] was addressed to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the [alternative] was another strategy employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to justify their refusals. based on the figure 1, they addressed the highest numbers of the [alternative] to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. whereas, they made the highest numbers of the [indefinite reply] to the interlocutors of fig. 1. the percentage of each semantic formula marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 100 high and equal, followed by the interlocutors of low social status. moreover, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made the [request for information]. specifically, the highest frequency of this strategy was addressed to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of low and high social status. meanwhile, they addressed the highest frequency of [lack of enthusiasm] strategies to the interlocutors of high rather than to the interlocutors of equal and low social status throughout their refusal exchanges. in the light of adjuncts, they native speakers of tj. tanah dialect mostly addressed the highest frequency of the [positive opinion] to the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutor of high and the interlocutors of equal social status. beside this, they also expressed the statement of [empathy]. predominantly, the [empathy] was address to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of low and high social status. furthermore, they also postponed their refusal exchanges through some [pause fillers]. obviously, these [pause fillers] occurred when the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect declined the wish of the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutors of high and equal social status. as well, they also made the [solidarity references] alongside the refusal strategies. as showed on the figure 1, this last adjunct was mostly addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. to sum up, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed similar types but diverse frequency of the semantic formula of the refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. 4. discussion previously, the single language studies of the refusal speech act tended to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, americanenglish, british-english, mexican-spanish, persian and minangkabau language. as the results, the diversity of the refusal strategies of the standard languages have frequently been the predominant novelties of the refusal speech act studies meanwhile the variation of those strategies in the non-standard dialects are left unobserved. to fill this gap, this study investigates the refusal speech act in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci and reveals that the realisations of the refusal strategies in this non-standard dialect are more varying. the remarkable varieties take place on the types and on the frequency of the semantic formulas employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the semantic formulas to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. meanwhile, the least numbers the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. the different in the amount of the semantic formulas prove that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently negotiated or perhaps mitigated and lengthened their refusals when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high and low rather than the wish of the interlocutors of equal social status. driven from these facts, the researchers claim that the social of the interlocutors affected the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. this claim is in line with chen (2019) who said that the variety of the refusal strategies occurred because of the social factors and the contextual influences in which the interactants would employ various strategies to suit the situation. furthermore, other observable varieties take place on the types and the categories of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies. in the light of the direct refusals, there are five direct [no] appeared across the role-plays. these [no] are ‘r06l-03 dæk ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’, ‘r01h16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’, ‘r14e-37 mekgeh’ and they are always expressed in different situations. specifically, ‘dæk’ was frequently expressed at the beginning or after the participants received the interlocutors’ messages meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ frequently occurred at the intense level of refusal negotiations. based on these situations, the researchers assume that the single ‘dæk’ is a spontaneous or, perhaps, a negotiable [no] meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ appear to be an unnegotiable one. this means that, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed ‘dækdæk’ to genuinely decline the wish of the interlocutors. beside this, ‘dendæk’, ‘dəksəa dək’ and ‘mekgeh’ are the other types of the direct [no]. specifically, dendæk’ and ‘dəksəa’ were expressed alone or followed by ‘dək’ marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 101 while ‘mekgeh’ was frequently expressed as ‘mek’. remarkably, the particular use of these [no] proves that the tj. tanah dialect has its own diverse direct refusal strategies. unfortunately, the equivalent variation of these [no] have never been revealed in the previous studies of the refusal speech acts including in the works of felix-brasdefer (2006), satter, che lah, & suleiman (2010), izadi & zilaie (2014). another type of the direct refusal strategy in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is the statement of the [negative willingness]. for example, ‘r02h-29 akau deak’ (i will not). nonetheless, the performative pattern ‘i refuse’ as suggested by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), moafian et al., (2009) and bella (2014) do not appear in the role-plays. the absent of this ‘performative’ leads to the conclusion that the native speakers of the tj, tanah dialect do not say ‘akau nulak’ (i refuse) when performing the direct refusal. equally, the predominant occurrences of the non-performative [no] and the [negative willingness] justify that these two semantic formulas are the only direct refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect. in the light of the indirect refusal strategies, there are three different categories of [apology] revealed in the role-plays, which are all marked by ‘maaf’ (sorry). the first ‘maaf’ followed by ‘yealah’ as found in ‘r06h-20 maaf yea lah’ (sorry). the second one is preceded by ‘ntək’ as found in ‘r14l-29 ntək maaf (want/intendedly sorry)’. whilst, the third one is followed by a long and deep expression of ‘nia:n/nyan’ as in ‘r14e-50 maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise). specifically, ‘maaf yea lah’ was expressed after the participants received the interlocutors’ message. thus, it can be assumed as a common apology. likewise, ‘ntək maaf’ was also expressed the way of ‘maaf yea lah’. however, it belongs to the category of the intended apology as ‘ntək’ means ‘want’. ‘maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise), on the other hand, occurred after the constant realisation of ‘maaf yea lah’ and ‘ntək maaf’. evidently, this third ‘maaf’ is a regretful apology as the word ‘nia:n/nyan’ following ‘maaf’ implies the participants’ repentance as well as their attempt to seek a forgiveness for declining the wish of the interlocutors. driven from these facts, it is clear that there are three categories of [apology] in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci that represent the indirect refusals. the first one is the common apology, the second one is the intended apology and the third one is the regretful apology. nonetheless, regardless of its categories, expressing an apology is an appropriate way to mitigate the refusal exchanges (al kayed et al., 2020) beside this, there are two different categories of the reasons occurred in the role-plays. the first [reasons] are shorter and more general as in ‘r02h-04 akau (.) banyeak lao ngan ndək akau weat siko neh’ (i have a lot of things to do here). often, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed these [reasons] to provide general excuses. another one is the [elaborative reasons] as in ‘r07l-45 akau pun adeo jadwal lain, diubeah lao nanti jadwal lain pun kelam kabeut jadi den’ (i have another schedule, changing this one will ruin up another one). in comparison with the [reasons], the [elaborative reasons] are longer and more complex, contain complete information including the statements of cause and effect. interestingly, the [elaborative reasons] resemble ‘elaboration on the reasons’ revealed by (kwon, 2004). frequently, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [elaborative reasons] to validate their [reasons]. furthermore, the use of the [reasons] and the [elaborative reasons] throughout the roleplays prove that native speakers of the tj. tanah attempted to emphasise appropriate strategies throughout their refusal exchanges. the possible reason is that, the appropriate refusal strategies can stand as the conflict avoidance (wang, 2019). due to this matter, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect obviously emphasise appropriate refusal strategies to avoid dissension and conflict. furthermore, the [conditional acceptance] is another indirect refusal strategy revealed in the role-plays. particularly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed this strategy to convince the interlocutors about their ability to fulfil the wish of the interlocutors if the wish fits certain condition. for examples ‘r08e-91 kalok dæk banyak gawe mbaoh akau pgin’ (if i don’t have lots of job, i will go) and ‘r06l-49 dæk sibuk mbaoh koh gin’ (not busy, i will go). similarly, the [future acceptance] also occurs in the role-plays multiple of times. in contrary, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed this strategy to marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 102 show their inclination in fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors at certain course of time in the future. for examples, ‘r07h-28 slagin yealah’(next time) and ‘r12e-70 tauh rateh pulao gin (next year, i will go). interestingly, the [future acceptance] resembles the future possibility in the work of moaveni (2014). this similarity is an observable evidence, which shows that some of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect resemble those in the standard languages. moreover, the [principle] as in ‘r03l-32 akau jenh akau lah’ (i just want my schedule, the statement of [lack of empathy] as in ‘r04e69 maleah akoh’ (i’m not impressed) and the statement of [critic] as in ‘r02l-54 ikao neh lah salah jadwal’ (you offered the wrong schedule) also were also revealed in the role-plays. remarkably, these three indirect refusal strategies look more oppressive and can be assumed as ‘the offensive formulas’ although the defiant nature of these strategies are more endurable than the direct [no] and the statement of the [negative willingness. mostly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [principle], [lack of empathy] and [critic] to show their ‘self-rule’ of standard conduct, detachment and resistant. through these strategies, they did not state but inexpressively required the interlocutors’ understanding of their declination. besides that, the [request for understanding] as in ‘r05h-16 gayeu lah wo’ (please understand me), [persuasion] as in ‘r02h-19 kalok prato ilaok lah kayao lah prato’ (if delivering a speech, you are better), and [alternative] as in ‘r01h-12 ilaok lah nalek ha lai’ (better you find another one) also appear in the role-plays. unlike the previous ones, these indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as more ‘delicate rather than offensive’. they were employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to convince and perhaps compel the interlocutors to reconsider their wish, encourage the interlocutors to frame the possible solution and offer the interlocutors the possible way out by means of refusals. in addition to this, the [indefinite reply] as in ‘r11h-20 manan ji yeah?’ (what could i do?), [request for further information] as in ‘r02l-46 minggu rateh neh?’, and [lack of enthusiasm] as in ‘r01h-20 akau dæk ugeo tenga dæk’ (i’m not dare) also appear in the roleplays. the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed these strategies to provide obscure, bewilder, and despondent returns. these three last indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as ‘the counterfeiting responses’ because participants pretended to be dispirited to avoid fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors. in the respect of the adjuncts, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci address the [positive opinion] as in ‘r17l-30.2 ilaok lao tapi’ (it’s good, but…), the statement of [empathy] as in ‘r03e-53 dək apao lah...’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] as in ‘r01e-61 eh:’. these three adjuncts are similar with the original and the modified version of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the works of beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), kwon (2004), and moafian et al., (2019). beside this, [solidarity references] is the last adjunct revealed in the role-plays. this adjunct is the realisation of personal pronoun of the tj. tanah dialect alongside with the refusal strategies such as ‘kayao’, ‘kawa’ (you) and ‘kantai’ (i). on the basis of the role-plays data, ‘kayao’ was frequently addressed to the interlocutors of high social status [l to h] by means of showing a respect or a recognition of the interlocutors’ higher social position. ‘kawa’ was frequently employed by the interactants of close social distance by means of showing a recognition of equal social position between them. whereas, ‘kantai’ was employed the interactants regardless the social status of the interlocutors. in brief, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect used these adjuncts to show respect and to recognition particular social status and distance with the interlocutors throughout the refusal exchanges. 5. conclusion the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed similar types but different frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, they addressed the highest percentages of the indirect refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. in contrary, they addressed highest frequency of the direct refusal strategies to the interlocutors of equal social status. adjuncts to the refusal, on the other hands, were equally addressed to the interlocutors of all social status. marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 103 furthermore, some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies revealed in this study are the new findings. meanwhile, some others are similar with the original theory and the resemble the findings of the previous works. this can be concluded that some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect are distinctive and have its own forms and patterns. whilst, some others are similar with those of the other languages. however, this study only investigates the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect addressed to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status using the role-plays data. for this reason, further studies should be performed to generate more extended outcomes. thus, the next researchers are highly recommanded to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in two or more dialects using natural occuring data from perspsective of universal or discursive politeness theory. therefore, the novelties of the studies of the refusal speech act will be more expandable. references abuarrah, s., & lochtman, k. 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(2011). refusal strategies in english by malay university students. gema online™ journal of language studies, 11(3), 69-81. siebold, k., & busch, h. (2015). (no) need for clarity -facework in spanish and german refusals. journal of pragmatics, 75, 53-68. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2014.10.006 triana, h. w., & aman, i. (2011). lakuan tutur menolak generasi muda minangkabau: cermin budaya marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 105 popular dalam interaksi sosial. gema online™ journal of language studies, 11(1), 17-34. wang, q. (2019). a comparative study of gender differences in refusal strategies from english majors. theory and practice in language studies, 9(8), 1040-1048. wijayanto, a. (2019). refusals in javanese and english: a comparative study of saying ‘no’ in two different cultures. online submission (50), 1-23. živković, e. (2020). variation in refusal strategies produced by english and serbian speakers. studia neophilologica, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393274.2020.1780939 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 106 appendix appendix 1. brief scenario of the role-play initiating acts no. scenario social status of refusee offer 1 declining a job promotion offer from a manager. high 2 declining a perfume discount from a staff low 3 declining a new book offer from classmate equal request 4 declining a speech delivery request from a leader of an organisation. high 5 declining a student’s request to change the teaching hour low 6 declining a request of becoming a master of ceremony from a colleague. equal invitation 7 declining a seminar invitation from a professor high 8 declining a wedding invitation from a staff. low 9 declining a birthday invitation from a close friend. equal appendix 2. the modified version of the refusal framework by beebe at al. (1990) direct refusal indirect refusal adjunct to refusal no apology positive opinion negative willingness reason statement of empathy elaborative reason pause fillers conditional acceptance solidarity reference future acceptance principle lack of empathy critic request for understanding persuasion suggestion of alternative indefinite reply request for further information lack of enthusiasm fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 138 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 15, 2023 final revision: july 14, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 this study aims to describe the values of local wisdom in the takneul oral tradition of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara from a metaphorical ecolinguistic perspective. this research is a qualitative research with a simplified spradley ethnographic approach for collecting data researchers using interview techniques. in this study, ethnographic approach will be simplified in a series consisting of four stages, namely 1) determining informants, 2) interviewing informants, 3) conducting ethnographic interview analysis, 4) analyzing components. simplification of these steps is carried out as a simplification without reducing the effectiveness of ethnographic research. the data used in this study are classified into two types, namely primary data and secondary data. primary data obtained based on the results of interviews with relevant sources. secondary data was obtained based on texts related to the traditions of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara and oral tradition poetry texts in the bunak language given by research sources. based on the results of data analysis it was found that there are three values of local wisdom in the takneul oral tradition of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, namely 1) great values related to sadness or lamentation, 2) great values related to consolation or humor, and 3) great values related to love and affection. keywords local wisdom values, oral traditions, metaphorical ecolinguistics, the bunak people correspondence e-mail: belebelebau@gmail.com article local wisdom values in the ‘takneul’ oral tradition of the bunak tribe of east nusa tenggara: a metaphorical ecolinguistic study fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau1, r. kunjana rahardi2 1,2 fkip, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.138-148.2023 i. introduction local wisdom is a part of life that is carried out around the social community, especially traditional in this modern era. local wisdom is associated with a way of life and life strategies in the form of activities carried out by local people in responding to various problems in meeting their needs. (njatrijani, 2018). in short, local wisdom is a socio-cultural order in the form of knowledge, norms, regulations and community skills in an area to meet common needs which are passed down from generation to generation. (hidayati, 2017). the stages of tradition inheritance which are carried out without the need for written form as the main means of inheritance characterize the oral tradition based on its form. one form of oral tradition that still exists today is poem. oral tradition that uses poem is still often found in indonesian society, especially in regional communities that still maintain their cultural authenticity. the people of east nusa tenggara have a familiarity with this oral tradition in their traditional life. for the people of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, rhymes are not only used as entertainment, but are used as a means of education, and instilling the virtuous habits contained therein. poem or ‘pantun’ in the bunak language is known as kawen go’ and will be used in the tradition of reciprocating poem called takneul. the value of this local wisdom can be realized based on traditions in society that reflect various values of life. oral tradition is a form of expression of local values of cultural wisdom (melati & rahardi, 2022: 108). one form of tradition that exists today and can be used in studies in language lectures is the oral tradition. oral tradition is a form of cultural wealth that exists fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 139 in indonesia and is still being developed by some people in certain tribes. tradition can be termed as inheritance given by ancestors from generation to generation to their successors in various forms such as materials, principles, and symbols (rofiq, 2019), while verbal refers to the use of oral media or directly conveyed as an effort to convey a tradition (sibarani, 2015) various forms of knowledge, traditional ceremonies, customs, traditional laws, works of art, ethics, moral values and social values that are passed down from the predecessor community or ancestors to their successors which are carried out dynamically are referred to as oral traditions. oral traditions are knowledge, customs, works of art, customary laws, traditional literature; handed down orally; live in the aesthetic context of history, social structure and organization, philosophy, ethics, moral values; and sustainable in a dynamic cultural process (banda, 2016). based on this definition of oral tradition, it can be concluded that oral tradition is the cultural heritage of the predecessors that was handed down from generation to generation which was passed on orally. in line with opinion (anwar, 2020) that oral tradition is the achievement of community and society which is handed over to their successors from generation to generation. the current younger generation tends to be indifferent to their traditions and cultural environment due to more attractive technological developments. in accordance with the opinion of (nahak, 2019) the mental and moral damage of the nation’s people is caused by globalization and technological sophistication that are currently impacting the society. culture the language and culture of the indonesian people are always developing in accordance with the needs of the world. there are factors related to the needs of the community who really want change. the element of globalization has begun to control various elements in indonesian society and has begun to erode understanding of indonesian local culture. the values of local wisdom are always present in humans and will never disappear regardless of technological advances that have penetrated every aspect of people’s lives. (rahardi, 2020: 16). this research was carried out using the view of the ecolinguistic approach as a reference and more in-depth results regarding the study of language and the environment in the form of culture. based on the ecolinguistic view, speech is built based on interaction, interrelation and interdependence with the environment (lubis & widayati, 2021: 82). ecolinguistics is part of linguistics which provides a study of the position of language by loading elements of context with its relationship based on the culture in society. ecolinguistics is a mixture of two sciences, namely ecology and the science of language. by applying ecolinguistics, we are able to analyze linguistic phenomena contained in ecological phenomena in society. according to haugen in (subiyanto, 2013) language ecology is the study of the interaction of language and its environment. this interaction between language and the environment gives rise to various meanings of language that can only be found in certain environments. metaphorical ecolinguistics is an interdisciplinary study that examines the relationship between language and the social and cultural environment (haugen, 1972). the concept of connectedness between language and the environment relates language to social and cultural life based on habits, customs, characteristics of certain communities. the social aspect in ecolinguistic studies uncovers and questions testimonies and stories of life in society, and examines linguistic frameworks and structures with the aim of finding new forms of language that can inspire people to prevent ecological damage (mliless et al., 2021: 133). this study uses other studies that have been carried out as references and comparisons with a total of three studies. the first research conducted (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021) with the title “metaphorical ecolinguistic study of local wisdom values of manggarai traditional wedding ceremonies, flores, east nusa tenggara” the purpose of this research is to describe the local wisdom values contained in the traditional wedding ceremony of the manggarai people, flores, east nusa tenggara. the results of this study indicate that local wisdom in the traditional manggarai wedding ceremony is tangible and intangible. the second research conducted (helmon & nesi, 2020) with the title “local wisdom values in the traditional speech of torok wuat wa’i of the manggarai community: metaphorical ecolinguistic studies”. the purpose of this study is to describe the value of local wisdom in torok traditional speech, especially in the wuat wa’i traditional ritual which is still being carried out by the manggarai people. the results of this study found the values of local wisdom contained in torok’s utterances in the form of values of love, hard work, religion, and fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 140 solidarity. the third research that has been carried out by rhanda syeptian mardika, sarwit sarwono, and amril canrhas (mardika dkk., 2019) with the title “reciprocal tradition of bengkulu community traditional marriage pantun”. in research shows that the oral tradition of poetry that is reciprocated has noble values, namely socialization, aesthetics, religion, culture and history, among descendants in the bengkulu community, especially in the district penurunan and sawah lebar. based on the introduction and theoretical study, the formulation of the problem in this study can be determined, namely what local wisdom values are contained in the takneul oral tradition in the bunak tribe community, east nusa tenggara from an ecolinguistic perspective. by paying attention to the formulation of the problem, the objectives of this study can be formulated, namely to describe the values of local wisdom contained in the takneul oral tradition in the bunak tribe community, east nusa tenggara from an ecolinguistic perspective. thus it is the hope of the researcher to be able to produce a study of the values of the takneul oral tradition of the bunak people of east nusa tenggara. it is also the hope of the researcher that this research will be able to take part in preserving the local wisdom values of tribes in indonesia which have begun to be forgotten. ii. methods this research is a qualitative research using an ethnographic approach. ethnography is a habit or action to study another culture (spradley, 1997). ethnography has a goal as an effort to understand the mindset and point of view of an indigenous cultured community to get a picture of the life of that community (spradley, 1997). spradley classifies the steps of enthographic research into 12 steps, namely 1) determining informants, 2) interviewing informants, 3) making ethnographic notes, 4) asking descriptive questions, 5) conducting ethnographic interview analysis, 6) making domain analysis, 7) submitting structural questions, 8) make taxonomic analysis, 9) ask contrast questions, 10) make component analysis, 11) find cultural themes, 12) write ethnography. in this study, these steps will be simplified in a series consisting of four stages, namely 1) determining informants, 2) interviewing informants, 3) conducting ethnographic interview analysis, 4) analyzing components. simplification of these steps is carried out as a simplification without reducing the effectiveness of ethnographic research. these simplified steps are then detailed according to their use in the research process. the first step to determine the informant, researchers contact sources related to this research topic. the informants or informants from this study were two people who were considered to meet the criteria for providing information based on the research topic, namely traditional leaders of the bunak tribe and members of the bunak tribe who had carried out the takneul oral tradition. after determining and ensuring the willingness of informants to provide information related to research, then the researcher will then conduct interviews according to research needs. the stages of the interview were carried out between the researcher and the informant assisted by someone who is fluent in indonesian because the informant was not fluent in indonesian. at this stage of the interview, the researcher has prepared questions to be asked to the interviewees. the step of asking descriptive questions is carried out by asking several questions according to the research topic. interview analysis was carried out by sorting the results of the answers given by the informants and analyzing them according to research needs by taking into account existing written secondary data sources. component analysis was carried out by looking for content of meaning related to local cultural content of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara. the final step is to write an ethnography based on the findings according to the research topic. the stages of ethnographic or cultural writing are related to the language described by the research informants. this research was conducted by interviewing traditional leaders of the bunak tribe who understand the form and meaning of takneul. iii. result based on the stages of data collection supplemented by existing references, the researcher can describe that language and the cultural environment are parts that can be studied continuously. by using ecolinguistic viewpoints, parts of the cultural environment have a close relationship with the uniqueness of the language of a particular community and complement each other’s roles. takneul local wisdom owned by the bunak people, east nusa tenggara is a form of cultural phenomenon in the form of language with environmental content in its application. fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 141 duranti, 1997). the medium for distributing culture is language. according to kramsc in (astrea, 2017) there is a connection of language, culture, to or based on the human mind. language, culture, the human mind and the environment are interconnected and if studied in a study with a focus on language skills will result in a change in various activities, especially in the field of indonesian language education. for the people of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, rhymes are not only used as entertainment, but are used as a means of education, and instilling the virtuous habits contained therein. poem or pantun in the bunak language is known as kawen go’ and will be used in the tradition of reciprocating rhymes called takneul. usually the bunak people apply this tradition to a series of spontaneous burial customs while consoling the grieving family. pantun or poem is considered special compared to other folk poetry because the meaning of pantun is relatively easy to understand (mardika et al., 2019). the tradition of reciprocating rhymes in the culture of the bunak people is carried out orally using written sources (poets’ notes) and verbally (spontaneously) with the delivery of meaning that is easily accepted by the surrounding community. takneul oral tradition is carried out by systematically two people exchanging rhymes alternately whose contents are adapted to the surrounding conditions with a specific purpose. the bunak tribe is still carrying out various kinds of traditional ceremonies. one of the traditional ceremonies that uses the takneul oral tradition in a series of events is the traditional funeral ceremony. in the traditional funeral procedures for the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, reciprocating rhymes often begins with one person reciting the rhyme orally and then being answered by another person according to the context of the rhyme recited at the beginning of the rhyme. the process of reciprocating rhymes is carried out during the night vigil at the funeral home and will usually be carried out until morning. pantun or kawen go’ in the bunak language contains various forms and meanings in habits and ethics when communicating with the bunak people who describe the daily life of the people in the environment around the bunak people. kawen go’ is spoken verbally, people who see and hear the implementation of this oral tradition are able to interpret what is conveyed by the person who recites the rhyme. apart from being used as a communication medium, kawen one of the region in indonesia that still maintains the preservation of traditions and culture in the form of food, traditional clothes, dances, traditional houses, offerings, and oral traditions (rhymes, poems, poetry and mantras) is the east nusa tenggara region. the people of belu district, east nusa tenggara consist of various tribes that have different cultures and traditions. one of the largest tribes that inhabit belu district and its surroundings is the bunak tribe. the bunak tribe is known as a tribe that is closely tied to ancestral lands and traditions passed down from generation to generation. tradition is the legacy of the ancestors which is passed on to their successors from generation to generation in various forms which can be classified into policies, symbols, objects or agreements (rofiq, 2019). the life of the bunak tribe community is carried out with various traditional ceremonies and traditions, starting from someone in the womb, birth, before adulthood, maturity, death, and after death. the bunak people are not used to documenting traditions through writing, so all forms of inheritance of values, norms, hereditary history, and traditions are passed down from generation to generation orally. tradition inheritance techniques are carried out by repeating narratives and practices to the bunak tribal lineage. the bunak people preserve their oral traditions because they are not used to conveying traditions in written form. one of the oral traditions that is often carried out is the tradition of reciprocating rhymes which in the local language is called takneul. the term for the traditional chanting of the bunak people is called takneul. this tradition is an oral tradition that expresses rhymes in regional languages with various meanings and adapts them to certain events. this oral tradition is still being preserved by its owners, namely the people of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, as evidenced by the many uses of the takneul oral tradition in traditional events. the environment greatly influences the contents of takneul because people adapt what they see, hear, or feel around them and finally it is poured in the form of a hereditary tradition which is carried out orally. a person’s language in everyday life is closely related to the environment in which they live and local culture. culture is manifested based on human reason and then passed on to the next generation in various ways and based on aspects of the cultural environment. culture is knowledge that can be distributed socially (alessandro fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 142 go’ which is used in reciprocal performances also has aesthetic, ethical, religious values that describe the environment in which local people live. in detail, takneul is a tradition that is part of traditional customs which is packaged in the form of performances that contain cultural values and beauty in communication. pantun or poem is the main means of carrying out the takneul oral tradition, especially rhymes in regional languages. there are various forms of pantun used in the takneul oral tradition. the various forms of pantun are classified based on time, place, importance and environment for the implementation of the oral tradition, following the forms of takneul: 1) forms of entertainment. pantun is a form of expression that functions as a medium that functions as entertainment (handayani et al., 2014). takneul form of entertainment has a function as entertainment to entertain grieving families and guests who attend the traditional funeral procession of the bunak people. 2) a form of sorrow or lamentation. pantun or poem is a form of art that is sung in the traditional funeral ceremony for the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara. pantun or poem used will have nuances of sadness, mourning or lamentation. lamentation is a term that contains an atmosphere of sadness shown by someone because their family has left their family. grief rhyme is a type of rhyme that presents a form of sadness with its contents based on the bitter experience that humans usually experience. leaving the family does not only refer to the state of death, but can also refer to the condition of the family having to go a long distance and leave the extended family for a long time. 3) humorous form. in this form, the pantun will give more funny poems and invite people around to laugh. pantun can be used as a means to give a statement of a matter which consists of feelings and expressions in the heart consisting of pleasure, hate, including humor (nauliyanti & anwar, 2021). 4) forms of love and affection. in this form, the rhymes will provide more love stories in the rhymes. in line with opinion (sung & bin hussein, 2020) which classifies one form of traditional rhymes related to functions and forms that address issues of love and affection. one of human nature is to have a sense of love and belonging to each other. in line with opinion (handayani et al., 2014) pantun is a form of expression that has a function as a means to humanize humans. based on the findings that have been obtained in the data collection stage, a research discussion section can be formulated in the form of a classification of local wisdom values in the takneul oral tradition of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara. iv. discussion the takneul oral tradition is a form of cultural wealth that exists in indonesia and is still being preserved by the bunak people, east nusa tenggara. in line with opinion (melati & rahardi, 2022: 108) that oral tradition is a form of expression of local values of cultural wisdom. the study of oral traditions in an ecolinguistic perspective contains elements of language, culture and environment. the environment becomes part of the oral tradition carried out by humans. according to haugen in (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021) the environment influences human existence in the form of the physical universe environment and the socio-cultural environment. the sociocultural environment is an environment that contains human interaction with social relations that are patterned according to habits in a particular environment. in this research, the socio-cultural environment is in the form of oral traditions carried out by the bunak people with cultural and social values. in line with opinion (helmon & nesi, 2020) the metaphorical ecolinguistic view is used to see the relationship between the use of adat in the utterances of a traditional ceremony or tradition with the socio-cultural environment of a particular local community. one form of tradition that has a connection between language and the socio-cultural environment is the oral tradition of reciprocating rhymes or poems. the oral tradition that utilizes the form of poem or in the bunak language is called takneul, of course, has various forms which are classified based on the values contained in the ceremonies, habits, surrounding environment and customs of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara. the form of rhyme used in various traditions of the bunak people is not only fixated on one type. the following is a classification of the local wisdom values of the takneul oral tradition based on the form of takneul in various traditional ceremonies of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara. the takneul oral tradition is an oral tradition that utilizes rhymes sung at certain events by the bunak people, east nusa tenggara. one function of the fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 143 rhyme is as a means of entertainment. pantun is a form of expression that functions as a medium that functions as entertainment (handayani et al., 2014). this entertainment function is used to entertain grieving families and guests present at the funeral procession. of course the entertainment that is sung in the takneul oral tradition is chosen based on entertaining elements but still at a level that is not excessive because it is feared it will spoil the mourning atmosphere. the takneul oral tradition contains noble values that have been handed down from generation to generation among the people. this noble tradition continues between the environment and the lives of its people to this day. the following are the noble values contained in the takneul oral tradition. great values associated with sorrow or lamentation poem or pantun in the takneul oral tradition is a form of art that is sung in the traditional funeral ceremony for the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara. according to (mardika et al., 2019) oral tradition is not the same as spoken language, but has broader forms and functions in oral communication. pantun is used to distinguish oral traditions from spoken language that is commonly used in everyday communication. one of the elements of pantun used in oral tradition is the function and value contained. poem used will have nuances of sadness or lamentation. lamentation is a term that contains an atmosphere of sadness shown by someone because their family has left their family. leaving the family does not only refer to the state of death, but can also refer to the condition of the family having to go a long distance and leave the extended family for a long time. young people from the belu community are also familiar with the term wandering and usually with the aim of studying or looking for work. the following is an example of rhymes in the takneul oral tradition in the form of sorrow or lamentation. the following is an example of a sorrow or lamentation form kawen’go used takneul tradition. kawen go’: hani imil susar… neto asusar ni’ oa… menal eto tuen na tebe gie… pan nawal sain si nare ta’… gloss: do not be sad… i won’t bother anymore... when are you coming home... now is the season of slamming bones... cultural context: the data above is part of the takneul oral tradition which is sung in traditional funeral ceremonies to provide comfort to the families who have been left behind. the bunak people have a habit of letting their children migrate to find work elsewhere. parents who let their children wander have a deep longing to be able to meet their children and be reunited as a whole family. these two sentences are pantun excerpts which consist of two sentences which are classified as accompanying sentences and body sentences in bunak language. if interpreted, this poem in bunak language can be interpreted as a consolation sentence for someone who is forced to leave his family to earn a living in another area far from his family. in line with opinion (mardika et al., 2019) that reciprocating rhymes is not only for entertainment, but has educational and advisory value. the example of the pantun above also contains parents’ advice to their children to occasionally go home to visit family. the family begins to feel sad in the form of longing for their family members. this advice is used as a guideline by the bunak people who are far from their families. in line with opinion (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021) that existing local wisdoms contain meanings and values that are used as guidelines for the community that owns the tradition. the great value related to sadness or lamentation is marked by the sentence “hani imil susar” which shows a sad atmosphere that can be felt by the person who recites the rhyme or those who hear it around. the similarity between this research and previous research is the background of the research. local culture or traditions are starting to fade and are starting to be forgotten by the younger generation of indonesia (helmon & nesi, 2020: 60). the application of noble values related to sadness or lamentation is also starting to be forgotten by today’s generation of people. in line with previous research owned by (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021: 15) regarding local wisdom values that local values fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 144 a means to express a matter consisting of feelings and inner expressions consisting of pleasure, hate, including humor. the following is an example of a humorous form of takneul. kawen go’: ate eteke’ bu pana koen… ita rein tan ji… tomobel homobe halali… il o hoto goet… gloss: looking at you from afar beautiful woman… getting closer like a snake… if they like each other … like water and fire… cultural context: the data above is part of the takneul oral tradition which is sung in traditional funeral ceremonies to provide consolation to families who have been left behind in a humorous form and with the aim of inviting laughter. the environmental area where the bunak tribe lives, east nusa tenggara is still rich in exotic and ferocious fauna that is still sustainable and well maintained. the nature or character of this wild animal is described in humans who are considered to have similarities in their lives. the environment and the natural surroundings provide inspiration for the culture of the bunak people. the sentences that make up this poem are quotations that can be divided into sampiran sentences and body sentences in bunak language. in line with opinion (mardika et al., 2019) one of the functions of reciprocating rhymes is as an art of entertainment by inserting satire and humor. if interpreted rhymes in the bunak language, this has the meaning of a limerick in the form of satire sung by someone to the nature of a woman who looks beautiful from the outside, but whose nature is fierce and terrible, like a snake that is considered wild. the form of consolation is presented by using sentences that invite laughter in the form of ridicule such as “ita rein tan ji” which describes the nature of a woman who looks like a beast even though she looks beautiful. regardless of the limitations of the field in contained in a custom or community habit are starting to be forgotten by the current generation, there is even an assumption that cultural heritage only needs to be known by parents. in carrying out the takneul oral tradition, sometimes young people are involved in exchanging rhymes because basically this tradition involves men (mone) and women (pana) who have been trained or chosen by the family to reciprocate rhymes. even though it sometimes involves young people, the number of enthusiasts is still very small and it is increasingly being forgotten because it is less interesting than the sophistication of technology. while in research (mardika dkk., 2019: 117) regarding the tradition of reciprocating rhymes in bengkulu wedding customs, the actors are only customary stakeholders or community leaders and should not be carried out haphazardly. this is what links and distinguishes this research from previous research, namely both arising from the lack of participation or interest from young people, but in the takneul oral tradition, young people are still given opportunities to participate even though they have to go through special conditions and training. the findings from this study also provide an illustration that rhymes that are entertaining can also be performed in a form that is sad or lamentative. great values relating to entertainment or humor poem in the takneul oral tradition is a form of art that is sung in various traditional ceremonies of the bunak tribe. the oral tradition of takneul or reciprocating rhymes at certain events for the bunak people of east nusa tenggara. the takneul tradition uses language in utterances that link language and the socio-cultural environment of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara. in line with opinion (helmon & nesi, 2020) that metaphorical ecolinguistics can be used to see the relationship between the use of language in the form of speech with the socio-cultural environment of certain communities. this relationship can be seen based on the values and functions contained in the takneul oral tradition. one function of the rhyme is as a means of entertainment. love rhymes are a form of entertainment that is different from the form of humor. in this form, the pantun will give more funny poems and invite people around to laugh. in line with one form of poem according to (nauliyanti & anwar, 2021) pantun is used as fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 145 this study regarding metaphorical ecolinguistics, this research contains differences from previous research related to the content of ecolinguistic studies naturally related to language and the environment, in line with the opinion (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021: 13) natural ecolinguistics is a field of language related to the natural environment. this natural environment is used in local language rhymes to interpret the environmental conditions of the people living in this example describing the preservation of nature so that sometimes you can still find wild wild animals such as snakes. metaphorical ecolinguistic studies contain elements of language that reflect the social and cultural environment of a particular society (helmon & nesi, 2020: 61). the culture of the bunak people is reflected in the discovery of noble values related to entertainment or humor to convey the value of people’s lives in funeral ceremonies not to continue to be sad when leaving their beloved family. the social and cultural values in the pantun are conveyed in a flexible local language, meaning that it can be understood by various groups in a language that does not seem formal. unlike the rhymes used in the tradition of reciprocating rhymes in research (mardika dkk., 2019: 117) who use rhyme related to tradition with an official form from the local government. pantun in the takneul tradition uses images of the social environment or society that can be found in daily activities in informal regional languages, but can still make a deep impression and produce certain great values. great values related to love and affection one function of the rhyme is as a means of entertainment. love rhymes are a form of entertainment that is different from the form of humor. in this form, the rhymes will provide more love stories in the rhymes. in line with opinion (sung & bin hussein, 2020) which classifies one form of traditional rhymes related to functions and forms that address issues of love and affection. one of human nature is to have a sense of love and belonging to each other. in line with opinion (handayani et al., 2014) poem is a form of expression that has a function as a means to humanize humans. one of human nature is the nature of wanting to have and feeling love. the following is an example of kawen go’ in the takneul oral tradition which describes the value or form of love and affection. kawen go’: otol omobel bu nare oa … sasi na sai ni’ on … pana soigol mone en so’at gol… muk o pan goet… gloss: been liking you for a long time… but can’t express… poor man and rich woman… like earth and sky… cultural context: the above data is part of the takneul oral tradition which is sung in traditional ceremonies with the aim of describing the value of love and affection between humans. the bunak tribe still adheres to a parental “blessing” system related to family and ethnic lines. parents play an important role in determining a partner because there is a custom to choose a partner who has a similar degree or social status. social status in the bunak community is not only seen from wealth, but based on lineage or ethnicity which is indicated by the family name. these two sentences are pantun or poem excerpts which consist of two sentences which are classified as accompanying sentences and body sentences in bunak language. if interpreted rhyme in the bunak language, it has the meaning of a love rhyme in the form of seducing people who say the rhyme to the intended other person and expect to get a rhyme in return that has a positive impact and brings an entertaining atmosphere to those around them. an oral tradition consisting of a man and a woman who alternately reciprocate rhymes with the value of love can create an entertaining atmosphere for the audience. in line with opinion (mardika et al., 2019) reciprocating rhymes have a function as entertainment that can make people around who witness can smile. the value of love and compassion that exists in traditional rhymes is also contained in traditional speech. on research (helmon & nesi, 2020: 62) the inculcation of the value of love can be seen through implicit and explicit data quotations that focus on the process of giving and not receiving. the love described in this study is related to romantic relationships. in the example sentence “otol omobel bu nare oa” fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 146 describes the love that has long been felt by a man for this woman. this love is expressed directly to show the noble value of love and affection. this noble value related to love and affection is also related to the environmental and social conditions of the surrounding community which makes the reason for choosing metaphorical ecolinguistic studies as the right choice in this research. metaphorical ecolinguistics is the study of language that has synergy with the social life of society (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021: 13). using a metaphorical ecolinguistic view, this study aims to describe the relationship between language and the life of the bunak people in the form of poem or rhymes. similar to the findings of previous research, that customary speech contains elements of language that reflect the social environment as well as the culture of the mangarai people (helmon & nesi, 2020). the exemplary element of the social environment refers to differences in a person’s degree related to wealth or position so that it becomes a reason for not being able to be together in the context of love. elements of social life can also be seen in the meaning of the pantun as an attempt to teach ethics in speaking in the example of previous research (mardika dkk., 2019: 118). pantun or kawen’go in this study also contains various social life values that can be used as examples in learning and preservation for young people. the various findings in this study are limited based on the values of local wisdom found in rhymes in regional languages or kawen’go in the oral tradition of reciprocating rhymes or takneul of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara. the bunak people have various forms of oral tradition, so it is necessary to give certain limits in pursuing the objectives of the research in a concise manner but with explanations that the general public can understand. in line with previous research that metaphorical linguistic limitations are implemented because any discussion regarding local wisdom values cannot be separated from the social, cultural, and ethnic contexts that contain life values. (sanjaya & rahardi, 2021: 13). with the results of this research, it is hoped that in the future there will be more in-depth research on traditions related to the indonesian language, especially rhymes in regional languages. indonesian people have a wide potential to deepen rhymes in regional languages so that they show their existence, moral values, and beauty for young people who are starting to forget their local languages and are reluctant to preserve their noble traditions. v. conclusion based on the preliminary description, theoretical studies, methods, and discussions that have been presented in the research entitled values of local wisdom in the takneul oral tradition of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara: ecolinguistic studies that have been carried out, the main conclusions can be drawn as follows. the values of local wisdom in the takneul oral tradition of the bunak people, east nusa tenggara consist of three forms, namely 1) great values related to sadness or lamentation, 2) great values related to consolation or humor, and 3) great values related to related to love and affection. the three noble values contained in the takneul oral tradition are described based on sentences that are arranged into a rhyme and sung in traditional ceremonies with specific goals and environmental settings. aware of the many shortcomings that researchers still have in this study, the following describes some of the deficiencies and things that have not been fulfilled. one of the problems in research is reference. the lack of references related to the traditions and language of the bunak tribe, east nusa tenggara, which have not been written down much and must be obtained orally. in understanding the meaning of the poems in bunak or kawen go’ language, researchers should understand the meaning of these poems and then be able to interpret their meaning and meaning based on the results of interviews with sources and written sources, so that researchers obtain a proper understanding of the language conveyed. it is the hope of researchers to present research on the bunak language and contribute to the development of language and culture in indonesia. fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 147 references alessandro duranti. 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(2020). on emblematic meanings of traditional medicinal herbs: local wisdom values in the perspective of culture-specific ecopragmatics. jurnal arbitrer, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.25077/ ar.7.1.16-28.2020 rofiq, ainur. (2019). tradisi slametan jawa dalam perspektif pendidikan islam. attaqwa jurnal ilmu pendidikan islam, 15(2 september), 93–107. sanjaya, f. o., & rahardi, r. k. (2021). kajian ekolinguistik metaforis nilai-nilai kearifan lokal upacara pernikahan adat manggarai, flores, nusa tenggara timur. deiksis: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 7(2), 12. https://doi.org/10.33603/deiksis.v7i2.3283 sibarani, r. (2015). pendekatan antropolinguistik terhadap kajian tradisi lisan. retorika: jurnal ilmu bahasa, 1(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.22225/jr.v1i1.9 fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 148 spradley, j. p. (1997). metode etnografi. pt tiara wacana yogya. subiyanto, a. (2013). ekolinguistik: model analisis dan penerapannya. humanika, 18(2), 1–9. sung, c. m., & bin hussein, m. z. (2020). fungsi pantun melayu tradisional dilihat dari perspektif budaya dan alam pemikiran masyarakat melayu. puitika, 16(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.25077/ puitika.16.1.1--28.2020 biography fransiskus yoga oktavian bele bau, s. pd., was born in bantul, yogyakarta on october 14, 1998. his first education was held at kanisius sorowajan kindergarten in 2004-2005. after graduating from kindergarten, education continued at kanisius sorowajan elementary school in 2005-2011. after graduating from elementary school, he immediately continued at the junior high school level at smpn 2 banguntapan, bantul and graduated in 2014. after graduating from junior high school, he immediately continued at the senior high school level at sman 1 ngemplak, sleman and graduated in 2017. senior high school immediately continues to the higher education level in the indonesian language and literature education study program, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta and graduates in 2021. in 2022 after graduating from bachelor higher education immediately continue education at the masters level in the language and literature education masters study program indonesia. dr. r. kunjana rahardi, m.hum., was born in yogyakarta on october 13, 1966. he serves as the head of master program in the indonesian language and literature education, faculty of teachers training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta. he graduated from the doctorate program of gadjah mada university in linguistics in 1999. the linguistic textbooks during his doctorate tenure are: pragmatik: kesantunan imperatif dalam bahasa indonesia (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2006), asyik berbahasa jurnalistik: kalimat jurnalistik dan temali masalahnya (santusta publisher yogyakarta, 2006), paragraf jurnalistik: menyusun alinea bernilai rasa dalam bahasa laras media (santusta publisher yogyakarta, 2006), dasar-dasar bahasa penyuntingan media [gramata publisher jakarta, 2009], penyuntingan bahasa indonesia untuk karang-mengarang [erlangga publisher jakarta, 2009], menulis artikel opini dan kolom di media massa (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2012), fonologi dalam bahasa indonesia (universitas sanata dharma press, yogyakarta, 2014), sosiopragmatik [erlangga publisher jakarta, 2009 kajian sosiolinguistik kode dan alih kode (revised edition) (ghalia publisher indonesia, jakarta, 2010, 2015), bahasa indonesia perguruan tinggi: mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2010), bahasa jurnalistik: pedoman kebahasaan untuk mahasiswa, jurnalis, dan umum (ghalia publisher indonesia, jakarta, 2010; 2015), pragmatik: fenomena ketidaksantunan berbahasa (erlangga publisher jakarta, 2016), pragmatik: fenomena kefatisan berbahasa dalam perspektif sosio-kultural dan situasional (erlangga, jakarta 2018). he did his thoughts in pragmatics and its interesting sides have been exposed in various nasional and international forums documented in various proceedings and journal articles. he did the research consecutively for five years (in 2013 until 2015 and in 2016 until 2018) on impoliteness in indonesian language and on phatic communion in indonesian language with the grants given by directorate of research and community service, ministry of research, technology and higher education, republic of indonesia. i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 30, 2021 final revision: april 02, 2021 available online: april 25, 2021 the previous studies that describe the phonological system of the isolects and the description of their differing and uniting linguistic features have not yet answered the doubts among indonesian linguists whether or not the proto of sambori-teta (psm-te) were descended from proto austronesia (pan). thus, this article aims to describe the interrelatedness of the two protoes and to describe the types of sound changes from the pan to psmte etymons. this descriptive study applied a comparative method by implementing bottom-up and top-down analysis in reconstructing the psmte. the linguistic features as the evidence of the interrelatedness of the two protoes were identified and analyzed using sound change theories. this study found 1691 (99.35%) definitive etymons of psm-te among 1702 etymons of sambori and teta isolects identified in this study, and the types of sound change from pan to psm-te etymons showed addition, deletion, metathesis, diphthongization, fusion, fortition, lenition, fronting, and backing. the definitive psm-te and the identified types of sound changes can be used as the linguistic evidence to determine that pan descend psmte. therefore sambori and teta isolects reflect psm-te. keyword reconstruction, types of sound change, proto austronesia, proto sambori-teta correspondence e-mail: gede.budasi@undiksha.ac.id articles the reconstruction of etymon proto of sambori and teta isolects spoken in bima regency-ntb-indonesia i gede budasi1 1english language education, universitas pendidikan ganesha, singaraja, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.14-24.2021 i. introduction the subgrouping languages in indonesia, including in bima regency, ntb indonesia, has not yet been done completely though some isolects in the region have been determined as languages. budasi and sudirman (2018) found that bima, sanggar, and kolo isolects were quantitatively determined as different languages of the same family using lexicostatistic analysis. in contrast, taloweri and mbojo isolects involved in the study were found as two dialects of bima language. previously, based on quantitative and qualitative analysis, syamsuddin (1996) identified that bima language was descended from proto austronesia (pan). if sanggar, kolo, and bima isolects were quantitatively determined as three different languages of the same family, rationally, it means that kolo and sanggar languages are also inherited from pan. however, sambori and teta isolects, which were also spoken in the regency, were not involved in budasi and sudirma’s study budasi and inriani (2019) proved the two isolects’ status as two dialects of the same language. so, in this regency, there are four languages include sambori. in this study, sambori and bima quantitative kinship language relatedness was found 38.8%. referring to swadesh’s language classification, they are two languages of the same family. budasi and inriani’s study also found that the kinship relationship between teta and sambori is 98%. based on the swadesh language classification, the kinship relatedness (81%-100%) should be classified as two dialects of the same language. so far, it is not known yet whether or not sambori language is also descended from pan. based on the researchers’ prior observation, most bimanese people mentioned that sambori language does not belong to bima language subgrouping. it was even said as the original language of bimanese before 14 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the speakers of bima, kolo, and sanggar languages were spoken in this region. they stated that their mutual intelligibility with sambori speakers was not so strong. the subgrouping of sambori isolect as one of the languages spoken in the area has been conducted by some researchers. however, their interpretation of their lexicostatistic analysis results is still questionable since the cognate percentage between sambori and bima language was controversially interpreted. arafiq (2016), for example, stated that the status of sambori isolect is a dialect of bima language for their cognate lexicostatistic analysis showed that the two reached 61% dissimilarity (or 39% similarity). yusra, lestari, ahmadi, asyhar, & soemerep (2016), who also did a lexicostatistical analysis of the two, declared that sambori is a dialect bima (61.2% dissimilarity or 38,8 % similarity). when we see the levels of language classification by swadesh (1952) mentioned earlier, the percentage of 38.8% is between 36% and 81%, which means that their status should be two different languages of the same family. rosadi and hermanto (2018) examined the fundamental differences of the dialects of the indigenous people of sambori village with the bima community. they concluded that sambori only a dialect of bima language. if we connect the figure of 38.88% with the language classification by sawadesh (1952), it is no doubt aware of saying that sambori and bima should be two different languages. based on the discussion above, no study yet has been done to determine whether or not sambori and teta isolects are inherited from proto austronesia, such as the one mentioned by samsyuddin (1988) as mentioned earlier. therefore, further investigation urgently needs to be done. the branch of linguistics which can be used to overcome the matter is historical-comparative linguistics (hcl). it can identify the two isolects’ kinship and their historical developments (adhiti, 2016; anggayana et al., 2020; campbell, 2013; ino, 2013). the research in hcl tends to apply a comparative method, a study to observe the development of isolects or languages by comparing their characteristics. its quantitative data in the form of 200 swadesh word list were analyzed using lexicostatistics. its results were usually confirmed by the qualitative ones (bynon, 1979; dyen, 1975; nothofer, 1975). the assumption that underlies this method is the number of vocabularies in one language can be differentiated into two big groups: (a) the basic words which are not easy to change, that is, the ones which are related to the human body, pronounce, emotion, feeling, weather and nature, number as well as the words related to household tools. they are grouped as basic words; (b) the words that are easy to change, include loaned ones to or from other cultures. they are the ones like chairs, table, and lamp. they are easy to diffuse (crowley, 1997; dyen, 1975). the quantitative data are used to determine the percentage of relatedness and determine the family tree of language. the result of quantitative-based language subgrouping is usually used as the working hypothesis for further exploration of the qualitative subgrouping languages (anggayana et al., 2020; dyen, 1978; mbete, 1990). the next step is to count separating the period of two isolects or language by applying glottochronological statistics (keraf, 1997). the assumption based on that calculation is a set of words with universal characteristics and remain constant along the years around (adhiti, 2016). the language classification from the quantitative analysis may be measured using swadesh’s theory (1952), as mentioned in the following. tabel 1. language classification level time of separation in a century cognate % language 0-5 100-81 language family 5-25 81-36 stock 25-50 36-12 microfillum 50-75 12-4 messofillum 75-100 4-1 macrofim 100above >1% in an attempt to investigate the kinship relationship among isolects, nothofer (1975) suggested researchers apply bottom-up analysis in examining the early stage of their proto-language and apply top-down one to check the linguistic evidence of phonological or lexical retention, and phonological and lexical innovation that happen to the compared isolects. the two approaches are known in reconstructing proto-language. to identify the 15 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) interrelatedness between pan to its descendant languages, historical-comparative linguists used to describe the phonological correspondences by mentioning the types of sound changes from pan etymons to its descendant languages. some linguists such as crowley (1997), anttila (2009), and cser (2014) mentioned different types of sound changes. crawley (1997) mentioned 11 types; lenition, fortition, sound addition, metathesis, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, haplology, and paragoge, abnormal change; cser (2014) underlies nine types; lenition, fortition, deletion, insertion, metathesis, assimilation, dissimilation, diphthongization, and raising; and anttila (2009) declared five types; insertion, assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, fronting, and backing. so, based on the three experts, there are 13 types of sound change; addition/insertion (prothesis, epenthesis, and paragoge), deletion (aphaeresis, syncope, and apocope), diphthongization (vowel breaking), unpacking, fusion, fortition, lenition, fronting, backing, raising, abnormal change, assimilation, and dissimilation. based on the description mentioned above, it can be stated that: (1) quantitative and qualitative linguistic evidence can be used to determine subgrouping isolects. the approach characteristics make use of linguistic aspects static in nature with theoretical consideration fand linguistic aspects, particularly the 200 swadesh’s word list. the words in the list are assumed to be difficult to change and statistically inherited from its language proto. in comparison, the qualitative linguistic evidence is considered dynamic. they are assumed to be easy to change, (2) qualitative linguistic evidence can also be used as the basis to determine the definitive subgrouping. each subgrouping is supposed to have its proto-language, (3) when the result of quantitive subgrouping language is similar to the qualitative one, the determination of definitive subgrouping language is considered perfect (mbete, 1990; nothofer, 1975). if the comparison shows a different result, the qualitative one is used to determine the definitive subgrouping language(s). based on the argument discussed earlier, determining the language classification status of sambori and teta isolect is so important. in connection to this, ratna (2019) successfully described the phonological system of teta isolect, while allan (2019) described the phonological of sambori dialect. lately, mitta (2019) successfully described the linguistic features which differentiate and unite the two dialects. however, the qualitative linguistic evidence determining the interrelatedness of psm-te to pan assumed as the proto of all languages in bima regency was not yet discussed in the three studies. based on the study background and the theories mentioned earlier, determining the language classification of the two isolects is not only important to research, but it must be done as soon as possible since the success of categorizing their status will help make subgrouping local languages in the regency, and in indonesia as a whole. thus, this article aimed (1) to describe the interrelatedness of the two protoes by firstly reconstructing psm-te etymons and (2) secondly to observe and describe the types of sound changes from the pan to psm-te etymons. by doing the reconstruction, the missing structure and language system will be identified through the language features that are still used today (cho, 2020). ii. methods this article was designed in qualitative research whose subjects were the speakers of sambori and teta isolects. three speakers of each isolect were selected as the informants of the study, and their selection was based on a set of criteria suggested by samarin (1967, 1988). the study objects were the two dialects’ cognate words and the sound change types of pan etymons to psm-te ones. the primary data in the forms word lists; 200 swadesh’, 973 holle’, and 488 nothofer’s were collected using interview and recording techniques. the secondary data were based on the ones available in finderlist dictionary by wurm and wilsom (1975). the procedure of data collections and data analysis passed the following steps: a. cognate words of the two isolects were firstly identified using the three types of word lists, and secondly, the psmte etymons were determined based bottom-up analysis and passing the following procedures: (1) if the cognate words of the two isolects showed the same forms, they were directly determined as psm-te etymons; (2) if the two isolects show similar cognate, both forms were determined as the 16 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) psm-te etymons; b. to define definite psm-ten etymons, the top-down approach was considered. the approach passed the steps: (1) the analysis of step a. mentioned earlier was compared to the pan etymons in the finder list dictionary by wurn and wilson (1975). the etymons selected were the ones that show cognate to the psm-te reconstructed in a; (2) if the pan etymons showed the same forms with the psm-te etymons, they were directly determined as the definitive psm-te etymons. if they are different, the definitive psm-te were determined the same as the ones which were based on the bottom-up approach, and 3) if pan etymons showed similarity to one of the psm-te etymons reconstructed based on a bottom-up approach, the more similar forms were determined as the definitive psm-te; c. the types of sound changes from pan etymons to psm-te ones were finally described based on crowley’s (1997), anttila’s (2009), and cser’s (2014) sound change theories. some types of change were found, but other than those mentioned by the three experts were also identified. iii. result 3.1 the obtained data based on bottom-up analysis based on the obtained data analyzed using bottomup analysis, 1691 (99.35%) psm-te etymons were determined. 11 (0.65) glosses from the three types of word lists were found empty. the etymons were originally grouped into two categories; (1) cognate, which the same forms, and (2) cognate different forms of sambori and teta isolects. see table 2 and 3. cognate of the same forms between sambori and teta isolects table 2 shows the examples of psm-te etymons, which mean; person, man, female, husband, wife, father, mother, child, name, who, i, you, he, they, hand, foot, fruit, soul, evaporate, sit, blow, indigo, grilled, palm wine, and teacher which were respectively reconstructed from the cognate words of sambori and teta isolects which had the same forms. when the cognate forms in sambori and teta isolects are the same, they are reconstructed using the same form as those two forms. for instance, psm-te *dou, which means person, was reconstructed from sambori ‘dou’ and teta ‘dou.’ table 2. the examples of psm-te reconstructed based on the cognate forms in sambori and teta isolects english sambori/teta psm-te person dou /dou *dou man mone/mone *mone female wine/wine *wine husband la’i/la’i *la’i wife wei/wei *wei father ama/ama *a:ma mother i:na/i:na *i:na child a:na/a:na *a:na name ŋanta/ ŋanta * ŋanta who se/se *se aku rae/rae *rae he re/re *re we ame/ame *ame they re-ra/re-ra *re-ra hand lima/lima *lima foot laŋge/laŋge *laŋge soul nawa/nawa *nawa evaporate mawa/mawa *mawa sit to’o/to’o *to’o blow upi/upi *upi indigo nila/nila *nila grilled tunu/tunu *tunu palm wine tua/tua *tua teacher guru/guru *guru note: psm-te: proto sambori-teta cognate of different forms between sambori and teta isolects table 3 shows the examples of psm-te etymons: flower, string, fire, we, you, eye fill, female, road, close, bite, hate, male, sap, long, famous, blood, dog, turn, listen, see, and under. they were reconstructed from sambori and teta isolects’ cognate words, which had different forms between samboi and teta isolect. when the cognate forms in sambori and teta are different, both forms are taken as the reconstruction forms. for instance, psm-te*wunta/*buŋa was reconstructed from sambori ‘wunta’ and teta ‘bunga’ which means flower.17 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) table 3. the examples of psm-te etymons (reconstructed from different forms between sambori and teta) english sambori /teta psm-te flower wunta /buŋa *wunta /*buŋa string u:ma/ kafa *u:ma/*kafa fire suw/api *suw/*api we yinta/ame *yinta/*ame you oene/emerance *oene/*emerance fill isi/ pai *isi/*pai female wilo/wina *wilo/*wina road daŋa/doŋka *daŋa/ *doŋka close tapa/kabu *tapa/*kabu bite aka/ŋaka *aka/*ŋaka hate iti/benci *iti/*benci male pria/priw *pria/*priw sap puru/mana *puru/*mana long loi/dopi *loi/*dopi famous mbou/mbaba *mbo/*mbaba blood ra’a/ra’ara *ra’a /*ra’ara dog lako/asu * lako/* asu turn poku /pokune *poku/*pokune listen paliŋa/sado’o *paliŋa/*sado’o see eta/lie *eta/*lie under utumba/ untumbara *utumba/ *untumbara note: psm-te: proto sambori-teta 3.2 the obtained data based on top-down analysis based on the top-down analysis, this study identified psm-te 1691 etymons. among them, 551(30%) were found underwent retention; (1) retention with change were 493 (28,97%) and (2) retention without change 18 (1.06%), (3) 366 (21,5) were different from pan, and 816 (47), 9% were not found in pan., and 11 (o,65) were found empty glosses. see the examples in table 4 and 5. retention with change (similar forms) based on the etymons in finderlist dictionary (wurm & wilsom, 1975), psm-te etymons in table 4 which mean live, none, mous’, snake, fur, wood, grass,’ leaf, roo, fruit, cook, eat, such, hous’, string, dust, ‘ as, fire, person, male, female, husband, wife, father, mother, child, we, they, house string, ash, dust, salt, soil stone lake, and rain reflected respectively from pan *atay, *ijun,*labaw, *sawa,*lawi, *kayu, *awa, *rau,*yamut, *buwah, *nansu, *pangan *soso, ‘rumaq, *waro’, *lebu*, *abu’, *siraq, *tanaq, *batu, *danaw , *hud’an. in table 4, column two shows the psm-te *etymons reconstructed based on the bottom-up analysis. in contrast, column 3 shows the data sources under pan experts and their years of identification, 2 figures after the expert’s name in pan, and column 4 shows the definite psm-te etymons reconstructed based on the top-down approach. using the examples mentioned in table 4, the definitive psm-te that can be determined are psm-te*a:te, *i:lu, *lawo,*sawa, *rambi, *hadu, *rata,*ro’o, *amu, *rua, *manasu, *maŋga.* noso, *u:ma, *wa’u, *kalubu, *kalubu, and *api. furthermore, some pan and the psm-te etymons (reconstructed based on bottom-up analysis) show the same forms. some examples can be seen in table 5, column 2 and 3. table 4. the examples of the similar forms of psm-te etymon (reconstructed based on bottom-up approach (bua) and the pan etymons english psm-te (bua) pan/ expert/ year psm-te (tda) liver *a:te *atay/ panc43 *a:te nose *i:lu *ijun/pandypmp53 *i:lu mouse *lawo *labaw/ pans72 *lawo feather *rambi *lawi/panbiroli 65 *rambi wood *hadu *kayu/ pans72 *hadu grass *rata *awa/pcppaw69b *rata leaf *ro’o *rau/pwfpawf 71 *ro’o root *amu *yamut/ panc43 *amu fruit *wua *buwah/ panc43 *wua cook *manas u *nansu/pocgr69 *manas u eat *maŋa *paŋan/ pand38 *maŋa suck *noso *soso/pocbla73 *noso house *u:ma *rumaq/ pandym70 *u:ma rope *wa’u *waro/pocgr69 *wa’u18 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) dust *kalubu *lebu’/ pand38 *kalubu ash *kalubu *abu’/ pand38 *kalubu fire *api *apuj/pand38 *api person *dou *cau/panl72 *dou male *mone *many/ panc43 *mone female *wine *biney/ pandym70 *wine husband *la’i *laki’/pan38 *la’i wife *wei *behi /pphze 71 *wei father *a:ma *ama/pandypmpl53 *a:ma mother *i:na *ina’/ pand38 *i:na child *a:na *anak/ pans72 *a:na we *yinta/a me *kinta/ pandytv49 *yinta they *re-ra *ra/pfpawf71 *re-ra house *u:ma *rumaq/ *u:ma string *wa’u *waro/pocgr 69 *wa’u ash *kalubu *lebu’/ pand38 *kalubu dust *kalubu *abu’/ pand38 *kalubu salt *sia *siraq/pandlo (n.d) *sia soil *dana *tanaq/ pandlo (n.d) *dana stone *watu *batu/ panpr74 *watu lake *danaw *danaw/ pans72 *danaw rain *u:ra *hud’an/ pans72 *ura note: bua= bottom-up analysis pan/expert/year: proto austronesian/expert who identified the form / the year of identification (only the last 2 figures are presented) psm-te= proto sambori-teta tda=top down analysis retention without change (different forms) based on data presented in table 5, the words which mean hand, breast, snake, flower, come, life, safe, yawn, indigo, grilled, burn, breast milk, string, extinguish, iron, swallow, sit, and teacher show the same forms between pan etymons and psme-te (reconstructed based on bottom-up approach). therefore, the definitive reconstructed psm-te etymons were determined based on the forms, which are the same. table 5. the same forms between pan etymons and psm-te etymons (reconstructed based on bottom-up analysis) english psm-te (bua) pan/expert/ year psm-te (tda) hand *lima *lima/pans72 *lima breast *susu *susu/pomci61 *susu snake *sawa *sawa/pans72 *sawa come *mai *mai/panblaa73 *mai life *nawa *nawa/pans72 *nawa seat *to?o *to?o/pm69 *to?o yawn *mawa *mawa/ pams27 *mawa indigo *nila *nila/panblwo 71 *nila grilled *tunu *tunu/pncha71 *tunu burn *tunu *tunu/pncha71 *tunu breast milk *oi susu *susu/pocgr(ma) 69 *oi susu string *kafa *kafa/ ppndf29 *kafa iron * besi *besi/ pandymc70 *besi swallow *nono *nono /pocgr69 *nono sit *to?o *to?o/ pmls69 *to?o teacher *guru *guru/ pphza *guru note: bua= bottom-up analysis pan/expert/year: proto austronesian/expert who identified the form / the year of identification psm-te= proto sambori-teta tda=top down analysis the form of psm-te reconstructed from bot\tom-up analysis, as mentioned in table 5 column 2, means hand was found the same in pan etymon*lima see (column 3). therefore, its definitive psm-te is *lima, as presented in column 4. the form of psmte in table 5 column 2, which means breast was found the same as pan etymon*susu mentioned in column 3. therefore, its definitive psm-te is *susu (column 4). 3.3 the different forms of pan and psm-te 816 (47.94%) etymons of pan (see example in column 3 in table 6) underwent lexical innovation 19 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) (see column 2). the etymons psm-te in table 6 column 2 which means she, we, you, shoulder, blood, neck, hair, teeth, ear, eyes, top, mouth, soul of feet, female, bed, mat, borrow, fill, and close were undergone lexical innovation of pan*ia(h), *kita, *kamu?, *baya, *{dd}araq, liqer*, *d’[ae] (m)but *gigi’ *teliŋa*mata, *teliŋa *ŋu(s)u*(g) age, *palapana *binay *lapik, *pola, *beles, *oso, and *ekub. the definitive psm-te , therefore, was determined like the one in column 4. table 6. the examples of different forms of pan from psm-te (bottom-up) english psm-te (bua) pan/expert/year psm-te (tda) she *re *ia (h)/ pandypm pl53 *re we *ame *kita/ pandymc70 *ame you *oene/e merance *kamu?/ pandymc70 *oene/eme rance shoulder *dunce *baya/panc43 *dunca blood *ra’a *{dd}araq/pandytv49 *ra’a neck *wo’o *liqer/ pandypmpl53 *wo’o hair *hoŋgo *d’[ae](m)but/pand 38 *hoŋgo teeth *woi *gigi’/pand38 *woi ear *wiro *teliŋa/panc43 *wiro eye *porom u/ isi poro *mata/pandympl53 *poro top *kawoŋga *kasiŋ/pphch73 *kawoŋga mouth *asa *ŋu(s)u/panbirol 65 *asa soles of the feet *kopa laŋge *(g)age pala pana / pcppaw69b *kopa laŋge female *wilo / *wine *binay/pans72 *wine bed *difa *lapik/pand38 *difa mat *topo *pola/ppndf *topo borrow *sepe *beles/pphch 73 (sc) *sepe fill *isi/*paisi *oso/pocmi61 *isi close *tapa/* kabu *ekub/panbl73 *kabu note: bua= bottom-up analysis pan/expert/year: proto austronesian/expert who identified the form / the year of identification psm-te= proto sambori-teta tda=top down analysis 3.4 types of sound change from pan etymons to psm-te based on the comparison of pan etymons and the definitive psm-te etymons, and the top-down analysis mentioned earlier, several types of sounds were found. each of which is described as follows: addition three types of phoneme addition: prothesis, epenthesis, and paragoge, were found from pan to psm-te etymons; the examples of each are presented in the following: a. prosthesis pan*ua found in (pams27) which means aunt→psm-te*dua, where pan -ø→ psm-te-d; pphzc71 *aku which means confest→psmte*ŋaku, where pan ø→psm-te*ŋ. b. epenthesis pan*panii seen in pandlo12 which means bat underwent epenthesis →psm-te*paniki, where pan øpsm-te *-k-/, pan *pi-a seen in pandl72 which means dishes→psm-te*piŋa, where pan ø →psm-te -ŋ c. paragoge pan*tan as seen in pandm72, which means know underwent paragoge →psm-te*tanda, where ø →/da/. deletion deletion, which occurs from pan to psm-te includes aphaeresis, syncope, and apocope. pan*koe in ppnbiwo70, which means you underwent apheresis →psm-te*oe, where pan*k→ psmte*ø. pan*namu in ppnbiwo70 which means smell→psm-te*nu, where pan*am→ psmte*ø; pan*moquri in peppaw70 which means skinning→psm-te*koi, where pan*qu→ psmte*ø; pan*leyqa in pandymt46 which means ginger underwent syncope→psm-te*lea, where *-yq→ psm-te*ø/ a. apocope most of the data of pan etymon underwent apokope. for example pan*bawaŋ in pandympt74, which means onion→psm-te*bawa, where pan *ŋin ultima → psm-te*ø. pan*tolur in panpws47, which means egg→psm-te*tolu, where pan*r → psm-te*ø-. pan*teras in pandb72 which means hard →psm-te*tera, where *s-→ psm-20 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) te*ø-. pan*timun in pand38 which means cucumber →psm-te*timu, where pan*n-→ psmte*ø-. pan*timah in pand38, which means tin →psm-te*tima, where pan*h-→ psm-te*ø. pan*kilap in pand38, which means flash →psmte*kila, where pan*p/ in position → psm-te**ø. pan*bawaŋ in pandympt74a, which means onion →psm-te*bawa, where*ŋ→ psm-te*ø. pan*kapuk in pand38, which means kapok →psm-te*kapu, where*k/→ ø-. pan*gendaŋ in pand38, which means drum→psm-te*genda, where pan*ŋ-→ psm-te*ø-. pan*lintah in pans72, which means leeck→psm-te*linta, where pan *h-→ psm-te*ø-. b.syncope and apocope some pan etymons underwent deletion in syncope loss of vowel in the midle of a word and apocope, removing a phoneme at the end of a word (keraf, 1996, crawely 1997). pan*diyus in panc43 which means bathe →psm-te*diu, where pan*-yin penultima position→ psm-te*-te*ø; and pan*s →psm-te*ø pan*balikat in pandlo (n.d) which means shoulder blade →psm-te*blika, where pan*-ain prepenultima position→ psm-te*ø. and pan*tin ultima position→ psm-te*ø; pan*(bb) uqayah in panpr74 which means crocodile →psmte*buaya, pan *-qin penultima position → psmte*-ø-. pan *hin ultima position → psm-te*ø; and pan*ti(m)ke(jd) in pphch73, which means heel→psm-te*time, where pan*-k→psm-te*ø and pan*dj-→ psm-te*ø. pan*tuha? in pand38, which means old→psm-te*tua, where pan*-hin ultima position → psm-te*ø and pan*?→psmte*ø. pan*sira in pandlo (nd) means salt →psm-te*sia, wherepan*-rin ultima position → psm-te*ø. metathesis some pan etymons underwent metathesis, the transposition of sounds or syllables in a word (crawely, 1997; anttila, 2009), as well as phoneme substitution. for example, pan*ekub means close→psm-te*kabu and pan*-e →psmte*-ain the middle position. phoneme pan*-k was transposed into the penultima position and pan*e → psm-te*a was transposed to a midposition in penultima; pan*nisa which means blood →psm-te*sila where pan*-lin the ultima position →psm-te*n in penultima position and pan*s in penultim, and pan*n →psm-te*l in ultima position was transposed to ultima position; pan*kolo which means cut →psm-te*loto, where pan*k in penultima position is substituted →psmte*t in ultima position and pan*l in ultima position was transposed into penultima position. pan*duna means log fire →psm-te*hadu, where pan*n in penultima →psm-te*-h in penultima position and pan-te*d in penultima position was transposed in ultima position in psm-te. dipthongization some pan etymons underwent diphthongization, the sound change where one single sound becomes diphthong (crawely, 1997; anttila, 2009). for example, pan*kasawari which means cassoary →psm-te*kasuari, where single phoneme pan*-a in prepenultima position →diphthong psm-te*ua-. fusion/monofthongization some pan etymon underwent fusion sound change where a diphthong becomes a single sound (crawely, 1997). for example, pan*atay in panc43, which means liver→psm-te*ate, where /ay/ in ultima position →/e/. pan*apuy in pand38, which means fire→psm-te*api, where pan*uy→ psm-te *i. fortition some pan etymons underwent fortition, a consonantal change from a weak sound to a strong sound (anttila, 2009). it is the opposite of the more common lenition (crowley, 1997). the following are 9 pan etymons found to show fortition in psmte. pan*cau, which means a person in panl72 →psm-te*dou, where pan*t in penultima position →psm-te*d; pan*dana in panlo/nd which means soil →psm-te*dana, where pan*t in penultima position→psm-te*d. pan*tumbuq in pandypmpl53, which means body→psmte*(sa)rumbu, where pan*t in penultima position →psm-te*r. pan*asi in pmls69, which means liver→psm-te*, is where pan*s in the ultima position →psm-te*r. lenition lenition is a type of sound change that alters consonants, making them weaker (crowley, 1997). in table 7 below, some pan etymons underwent lenition. phoneme pan*b in penultima 21 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) position→*w for the etymons, which means: female, wife, mouse, lips, and. phoneme pan*-ʤ in the etymons, which means nose →psm-te*-l-, pan*v in penultima position in the etymon, which means hit →psm-te*p, pan*w in the etymon which means turtle →psm-te*b in penultima and ultima position. table 7. lenition from pan to psm-te english pan/expert/ year psm-te sound change ’female’ biney/pandymc70 dou wine /b/→/w/ ‘wife’ behi/pphze71 wei /b/→/w/ ‘nose’ iʤun/pandypmp53 ilu /ʤ/→/l/ ‘mouse’ labaw/ pans72 lawo /b/→/w/ ‘stone’ batu/panpr 74 watu /b/→/w/ hit tovo/pams27 topa /v/→/p/ ‘lips’ bibiy/pand 38 wiwi /b/→/w/ ‘turtle’ penu/pans72 fonu /p/→/f/ note: bua = bottom–up analysis pan / expert/year: proto austronesian / expert who identified the form / the year of identification (only the last two figures are written) psm-te = proto sambori-teta tda = top down analysis fronting some pan etymons show fronting, which happens because some phoneme in the pan etymons is made toward the front of the mouth. pan*paŋan as in pand38, which means eat →psm-te*maŋa, where pan*-p in penultima position →psmte*-m. pan*koe in ppnbiwo79, which means you→psm-te*woe, where pan*k in penultima position →psm-te*w. pan*losi, which means squeeze→psm-te*posi, where*l in penultima position →psm-te*p. pan*koro, which means cut →psm-te*loto, where pan *k in penultima position →psm-te*l. backing some pan etymon also shows the backing type of sound change, the changes that happen when they occur by replacing front sounds to back sounds in a language (crowley, 1997). the following are examples of backing, pan*dindin in pandlo (n.d), which means jerked meat→psm-te*dandan, where pan*i in ultima and penultima position→psmte*a. pan*tono in pocgr69, which means swallow →psm-te*nono, where pan*t in penultima position→psm-te*n. pan *kena in pandlo (n.d), which means hit →psmte*kana, where pan*e in penultima position →psm-te*a. iv. discussion phoneme change is a common process in a language change (hruschka et al., 2015). phoneme change could be caused by several factors, namely geographical, social and historical factors (risdianto, 2017). based on the result of the study, it is seen here that this study is successful in investigating the qualitative data as the existences of the interrelatedness of pan to psm-te since some psm-te etymons were found showing phoneme correspondences between the two protoes. besides, this study also found that the retention form of pan to psm-te shows the existence of characteristics of sound changes such as addition, deletion metathesis, diphthongization, fusion, fortition, lenition, fronting, and backing. while assimilation, dissimilation, abnormal changes, and unpacking types of sound changes were not found in this study. some sound changes from pan to psm-te form a concerted change, which occurs not by chance (bowern, 2015). the examples of the concerted changes can be seen in table 7, i.e., sound change from /b/→/w/. based on the types of sound change, the findings of this study support crowley’s (1997), anttila’s (2009), and cser’s (2014) sound change theories. among the 13 types of sound changes suggested by the three experts, nine were identified in this study. they are all become the characteristics of the types of sound change that occurred from pan to psm-te. the identification of the interrelatedness of phoneme correspondences of pan to psm-te etymons has answered the doubts among linguists and local people’ question whether or not sambori and teta isolects as a language descended from pan. as a bima language subgrouping member, the findings can also be the linguistics evidence that sambori is undoubtedly one of the four languages; bima, sanggar, kolo, and sambori spoken in bima regency. these qualitative data also confirm the qualitative data found in budasi and indriani study (2019). therefore, this study confirms that the language classification of sambori is one of 22 i gede budasi/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) the languages spoken in bima regency. however, to complete the linguistic feature as the evidence of the status of language classification of sambori among all other languages in bima regency, further study about the kinship relationship quantitatively and qualitatively is important to be conducted in the future. v. conclusion this study investigated; a. 1691 (53%) definitive proto sambori-teta (psm-te) among 1702 etymons identified in this study. these etymons show retention of pan etymons. 511 (30.02%). 366 (21%) pan etymons underwent lexical innovation, that is, they show different forms of etymon psmte reconstructed from the bottom-up analysis., and 816 (41,9%) psm-te were not found in pan.; b. the types of sound change passed by pan etymon to psm-te were nine types of sound change, such as; addition, deletion, metathesis, diphthongization, fusion, fortition, lenition, fronting, and backing. definitively, a and b can be used as the qualitative linguistic evidence, which states the psm-te had been descended from pan. references adhiti, i. a. 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(2016). kedudukan dialektologis bahasa sambori dalam masyarakat bima kontemporer. linguistik indonesia, 34(2), 147–161. biography i gede budasi was born in menyali village, sawan district, north bali on 31 december 1958. after completing his bachelor degree (drs.) at the fkip universitas udayana in 1984, he was promoted as a lecturer of applied linguistics in the english education study program, fkip universitas udayana (now, fbs universitas pendidikan ganesha) since 1985. his post-graduate diploma degree in applied linguistics was awarded by the regional english language center (relc) singapore in 1990. in 1993, he continued his post-graduate study in the m.ed tesol program, university of south australia, and completed his m. ed. degree in 1995. in 2007, he completed his dr. degree in linguistics at fib universitas gajah mada yogyakarta. his dissertation in this faculty was in the area of historical-comparative linguistics. since his graduation from the university, he was in charge of teaching subjects related to pure linguistics. he has been an active researcher on local languages in bali, west nusa tenggara, and east nusa tenggara. he was appointed as the editor in chief of jurnal prasi of fbs universitas pendidikan ganesha from 2010 to 2016. since 2018 he has been invited as a bestari partner for jurnal multilingual of balai bahasa palu. since 2020 he was appointed as a reviewer in the language and education journal of universitas pendidikan ganesha. he got the ten best award of the paper presenter in the 10th kimli conference in malang in 2010. his main research area of interest is mostly on historical-comparative linguistics. his other current research interests are ethnolinguistics and english for specific purposes, and cross-culture understanding. he is one of the indonesian linguistic society and local language association members hosted by fib universitas udayana. he wrote books entitled fonologi bahasa sabu, phonology of bima language, and reconstruction on sambori and teta isolects spoken in bima regency east nusa tenggara. 24 peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 210 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 13, 2023 final revision: september 18, 2023 accepted: september 19, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this paper explores some cohesive devices namely reference, repetition, and collocation on phoenix messages by internet users worldwide in reaction to the death of queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom. 400 e-messages on phoenix platform were collected from 175 informants. each participant provided at most three e-messages. the study examines the types of cohesive devices and the extent to which they are used in the various conversations of the texters. insights were drawn from halliday and hassan (1976) who laid down the foundation of cohesion theory in english. they identified two different types of cohesive devices namely grammatical and lexical cohesion. the grammatical type is made up of reference, conjunction, substitution, and ellipsis; while lexical one comprises reiteration and collocation. facts from the analysis of the data revealed that reference was the dominant cohesive devices. more precisely, the demonstrative pronouns (28.57%) are the most used referential items. it is seconded by possessive pronouns (23.42%) and the least employed devices is personal pronouns (20.57%). the results also indicated the use of repetition and collocation in messages of the participants. the most repeated word is queen while the least reduplicated one is slave/slavery. items of collocation are used at varying frequencies. keywords collocation, reference, repetition, phoenix, texters correspondence e-mail: nouhoupeniel@gmail.com article an analysis of cohesive devices on phoenix posts about the death of queen elizabeth ii peniel zaazra nouhou1, ngonjo victor fuh2 1,2department of english language and literature faculty of arts, letters and social sciences, university of maroua, maroua, cameroon under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.210-220.2023 i. introduction the advent of social media platforms (gong, zhang, zhao, & jiang, 2017; kane, alavi, labianca, & borgatti, 2014; kitsios mitsopoulou, moustaka, & kamariotou 2022; obembe, kolade, obembe, owoseni, & mafimisebi 2021; grover, kar & dwivedi, 2022) such as whatsapp, twitter, instagram, and facebook and browsers such phoenix have eased the way people communicate nowadays. such social media platforms have become instruments through which the voices of people no matter their social background and levels of education in our societies are heard. one can now writer to kings, queens, presidents and any other authorities without any fear of intimidation. nowadays, the real notion of freedom of expression is brought in thanks to social media where it is easy to express an opinion, comment and as well as easy to share links and to post like to a given stretch of discussion. this enables people to give their stand for or against economic, social and most especially political issues. this is exactly what happened from september 8th to 19th, 2022 when people from all walks of life around the world went on social media to express their ideas, thoughts, opinions or views about the death of queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom. this has led to a plethora of e-massages posted on phoenix browser that the researchers collected for this research. these messages can be disjointed and incoherent due to the lack of cohesive ties. this is what prompted the researchers to carry out this research on cohesive devices on phoenix messages about the death of queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom. more specifically, they would like to examine the type and frequencies of cohesive devices, and to look at how the cohesive devices used add to the coherence of interactional digital communication. halliday peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 211 and hasan’s (1976) theory of cohesion is at the basis of this work. it posits that cohesion refers to grammatical and lexicosemantic items that hold the text together as a unit. while grammatical items (conjunction, reference, substitution, and ellipsis) deal with the linkage and the unity of a text, lexical devices are concerned with meaning. this implies that lexical items are built from vocabulary. in order to make a sentence cohesive, writers use connectors or cohesive. therefore, a text is cohesive if, as a whole, the sentences and spoken utterances are semantically linked and consistent (emilia, 2014, p. 92). as explained at the outset, cohesion is the relationship between the texts with meaning. cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. the one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by resource to it. when this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposed are thus at least potentially integrated into a text (halliday & hasan, 1976, p.4) there are many cohesive devices (conjunction, substitution, ellipsis, reference, reiteration and collocation) that play an important role in building the text and make it cohesive and coherent. as such, this work deals with some of these items namely reference, repetition, and collocation because they are found in the interactional digital communication by the texters. reference is one in which the relationship of reference is taken to hold between expressions in a text and entities in the world, and that of coreference between expressions in different parts of text (brown & yule, 1983, p. 204). this implies that the interpretation of an item depends on the other one (halliday & hasan 1976, p. 145). it relates and tracks the identity of participants through text (emilia, 2014, p. 95). for instance: my relationship with the queen was perfect, she was a great woman, who had shown great example in human relationships. she carried herself so graciously, so dignified. she was somebody i have tremendous respect for. […] the pronoun she in the digital communication refers to the queen and for that reason, halliday and hasan (1976, p. 63) have a special term for such reference as textual reference (endophoric which can be anaphoric or cataphoric) compared to situational reference (exophoric reference). the textual reference can be anaphoric (to preceding text) or cataphoric (to following text). reference in the text is important because it traces the identity of the interactants. repetition is one of the lexical cohesive items that is realised through the use of the same word in a sentence or in a thread of conversation. according to halliday and hasan (1976), it is reoccurrence of the same word or lexical item that has a similar meaning with another one. collocation is expressed through the use of lexical items (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs). collocation is realised through the use of words that co-occur or collocate in a given situation of conversation. this is because some words or expressions have the power to appear in the same surrounding or environment that other words can. it could be said that collocation has greater implication in the building of the cohesiveness of a text or a discourse. there has been no studies or literatures on cohesive devices on the death of queen elizabeth ii. for this reason, the researchers reviewed some recent works on cohesion and coherence off/online studies. most recently, researchers paid much attention to the use of cohesion and coherence in essays (magogwe, mokibelo & karabo, 2023; ryan, 2023; siregar, nurlela & thyrhaya zein, 2023) with the objectives to investigate the type of cohesive devices used; to examine coherence problems in students’ essays; to explore how free online machine translation can impact the writing quality of esl students’. they used different theories and methods and come out with convergent and divergent findings. for instance, magogwe, mokibelo and karabo (2023) studied cohesion and coherence in students’ in order to investigate the type of cohesive devices used, to identify problems of cohesion, to examine the coherence problems, and to identify other writing problems in the students’ essays. their findings showed that conjunctions and reference were used more frequently than substitution, collocation and ellipsis. furthermore, ryan’s (2023) investigation on coherence and cohesion in an esl academic writing revealed that fomt can assist students with improving their text quality in terms of coherence and cohesion. more so, siregar, nurlela and thyrhaya zein (2023) analysis of cohesive devices in efl students’ essay showed that reference (59%) was the predominant grammatical cohesive device compared to other types and ellipsis (0.3%) peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 212 was the least employed item. moreover, repetition was the most used lexical device (89%) equated to hyponyms (0.3%), in their essay. in another study, al khotaba (2022) examined cohesion and coherence in argumentative writing by efl students where the results showed that students encountered cohesion and coherence problems in achieving written texts’ unity, particularly in assigning their concepts and implementing appropriate cohesive signals, punctuation, and spelling issues. the role of cohesive items in creating coherence in efl students’ writing was of an interest to some researchers (alsariera & yunus, 2021; zahara, yusuf, samad, & singh, 2023). alsariera and yunus (2021) analysed 20 written pieces and found that lexical bonds held relations between sentences in writing. similarly, zahara, yusuf, samad and singh’s (2023) investigation indicated that all the types of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices appeared in the students’ writings. reference was rated the most employed item, seconded by conjunction, while substitution was used the least. in another recent study, nouhou (2020), tabe and nouhou (2021) used whatsapp and messenger messages to examine the extent to which some cameroonians use cohesive devices and textual coherence in the online write-ups. their findings revealed that demonstrative pronouns were the most used pro-forms in the cameroonian online conversations. in addition, some elements of comparative reference have been found in some cameroonians online written productions. prior to nouhou (2020), tabe and nouhou (2021), muttaqien, ma’ruf and hardjanto’s (2019) research on substitution in indonesia facebook conversations group indicated that ellipsis is mostly employed in some cases because there are many incomplete messages or texts in the threads of discussion of participants on social media as a result of the use of ellipsis. this work set out to examine the type and frequencies of cohesive devices on phoenix posts on the demise of queen elizabeth ii. it also looks at how the cohesive devices used add to the coherence of interactional digital communication. ii. method this work uses descriptive qualitative design. this is because, the focus is on messages copied on phoenix browser after the death of queen elizabeth ii. a total of 400 e-messages from 175 people around the world and from all walks of life were collected on phoenix from september 8 to19, 2022. each participant provided at most three e-messages. we spent 10-15 minutes each day to down load the messages people were posting on phoenix. both quantitative and qualitative methods are used to analyse the data. this enables the presentation, the description and interpretation in statistical tables. it is worth noting that errors in the corpus are not from these researchers. they are from the texters. iii. result and discussion as a reminder, this work set out to explore the types and frequencies of cohesive devices on phoenix posts about the death of queen elizabeth ii. it also looks at how the cohesive devices used add to the coherence of interactional digital communication. the analysis of the data revealed the use of referential items, repetition and collocation. 1. reference the following items are taken into consideration in the analysis below. personal pronouns the referential items that have been considered among the personal pronouns are he, she, and it as illustrated in table 1. table 1: personal pronouns personal pronouns she 21 12.00% it 11 06.28% he 04 02.28% total 36 20.57% the qualitative and quantitative analysis on table 1 show that the personal pronoun she (12%) is the most dominant referential item used on phoenix messages by texters. this is seconded by it (6.28%) which is simply used for the substitution of a proper noun or person. the least employed item is he (02.28%). this could be due to the fact that the subject matter is more centered on queen elizabeth ii, and the rare use of he is to make reference to prince harry. examples of some uttered devices are found in the participants’ threads of discussions below: she she was a devil. (phoenix 90, sep 11, 2022). […] she played that kind of soft power diplomacy in helping our position on the ant-apartheid struggle. she presided peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 213 obviously over britain, but she presided over the period that started with the cold war. […] (phoenix 40, sep 10, 2022). which wan be quietly supported… oga you just wan praise the dead, u no get talk. when dey say african leaders no get sense, na your type. […] in actual sense she’s actively involved in apartheid because of the land and gold mines they grabbed from south africans. (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022.) she in phoenix 90, sep 11, 2022 discusses the queen. this pronoun is used to show who she was (a devil). moreover, she played that kind of soft power diplomacy in helping our position on the ant-apartheid struggle (phoenix 40, sep 10, 2022). similarly, the queen is actively involved in apartheid because of the land and gold mines they grabbed from south africans (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022). it the good or bad we do will come knocking with rewards, my advice to king charles is to look back to the evils perpetrated by his people against nigeria in particular and address it. (phoenix 70, sep 11, 2022.). “queen elizabeth ii quietly supported africa to end apartheid against the stance of the then british prime minister, margaret thatcher. […] it’s a pity that the queen died at the time when that world order had gone to pieces and we are approaching a new world order whose parameters are in a state of flux.” (phoenix 40, sep 10, 2022.) it in phoenix 70, sep 11, 2022 denotes the evils that were committed by the british royal family during the reign of the late queen. charles who is replacing the late monarch as king is advised to look back at the harms perpetrated by his people against nigeria in particular and address them. he what exactly is prof bolaji making at? times has come when our leaders must keep mum than to dance away in irrelevance. […] if prince harry can look at the british monarchy and asked them to hands off on africa if not he is stepping inside from his royal position and his about to release his documentary on this.( phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022.). my grand father general nyaga died with a bullet wound in his right leg, after years of limping and suffering, all because he said no to whites grabbing his land and torturing his people may queen elizabeth ii rot in hell. […]. (phoenix 10, sep 9, 2022.). […] each time the president of the republic came, he was immediately received by the queen, and they shared cordial relations.”“it is in memory of all that, that the head of state sent me here to represent him” the prime minister stated. (phoenix 390, sep 19, 2022.) he in phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022 refers to prince harry. he is advised to ask the british monarchy to take their hands-off africa if not a documentary will be released about him. furthermore, he in phoenix 10, sep 9, 2022 denotes general nyaga who is just a victim from the queen’s deeds. similarly, he in phoenix 390, sep 19, 2022 mentions paul biya who had a cordial relationship with the late queen. in fact, each time paul biya came, he was immediately received by the queen. one should understand that the proform he in phoenix 10, sep 9, 2022 and phoenix 390, sep 19, 2022 which refers respectively to general nyaga and paul biya is an exophoric reference. this is because they are in the context of the situation. it could be concluded that the use of proforms she, it and he by the participants helped to substitute and avoid the repetition of some nouns; therefore, building the cohesiveness of the digital discourse. possessive pronouns possessive pronouns are parts of grammatical cohesive device as identified by halliday and hasan (1976). some that are found in the threads of conversational messages by the texters includes his, her, and their. they are classified in table 2 in accordance to their different frequencies. table 2: frequencies and percentages of possessive pronouns in the informants’ thread of discussions possessive pronouns her 23 13.14% his 12 06.85% their 06 03.42% total 41 23.42% facts from table 2 show that the possessive her scored the highest frequency (23) which amounted to 13.14%. it is followed by his (12) which stood at 06.85% and their (06) recorded the least percentage (03.42%) of use. the fact that the possessive her has the highest percentage could be explained by the fact that most of the texters were referring to the queen in their interactional digital conversations. this is illustrated in some stretches below: her […] were you expecting her to seat with her own people? that’s simply mind game to make you feel she’s not the one killing us. […]. (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022.). […] the queen and her family duped, killed, frustrated and reduced africa to where it is. no gamble (phoenix 100, sep 11, 2022.). […]. the former director general of the nigerian institute of external peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 214 affairs(niia) said on arise television’s morning show that despite the fact that the queen did not have much political power, she put margaret thatcher in her place during the struggle to end apartheid. […] the countries of the west indies were with the african countries, but margaret thatcher stood her ground. the queen stood by her action to ensure that african presidents were seated close to her at state dinners to show that she was on their side and margaret thatcher had to tone down her body language to what we were demanding.” (phoenix 40, sep 10, 2022) her in phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022 discusses the queen who is accused of pretending to be supporting african leaders in the fight against apartheid whereas she was actively involved in it because of the land and gold mines they grabbed from south africans (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022). more to this, the queen and her family duped, killed, frustrated and reduced africa to where it is. no gamble (phoenix 100, sep 11, 2022). his […] if prince harry can look at the british monarchy and asked them to hands off on africa if not he is stepping inside from his royal position and his about to release his documentary on this. (phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022). my grand father general nyaga died with a bullet wound in his right leg, after years of limping and suffering, all because he said no to whites grabbing his land and torturing his people may queen elizabeth ii rot in hell. i stand with malema on this. prince harry is not diff. (phoenix 10, sep 9, 2022.). the pronoun his in phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022 speaks of prince harry who is told to ask the british monarchy to take off their hands in africa, if not a documentary will be released on this. on the other hand, his in phoenix 10, sep 9, 2022 denotes general nyaga who was killed because he protested against the white men’ exploitation of his land. his as a pronoun is used to show some of the crimes committed in africa by the british during the reign of the late queen. their […] using public funds from one airport to another speaking british english to impress and help the media to sell their papers is all what we what? freckling freaking for u is that what’s it takes (phoenix 110, sep 11, 2022.). […] many of these guys never left their villages. they just believe stories that are not verified and passed such on just the way they believe putinnis fighting a just cause. (phoenix 115, sep 11, 2022.). people with conscience look back at their actions or inactions and make drastic positive changes for the good of the future […] (phoenix 120, sep 11, 2022.). their in phoenix 110, sep 11, 2022 denotes african diplomats who put on bowties, crossing belts in suits on well-oiled afro to attract people. they use public funds from one airport to another speaking british english to impress and help the media to sell their papers. furthermore, their is also used to show that people with conscience look back at their actions or inactions and make drastic positive changes for the good of the future but this was not the case with the queen. in addition, all her years as queen of the united kingdom, she never saw anything wrong with violent entrance into africa and eventual colonisation, slave trade, carting away of diamonds, other valuables, and worse still the genocide of igbos in nigeria between 1967-1970. phoenix 120, sep 11, 2022. the use of possessive pronouns her, his, and their on phoenix by the informants to make endophoric reference assisted in avoiding the repetition of some items. objective pronouns objective pronouns are not left out in the classification of grammatical cohesive devices as elaborated by the pioneers of the theory. they advocated that they help in making reference to items within the context of text or discussion. below are some of these ties found in the participants’ online write-ups. table 3: objective pronouns objective pronouns her 12 06.85% him 03 01.71% them 02 01.14% total 17 09.71% statistics from table 3 displays that the objective pronouns were employed at varying frequencies. for instance, the use of her amounted to (06.85%) while him raised to (01.71%); and them stood at (01.14%). these items are exemplified in the stretches of conversational messages below. her eternal rest grant unto hm queen elizabeth oh lord and let your perpetual light shine upon her. amen (phoenix 125, sep 11, 2022). […] “we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history.” […] (phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022). in his condolence message to the british royal family on friday, president vladimir putin praised the queen’s “love” and “authority” regarding her subjects. (phoenix 265, sep 13, 2022). peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 215 her in phoenix 125, sep 11, 2022 refers to the late queen. the writer of this text states that eternal rest be granted unto queen elizabeth. he/ she also calls on god to make his perpetual light to shine on her. her in phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022 is used to explain the crimes committed during queen elizabeth’s 70 years as head of the british empire. more so, her is also used to explain why her death cannot be mourned by some africans. for example, “we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history.” phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022. on the other hand, her is used to show the love and authority the queen had regarding her subjects. him “i am here because the head of state paul biya had extremely intense relations with queen elizabeth ii, who received him here in london two times. […] “it is in memory of all that, that the head of state sent me here to represent him” the prime minister stated. queen elizabeth ii’s funeral: prime minister explains why paul biya sent him. (phoenix 390, sep 19, 2022.). him in phoenix 390, sep 19, 2022 makes reference to president paul biya of cameroon and the intense relationship he had with the late queen such that each time he came, he was immediately received by the queen, and they shared cordial relations. it should be understood that the referent of the item him is an exophoric reference. them why quietly support the truth and what is right? look at the billions upon billions of dollars the us is giving to ukraine now against russia…if is an african country undergoing invasion would they give the same support? […] is it not mostly the us and uk? and they know that they are stolen yet they accept them. hypocricy of the west. never wanting development for others except 4 themselves. thieves (phoenix 135, sep 11, 2022). what exactly is prof bolaji making at? times has come when our leaders must keep mum than to dance away in irrelevance. […] if prince harry can look at the british monarchy and asked them to hands off on africa if not he is stepping inside from his royal position and his about to release his documentary on this. (phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022) them in phoenix 135, sep 11, 2022 refers to the stolen wealth of africa by african leaders. the stolen wealth is kept in the us and the uk and leaders of these nations are aware of it but they can never say they do not need this ill-gotten wealth. that is the hypocrisy of the western world. on the other hand, them in phoenix 135, sep 11, 2022 speaks of the british monarchy. prince harry is advised to tell the monarchy to stay off africa. the use of proforms her, him and them by the participants is to avoid the repetition of some nouns therefore building the cohesiveness of the digital communication. demonstrative pronouns demonstrative pronouns display the function of grammatical cohesive devices. they help to establish the link between semantic items therefore building cohesive texts. table 4: demonstrative pronouns demonstrative pronouns that 37 21.14% this 07 04.00% those 05 02.85% these 01 00.57% total 50 28.57% it is clear from table 4 that both the singular and plural forms of demonstrative pronouns have been employed by the texters in their interactional digital text during the post period of late queen elizabeth ii to talk about things that are either related to her death or to things she did when she was alive. incidences show that the demonstrative that (21.14%) which is also an indexical recorded the highest frequency. this means that the informants pointed at her so much in their e-discourse. some of these items such as this (04.00%), those (02.85%), and these (00.57%) have been used at varying frequencies. their use is illustrated in some of the conversational messages below. that that woman was secret terrorist (phoenix 150, sep 11, 2022.). kudos to you proffessor, you have had the courage to make a public statement that has drank some vicious backlash…but your truth…being there is what we will take and chew on.. not vicious bombastic hot air of wanna bees who lack the true knowledge of being there and having done that..big up to you (phoenix 155, sep 11, 2022.). that queen you are moaning headed the royal family for 70 years, a family that stole our land, killed, maimed and castrated our people. […] (phoenix 20, sep 9, 2022.) that in phoenix 150, sep 11, 2022 represent the queen. furthermore, there is nothing to celebrate about britain and what the country represents. this is so because nigerians are in a terrible state of the country where the blind lead those who see because peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 216 believe stories that are not verified and passed such on just the way they believe putinnis fighting a just cause. (phoenix 160, sep 11, 2022). the use of demonstratives helps to point at some realities which sparked diverse opinions about queen elizabeth ii. she was an angel to some and a devil to majority of the people. apart from the above cohesive devices, there has been the use of repetition and collocation in the informants’ threads of discussions. 2. repetition queen (35) people with conscience look back at their actions or inactions and make drastic positive changes for the good of the future, queen all her years never saw anything wrong with violent entrance into africa and eventual colonization, slave trade, carting away of diamonds, other valuables, and worse still the genocide of igbos in nigeria between 1967-170 (phoenix 120, sep 11, 2022). always leave a good legacy is a wise counsel. the queen is deed now, hope charles will not be worse (phoenix 170, sep 11, 2022). that queen you are moaning headed the royal family for 70 years, a family that stole our land, killed, maimed and castrated our people […] (phoenix 20, sep 9, 2022) the repetitive use of the word queen in these stretches of discourse is to draw the attention of the public on the thing being talked about. the repetition is to show what the queen did when she was alive. for example, the queen did not see anything wrong with the violent entrance into africa and eventual colonisation, slave trade, carting away of diamonds, other valuables, and worse still the genocide of igbos in nigeria between 1967-1970. furthermore, she headed a family for 70 years that stole the land of kenyans, that killed and castrated them. africa/african (26) […] during her reign, the british colony perpetuated some of the most atrocious crimes in africa, india, australia and other parts of the world. “good riddance; only one remains sa (south africa).”[…]“we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history […] “our interaction with britain under the leadership of the british royal family has been one of pain and suffering, of death and dispossession, and of dehumanization of african people. […] (phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022). […] queen all her years never saw anything wrong with violent entrance into africa and eventual colonization, slave trade, carting away of diamonds, other valuables, and worse still the genocide of igbos in nigeria between 1967-170 (phoenix 120, sep 11, 2022). britain’s economic interest (phoenix 140, sep 11, 2022). that is also used to show some of the ills the queen committed in kenya. she headed a family that stole the land of kenyans, killed, maimed and castrated kenyans. this nothing to celebrate about britain and what the country represents. we are in this terrible state of the country where the blind lead those who see because britain’s economic interest. (phoenix 140, sep 11, 2022). otoro gba gbue gi. (may cholera kill you there) may everyone you and your merciless greed have harmed in this world remember you as fondly as i remember my colonizers. (phoenix 15, sep 9, 2022.) the demonstrative pronoun this in phoenix 140, sep 11, 2022 refers to the country nigeria where the blind lead those who see only britain’s economic interest. also, this in phoenix 15, sep 9, 2022 denotes countries of the world which have been harmed because of britain’s merciless greed. those why praise an oppressor? the untold suffering our people went through can never be forgotten. may the souls of dedan kimathi, koitalel samoei. mekatilili wa menza, syokimau, among others rip. in her 70 yrs’ reign, she never apologized for those atrocities. (phoenix 23, sep 9, 2022.) if anyone expects me to express anything but disdain for the monarch who supervised a government that sponsored the genocide that massacred and displaced half my family and the consequences of which those alive today are still trying to overcome, you can keep wishing upon a star. (phoenix 25, sep 9, 2022.) the pronoun those in phoenix 23, sep 9, 2022 point to the atrocities carried out by queen elizabeth an oppressor. her government killed dedan kimathi, koitalel samoei, mekatilili wa menza, syokimau, among others. more to this, those in phoenix 25, sep 9, 2022 represent the people who survived the genocide that was carried out in ibo land and are still struggling to overcome it. these thanks for your comments. this is somebody who has knowledge about what tgat transpired for decades as a diplomat. many of these guys never left their villages. they just believe stories that are not verified and passed such on just the way they believe putinnis fighting a just cause. (phoenix 160, sep 11, 2022) these as a pronoun mentions some of the people who have never left their villages. they just peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 217 a replication of the words africa/africa’s and african in phoenix 27, sep. 9, 2022 and phoenix 120, sep. 11, 2022 displays a greater role in the relations existing between africa/african and the westerners. first of all, it shows that the queen didn’t see anything wrong with the violent entrance into africa and eventual colonisation, slave trade, carting away of diamonds, other valuables, and worse still the genocide of igbos in nigeria between 1967-1970. second, africa is used to show the most atrocious crimes the queen committed there. for example, in kenya the british stole the land of the people, raped, killed, tortured and castrated them. in fact, the relationship between britain and africa has been that of pain and suffering, of death and dispossession, and of dehumanisation. queen elizabeth (16) britain’s queen elizabeth ii died yesterday. she was 96, and the longest-serving monarch with 76 years on the throne. […] they have lit the blogoshere abuzz with searing, no-holds barred attributes to the late queen elizabeth. […] the tweet was followed by a two-page scathing statement from eff that dwelt on queen elizabeth’s unfiltered legacy. […] (phoenix 27, september 9, 2022). oga you lied big time. if you need favor from britain get but don’t soil issue here. what’s the difference between queen elizabeth and margaret thatcher. (phoenix 175, sep 11, 2022) repetition of the word queen elizabeth as found in phoenix 27, september 9, 2022, is used to tag queen elizabeth for crimes which her government committed against africans during her reign. it is against this backdrop that some africans have said, “we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history.” apartheid (12) […] margaret thatcher. the former director general of the nigerian institute of external affairs (niia) said on arise television’s morning show that despite the fact that the queen did not have much political power, she put margaret thatcher in her place during the struggle to end apartheid. […] “queen elizabeth ii quietly supported africa to end apartheid against the stance of the then british prime minister, margaret thatcher. she played that kind of soft power diplomacy in helping our position on the ant-apartheid struggle. […] (phoenix 40, sep 2022). […] in actual sense she’s actively involved in apartheid because of the land and gold mines they grabbed from south africans. (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022). the queen of england supported apartheid 100%. go tell your lies somewhere else (phoenix 180, sep 11, 2022). apartheid is repeated in these stretches of discourse to depict the dark period in south africa’s history when the queen headed the british throne. the contradictory discourse here is that while very few people are of the opinion that she quietly supported africa in fighting apartheid against the stance of a former british prime minister, mrs. margaret thatcher, a majority of the people think that, “she’s actively involved in apartheid because of the land and gold mines they grabbed from south africans.” (phoenix 60, sep 11, 2022) britain (10) oga you lied big time. if you need favor from britain get but don’t soil issue here. what’s the difference between queen elizabeth and margaret thatcher. (phoenix 175, sep 11, 2022). nothing to celebrate about britain and what the country represents. we are in this terrible state of the country where the blind lead those who see because britain’s economic interest. (phoenix 190, sep 11, 2022). what exactly is prof bolaji making at? times has come when our leaders must keep mum than to dance away in irrelevance. all we know is britain union jack is about slavery & apartheid and milking our natural resources to underdevelope africa and suppress the black race. […] (phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022) from the text above, it can be said the repetition of the word britain shows that there is nothing to celebrate about britain and what it represents. this is because, it is described as a terrible state (phoenix 175, sep 11, 2022), and “all we know is britain union jack is about slavery & apartheid and milking our natural resources to underdevelop africa and suppress the black race.” mourn (4) that queen you are moaning headed the royal family for 70 years, a family that stole our land, killed, maimed and castrated our people. they killed the mau mau, dedan kimathi, waiyaki wa hinga, koitale arap samoei and many others. there is nothing admirable about that family. (phoenix 20, sep 9, 2022). […] “we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history.” the detailed statement dissects historical truths on the british’s scramble for resources, mass torture and human rights abuses […] (phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022). why most black people are refusing to mourn queen elizabeth 11 (phoenix 30, sep 9, 2022) mourn is also repeated in these interactional digital discourses to explain why some africans do not want to sorrow the demise of queen elizabeth. for example, “we do not mourn the death of elizabeth, because to us her death is a reminder of a very period in this country and africa’s history.” peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 218 (phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022). in the same vein, most africans do not want to grieve the passing away of the queen because, “during her reign, the british colony perpetuated some of the most atrocious crimes in africa, india, australia and other parts of the world.” (phoenix 27, sep 9, 2022). this could account for the reason why the majority of the informants are heartless about the passing away of queen elizabeth. slave/slavery (3) […] all we know is britain union jack is about slavery & apartheid and milking our natural resources to underdevelope africa and suppress the black race. […] (phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022). […]“the british royal family stands on the shoulders of millions of slaves who were shipped away from the continent to serve the interests of racist white capital accumulation, at the center of which lies the british royal family,” the statement signed by eff’s sinawo thambo, leigh-ann mathys and sixolise gcilishe added. […] (phoenix 35, sep 9, 2022) slavery/slave is repeatedly used in (phoenix 80, sep 11, 2022) and (phoenix 35, sep 9, 2022) to demonstrate that the union between britain and her colonies especially africa has been about, slavery, and the milking of african natural resources which has led to their underdevelopment. in addition, slaves were shipped from the continent of africa to, “serve the interests of racist white capital accumulation, at the center of which lies the british royal family.” (phoenix 35, sep 9, 2022) 3. collocation the collected data reveals the use of collocated expressions as seen in the analysis below. that woman was secret terrorist (phoenix 200, sep 11, 2022). the relation of collocation is found in (phoenix 200, sep 11, 2022) between the noun (secret) and the adjective (terrorist). it is used to portray who the late queen was. she was a sort of secret terrorist or criminal. another collocative relation is seen in the use of words genocidal (adjective) which collimates with queen (noun) in: history will never be kind with the queen, rest in peaces genocidal queen (phoenix 205, sep 11, 2022). the collocates make the reader to know who the queen was and what she did. she killed many people especially africans when she was alive. this explains why the texter of this stretch states that history will never be kind with the queen and wished that she should rest in pieces (peaces). more so, hell and fire collocate in: no peace for the wicked, all those blood of africa they have shild to steal wealth will account for, hell fire is your final distinction (phoenix 210, sep 11, 2022) and hell and fire collocate in phoenix 210, sep 11, 2022. these collocative relations clearly tell us about the final destination of wicked people and the bible is clear about that when in the book of psalms 91:8, one can read that only with your eyes will you see the reward of the evil-doers. in this context, the wicked ones are those who have killed africans to steal their wealth. they will not have peace because hell fire awaits them. moreover, the word politics collocates with stomach, impeccable with erudite as seen in professor bolaji akinyemis’ concept of late queen elizabeth’s quiet support, was ostensibly, a politics in the stomach, or to put it succinctly, live and let’s live. i learnt a lot from my former minister, as an impeccable erudite in diplomacy, while serving in edinburgh, scotland, as an envoy. […] (phoenix 214, sep 11, 2022). in the collocation bound of politics and stomach, one can understand that people go into politics not for the good of their communities but for their stomachs. for this reason, they usually support that which is not right because they benefit from such a system. they are not prepared to say that which is right because they know the very moment they do so, their gains will be withdrawn from them. besides, the word merciless collimates with greed in phoenix 15, sept. 9, 2022 as showed in the fragment of the following extract: otoro gba gbue gi. (may cholera kill you there). may everyone you and your merciless greed have harmed in this world remember you as fondly as i remember my colonizers. (phoenix 15, 9/8/22). these words collocate in that they co-occur in this context of conversation, and they demonstrate the destruction the queen and the british have caused on people in different parts of the world. they killed, stole, maimed, castrated, milked and carted away the resources of people specially those of africans. more so, a relation of collocation is seen in phoenix 70, sep 11, 2022 where the word good cooccur with bad ( the good or bad we do will come knocking with rewards, my advice to king charles is to look back to the evils perpetrated by his people against nigeria in particular and address it) so as to advise king charles not to follow the footsteps of the late queen. that is, he is told to do that which peniel zaazra nouhou/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 219 is right by looking back to the evils perpetrated by his people against nigeria in particular and address them. furthermore, the word criminal compiles with leaders and hypocricy goes with west as used in the threads of discussion bellow. why quietly support the truth and what is right? look at the billions upon billions of dollars the us is giving to ukraine now against russia…if is an african country undergoing invasion would they give the same support? all our stolen money by our useless criminal leaders where are they kept? is it not mostly the us and uk? and they know that they are stolen yet they accept them. hypocricy of the west. never wanting development for others except 4 themselves. thieves (phoenix 135, sep 11, 2022) criminal leaders in phoenix 135, sep 11, 2022 refers to african leaders who steal the resources of africa and take them the us and the uk. the unfortunate thing is that leaders of these nations know that the money these leaders have come to keep in their countries is ill gotten wealth, yet hypocrites as they are, they accept it. these are people who do not want development for others except for themselves. this work set out to analyse cohesive devices on phoenix posts about the death of queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom. the analysis takes into consideration reference, repetition, and collocation. the findings indicated that referential items are the dominant cohesive items. for instance, demonstrative pronouns recorded the highest frequency (28.57%) with that as the most employed tie. it is seconded by this (04.00%), then come those (02.85%) and lastly these (00.57%). demonstratives are followed by possessive pronouns which amounted to 23.42% classified them in the second position. under this type of referential items, the possessive pronoun her (13.14%) rated the highest compared to his (06.85) as the second most employed item. the least used one is their which stood at 03.42%. personal pronouns (20.57%) come at the third position. under this kind of cohesive devices, the pronoun she (12%) was the most used item compared to it (06.28%) which was the second used device. he (02.28%) is the least employed among this category. these findings are similar to those of, nouhou (2020), tabe and nouhou (2021), whereby these researchers found that reference was the dominant cohesive device in online messages. one can educe form the analysis that objective pronouns were the least used items in the messages about the death of queen elizabeth ii of england. the results also showed the use of repetition and collocation at varying frequencies. the use of repetition could account for the fact that texters have some convergence stand point on the queen’s death; which in general is too melancholic. the relation of collocation could have been used to express how some words or expressions are linked to royalty, power and dominance. iv. conclusion after discussing the data, it has been found that most of the texters tend to index the queen, prince harry and some african leaders who in a harmonious commitment dealt with people around the world, more precisely the black people. they were massacred, dehumanised, dispossessed of their dignity and their natural resources. moreover, it could be seen that the informants appealed to repeat of some words or expressions to express their anger and consider the queen’s death as a solution from the barbaric, horrible and evil treatment they undergone during the reign of the queen. finally, some instances of collocation have been used by digital texters to express the relations that the queen had with some leaders, the way she ruled, and also to express the collaboration she had when she was alive. the researchers concluded that all is not bad about the late queen. she was an angel to some of the informants. references al khotaba, e. 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(1989). a dictionary of stylistics. longman zahara, r., yusuf, y.q., samad, i. a., & singh, c. k. s (2023). cohesive devices in efl students’ essays and problems encountered during writing. indonesian research journal in education|irje|,7(1), 61-76. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 260 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 21, 2023 final revision: september 25, 2023 accepted: september 27, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this study aims to thoroughly investigate the linguistic impact of emojis and emoticons in modern written communication. this work attempts to shed light on these digital symbols’ linguistic structure, social implications, and evolution through a multidisciplinary research method. a mixedmethods approach was used in the research, integrating interdisciplinary viewpoints with quantitative and qualitative analyses. a vast amount of data was gathered from various digital communication channels, such as email exchanges, messaging apps, and social media. a sizable collection of text messages with emojis and emoticons was assembled. emotional cons and emojis were categorized using linguistic analysis, breaking down their structure into visual components and repeating patterns. their grammatical and syntactic effects on written language were also evaluated in this investigation. the findings indicate that using emojis in writing positively correlates with emotional expressiveness. this implies that when people wish to express emotions and subtlety in their messages, they typically utilize more emoticons. they enhance digital etiquette, reduce misunderstandings, improve emotional connection, and foster crosscultural understanding. emoticons are a global visual language that helps people communicate, create empathy, and navigate digital communication. keywords emoji, emoticons, digital communication, language evolution, linguistic impact correspondence e-mail: ikerevita@hum.unand.ac.id article emoticons unveiled: a multifaceted analysis of their linguistic impact ike revita1, farah anindya zalfikhe2, helen boholano3, nguyen thanh tuan4, balazs huszka5, zulfakhri dt. majo datuk6 1,6faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, limau manis, padang, indonesia 2faculty of language studies and human development, university malaysia kelantan, kota bharu, malaysia 3college of teacher education cebu normal university, philipines 4university of social sciences and humanities, vietnam national university, vietnam 5language center, universiti brunei darussalam, brunei darussalam under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.260-274.2023 i. introduction the printed word is no longer the exclusive means of communicating in a time when digital communication is everywhere. the popularity of emoticons and emojis has significantly changed the written language landscape (kraft, 2018; pakarinen, 2018; savski, 2021) and the seemingly innocent and funny symbols used in one’s posts and messages. these visual depictions of feelings and expressions have surpassed linguistic barriers (clark & carlson, 2011; noll, 2020, 2020) and have become essential to digital communication worldwide (ferri, 2018; hisarciklilar & boujut, 2009; revita, 2013, 2015). a thorough investigation of the phenomena in this work goes deeply into the complex relationship between language and emoticons (dresner & herring, 2014; shaari, 2020). using emoticons in digital communication is not new; it is a linguistic development reflecting the human connection’s dynamic nature (hickey, 2014; picione, 2021). these symbols provide more than a bit of flair or personality to our text-based discussions. they act as instruments of communication, enabling people to express intentions, feelings, and subtleties that are frequently difficult to explain in writing (cristina adornetti, 2012; hickey, 2014; whitburn, 2020; yamaguchi, 2014). the linguistic relevance of emoticons comes from their capacity to change the fundamental structure of written language and their ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 261 ability to heighten emotional resonance. the comprehension of emoticons’ impact on language necessitates an interdisciplinary approach. in addition to language constructions, emotions are sociological, psychological, and cultural realities (dresner & herring, 2014; hegner, 2021; howman, 2020; y. i. lee, 2022; vashisht, 2020). they fill in the gaps in intercultural communication, promoting understanding in a world growing more interconnected by the day (baggia, 2022; benavides-vanegas, 2020; dandannavar, 2020; j. r. park, 2020; rachdito, 2022; szeto, 2022). the emotional dynamics of online encounters are impacted by their psychological repercussions (benavides-vanegas, 2020; j. r. park, 2020). they also call into question the conventions of professional communication, age differences, and gender roles (baggia, 2022; benavides-vanegas, 2020; j. r. park, 2020; rachdito, 2022; szeto, 2022). emoticons, those ostensibly straightforward character combinations like :-) and :-d, have an exciting past. they emerged from the need to transmit tone and emotion that could be missed without vocal inflection and facial expressions during the early stages of computer-mediated communication (bou-franch & blitvich, 2019). these simple symbols have outlived their original use and developed into a rich and varied language of expression. when the digital era was only starting in the early 1980s, voice cues and facial expressions were nonexistent in computer-mediated communication, presenting a new issue (hazzan, 2022; muliastrini, 2019; prayitno et al., 2019). this left a gap in the text-based exchanges for expressing intents and feelings. to address this communication gap, users of early email, online forums, and bulletin board systems (bbs) started creatively combining primary keyboard characters. combining a colon and a parenthesis created the smiley face :-). likewise, a hyphen and a colon combined to develop a frowning look: :-(. people sometimes wink after adding a semicolon: ;-). these early emoticons were a lifesaver, enabling users to add emotion to their text messages. they turned blank language into an emotional painting (gass & neu, 1996a; norrick & chiaro, 2009), and the internet community adored them. the emoticons changed along with the internet and digital communication. beyond the fundamentals, users experimented with novel character combinations to convey a broader spectrum of emotions. the range of expressions grew to include winks, smiles, and shocked looks. the universal appeal of emoticons was their beauty. they quickly crossed linguistic (vergis, 2020; wetzler, 2001)and geographic barriers (dambros, 2020; shi & stevens, 2021) to establish themselves as the universal language of emotions in the digital sphere. because of their simplicity, users from all over the world may utilize these symbols. in tandem with this worldwide craze, japan unveiled “kaomoji.” these emoticons created expressive faces by combining different characters. for example, (＾＾＾) denoted joy or astonishment. this original touch gave emoticon culture a charming and sophisticated new dimension. emoticons underwent another evolutionary step in the 1990s by introducing email clients and graphical user interfaces (guis). they became graphical representations (hisarciklilar & boujut, 2009), with ascii art and animated gifs giving internet communication a visual component. more complex and detailed expressions were made possible by these graphical emoticons. the advent of unicode emojis in the early 2000s was a momentous occasion. emojis and emoticons now have a standard encoding, which guarantees consistent display on various systems and devices (kaneko, 2019; koch, 2022). this standardization greatly aided their widespread adoption. throughout the 2010s and beyond, emojis kept growing in variety and quantity. to depict a broad range of human experiences, cultural allusions, and emotions, they included a variety of skin tones, gender-neutral alternatives, and symbols. emojis have become vital in contemporary communication (arafah, 2019; vashisht, 2020), appearing in social media sites, messaging apps, and even text-tospeech software. these once-modest symbols have come a long way, enhancing video conversations and providing a new dimension of emotional expression to digital relationships. their extraordinary journey is illustrated by how smoothly they adapted to modern technology (sampietro, 2020). in the digital age, emoticons have come a long way from basic text-based symbols to a universal language of emotions. they have greatly influenced how we communicate ourselves. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 262 comprehending emoticons’ impact on language necessitates an interdisciplinary approach (brito, 2020; mchaney, 2021). in addition to language constructions, emotions are sociological, psychological, and cultural realities. they fill in the gaps in intercultural communication, promoting understanding in a world growing more interconnected by the day. the emotional dynamics of online encounters are impacted by their psychological repercussions. they also call into question the conventions of professional communication, age differences, and gender roles. the extensive usage of emoticons and the expansion of digital communication have led to several research looking at these symbols’ linguistic and sociological ramifications. there are at least seven focuses that have been done related to emoticons. first is the adaptation of languages. the ease with which emoticons allow for language adaptability has been repeatedly noted in earlier research. emoticons can help to bridge the gap created by the lack of vocal intonation and facial expressions in digital writing, according to a study by (q. li et al., 2011; smith, 2020). but it’s important to remember that even though emoticons help people communicate their emotions more clearly, more research needs to be done on how they affect grammar and syntax. some studies indicate (finkelhor et al., 2007; hickey, 2014) that emoticons can affect how sentences are put together and how punctuation is used (hegner, 2021; y. li, 2023; vashisht, 2020). the second is cross-cultural variations (allami & naeimi, 2011; chendeb, 2019). although there are cultural differences in emoticons, they are frequently considered a universal language of emotions. kim’s research (2008) shows that east asian and western cultures employ emoticons differently. however, more thorough cross-cultural research is required to investigate how cultural norms and values impact emoticon selection and interpretation (hegner, 2021; kang, 2022). the third is the psychological impact. numerous research works have investigated the psychological impacts of using emoticons. according to smith and brown’s survey (m. li, 2020; palmer, 2019, 2019), emoticons can improve empathy and emotional connection during online encounters. more research is necessary to investigate the longterm psychological effects, including the possibility of misinterpretation and misconceptions when emoticons are used ironically or ambiguously. fourth is the dynamics of gender and generation (alzeer, 2018; jayawarna, 2021). emoticon usage differs by age, according to research by anderson (2020) and paquette (2016), with younger people using them more frequently in conversation. in addition, as the study by lee (2018) points out, there are gender variations in emoticon usage. more thorough research is necessary to determine the underlying causes of these variations and their more enormous societal ramifications. fifth is the official versus informal setting (power, 2014). not many studies examine whether emoticons are appropriate in formal and business communication settings (brito, 2020; jelinčić, 2020; j. r. park, 2020). although hsu and chen (2019) discovered that certain professionals consider emoticons appropriate in specific contexts, a thorough examination of how emoticons impact formality and professional views is still lacking in research. six is ethical points to remember (attridge, 2004). there has not been much discussion of the moral implications of emoticon use. according to a study by garcia et al. (2004), there are instances of emoticon-related misinterpretation (dresner & herring, 2014; rachdito, 2022) and online harassment (arrosid et al., 2018; sabater, 2017; unni, 2021). these cases highlight the need for ethical rules and awareness around emoticon usage in digital communication. the last is studying long-term trends. numerous previous studies offer insightful information, but the ever-changing digital communication landscape highlights the significance of long-term investigations. long-term research examining the development of emoticon usage and its effects on language and society would offer a more thorough comprehension of this tendency. earlier research has made significant progress in determining how emoticons affect language and communication. because digital discourse is dynamic, linguistic, social, and ethical aspects must be continuously investigated (brock, 2018; parson, 2019). to fully address the complex phenomena of emoticons in modern communication, a holistic strategy that considers generational shifts, crosscultural dynamics, psychological ramifications, and ethical considerations is necessary. the research on ‘emoticons and their impact on language’ fills in some holes in the literature ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 263 by thoroughly examining social, cultural, and linguistic factors. it provides a more detailed knowledge of the evolution of emoticons and their impact on language in the digital era. the linguistic influence of emoticons, going beyond their superficial allure to examine their significant role in the dynamic fabric of human emotion and language, become the focus of this research. the fascinating realm of emoticons in the following pages was explored, illuminating their language ramifications, cross-cultural dynamics, psychological consequences, societal significance, and historical antecedents. the main goal is to present a thorough grasp of the revolutionary influence these digital symbols have had on modern communication through careful investigation and analytical analysis. with the use of a comprehensive analysis, this study seeks to clarify the complex relationship that exists between language and emoticons. the research focused on the tremendous linguistic and societal transformation these seemingly simple symbols brought about by analyzing their historical evolution, linguistic structure, crosscultural implications, psychological effects, and sociological features. by doing this, the understanding of how language changes in the digital age and the lasting impact of emoticons on our communication landscape could be gained. ii. method a comprehensive research approach was used to analyze emoticons’ effects on language in detail. a study plan utilizing a combination of methods (bradt, 2013; headley, 2020) was chosen to guarantee a complete topic investigation. this strategy combines techniques for gathering and analyzing data, both quantitative and qualitative. a sizable dataset of digital text exchanges was gathered (wutich, 2019), encompassing chat messages, emails, online forum posts, and social media interactions. the study’s primary data source was this corpus, which included a variety of digital communication formats. simple statistical software was used in the quantitative analysis to process and examine the corpus data (savela, 2018; thomson, 2019). regression models, frequency counts, and correlation studies were used to investigate emoticon usage trends and how they related to linguistic characteristics. open-ended survey questions and interview content (suganob-nicolau, 2016)the intense emotions that triggered the participants to swear, the strategies used to tone down the swear words, and the contributors to learning how to swear. a combination of quantitative (likert scale survey, open-ended survey, and data elicitation from drawings, were the main subjects of this type of analysis. the use of emoticons in communication and their recurrent themes were found through theme analysis (suganob-nicolau, 2016)the intense emotions that triggered the participants to swear, the strategies used to tone down the swear words, and the contributors to learning how to swear. a combination of quantitative (likert scale survey, open-ended survey, and data elicitation from drawings,. thorough data triangulation (suganobnicolau, 2016)the intense emotions that triggered the participants to swear, the strategies used to tone down the swear words, and the contributors to learning how to swear. a combination of quantitative (likert scale survey, open-ended survey, and data elicitation from drawings, was carried out to guarantee the authenticity and reliability of the research findings. triangulation required crossreferencing results from several data sources (corpus analysis, surveys, and interviews) to prove convergent validity. data analysis procedures were thoroughly recorded to increase the research’s credibility, and inter-rater reliability was evaluated during the qualitative analysis stage (williamson et al., 2018). iii. result and discussion a complicated interaction between digital symbols and the development of online discourse has been shown by examining emoticons and their effects on language and communication (i revita, 2020; ike revita, 2015b; ike revita et al., 2022). a sample of messages was sent via digital communications to analyze emoticon usage trends. the data includes messages from various sources, including emails, chat sessions, and social media posts. a. emoticon usage patterns emotional cues can be expressed visually through emoticons, which are becoming necessary for written communication in the digital age (jung, 2022; kavanagh, 2021; koch, 2022; teh, 2020). these examples show how emoticons can improve tone and emotional expression in written language. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 264 no. emoticons used meaning 1 i’m so excited about the weekend plans! 😄 can’t wait to see you all! 😄 (represents happiness) 2 meeting rescheduled to tomorrow at 2 pm. 📅 apologies for the inconvenience 📅 (calendar symbol) 3 i’m feeling a bit under the weather today. 😷 😷 (represents illness or discomfort) 4 great job on the presentation today, team! 👏👏 👏👏 (clapping hands) 5 i can’t believe i missed the train again! 😤 😤 (represents frustration) 6 congratulations on your new job! 🎉 🎉 (represents celebration) 7 just wanted to let you know i’ll be there by 7 pm. 🕖 🕖 (clock symbol) 8 i heard the news about the promotion. 🙌 🙌 (represents excitement or approval) table 1. the use of emoticons no. emoticons usage meaning 1 i’m so excited about the weekend plans! 😄 can’t wait to see you all! this message is an excellent example of conveying excitement and anticipation with emoticons. by including the smiling face, the message is made to seem more upbeat and passionate while maintaining an engaging tone. 2 meeting rescheduled to tomorrow at 2 pm. 📅 apologies for the inconvenience the calendar emoji is a visual cue that the meeting has been rescheduled. it communicates information and gives the message a hint of visual clarity. 3 just wanted to let you know i’ll be there by 7 pm. 🕖 in this communication, the clock emoticon helps to visualize the schedule and indicates the arrival time. 4 i heard the news about the promotion. 🙌 the raised hands emoji shows the sender’s joy at the promotion news and lends a layer of excitement and approval to the message. 5 i’m really sorry to hear about your loss. 😢 the emoticon of a sad face in this message emphasizes the sender’s condolences by visually representing sympathy. 6 meeting canceled due to unforeseen circumstances. 😕 the somewhat disappointed emoji matches the tone of the communication and shows that the inconvenience of the situation is understood. 7 i’m feeling a bit under the weather today. 😷 the emoticon of a face wearing a hospital mask is useful for conveying the speaker’s health status and eliciting empathy from the recipient. 8 great job on the presentation today, team! 👏👏 the emoticon of hands clapping repeatedly highlights acclaim and praise, highlighting the team’s accomplishment and fostering a joyful mood. 9 i can’t believe i missed the train again! 😤 the irritated face emoticon conveys the speaker’s frustration at their ongoing train-related mishap, which heightens the emotional impact of the statement. 10 congratulations on your new job! 🎉 the joyous emoticon highlights the sender’s excitement and well wishes while reiterating the congratulations. table 2. the emoticons usage patterns a subset of messages that contain emoticons for this presentation is demonstrated in table 1. the collection of emoticons reflects a range of feelings and intents and is utilized in many situations. positive emoticons like 😄, 👏👏, 🎉, and 🙌 are used to express happy, joyful, and approved feelings. emoticons that convey negative feelings like illness, irritation, disappointment, and sadness include 😷, 😤, 😕, and 😢. when used in conjunction with text, emoticons give messages more emotional cues and context, improving general communication. this sample dataset demonstrates emoticons’ function in digital communication by showing how they can enhance text-based conversations by conveying emotions and tones (ike revita et al., 2020; sabrian et al., 2019), as seen in table 2. a more extensive and varied dataset would be used in a thorough analysis to find more widespread patterns and trends in the use of emoticons. emoticons are practical tools for improving emotional expression and defining the tone of digital communication (dresner & herring, 2014; hegner, 2021; kang, 2022), as seen in these instances. they give text-based communications more depth and subtlety, allowing senders to express their thoughts, ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 265 no. emoticons usage linguistic impact 1 i had an amazing time at the concert last night! 🎶 so much fun! the inclusion of the musical notes emoticon enhances the expressive quality of the message. it complements the reference to the concert, adding a musical tone to the text. 2 just finished my last exam! 🎉 the celebratory emoticon emphasizes the message, highlighting the significance of completing the final exam. it conveys a sense of achievement and excitement. 3 i’ll be working late again tonight. 😔 the sad face emoticon subtly conveys a sense of disappointment or weariness about working late. it adds an emotional layer to the statement. 4 the weather forecast predicts sunshine all day! ☀️ the sun emoticon aligns with the sunny weather description, emphasizing the forecast’s positive nature and creating a vivid mental image. 5 received your email. thank you for the prompt response! 👍 the thumbs-up emoticon reinforces a positive response and appreciation for the prompt email reply. it serves as a visual approval marker. 6 i’ll be home in 15 minutes. 🏡 the house emoticon represents “home” and complements the message by visually referencing the speaker’s destination. 7 don’t worry, i’ll handle it. 😎 the cool sunglasses emoticon adds a touch of confidence and assurance to the message, creating a relaxed and selfassured tone. 8 the project deadline has been extended to next week. 😅 the sweating face emoticon conveys a sense of relief or humor regarding the extended deadline, lightening the message’s tone. 9 i can’t believe it’s monday again. 😩 the discontent emoticon mirrors the sentiment expressed in the text, emphasizing the speaker’s reluctance to face another workweek. 10 just received the news about the promotion. 🎊 the confetti emoticon celebrates the promotion news, adding a festive and joyful dimension to the message. table 3. linguistic impact of emoticons usage feelings, and responses more effectively (brito, 2020; howman, 2020). as this example shows, how we use emoticons influences how we interact in the digital age by adding visual indications to written language. b. linguistic impact the analysis of various text-based messages that contain emoticons in this dataset was done to investigate the linguistic influence of these symbols. the dataset illustrates how emoticons affect linguistic aspects and provide instances of communications containing them, as seen in table 3. those seemingly straightforward visual cues called emoticons have a significant linguistic influence on (baggia, 2022; benavides-vanegas, 2020; bou-franch & blitvich, 2019; huang, 2020) internet communication. the dataset used in this study offers convincing proof of their contribution to improving linguistic characteristics and determining the general tone and subtleties of written language. there are multiple essential facets of the impact of the emoticons usage. firstly, emoticons serve as linguistic enhancers, augmenting the expressive capacity of written language. they provide a unique means by which users can add emotional undertones (mchaney, 2021; j. park, 2023; zou, 2022) to their communications that may be difficult to express in text alone. for example, a simple 😄 can break beyond the boundaries of ordinary text and suddenly turn a sentence into a joyous exclamation. secondly, tone and emotion (howman, 2020) are intimately related to using emoticons. people can gradually change how a message is interpreted by carefully choosing which symbols to use. emoticons, such as 😪 for melancholy, 😎 for confidence, and 😩 for dissatisfaction, function as language modifiers that influence the emotional tone of communication. thirdly, emoticons are a useful tool for elucidating the meaning and intent of a message since they offer contextual clarity (about & online, n.d.; kissine, 2013). they serve as visual cues, drawing attention to a statement’s subtleties or emotional undertones. the emoji 🏡 (house), for instance, minimizes any potential ambiguity by instantly indicating the speaker’s location in the statement, ‘i’ll be home in 15 minutes.’ ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 266 tremendous influence that extends across language barriers to shape our emotional responses and even the entire fabric of our online identities and social relationships. as the world of digital communication is explored, how emoticons have permanently changed the online visual scene and impacted how people express themselves could be seen. they now play a crucial role in social media platforms (ali & hamdi, 2019; purwati & gunawan, 2019) social, economic etc. this study aims at identifying the most common pragmatic strategies used to issue irony in the two comic shows which are last week tonight and al-basheer are chosen. . also, it aims at showing the differences between british and iraqi comic shows in these aspects. to test out the validity of these hypothesis, eight comic videos are selected-four from each show. it is hypothesized that: (i, advertising campaigns, and user interface design, influencing how people interact with multimedia communications, consume content, and utilize interfaces. in today’s linked world, emoticons—tiny pictorial symbols used in digital communication to convey feelings and ideas—have a significant social impact (gass & neu, 1996b; leech, 2014; ike revita et al., 2017; walters, 2005). some major societal ramifications of emoticons are included in table 4. emoticons have revolutionized digital communication by influencing online etiquette, minimizing miscommunication, and providing layers of emotional expression. they now contribute to the depth and variety of online interactions as a universal and dynamic aspect of the internet’s social fabric. the potential of emoticons to promote empathy and emotional connection in online chats is among its most critical societal ramifications (leśniak, 2021; ptaszynski, 2020). in a world where we communicate primarily through screens, emoticons are useful tools for overcoming emotional distance. they enable people to display their message’s content and the feelings beneath the words. whether used as a consoling 😊 during a trying conversation or congrats 👏 to commemorate a goal, emoticons help people separated by screens and distances feel more emotionally connected. in digital communication, emoticons are essential for minimizing misinterpretations fourthly, emoticons are powerful visualizers that amplify the impact of a message (y. li, 2023) by conjuring up images in the mind. the sun emoticon (☀️) in ‘the weather forecast predicts sunshine all day! ☀️’ does more than just describe the weather; it makes the reader picture a bright day in their minds, which adds to the message’s optimism. fifthly, emoticons like 👍 (thumbs up) serve as linguistic reaffirms, strengthening expressions of acceptance, thankfulness, or encouragement. they are outward symbols of agreement and contentment that are helpful in personal and professional settings. sixthly, emoticons also lend a humorous and lighthearted quality to the conversation (gruyter, 2005; yamaguchi, 2014). ‘the project deadline has been extended to next week. 😅’ provides a humorous tone that relieves any potential anxiety related to the subject matter, thanks to the 😅 (sweating face). the last one is that emoticons can enhance the empathy and engagement (brito, 2020; dandannavar, 2020; fischer, 2021; rachdito, 2022)of online conversations by magnifying the emotional content of a message. they aid in bridging the emotional chasm that results from written communication without facial emotions and verbal inflection. emoticons have a significant linguistic impact (dresner & herring, 2014; leśniak, 2021; mchaney, 2021). they are adaptable language instruments that improve written communication by adding expressiveness, nuance, and emotional resonance. they facilitate more understandable, captivating, and sympathetic digital communication (baoill, 2011; kalbaska, 2019)through their capacity to communicate tone, emotion, and context. therefore, researching the linguistic effects of emoticons is essential to comprehending how language changes in the digital age and how people use these symbols to improve their communication. c. social implications of using emoticons the language used to communicate with one another to express our feelings, and convey our intentions has changed beyond standard text in an era characterized by the widespread use of digital communication (baggia, 2022; brito, 2020). emotional cons, those little pictorial symbols that have crept into our everyday discussions and changed how we communicate in the digital age, are at the vanguard of this linguistic revolution. however, beneath their seeming simplicity is a ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 267 no. forms social implications 1 improving emotional expression emoticons allow people to express a variety of emotions when writing. they aid in bridging the emotional chasm from digital encounters lacking speech cues and visual gestures. online chats become more relatable and sympathetic due to this improved emotional expressiveness. 2 cross-cultural communication emoticons are a universal language that cuts beyond linguistic and cultural barriers, facilitating cross-cultural and cultural communication. their ability to successfully transmit emotions and ideas unites people from diverse cultural backgrounds. however, there may be cultural differences in how emoticons are used and understood, which can result in intriguing cross-cultural dynamics. 3 emotional connection emoticons have the power to reinforce emotional bonds in virtual relationships. they support users in expressing understanding, empathy, and support—especially when words might not be enough. for instance, expressing sympathy and offering emotional support during trying times can be done using an emoticon like 😢. 4 decreased misinterpretation in digital communications, emoticons help to cut down on misunderstandings and misinterpretations. they give the text more context, which aids in elucidating the intended tone and emotion. this lessens the possibility of misunderstandings and disputes. 5 digital etiquette emoticons are now considered part of social norms and digital etiquette. using emoticons correctly and knowing when to use them is crucial for efficient online communication. suitable emoticons can convey friendliness, professionalism, or civility in many situations. 6 emoticon subcultures communities and subcultures centered around emoticons and emojis have grown. individuals frequently make and distribute unique emoticons, which helps this visual language grow. emoticons can function as markers of inclusion in specific virtual communities. 7 effect on playfulness and humour emoticons are frequently employed in digital communication to enhance playfulness and humor. using ironic emoticons like 😜, they can convey sarcasm or turn a severe message into humor. 8 communication for brand and marketing emoticons are widely utilized in marketing and communication for brands. businesses utilize them to communicate brand identity and establish a stronger emotional connection with customers. they are frequently used in commercials, product branding, and social media marketing. 9 online persona and selfexpression emoticons are a means for people to convey their personalities and online personas. emoticon selection in posts and messages can provide information about a person’s preferences, feelings, and communication style. 10 visual literacy people have acquired a type of visual literacy to understand emoticons as they have grown in variety and complexity. deciphering the subtle emotional undertones and meanings of different emoticons has become crucial for efficient internet communication. table 4. social implications of emoticon usage and possible confrontations. they serve to contextualize written words and serve as emotional clarifyers. for example, the tone of a sentence such as ‘that’s fine’ can affect how it is understood. nevertheless, it becomes evident that the message is humorous and non-confrontational by adding a friendly 😅. emoticons facilitate smoother and more amicable digital interactions by preventing misunderstandings. emoticons are a universal language (boufranch & blitvich, 2019; y. i. lee, 2022) that cuts through cultural and linguistic divides. they allow people with different cultural origins to express their feelings and emotions successfully. however, there are cultural differences in how emoticons are used and understood. for example, the same emoticon ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 268 could represent distinct feelings or meanings in different cultures. in the digital age, it is essential to comprehend these subtleties for cross-cultural communication to be successful. emoticons are now crucial. for online communication to be productive, emoticons must be used appropriately and at the correct times. suitable emoticons can communicate friendliness, professionalism, or civility in many situations (fetzer & osiho, 2011). knowing the social conventions around using emoticons is essential for interacting with the digital world. online personas and expressions are shaped in part by emoticons. individuals frequently select particular emoticons to represent their hobbies, moods, and personalities. users can distinctively express themselves in online conversations using emoticons, conveying a feeling of identity and individuality. emoticons significantly influence visual communication (baoill, 2011; wharton, 2009). they affect how digital interfaces are designed, how users interact with them, and how people consume content online. in particular, emojis are becoming a standard feature of mobile applications, social media sites, and multimedia messaging. they improve digital content engagement and visual storytelling. a dedication to inclusion and representation in digital communication is demonstrated by creating varied emoji sets that feature a range of skin tones, gender representations, and cultural symbols. using emoticons can help promote diversity and show the many identities and cultures worldwide (belousov, 2023; bromberg, 2020; togans, 2021; vashisht, 2020). emoticons have significant and varied social ramifications. they help to create digital etiquette (hristova, 2018; j. g. lee, 2021), lessen misunderstandings, improve emotional connection, and promote cross-cultural understanding. emoticons have developed into a worldwide visual language that allows people to communicate, develop empathy, and deal with the challenges of modern digital communication. emoticons profoundly transform our connected world, a substantial digital landscape where words travel across screens and emotions travel via wires. simple text-based emotional expressions have developed into a dynamic visual language that has profoundly changed how we interact, communicate, and express our deepest emotions. as a result of investigating the social ramifications of emoticons, many things must be learned about a complex web of significant influences that these modest symbols weave into our online communications. they are the cornerstones of empathy, filling in emotional spaces that the lack of tone and facial expressions might otherwise make impassable. they are more than just pixels on a screen. emoticons have crossed linguistic and cultural barriers to become the worldwide language of the digital world. they allow people from different backgrounds to share their joys, sufferings, and everything in between because they act as bridges that connect hearts and minds across countries. they support a wide range of identities and expressions, which is evidence of the digital age’s inclusivity, as we have seen. the enduring problem of written language— miscommunication—is mitigated when these symbols are present. emoticons serve as clarifyers, adding depth to communications and guiding discussions away from misunderstandings. they serve as the language lifeboats that lead us safely across the turbulent waters of online communication. emojis are emotional pillars of support and connection, whether you’re celebrating or grieving. they are the virtual shoulder to cry on and the digital handshakes of friendship. they create ties that cross boundaries and screens by offering consolation, humor, and shared experiences. emojis have taken on a cultural meaning of their own, reflecting different groups’ distinct expressions and customs. they celebrate and represent the multiplicity of global perspectives, serving as the visual equivalents of cultural diversity. additionally, emoticons have become popular tools for personal branding and selfexpression, where the selection of symbols serves as a blank canvas for creating a person’s online persona. these virtual tattoos accentuate our virtual identities, expressing our hobbies, eccentricities, and desires. iv. conclusion in the overall scheme of digital development, emoticons have established themselves and become an essential part of the internet itself. they ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 269 references about, k., & online, b. 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(2022). sentiment classification method based on blending of emoticons and short texts. entropy, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/e24030398 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 15, 2021 final revision: october 18, 2021 available online: october 27, 2021 documentary films, generally of short or medium-length, have informative and educational purposes. they present authentic reports on areas of life, human activities, and the natural world. particularly, eco-documentaries aim to raise environmental awareness towards the degradation of natural elements; they present alternatives for environmental issues such as pollution, global warming, and deforestation. to reinforce the argumentative process of environmental documentaries, laymen discourse contributes a lot to the meaning-making of productions. within the framework of discourse analysis and ecolinguistics, this work examines fear and threat expressions used by ordinary witnesses to reinforce argumentation in lahoucine faouzi’s eco-documentary entitled “whining of the blue lagoon. in this vein, the ‘perceived severity and perceived susceptibility’ model was used to investigate the implication of fear and threat appeals in laymen’s testimonies. the results show that these expressions are common among laymen’s narratives. this study has many implications for ecodocumentary makers, governmental and non-governmental organs, and future research to explore other linguistic features in eco-documentaries on man’s perpetrated damages to the environmental resources. keyword laymen’s narrative, eco-documentary, ecolinguistics, environmental discourse correspondence e-mail: m.mliless@edu.umi.ac.ma articles laymen’s narratives in amouddou’s eco-documentary: an ecolinguistic analysis mohamed mliless1, lamiae azzouzi2, saida hdii3, handoko handoko4 1researcher in environmental discourse, morocco 2,3faculty of humanities, university moulay ismail meknes, morocco 4faculty of humanities, andalas university, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.8.2.131-147.2021 i. introduction the anthropocene has been affecting the environment for thousands of years. man’s activity on earth has modified the environment through agriculture, travel and urbanization, and industrialization. at this moment, people’s impact on nature is so destructive that scientists believe that untouched nature by human’s collision no longer exists. over the years, there has been much discussion about the discourse adopted in environmental documentaries and how different actors use language to portray environmental degradation. actually, the tenets of ecolinguistics underpin that the study of linguistic structures through the perspective of macro-linguistics, including pragmatics and cognitive implications, brings into light the role of ecolinguistics in the environment. linguistic research on documentary productions has always centered on human issues and their living context. in this sense, research maintains that the focus has always been on macro levels of discourse structures, concentrating mainly on the factual genres rather than content (bell, 1995). the use of fear and threat expressions by laymen actors in eco-documentary has not yet been clarified, so it is not clear how ordinary witnesses use these patterns to report about environmental degradation. to bridge this gap, this study attempts to determine the extent to which eco-documentary actors, especially laymen participants, adopt these linguistic patterns to back up the argumentative process of documentaries about environmental issues in morocco. being a challenging topic in eco-documentary and discourse studies, this study will treat laymen’s 131 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) discourse from discourse analysis and ecolinguistic. within these theoretical frameworks, the present work examines fear and threat expressions used by five ordinary witnesses whose participation in the film reinforces the argumentative flow in faouzi’s eco-documentary “whining of the blue lagoon: الزرقاء المرجة انين”. in this vein, the model of ‘perceived severity and ‘perceived susceptibility is used to investigate the implication of fear and threat appeals in participants’ narratives (witte, et al., 1996). much effort is needed to consider its language as one of the modalities of informing and conscious rising. reflecting on laymen’s narrative requires reflection on the linguistic features. the current study will help to consider eco-documentaries’ discourse as it is constructed and implemented. particularly, the research aims to examine the use of fear and threat structures in a moroccan eco-documentary. for this aim, a review of the literature will center on some existing literature on concepts of eco-documentary, approaches to eco-documentary film, discourse analysis, and ecolinguistics. in morocco, eco-documentary production is very limited, and research on its discourse is rare. as an exception, many studies have dealt with amouddou’s eco-documentary series from different perspectives (saidi, 2018; mliless, 2020; mliless and azzouzi 2020). for instance, the study by saidi (2018) did not account for the way discourse was constructed to raise environmental awareness. still, her study is outstanding in that it paves the way for other researchers to explore the challenges and perspectives of documentary films in morocco. however, the study by saidi is more informative in that it provides theoretical information on the way thoughts and images are linked in moroccan documentary films, particularly those produced by amouddou agency. furthermore, a book by mohamed mliless, on environmental discourse in amouddou eco-documentary, investigated the linguistic features used among all characters’ narratives (voice-over narrator, the scientific experts, and the witnesses) (mliless, 2020). in fact, the book was so general and highlights all actors’ narratives. similarly, the study by mliless and azzouzi examined fear and threat expressions used by scientist experts whose erudite discourse was meant to reinforce the reasoning process in faouzi’s documentary assuming that expressions of fear and threat are preponderant in scientists’ narrative. it is important to highlight that when encapsulated in discourse, fear and threat expressions might have a profound impact on the audience (mliless and azzouzi 2020). the interpretation of fear and threat patterns in laymen’s narratives is important to comprehend how actors’ testimonies are used to support the theme of the eco-documentary. the deconstruction of ordinary peoples’ discourse depends on what is explicitly and implicitly represented in the text since language constructions may have social and psychosocial purposes (fairclough, 2003). studies have shown that texts have different linguistic characteristics, representing systematic patterns of variation that can be investigated under the rubric of the register (schiffrin, et al., 2001; biber, et al.; 2007; biber, 2012; zheni, 2020). this entails understanding various linguistic performances that range from words, sentences, and even long texts. the environmental discourse is highly ‘intertextual’ and ‘interdiscursive’ (danesi, 2015) because it is a part of social discourse that people use daily in various ways and to various degrees to talk about environmental issues (mliless, and azzouzi, 2020). the essentiality of discourse analysis to this topic is to situate laymen’s language within the social and the cultural context given the fact that texts do not have given meanings, but are assigned meanings (wodak, 1988; van dijk, 1991; wodak, 2015). in this case, the adoption of critical discourse analysis (cda) will help us demystify how language exerts power on viewers. suppose analysts have focused their interest on the social, cultural, and political context. in that case, this research will localize discourse within an environmental context in which critical situation has affected man’s social, economic, and linguistic performances (wodak and busch, 2004). talking about the environmental disaster in a documentary film is a form of communication that filmmakers do through scientific data and laymen stories and testimonies to report about impacts and solutions with which environmental crises can be treated. of great importance, this study examines the use of fear and threat expressions by laymen in the film as speech acts of communication (feldman, et al., 2004; basa, 2009; rider, 2014). the research focuses on laymen’s narrative and the extent to which laymen’s linguistic constructions support the argumentative flow of the film. it is mentioned 132 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in a study by susan clayton that narratives about complex environmental hazards and proposed solutions require knowledge of local contexts, target audience concerns and values, and psychological principles (clayton, 2012). environmental discourse’s most frequently mentioned functions include informing, communicating scientific reality and consensus, portraying science accurately, and creating awareness among a non-technical audience (paige brown, et al., 2015). frequently, eco-documentaries, which balance between the complexity of environmental issues and discourse, are built around a simplified language articulated by local residents. in relation to the natural world, the study uses the typology of environmental discourses that tackle issues related to a) unrestrained economic and population growth, b) damages perpetrated to earth because of the overuse of resources, c) the impacts of human collusion are, and d) achievement of economic prosperity and growth (dryzek, 2013). based on this typology, the study by dryzek opines that the environmental discourse is prosaic (environmental problems are troubling the economy and have to be solved), imaginative (environmental issues can be viewed as opportunities, and reformist (environmental discourse can bring changes to environmental problems) (dryzek, 2013). last but not least, the semiotic approach identifies and analyses language, images, and symbols in documentary productions; it relies on the way linguistic and visual messages in media are constructed to complimentarily achieve the argumentative aim of the film (kress and van leeuwen, 2006; wildfeuer, 2014). many studies have been conducted on the role of language in society, particularly when language is connected to ecology (trim, 1959). following haugen’s notion of ‘language ecology’, other linguists, (haugen, 1971; mühlhäusler, 1996; 2000; 2002; 2003; fill, 1998; mühlhäusler, and fill, 2001; halliday, 2001; mühlhäusler and peace, 2006) have examined the relations between language, ecology, and society. they have established the principles of ecolinguistics as a new branch in linguistics. ecolinguistics, now, embraces environmental discourse analysis, often known as eco-critical discourse analysis, and the language of ecology and environmentalism (nash, 2015). recent concerns of ecolinguistics are too wide. today, ecolinguistics studies language in relation to the environment through the perspective of macro linguistics, including pragmatics and cognitive implications. it aims to bring into light the importance of the field as a new perspective from which stories and narratives could be explored in environmental discourses. in the moroccan context, a body of research has emerged among researchers from the english department in moulay ismail university of meknes; the studies reflected on environmental narratives in english textbooks (mliless and larouz, 2018), green public service advertising (mliless, et al., 2019), environmental discourse in moroccan ecodocumentaries (mliless, 2020).), and experts’ discourse in eco-documentaries (mliless and azzouzi, 2020). concerning laymen’s narrative in the documentary understudy, ecolinguistics exposes and questions the testimonies and stories, and examines frames and linguistic structures. as a matter of fact, discourse contributes not only to the denunciation of ecological destruction, but it helps in the search for new forms of language that inspires people to protect the natural world (stibbe, 2015). in line with stibbe’s claim, this study will examine the communicative connections between laymen’s language, the natural element, and the expressions of fear in ordinary people’s narratives. in this direction, the power of actors’ narratives have a role in shaping people’s opinion and expectations. obviously, eco-documentaries are impactful when expressions of fear and threat portray despair and preoccupations that the participants face when the natural environment is seriously affected (lovell, 1971; nichols, 1991; sztompka, 2008; chapman, 2009; pauwels, 2010; nathansohn and zuev, 2013; zuev and krase, 2017). in this framework, watching a documentary film becomes a sociologically significant event as its experience affects us emotionally, psychologically, and pedagogically (chapman, 2009). ii. methods data collection this research examines patterns of fear and threat in laymen’s narratives in a moroccan ecodocumentary, a film of 52 minutes basically narrated in standard arabic (faouzi, 2012). given the multiplicity of meanings in laymen’s narratives, and the difficulties related to the analysis of verbal 133 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) data, an adequate analytical framework is needed. a verbatim of actors’ verbal communication was transformed into written texts to restore the chronology of events aligned with the visual sequences. the research indicates that the patterns of fear and threat are performative and proactive acts used in laymen’s language to influence the public. hence, the context of use is decisive to understand based on the idea that fears and threat expressions must be relocated in their contexts of enunciation. practically, the research followed gilliane rose’s steps to retrieve, identify social contexts, and code fear structures used by witnesses in the whole documentary (rose, 2001). then, the data was identified based on ‘perceived severity and ‘perceived susceptibility’ categories according to the model developed by witte et al. (1996). the goal here is to link the discourse to the film’s aim that seeks to make the viewer more committed to its point of view; it is assumed that fear can consolidate laymen’s narratives, whose presence in the film is meant to plead for the preservation of the environmental setting. characters in ecodocumentary films the eco-documentary understudy “whining of the blue lagoon:انين المرجة reports about ”الزرقاء a natural degradation of a lagoon in the northeast of morocco. the theme is commented on by many laymen, two scientists and a voice-over. this research aims to decrypt the language of the many ordinary people whose testimonies are to back up the argumentative flow, achieve public immersion, serve the plot, and perpetuate the remembrance of the film (mliless and azzouzi, 2020). the film’s story is told by many witnesses in many different ways. the laymen participants have different experiences, ages, social status, and gender. so, each actor would have a different point of view to express. the study hopscotched through the film and identified sequences of everyone’s narrative through focused point of views (pov). all laymen actors are first-person povs, a common technic used in documentaries through which characters talk in terms of ‘i’. laymen’s opinions are expressed through moroccan arabic (a vernacular variety) that the voiceover simultaneously translates to standard arabic. the characters are featured on screen in interviews, performing talks as part of events while sometimes their voice can be featured as part of the soundtrack while the visuals can relate to what they are saying. in many instances, the documentary switches between different povs of characters (laymen to expert and vice versa) to get a profound view of the story and give the audience a broad perspective. this article then aims to account for the way knowledge is produced within different discourses and the performances, linguistic styles, and rhetorical devices used in particular accounts (snape and spencer, 2003). the method used to analyze the structure of texts longer than the sentence is instilled in the principles of ecolinguistics and discourse analysis to account for the linguistic content and the social context. laymen’s language in eco-documentary films by eco-documentary, actors refer to the people who appear speaking in front of the camera (ordinary witnesses and scientific experts) or those who are off (voice-over narrators). in this section, the researchers focus on laymen’s language, the time they took to speak, and the frequency of their appearance. all the ordinary actors of the film speak moroccan arabic (ma) to testify about the environmental status of the lagoon. moroccan arabic, which took shape in the 7th century ad in roman cities in which latin was spoken (heath, 2015), is the lingua franca used by most moroccans in their daily communication, be they arabs or amazigh (zakhir and o’brien, 2019). other existing languages impact this variety in morocco, such as standard arabic, french, amazigh and spanish; it has different variations depending on regions, social class, and gender. though morocco is a multilingual country where many languages, dialects, and accents coexist, the linguistic choice made by amouddou has made it a respected documentary experience that moroccans appreciate to see. the explicit use of ma in the documentary gives the film authenticity and originality, a patriotic and nationalist tendency to portray environmental, social, or cultural issues. one should recognize that the role of language in amouddou’s eco-documentary is maturing (mliless and azzouzi, 2020). hopefully, this study will provide ample answers to the social and environmental contexts in which the documentary develops, the way amouddou uses language descriptions to document the damaged natural setting, the position taken by characters towards the issue, and finally to demystify hidden modes of narration in the discourse. 134 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) in the documentary, ordinary witnesses bear an important role in the film; their testimonies count a lot when they invoke the prosperous past of the setting. their hope is to see the area restored and protected. laymen’s narratives contain positive alternatives they bring to coerce man’s devastating behaviors exerted on the natural setting. the segmentation of their narratives indicates that the rhetoric they use is rife with psv and psp patterns that overshadow the population’s responsibility towards the deterioration of the lake. fear and threat appeals in eco-documentary while visual expressions are shot with greater precision, language may carry a considerable force of persuasion. the mixture of the two components requires a sophisticated method to identify and interpret fear and threat structures the deconstruction of which needs a multifaceted approach. in this direction, fear patterns of language can trigger relatively immediate and/or long-term attitudinal behavioral change (sufi, 2014). he specifies that the impact of the script is firmly attached to the use of fear patterns through which the film seeks to shake the audience’s responses. similarly, another study posits that argumentation through fear is recognized within the social sciences as a type of argument format used […] to mold public opinion and attitudes through the mass media (walton, 2007). for example, fear is detected in the discourse of cancer, an enemy (cancer) that poses immediate threats (cap, 2017). the analysis of fear structures in ordinary people’s stories will interpret testimonies that constantly oscillate between laymen’s deep preoccupation about the tragic environmental crisis and their calls to rescue the lagoon from an imminent collapse. extended parallel processing model since the second half of the twentieth century, scholars have theoretically and practically explained the processing and consequences of fear and threat patterns in discourse. the extended parallel process (eppm) is one of the practices which account for fear expressions to clarify how linguistic constructs can achieve persuasive aims (witte, 1992). the model determines the degree to which a person feels threatened by an issue and his or her motivation to act, while one’s confidence to effectively reduce or prevent the threat determines the action itself. to explain more, witte et al. argue that eppm is summarized in the elements of fear, threat, efficacy, danger control, and fear control (witte, et.al, 1996). regarding the element of fear, witte et al. define it as “an internal reaction comprising psychological and physiological dimensions that may be aroused when a serious and personally relevant threat is perceived” (p.320). in the same direction, the threat is presented by witte et al. as a danger or harm that exists in the environment whether people experience it or not; threats could be cognitions or thoughts about the dangers or harms which comprise two dimensions: severity and susceptibility. as for efficacy, witte et al. (1996) define it as “the effectiveness, feasibility, and case with which a recommended response impedes or averts a threat” (p. 320). in addition to the definition provided by witte et al, eppm can be used to identify four distinct audience segments (see table 1 below) with different combinations of efficacy and threat beliefs (health communication capacity collaborative, 2014). the report of the health communication capacity collaborative [hccc] shows that each segment responds differently to a particular health issue and, so, would need to be addressed with different health message strategies that increase threat perceptions or increase efficacy beliefs. according to hccc (2014), the model is useful when a health issue poses a real or perceived threat to personal health. for instance, the model is used in hiv or malaria campaigns where there is a more obvious and immediate disease threat. nevertheless, the model is less used in child nutrition campaigns where the threat of malnutrition is less immediately obvious (cho and witte, 2005; rimal and morrison, 2006). in compliance with witte’s model, mohammed sufi (2014) decoded factors of fear appeals in three documentaries: the 11th hour (conners and conners, 2007) , the age of stupidity (armstrong, 2010), and the cave (fisher, 2009). the study by sufi reveals that fear and threat expressions shock viewers, encourage greater environmental awareness, and convince the public to relinquish their attitudes and to inspire or encourage change. the eppm can help this study to handle threat messaging and the extent to which laymen actors of the documentary create motivation to act. if their narratives show that threats are higher than their perceived ability to do something about it, then behavior change is unlikely to occur (health communication capacity collaborative, 2014). 135 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) thus, it is important to highlight fear expressions to accurately evaluate their level of fear that may serve to empower them to overcome or avoid the risk to see the lagoon ruined. iii. results and discussion man’s intervention in the lagoon is increasing and becomes predatory. this brings destruction to species and affects the continuity of animals and the quality of fauna and flora in the lagoon. the eco-documentary reports that man’s extensive uncontrolled behaviors (grazing, hunting, and fishing) require urgent interventions of officials to limit the degradation of the setting. for this aim, laymen’s testimonies speak out their preoccupations and fears about the future of the natural setting and the wellbeing of the community living by the lagoon. to curve the crisis, the witnesses explicitly order that man’s illegal activity should be quelled and their socio-economical should be improved through real sustainable programs other than those related to the lagoon’s resources. the scan of witnesses’ narratives shows that psv and psp patterns are employed to reconsider man’s relationships with the lagoon, a primary source of life that is doomed to extinction. laymen’s narratives having established a clear method of laymen’s narrative and demonstrated its critical significance for eco-documentaries, particularly the use of fear and threat expressions, it is now necessary to explain key elements of narrative, particularly those invoked by hinchman and hinchman (1997) including the temporal, causal, meaningful, and social aspects of eco-narrative. inherent to the temporal aspect of the narrative is the concept of plot, an important feature of narrative that rearranges the narrative events, typically results in a change of meaning (labov and waletzky, 1967; 1997; labov, 1972; franzosi, 1998a; 1998b; . elliott, 2005; ). in the film, the stories invoked by lay participants rely on the assumption that time is a linear flow that stretches from past to present to future. the laymen’s eco-narrative within the film relates events to each other by linking the whole to one major happening, the degradation of the lagoon. the eco-documentary’s theme demonstrates a real change in the normal flow of life. the narrative operation in the film is a way to transmit knowing into telling. the environmental decay reported in the film tells about the disruption of an initial state of natural equilibrium and mirrors an environmental dysfunction of many natural components. importantly, eco-documentary makers should engage voices that do not exhibit shrillness; an impairment that leads viewers to tune out. these days, eco-documentaries about all kinds of topics, from global warming, massive pollutions, forest degradation adopt laymen actors to report about these crises. in the eco-documentary under investigation, five laymen witnesses have been chosen to testify about the environmental disaster. all the witnesses in the documentary detain no scientific or intellectual knowledge, they are people who have common sense but their testimonies and experiences have great social and cultural implications. to analyze the data, this article followed a process of segmentation through which the linguistic was separated from the visual. then, everything that actors uttered was transcribed into a written document. the humming sounds like ‘ehh’, ‘ooh’, and ‘mmh’ among others which are heard as part of the narratives were removed. technically, laymen participants are overtly shown to the camera for about 15 minutes, 43% of the film’s time, and appeared in 10 scenes (see table 1 below). table 1. witnesses’ language time and appearance in the film characters language time appearances in film appearances in scenes hide ma 2:12 2 scenes 2 hour ma 6:14 4 scenes 4 houda ma 2:07 2 scenes 2 faraji ma 1:12 1 scene 1 abdelali ma 3:03 1 scene 1 witnesses’ argumentative process depends on the amount of fear and threat patterns they use to influence viewers and stakeholders to make them improve the environmental situation of the lagoon. the use of fear and threat expressions by laymen actors in the ecodocumentary understudy is to communicate important environmental information to the audience. the function is to raise pro-environmental, empathetic behaviors from the viewer. in fact, it is difficult to elicit environmental empathy from others while being demonstrably aggressive. indeed, expression of fear and threat expressed by the laymen actors is associated with pro-environmental responses from 136 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) others, and emotions such as fear and threat are often successful in eliciting care-giving actions. the choices that the ordinary actors make about how much detail to include in the testimonies carry a considerable amount of linguistic features of fear and threat. the results related to the analysis of witnesses’ discourse show 10 psv expressions and 25 psp patterns (see table 2 below). precisely, the analysis shows that most fear and threat patterns are attributed to the community while those reserved for the lagoon and species show fewer occurrences. basically, the witnesses are using the media production as a conversational space to tell their experiences to viewers. in a simple language, participants have been assigned turns at talking. reciprocally, the audience immediately becomes active co-participants in the narrative process. h’mida’s psv and psp patterns the analysis of psv and psp patterns in laymen’s eco-narratives is to understand meaning-making in the eco-documentary. the environmental crisis is a contingent of human uncontrolled activities. the visual report alone can never properly achieve real depiction, therefore, since there is always the possibility that narrative adds more to the persuasive process and can change people’s comprehension of the environmental issue. laymen’s narrative renders the film’s theme meaningful through explicit evaluation of the problem, by imposing their fear and preoccupation on what might be thought of as continuous environmental disaster, has implications for the reason why actors use fear and threat expressions with temporal and causal dimensions. the documentary,” whining of the blue lagoon: انين المرجة used five ,”الزرقاء ordinary people who perform the narratives in the film. hide the watchman is the first person to embark on the documentary’s story. the narrative he uses is more oriented to psp structures rather than psvs. he uses four psp patterns to prove that the magnitude of the environmental crisis of the lagoon is observed in three cases: the lagoon, the species, and the community. in many sequences, the watchman says that he is the only person who assures the protection of the lagoon, a task that was assigned to seven guards in previous decades. psv patterns psp patterns community lagoon species total community lagoon species total hide 1 12 13 1 1 13 15 hour 1 1 13 15 7 1 19 27 houda 3 3 faraji 6 6 abdelali 5 5 4 4 total 7 1 2 10 21 2 2 25 frequency 70% 10% 20% 100% 84% 8% 8% 100% table 2. witnesses’ psv and psp assigned to the community the lagoon and species figure 1. hide the watchman the narratives of h’mida the watchman allude to significant threats menacing the lagoon. he mentions that birds are not safe to incubate and hatch. to give much impetus to his words, h’mida takes the filmmaker, lahoucine faouzi, in a boat ride across the lagoon to make him see and feel: “look how the lagoon looks today, i don’t think that after two or three years it will look like this if illegal hunting, firearms, and shooting do not stop”, says the watchman. to explain the extent to which his mission is rendered difficult by fishers and hunters, h’mida talks about the strategies that hunters adapt to hunt and kill birds “when there is no watching after they locate me and communicate my place through mobile phones”. to reinforce his denial, the watchman uses two psv expressions to talk about the community and species saying that he “warned the population over the overexploitation they perpetrate to the lagoon”. additionally, the 137 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) watchman adds other features of externalities related to human intervention that impact the lagoon. he let us know that “cattle trample nests” and “dogs nurture on eggs and newly born birds”. the manner through which he portrays deleterious consequences of human interventions and what serious environmental outcomes have resulted over, the watchman’s narrative is nostalgic and emotional. his nostalgic feelings about the past of the lagoon is crystallized when he says that “the lagoon was well protected in the past”. to show feelings of fear and despair, the watchman let know that the future of the place is no longer the same when he used to look after it “look how the lagoon is today, i don’t think that after two or three years it will look like this”. this amalgamation of feelings is an attempt to make the audience, the residents, and tutelage institutions show real engagement. hirour’s psv and psp patterns among the narratives, hirour’s is holistic and dramatic. in fact, his testimony is a means to understand the film’s theme better. his narrative obviously provides an account through which the audience can learn about the environmental truth, the narrative he presents is closer to the environmental events. his narrative reflects a language full of expressions that portray the critical situation of the lagoon. given the number of psp expressions (9) he mentions, it is assumed that the witness’s critical illustration and testimonies are serious: “something must be done before it too late”. the witness appears four times for more than six minutes. being in moroccan arabic, hirour narratives are oriented towards the community whose living conditions primarily depend on the collection of oysters, a work that women and girls do. more seriously, the layman articulates that most girls are forced to abandon school for that activity table 3. psv and psp patterns in h’mida’s narrative psv patterns psp patterns species every day, cattle and dogs destroy and eat eggs and newly born birds. the lagoon was well protected in the past. birds have decreased because they don’t find enough places for incubation and hatching. lagoon ----------------------------look how the lagoon is today, i don’t think that after two or three years it will look like this. community i warned the population over that; i have seen that exploitation happening every day. hunting, firearms, and shooting do not stop mainly in dawn time when there is no watching. hunters locate me and communicate my place through mobile ones figure 2. hirour the layman figure 3. oysters’ collection conditions138 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) “children are pushed and obliged by their parents to bring money to help their families earn their living”. though it is very hard work, the participant says that no working alternatives are provided for the population to abandon the collection of oysters. his narrative reports about the harsh conditions in which little girls perform the activity; he fears that hard climate conditions may have negative impacts on girls’ health: “you can see the water is about their necks, barefoot, and wounded”. in the course of his speech, hirour says that oyster collection does not only affect girls’ health but it has serious impacts on the lagoon itself. he stresses that the activity is a perpetual threat to the reserve of oysters and other fish. he shows fear when he says that excessive collection causes much drain to the soil. importantly, he draws on two psp structures to signal that the lagoon is an important place for humans and animals: “the place is shared by animals and humans”. in a dichotomy, he tells about the richness and availability of the natural resources of the lagoon and the population’s mismanagement of these supplies through permanent uncontrolled fishing and illegal hunting. in relation to this unparalleled situation, the layman shows fearful reactions about the future of the lagoon. to crystalize his fears, hirour adopts psv expressions to illustrate a serious situation that the lagoon is confronted with. for example, he mentions that birds are caught even in forbidden periods when they are in production and breeding periods. in fact, not only human behavior threaten the existence of the lagoon, but also natural circumstances are endangering the lagoon. for instance, irregular rainfall impacts the lagoon’s reserve on water, a resource that has not been revived for many years. in front of this deficiency, the actor says that rain scarcity has pushed the population to use the lagoons to irrigate farms and agricultural products. besides, people are putting the place more at risk as they use fertilizers and pesticides to make the products more competitive. psv patterns psp patterns species species are caught in forbidden periods when they are breeding. all species living in this lagoon look after their living. lagoon rain used to fall regularly. there is not enough rain for many years to revive the place. it is a place shared by animals and humans; humans are deeply related to land and farming. community framers use fertilizers and pesticides to make their products more competitive. the collection of oysters is the work of everybody in this era. oyster’s collection is a work that is basically done by women. no alternative, though it is hard work their teeth vibrate from cold. they do this activity even in high tide you can see that water is about their necks; their feet are bare and wounded. it is an activity that causes much drain to the soil. they are obliged to do that, help their families earn more money little girls are among the crowd they don’t go to school. some even have abandoned school for that activity. children are pushed by their parents to bring money. table 4. psv and psp patterns in hirour’s narrative houda’s psv and psp patterns the emergence of a teenage girl (houda) in the documentary generates a positive effect to gain the trust of the audience on the dramatic reality of the lagoon. it is highly recommended among media producers that children are perceived as a powerful and effective medium to create rational and emotional appeals for different targeted audiences (kinsey, 2015). the speech of houda gives voice to a handicapped youth. her moralistic testimonies reveal the exploitation of both a natural setting and misery of poor children who recognize that the ambiguity of their future has been reinforced by the decision of parents to leave school and help the families. her narrative adds to the ecodocumentary’s heterogeneous vision, which allows many people of different ages and gender to speak out openly about their fears. in fact, houda’s point of view intends to widen the spectrum of the audience as she assumes that the environmental issue of the lagoon is a matter that concerns every human being devoid of age and gender. her narrative is not as long as she appears to speak to the camera in moroccan arabic for two minutes.139 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) figure 4. houda the girl collector figure 5. oysters’ collection activity without any doubt, the choice given to houda to unfold her narrative is a strategy from the documentary maker to support the film’s theme and to strengthen narrative connections with other witnesses. by doing this, the documentary permits many angles of seeing and hearing, giving the impression that the viewer sees one issue through many actors. the narrative of the girl contains much information and adds credibility to the objectives of the film. interestingly, this shows that the situation of the lagoon is also a matter that concerns children too.the girl is present in two scenes, speaks out her fears, and tells the audience her preoccupations about the present and the future of her generation, a generation that is forced to hard labor and the exploitation of the lagoon. though not much, the psp structures used by houda are explicitly directed to the population whom she holds responsible for her misery and hardships. she mentions that she is no longer in school for a long time now that her parents are forcing her to collect oysters. while talking, the documentary plays very appealing images of a group of girls bare feet, submerged in mud, and water to their hips while collecting oysters. even, the camera caught a wounded foot of a girl in action. the girl’s discourse reports a daily activity and speaks about the case of many other girls whose childhood has been stolen and forced to work under inhuman conditions instead of being at school or enjoying their childhood. table 5. psv and psp patterns in houda’s narrative psv patterns psp patterns community she has collected a small quantity since the morning. no school degree. barefoot as was discussed in this section, the girls’ narrative, as those of the other participants, reflects a dramatic increase in the exploitation of the lagoon. in particular, allowing houda to present her experience of the situation can help to redress some of the population’s uncontrolled activities inherent in the film and can also provide empathic evidence about the everyday life that little girls endure and the hardships they suffer due to oyster collection. her testimony embodies what the researchers want to examine: the relation between her particular life experience and the world she shares with others; the ways in which the natural environment shapes her identity; and the ways in which she makes use of linguistic features to declare her denial of the socio-economic context. faraji’s psv and psp patterns among the witnesses, there is faraji, a young fisherman, whose testimony carries outstanding judgments regarding the environmental degradation of the lake. talking to the camera, this actor gave us insight into the extent to which the natural catastrophe has impacted his life. faraji uses many fear expressions in the development of his testimony and tells the viewer about the situation of a generation caught between dire social and environmental conditions. the fisherman is allotted one minute to report his fears about the lagoon. in simple words, he brings about a hopeful testimony to block the many threats facing the lagoon. in this context, the researchers invoke fear and threat patterns he associates with the exploitation of the lagoon and the alternatives he projects to save the setting. his narrative, after all, is a story of apparently an ordinary man whose discourse seems to be of a committed character of them all. 140 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) faraji’s voice is that of hope in the documentary as it advances issues showing personal engagements to save the lagoon. example, he can make rules and regulations to organize the collection of oysters. this activity, he says, should be limited to specific periods of the year and that collectors should be identified and receive permanent payments for that: “i will ban irregular fishing and i will limit the collection oysters that must be banned in the summertime. the population should collect oysters between november and march, this way i can guarantee the breeding period for species so when collection time comes there will be abundance for us all”. the film characterizes the fisherman’s voice as emphasizing the vision of youth and its desire. faraji proposes alternatives and solutions for the environmental issue in terms of implementing regulations that might restore the natural order. his narrative emphasizes both man’s responsibility and the solution to restore a forsaken past through a series of alternatives that involve projected solutions to reduce the population’s illegal activities through the restriction of hunting and fishing. in fact, faraji’s testimony contrasts two specific narratives that portray his fear about the lagoon’s presence and his preoccupation about youth wellbeing. in his talk, the narrative is outstanding in that it allows the filmmaker to adopt different angles and viewpoints across the documentary that have all appeared to impact so many individuals who might view the production. eventually, faraji’s statements are future-oriented propositions; he is the voice of hope in the documentary despite his common sense knowledge. abdelali’s psv and psp patterns another important witness in the documentary is abdelali the craftsman. his narrative informs us about the nature of his social life. it shows his work, moroccan culture and the values it embraces, and figure 6. faraji the fisherman the fisherman’s discourse demonstrates the power to act. he explicitly voices his hope and predisposition to procure solutions that might render the place safer and welcoming for humans and species. all the linguistic structures identified in faraji’s narrative are psp patterns that he directs to the community. in this sense, he mentions that all the community’s activities are inherited from ancestors who taught them how to fish and collect oysters. today, this work is done by women and girls more than men. in this situation, the fisherman adds his voice to that of the girl (houda) when he mentions that parents frequently force their children, mainly girls, to abandon school and help them given the fact that most of their parents are jobless and cannot afford living necessities. to cope with this situation, the fisherman cites some alternatives to improve the social situation of the community and the environmental situation of the lagoon. the hopeful mode that he uses depicts some suggestions that he can implement “if [i am] elected a member of the local council”. for psv patterns psp patterns community ----------------this activity is what we inherited from our parents; we are fishermen and collectors of oysters. it is a work that women do more than men. little girls of five and six years have been forced to leave school. we do not have other activities, no work. if i am elected representative of this locality, i will make rules to organize and regulate the collection of shells. this activity should be limited to specific periods of the year and that collectors should be identified and receive payments for that. the collection of oysters should take place between november and march and banned in summer, we have to respect the breeding period so when collection time comes oysters and fish will be abundant. table 6. psv and psp patterns in the fisherman’s narratives141 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) about the nature of his social life. it shows his work, moroccan culture and the values it embraces, and the challenges he confronts as a simple craftsman. through his participation about his experience, the meanings he brings to his words. it can be seen about all the environmental disaster, from destruction through exploitation, which together constitute the present of the lagoon. his presence in the film is crystallized through an interview supervised by the director himself and reported by the voiceover. for instance, abdelali is caught talking in front of the camera for more than three minutes in moroccan arabic. most of the narratives he articulates are directed to the audience while he nests a mast. the language used by the craftsman to express his despair carries instances of fear when he mentions that “nets and eggs are destroyed and devastated to give much space to agricultural activities and farming”. differently, abdelali the craftsman uses four psp expressions to react to the inability of the community to balance sustainable development and the preservation of the environment. for instance, he says that “the profession is abandoned by the community” and people no longer practice it though they used to earn their living. the craftsman language, like that of the fisherman, contains a glimpse of light and hope among the narratives of the other witnesses in the film. when listening to his discourse, people can feel that he bears the burden of the environmental disaster. it is assumed that the role of the craftsman in the documentary shows that among all this mess some people care and abide by the law of morality. what is important about laymen’s discourse is the variety of modes deployed in their language. the common denominator among their narratives is that they all show environmental nostalgia towards the setting. on many occasions, they have figure 7. abdelali the craftsman the craftsman’s discourse is important because it effectively communicates his profound preoccupations about the consequences of uncontrolled human behaviors that harm the lagoon. the segmentation of his narrative shows that he has used five psv expressions he directs to the community to describe human’s unfair activities. in most of his talk, abdelali focuses on the juncus acutus plant that the community massively destroys to gain more land for farming. in this direction, he says that the plant is threatened by humans who fell and incinerate vast portions of the lagoon by “setting vast portions of land on fire to gain more land for framing without paying attention to birds and eggs”. in a nostalgic mode, abdelali enumerates the importance of juncus acutus as a “haven for birds to make their nests and breed, we always waited to see the birds spawn their eggs then we harvest the plant”. however, he shows no objections to the garnering of the plant. he hopes to see the community harvesting this plant in july after birds’ incubation and breeding periods. unfortunately, figure 8. juncus acutus figure 9. burning of juncus acutus for farming 142 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) demonstrated emotive responses to report about the perdition of an ecological equalizer. undoubtedly, witnesses’ discourses reflect a sublime narrative that is full of images that celebrate the magnificent particularity of the lagoon, species and plants, and the desire to develop positive connections with the place. interestingly, the discourse of h’mida the watchman contains a mode that is apocalyptic when he evokes the trespassing of the lagoon by humans to hunt, fish, and confiscate portions of land for farming. not only that, the watchman discourse is dramatic when he talks about roaming cattle and dogs destroy nests and eat eggs. on a different scale, the fisherman’s narrative mode is hopeful when he speaks about social and political alternatives to save the lagoon in the future. he evokes that laws and regulations, if implemented could curve illegal hunting and irregular fishing. in this research, it can be inferred that spontaneous consciousness of laymen’s participation gives the film much viability in denunciating man’s uncontrolled activities perpetrated to the lagoon. the actors, as does the filmmaker, know that the exploitation goes on, and they have never admitted that this situation should pursue. laymen’s fear and threat structures are not a reaction based on ignorance but a response that arises from concern and reality they experienced every day. these expressions are logical since they are based on reasoning. the narratives tend to persuade the audience that there are alternatives that should be implemented to stop the environmental crisis. from an ecolinguistic perspective, the narratives explain the extent to which the actors have used fear and threat expressions to report the reality of the lagoon. in fact, laymen’s testimonies about the environmental crisis are a real opportunity through which the filmmaker highlighted threats, showed characters’ preoccupations, and provided specific recommendations and solutions. though the narratives are in moroccan arabic, the voiceoff (hassan boufous), who is always kept behind the camera, permits the viewer to get comments by translating actors’ testimonies and experiences into standard arabic. eventually, psv and psp patterns are present in laymen’s narratives; they were used by all participants with different variations and frequencies. obviously, fear and threat patterns are related to the severity of destructive acts perpetrated by the community on the lagoon. besides, many of those patterns have fearfully depicted the dramatic situation of the lagoon and species living or transiting by the place. in fact, many linguistic structures depict the existence of fear and threat expressions that illustrate the environmental deterioration of the lagoon regarding bird colonies, fish over-exploitation, and bush incineration. overall, the narratives pertaining to laymen witnesses show different tendencies. for some actors, faraji and abdelali, their narratives are progressive and advance many alternatives and choices to reduce man’s destruction of the lagoon. in a regressive way, the narratives of h’mida and hirour are regressive focusing on the deterioration and decline of the natural resources without presenting any solution. differently, houda’s talk in the film is stable as she offers no evidence of either progression or decline. iv. conclusion to examine the many discourses in the ecodocumentary “whining of the blue lagoon: الزرقاء انين the narrative string was analyzed in ,”المرجة terms of fear and threat indicators. by the same table 7. psv and psp patterns in the craftsman’s narrative community psv patterns psp patterns people’s unfair behaviors contribute to the destruction and loss of the lagoon. today, no one respects this truce or respect juncus acutus either; they set vast portions of land on fire to obtain more land for framing without considering birds and eggs. the plant is a shelter for birds to nest and breed, we always waited to see the birds spawn their eggs. then, we pick the plant. people cut the plant in a period when eggs are not hatched; they destroy nests and the eggs. unfortunately, the plant is destroyed and ravaged to supply many places to farming. i use juncus acutus plant to weave mats, i do this activity since i was young, it is my only source of living. today, this profession is abandoned by the community. we collect the plant to make mats in july and start working it in september. i abide by the law of nature and i cut the plant in july, this plant is our source of life. 143 mohamed mliless / jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 2 (2021) token, the study focused on the environmental discourse and discarded visuals though their combination to sound effects and music bring about the power of argumentation. paying attention to the narratives that laymen participants tell leads us to question other practices adopted in the stories. in this sense, the study emphasizes the quest to understand that layman’s linguistic contributions are jointly constructed by both the participants and the filmmaker; it is an attempt to draw attention to the ubiquity of narratives in moroccan ecodocumentary production. although telling stories is common in everyday communication, 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(2017). visual sociology. sociopedia.isa, 1-12. doi: 10.1177/2056846017121 dr. mohamed mliless holds a phd in applied linguistics. he published three books on legal and environmental discourse. the many scientific articles he authored and coauthored focused on social and environmental issues. dr. mliless is a member of the international ecolinguistics association (iea), a member of the london journals press, and a member of acta scientific open international library, india. last but not least, dr. mohamed mliless is a review board member of many journals including the journal of education teaching and social studies, the journal of sustainability in environment, international journal of sociology and anthropology (ijsa), international journal of english and literature (ijel), african journal of political science and international relations (ajpsir), journal of language and literature (joll). dr. lamiae azzouzi is an associate professor at moulay ismail university, faculty of humanities department of english meknes. currently, dr. azzouzi is a part-time teacher at esisa school of software engineering and applied sciences, fès; a member of the master program in applied linguistics since 2009; a member of the applied linguistics doctorate laboratory, and a member of the scientific committee of the english department. she published many articles in gender and media studies. dr. saida hdii is an associate professor at the school of arts and humanities, sultan moulay sliman university, beni mellal. she holds a phd in discourse analysis. she is a fulbright alumnus. she is a member of the pedagogical team of the master programs “gender studies” and “applied linguistics.” she is a member of the (iddrl) research laboratory in beni mellal faculty. she has been publishing articles and participating in national and international conferences. her fields of interest are: english language teaching, discourse, media, methodology of research, and computing science. handoko, s.s, m.hum is a lecturer at english department, andalas university. his research research interest including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, syntax, and discourse analysis. he also teaches drama class for english students. handoko is a member of international ecolinguistics associations (iea), linguistics society of indonesia, and some other scientific organization. he had published plenty of articles in journals and proceedings. biography 147 baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 126 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 24, 2022 final revision: may 23, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 the paper studies chairil anwar’s poem senja di pelabuhan kecil. it focuses on analyzing the strategies chairil anwar applies in manipulating text double structure (the linguistic and literary ones). the data analyzed derives from the poem and in order to illuminate some key terms in the poem, comparison with other poems by the same poet is taken. the analysis of the poem is conducted by elaborating both linguistic and literary approaches. that is conducted by analytically discuss the linguistic devices and their interaction with the structure of literary tropes. it is found that the poet relies much on intensifying the synergy between the two structures. the intensive correlate manifests in the harmonious collaboration between serial verb construction and the event seriality; the correlation of morpho-syntactically priming of agent’s role (voice system) and the foregrounding of agent initiation of event (deviation from ordinary use of language). phonologically considered, the poem shows parallelism between the prosody of line (sound) and the synesthetic (winter, 2019), the co-perception through vision and hearing sensing. another essential correlation found constitutes syntactic-phonological pattern which facilitates the representation of encyclopedic experience, which is the rhythm of the speaker’s heartbeat. keywords double structures, foregrounding, seriality, serial verb construction correspondence e-mail: bahar@unram.ac.id article double structure synergy and the empowering of poetic experience in chairil anwar’s poem ‘senja di pelabuhan kecil’ baharuddin baharuddin1 1english education program, university of mataram, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.126-137.2023 i. introduction in principle the paper seeks to explore two parallel mechanics of language structure. it investigates the formal, structural makeup of the poem and the literary manipulating of literary structure, that is the foregrounding functions and deconstructing effects it serves in the text. to start with, it is good to remind ourselves about the ‘idiosyncratic’ behavior of literary language by quoting a famous aphorism of thomas gray— ‘the language of the age is never the language of poetry’ (gaudern, 2020). language of poetry in this case behaves like star which we have never observed in person because hat we see in the night sky is just the glimpse of years of light. the star was away and is left unseen. the light of the stars lingers just like smell of the toilet we experience after the former user left. in this ‘forthgoing’, language of poetry leaves something we think to be uncannily familiar (defamiliarized, leech, 2014), it keeps departing from ordinary language. language of poetry works in that way leaves the ordinary language and roams with new and fresh form of expressions. in order to elaborate the point of such ‘eternal leap’ ahead of poetic language, the paper works with one of chairil anwar’s continuous and prolific experiment with language in his poem senja di pelabuhan kecil. the analysis involves linguistic and literary approaches. the linguistic approach is used to describe the textual performance of the poem which involve phonological, lexical formation (word formation), syntactic experiment. such linguistic description is highly required to function as point of departure for diagnosing linguistic ‘deviation’ found baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 127 in the poem. such linguistic description is believed (rule of the thumb) to contribute in the analysis of literary functions and linguistic contribution in the overall makeup of the text. hence, the discussion proceeds to discuss the literary tropes in the poem by which the organization of ideas, feel and other socio-cultural states are worked out. the combining strategies in the analysis of chairil anwar’s poem is expected to highlight and illuminate the poem’s success in presenting a cohesive and coherence world of his age as well as its magnetic power for contemporary readership. teew (1980) make a seminal discussion on chairil’s kawanku dan aku (my colleague and me) by concentrating on the linguistic makeup of the text especially by promoting the wordformation and structural defamiliarization chairil apply in attracting readers attention which is expected to lead on the poems insight. the paper seeks to find out and explain the defamiliarizing strategies of chairil’s senja di pelabuhan kecil linguistically and literarily. thus, this study on chairil’s senja di pelabuhan kecil makes a visit on the linguistic structural expression and the foregrounding strategy of structural manipulation (hauptman & stacy, 1978). however, this study does not stop at the linguistic analysis of the text but proceeds to elaborate the structural parallelism with the literary makeup of the text (such as the metrical, trope, diction choice). the discussion on linguistic and literary correlates elaborate (thus fills the gap) of linguistics and literature combined in its analysis. the combinatory approach is mainly intended to put on the surface the double structures (linguistic and literary structure) chairil anwar elaborates in his poem. ii. methods the study concentrates on specific work by chairil anwar (senja di pelabuhan kecil). overall the paper concerns textual study of the poem. in line with such expectation, the data of the study is focused on and derived from the word (diction), phrases, and structural construct observed in the text of the poem senja di pelabuhan kecil by chairil anwar. the data collected from the poem is then viewed in terms of its literary construct (metrical, conceptual content). in order to show the general motif of expression which epitomize the poet, the paper cites samples from chairil anwar’s other poem and make necessary comparison in the use of diction and structural expression. the comparative view of different work by the same poet helps establish the general motif of the poet literary style. the discussion of the poem’s data is conducted by making analytical approach of the textual makeup of the poem (the diction, word order, including the graphemic and phonological reconstruction (prosodic reconstruction of the poem). the linguistic approach of the paper is focused mainly on highlighting the morphophonological and lexico syntactic behavior of the linguistic elements which build the text (poem’s word formation as well as sentential or syntactic word order). in conducting the linguistic (morphosyntactic) aspect, the paper makes use such distributional setting on the varied possibility or alternative of sentential organization. such distributional job is carried out in order to illuminate the foregrounding function of the given data in linguistic term. the reconstruction of the prosodic (intonation) feature of the phrases and metrical pattern of the poem serves also to highlight the literary function. that phonological construct is crucial in highlighting the situational inference of the speaker’s states in the poem. in terms of the literary approach, the paper elaborates the literary tropes as it is used in the poem. such tropes including metaphorical extension, metonymic and hyperbolic (understatement) will be discussed to put forward their very contribution in highlighting the meaning making of the poem (formal textual and encyclopedic/pragmatic comprehension). the literary tropes are elaborated specially to show in a much elaborate manner the strategies poet apply in sharing his personal and artistic hole (defamiliarization, personal and experiential organization by way of grammatical voice promotion or demotion as well as event seriality). in addition to this, under the belief that every word (phrase and the like) has its history, and to intensify the enactment of the speaker’s (persona and authorship) role in the poem it is taken for granted in the paper to involve etymological (historical) background of words, slogans which make the motif of the age in the poem. baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 128 the combinatory approach between the linguistic (phono-morpho-syntactic) and the literary configuration of the text is discussed by using the foregrounding concept of leech, g. (2014). the crucial role played by literary text in keeping in touch with its readers is essentially supported by its experimentation with the work making a kind estrangement that is the confronting of readers’ expectation to a situation which is ghostly like. it is ghostly because the readers are derailed from the expected situation to an uncanny situation(benson et al., 2021; lang & liu, 2023; myhill, 2021; riaz, 2022; sharma & sood, 2022) wherein finding the cultural equivalence is of prime importance. ostensibly, applying an appropriate translation strategy and approach is another significant task. this necessitates an indepth understanding of concepts of translation studies such as equivalence, domestication and foreignization. drawing on insights from these concepts, this paper attempts a critical assessment of the english translation of ramnath shastri’s acclaimed play bawa jitto (1599. the uncanny event is indicated by the reader being trapped in a catching of sense between in a familiar but strange situation (defamiliarized). with regard to the foregrounding process (defamiliarization) the poet is observed to deviate from the ‘normal/expected’ situation. in doing the poet systematically deviates from ‘expected norms’ of linguistic structure (phonological, morphological and syntactic state) as well as by taking literary stance, the foregrounding or deviation from norms of literary composition, of the ‘poetic canon’(hauptman & stacy, 1978; leech, 2014; manshur, 2019; priyatni et al., 2021; sastra & ilmu budaya universitas gadjah mada, 2019). this deviation is also known as conventional deviation or defeated expectancy due to its characteristic nature which contradicts our expectation (leech, 2014). the systematic deviation is indicated mostly when the poet goes outside the normally occurring range of choice as expected by common knowledge (sense). for instance, in normal indonesian, ship is perceived as melaut ‘off-shoring’ instead of berlaut ‘reciprocal initiative to ashore’. thus saying ….perahu tiada berlaut ‘off-shoring ships provokes common expectation about structural expression. it deviates from ‘normally expected’ structure formation (melaut) which thus put its reader in defamiliarized state. thus, foregrounding in structural and literary/conceptual expectation is believed to help illuminate the poem’s insight because the literary insight is based on formal description (not hanging in the air) of text. iii. result the plain sense of senja di pelabuhan kecil as any one read chairil anwar’s poem for the first time, a certain kind of sense comes through to as almost immediately. this sense shall be called the poem’s plain sense, or sometimes is called literal sense. the plain sense of chairil anwar’s poem tells that the speaker walks along the seashore at dusk depicting the declining spirit of the people in search of love and the waning passion of the ships and boat travelling offshore. the whole landscape comes at a sudden stop, idle although vaguely and then the flap of eagle teasing the woeis sensed. idleness is worsened by the late shower which quickened the dark of dusk. it is growing darker, there is no move in sight, the land and water lost their waves. yet, the speaker grows resolute to tread along all alone even to the miles stretch ahead, the fourth shore where he projects the very whimper gets calmed. morpho-phonological and syntactic description morpho-syntax of senja di pelabuhan kecil reading the poems we are soon attracted by ‘uncommon’ use of morpho-syntactic distribution. in terms of word order, the poem makes is noted to make inversion such the phrasal reversal of order (ini kali instead of kali ini). in addition to its inversion, the phrase is also marked by its transpose to initial (topical) position. the next structural organization is the socalled serial verb construction (svc) by which the clause structure is made of series of verbs(stewart, 2013)as in mempercaya mauberpaut(line 4) and berjalanmenyisir semenanjung. the verbs in the clause are taken as single predication. so, berjalan menyisir is taken as single eventive activity and not as coordinated acts of berjalan dan menyisir. in relation to the svc there is also clausal repetition as in sekali tiba di ujung dan sekalian selamat jalan. morpho-syntactically considered the poem makes use of the promotion of grammatical voice baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 129 (arka & wouk, 2014). infix is one of tools for voice. one of the functions it serves is for semantic smoothing. to reduce vulgarity in busuk then belusuk is used. in the poem, the word temali (tali and –em-) and kelepak (kepak and –el-) serves the same function. the poem is also observed to be prolific in the manipulation of morphological constructs which is distributionally ‘abusive’ to ordinary use of word formation. instead of using me(melaut) the verbal construct uses ber (berlaut); the use of percaya is modified to mempercaya. in addition, there is also observed the reduction of morpheme in menemu which normally is attached by applicative marker suffix (-i or –kan) as in menemu instead of menemukan bujuk pangkal keakanan. note further the idiosyncratic use of -an suffix with the prepositional base. furthermore, the poem modifies word (compound) construction by turning it periphrastic (phrasal) expression (tanah dan air instead of the ‘normal’ tanah air). on the level of phonology, the force of intonation ‘recitation’ intermingles with the syntactic formation (carper & derek, 2003; cruttenden, 1997). the short clauses in final stanza implies and suggests slow and heavy prosody (three clauses in single line), as in tiada lagi. aku sendiri. berjalan which ‘normally’ summarized in single clause aku berjalan sendiri. the heavy, laden sounding of the line is supported further by the sibilant sounds (/s/) which alliteratively dominates the last three lines (cook, 2002). overall, the structural makeup of the linguistic mechanics is later analysed in relation to the organization of literary devices such as foregrounding function, defamiliarization. the discussion of the two aspects (linguistic and literary) is discussed under double structure approach. serial verb construction and event series serial verbin syntax is a type of construction which refers a sequence of verbs or verbphrases within aclause. the so called serial verb construction is characterized by the absence of formal conjunction which might be considered ‘covert’ in speech event (major & crystal, 1992; stewart, 2013). eastern indonesian is noted to be robust in serial construction. the indonesian single verbal form membelikan in joni membelikan ibunya obat has its equivalent serial verb construction (svc): joni pigibeli obat kasi(dia punya) mama. here verbs pigi ‘go’ and beli ‘buy’ as well as kasi ‘give’ share the same subject, it shares the same subject and the event is perceived as a unity. chairil anwar’s senja di pelabuhan kecil is noted to apply not only serial verb (berjalan/ menyisir semenanjung) but also serial clauses. the verb berjalan and menyisir ‘combing’ is taken a single event (combing the shore) in the same way as eastern indonesian pigi beli…kasi ‘go, buy givve’ which expresses the semantic of membelikan. as a single event it is distinct from coordinative event: the act of berjalan ‘walk’ and act of menyisir ‘comb the shore’. in addition chairil anwar also makes use of serial sentences and, sentences sharing the same tone and subject arranged in a series of event sequence: tiada lagi. aku sendiri. berjalan hopeless, alone i proceed what is interesting in the use of seriality (serial event and serial verbs) is the fact that it places event and experience into a united chain of sequence and in that way establishes the cohesive ties of the stanza. what is more, chairil anwar’s serializing of verb and events goes in harmony with the poem’s use of catalogue technique (compare mazur, 2005). his catalogue of scenery among the deserted old buildings and the marginalized traditional fishermen serves as avehicle for the presentation of the various aspects of forgotten love(lovers and beloved) brilliantlyevokes the revolutionary devastation of the speaker. furthermore, the tone of the poem in the last stanza harmonizes with the series of event and their pronunciation which synergistically empowers the depiction of emotional and cognitive picture in the poem (cook, 2002). the serial verb construction by which chairil anwar presents seriality of event manifests best in the last stanza. the stanza makes a remarkable event projection in what vendler calls serial and chromatic manner (vendler, 2004). we are told that the speaker is in his way to reach the fourth shore, at the moment of speaking we sense that he is on the way bearing his heavyladen hope because the ships and boat which are expected to relieve his load are in idle state, they lose their energy. the speaker thus left on his own baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 130 as a single fighter. there is in this case an interesting semantic clash between the on-going event and the perfective projection of event. on the one hand he is heading toward the destination (berjalan menyisir semenanjung ‘awandering combing the peninlula’) and at the same time the solution has been projected (sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap ‘the last whimper got calmed’). our reading of this would be to interpret that the bisa terdekap can be calmed’ constitutes an expectation albeit expressed in a perfective state (theterinstead of being modified with akan ‘will’). how it comes to cohere the perfective aspect leads us to interpret it as determinative (resolute)projection on the part of the speaker. voice system the term voice is defined as a languagespecific system of grammatical opposition pertaining to stages of event realization and the conceptual-pragmatic relevance of the participants of the event (arka & wouk, 2014). voice concerns stages of event realization which coversphases of initiation, development, and extension and/ or termination of event. in languages (including indonesian) variation in the marking of verb incurs the grammatical opposition. thus, voice alternation often involves a change of grammatical relations. for instance, indonesian mikir and berpikiron ‘think and contemplate’ the one hand and kepikiran or terpikir ‘’caught the thought’ on the other are said to contrast in terms of the volitional and spontaneity of event. a contrast between mempercaya and percaya ‘to trust’ exemplifies the voluntary and involuntary marking of verb. while percaya ‘believe’ is semantically understood as a kind of trust due to external, the mempercaya (mempercaya mau berpaut) ‘on the belief’ is depicted as active voluntary initiative of getting to believe. voice marking very often marks the distinction between either the event ceases at the subject or it extends to individuation target. the cessation of event may be indicated by the incorporation of semantic patient into the verbal expression. in dia menyisir rambutnya ‘he combs his hair’ we have active transitive clause in which there are two separate arguments dia (the initiator) and rambutnya (initiated) but in dia bersisir’he combs’ the patient is not explicitly stated or individuated. the event is initiated and ends in the subject. in terms of voice opposition, then we understand the verb berlaut ‘to go offshore’ to differ from ‘normal’ form mengarungi laut ‘cross the ocean’. mengarungi laut we perceive the laut ‘sea/ocean’ as the road traveled through (individuated). berlaut ‘go offshore’ focuses on the event orientation which starts and end internal to the subject. the ending of event orientation on the agent of berlaut also distinguishes it from the verb melaut, although both involve object incorporation. the verb melaut suggests an idea that the agent extends the orientation of the action to external direction outside the subject. chairil anwar’s manipulation of voice related to the distinction in the stage of initiation, development and termination of event is so prolific and can readily be observed in many of his poems. in his other poem sebuah kamar ‘a room’, in order to foreground a situation in which the kids are made to survive on their own in the crowded, suffocated room (five children in a 3x4 room) he chooses bernyawa ‘wear on soul’ instead of terlahir ‘get born’: sudah lima anak bernyawa di sini ‘five children soul here’. in terlahir’get born’, the idea is related to the child birth, a depiction of state of delivery. the bernyawa ‘having its soul’, on the other hand, adds special emphasis on the forcing of those innocent beings to survive on their own. iv. discussion the foregrounding functions and deconstructing effects chairil anwar’s language is revolutionary not only in his period but also to date. the very play of words or grammatical formation prove to function effectively in giving breath and soul to the essence o his poem. deviation from the normal expected construction (leech, 2014)such as say the word berlaut instead of melaut foregrounds the plurality of event and togetherness among the fishermen as a collective self-initiated as well as intensification people responsible of ship and boat(arka & wouk, 2014). for here, the idea exposed by the berby analogy with berbaju focuses more on the self initiating aspect of the people and the event is oriented for the sake of the people themselves. baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 131 the beralso implies cooperation of group of people. more importantly, by such morphological, grammatical foregrounding, chairil anwar intensifies what is known as ‘deconstructing’ job. inherently considered, a construction is essentially akin to a state of fixation. a construction marks a deadly end of dynamicity, it opposes deviation which by definition is ‘an act of abuse’ to the rule. revolution, the age in which chairil anwar was involved, necessitates refreshment in expression. poetry language, thus, necessitates the abuse of established construction to make it afresh. this is what is essentially called as foregrounding (leech, 2014). hence, the poet job is expected to work out, to de-construct the construction, to liberate the word from imprisonment. at the same time it injects a new pulse to the word which results in the lively state of the term. in sum, first the word berlaut shocks our expectation and at the same time new vision and insight is inserted (the promoting of the middle voice, in which the events berlautis applied to express ‘togetherness, collaborative and self-initiated conduct’). we now come to realize that the ships and boats are being depicted at its ideal. at such ideal, unfortunately, the ships and boats fail to satisfy/accomplish its expected function. such failure to serve the ideal function is indeed the thing lamented by the speaker. interestingly though, the idleness turns out to strengthen his resolute spirit for the revolutionary ideals. defamiliarization in the following lines we could as indonesian speakers observe how chairil anwar defamiliarizes the phrasal construction by applying affixes in a combination where it is unexpected in term speakers’ intuition(mazur, 2005). this is a strategy tomake a fresh, new construction which deviates the ‘normal one’, and hereby impactson making thing strange. the deviation serves to depart from what is familiar and known. defamiliarization is illustrated in a context seafaring, while in its common use the activity of fishing is expressed by melaut, but chairil anwarderails to uncommon way, berlaut.furthermore, instead of saying menghembuskanthe poet chooses to reduce the expected –kan suffix into menghembus diri. poet is acknowledged artist’s licenceby which he is blessed freedom of expression manipulation. however, no matter how free a poet can be in the light of poetic licence, hisfreedom is restricted by communicative end for comprehension. excessive defamiliarization would impact communicative failure. we absolutely do not expect chairil anwar to abuse the structure and say lautber, dirimen hembus or hembus mendiri or percayamem and pautber without risking his unintelligibility. defamiliarization in poetry serves the diagnostic function in textual judgment. poet violates normal expression, but in doing so it triggers the reader to judge the deviated form with the expected one. in that way, the poet’s defamiliarizing of the familiar thing, in its own wayappeals its reader synthesizes the deviation with the familiar one (bradford, 2005). thus, analytically taken, in saying berlaut we wonder what difference it makes against the familiar melaut or mengarungi laut ‘set offshore’. we sense intuitively that in saying berlaut, the kapal ‘ship’ and the perahu ‘boats’ are involved actively in a voluntary, self-motivated fishing zeal. double pattern and ideophonic expression double pattern refers to the application of literary pattern of expression (versification and literary tropes)together with syntactic pattern in poem. rhymed line is commonly considered as medium by which accentual verse could signal the presence of the double pattern(bradford, 2005). apart from the controversies such as once between milton blank verse and dryden’s rhymed verse (also called pope’s art), the practice of perceiving rhymed verse as the channel of double pattern prevails up to modern era. in indonesia, the so called pope’s art gains popularity as is reflected in chairil anwar’s senja di pelabuhan kecil: tiada lagi. aku sendiri. berjalan menyisir semenanjung, masih pengap harap sekali tiba di ujung dan sekalian selamat jalan dari pantai keempat, sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap nothing left behind. i am alone awandering combing the peninsula, suffocated and hope once across, and farewell, so long from the forth the last whimper gets calmed the stanza illustrates an abab patterns of end rhyme and the 3rdline of the stanza manifests double pattern which involves alliterative pattern of versification and the repetitive pattern of syntactic baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 132 double pattern and enjambment one of the reading problem in the poem concerns with enjambment(bradford, 2005). this occurs when the fundamental unit of versification, the line, literally cuts into the structure and structure of syntax. for instance, we observe run on of syntactic border and line ending: ini kali tidak ada yang mencari cinta di antara gudang, rumah tua, pada cerita this now no one seeks for love among the old deserted buildings, around old houses and on the old story… line one and two run on(enjambment) the phrases in the second line di antara gudang, rumah tua, pada cerita among the old deserted building and old tales’. the enjambment impacts on the ambiguity of the reading of the phrases either as adverbial to the mencari cinta (a) or as modifiers to the noun cinta (b). in (a), the phrases di antara gudang’among the deserted buildings’…constitutes the adverbial phrase whose function is to modify the clause as a whole, while in the (b) the phrases serve as modifier to noun cinta. the scope of modification is restricted to the noun in (b), but it covers the whole event in (a). the impact of the two reading relates to the existence of the cinta itself. in (b) the cinta is in the in the old buildings, while in (a) the cinta can anywhere, not necessarily in the old buildings. interestingly, chairil anwar’s lines run on (enjambment) and at the same time they weave the two phrasal expressions into a chainedunity. this is the point which makes chairil anwar’s poem keep its reader ‘awake’. the versification line and the syntax interact and cooperate in readers’ cognitive visual eyes. the description of the double pattern demonstrates how the poet foregroundsa mixed emotional state the speaker experiences: that concerns the uncertainty on the part of cinta (mencari cinta di antara gudang..) on the one hand and certainty (cinta di antara gudang…) on the other. the (un)certainty and the searching are, thus, fused (confused). this confusion, in the historical context of the poem may highlight a state of disorientation following the independence of the new republic. when in the warring period (war template (sekali x, sekalian z). the line reminds us of the popular slogan during the revolution in indonesia ‘sekali merdeka tetap merdeka’ ‘once and for all freedom’.it is the very slogan which is being alluded by chairil anwar as a case in point for his criticism in the poem. it was just a moment ago (in a matter of single year (1945), the slogan was chanted, the revolution spirit seems too soon to rest (kapal dan perahu tiada berlaut, … kini tanah dan air tidur hilang ombak ‘ships and boats none offshore…now the land and nautical falls asleep no more waves lingering). the revolution vitalism get out of breath with the seafarers trapped in a daydream, in nato (no action think only). bearing this historical context and historical highlight, we can readily understand chairil anwar’s cynicism on the idle revolutionist. however, on the part of the speaker, the stagnation, instead of depressing, it boosts his spirit to the ultimate (dari pantai keempat, sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap). the word keempat invites us to think of the socio-cultural tradition of numeral expression. ordinal three in the system of proverbial and slogan expression is used to express ultimate point. the point is understood as infinite measurement. thus, the counting dua, tiga pulau in the proverbial expression sekali merengkuh dayung dua tiga pulau terlampauirefers to infinite, huge totality. and in the popular wise word, we are advised try up to third count (sekali bisa sabar, dua kali masih tahan jangan sampai yang ketiga kali ‘the final moment of truth’). and here, it is in relation to socio-cultural practice of numerical expression can we appreciate chairil anwar’s determination to go beyond the ultimate limit. the versification pattern and the socio-cultural allusion of the stanza correspond with the syntactic pattern of the lines. the speaker’s soliloquy which is full of impatience on the idleness finally reach its anti-climax. this is suggested by combination between the dominant short clauses (first line) and the domination of sibilant (/s/ phoneme). short clauses and sibilant sounds suggest harmony between metrical pattern and pattern of heart beats (slow, heavy breath taking) which together stimulate ideophones in the sensory imagery (dingenmanse, 2011). the harmony of those patterns present in our mental sight and hearing the speaker’s stepping along the shore with a slow, heavy (resolute) heart beat and breathe taking. baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 133 against the colonialists) the people were united in a single goal, but as soon as it is achieved, it seems in chairil’s perception, the road splits and the people too soon to expect to get rest (kapal dan perahu tiada berlaut) and all are in wait playing a safe game (menghembus diri dalam mempercaya mau berpaut). seriality thereis anotherquality that isequally intrinsic to his verse, and that is chairil anwar’s invention ofpoetic temporal structures that mimic the structureof lifeashe atany moment conceives it. what is determinant of his style of thinking is his well-described grammatical and syntactic and metaphorical idiosyncrasies with whichhe alters “normal” temporal organization. interestingly, we note chairil anwar organizes temporal event by emphasizing the end point (perfective view) and implicitly traces back in the event series (telic). in such chronological organizationhe covers temporal experience as a complete perfective event from a definite end result and in that way he leaves the beginning of event series implied (dari pantai ke empat ‘lit. from the fourth seashore the last whimper gets dismissed/ recovered’). this arrangement in event seriality by chairil anwar is distinct from dickinson seriality arrangement which is characterized by progressive step-by-step trajectory. in the perspective of seriality of event, the poem senja di pelabuhan keciltends to believe not only that all roads have anend, but also that “all roads” have “a ‘clearing’ at the end.”(vendler, 2004) sekali tiba di ujung dan sekalian selamat jalan once yonder across, it’s a ffarewell the line implies the existence of road end as well as the temporal constituency of time (comrie, 2001)in which point he projects his resolute everlasting fight. and the fourth seashore which is taken above to presents unlimited endpoint is made to represent the final ultimate end to his grief and restless energy and hence all whimper gets tamed. instead of taking en route tothe dénouement the poem stringexperience not phase by phase, but started at the end of the sequence. dari pantai keempat, sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap recall also that the title of the poem starts the time from the end of time cycle (senja ‘evening, at dusk’, the darker stage of twilight). beyond human personal restraints to read chairil is to read him at a time when such revolutionary statements (vitalism) carry the weight, the decisive prophecy. if the human world disappoints us (kapal dan perahu tiada berlaut) — we have the privilege of repudiating (denounce) it forever in exchange for the certainty of a far different kind of romance, or religious mission (resolute spirit to fight totally even beyond third count: dari pantaikeempat; compare also chairil’s doa ‘prayer’ in a mosque addressing the almighty). teew (1980) insightfully details the semantic density of the word larut in chairil anwar’s kawanku dan aku whose polysemous semantics blends to establish psychological fixatedness. the speaker tells us that he and his friend used to be zealous seafarers(kami sama pejalan larut), used to fight hardship(menembus kabut//hujan mengucur badan). unfortunately, unlike ideal relation depicted by auden in a ‘heavy date’ (wasley, aidan. 2011) the energy has now distracts, there lies distance, a cold, stiffen, and frozen emotional barriers between the two (berkakuan kapal-kapal di pelabuhan). in such a ‘larut’ situation, the speaker saw no point to compromise (nor o return) and thus decided to depart his auld langsyne (sudah larut sekali/hilang tenggelam segala makna/dan gerak tak punya arti).the speaker treads hisown road of resolute vigilance. such vigilancemakes happen due to the fact that chairil anwar has broken free of human restraints and obligations—the object of his love, to adopt thoreau’s ideals, is not another human being (shanley j. l. 1989), in chairil anwar’s case it is revolutionary vitalism for the new nation that matters. at this point, the point where idealism breaks through human restraints, chairil anwar brings us to the love not for personal one with sri ayati but for national (spiritual) fight for the newly independent republic (recall he uses emphatic foregrounded phrase: tanah dan air instead of the expected compound tanah air) which leads us to think about something not personal to transcend for ideal one. compare this study and the study of maloku & avdyli (2023) baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 134 iv. conclusion a close attention on the linguistic (phonomorpho-syntactic) and discussion on literary makeup of the poem’s textual performance strongly suggests that, in contrast to h.b. jasin’s popular interpretation of the poem as outcry of the speaker’s ‘sentimental lamentation’ (which relies solely on the epigraph sri ayati (adri, 2021), the poem reveals a resolute decision of the speaker to fight for the ultimate ideal of revolutionary goal. thus, the poem epitomizes infinite zealous energy for ultimate totality. the analysis in the paper strongly suggests that the poem presents a compact collaboration between the linguistic structure media of expression and the foregrounding of literary tropes. the poem successfully manages the phonology, morphology and syntax potentials to exhaust the literary devices (figurative languages and encyclopedic seriality of experience). chairil anwar, by way of his linguistic and literary prowess represents the quintessential vitalism of his age, the age which marked zealous spirit to keep afresh the revolutionary idealism of indonesian. the novelty of his linguistic expression enacts thomas gray’s aphorism: the language of the age is never the language of poetry. chairil anwar’s language leads the age’s language and such is the thing required to keep indonesian dynamic. as new emerging force, bahasa indonesia, thanks to the japanese, is put forward as national language and ends dutch position as language of intellect, governmental and political role. the japanese mandate for national language also cut the literary ties with its predecessor, poejangga baroe period(teeuw, 1967, 1980). chairil anwar in that way 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(1967). modern indonesian literature. in modern indonesian literature. springerscience+business media, b.v. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-0768-4 teeuw, a. (1980). tergantung pada kata. pustaka jaya. vendler, h. (2004). poets thinking. harvard university press. biography baharuddin earned his bachelorette degree in english literature in 1992 and his master degree majoring in translation studies in 2007 from university of udayana denpasar, bali indonesia. in beginning of 2023 he earned his ph.d from udayana university, writing his doctoral thesis in translation studies, researching the translation of signage in public space on lombok. in english education program, mataram university, lombok, indonesia he is teaching some subjects such as linguistics, semantics, and some subjects related to translation studies; translation, interpreting, avt, captioning, subtitling, and dubbing, lip-synch. he also conducted some research in the field of translation studies, working with students of the program. besides being a researcher and an academician, since 1992, he has been a professional translator, member and former head of the association of indonesian translators branch nusatenggara, indonesia in 2013-1016. the association of indonesia translators itself is a member of federation de internationale traductur based in paris, france. his interest as a researcher is translation, linguistics, and teaching. baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 136 senja di pelabuhan kecil buat sri ayati ini kali tidak ada yang mencari cinta di antara gudang, rumah tua, pada cerita tiang serta temali1. kapal, perahu tiada berlaut2 menghembus diri3dalam mempercaya mau4 berpaut gerimis mempercepat5 kelam. ada juga kelepak6 elang menyinggung7muram8, desir hari lari berenang menemu9 bujuk pangkal akanan. tidak bergerak dan kini tanah dan air tidur hilang ombak10. tiada lagi. aku sendiri. berjalan menyisir semenanjung, masih pengap harap sekali tiba di ujung dan sekalian11 selamat jalan dari pantai keempat12, sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap13 (1946) kawanku dan aku14 kami sama pejalan larut menembus kabut hujan mengucur badan berkakuan kapal-kapal di pelabuhan 1 infixation: smoothing. busuk-belusuk(an). tiang serta temali ‘posting flag’, reminding us for the respect of the national flag posting. 2 word formation: structural deviation. melaut but berlaut, while berhembus turns to menghembus. (compare teew). the use of berhere might be by analogy to berlayar. in terms of versification, the beris alliterative with berpaut. 3 menghembus requires the applicative –kan to have its transitive use (mengehembuskan nafas/*menghembus nafas) and it is collocative with such words having the feature of air blowing. it is not expected to combine with diri, badan or the like. the verb percaya can be transitivized by the use of applicative marker –i ‘mempercayai’. 4 mau may mean ‘want, wich, expect’ and ‘will and other futurate meaning’. the later use of mau constitutes modal auxiliary. 5 in memepercepat wwe have meng-, perand the base cepat, by analogy with this formation mempercaya seems to be analytically imposed as derivative meng-, perand caya (‘nonce’? or may it be related to cahaya via dropping of ha which is also found in indonesian sahaya for saya, sahabat – sobat, sahari to sari. 6 infixation: kepakkelepak. 7 singgung: criticize ideologically, touch physically 8 kelam, suram express ‘gloomy, dark situation’ 9 menemu is expected to be like mempercaya. it requires applicative –i. what does the poet intends to do by dropping the applicative? 10 the periphrastic expression of tanah air as tanah dan air makes the idiosyncratic tanah air becomes systematic. it is now foregrounded and put into surface as marked situation. it is in short put to focus, under emphatic position. taken this way, then the poem is not to be related on the first hand analysis with the speaker’s relation (chairil”s) with the one listed as the epitaph ‘sri aryani’. sri is just the one to whom the poem addressed without necessarily taken to contribute in the content of the poem. her status is understood as recipient of an object without any involvement in the process of the objejct matter (equivalent to the receiver of my purchase of gift in i purchased a golden watch for my dear friend. my friend has nothing to do with the golden watch except as the receiver). 11 lexically and, phonologically alliterative. reminding us of the slogan during reolution:: sekali merdeka tetap merdeka but this time it is the first word which gets repeated. thus the expression makes use of double patterns (see richard bradford 1993), alliterative (pattern of versification, literary one) and pattern of syntax/discourse (formulaic repetition). 12 pantai ke empat ‘the fourth seashore’….until the whimper can be handled, settled. four stages, processes gone through to overcome the emotional pain (metaphorical extension of long painstaking job/process of recovery). 13 the speaker of “dari pantai keempat, sedu penghabisan bisa terdekap” the whimpering person”, in his serial motion attained a conclusive terminus ad quem, the last whimper is fully controlled.(vendler, 2004) 14 some notes on differences with the version of kerikil kerikil tajam is given in the footnotes. appendix baharuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 137 darahku mengental pekat. aku tumpat pedat siapa berkata-kata?15 kawanku hanya rangka saja karena dera mengelucak tenaga dia bertanya jam berapa?16 sudah larut sekali hilang tenggelam segala makna dan gerak tak punya arti 15 in kerikil tajam the word kata is not reduplicated. 16 in kerikil tajam version, the line is ended by interjection mark. hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 66 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 11, 2023 final revision: may 06, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 many studies have been carried out on religious narratives that go hand in hand with the covid-19 pandemic, but only focus on religious authority, religious attitudes and behavior, and the contributions of religious leaders. in fact, the religious dimension in the covid-19 hoax circle is a form of social practice that contains a dialectical process. this article aims to reveal the hidden dialectical process in the lingual features of the covid-19 hoax through halliday’s transitivity analysis. this descriptive qualitative research data is in the form of lingual elements in the covid-19 hoax content related to religious issues. data was collected using documentation techniques on four website pages to fact-check covid-19 news published throughout 2020-2021. data collection was carried out by going through the stages of reading and observing, sorting, storing and printing, rereading, and determining research subjects. the data is then analyzed by taking the data reduction stage; display data; conclusion, and verification. the results showed that of the 121 data used as a corpus, 6 types of transitivity processes were found, namely (1) material processes, (2) mental processes, (3) relational processes, (4) verbal processes, (5) behavioral processes, and (6) existential process. the research findings provide a new perspective on the tendency of discourse producers to construct narratives about covid-19 and religious issues. the research findings will have implications for efforts to educate the public about hoax issues around covid-19. with the description of the exploitation of religious issues, it is hoped that the community will be aware and able to think critically in digesting information. keywords religious narratives, covid-19, hoax, transitivity analysis, indonesian social media correspondence e-mail: hettitriana@uinib.ac.id article religious narratives during the pandemic: transitivity analysis of covid-19 hoax discourse on indonesian social media hetti waluati triana1, oktavianus oktavianus2, muhammad ilham3, annisa khairunnisa4 1,4arabic language and literature, imam bonjol state islamic university, padang, indonesia 2facuty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 3history of islamic civilization, imam bonjol state islamic university, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.66-75.2023 1. introduction since its inception, the spread of corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) has been accompanied by various forms of religious narratives (sartika, rijal, & sirin, 2021; sobri & rafi’i, 2021; salsabila et al., 2021). in the united states, certain religious groups spread misinformation about covid-19 in society (bok, martin, & lee, 2021). religious legitimacy is used to hinder the mitigation process and generate public distrust of covid-19. in several other countries, religious activities have become the big epicenter of the spread of covid-19 to various other countries (bok, martin, & lee, 2021). in the long journey of mitigating the spread of covid-19, religious narratives associated with covid-19 are displayed on various existing social media platforms. in indonesia, one of the religious narratives that intersects a lot with covid-19 is a hoax. on the https://covid19.go.id/p/hoax-buster page which is the official forum for the ministry of health in verifying hoaxes about covid-19, no hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 67 less than 8% of hoaxes are related to religious issues. the religious dimension has the largest portion in the covid-19 hoax circle which involves ethnic, religious, racial and intergroup (sara) sentiments. the same thing was also found on the official website of the ministry of health (kominfo. go.id) and the independent “fact check” page managed by the indonesian anti-defamation society (turnbackhoax.id). the religious issues found revolved around the topic of statements by religious leaders, religious teachings, confrontation of one religion with another, and religious fanaticism in responding to the covid-19 pandemic (rahayu & sensusiyati, 2020). in the chronological order of the emergence and prevention of the spread of covid-19 in indonesia, hoaxes that have religious content are found in almost every stage of the process. starting from the emergence of covid-19 which is claimed to be god’s punishment for certain religious groups, to the phenomenon of refusal of vaccinations which is considered a foreign effort to spy on certain religious leaders and adherents (rusli et al., 2021). this situation then positions religion as one of the inhibiting factors in the mitigation process (siregar & hasibuan, 2020; pabbajah et al., 2020). religion should contribute, but in fact it often clashes with the work of health and political authorities (lubis, 2019). in a study conducted by levin (2020), certain religious authorities are said to be part of the problem, not part of the solution. in the context of critical studies, the hoax phenomenon that borrows religious legitimacy is a social practice that contains a hidden dialectical process between the text and the context of the situation (fairclough, 1995; 2001; aman, 2002). in the lingual features of the hoax, there are complex things such as social change, value and knowledge systems, relationships, identity, ideology, and culture (aman, 2006). in several previous studies, this approach had never been carried out. most of the researchers focus on religious authorities (zain & hasanudin, 2021), religious attitudes and behavior (sobri & rafi’i, 2001; simon et al., 2021), as well as the contribution of religious leaders in changing various existing bad perceptions (huda, 2021; muchammadun et al., 2021). based on the landscape of the previous studies above, there has been no linguistic-based study of the covid-19 discourse and religious issues. it is in this context that the study of critical discourse on hoaxes associated with religion is interesting to do. critical analysis allows researchers to explore the social dynamics that exist in the lingual features of the hoax, describe the various contexts that lie behind it, to map the ideology contained in it. through critical analysis, the position of religion in the hoax phenomenon can be explained objectively so as to eliminate superficial justifications about religious authority circulating in society. in this regard, this study aims to map the transitivity process in the covid-19 hoax narrative related to religious issues. this research is expected to be able to provide an overview of the patterns and trends in the production of hoax discourse. theoretically, macdougall (1958) briefly defines a hoax as an untruth that is deliberately created to cover up the truth. in the factual dynamics that humans live in, the untruth is sought to be understood as something true. the hoax has the basic principle of lying and distorting facts to influence others (macdougall, 1958). this concept is also in line with utami’s argument (2018) which explains hoaxes as a post-fact era phenomenon in the form of false information used to influence and provoke audiences to act as desired by producers. in the way it works, hoaxes can distort someone’s understanding by polishing false information as truth. it makes hoaxes in contestation often used by certain parties as a weapon to attack opponents (chen, conroy, & rubin, 2015). among the fields where hoaxes thrive is new media. this term refers to instruments and patterns of internet-based information dissemination which are known for their advantages of being fast, instant and direct (flew, 2008; levinson, 2013). in the new media era, the flow of news distribution is more dominantly controlled by personally owned social media. users can freely become consumers and news producers and distributors without being escorted by adequate verification tools (mcquail, 2002). the main symptom that is a significant difference between the new and traditional media is the pattern of information dissemination. in new media, the mediation process becomes almost nonexistent because users can interact with each other hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 68 quickly and freely. new media opens up a large space for interactive two-way communication so the impact is becoming more widespread and difficult to control (mcquail, 2000). the new media is popularly called social media. the movement of hoaxes on social media is motivated by the great desire of users to actualize themselves who are not equipped with adequate knowledge. park & rim (2020) called this symptom as instant activism. social media users are dominated by individuals who always want to exist, but do not have the competence to scrutinize information properly (kata, 2010; veil et al., 2012). hoax is characterized by the character of excessive, suspicious, and difficult information to be accepted by empirical logic. hoax targets users who have relatively the same trust as producers. the pattern of spreading hoaxes is strongly influenced by the subjective characteristics of media users who tend to believe in the information they like (park & rim, 2020). meanwhile, the transitivity analysis proposed by halliday & mattthiessen (2014) is used as an analytical tool. a transitivity system describes the various processes involved and the structures that embody them (halliday & mattthiessen, 2014; berry, 2019). the perfect experience is realized by three important elements: process, participant, and circumstance. halliday & matthiessen (2014) categorizes processes into 6 (six) types, namely: 3 (three) main experiences or primary processes (i.e. consisting of material processes, mental processes, and relational processes) and 3 (three) complementary experiences (i.e. consisting of behavioral processes (behavioral), verbal processes, and existential processes). in this study, this classification is used as a theoretical framework to map patterns and trends of covid-19 hoax narratives in research data. ii. methods this type of research was descriptive qualitative. according to the arguments of freemann (2009) and mirhosseini (2017), the qualitative orientation of this study lied in the natural situation at the data collection stage and involved context at the analysis stage of the covid-19 hoax lingual data. the research data was lingual elements in the form of words, phrases, sentences, and discourse on covid-19 hoax content related to religious issues and published throughout 2020-2021. the data was taken from four pages of the covid-19 news fact-checking website, which consisted of two official government-owned pages and two pages owned by independent communities. the government’s website is the website of the ministry of health (https://covid19.go.id/p/ hoax-buster) and the website of the ministry of communication and informatics (kominfo.go.id). meanwhile, the pages belonging to the independent community are the indonesian anti-defamation society website (https://turnbackhoax.id/) and the kumparan website (https://kumparan.com/topic/ hoaxbuster). data was collected using internet archival documentation techniques (gunn & fraire, 2011). data collection was carried out by going through the stages of reading and observing, sorting, storing and printing, rereading, and determining research subjects. the final data was printed to facilitate rereading and classification according to the types of covid-19 issues and existing religions. in the next stage, the data was extracted and rounded into tabular form. after that, the data were grouped into data cards that had been made based on the types of hoaxes and religious issues referred to. after being classified into each card, the data were analyzed using the matching method (sudaryanto, 2001). in analyzing the entire data, the author referred to the stages of qualitative analysis proposed by lune & berg (2017): data reduction; display data; conclusion and verification. iii. result based on the results of the thematic analysis, it is known that 157 discourses from 278 data are displayed repeatedly on the four sites that are used as data sources for this study. as a result of this repetition, only 121 data are preliminary discourse data which is used as a corpus for the purposes of transitivity analysis. of the 121 narrative discourses of the hoax covid 19 in indonesia, 6 types of transitivity processes were found, namely (1) material processes, (2) mental processes, (3) relational processes, (4) verbal processes, (5) behavioral processes, and (6) existential process. the number and percentage of representation of the six processes can be seen in the table 1. hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 69 material processes a material process is a process or activity that concerns the physical, that is, a representation of the experience that can be observed using the senses. the material process can be seen in the following data 1 and data 2. perception that occurs in humans. semantically, mental processes involve human actors or other creatures that are considered to behave like humans. mental processes can be seen in data 3 and 4. table 1. the number and percentage of each process no. process number percentage 1 material 49 40% 2 mental 20 16% 3 relational 18 15% 4 verbal 19 16% 5 behavioral 7 6% 6 existential 8 7% total 121 100% no. code data 1 a 6 7 ; b57 raja thailand dan istrinya bersholawat agar corona hilang dari dunia dan negeri ini. ‘the king of thailand and his wife pray that corona will disappear from the world and this country’ 2 b22 italia bergema takbir aamiin ‘italy echoes takbir aamiin’ in the data above, material processes are found in the presence of the verbs to pray and echo. these verbs indicate a process and form of religious activity that can be observed by the senses. the participants involved as actors are those who tend to be said to be outside indonesia, namely the king of thailand (a67, b57) and italy (b22). as for participant ii, namely, goals that are clearly identified in the b22 data, namely takbir, where takbir is the goal of what is echoed. the sentence so that corona disappears from the world and this country is a circumstantial effect because it is the result of a material process carried out by participant i. in this activity, hoax narratives that represent religion materially tend to be depicted in collective activities which make comparisons to the fact that these activities are not carried out in indonesia. this narrative also emphasizes that material activities that appear as well as collective seem to really have an impact on the coronavirus. mental processes mental process is defined as a process or activity involving cognition, emotion, and no. code data 3 a 5 0 ; b79 kesan abdul somad saat divaksin: ndak terasa sakit, tak sesakit ditinggal pas lagi sayang-sayangnya ‘abdul somad’s impression when he was vaccinated: i didn’t feel sick, it wasn’t as painful as being left when i was still in love’ 4 d34 wapres: kita berdosa jika melihat tetangga kelaparan tapi pemimpin tidak berdosa kalau melihat rakyatnya kelaparan ‘vice president: it’s a sin for us to see our neighbors starving, but leaders are innocent seeing their people starving’ in data 3, the mental process was identified as the cause of the affection “it doesn’t hurt” which indicates the feelings and emotions of abdul somad’s senses. then this process is also clarified as a reinforcement of the mental process experienced by the sensors, namely “it’s not as painful as being left when you still in love”. the phenomenon that becomes the object of this process is when the vaccine is given, where the senser (abdul somad) does not feel pain when this vaccination (phenomenon) occurs. while in data 4, the mental process in sentences with contradictory meanings is identified from the verb “see” which indicates a process of observation by the sensor, namely “us and the leader” conveyed by the vice president (ma’ruf amin). the phenomenon is “starving neighbors” by our sensers and “the people are starving” by the leader’s sensers. the circumstantial contained is the circumstantial effect, namely the word “sinful and innocent”. relational processes the relational process can be defined as a process of marking or characterizing, namely something that is said to have characteristics or markers. verbs that can be categorized into this process, for example, are, exist, be, are, have, and so on. the relational process can be seen in the data 5, 6 and 7. in data 5, the relational process in discourse is identified by the presence of the predictor function of being. the relational process through the function hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 70 of the predictor ‘becoming’ here is an attributive relational process that bridges the relationship between participant i friday prayer in china as a person and participant ii human ocean as an attribute. friday prayers that occur in china are part of the nature of the human sea. while in data 6, the relational process identified by the existence of a predicative function is. the word is labeled identifiative relational process. what the fpi sprayed was referred to as a sign and its function was equivalent to that of a subject. the corona virus is called a value and its function is equalized as an object. in data 7 it can be seen that the relational process is identified by the presence of the predictor function as which mediates participants i and ii. this relational process is called an identifiable relational process in which the relationship between participants i and ii has equality. vaccines which are participant i are signs and propositions religious orders and law are mandatory are participant ii as values. verbal process verbal process is a process that shows activities or activities related to information, for example in the verb to order, ask, explain, and so on. the verbal process can be seen in the following data 8, 9 and 10. in data 8, the verbal process was identified by the verb to announce which was carried out by participant 1 as a speaker, namely the president of china. after that, this verbal process was followed by the announced words, namely the corona virus had become an epidemic and asked muslims to pray for china. in data 9, the verbal process was identified by the presence of the calling verb as a verbal action carried out by the speaker as participant i, namely the central secretary of the indonesian ulema council (mui). as for participant ii, the speech was to be careful and alert with the covid-19 rapid test being held for ulama, kyai and ustadz throughout indonesia. other participants included in this narrative are the recipients of the speech, namely all provincial, district and city muis. while in data 10 and 11, the verbal process in the data above was identified by the act of appealing and appealing carried out by participant i as an appeal, namely k.h ma’ruf amin. as for participant ii, the appeal of the process is to perform penitential prayers so that the corona virus or covid19 can be resolved quickly. another participant is the recipient as the recipient of the appeal, namely all muslims in indonesia (a03, b13). behavioral process behavioral process is defined as physiological activities or activities that express human physical behavior. in this case that can be categorized in this process, for example the verb to breathe, yawn, complain, laugh, and so on. the behavioral process can be seen in the following data 11, 12 and 13. the behavioral process in data 11 is identified from the verb to cry over. the verb crying above is a behavioral process in this discourse. the key no. code data 5 a 0 2 ; b12 shalat jum’atan di cina menjadi lautan manusia. ‘friday prayer in china becomes an sea of humans’ 6 b60 awas hati2 yang dimsemprotkan fpi adalah virus corona!!!!! ‘be careful the fpi shouts are the corona virus!!!!!’ 7 b104 wapres: vaksin merupakan perintah agama dan hukumnya wajib… ‘vice president: vaccine is a religious order and the law is mandatory…’ no. code data 8 b01; b 0 2 ; d02 presiden china mengumumkan virus corona telah menjadi epidemi dan memohon kepada umat islam mendoakan china. ‘the president of china announced that the corona virus had become endemic and asked muslims to pray for china’ 9 a25; a37; a62; b51; b64; b92; c 1 1 ; d44 kami selaku sekertaris majelis ulama indonesia (mui) pusat. dengan ini menyerukan kepada seluruh mui propinsi, kbupaten dan kota. agar berhati-hati dan waspada dengan diadakannya rapid test covid-19 terhadap para ulama, kyai dan ustadz di seluruh indonesia. ‘we are the secretary of the central indonesian ulema council (mui). we hereby call on all provincial, district and city muis. to be careful and alert with the holding of the covid-19 rapid test for ulama, kyai and ustadz throughout indonesia’ hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 71 is found. participants who became manifest were 17 cases of corona. this narrative is also followed by a circumstance, namely a location circumstance in jeddah. in data 16, an existential process is identified from the phrase that already exists which shows existence. the entities in the discourse above are almost all of the congregations (churches). the circumstance contained is the circumstance of the time in the narrative when the church was reopened; circumstan the place in the narrative in the kingdom of heaven; and the circumstantial cause in the narrative of dying from covid. iv. discussion the dominant appearance of material processes in hoax narratives indicates that physical activities, religious rituals, or direct actions seem to represent a more real discourse. in the contained discourse, material processes are dominated by religious activities. this is evident from the verbs used, namely praying, echoing, following along, crowding, jostling, carrying out, calling to prayer, echoing, learning, and so on. the verbs in this discourse are religious activities that are carried out physically, but are considered to have a positive impact on mitigating the spread of covid-19. this verb is represented to emphasize that sacred rituals with religious values can overcome the spread of covid-19. discourse producers attach ritual value because physical activity or certain rituals in religious processions become a sign for the traditions of religious communities. this finding is in line with the results of a study by bok, martin, & lee (2021) which stated no. code data 11 a 1 0 ; b25; ngeri karena corona italia pun bersujud. mereka menangisi diri. ‘horrified because corona italy also prostrated. they weep for themselves’ 12 a16; b38 d29 setelah adanya virus covid-19. umat islam arab banyak yg murtad. ‘after the covid-19 virus. many arab muslims are apostates’ 13 b05 20 juta orang masyarakat cina memeluk agama islam setelah terbukti epidemi corona tdk menyerang umat islam. ‘20 million chinese people embraced islam after it was proven that the corona epidemic did not attack muslims’ in this discourse is the italian people represented by their words. then this behavior process is followed by a circumstance of cause, namely horror because of corona. while in data 12 and 13, the behavioral process is identified by the process of religious conversion with the word apostasy and embracing islam as behavior. this process of religious conversion is called a behavioral process because there are material activities (the procession of embracing a religion) and mental processes because there are emotional beliefs involved in it. the minors included are muslims (a16, b38, d29) and 20 million chinese people (b05). the circumstance that is contained is the circumstance because what is stated in the proposition is after the presence of the covid-19 virus and the proposition after it is proven that the corona epidemic has not attacked muslims. existential processes an existential process is a process that expresses the existence of an object in which the object is real or actually exists. the existential process can be seen in the following data 14, 15 and 16. the existential process in data 14 is identified by the absence of the phrase. the existence (maujud) is the reported case of covid-19. then the circumstance that follows is the circumstance location in gaza as the place of what happened to exist. then the circumstantial causes in the narrative so far as they have been cut off from the world which is the reason for the absence of existential existence. while in data 15, the existential process is identified by the existence of a detected clause which indicates that existential existence exists and no. code data 14 b16 tidak ada kasus covid-19 yang dilaporkan di gaza sejauh mereka sudah terputus dari dunia. ‘no cases of covid-19 have been reported in gaza so far they have been cut off from the world’ 15 c01 17 kasus corona terdeteksi di jeddah ‘17 cases of corona were detected in jeddah’ 16 b 5 2 ; d46 ketika gereja dibuka kembali, ternyata hampir semua jemaatnya sudah berada dalam kerajaan sorga meninggal karena covid ‘when the church was reopened, it turned out that almost all of the congregation were already in the kingdom of heaven died of covid’ hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 72 deauthorization, as stated in the study of pabbajah et al. (2020). theoretically, the production and distribution of hoaxes about covid-19 associated with religion cannot be separated from social media behavior, which park & rim (2020) call a symptom of instant activism. this phenomenon is in line with the arguments of utami (2018) who explain hoaxes as a post-fact era phenomenon to influence and provoke audiences to think and act as producers wish. religion is a commodity that easily triggers conflict and anger in society. in addition, religious sentiments are also effective in moving people to believe in news. in line with the religious attitudes and behavior of the people who are still shallow, religious issues in the covid-19 hoax narrative get a place and enthusiastic reception (simon et al., 2021). the research findings that depart from a linguistic perspective make an important contribution to the landscape of the study of covid-19 discourse which is associated with religious issues. the description of critical discourse analysis that maps transitivity processes in hoax discourse provides a new perspective on the tendency of discourse producers to construct narratives about covid-19 and religious issues. religious issues will always be sensitive and easily trigger people’s emotions. there is a clustering of attitudes of religious adherents in responding to covid-19 as shown in the studies of rusli et al. (2021), salsabila et al. (2021), and zain & hasanudin (2021) will always be triggers for the emergence of other hoaxes in the future. v. conclusion based on the description in the results and discussion section above, it can be concluded that the transitivity analysis of the covid-19 hoax narrative shows the dominance of material processes compared to other processes. at the level of discourse production, this reality is influenced by the important role of ritual in people’s religious behavior, so that hoax narratives containing rituals tend to be easily consumed and believed. the existence of hoax narratives that utilize religious issues proves the existence of false religiosity among discourse producers. with a pattern of community diversity that tends to be fanaticism, the production of such hoaxes will easily be repeated in the future. the conclusion of this study that religious authorities were used to spread misinformation about covid-19. this ultimately has an impact on the increasingly massive spread of the virus. the lingual phenomenon found in research data reinforces previous studies which state that religion has the potential and has even been used as an inhibiting factor in the mitigation process (siregar & hasibuan, 2020; pabbajah et al., 2020). referring to lubis’ study (2019), hoax narratives built by discourse producers have clashed with religious authorities with health authorities and political authorities. the production of hoaxes that borrow religious legitimacy will eventually position religion as part of the problem, not a solution in preventing the spread of covid-19 (levin, 2020). apart from the domination of the process, the research findings also show that there is a tendency for discourse producers to associate hoax narratives with certain religious figures who have become icons in society. religious figures that appear are influential figures and have strong legitimacy. with that, certain groups take advantage of this discourse to provoke, narrate actions, or rituals in a concrete form in the material process. especially for people who have high fanaticism, of course the response to material processes in religious narratives related to covid-19 will be more sentimentally accepted. the use of the verbs vaccine, donate (fund), test, signed, attended, etc., is followed by the subject of religious figures. not only sentimental, fanaticism will encourage a more massive public perception and response because hoaxes related to covid-19 are narrated in the role of religious material. this finding can basically be categorized as the impact of the lack of positive involvement of religious leaders in tackling the spread of covid-19. in line with the results of the studies by mushodiq & imron (2020), siregar & hasibuan (2020), and muchammadun et al. (2021). muchammadun et al. (2021) explains the negative involvement of religious leaders as a result of the rigid attitude of some religious leaders, so that they cannot utilize various online media to carry out their religious duties. furthermore, mushodiq & imron (2020) highlight the minimal presence of influential religious figures in opinion battles in society. the absence of religious figures in discourse contests is exploited by hoax producers by making them the subject of fake news. up to this point, the covid-19 hoax narrative can result in religious hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 73 is the result of a review of hoax narratives on four mainstream sites. this data limitation is one of the gaps that can be completed by further researchers. in addition, research data also has the opportunity to be analyzed using other approaches and linguistic analysis. references aman, i. 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(2018). hoax in modern politics: the meaning of hoax in indonesian politics and democracy. jurnal ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik, 22(2). 85-97. https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.34614. veil, s.r., sellnow, t.l., & petrun, e.l., (2012). hoaxes and the paradoxical challenges of restoring hetti waluati triana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 75 legitimacy: dominos responses to its youtube crisis. management communication quarterly, 26(2). 322-345. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0893318911426685. zain, m. f., & hasanudin. (2021). the impact of covid-19 in the procedure of religious-worship and social life, in islamic view. european journal of molecular and clinical medicine, 8(3), 272–278. https://ejmcm.com/article_8403.html muhammad hussaini bulama / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 196 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 9, 2023 final revision: september 20, 2023 accepted: september 25, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this paper examines negative imperfect verb form in kanuri text within the framework of descriptive linguistics adopting the works of cyffer’s model of approach in analyzing negation types in kanuri. the research employs both sources of data collection were employed: the primary source includes a kanuri written text nyariwa kanuribe, where all the various places where the negations negating the imperfective verb occurs are underlined and extracted from the text for data presentation and analysis. the study also employs the secondary source of data collection where three linguists from the kanuri section of the department of languages and linguistics university of maiduguri, nigeria were engaged to validate the data collected from the text. the outcome of the study reveals that there are two particle used in negating the imperfective verbs form in the text and the study identifies these particles as ba and bawo. they are both bound morpheme negating imperfective verb forms in kanuri. it has been said, kanuri has two verb classes where the both verb classes 1 and 11 carry the negative particles –ba. the negative particle –bawo can negate sentence or constituent with emphasis. the negative particle –bawo stands as a bound morpheme throughout in the text. the tone can be both high or low tone. finally, the study identifies eighty one instances of the two negative particle with their number of occurrences and their percentages in the text analyzed (nyariwa kanuribe) keywords negation, imperfective, description, kanuri, nyariwa correspondence e-mail: mhussaini080@gmail.com article negative imperfective verb form in kanuri: a case study of nyariwa kanuribe muhammad hussaini bulama1, kalli hussaini2 1department of linguistics and nigerian languages, national institute for nigerian languages aba, abia state, nigeria 2department of kanuri language, mohammed goni college of legal and islamic studies maiduguri, borno state, nigeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.196-200.2023 i. introduction kanuri is a member of the saharan branch of the nilo–saharan phylum of african languages (see greenberg, 1963). bender (2000:44) presents the saharan branch according to the following groups: saharan kanuri: kanembu, daza, teda– tubu, zaghawa –bideyat, and berti. lewis (2009) presents the saharan languages into eastern, western and northern branch. kanuri is the widest – spread language in the lake chad region and is spoken in all countries bordering cameroun chad, niger, and nigeria. there are also small numbers of kanuri speakers in fezzan libya. some kanuri in diaspora also live in sudan in around khartoum. however, kanuri speakers in nigeria outnumber those in other countries by far. the estimated number of kanuri speakers in nigeria is between three to four million. those in other countries do not exceed five hundred thousand cyffer (1998). kanuri is an amalgamation of several ethnic groups. the ethnic groups that constitute kanuri language according to bulakarima (1991), bulakarima and shettima (2012) are twenty different ethnic groups. the speech forms of the kanuri ethnic groups are further classified into six major dialects. the classification of these six major dialects is based on their phonological, phonetic, morphological and semantic differences. the six major dialects according to bulakarima (1991), bulakarima and shettima (2012) are: (i) manga (iv) dagəra (ii) mowar (v) bilma (iii) suwurti (vi) yerwa muhammad hussaini bulama / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 197 the present study is based on yerwa dialect of kanuri which is the most widely used dialect of kanuri and the standard kanuri orthography (sko) is written in yerwa dialect of kanuri (cyffer 1991). the negative hypothesis is the proposal that imperfective verb are negated in kanuri sentence in the text. the imperfective verb is a common structural unit which can act as an imperfective verb in kanuri. therefore the paper examines negative imperfective verb forms in kanuri using the text nyariwa kanuribe, negation in kanuri pays much attention on syntactic and semantics description but none of them (scholars) states their strides discussing on negative markers negating imperfective verb in the written text. onietan and fannami (2008) identifies that negation can also be expressed through morpho – syntactic means. this morpho – syntactic means is termed particles or element. ndimele (2009: 125) points out that the negative perfective verb form in standard igbo is marked by beghi. it can be hosted by any lexical verb, particularly the non – stative ones. storch (2009) states that, negation in jukun language is not related to particular tense or aspect and there is basically no difference between the negation of the subject, the verb or the object of the whole sentences. dryer (2009) discusses the distribution of verb object and negative order in nilo – saharan language. lobo (2002) states that, adjuncts that are able to carry independent tense always occur outside the scope of negation. however, storch (1997) observes that, an object can be represented by a pronoun, noun or a phrase and is negated by the sentence – final marker mǝդ. croft (1991) postulates a negative existential cycle from a to type c: in the type a, the negation of the existential predicate is performed by the verbal negation. in type b, there is a special negative existential predicate, distinct from verbal negation. in type c, there is a special negative existential predicate, which is identical to the verbal negation. the negative imperative takes verb in both verbs classes 1 and 2 these categories are core. cyffer (2009) confirm that in present kanuri only the imperfective occurs together with ba / bawo. however, ziegelmeyer (2009) states that, the morpheme –-ba / -bawo is suffixed to the verb and can stand on its own. beyer (2003) observes that, some languages use the non – marked basic verb stem in the perfective affirmative paradigm and mark the imperfective verb stem by derivation. wilkendorf (1988) maitains that a neutralization of tense forms as well as a reduction in the number of degrees of remoteness for the tenses in both the perfective and imperfective aspects. cyffer (2009: 73) points out finite verb generally forms carry a negative suffix which is different in the imperfect and other tams. the other tams use a uniform negative formative in the perfective aspect, the specific sub categories are neutralized. consider the following examples given in table 1. cyffer (2009) emphasizes that in kanuri, the negative imperfect is a recent tam from this we conclude that the imperfective originally had no direct negative counterpart. in other to negate an ongoing or noncomplete verbal action, other syntactic constructions had to be applied. this is done by creating an existential sentence and using a negative predicator as shown in examples a, b, and c. in the examples a, b, and c above the construction c embeds in the complement position of a clause which contains a verb in the imperfective table 1 kanuri system of tam affirmative negative perfective past (ki ---o) negative perfect (v – nyi/ nde) noun emphasis past (-o) verb emphasis (-i) perfect (-na) imperfective: imperfective (-in) negative imperfective (-in-ba) potential (ti -o) negative potential ( ti -o – nyi / nde) command imperfective (-e, -owo) prohibitive subjunctive (v,v) muhammad hussaini bulama / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 198 complement predicator gloss a. affirmative kungəna mbeji there is money b. negative kungəna bawo/ ba there is no money c. [musa maarantiro legin] bawo / ba [musa school, to he will go] there is not there is not [that] musa will go to school form. this paper describes the syntactic and semantics aspect of imperfective verb form of negation and analyzed the host verb classes in the text by adopting descriptive approach. this paper posits that imperfective verbs are negating imperfective verb forms in existential sentences in the text. therefore this paper examines how to describe negative imperfective verb form in kanuri but this work will give much emphasis to negative existential sentences in kanuri written text within the purview of descriptive approach. ii. method the current research used descriptive approach to analyse the data in the nyariwa kanuribe. the descriptive linguistics, a theoretical framework due to the fact that the model is general in nature and can adequately describe the structure of the negation types in kanuri. descriptive linguistics gives a comprehensive, systematic, objective and precise account of the patterns and use of a specific language or dialect at a particular point in time. the aim of descriptive linguistic is to describe that facts of linguistics usage as they are not how they are ought to be with reference to some real or imagined ideal state crystal (1985). the study adopting cyffer (2009) confirm that in present kanuri only the imperfect occurs together with ba / bawo. iii. result in the text analyzed, we identified eighty one instances of occurrences of two negation particles / markers. these are the negation markers “ba” (not), and “bawo” (none) identified in the text nyariwa no types of negation in the text number of occurrences percentage of occurrences 1 ba 72 88.89% 2 bawo 9 11.19% total 81 100% table 2 negation occurence in nyariwa kanuribe kanuribe. the two negation markers are presented in the table below. the table shows negation types, number of their occurrences and their percentage of their occurrences in the text. the table (1) above shows the percentages of occurrences of the negation particles and marker found in the text. negation –ba which constitutes the highest percentages of the occurrences with 88.89% in the text analyzed while negation – bawo has the lowest percentages of the occurrences which constitutes 11.19%. the study also analyzes the relationship between the negative particle / marker in their verbs classes they are attached with. iv. discussion negative imperfective verb form in kanuri the negative imperfective verb form in standard kanuri is marked by –in it can be hosted by any lexical verbs in both verb classes that is class 1 and 2 . in the text, we identified thirty three (33) verbs with imperfective –in as illustrated below taken from the text. yakkin carry impf vcl 1 i will carry it there fangin hear impf vcl 2 i will hear negative imperfective the negative particle –ba is suffixed to imperfective in verb class 1 and class 2. the table 3 shows verbs in imperfective form with negative particle -ba. verbs and imperfective verb classes negative particle ba glosses yakk -in i -ba i will not carry waltək -in i -ba i will not return fugək -in i -ba i will not pour sətangazəg -in ii -ba he cannot cure kasanng -in ii -ba i will not agree waazəg -in ii -ba it will not happen manang -in ii -ba i will not talk table 3. imperfective form with negative particle -ba muhammad hussaini bulama / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 199 in table 3, the study shows imperfective –in is attached to the verb in both verb classes and the negative particle –ba is a bound morpheme to the imperfective –in as in the text. negative imperfective sentences in kanuri the study observes that the negative particle –ba is suffixed to the imperfective –in after the verbs in both classes to negate the whole sentence in kanuri consider the following sentences from the text. always accompanied by the negative marker –ba it is attached to the negative marker –ba to negate sentences or phrases in kanuri. in the text analyzed, we observed that the negative marker –bawo negates phrase to imperfective verb sentences as illustrated below taken from the text. in examples 1 and 2 above, consist of two sentences wu nyi –ga yakk –in ba ‘ i will not take you ‘ and wono ‘he said’ and the negative particle –ba is suffixed to imperfective yakkin ‘i will drink ‘to negate the part of the sentence while ‘he said’ is not negated. in examples 3 and 4 above the negative particle –ba is suffixed to imperfective –in after the verb to negate the sentence at final position. imperfective verb with negative particle -bawo imperfective verb with negative particle – bawo is a bound morpheme use in imperfective verbs in kanuri sentences the negative particle ‘bawo’ is derived from negative marker and the copula verb ‘wo’ in kanuri. the copular ‘wo’ is in example 6 above the sentence is a simple sentence where the negative particle –bawo is attached to the imperfective –in to verb class i nzəraak negates the sentence at final position of the sentence. in example 7 above the sentence is a co ordination by the additive adjunct -ye being placed after each clause where the negative particle –bawo is attached with emphasis to the verb class 2 of second person plural fanjin hear negates the part of the imperfective sentence. ndimele (1995) opines that there are two main strategies for marking negation in igbo. the first strategy is to negate the whole sentence, i.e ‘predicate negation’. while the second is to negate a particular constituent or a sentence, i.e ‘constituent negation’. v. conclusion this paper examines negative imperfective verb forms in a selected kanuri written text as a source of data. the study identified two types of negation used i negating imperfective verb form in kanuri. these are: negation particle ba and bawo are bound morphemes and cannot stand on their own they are attached to imperfective –in to negate imperfective verbs. the study also identified eighty one (81) instances of these two negative particles with their numbers of occurrences and percentages of their occurrences in the text. references bender, m.l. (2000) “african languages”. in: heine and nurse (ed.) pp 43-73. beyer, klause. (2003) focus and negation in pana: a common source for different functions. african und ubersee 86: 5-21. bulakarima, s.u. (1991) “development in kanuri language studiers’ in nigerian languages yesterday, today and tomorrow; kano: csnl. bayero university. pp 57-65. bulakarima, s.u. and shettima, a.k. (2012) elements of kanuri grammar. desktop publisher’s cooperative society, maiduguri. muhammad hussaini bulama / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 200 croft, william. (1991) the evalution of negation. journal of linguistics 27: 1-27 crystal, d. (1985) a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. basil blackwell, uk. cyffer, n. (1991): we learn kanuri. koln, rudiger koppe verlag. cyffer, n. (1998) a sketch of kanuri. kӧln: kӧppe verlag. cyffer, n. (2009) ‘negation patterns in kanuri’ amsterdam john benjamin’s publishing company amsterdam philadelphia pp: 7191 dryer, m. s. (2009). ‘verb – object – negative order in central africa’ amsterdam john benjamin’s pubishing company amsterdam philadelphia: 306 362 greenberg, j.h (1963): the languages of africa. the hague, mouton. lewis, m.p. (2009). ethnologue: languages of the world. 16th edition. dallas. online version: http w.w.w. ethnologue. com. lobo, maria. (2002). on the structural position of non – peripheral adjunct clause. journal of portuguese linguistics 1: 83-118. ndimele, o. m. (1995).on the phonosyntactic dimension of negation. in issues in african languges and linguistics: essay in honour of kay williamson, emmanual nwanolue emenanjo and ozomekuri ndimele (eds), 101-116. aba: national institute for nigerian languages. ndimele, o. m. (2009). ‘negation markers in igbo’. amsterdam john benjamin’s publishing company amsterdam pliladephia, pp: 121 – 137. onietan, e. a. and fannami, m. (2008) negation in french and kanuri. a rainbow beyond its colours, vol. 2, pp 176 – 189. shettima, b and john p.h. (1977) nyariwa kanuribe northern nigerian publishing company limited zaria. storch, a. (1997). where have all the noun classes gone? a case study of jukun. journal of african languages and linguistics 18: 157-170 storch, a. (2009). ‘negation in jukun’ amsterdam john benjamin’s publishing company amsterdam pliladephia, pp: 107 – 119. wilkendorf, patricia. (1988) negation in nommande. journal of west african languages 18(2): 49-70. ziegelmeryer, g. (2009). “negation of non – indicative mood in hausa’ fulfilde and kanuri” amsterdam john benjamin’s publishing company amsterdam pliladelphia. pp: 7 19 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: september 08, 2020 final revision: october 06, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 the coverage of environmental issues is of great importance to moroccan newspapers, namely as-sabah, al-akhbar, and al-massae. the present study explores the frequency of articles that covered environmental issues and investigated the newspapers’ professionalism in writing environmental reports on man’s environmental setting violations. the research was accomplished through the framework of ecolinguistics to categorize and analyze all environmental stories that extended from march to july 2020. the sums of 308 issues of the three newspapers were manually checked to identify the issues reported about environmental problems. the findings revealed that environmental coverage by the three newspapers was feeble. precisely, only 73 newspaper issues pertaining to the three newspapers contained at least one environmental title. practically, identified environmental articles were manually searched and treated based on a keyword selection such as environment, forest, animals, water, pollution, air, irrigation, deforestation, and overgrazing, among other words. in total, the final sum of environmental articles published by the three newspapers during the covid-19 period were 92 articles (1.8%) over 4922 total articles published by 73 issues. the role of print media is determinant in covering environmental topics to maintain the public informed about the protection of environmental resources during the covid-19 pandemic. unfortunately, this role is far from being achieved given the feeble interest devoted to environmental issues and the way through which the newspapers have produced environmentally based stories. to remedy this situation, some recommendations are afforded to improve the writing of environmental reports in line with ecolinguistics principles and environmental journalism ethics. keyword covid-19, ecolinguistics, environmental coverage, environmental journalism, moroccan print media correspondence phone: +212700020070 email:m.mliless@edu.umi.ac.ma article print media coverage of environmental issues in the covid-19 pandemic: an ecolinguistic analysis mohamed mliless1, mohammed larouz2 1independet researcher, marocco 2english departmentt, moulay ismail university, meknes,morocco under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.182-202.2020 i. introduction for decades, the media has treated the environment as an issue that concerns human existence. since the late 1960s and by the 1980s, the environment has become a specific issue of public and political concern that is attracting mainstream media’s attention by negotiating access and shaping meanings (das, bacon & zaman, 2009; lester & hutchins, 2009). for many decades now, the attention of media studies has focused on how media covers environmental and sustainability issues (mazur & lee, 1993; bell, 1994; demeritt, 2001; carvalho & burgess, 2005; andreadis & smith, 2007; lewis & boyce, 2009; chubb & bacon, 2010; doyle, 2011; ouazouze, 2014; ford & king, 2015). the role that media plays in raising environmental awareness among the public is measured according to its ability to socially construct opinions and meaning around global warming, pollution, and deforestation (dispensa & brulle, 2003). in the aftermath of the 22nd session of the conference of the parties to the united nations framework convention on climate changes 182 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) (cop22), which took place in marrakesh from november 7 to 18, 2016, a meeting was organized by the high authority of audiovisual communication (haca) around the theme ‘media professionals, major players in the protection of the environment’. immediately after, a national media, environment, and sustainable development charter (nmesdc) was signed by many national institutions, ministerial departments, territorial authorities, the private sector, research institutes, the audiovisual, and the print media. literally, the nmesdc aims to strengthen national media’s impact to meet the major challenges facing morocco regarding environment and sustainability. having that said, the interest that the print press gives to the environment in morocco is a topic that needs investigation to provide a comprehensive analysis of the role of the moroccan print media in communicating environmental issues during the covid-19 pandemic. in this sense, the present study will look at how as-sabah, al-akhbar, and al-massae daily newspapers handled information on man’s violation of the lockdown environment during the lockdown started in the mid-march 2020 and was slowly alleviated by the end of july. over the past four months, the kingdom has experienced a real health crisis related to the spread of covid-19 disease that was countered by a state of health emergency declared by the moroccan government since march 20, 2020. admittedly, the media bears a great responsibility in informing people about an uncertain enemy because never before had a health crisis been covered by media. its role has been primordial during the covid-19 pandemic in reporting the consequent impact of the restrictions on individuals’ movement (barnes et al., 2020; mejia et al., 2020). locally, no one can deny the efforts deployed by print media to inform people about the contagion risks and the protection measures to face the disease. early in march 2020, the moroccan print media produced many articles on the virus, a contagion that remains little known to even scientists. the three newspapers under study heavily reported confinement topics, the medical staff’s efforts, sports, cooking, and entertainment, among other themes. despite the importance of environmental issues, there is often a gap in media coverage while dealing with the environmental crises when it comes to their causes, the stages they have been through, the responsibility of authorities, and their repercussion on other spheres of life. furthermore, luedecke and boykof (2017) claim that media intervention, which seeks to enhance understanding of complex and dynamic human– environment interactions, often runs contrary to “journalistic norms and values like personalization or novelty. as a result, vague and decontextualized reporting confuses rather than clarifies understanding and engagement on environmental issues” (p.3). for stocking, and leonard (1990), kaul (2017), and abou-doun (2019), the lack of information available for journalists working on environmental issues, complicates their mission to recreate, visualize and portray environmental realities since associated disasters involve abstract and probabilistic science, laws, politics, speculative economics, and the complex interplay of individuals and societies. as a matter of cat, journalists, who are most of the time generalists with little training in science or the environment (kaul, 2017), fail to encompass the multifacetedness and interconnectedness of the environmental problems (yang, 2008). in fact, it is not possible to talk about environmental media in the absence of specialized moroccan environmental journalism that adopts a scientific, understandable, and clear treatment of environmental issues. furthermore, there is an observed gap in the literature that needs to be filled when it comes to the study of environmental narratives in print media. to examine the visibility of environmental issues during the covid-19 health crisis, the aim of the present study is: 1) to evaluate the importance and interest of environmental concerns in the moroccan three printed newspapers, 2) to identify the environmental themes often discussed by the newspapers, and 3) to formulate concrete actions to improve the coverage of environmental issues in the written press.what place did the moroccan printed press give to environmental violations in the covid-19 pandemic? is the moroccan print media sufficiently playing its role of informing and warning about the environment during the covid -19 pandemic? what were environmental topics mostly used by moroccan print media in the covid -19 pandemic? the media is a public space where politics, sport, economy, and environmental issues are reported: 183 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) “media critically contribute to the architecture of these spaces” (boykoff & luedecke, 2016, p.1). in the last few decades, many environmental disasters (global warming, pollution, and deforestation) have been recognized as the most treated environmental issues by the media (dunwoody & peters, 1992; nitz, 2001; boykoff & boykoff, 2004; boykoff, 2011; luedecke & boykof, 2017). at the same time, many studies have pointed out that media coverage of these environmental crises appears to have many shortcomings. for instance, news coverage of violations has been affected by inconsistencies, distortions, cyclical and sporadic attention, and a misrepresentation of data (adler, 1992; greider, 1992; boyle, 1993; salmon & glasser, 1995; nitz & jarvis, 1998; shanahan & mccomas, 1997; nitz, 2001). despite that, sustained and quantitative media reporting of environmental issues is an issue that has attracted the interest of many scholars. by way of illustration, a report by miller and pollak (2013) on coverage of environmental headlines among 30 news media organizations in the united states of america revealed that entertainment headlines were three times more covered than environmental problems. the same study assumes that fox news had the highest percentage of environmental stories and cnn had the lowest among television networks. among print media, miller and pollakmentions that the huffington post was the environmental coverage leader for nationally focused news organizations. differently, a study carried out by abi-karam (2013) on the lebanese printed media assumes that the environmental issues covered by the printed press were superficial and demonstrated no sufficient in-depth analysis. for abi-karam, the print media in his country press is very far from acquiring investigative environmental journalism. in the same line, a spanish longitudinal study by castrechini, pol, and guàrdia-olmos (2014) was carried out on the representation of environmental issues in 1039 news articles belonging to two newspapers (la vanguardia and el país) during a period that ranged from the rio earth summit to several years after the johannesburg summit (1992–2006). for instance, castrechini et al reveal an increase in environmental news during the period of analysis and an increased variety of themes addressed and represented. their results evidence significant urban problems in recent years and a movement from “scientific to political discourse and a change towards greater reflection and social recognition of the relevance of environmental issues” (castrechini et al., 2014, p.213).in the covid-19 situation, communication of verified and filtered information to the public has been critical (world health organization, 2017) in that the population has not been properly informed about protective measures regarding the disease (khan, ali, siddique & nabi, 2020). correspondingly, people have faced serious psychological distress due to the dissemination of fear and mass circulation of falsehoods that have spread as fast as the virus itself (ren, gao & chen, 2020; the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization [unesco], 2020). as human behavior has changed due to the covid-19 disease, man’s impact on nature and the environment changes too in that pollution’s level has shown major reduction (rousseau & deschacht, 2020). extraordinarily, one of the paradoxical consequences of the global crisis triggered by the covid-19 is its impact on the environment that has caused sharp declines in pollutant emissions across the world’s most populated cities (garcia, 2020; helm, 2020; hernandez, 2020). concretely, the forced quarantine measures imposed by affected countries resulted in significant reductions in global co2 emissions, mostly due to changes in surface transport (le quéré et al., 2020), a decrease in nitrogen dioxide pollution over northern china, western europe, and the united states of america (bauwens et al., 2020), and improvement of water quality in india (yunus et al., 2020).unfortunately, when many environmental crises have been declining or improving, mainstream media have lost sight of environmental coverage and awareness raising. to illustrate this fact, a recent study by texier (2020), carried out in france during the covid-19 pandemic, identified more than 3,000 french media titles related mostly to the concepts of confinement, epidemic, health, pandemic, mask, hospital, deaths, patient, and doctor among others. while the news has been abundant on the pandemic, texier’s study does not mention any concept or title of an environmental nature whatsoever.analogously, asselin (2020), who examined the major symbolic 184 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) themes covered by french media during the covid-19 pandemic, admits that most of the reports were on the virus’s spread, the confinement, medical and health personnel, and the number of deaths of covid-19. it is worth mentioning that the results obtained in asselin (2020) do not show any statistics on the disclosure of environmental crises in france during the covid-19 pandemic (see figure 1). even though the environment has become a global preoccupation in the covid-19 era, its coverage seems very limited in the moroccan media. actually, no one can deny the unprecedented and critical experience that the moroccan printed press witnessed during this period. the daily newspapers devoted considerable energy to communicate news despite fear of covering the facts from hospitals where confirmed cases were treated. in this sense, a timeline drawn by kasraoui (2020) shows the chronology of events that the moroccan press covered in the covid-19 pandemic in morocco. accordingly, most media coverage spotted the measures implemented to inhibit the disease and address the impacts of the lockdown across social and economic sectors (kasraoui, 2020). however, there is no scientific evidence for media reporting on environmental issues during the pandemic in morocco; even so, some media reports have shed light on the moroccan press’s performance in the covid-19 time and the many hardships it faced. illustratively, the reports focused on the impact of the covid-19 in weakening the financial revenues of many daily newspapers that we’re unable to pay their journalists (abde-samad, 2020; ali mrabi, 2020; douyeb, 2020; lamrabat, 2020) ecolinguistics within the ecolinguistics framework dictated in stibbe (2015), this research analyzes the environmental articles published by the three daily newspapers during the coivd-19 pandemic. specifically, this study examines the environmental stories from an ecological perspective covered by as-sabah, al-akhbar, and al-massae dailies, to see if they “encourage people to destroy or protect the ecosystems that life depends on. if they are destructive then they need to be resisted, and if beneficial they need to be promoted” (stibbe, 2015, p. 2). in his book “ecolinguistics language, ecology, and the stories we live by” stibbe (2015) assumes that ecolinguistics analyses language to reveal the stories we live by, judges those stories from an ecological perspective, resists damaging stories, and contributes to the search for new stories to live by. furthermore, stibbe explains that ecolinguistics is an umbrella term for a wide range of approaches, with different aims and goals covering eight types of story: ideologies, framings, metaphors, evaluations, identities, convictions, erasure, and salience. as far as a metaphor is concerned, stibbe posits that it is a type of framing where the source frame is figure 1. covered topics by french media in covid-19 (asselin, 2020) 185 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) from a concretely imaginable area of life distinctly different from the target domain. in the domain of ecolinguistics, stibbereckons that metaphors are a type of framing which can be particularly powerful and vivid since they use a specific, concrete, and clearly distinct frame to think about an area of life, for example, ‘climate change is a time bomb’, ‘climate change is a rollercoaster’, or ‘climate change is an angry beast’. differently, environmental ecolinguistics is concerned with communication that unites researchers, and which milstein, littlejohn, and foss (2009) summarize as “research and theory within the field are united by the topical focus on communication and human relations with the environment. scholars who study environmental communication are particularly concerned with the ways people communicate about the natural world because they believe such communication has farreaching effects at a time of largely human-caused crises” (p.344). accordingly, the present study limits itself to the principles of ecolinguistics dictated by stibbe (2015) to redirect the way environmental issues are covered by print media. we live in a time of social, technological, and industrial advents that media treatment of environmental problems lies in how the stories are written. for more than twenty years, ecolinguistics emerged as a new field of study within the realm of linguistics, a branch that investigates interactions between any given language and its environment (haeckel, 1866; haugen, 1972; haugen, 2001). at first glance, the discipline seems a concept that binds language and ecology, two separate aspects of life that look independent from each other. in fact, ecolinguistics is interested in how people construct discourse about environmental issues. according to stibbe (2015), ecolinguistics is a field of linguistics that explores “the general patterns of language that influence how people think about, and treat, the world” (p.1).similarly, couto (2013; 2015) stipulates that ecolinguistics studies the relationships between language and environment and the verbal interactions inside the linguistic ecosystem. basically, it reflects how discourses of the media, politics, advertising, and economics shape the way people think and treat the environment. many studies have been conducted on the role of language in society, particularly when the discourse is connected to the natural environment (trim, 1959). following haugen’s notion of ‘language ecology’ (haugen, 1972), many linguists have established the principles of ecolinguistics as a new branch in linguistics to examine the relations between language, ecology, and society (fill, 1998; halliday, 2001; haugen, 1971; mühlhäusler, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2003; mühlhäusler & fill, 2001; mühlhäusler & peace, 2006). halliday (2001) claims that the destruction of species, pollution, and the like are not just problems for the biologists and physicists but are concerns of the applied linguistic community. in this sense, many ecolinguists have embraced environmental discourse analysis, often known as eco-critical discourse analysis (eda) (couto, 2015), and the language of ecology and environmentalism (nash, 2015). the contemporary analysis of environmental discourse analysis, including eda, is the part of ecosystemic linguistics that deals with discourses and texts and places life on earth in the foreground (couto, 2015). in this framework, couto recognizes that eda is now a branch of ecolinguistics that emerged in the university of brasília and the federal university of goiás to study issues that mix ecology and linguistics. in the moroccan context, ecolinguistics flourishes thanks to a body of research emerging among the english department in the moulay ismail university of meknes. the studies adopted ecolinguistics to deal with different issues like environmental narratives in english textbooks (mliless & larouz, 2018), green public service advertising (mliless, larouz & yachoulti, 2019), environmental discourse in moroccan eco-documentaries (mliless, 2020), and experts’ discourse in eco-documentaries (mliless & azzouzi, 2020). of great importance to the analysis of print media coverage of environmental issues in the covid-19 pandemic, this study uses ecolinguistics to study the mechanisms by which environmental issues are linguistically represented in moroccan print press discourse. precisely, this study examines the extent to which stories on man’s exploitation of the environment were accurately written in compliance with the principles of 186 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) ecolinguistic mentioned in stibbe (2015). most of the time, environmental journalism is characterized by mass nouns, abstract concepts, and erasure (cáceres, 2019). it should be clarified that mass nouns, which are abstract concepts that generalize and homogenize, are an ensemble of entities that can create erasure patterns. as for erasure, stibbe (2015) argues that it is a story that renders an area of life unimportant or unworthy of consideration “through manifestations of language patterns that fail to represent a particular area of life at all, or which background or distort it” (p. 17). to explain this concept, stibbe says that erasure involves many types: 1) the ‘void’, where something important is completely excluded from a text, 2) the ‘mask’ where it is erased but replaced by a distorted version of itself, and 3) the ‘trace’ which occurs when language representing the natural world obscures it and leaves faint trace rather than a vivid image. print media could be impactful when it treats and portrays environmental issues following the ethics of journalism and professional methods of collecting, verifying, and reporting on environmental issues. unquestionably, environmental issues are highly topical, and some journalists may not have the adequate professional experience to objectively report about them (aboudoun, 2019). in order to surmount the linguistic challenges when reporting about environmental issues, kaul (2017) admits that the quality of environmental media writing should be improved and journalists should use the best sources to educate, expose and encourage the audience to preserve the environment. for this aim, kaul argues that science and environmental journalists should collaborate “to make complex issues comprehensible to fit the daily environment in that the information should be translated and technical matters lucidly explained by journalists” (p.694). within the framework of ecolinguistics (stibbe, 2015), the present study uses linguistic analysis forms as traditional critical discourse studies. the framework it operates in considers not only the way moroccan print media covered environmental issues in the covid-19 period, but it is concerned with the extent to which the three newspapers succeeded in composing environmental articles. eventually, ecolinguistics permits this study to analyse media discourse and explore those which encourage ecologically destructive behavior and seeking out those which encourage relationships of respect and care for the natural world (stibbe, 2014). ii. methods related to the coverage of environmental problems by moroccan print media, the present research aims at alleviating the role of three newspapers in reporting about man’s violation of the natural environment in the lockdown that took place between the middle of march and the middle of july of the year 2020. genuinely, the lockdown restrictions on the population’s movement resulted in a large reduction in individuals’ activities and associated degradation like pollution and carbon emissions. despite that, there were several instances when humans violated the lockdown restrictions and committed appalling crimes to natural resources. relying on the newspapers’ websites, the present article examines the extent to which print media succeeded in composing and covering efficient environmental reports and articles. in practical terms, 308 newspapers’ issues were individually checked to determine the articles that chronicle environmental issues. it is no wonder that environmentally based articles were not sufficient enough. throughout the three newspapers, only 73 issues have tackled environmental disasters. as for the disclosure of environmental articles, we searched for all the reports that addressed environmental concerns based on non-exhaustive list of keywords that included but was not limited to the words such as ‘air’, ‘animals’, ‘pollution’, ‘soil’, ‘sand’, ‘trees’, and ‘water’ among others’. subsequently, the operation permitted us to locate 92 articles that were deeply attached to environmental problems. once all the information has been collected, the data were categorized into topics and services. the concept of theme, a pivotal tool in social sciences to categorize data or texts, bears many different names such as ‘categories’(glaser & strauss, 1967), ‘codes’(miles & huberman, 1994), ‘labels’ (dey, 1993), ‘incidents’ (glaser & strauss, 1967), ‘segments’ (tesch, 1990), ‘thematic units’ (krippendorf, 1980), ‘data-bits’(dey, 1993), 187 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) ‘chunks’ (miles & huberman, 1994), or ‘concepts’ (strauss & corbin, 1990). based on ryan and bernard (2003), our analysis focused on content by putting news stories into categories to answer some of the most important and most interesting questions related to the alternation of environmental issues. for ryan and bernard (2003), the categorization of data into themes is a multifaceted technique that involves several tasks: “discovering themes and subthemes, winnowing themes to a manageable few (i.e., deciding which themes are important in any project), building hierarchies of themes or codebooks, and linking themes into theoretical models” (p.85). in this sense, texts were converted and classified according to ryan and bernard (2003) framework, which is based on a) ‘an analysis of words’ (word repetitions, key-indigenous terms, and key-words-in contexts); b) ‘careful reading of larger blocks of texts’ (compare and contrast social science queries and searching for missing information); c) ‘intentional analysis of linguistic features’ (metaphors, transitions, connectors); and d) ‘physical manipulation of texts’ (unmarked texts, pawing, and cut and sort procedures). in the issue at hand, the present study opted for ‘key-wordsin-context’, a deconstruction technique used by ryan and bernard (2003) to systematically observe and identify keywords and systematically search corpora and texts. the goal of which is to find all instances of the word or phrase by being physically sorted into piles of similar meaning. based on this methodology, this study examines the representation of environmental issues to answer the following questions: what is the place of natural and environmental issues in the as-sabah, alakhbar, and al-massae daily newspapers? which environmental issues were mostly covered? were the environmental reports adequately formulated based on the ecolinguistic framework of analysis? iii. results moroccan print media is important in the fight against environmental deterioration in the covid-19 pandemic. it has a great responsibility in promoting environment and sustainable development awareness among the general public. since march 20 2020, the date when the first covid-19 case was confirmed, the three newspapers (al-massae, al-akhbar, and as-sabah) suspended publication of hard copies and decided to assign free online access to e-paper versions. due to the financial predicament imposed by the covid-19 propagation, most publishers and owners of the print press called for governmental support. despite this complication, the print media made considerable efforts to supplement the information to the public. in this sense, the present study’s objective is to examine the extent to which the moroccan print press succeeded in maintaining the pendulum between news related to the pandemic and the environment that arose during the covid-19 period, notably illegal violations and uncontrollable exploitation of natural resources. 3.1. general results of the three newspapers the print press is the oldest information medium. each day the three daily newspapers summarize most of the information and prioritize it in its webpages. newspapers in general, especially those investigated in this study, covered many listed issues according to table one below. for the almassae daily, the indexing of the content and the ordering of headings and titles show the nature of the newspaper’s topics in the covid-19 period. according to the categories of topics, al-massae publishes stories and reports that fall within the themes of ‘social event’, ‘regions’, ‘cooking’, ‘announcement’, and ‘sport’ among others. following the same line, the al-akhbar newspaper covered the spheres of ‘politics’, ‘cities’, ‘economy’, ‘culture’, ‘sport’, and ‘reports’. within al-akhbar daily, it is noticed that the domains of ‘reports’ and ‘sports’ took three to four pages in every issue. as for the as-sabah newspaper, covered headings and titles were published under the themes of ‘home news’, ‘confronting corona’, ‘justice’, ‘art and television’, and ‘sport’. though some headings took one page, the category of ‘confronting corona’, ‘justice’, and ‘sport headings have more than that. for example, the heading of ‘sport’ in as-sabah newspaper took four pages. the portrayal of environmental crises during the pandemic has been examined by checking all issues from march 20 until mid-july, 2020. as indicated in table 1 below, the numbers show that 303 issues published in this period were inspected 188 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) among which 96 (31.6%) pertain to al-massae, 83 (27.3%) were published by al-akhbar, and 129 (42.5%) belong to as-sabah. more particularly, 73 (24.9%) issues among a total sum of 303 issues reported about environmental problems during the covid-19 pandemic. in more details, the study found that 12 (16.4%) belong to al-massae, 24 (32.8%) occur in al-akhbar, and 37 (50.6%) of as-sabah. concerning the environmental topics highlighted by the three newspapers, the results related to al-massae newspaper indicate that 10 headlines documented national environmental issues and 3 were dictated to global issues. in the same line, the results of al-akhbar daily indicate that all environmental stories were national. finally, the results related to as-sabah newspaper indicate that on the 47 covered environmental headlines, 18 stories were national and 29 were global. media interest in environmental issues fluctuated over the interval period, peaking in may 2020. the coverage of environmental issues remained relatively discrepant during the study period except for increases in the number of environmental articles in june and in april of the same period. the surge in media interest in environmental issues may be attributed to reported violations despite the government’s state of health emergency to stop the disease from spreading. the subsequent decline in coverage in extremes, march and july, may be rendered to the dwindling number of registered violations of environmental properties as the country declared quarantine measures in march and ended the confinement in july. in the first month, people were reported to have fully complied with the regulations and as for july, this month marked the return to normal life after lifting the lockdown restrictions. 3.2. results of al-massae newspaper the pivotal period ranges from march to july, when the international community declared a worldwide health emergency. many countries envisaged the lockdown as the perfect measure to stop the spread of covid-19. on this occasion, the al-massae newspaper published 13 environmental articles on the environment in 12 issues. most of the stories were put inside the newspaper as shown in appendix 1. looking at the environmental topics published by al-massae daily, it is crystal clear that the environment is a very minority theme. according to themes, a scan of the 12 issues of al-massae containing environmental topics shows an unparalleled distribution of articles. given the fact that there is no arabic based software to count and categorize articles and headlines, the identification of articles was made manually. over the 12 issues of al-massae, the present study counted 761 articles that pertain to different spheres of life, the classification of which depicts unparalleled distribution regarding the magnitude of environmental themes covered by the newspaper. for instance, environmental titles were the least theme to be addressed by the newspaper 13 (1.7%); meanwhile, other themes have been widely covered such as ‘sport’ (17.7%), ‘events’ (14.1%), and ‘justice’ (12.3%). as for the least ones, ‘reports’ (3.5%), ‘interviews’ (3.2%), and ‘world news’ (2.7%) are located at the bottom (see figure 2). being the least covered topic by al-massae newspaper, weak coverage of environmental problems reflects the newspaper’s feeble interest to man’s violations and exploitation of natural resources at the height of the quarantine measure to limit the spread of the covid-19. the distribution of environmental themes in the al-massae newspaper during the covid-19 period (figure 3) shows that a great part of the topics covered by the newspaper were devoted to the elements of ‘water’ (30.8%), ‘forests’ (30.8%), ‘animals’ (30.8%), and ‘pollution’ (7.7%). finally, table 1. general statistics about the three newspapers periodicals issues issues with environmental topics total articles environmental titles national global al-massae 96 12 761 13 10 3 al-akhbar 83 24 1989 32 32 as-sabah 129 37 2179 47 18 29 total 308 73 4922 92 60 32 189 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) a flagrant observation concerning this newspaper is that all the published environmental headlines appear either in the middle or in the newspaper’s final pages. as for the geographical distribution, the representation of environmental stories in the newspaper (figure 5) reveals that the environmental matters’ treatment was national, as almost three quarters (76.9%) of topics took place in urban and rural locations. however, it should be noted here that only three of the environmental subjects in the al-massae newspaper have universal or global tendencies. 3.3. results of al-akhbar newspaper during the coronavirus period, the alakhbarnewspaper published 24 issues (7.9%) of the total issues posted online during the covid-19 era and which contain at least one article on man’s exploitation of natural elements. in this context, the results indicate that al-akhbar newspaper published 32 environmental articles. specifically, this study detects that the environmental topics disseminated in 24 issues were 32 articles. based on this evidence, the environment remains a minority theme for the newspaper compared to the themes of politics, health, economy, sports, and even cooking. the newspaper gave ample importance (see appendix 2). a scan of the 24 issues of al-akhbarthat contains environmental information that shows an unparalleled distribution among the most discussed themes during the covid-19 pandemic. for instance, the scattering of 1989 headlines across 24 issues exhibits that environmental cases (32) are feebly reported with a 1.6% percentage. similarly, this study assumes that other areas of life have been insufficiently documented such as ‘education’ (2.1%)), ‘justice’ (2.2%), and ‘economy’ (5.6%); meanwhile, other issues, like ‘sport’(23.1%), ‘reports’ (11%) and ‘cities & people’ (12.3%), were assigned broad coverage. figure 2. topics covered by al-masae newspaper figure 3. distribution of environmental themes in al-massae newspaper regarding the dispersion of environmental topics in time, figure 4 below indicates that related stories were published in april (4), may (3), and july (4). figure 4. time distribution figure 5. geographical distribution 190 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) 3.4. results of as-sabah newspaper over the 129 issues published by the as-sabah newspaper during the covid-19 pandemic, 37 issues contained environmental stories. it is crystal clear that the newspaper gave much importance to the government’s measures to curve the disease such as the ‘pandemic’, ‘health’, ‘propagation’, and ‘safety’. it is worth mentioning that inside the 37 issues, the as-sabah newspaper dictated 47 articles to report about the environment, among which 18 stories were local. a manual examination of the 37 issues that reported about natural and environmental crises shows that environmental topics (47, 2.1%) were feebly covered with over the total sum of 2172 titles published by the newspaper during the covid-19 pandemic. as for the most used subject, the results in figure 9 indicate that articles under the heading of ‘justice’ were first with (23.9%) followed by ‘sport’ (22.9%) and ‘news’ (12.7%). interestingly, most of the articles devoted to the environment were put on the cover page in a part called ‘anecdotes’ (see appendix 3). yet again, we observe that environmental topics reported by as-sabah daily in the lockdown period were very limited if compared to other issues such as ‘justice’, ‘art and television’, ‘entertainment’, and ‘sport’. with respect to the dispersion of environmental themes in the interval of study, the results in figure 7 indicate that the stories were published in may (1753.1%), june (7-21.9%), and april (6-18.8%). as for the geographical spread, the portrayal of environmental issues in al-akhbar daily makes known that most of the environmental topics treated in this period were local while three topics were global. figure 6. topics covered by al-akhbar newspaper figure 7. time distribution figure 8. categorization of themes differently, the arrangement of environmental titles into themes shows that they were bound to ‘pollution’ (34.3%), ‘hygiene’ (12.5%), ‘water’ (12.5%), and ‘degradation’ (9.3%). with feeble percentages, the results show that the themes of ‘hunting’ (6.2%), ‘animals’ (6.2%), ‘overgrazing’ (3.1%), and ‘forests’ (3.1%) were slightly covered (see figure 8). figure 9. covered topics by as-sabah newspaper191 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) in as-sabah newspaper, time dispersion of environmental topics, as illustrated in figure 10, indicates that most of the articles were published in june (1335.1%), may (1232.45%), and april (718.9%). as for their geographical deployment, the representation of environmental stories in as-sabah shows that their treatment included 18 (26.7%) local issues while almost three-quarters of the environmental titles (2973.3%) were of global interest. figure 10. time distribution figure 11. geographical distribution in a different way, the distribution of environmental titles into themes in the as-sabah newspaper during the covid-19 period shows that most of the topics were devoted to ‘animals’ (2246.8%), ‘pollution’ (817.02%), ‘land’ (7-14.8%), and ‘water’ (5-10.6%). with feeble frequencies, the natural elements of ‘sun’ and ‘forest’ appear once in the data (see figure 12). iv. discussion to investigate the coverage of environmental issues by the moroccan print media during the covid-19 pandemic has not been an easy task. indeed, the continuous propagation of the disease and its consequent economic and health downturns have impacted the country’s journalistic production, particularly among al-massae, alakhbar, and as-sabah daily newspapers. within the framework of ecolinguistics (stibbe, 2015), the present study works towards critiquing how media coverage of environmental crises during the pandemic contributed to the rise of environmental awareness regarding man’s destruction of natural resources. the role of environmental journalism, henceforth, is to influence public’s environmental literacy that inspires the general public to protect the natural world based on the idea that “the nature and level of environmental news reporting is one of the most important influences on the perception and understanding of the environment” (miller & pollak, 2013, p. 16). in the first place, this article admits that the three newspapers failed to report about environmental issues that happened during the lockdown when many individuals have seized the quarantine measures to procure illegal and irregular activities on nature. we observe a flagrant decrease in the number of environmental topics during the covid19 pandemic. still, there has been a lack of professionalism in treating the environmental issues that often involve complex facts, terminology, and scientific discourse. 4.1. al-massae newspaper be it a multidisciplinary study, this research is a double reflection that examines the coverage of environmental crises by the media during a hazardous health period marked by rapid dispersion of the covid-19 pandemic. the aim is to develop a common conceptual framework for analyzing the moroccan print media’s environmental figure 12. distribution of articles into themes 192 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) representation during the covid-19 pandemic. on the one hand, the present study questions the role of the moroccan printed press in demystifying man’s uncontrolled behavior perpetrated to the natural environment, and on the other, it constitutes an opportunity to explore the extent to which the environmental stories published by the three dailies were powerful enough to unmask man’s mistreatment of nature during the quarantine period declared by the government to refrain the propagation of the contagion. while the lockdown has been implemented to limit people’s movement, including the authority that ensures the protection of forests, individuals have seized the occasion to destroy nature on many levels. the pressure put by the lockdown pushed individuals to exploit the natural resources to surmount multiple economic and financial hardships. in this context, we expected that the media’s role had been to expose violations, irregularities, and lawless mistreatment of species, land, air, and water, among other elements. unfortunately, the three newspapers have reserved a very limited space to the environmental issues in that 92 titles (1.8%) over 4922 titles covered man’s infractions on the environment. a striking characteristic of these articles is that they scarcely quote sources, be it scientific or laymen’s testimonies. this finding is consistent with das, bacon, and zaman (2009) who noticed that 70% of two bangladesh newspapers did not directly quote any sources at all. to give impetus to our results, the environmental story illustrated in figure 13 below (retrieved from al-massae) warns against the pollution of a river that caused fish mortality. the information was raised by a human rights group that warned against hazardous pollution activities that killed a large quantity of fish due to a toxic substance leaking by an unidentified group. the destructive act shocked the locality residents once they witnessed a sudden change in the water’s color. the crisis occurred at a time when the community was busy fighting the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic. as mentioned in the article, the story tells about the leaking of an unknown toxic substance administered by unknown individuals who took advantage of the lockdown to commit environmental crime. in fact, the polluted water threatens the community’s safety, the herd, and the waterbed. from an ecolinguistic perspective, the discourse employed by the article is full of ambiguities and generalities. although the story invokes a human right organ’s inclusion, the article gives no detailed information about its name. furthermore, the story provides no identity of the people who polluted the river; it does not allude to the name of the toxic substances leaked into the river and gives no pursuit of the environmental crisis’s outcome now that we know about its impact. concerning other studies (cáceres, 2019a), the responsibility for environmental issues in environmental news and journalism is often attributed to a generic and indeterminate subject (humans, man, humanity, or simply we). it is a linguistic maneuver that stibbe (2015) calls ‘mass nouns’ or ‘abstract concepts’ that generalizes and homogenizes an ensemble of entities. the purpose is to incorporate many and diverse elements into a single word to convey all those elements at once (cáceres, 2019a). the masking of agents and actors involved in the environmental issue cited by the article above is what schleppegrell (1997) calls ‘agency’ in environmental discourse. it is a generic process whereby indeterminate subjects ‘we’ or ‘humans’ lead individuals towards representing solutions in terms of a shared responsibility model. people are judged as equally responsible for environmental problems. in the al-massae daily newspaper, the environment is treated shallowly and superficially; meanwhile, alarmist titles indicate real threats that the environment has been facing during the covid-19 pandemic. during the examination of the data, many flagrant discrepancies between titles and content were observed. the environmental stories pretend to report sensational and risky disasters while their figure 13. pollution (al-massae, 4168, p. 1) 193 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) content mitigates the dramatic nature of issues, not to say that many stories were deviant, out of context, and failed to assign the human responsibility for the destruction of the environment. to explain more, the article in figure 14 is a warning against the prevalence of forests’ looting during the quarantine period. the story points to the ministry of the interior’s responsibility, which must prevent the looting of forests during the quarantine period given the fact that the forest guards were not excluded from the lockdown measures. the guards’ mission is primordial, mainly during night shifts, to prevent illegal practices related to forests’ looting. despite the title that suggests an environmental catastrophe, the story strongly focused on the obligation of activating the role of the guards during the quarantine. basically, the article dwelt a lot on the administrative procedures to reactivate the guards’ mission to protect forests against massive lootings. however, the article was not faithful to its title, which highlights the exploitation of forests. it would have been a good environmental report if it mentioned places where the offenses took place, the names and identities of looters, the impact of the violation on the environment, and the measures that should be taken to stop the destruction in the confinement period. to suffer. the aim behind this operation, said the council’s spokesman, is that dogs repeatedly attack the population and cause fatal traffic accidents. the article blames the act of shooting, specifically the inhuman way of massacring stray dogs, and dwells a lot on enumerating why the village council opted for this decision rather than any other way to isolate dogs from the community. actually, the article is superficial and fails to portray the reality of the act. once again, the perpetrators of the massacre were erased and hidden by a mass noun (village council), and no accurate details were provided on the identity of the killers or those who ordered and planned the massacre. the same remark was mentioned in cáceres (2019b), who claims that in english, several linguist patterns are used to suppress grammatical agency, which refers to the presence of the subject that acts as the verb as in the example: “she broke the glass” → “the glass broke”. as far as animals are concerned, the al-massae newspaper reported a mass execution of stray dogs shot in zagora. under the pretext of fighting leishmaniasis skin lesions that dogs might transfer to the community, the story tells about the village council’s decision according to which at least 85 dogs were shot dead. the population was perceived as an inhuman massacre while the village council claimed that it was heroic. according to the villages’ council, the shooting was more merciful because poisoning is a tortured way to kill dogs in two days or more. sometimes the dogs may not die and continue figure 14. forest looting (al-massae, 4178, p.8) figure15. mass shooting of stray dogs (al-massae, 4168, p. 11) in the same context, some titles of articles (figures 13, 14, and 15) were assigned headlines that contain ‘mass nouns’ and ‘passive voice’ structures. in the list below, one cannot identify the acting subjects that were deleted to put emphasis on the action and the object of a sentence rather than doers of action. this means that the subjects are either less important or that the newspaper does not want to know who the subjects are by masking the perpetrators. in addition to mass nouns, the use of passivization in some titles below is how the newspaper erased subjects. therefore, whoever is responsible for these acts has disappeared at least from the titles. concerning the use of passivization in environmental discourse, a study by mliless and larouz (2018) on moroccan english language teaching textbooks found that the use of passive voice to erase agency or actors obscures meaning in environmental 194 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) narratives and hides responsibility of humans whose collusion with nature has caused tremendous destruction to the environment. this mode of titles’ writing is problematic and misleading because the headlines are indirect and lack agency. the fact that the titles were passivized makes the reader envisage that wrongdoers of environmental crises were systematically erased from the discourse. this assumption joins cáceres’s (2019b) who explains that the problems and negative consequences that arise when attributing responsibility to generic and indeterminate subjects (we, humans, society, or humanity) as causes of environmental issues (using passivization mass nouns, and erasure) is intentionally used to conceal those responsible or to individualize guilt for environmental issues. it seems that these forms of discourse, frequently repeated in the environmental articles, is an ingrained strategy that reflects the process of journalists of the newspaper when writing about environmental issues. based on this unsatisfactory coverage of environmental issues, this study assumes that the al-massae newspaper not only undermined the environmental issues occurring in the lockdown time, but it also gave a superficial account for the few environmental crises that it reported during the covid-19 pandemic. 4.2. al-akhbar newspaper the al-akhbar newspaper strategy is not different from that adopted by al-massae newspaper when it comes to the space reserved for the environmental topics, their locality, and the writing of environmental issues during the covid-19 pandemic. it should be mentioned that the newspaper scarcely reported about man’s violations and exploitation of natural resources. this is revealed in the number of environmental topics (47) that the newspaper devoted to environmental matters. the occurrence of environmental stories during the pandemic remains insufficient regarding the total sum of articles (2172) that were published in the lockdown period. to provide some interpretations to the content of the environmental publications, figures 16, 17, 18, and 19 below introduce some articles that we retrieve from the newspaper. for instance, figure 16 is about an alarming environmental issue alleged by villagers to the minister of agriculture about irregular overgrazing activities during the lockdown period. the article does not mention the impact of overgrazing on the environmental context but it highlights a conflict that has turned to vandalism and physical conflict between the villagers and a community of nomads. as a matter of fact, this study presumes that the story is not faithful to its title, it is out of context, and does not provide any names or details about the perpetrators and the damages man made to the environmental setting. similarly, the article in figure 17 on the release of poachers convicted of deer illegally hunting during the quarantine period gives much importance to the way the local authorities caught the offenders. basically, the story dwells on law enforcement’s dangerous and hard pursuit to arrest the convicts. unfortunately, the article neither invokes the violators’ identity, named as entrepreneurs, nor it talks about the mass killing of a group of deer, figure 16. overgrazing (al-akhbar, 2275, p. 4)195 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) as shown in the picture. once again, it is crystal clear that the al-akhbar newspaper not only fails to provide accurate and sufficient media coverage of men’s perpetual violations of environmental resources, but it does not properly write about the environmental issues it reports. figure 17. deer’s poachers released (al-akhbar, 2322, p.7) 4.3. as-sabah newspaper moroccan print media has played a prominent role in disseminating environmental information among people during the covid-19 pandemic. in this section, the study aims to examine the extent to which as-sabah daily newspaper treated environmental degradations due man’s exploitation of natural resources. based on the data obtained for this aim, the research assumes that the frequency and writing quality of environmental reports published by as-sabah do not drastically differ from those procured by the other newspapers. to illustrate this argument, we opted for some examples to explain how the as-sabah newspaper covered environmental violations during the covid-19 pandemic (see figures 18, 19, and 20). take one example, the story in figure 18 mentions the name of the person who denounced random disposal of medical waste and cites many national and international conventions that regulate the destruction and eradication of medical wastes. the story states that random abandonment of medical waste is a real threat to both humans and the natural environment, especially in the light of the spread of covid-19 disease. in this respect, the newspaper recalls the responsibility of the minister of energy, mines and the environment in taking indispensable actions to monitor, manage, and respect the environment according to laws that regulate the treatment and the disposal of medical waste. though the article cites sources and names, it fails to name public and private hospitals that perpetrated the violation, does not mention the nature of the medical waste, and does not give an explicit account for the effect of medical waste on man, nature, and species. the technical or rhetorical nature of environmental content does not focus on details regarding the perpetrators and the solutions required to make environmental news stories more useful. reporting of environmental issues by as-sabah newspaper reinforces our belief that the strategy followed by the newspaper to manage environmental degradations is far from being a professional to increase the visibility of environmental stories. based on the data obtained for this objective, this research assumes that the frequency and writing quality of environmental stories published during the covid-19 pandemic is a very complicated issue on the qualitative and the quantitative levels. in fact, more stories featuring environment-related stories would have given the newspaper more value in increasing public awareness about man’s violations of the natural environment. to illustrate this idea, the article in figure 19 reports about an environmental violation detected by the local authorities related to a wastewater treatment plant to irrigate fields of corn. it must be said that the story uses mass nouns to refer to the authorities that denounced, stopped, and closed the station. the article gives much importance to the local authorities’ efforts and the law enforcement personnel who were harshly resisted by the violators. desperately, the article does not name the individuals or groups of people who irrigate corn their corn fields with wastewater. this is mirrored in the article title which is put in the passive voice to erase the responsibility of the action. the title irrigation of corn fields with wastewater’ indicates that the subject is either less important than the action of irrigating cornfields with wastewater or that we don’t know who or what the subject is. from an ecolinguistic standpoint, the title of the figure 18. medical wastes (as-sabah, 6213,p. 1) 196 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) article is deficient based on the fact that offenders should be disclosed to the public. additionally, the impact of pollution was not accounted for mainly when it comes to citizens’ wcornfieldsgricultural products’ safety, and the purity of the wat,erbed. this being said, the story cites scientifaction’s responsibility moroccan ministry of interior on the strict measures thatcornfieldspoused in terms of wastewater management. by way of illustration, the ministry cites studies carried out in western countries on the possibility of being infected by covid-19 with respect to the leaking of wastewater. figure 19. wastewater for irrigation (as-sabah, 6237, p. 1) last but not least, the article in figure 20 is about the destruction of green spaces perpetrated by the council of casablanca to expand urban constructions. the council’s unjustified attack caused a wave of outrage among citizens and of environmental activists who signed petitions to stop the environmental disaster. the story exhibits some empathy towards the demolishment of green spaces saying that trees, of more than 90 years, were cut down and sold. dramatically, the article mentions that palm trees had been wrapped with electrical wires for lighting, an act that speeds up palms’ loss. once again, we observe that the article cites the place where the activity took place but it does neither name the responsible of the destruction nor it mentions the activists’ identity. the meaning of the title below is ambiguous due to the use of a mass noun ‘council of casablanca’ and the passive voice that masked the individuals who did the violation: execution of the rest of the green spaces in casablanca’. as schleppegrell (1997) mentioned, the use of mass nouns and passive voice to report about the environmental crisis obscure responsibility and agency and undermine real actors of environmental problems. the abstraction of perpetrators and the suppression of subjects via mass nouns and passivization make the article avoid attributing man’s responsibility for the environmental problem. figure 20. demolition of green spaces (as-sabah, 6237, p.1) the present study recognizes that feeble media coverage was devoted to this issue by the moroccan printed press to capture the complexity of man and nature’s interactions in the covid-19 time. it is necessary to highlight that environmental articles’ writing is defective and scanty because no distinct environmental headings were reserved for environmental problems within the three newspapers. writing of environmental news, which is a highly technical media genre, shows many deficiencies when it comes to the use of linguistic structure such as mass nouns and passivization. in reality, these linguistic expressions’ frequent use erases perpetrators of infractions and obscures environmental stories’ meaning. on a different level, this study assumes that the three newspapers’ environmental reports were dominated by news columns than that of the environment testified by the feeble coverage of environmental offenses during the covid-19 period. on this basis, it is crystal clear that the relationship between man and the natural setting becomes a subordinate concern. during the covid-19 pandemic, moroccan print media gave slight concern to devastating environmental transgressions in the lockdown time. undoubtedly, there is a pressing need to make environmental crimes a priority among the national media, which is where investigative environmental journalism can make a difference. to prioritize the environmental issues, moroccan print media needs to implement investigative environmental journalism and in-depth analysis procedures that may reveal stories of exploitation, degradation, and destruction activities of individuals or corporations.197 mohamed mliless/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) v. conclusion for more than four decades, reporting about environmental issues has become a pivotal concern for the media to improve environmental awareness among the general public. in fact, print media has become a primary voice to unveil environmental awareness and a very impactful way to inform about preserving natural resources. the choice of discourse to cover environmental problems is primordial to effectively mobilize the public around environmental issues, modify their behavior, and ask organizations and authorities for more commitment to protect and preserve natural resources. the present study highlighted the extent to which three moroccan printed newspapers have quantitatively and qualitatively reported about natural and environmental issues during the covid-19 pandemic. precisely, the study focused on the process by which the three daily newspapers have documented the environmental crises, their frequency, and how far the newspapers were so professional in writing efficient environmental stories. based on the obtained results, the present study assumes that the three newspapers were slow to report about environmental issues and unable to produce environmentally skillful content on the levels of substance and discourse. in effect, the three newspapers did not include distinct headings reserved for environmental journalism, did not publish enough articles on the environmental crises, and failed to provide accurate reports about the environmental disasters in agreement with ecolinguistics and environmental journalism principles. recommendations the fact that the newspapers failed to appropriately cover environmental issues, at least during the covid-19 pandemic, is rendered to a structural problem due to the lack of distinguished specialized environmental journalists. surely, the moroccan print media is trying to devote much space to the coverage of environmental issues. still, the road to better improvement of this shortcoming is far from being reached. the following recommendations are offered to remedy this situation and eradicate the many deficiencies that undermine its efforts. first, moroccan print media needs to create distinct environmental journalism cells and train journalists on how to write insightful and impactful articles in conformity with ecolinguistics and environmental journalism principles. second, more future research is needed to improve the mechanisms by which moroccan print media is invited to raise public consciousness on environmental problems. finally, media professionals need to be initiated to research techniques (interviews, panels, longitudinal research, and experiential research, among others) to assess their journalistic production effectiveness. 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(2020). covid-19 and surface water quality: improved lake water quality during the lockdown. retrieved from sci total environ 731:139012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139012 dr. mohamed mliless holds a phd in applied linguistics. he published three books on legal and environmental discourse. the many scientific articles he authored and coauthored focus on social and environmental issues. dr. mliless is a member of the international ecolinguistics association (iea), a member of the london journals press, and a member of actascientificopen international library, india. last but not least, dr. mohamed mliless is a review board member of many journals including thejournal of education teaching and social studies (jetss), thejournal of sustainability in environment (jse), internationaljournal of sociology and anthropology (ijsa), international journal of english and literature (ijel), african journal of political science and international relations (ajpsir), and the journal of language and literature (joll). dr. mohammed larouz (phd. in moulay applied linguistics, fez university, 2004) is head of the department of english studies at ismail university of meknes in morocco, where he has worked since 2005. in his department, he also directs the phd program in applied linguistics and chairs the research group on applied linguistics & language development (alld). dr. larouz also holds an ma in applied linguistics from essex university (1996) and has been a fulbright scholar to the usa twice (2002 and 2005), in addition to having worked as a secondary school teacher in morocco for more than fifteen years. he was president of the moroccan association of teachers of english, local branch (2016-2020) and is an expert and evaluator for the national agency for evaluation and quality assurance (aneaq) and the national center for scientific and technical research (cnrst) in the ministry of higher education of morocco. he investigates applied linguistics questions in morocco and has also research interests in the fields of tefl, sociolinguistics, research methodology, and communication. biography 202 rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 147 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 11, 2022 final revision: october 21, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 most academic researchers argued that learning english necessitates a number of components to effectively enhance the learning process. the major components that are highly demanding are mainly motivation and attitude. this study aims to check upon the significant role of the previously mentioned components in learning english as a foreign language and to check whether motivation and attitude are highly required for an efficient learning process. for the data collection procedure, a google form questionnaire was designed and distributed to respondents through the social media applications, such as whatsapp, facebook and messenger too. the respondents of this study are moroccan university students affiliated to moulay ismail university in meknes in morocco, more precisely the faculty of letters and human sciences as well as the faculty of sciences in meknes in morocco. for the research outcomes of the study, respondents were aware about the requirement of enhancing their level in english. they held an encouraging attitude towards the language. they illustrated that they have become tolerant and open-minded in their process of learning. they also assumed that english is a global language and they are studying it for various reasons, such as passing exams successfully, delivering talks and publishing articles in internationally indexed journals, and settling in a foreign country whose english is the mother tongue of its native speakers. consequently, they are adopting intrinsic/extrinsic and instrumental/integrative motivation clusters. likewise, they argued that they ought to practice the language inside and outside the classroom setting to become fluent in english; otherwise, it will be hard for them to achieve an excellent level in the learning process. at last, it can be deduced that students’ motivation and positive attitude are tremendously relevant for an effective learning process of a foreign language. keywords motivation, attitude, english as foreign language, higher education correspondence e-mail: r.asserraji@umi.ac.ma article the vital function of motivation and attitude in learning english as a foreign language in the moroccan university rym asserraji1, youssef aboudi2, aahd asserraji3, handoko handoko4 1systems theory and computer science lab, faculty of sciences at moulay ismail university, meknes. morocco 3sidi mohamed ben abdellah university, fez, morocco 4faculty of humanities,universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.147-157.2022 1. introduction many learners claim that they usually fail in learning a language despite their efforts inside and outside the classroom setting. these students ought to ask themselves a number of questions before starting the learning process. am i motivated to learn the language? why do i need to learn it? do i hold a positive attitude towards it? do i like it? do i like its native speakers? do i have all the tools to learn it successfully? have i ever been exposed to it? do i need it for my studies? all the illustrated questions reveal that they are centered on two major components namely, motivation and attitude. the reasons behind the choice of this topic lie on the fact that when students fail in their learning process of english, they put it on the teacher instead of | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | 2 laboratory of digital management, innovation and communication, national school of commerce and management (encg), agadir, morocco rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 148 blaming themselves. they ought to recognize that the latter should not be blamed because his job is to teach the language and if students are not highly motivated and have a negative attitude towards the language or its native speakers, the learning process will not be effective. gardner (1985) argues that learners’ attitudes towards learning the target language are presumed to be more meaningful to conquering an extraordinary score in language competence than learners’ curiosity in learning a foreign language or the people who speak the target language. cakici (2007) exemplifies that learners’ encouraging attitudes towards a language and the culture of that community lead to a calmer learning process; whereas, a disapproving attitude postpones learning. as practical studies on language learning motivation increase, it has been revealed that integrative and instrumental motivations are positively related, and both are efficiently charged targets that can maintain the learning process. they both can be enhanced by better proficiency and higher accomplishment in the target language (dornyei,1994). furthermore, students’ learning goals are similarly attested to split up into various motivation collections, the definition of which fluctuates counting on the socio-cultural environment in which the data are assembled (galishnikova, 2014; coleman, 2005; cheng, y. 2002; noels et at, 2002; clement et al., 1994). thus, new motivation groups have been recognized, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivations which were recommended in self-determination theory. “intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome and because of external rewards” (ryan & deci, 2000, p.55). most academic researchers believed that learning english requires a number of components to successfully develop the learning process. the key components that are vastly challenging are mostly motivation and attitude. obviously, it is broadly approved that attitudes stand for specific objectives and motivation has specific actions as its objectives (baker, 1992; seki, 2004; ushida, 2005; at-tamini & shuaib, 2009; ghazvini & khajehpour, 2011; ditual, 2012). johnstone (2001:69-120), for instance, composed that “attitudes have objects as their target, such as an encouraging attitude to school, and continues that ‘motivation’ has goals rather than objectives as its point of reference”. as a result, students are assessed on whether they have negative or positive attitudes toward a particular object. in contrast, motivation is either present or absent, rather than negative or positive. hence, the aim of this investigation is to check upon the vital role of the previously mentioned components in learning english as a foreign language and to check whether motivation and attitude are highly necessitated for an efficient learning process they are viewed as two major elements that control the ways in which a student studies a language. baker (1992: 14), debating the difference between ‘attitude’ and ‘motive’ in foreign language education, observes that these two concepts “ often appear without discussion of the extent of overlap and difference”. in the same line, gardner & lambert (1972, cited in seki, 2004) describe ‘motivation’ as the second-language learner’s inclusive objective and orientation and ‘attitude’ as the learner’s diligence in endeavoring to the goal. however, seki (2004) notices that ‘motivation’ and ‘attitude’ are not delineated from one another, in that the learner’s motivation for language learning would be regulated by his attitudes and keenness to recognize and by his orientation to the entire process of foreign language learning. gardner (1985) argues that learners’ attitudes towards learning the target language are presumed to be more meaningful to conquering an extraordinary score in language competence than learners’ curiosity in learning a foreign language or the people who speak the target language. cakici (2007) exemplifies that learners’ encouraging attitudes towards a language and the culture of that community lead to a calmer learning process; whereas, a disapproving attitude postpones learning. as practical studies on language learning motivation increase, it has been revealed that integrative and instrumental motivations are positively related, and both are efficiently charged targets that can maintain the learning process. they both can be enhanced by better proficiency and higher accomplishment in the target language (dornyei, 1994; 2003; 2005; 2006). furthermore, students’ learning goals are similarly attested to split up into various motivation collections, the definition of which fluctuates counting on the socio-cultural environment in which the data are assembled (clement et al., 1994). rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 149 thus, new motivation groups have been recognized, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivations which were recommended in self-determination theory. “intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome and because of external rewards” (ryan & deci, 2000, p.55). according to the previously mentioned scholars ryan and deci, (2000:64-65), when a learner has no extrinsic or intrinsic objectives for learning a language, discouragement arises, a fact which signifies the state of lacking an intention to act. as these concepts have attained popularity, it is asserted that intrinsic motivation performs a dominant function in acquiring a foreign language (liu, 2007). hence, it can be argued that both integrative/instrumental motivations, as well as intrinsic/extrinsic motivations, contribute to learning a foreign language depending on the setting in which the learning prevails. correspondingly, students in a variety of situations can be motivated to learn a foreign language by different motivation clusters. consequently, the purpose of this paper is to try to reveal the significant role of motivation and attitude in the learning of english as a foreign language and to try to propose some measures in order to enhance students’ learning of english as a foreign language. 2. methods the purpose of this investigation is to reveal the significant role of motivation and attitude in learning english as a foreign language. also, whether they are highly required for an efficiently successful learning process. the respondents of this study, they are moroccan university students affiliated to moulay ismail university in meknes, morocco, more precisely the faculty of letters and human sciences as well as the faculty of sciences in meknes. concerning the data collection procedure, a google form questionnaire has been designed as the major data collection procedure. it has been transmitted to respondents via social media applications, such as whatsapp, facebook, and messenger. as for the data collection procedure, the questionnaire is been designed as the major data collection instrument, which has been transmitted to respondents through the social media applications, such as whatsapp, facebook, and messenger. for the questions addressed in the questionnaire, they have been classified into a number of categories namely, students’ attitudes towards learning english as a foreign language, their motivation to study the english language, their involvement in the classroom setting, their proficiency in learning english, their challenges towards learning english, and their personality characteristics in learning english as a foreign language. the return rate is 100%. one hundred and eight university students filled out the questionnaire. 3. results the findings of this paper have been classified into a number of categories namely, respondents’ background information, their academic path, their attitudes towards learning english as a foreign language, their motivation to study english, their involvement in the classroom setting, their proficiency in learning it, the encountered challenges in learning the language, and their personality characteristics in learning english as a foreign language. the majority of respondents are aged between 20 to 25 years old while 44% are more than 25 years old. as for the respondents who are between 18 to fig. 1. distribution of respondents by education level rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 150 fig. 2. distribution of institution enrolled fig. 3. distribution of systems of studies fig. 4. distribution of systems of studies 20 years, they are just a few. it is worth mentioning that my respondents are university students, who are working towards their ba, ma, and ph.d. at the faculty of letters and human sciences as well as the faculty of sciences at moulay ismail university in meknes. 63% of respondents are male students while 44% are female ones. as far as the educational level, figure 1 shows more than 75% are working towards the achievement of their ma degrees, 18% are working towards their ba, and 10% are working towards the accomplishment of their doctorate degree. as can be seen in figure 2, almost all respondents are enrolled in public institutions while a few of them have joined private ones. most of them are continuing their studies in a system of faculty while few are furthering their studies in a higher school and an engineering cycle as indicated in figure 3. rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 151 figure 4. shows that the majority of respondents are furthering their studies at the faculty of letters and human sciences, more particularly in the english department. they are working towards their ba, ma. and ph. d degrees. in addition to this, the above chart also shows that there are other respondents, who belong to the faculty of sciences at moulay ismail university. they are enrolled in various disciplines, such as geology, biology, chemistry, computer sciences, and physics departments. level of students’ attitudes towards learning english as a foreign language level of students’ motivation to study the english language no attitude of students agree disagree neutral 1 you hold a positive attitude towards learning english as a foreign language 100% 0 0 2 you like the culture and the lifestyles of the native speakers of english 54% 29% 24% 3 you believe that english is very important language to be learned by moroccan university students 100% 0 0 it appears that all respondents hold a positive attitude towards learning english as a foreign language. they believe that it is crucially relevant in their studies and research as well. one of them illustrates the following quotation: “as a science student, i am required to have very good basics in order to carry out scientific research and deliver talks in english in international conferences in english”. it is obvious that most of my respondents like the culture and the lifestyle of the native speakers of english. 54% opted for agree and 29% chose strongly agree; whereas, 24% selected neutral. one of them responded: “i have become more open-minded and flexible when i discovered the culture and the lifestyle of the native speakers of english”. all respondents strongly agree that english is a very significant language to be studied by moroccan university students. one of them states: “english has become a global language and it is a must in scientific research” table 1. students attitude toward learning english as a foreign language no motivation of students agree disagree neutral 1 want to study english in order to pass the exams succesfully 57% 25% 18% 2 want to study english in order to become a teacher of english 49% 30% 21% 3 want to study english in order to settle in a foreign country whose first or second language is english 51% 27% 22% table 2 shows that the majority of university students are willing to study english to pass exams successfully while 25% disagree and 18% are neutral. one of respondents illustrates the following quotation: “ it is genuinely true that we not only want to study english to pass exams successfully and get great marks to further our studies till obtaining a doctorate degree, but we are also tremendously conscious of the importance of english in the job market demands”. apparently, it is obvious that most of my respondents wanted to become university students after getting their degrees. 30% opted for disagree and 21% for neutral. the majority of my respondents seem to be eager to study english in order to settle in a foreign country whose first or second language is english. 22% disagree, 5% strongly disagree and 22% opted for neutral. one of them points out: “ i believe that a foreign country will be more advantageous to us in looking for decent job opportunities that would allow us to have a better life” level of students’ involvement in the classroom setting table 3 indicates the students involvemetn in the classroom setting in learning english language. it is clear that 45% of respondents consider themselves as active participants in the classroom. 30% opted for strongly agree, which means that table 2. students motivation toward learning english as a foreign language rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 152 they share the same opinion as the previous ones. 10% chose disagree, 5% for strongly disagree, and 22% for neutral. one of the respondents argues: “ i believe that participation is very crucial in order to achieve effective learning of english. if i do not make mistakes while participating in the classroom, i will never improve my level in english”. it is clear that the majority do not care about making mistakes while talking in the classroom. in the same line, 18% opted for strongly agree, 32% for disagreeing, 8% for strongly disagree and 15% selected neutral. one of the respondents maintains the following citation: “ caring about making mistakes will prevent students’ motivation to learn efficiently” level of students’ proficiency in learning english table 4 students’ profieciency in learning english. apparently, it shows that 55% assume that they practice english inside and outside the campus. 35% chose strongly agree, 10% opted for disagree, 2% for strongly disagree, and 10% for neutral. the majority of my respondents admit the fact of watching movies in english on a daily basis. 20% opted for strongly agree, 23% selected disagree, 5% for strongly disagree, and 15% for neutral. one of the respondents says: “ watching movies is very significant for us to enhance our learning process. movies help us boost our listening and speaking skills. while watching a movie, we grasp words unconsciously and our pronunciation of words becomes efficient” 45% claim that they have read english novels outside the syllabus program. 28% chose strongly agree. 15% disagree. 9% strongly disagree and almost 18% are neutral. one of them points out the following quotation: “ i do remember once that one of my former professors told me that the best way to enhance my level in english is through reading novels outside the syllabus. he argued that reading a handful of books or ten ones will improve my level in an effective way. i did follow his advice and thank god my level in english is excellent because i took reading as my favorite hobby” actually, it appears that 55% strongly agree on the fact that they own english dictionaries at home, 37% agree, 15% disagree and 5% strongly agree. one of the respondents illustrates the following citation: “it is obligatory to own an english dictionary in order to learn any language. if a student does not have it or is not aware about its necessity, his learning of english will not be flourishing” the majority of my respondents agree that they usually talk in english with their classmates to enhance their level. almost 33% chose strongly agree, 22% for disagree, 2% for strongly agree, and 15% for neutral. one of them points out the no involment strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree neutral 1 consider yourself as an active participant in the classroom 30% 45% 10% 5% 20% 2 do not care about making mistakes while talking in the classroom 18% 36% 32% 8% 15% table 3. students’ involvement in the classroom setting no level of proficiency strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree neutral 1 practice english inside and outside the campus 35% 35% 10% 2% 10% 2 watch movies in english on a dialy basis 20% 50% 23% 5% 15% 3 read english novels outside the syllabus program 28% 45% 15% 9% 18% 4 have an english dictionary at home 55% 37% 15% 5% 0% 5 usually talk in english with your classmates to improve your level 33% 41% 22% 2% 15% table 4. students’ proficiency in learning english rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 153 interference of the native language. in addition to this, some of them have faced financial problems 23%, stress or trauma 30%, and hatred toward the language 19%. level of students’ personality characteristics in learning english as a foreign language the majority claim that they are extrovert people, 25% opted for strongly agree, 19 for disagree, 9% for strongly disagree, and 22% for neutral. the majority believe that they are active inside and outside the classroom. according to them, being active is one of the best characteristics of good students, who are highly motivated to learn effectively. the majority disagree about being introverted following quotation: “we have created groups on whatsapp and facebook as well in order to encourage our classmates to join us and practice the language. as the english proverb states: practice makes perfect” level of students’ challenges towards learning english figure 5 shows the chllanges the participants encounter in learning english. apparently, students assume that they have encountered various problems namely, the lack of practice inside and outside the classroom setting 70%, 58% shyness, 50% lack of participation in the classroom, 55% anxiety, 45% lack of effective study habits, 30% fig. 5. students’ challenges towards learning english no students’ personality strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree neutral 1 you are extrovert person 25% 37% 19% 9% 22% 2 you are introverst person 12% 25% 32% 19% 22% 3 you do not care about being includeed while making mistakes in the classroom 18% 40% 25% 8% 15% 4 you are a sociable person 25% 47% 11% 5% 22% 5 you are highly determined excel in learning english 47% 49% 5% 0% 8% 6 you always think in a critical way 33% 58% 10% 1% 9% 7 you are a risk-taker person 22% 40% 25% 1% 19% 8 you are a proactive person 18% 54% 10% 2% 22% 9 you are a self-confident person 28% 49% 8% 5% 22% 10 you are passionate about learning english 60% 39% 0% 2% 7% 11 you are a computer literate person 25% 53% 10% 2% 15% 12 when you encounter psychological problems, you become anxious and depressed 12% 46% 5% 23% 25% 13 you friends help you by listening to you when you face problems 38% 8% 22% 6% 32% table 5. students’ proficiency in learning english rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 154 people, 25% agree about being introverted, 12% strongly agree, 19% strongly disagree and 22% opted for neutral. most of them assume that an introverted person will not be able to learn effectively because of his or her reluctance toward classroom interaction. it is obvious that the majority of my respondents agree of being careless about being ridiculed while making mistakes in the classroom. 18% strongly agree, 25% disagree, 8 strongly disagree, and 15% are neutral. one of my respondents claims that: “if i care about what my classroom would say with regard to my mistakes, i will never learn. therefore, students should trust themselves and believe that it is thanks to making mistakes that the learning process will be highly fruitful” apparently, it is clear that 47% agree of being sociable people, 25% strongly agree, 11% disagree, 5% strongly disagree and 22% are neutral. one of my respondents says: “being sociable is an important personality characteristic of a good learner. learning requires students to interact among themselves in order to learn in an effective way; otherwise, the learning process will fail”. it appears that 49% agree of being highly determined to excel in learning english, 47% strongly agree, 5% disagree and 8% are neutral. one of them points out: “ determination is a must for students if they want to achieve their objectives. learning english certainly necessitates motivation and hard work; however, if students are determined to face all the challenges in language learning, they will obviously excel in learning it”. the chart reveals that the majority of my respondents agree on the fact of thinking in a critical way. 33% strongly agree with the statement. 10% disagree and 9% are neutral. one of the respondents illustrates the following citation: “ i believe that university students must have acquired the skill of critical thinking throughout their academic studies. it is this skill that differentiate a passive student from a very active one. they should be conscious learners and able to analyze and question all the information they receive whether it is related to their studies or their personal life”. 40% agree that they are risk-taker people. 22% strongly agree. 25% disagree and 19 % are neutral. most of them assume that taking risks while learning is very advantageous because it motivates them to learn positively and vividly. the majority agree in being proactive people, 18% strongly agree. 10% disagree. 2% strongly disagree and 22% are neutral. they all claim that being proactive is fundamental in learning. one of them clarifies: “ i believe that i am a proactive student because i highly believe that leaning and acquiring new skills will always be my priority. i would not be a doctorate student if i was not an ambitious person who was and is always looking for new objectives to achieve as long as i am alive. i always strive for a change and a new information to enhance my soft and hard skills” according to table 5, 49% agree of being selfconfident people. 28% strongly agree, 8% disagree, 5% strongly disagree , and 22% are neutral. the majority of my respondents strongly agree of being passionate about learning english. 39% agree, 2% strongly disagree ,and 7% are neutral. they all pointed out that passion is an important characteristic that students should have in order to be referred to as good learners. if there is no love or passion towards learning, it will certainly fail. 53% agree of being computer literate people, 25% strongly agree, 10% disagree, 2% strongly disagree, and 15% are neutral. most of them believe that technology has become a part of their learning process. knowing how to manage a computer is highly demanding among university students because they are required to write research papers, scientific articles, and dissertations; hence, if they are computer illiterate, they will be stuck and fail in their studies and research as well. apparently, it seems that most of my respondents agree in becoming anxious and depressed when they encounter psychological problems. 12% strongly agree, 23% disagree, 5% strongly agree and 25% are neutral. they assume that psychological issues prevail the moment when they start preparing for their exams in addition to the negative impact of their personal and family issues on the process of learning. one of them quotes the following citation: “ i encounter anxiety mainly during the period rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 155 of exams” furthermore, the above chart reveals that the majority of my respondents agree that their friends support them by listening to them the moment they encounter issues. 8% strongly agree, 22% disagree, 6% strongly disagree, and 32% are neutral. most of them assume that their friends play a huge role in their lives. they claim that thanks to the college challenges, they have met great friends who will always be resent when they are needed. 4. discussion as far as the results of the fieldwork are concerned, they can be tackled in a number of categories. for the first category, it is related to the level of students’ attitudes towards learning english as a foreign language.in this section, respondents believe that english has become a global language in the 21st century. therefore, they should have a good level in order to carry out scientific research and deliver talks in international conferences in english. most of them seem to hold a positive attitude towards the learning of english. besides, they like to study the language to become more open-minded, tolerant, and flexible when dealing with the native speakers of english. this reveals that they embrace intrinsic and integrative motivation in this section. concerning the level of students’ motivation to study the english language, the majority appears to be highly motivated to study it. some of them claim that they are learning english to get good marks and pass their exams successfully while others argue that they are willing to settle in a foreign country and have a decent job and a decent life too. thus, it can be said that students carry two other types of motivation, which are extrinsic and instrumental motivation. regarding the level of students’ involvement in the classroom setting is concerned, my respondents believe that participation is very crucial to accomplish effective learning of english; otherwise, if they do care about making mistakes, they will not be motivated to learn efficiently because they assume that making mistakes is part of an effective learning process. besides, they also illustrate that group work is a great method to enhance their learning process. when students work in groups, they not only benefit a lot by encouraging their team members to communicate freely and openly, but they also support them by raising their self-esteem and by correcting their mistakes as well. for the level of students’ proficiency in learning english, most of them are aware that being proficient in english necessitates the mastery of the four skills namely, speaking, listening, reading, and writing. they are conscious that proficiency requires hard work and practice. likewise, the first two skills which are speaking and listening can be developed through watching movies, series, and documentaries in english continuously; as for the skills of reading and writing, they could be improved by reading novels, short stories, plays, and articles regularly. it is by reading that they can see how words, paragraphs, and essays are written. also, in order to be excellent in writing, they ought to have a diary and start by writing their daily activities without caring about making mistakes. and with time and practice, they will become excellent writers and improve their level in english. as far as the level of students’ challenges in learning english is concerned, the majority claim that they have encountered various problems in their learning process namely, the lack of practice inside and outside the classroom setting, anxiety, shyness, the lack of effective study habits, hatred towards the language, and financial problems. concerning the level of students’ personality characteristics in learning english as a foreign language, along with a positive attitude and motivation towards the learning of english as a foreign language, respondents assume that they should be active inside and outside the classroom setting. they are required to practice the language without caring too much about making mistakes. it is also necessary for them to gain personality qualities, such as being proactive, self-determined, risk takers and critical thinkers as well. and lastly, they should never give up on the process of learning english. 5. conclusion to conclude, it is obvious that students are consciously aware about the necessity of improving their level in english. most of them hold a positive attitude towards the language since it is not only a global language, but it is also necessary for them to have very good basics in it in order to take part in international conferences and write articles to be published in internationally indexed journals, which rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 156 have a good impact factor. they assume that they like studying the language because it allows them to be more open-minded and tolerant towards the native speakers of english. consequently, they are adopting an intrinsic and integrative motivation. likewise, for students’ motivation to study the english language, there are some of them whose major aim behind studying the language is to get good marks and pass exams successfully while others’ purpose is to settle in a foreign country and have a decent job. thus, this type of motivation is related to extrinsic and instrumental motivation. in addition to this, concerning students’ involvement in the classroom setting, according to their feedback, the majority illustrates that participation is very mandatory to achieve an effective learning process of english. also, they argue that practice makes perfect, meaning that if they do not practice the language inside and outside the classroom followed by not caring about making mistakes, they will certainly reach an efficient learning process. references al-tamimi, atef, munir shuib. (2009). motivation and attitudes towards learning english: a study of petroleum engineering undergraduates at hadhramout university of sciences and technology. gema online journal of language studies. volume 9(2) cakici, d (2007). the attitudes of university students towards english within the scope of common compulsory courses. retrieved june 14th, 2009 from: http://gefad.gazi.edu.tr/window/ dosyapdf/2007/3/2007-3-21-35-21-35.pdf cheng, y. (2002) academic self-efficacy and first year college student performance and adjustment. journal of educational psychology, 93, 55-64. clement, r, dornei, z, & noels, k.a. (1994). motivation, self-confidence and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. language learning, 44 (1), 417-448. coleman, j. a. (2005) studying languages: a survey of british and european students: the proficiency, background, attitudes and motivations of students of foreign languages in the united kingdom and europe, london, cilt. elena m. galishnikova. (2014). language learning motivation: a look at the additional program, procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 152, pages 1137-1142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2014.09.289. ditual, rayhanna conday (2012). the motivation for and attitude towards learning english. asian efl journal, vol. 63, 4-21 dornei, z.(1994). motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. the modern language journal, 78 (3), 273-284. dornyei, z. (2003). attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: advances in theory, research, and application. language learning, 53(s1), 3-32. dornyei, z. (2005). the psychology of the language learner: individual differences in second language acquisition. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. dornyei, z., csizer, k., & nemeth, n. (2006). motivational dynamics, language attitudes and language globalisation: a hungarian perspective. clevedon, uk: multilingual matters. kudo, k. (1999). oral self-expression activities as a facilitator of students’ positive attitudes and motivation: a case study of japanese secondary school students. retrieved may 15th , 2019 from: http://www.surrey.ac.uk/alrg/dissertations/pdf/kudo k 1999.pdf gardner, r.c. (1985). social psychology and second language learning. london: edward arnold. klausmeier, j.h. (1985). educational psychology. new york.: harper & row. noels k.a.,.pelletier l.g,.clement r, vallerand r.j. (2002) why are you learning a second language? motivational orientations and self – determination theory. language learning. a journal of research rym asserraji / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 157 in language studies, university of michigan, 50, 57-85. rahman, s. (2005) orientations and motivation in english language learning: a study of bangladeshi students at undergraduate level. the asian efl journal, 7 (1),1-26. ryan, r. m. & deci, e. l. (2000). intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. retrieved august 14th, 2019 from: http://www.idealibrary.com sayid dabbagh ghazvini, milad khajehpour (2011). attitudes and motivation in learning english as second language in high school students. procedia social and behavioral sciences, volume 15, 2011, pages 1209-1213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.264. seki, t. (2004) attitudes to and motivation for learning english in japan with special reference to first-year university students. retrieved may 23rd, 2019: http://dspace/stir.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/1983/60/1/ thesis/teakoseki liu, m. (2007). chinese students’ motivation to learn english at the tertiary level. asian efl journal, 9(1), 126-146. retrieved june 16th, 2019 from: http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/march 07 ml.php ushida, e. (2005) the role of students’ attitudes and motivation in second language learning in online language courses. calico journal, 23(1), 49-78. retrieved july 15th, 2019 from: https://www. calico.org/html/artical131.pdf. welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 137 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t the effectiveness of e-learning has some uniqueness and challenges in terms of obstacles faced, and its learning model. this research employs the observation method by observing both spoken and written data, survey, and interview. data was obtained from 80 higher institutions students and 50 lecturers of four state-owned institutions, and four private institutions. the results show that the effective learning conducted through e-learning has met the expected standard. through the learning process, the students were provided by motivational training, and educated with character building based on their religious belief. moreover, the lecturers carried out their teaching process through whatsapps group, zoom meeting and/ or google meet applications, and provided the students with instructions and guidance. the instructions and guidances were particularly concerned on how to conduct the online classes with the camera on, comprehending the semester’s lesson plan (slp) for the whole semester, providing feedback on the materials, examples, video assignments, and weekly tasks given. besides that the instructions and guidances were also specified for the students to seize the opportunities to present their tasks virtually. likewise, the supports from the institutions are also needed concerning the committee for quality assurance in the implementation of e-learning, draft, attendance list, journal, contract of the course, motivational to the lectures in implementing e-learning, and video conference room (vicon) as well. keywords culture, effective e-learning, higher institutions, language review, psychology correspondence e-mail: miwirdilili@gmail.com article the effectiveness of e-learning platform in higher institutions: a review on language, psychology, and culture welsi haslina1, lilimiwirdi2 1department of accounting, politeknik negeri padang, west sumatera, indonesia 2department of civil engineering, politeknik negeri padang, west sumatera, indonesia 1. introduction the implementation of the e-learning in indonesia is carried out in accordance with the circular letter of ministry of education and culture number 4, year 2020 (pelaksanaan kebijakkan pendidikan dalam masa darurat penyebaran corona virus diases (covid-19), 2020). in regards, the ministry stated that all activities in educational institutions should be conducted from home. moreover, in the current globalization era and industrial revolution (ir) 4.0, higher institutions are demanded to provide their services utilizing digital technology in their learning system (widayati, 2020). as highlighted by (kristianti, 2019; lilimiwirdi & nelfira, 2016) that there is a big impact of the internet on the development of language and culture among teenagers in padang city. there have been many higher institutions performing e-learning where the education standard covers the graduate competence, content, process, educator, and education personnel, facilities and infrastructures, management, and grading standards (mulyasana, 2011, p. 120). there are two ways performed in terms of evaluation by measuring and marking. measuring is conducted through comparing one measurement to another, and it is quantitative. whereas marking is the decision made on something either good or bad, and in the form of qualitative (izza et al., 2020, p. 11). the learning success of the students cana be said effective when received: june 11, 2022 final revision: october 21, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.137-146.2022 welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 138 they can master 75% of the learning. wortuba & wright cited in anwar (2017, pp. 437–474) pointed out that there are seven indicators of effective learning which are well-organized learning materials, effective communication, enthusiasm on the learning materials, positive attitudes onto the students, fair grading, flexibility on learning approach, and good results from the students. most of highly motivated students want good result or grade so that they increase their performance of learning and learn diligently in order to achieve their goal (ferazona & suryanti, 2020; fitriyani et al., 2020). there is a different between the effective learning that has been conducted as mentioned above with the present effective learning. the latter effective learning is analyzed through many aspects such as review on language, psychology, and culture. ekayati (2017) and sundari (2015) stated that the primary goal of learning is to measure its result, to recognize the weaknesses of the method and technique used in the learning process. one of the approaches used in overseeing the weakness of this effective learning is semantic approach. suryaningrat (2013) and rudi (2016), highlighted that since semantic is derived from greek which is sema (noun) means “mark” or “symbol”, and semaino (verb), means “marking” or “symboling”, thus semantics can be said the meaning which can be marked and symbolized. the meaning will be changed when the one being marked and symbolized changing as well. since the meaning is connected through computer, abdulhak & darmawan (2017, p. 87) pointed out that the use of computer and internet in learning communication depends on its ablity in receiving, storing, and processing the information and then producing it in a great amount of number for long period of time, besides using and multiplying it in unlimited quantities. the devices are advanced even though their use can be interrupted by signal and weather. verily, in order to figure out the learning responds, psychology analysis is required. irham & wiyani (2017, p. 44) believed that thinking process and the stored of memory and knowledge on someone is occured in their brain. human’s brains is consisted of two parts which is known as left and right hemisphere. the right hemisphere works randomly, whereas the left hemisphere focuses on the process of receiving language, information, lesson, calculation, logic, and rational. meanwhile, sastra, haq & handoko (2019, p. 149) came up with the thought that the damage occured in the left hemisphere causes the problems in processing the language, meaning, even though one can listen to the utterance but she or he cannot comprehend those utterances. if the human’s brain is in good condition, then the process of obtaining the language and the meaning would run well. vera (2020) in her research initiated to create a polite and good listener two-way communication where the students would have the courage to be engaged actively in giving their opinions. hence, the active, creative, and innovative communication strategies are proved to be able to reduce the boredom during the online learning where at the same time increase the quality of the learning itself. the review on culture is needed particularly for the character building. a person’s character will be good when it is based on moral value and ethical behavior agreed by community (santika, 2020, p. 10). kurniawan (2017, pp. 175–191) stated that each higher institution must have a pattern on its students’ character building in line with its vission, mission, and the character of the institution. the strategies used in implementing the character values are religious, honest, tolerance, discipline, patriotism, and others. the aforementioned research is in contrast to this current research in terms of the implementation of character building which are shown in the students’ attitude through their attendance, being active in the class, and the implementation of spiritual, social, and culture values in their character. it can be overseen from the online learning, working experience, research or community service that have been carried out by the students within the learning process and in the internship program. during the process of the online learning, then the students can master the knowledge, the competence, and the skills transferred. furthermore, to measure the students’ successfulness in the process of online learning is performed through observation, self-assessment, and peer-review. in order to measure the knowledge obtained is carried out through written and spoken tests, and the tasks given. whereas, to evaluate the welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 139 mastery of the skills obtained is done through the practice tests, projects, and portfolios. 2. methods this research uses qualitative approach where the procedures taken resulting descriptive data in the form of spoken and written utterances, and behavior that can be observed (gumilang, 2016; bogdan & taylor cited in moleong, 2012; octavia, 2018; sulistiono, 2019; yulianto & nugraheni, 2021). the data were collected through observation, survey, and interview. sudaryanto (1993, p. 133), widianto & ida zulaeha (2016), wati et al., (2020), pointed out that the observation method was performed through observing by listening to the existing utterances of spoken and written language. the samples were obtained from the questionnaires distributed to 80 students and 50 lecturers of eight higher institutions; four state-owned and another four from private higher institutions. the data was collected and sorted through the interview. the interviews performed with the lecturers and the students were in the form of open and close-ended structure. meanwhile for the observation, it was carried out by paying a visit to the chosen institutions, and involving during the online learning process (participating in the video conference). the data collection was derived from the activities, events, objects, circumstances, and particular situations during the online learning. in order to strengthen the data obtained, videos, photos, logbooks, the lecturers and the students’ attendances, and the learning journals were also compiled and recorded. in addition, the questionnaires data was analyzed using the statistical and non-statistical analysis. the statistical analysis was conducted by examining, selecting, eliminating, processing, and data modelling resulting the primary and secondary data. the primary data was derived from the sources, whereas the secondary data was taken from the third party such as scientific papers, tasks, and others. the next step was analyzing the data obtained qualitatively, quantitatively, regressively, inferentially, and descriptively. moreover, the data analysis was also performed through nonstatistical, which was descriptively analyzed and interpreted using critical thinking, comparing, and synthesizing. 3. result the websites used for the online learning in these eight higher institutions can be elaborated as follow: first, andalas university applies ilearn (interactive learning) platform at url: http:// ilearn.unand.ac.id., http://ft.ilearn.unand.ac.id., http://fk.ilearn.unand.ac.id. second, padang state university applies e-learning platform at url: https://elearning1.unp.ac.id. third, politeknik negeri padang applies spada platform for the e-learning. fourth, the islamic university of imam bonjol padang has https://learning.uinib.ac.id for their e-learning url. fifth, indonesia putra university uses https://upiyptk.ac.id. sixth, padang institute of technology carries out their e-learning through url https://teknologilistrikd3.itp.ac.id. seventh, stkip pgri has at http://stkip-pgrisumbar.ac.id. eighth, stmik indonesia padang uses the url stmikindonesia.ac.id, and e-learning stmik indonesia padang. in this regard, the e-learning platform is utilized by the lectures and students to virtually meet and interact between one another. 3.1 the effectiveness of e-learning from the students’s perspective from the students’ perspectives, learning effectiveness is supported by the media used. e-learning is the most popular used media service with a percentage up to 40%. it is followed by spada for 38%, whereas ilearn and e-study are only for 15% and 7%. for other application used such as zoom meeting, the percentage is 36%. this application is the most commonly used by students in private and state-owned higher institutions for their e-learning. other applications utilized by the students are whatsapp for 24%, google meet for 21%, google classroom for 15%, edmodo for 3%, and unspecified for 1%. concerning the teaching materials set by the lecturers, 23% is in the form of power point, 22 % in document or word, 21% in semester lessons plan (slp), 15% in syllabus, 11% for video, 10% in url, 4% in folder, and others 0%. those teaching materials has a compelling role related to the e-learning process. based on the data mentioned above, the higher rate for using the online learning was because it was easy to use for the learning process. welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 140 the effectiveness of e-learning process the effectiveness of e-learning can be seen in fig.1. first for the teaching-learning process delivered by a lecture to all students through ppt, word, book, module, video, and others is 35%. second for the learning process conducted by the students, the percentage is 59%. third, the concurrence process is 6%. as the number for the empowerment is lower, therefore providing motivational training to the students is one way that can be developed. it is because the flexibility of the online learning schedule and its time management even though there is a few challenges in interaction (weldon et al., cited in setiadi & bramastia, 2022). then continued by educating them with character building in accordance with their religious beliefs. lectures can set up examples, ask for feedback from the tasks assigned to the students like video assignments. in order to set up the concurrence, the students should turn on their camera during the e-learning process. psychologically, the activities that make the students unable to focus are 28% for doze, 25% for boredom, 21% for poor understanding, 11% for laziness, 7% for hardly waking up, 6% for starving, and 2% for sleep. by turning on the video, it is expected that the lectures can lead the students to be actively participate and under their control. along the way, planning monitoring or feedback should be employed during this e-learning process. based on the research’ result, the feedback is occurred in the form of assignments for 26%, mid term test for 21%, final term test for 19%, quizzes for 18%, and exercises for 16%. the setting up of assignments have become the mostly used form comparing to exercises. it is because real time learning process consumes plenty of time and internet quota. to some extent, the quantity of submitting the e-learning assignments is mostly weekly, daily, and monthly. fig 1: educational process through online learning from the students fig 2: challenges on facilities and infrastructures for e-learning welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 141 the challenges on facilities and infrastructures for e-learning implementation the implementation of e-learning encounters many hinders. this can be seen in the following fig. 2. the highest disruptions from the survey results are signal or network interference for 29%, environmental disturbances for 14%, weather issue or power outages for 13%, sim card balance for 12%, availability of smart phones for 8%, living in a remote area for 7%, and availability of computers for 4%. these results show those challenges mentioned above are the enormous obstacles in implementing e-learning. undoubtedly, this phenomenon should be a consideration for numerous parties to solve them, especially the government. the challenges of the learning and practice through online from students’ perspective some of the challenges experienced by students are black out that makes them unable to access the internet to study. then boredom and sleep notion due to lack of motivation and understanding on the learning materials. learning subjects which are difficult to comprehend through the online learning such as skill lab/clinical skills, financial mathematics, company budgets, computer programming mathematics, statistics, teaching practice, and others. other challenges faced by the students are 1. the complexity of following the steps and procedures set by the lecturer 2. the network issues, and overload assignments. 3. poor communication. 4. failure to understand the steps given for workshop and/ or laboratories learning. 5. unable to work in the field. 6. practice classes are performed when e-learning is ineffective. 7. difficulties to attend the practice classes due to offline learning. 8. limited time. effective learning outcomes within students furthermore, the effective learning methods can be broken down as follow: 1. the lecturers can start the courses through whatsapp group (wag), and zoom, then ask the students to read and understand the semester lesson plan (slp), learning contract, and participate during the learning process by involving in the tasks given until the end of the learning schedule. 2. the lecturers inform the students to turn on their cameras, convey the online class rules, give quizzes and questions. whenever the lecturers see that the students are getting bored, then they can make variations by creating games to optimize learning. 3. the lecturers ask the students to present the results virtually via zoom and google meet. 4. the lecturers can control the process of learning by asking questions to the students, discussing the tasks, and asking the summary of the lecture by stressing on the marking that the students will get if they are actively engaged. 3.2 effective learning from lecturers’s perspective the most common media utilized by the lecturers during the online learning are 60% for the e-learning, 24% for spada, while i-learn and e-study are 11% and 5% each. it can be said that majority higher institutions both public and private utilize e-learning to carry out their study. highlighted by elyas (2018) e-learning in broaden scope can be the learning conducted through electronic media (internet) formally and informally. other media used during the online learning are zoom meeting 43%, whatsapp 30%, google meet 13%, google classroom 10%, edmodo 4%, and google drive, and google workspace 0%. zoom is chosen since it is the first online learning application emerged in indonesia. the highest survey result for the learning materials is slp for 22%, powerpoint 19%, word or documents 14%, video 13%, url 13%, folder 4%, unspecified items 2%. slp receives the highest result due to the fact it is nearly every lecturer shared the slp in their first meeting. additionally, the lecturers are able to manage learning materials which cannot be uploaded into the online learning system such as workshop on tv and radio, alqur’anic verses and hadiths, math, and other subjects that require the students to be well-trained and skillful by providing the students with recorded video to assist them to comprehend those subjects aforementioned. the implementation of teaching process by the lecturers based on the research result on e-learning in terms of the lecturers view can be seen in the figure below: welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 142 the first one is the teaching process consisting of lectures’ instructions in the form of power point presentation (ppt), ms. word file, book, module, video, and others to all the students for as much as 46%. second is the learning process for about 41% consisting of role, effort, desire, and students’ intention to study in order to gain skill or knowledge. third is the concurrence which means the ability to act, to produce strength and power to move forward, and it occupies only 13% of the e-learning process. this happens due to the inclination of oneway communication. the challenges are in building two-way interaction between lectures and students, and the inability in seeing the lecturers face to face. consequently, the quality faces difficulty in order to be upgraded one of the ways to increase the concurrence process is by motivating the students through the character building, and the importance of education for each human. as an addition, the lecturers are advised to get the feedback as the evaluation on the lectures performed and assignments given. in line with the research’ result, the highest feedback is implemented in tasks for 23%, mid term for 21%, final term and exercises for 19%, and quizzes for 18%. then, the lecturers ask the students to present the summary of the lecture and the tasks given. the interaction between the lecturers and the students in the e-learning process such as explaining the materials and the tasks given are carry out through video call application by turning on their camera, and camera off when they have an urgent matter. all the materials for the learning process can be accessed through the institutions’ e-learning platform where the lecturers are obliged to fill the platform with materials, pictures, videos, links, and teaching recapitulation taken from the attendance icon in the platform by study program and/ or department. how to guide the students to focus on e-learning based on the research’ result, the lecturers can lead their students to focus during the online learning as much as 90%, and 10% for the uncontrollable. managing the students’ attitude can be conducted in many ways, such as:1. lead the students in wag, zoom and/ or google meet by turning on their camera, greet and remind them to focus and actively engaged in the class discussion concerning the lecture’ materials. it is in accordance to setyosari’ (2014) highlight that the learning quality refers to the activity, application, and the learning materials; 2. provide quizzes, questions, feedbacks among students and lecturers during the learning process; 3. inquire the students to obey the guidance, instructions, and online learning procedure; 4. expand samples of material and videos to support the discussions on sample questions, and provide formative tasks; 5. perform more discussions, class interactions, and keep reminding the students to be active and communicative about the exercises and tasks in the wag; 7. do frequent follow-up, guidance, and motivate the students on the importance of the online learning. the control can be done by establishing the two-way communication between the lecturers and the students politely and well. the obstacles of the e-learning implementation from the lecturers’ perspective moreover, the obstacles faced in carrying out the e-learning in terms of the lecturers’ point of view are: 1. 43% is for the students who experience the unstable network’ signals or power outage issues as they live in the villages, so they are not able to understand the material completely; 2. 10% fig 3. e-learning from the lecturers’ point of view welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 143 and commitment play significant role to keep the spirit on the soul in carrying out the learning. it is because some students are weary and bored when they have to sit in front of their laptops, cell phones, or computers for long period of time. the lecturers are advised to be able to make variations of method in conveying her/his lessons to avoid monotonous delivarence in the learning process. they can implement ice breaking, which is an activity used to eliminate boredom or freshen the atmosphere. as a result, the students become more relaxing. if the atmosphere is condusive, thus the lessons given will be easily acknowledged by the students. even, giving rewards as an appreciation for the students who can do assignments or answer questions quickly is useful. by having varied methods in carrying out the learning, it is expected that the students will be pleased, comfortable, and motivated to do their online learning. 3.3 effectiveness of e-learning from cultural perspective the effective e-learning must be in accordance with the character building. its implementation is related to the importance of seeking for knowledge, ethics, morals, and others. in case there are no religious values that are adhered to, the implementation of regulations will be disorganized such as plagiarism like cheating, copy-pasting, changing their friend’ work, then admitting it as his work. these students’ behavior must be corrected by raising the awareness of being hard working person and entrepreneurship for instance discipline, dependable, honest, avoiding plagiarism, respectful, courteous, independently, creative, and others. students must have these characters and make them into a habit in their study life and apply these characters into their community. in order to create effective e-learning at higher institutions, it should be supported by adequate facilities and infrastructures. the e-learning process should be monitored by a quality assurance committee from the institution. this committee is responsible to control the implementation of learning process by assessing the learning and comprehensiveness of what should be transferred and prepared by the lecturers. to ensure whether they have met the standard given, such as slp, syllabus, learning contracts, assignments, exercises, and others. as well as to motivate the lecturers by is for the students who cannot focus since they are sleepy and make them less cooperative or active during the online learning; 3. 7% is for the big number of students in the class so that there is a challenge to measure the students’ understanding on the materials provided as it requires maximum efforts than usual; 4. 3% and 2% respectively are for the limited delivery and unresponsive students on the materials provided. from the data above, it can be concluded that the challenges on the signal and the power outage become the highest obstacles during the implementation of the online learning. these circumstances can be solved by building a good cooperation between the government and the community. 4. discussion developing the effective learning within this e-learning can be elaborated through three perspectives, namely: 4.1 effectiveness of e-learning from language perspective the effective learning in terms of language is the communication effectiveness, clarity of meaning, and information management on the lessons given. on occasion, signal interference or blackout interrupt the learning resulting the students cannot grasp the knowledge given during the lecture as seen in the following fig 4: fig 4: effective learning in terms of language in this case of distraction, one of the solutions is to create learning videos or record the learning process. therefore, students can keep up or study it later significantly. 3.2 effectiveness of e-learning from psychological perspective psychology is a scientific study of mind and behavior. its existence is consequential within the e-learning process as the face-to-face meetings are barely conducted. at any rate, motivation welsi haslina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 144 providing grants to prepare their learning media for their course accounts and others. furthermore, the committee is also responsible to provide several rooms for the lecturers to carry out their online learning in the institutions, such as the particular room for video conference. 5. conclusion in conclusion, taken from the research’ result, some of the effective learning using the online platform are going well, and some others face challenges. the data also shows that the high rate in the implementation of the teaching process is in contrast to the learning and concurrence processes. thus, the knowledge given stays only in concepts. it can be because the practical lectures are performed separately from the tutorial through the online learning. in addition, the method that can be applied is by providing motivational training to students. the lecturers can start their lecture through wag, give instructions on how to carry out the online learning by turning on their camera, explain, and ask the students to comprehend the lesson plan for the whole semester. furthermore, the lectures are advised to fill the learning management system (lms) platform provided by the institution with varied learning materials, and to utilize as many lms features as possible in order to support their tutorial. besides that, the lecturers are also encouraged to give opportunities to the students to present their tasks virtually, to provide feedback, learning materials, examples, frequent and video tasks. above all, the institutions are expected to perform more reseaches related to the online learning, and allocated quality assurance on the implementation of the online learning by carrying out monitoring, motivating the lecturers, and verifying the learning’ attendance, journal, and students’ contract besides accommodating rooms for video conference. references abdulhak, i., & darmawan, d. 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(2021). efektivitas pembelajaran daring dalam pembelajaran bahasa indonesia. jurnal pendidikan teknologi informasi, 1(1). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.51454/ decode.v1i1.5 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: july 14, 2020 final revision: september 01, 2020 available online: october 25, 2020 this research aims to: (1) identify the semantic meaning of tarling ndremayon lyric, representing, representing the life of tkw, and (2) social factors that trigger tkw’s life representation in the tarling ndremayon songs. the subjects of this research were six tarling ndremayon songs. the data were collected through a note-taking technique and interview. the collected data were then analyzed by employing textual analysis. the research findings show that tarling ndremayon lyrics that represent the life of tkw narrate five semantic meanings, such as affliction, sacrifice, loneliness, poverty, and jealousy. it implies that the women migrant workers and their families suffer from their condition since the lyrics’ major semantic meanings narrate sadness. meanwhile, the social factors that represent tkw’s life in the tarling ndremayon songs are economy, affection, and education. the singers presented these representations: the women migrant worker, her husband, and her child. keyword tkw, tarling ndremayon, cultural-semantic meaning correspondence phone: +62 85226788791 e-mail: hairarizka15@gmail.com article the representation of indonesian women migrant workers in the lyric of tarling ndremayon haira rizka1 1the faculty of teacher training and education, iain syekh nurjati, jawa barat, indonesia under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.7.2.128-135.2020 i. introduction indramayu is a regency in west java known for the second biggest exporter of women migrant workers (tenaga kerja wanita/ tkw) in indonesia (pusat penelitian dan pengembangan informasi, 2017). (pusat penelitian dan pengembangan informasi, 2017) reports that 13,719 indonesian international migrant workers are from indramayu, and 40% work in taiwan, and the number increases every year. in indramayu, this condition is triggered by an economic factor as the main problem (gita, 2018). indramayu people believe that job opportunities abroad are more available and provide higher salaries while finding a job with an appropriate salary in indonesia is difficult (akbar et al, 2017; khusna, 2018; nurjanah, 2016) berimbas pada tidak terkendalinya jumlah pengangguran. pengangguran sampai saat ini masih menjadi masalah krusial pemerintah indonesia. dengan tingkat pendidikan dan skill yang minim, para pencari kerja ini harus saling berkompetisi dengan yang lain. kondisi ini akhirnya menjadi pemicu terjadinya mobilisasi tenaga kerja secara masal antar negara yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah. untuk mengurangi angka pengangguran, pemerintah melaksanakan program penempatan tenaga kerja indonesia (tki. indonesian international migrant workers from indramayu are mostly dominated by women who work in several countries, such as malaysia, brunei, saudi arabia, qatar, taiwan, korean, etc. as a labor force or housemaid (pusat penelitian dan pengembangan informasi, 2017). they work as a migrant and leave their family, including husbands and children for years. such a phenomenon influences multiple aspects of social and psychological life (lestari, 2016), and one of them is language. language is not merely a means of communication. it reflects its users’ identity, condition, behavior, feeling, and culture. to express those elements, people use language in various forms, such as poems, legend, tales, songs, etc. (slatinská & pecníková, 2017). one of the most common forms of language used to express indramayu people’s identity, condition, behavior, feeling, and culture is 128 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) a song known as tarling nremayon, local traditional music of indramayu (febrianto, 2019). the word tarling is derived from two musical instruments, gitar (tar) and suling (ling), and its lyric uses the javanese indramayu dialect (yulistiana et al., 2019). tarling ndremayon’s lyrics tell about love, life, etc., and the lyrics bring moral massages for its listeners (yulistiana et al., 2019). moreover, it is frequently found that the lyrics of many tarling ndremayon songs tell the life of indonesian women migrant workers or her family as well as their suffering for this condition. language reflects the daily-cultural activities of a society, and it is a foundation to build a culture (suyitno, 2017). cultural concepts of society are palpably seen from various language systems, either in semantic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, pragmatic, and semiotic levels (goddard & wierzbicka, 2014). vocabulary, particularly, can expose a phenomenon of culture because it reflects its speakers’ emotions, feelings, social status, and cultural identity (šabec, 2017). (šabec, 2017) in his research proves that the use of certain vocabulary in slovenian songs successfully reflects the ethnic and cultural identity of expatriate slovenian communities who live in the united states and canada. it indicates that words become a significant sign of ethnic and cultural identity. speakers of each language have their ways to create new vocabulary based on their experience or view over the world (šabec, 2017), mental experiences, representational spaces, concepts, or conceptual complexes (aajami, 2019). one of the media to express these elements is songs. song lyrics are composed to effectively reflect, represent, communicate and store their ethnic identity, condition, and feeling (baker, 2013), powerfully label societies’ condition and social levels, and obviously depict a society’s history (olsen & gould, 2008). song lyrics enable the certain marginalized group to be socially accepted because people can learn and recognize the cultural identity of an ethnic through music (liu, 2019; rausch, 2011). hip hop in the united states becomes the energy of black to campaign equality and a bridge linking cultures in the us (rausch, 2011) while hongkong music films can narrate hongkong history, culture, people, and art to the world to campaign their cultural identity (liu, 2019). therefore, investigating culture is possibly conducted through language in song lyrics because the music that accompanies song lyrics is the manifestation of culture (adegoke, 2011). language use that aims to express feeling, emotion, condition, and identity is influenced by multiple factors, including age, social issues, economy, culture, ethnic, politic, education, gender, demography (adegoke, 2011; gross, 2018; hovy, 2015), genre, key rules of interaction, aims, and norms (salzmann et al., 2012; wee, 2014). furthermore, language use depends on its users’ emotions because it determines the purposes and context of their communication (adegoke, 2011). similar research investigating song lyrics was conducted by (šabec, 2017) who analyzed structural and semantic aspects of slovenian anthem and society’s behavior toward the anthem lyric. meanwhile, studies investigating tarling were conducted by (febrianto, 2019; kamaluddin, 2016; mulyana & octavianti, 2017; nurlelasari et al., 2017; supriatin, 2012; yulistiana et al., 2019) who specifically analyzed tarling texts that represent jawa cirebon literature, lexical items of tarling that narrate social issues, and lexical functions of tarling lyrics. these studies indicate that tarling texts are considered a literary work because they use aesthetic word choices from the javanese cirebon dialect and foreign languages, such as arabic, english, and chinese. moreover, the studies reveal that the majority of tarling lyric narrate social issues and life in cirebon, such as marriage, social relations, and youth. the previous studies indicate that an investigation of semantic meaning and social factors of tarling ndremayon representing the life of tkw has not been conducted yet. the previous studies did not specifically investigate the semantic meaning and social factors of tarling ndremayon that narrate tkw. this study’s findings are expected to enrich theoretical perspectives of language and culture in song lyrics, particularly tarling ndremayon, and to enrich cultural investigation of indramayu society. it is concluded that investigating tarling ndremayon songs that narrate indonesian women migrant workers is interestingly conducted. this research aims to (1) identify the semantic meaning of tarling ndremayon lyric that represents the life of tkw, and (2) social factors that trigger tkw’s 129 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) life representation in tarling ndremayon songs. to answer the formulations, this research employs the semantic meaning theory of (šabec, 2017) and social factors of language and society theory of (adegoke, 2011). ii. methods this study employed descriptive qualitative research to interprets the semantic meaning and social factors in the lyrics of tarling ndremayon representing the life of tkw. this research’s data sources were six tarling song lyrics entitled duda kepaksa, jeritan tkw, kelingan mimi, nitip rindu, wadon perkasa, and cerita tki and one informant, namely tato nuryanto. to collect the data, the researcher employed two techniques: note taking and interview. the steps of data collecting techniques were: (1) listening to the tarling ndremayon songs, (2) writing words representing the life of tkw, (3) classifying the data based on semantic meaning and social factors, and (4) interviewing the respondent to get more in-depth data. the data were then analyzed by employing semantic perspectives of šabec (2017) to reveal the semantic meaning of the lyric. the data were then analyzed by employing the language and society theory of adegoke (2011) to reveal the social factors of using the lyrics. the findings of this study were finally presented in tables and descriptions. iii. results and discussion the research findings reveal five semantic meanings and three social factors in the six tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw. semantic meaning in tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw the results reveal five semantic meanings in the six tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw. the total occurrences of each lexical meaning are presented in table 1. table 1. semantic meaning in the tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw no. lexical meaning frequency percentage 1 affliction 16 39% 2 sacrifice 10 24% 3 loneliness 9 22% 4 poverty 4 10% 5 jealousy 2 5% total 41 100% table 1 shows that the five lexical meanings refer to horrible conditions and unhappiness. affliction is the most dominant semantic meaning occurring in the tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw while jealousy is the least occurrence. it could be concluded that the singers of the tarling ndremayon songs as well as their relatives, are not happy because of working as a tkw. table 1 shows that affliction becomes the most dominant semantic meaning occurring in the six tarling ndremayon songs. the majority of the lyric narrates affliction suffered by the singers, either the women or her family. therefore, the singers use particular words to illustrate their condition and express their feeling of affliction. this finding is in line with the statement of (adegoke, 2011; baker, 2013) deploying that speakers’ emotions, feelings, and conditions create and determine vocabulary use. tarling lyric translation (1a) blenak temen duda kepaksa gara gara mboke bocah kerja ning saudi arabiah i really don’t like it. i am forced to be a widower because my daughter’s mother (my wife) works in saudi arabia data (1a) shows that the singer is suffering from being apart from his wife, who is working abroad. the condition is emphasized in the lyric “blenak temen duda kepaksa” which means that he is forced to be a widower or separated from his wife. furthermore, the word temen, which means “extremely” aims to emphasize something. therefore, the singer wants to narrate that his condition is extremely bad, and he severely suffers from affliction. this lyric implies that the singer regrets that his wife works as a tkw. tarling lyric translation (14a) arep balik ning jawa rasane wirang arepan terus terang duh kelingan wong lanang ya gusti priben nasibe jabang... i can neither go home to java nor tell honestly to my husband that i’m pregnant (with another man). dear god, how pity this baby inside my womb is. another problem mostly occurs is pregnancy without a husband while tkws are working abroad. this condition is considered horrifying because the women must face it alone without any support. this condition is as narrated by (14a). the 130 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) data narrates that she could not decide what they should do as a female migrant worker when they are pregnant from another man while she is already married. this lyric “ya gusti priben nasibe jabang” narrates her confusion with her pregnancy status and feels that she must suffer and face the problem alone. the second semantic meaning represented in the lyric of tarling ndremayon songs is sacrifice. this meaning is derived from the singers’ mental experience of suffering from their recent condition. (aajami, 2019; baker, 2013; šabec, 2017) deploy that the use of lexemes bears certain semantic meaning as the result of the speakers’ emotional condition. the lyric narrating sacrifice sends the message that working as an immigrant and leaving family has several consequences encountered by the woman, her husband, and children. however, it is deliberately done for the sake of the family’s economic welfare. tarling lyric translation (1b) najan tersika pegel gen terpaksa bantu anak laki sing paling disayangi though i’m tormented working here (in saudi), i must work. for the sake of my beloved son. data (2b) describes a mother’s sacrifice of working as a tkw in saudi. though she feels tormented, she must work. furthermore, the words tersiksa and pegel, which mean tormented and exhausted, represent that she severely suffers from her condition. however, she decides to continue the work to earn money for her beloved son’s future. the two lyrics narrate contradicting conditions because though the singer suffers a lot from her condition, she willingly continues to suffer for her family’s happiness. therefore, this lyric obviously narrates a sacrifice that commonly occurs in the life of women migrant workers. the third semantic meaning derived from tarling ndremayon songs representing the life of tkw is loneliness. tarling lyric translation (2c) telung taun lawase sun ninggal tempat panggonan kangen bli ketahan rindu ning kampung halaman... it has been three years i have left my country (my family) it is unbearable. i am entirely longing for my family. the data shows that the singer is feeling lonely as she is living apart from her family. furthermore, the lyric uses the word kangen and rindu, which indicate the same meaning, miss. the repetition of this meaning emphasizes the singer’s inevitable loneliness. therefore, to entertain herself, she sings and narrates her miss to the family in several lyrics of tarling ndremayon. (baker, 2013) asserts that song lyrics can be an ultimate tool to express a speaker’s feelings, and it is more effective to send a message to listeners. furthermore, (febrianto, 2019) deploys that tarling music functions as an entertainment media. in this case, the song lyrics become the most prominent media to express the singer’s loneliness, entertain herself, and send her best to the family. another semantic meaning illustrated by the lyric of tarling ndremayon songs is poverty. the lyric represents that their poor condition triggers them to work as immigrants to elevate their poverty and increase life quality. tarling lyric translation (3d) sayang due niat niate usaha demi cita cita (i want to go home) unfortunately, i have a strong intention (my intention being here) is to work to realize the dream data (3d) explains that the singer must work abroad to fulfill the need of their family. she is working as, commonly, a housemaid. she decides to work abroad because she needs money to realize her dream. the first lyric “sayang due niat” narrates a regret of working as a tkw in saudi. furthermore, this sentence implies an inability to leave her recent condition though she does not like it. meanwhile, the second lyric “niate usaha demi cita cita” narrates her purposes of working as an immigrant, to realize her dreams. basically, the majority of tkw’s dreams are to elevate their family’s poverty, build an appropriate house, and pay for children’s education (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). to achieve these dreams, they must work abroad. the last semantic meaning, which represents tkw life in the lyric of tarling song is jealousy. though some indramayu people live in poverty, they perform consumptive behavior (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). this behavior probably results in jealousy of each other. indramayu people argue that working as an immigrant in middle east 131 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) countries, malaysia, brunei, taiwan, or hongkong will lift their family’s condition. thus, they will feel jealous and want to work the same jobs. this is as indicated in data (1e). tarling lyric translation (1e) apa kesirian ning tangga sing wis pada mangkat mana we are probably jealous of the neighbor who has already worked there (in saudi arabia) the lyric admits that they are jealous of their neighbor who has already worked in saudi as a housemaid. they see that their neighbor’s financial condition develops after working as tki. therefore, they decide that the wife will work as a tkw in saudi arabia. however, they get a lot of sorrow and suffer. the word kesirian has a stronger meaning of jealousy than iri. it is used to indicate a strong feeling of jealousy and frequently acts to solve the jealousy. it is no wonder that finally, the singer’s wife works as a tkw in saudi. this condition proves that the singer uses certain vocabulary to specifically express his feeling and depict his world (šabec, 2017). social factors representing tkw’s life this research’s findings reveal three major social factors triggering tki’s life representation in tarling ndremayon songs. the occurrence of these factors is presented in table 2. table 2. social factors in tarling ndremayon songs representing tkw no. lexical meaning occurrence percentage 1 economy 23 56% 2 affection 16 39% 3 education 2 5% total 41 100% table 2 presents that the most dominant social factor is the economy, while education is the least dominant factor. the six songs narrate the economic reasons for working as a tkw for 23 times (54%). in other words, the majority of tarling ndremayon lyrics representing tkw’s life narrate the economy as their reason to work abroad. this finding is supported by (gita, 2018) deploying that economy becomes the most ultimate factor triggering a woman to work as tkw. meanwhile, the affection factor occurs 16 times (16%), and the education factor occurs 2 times (5%). the first social factor that triggers tkw’s life representation in tarling ndremayon songs is the economy. although indramayu is located in strategic demography that connects java island, it does not give prosperity to its people, and it is proven that the number of poverty in this regency increases (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). the condition is worsened with indramayu people’s consumptive behavior, which forces them to earn more and fulfill their needs (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). furthermore, poverty in indramayu is not merely about economic incapability but also fulfilling basic rights. most of tarling ndremayon lyric represents poverty as a serious factor that forces women to work as tkw. tarling lyric translation (7f) wadon..wadon perkasa mangkat kerja mangkat usaha demi kanggo bela keluarga nyukupi segala harta benda i am a wonder woman who works as an immigrant to earn money for the sake of the family so that they can fulfill the family’s basic needs and welfare (wealth). tarling lyric translation (8f) lawas..lawas jamane ninggal aken anak lakine dadi tki ning luar negri ngadu nasib luruh rejeki i have been leaving my son and husband for a long time. i work as an indonesian migrant worker in another country. i am gambling my luck to work abroad to earn money. data (7f) narrates the singer’s condition as an immigrant worker in saudi. the repetition of the word wadon aims to emphasize that she is a deliberately wonder woman who works as an immigrant, mostly as a housemaid. furthermore, the lyric “mangkat usaha demi kanggo bela keluarga nyukupi segala harta benda” obviously narrates that her reason for doing this is to fulfill the basic needs and welfare of her family. meanwhile, data (8f) narrates that the singer has been leaving her family for years. the clause “ngadu nasib luruh rejeki” represents that she is gambling her luck to earn money and fulfill basic needs. furthermore, the word rejeki is used to explain the singer’s strong need for money for economic reasons. this is in line with the argument of (adegoke, 2011; gross, 2018; hovy, 2015) that the economy becomes one of the factors influencing language use, and in this case, economic reasons influence the singers to use 132 haira rizka/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 7 no. 2 (2020) the word “usaha” which emphasizes his intention of working. another social factor representing tkw’s life is the affection in the form of sacrifice. to support her family’s financial condition and welfare, a woman must work as tkw in another country. she receives this occupation though she already knows that she must sacrifice her happiness and life, probably receive bad treatment, and work extra hours (rostanti, 2012). such conditions are narrated by data (1b) that uses a comparison sentence to narrate her condition and (7f) that uses the word demi to point to the singer’s obvious sacrifice of working as a tkw. these findings are in line with the theory of (adegoke, 2011; salzmann et al., 2012; wee, 2014) explaining that speakers’ emotion and purpose determine their language use. the last social factor representing tkw’s life is education. with a low level of education and basic professionalism, a woman possibly works as an international migrant worker in a domestic area (sari, 2017). this condition sometimes damages her because she must work all day, receive a lower payment, etc. (akbar et al., 2017; khusna, 2018; rostanti, 2012). however, since she needs money to support her family, she receives her condition. tarling lyric translation (8h) najan tersika pegel gen terpaksa tulung ning sapa sambat ning sapa akhire kita ingat ning umah mung apa daya though i feel terminated and exhausted, i must do it. i can’t ask any one’s help, no one will help. i just remember my family. i am powerless i can’t do anything. data (8h) narrates that the singer is forced to be a women migrant worker because she does not have any choice and power. though she is feeling tormented, she is still working as a migrant worker. the lyric “mung apa daya” narrates that she is powerless and cannot do anything to solve the problem that is poverty. furthermore, the lyric indicates that she only chooses to work as a tki to solve her family’s poverty and gain welfare. this condition agrees with the argument of (adegoke, 2011; hovy, 2015) that language used is influenced by the speakers’ education and the argument of (adegoke, 2011) asserting that language is used to express the speaker’s emotion. indramayu is one of the poorest regions in west java, but people have high consumptive behavior (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). this condition triggers them to find a job opportunity in other countries as women migrant workers (tkw) to earn a lot of money and create welfare (mulyana & octavianti, 2017). however, working as a tkw result in sufferings, severe conditions, and more tkws and their family problems as narrated in tarling ndremayon songs. tarling is selected to decipher their suffering because it more entertains and is widely accepted by the majority of indramayu people (febrianto, 2019). consequently, the messages of the song are sent to other indramayu people who experience similar conditions. iv. conclusion indramayu people use tarling ndremayon to represent the life of women migrant workers (tkw) and their families. in general, the six tarling ndremayon songs contain five semantic meanings: affliction, sacrifice, loneliness, poverty, and jealousy, and three social factors: poverty, affection, and education. the song lyrics primarily narrate sadness and poverty as the real conditions of tkws and her family. the research on cultural representation and identity as well as social factors of language usage is not limited only in tarling ndremayon song lyrics. furthermore, the representation of tkw’s life is not limitedly narrated in tarling ndremayon. therefore, further researchers interested in conducting the same topic can investigate other linguistic phenomena such as a documentary movie, newspaper, etc. references aajami, r. f. 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(2017). the role of irish language teaching: cultural identity formation or language revitalization? european journal of contemporary education, 6(2), 317–327. https://doi. org/10.13187/ejced.2017.2.317 supriatin, y. m. (2012). teks tarling: representasi sastra liminalitas (analisis fungsi dan nilai-nilai). metasastra, 5(1), 92–101. suyitno, i. (2017). the cultural meaning of traditional expressions in daily speech of using community at banyuwangi. jurnal humaniora, 29(2), 215–223. https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.v29i2.25896 wee, l. (2014). experiences as resources: metaphor and life inlate modernity. in m. yamaguchi, d. tay, & b. blount (eds.), approaches to language, culture, and cognition (1st ed., pp. 234–250). palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1995.5.2.237 yulistiana, e., satoto, s., & sumarlam. (2019). diksi lirik lagu tarlingdut karya abdul adjib: kajian stilistika. kembara: jurnal keilmuan bahasa, sastra dan pengajarannya, 5(1), 53–62. https://doi. org/https://doi.org/10.22219/kembara.v5i1.6400 biography haira rizka is a lecturer majoring in linguistics. she received her bachelor degree in literature from universitas negeri yogyakarta in 2012 and her master degree in arts from universitas gadjah mada in 2015. currently, she is a lecturer at english language teaching department of iain syekh nurjati, cirebon, jawa barat, indonesia. she teaches linguistics such as english phonology and english morphosyntax. she conducts several studies on ethnolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and ethnoreligion. furthermore, she publishes several books on english grammar, skills, and proficiency tests. 135 abed hamadouch / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 384 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 2, 2023 final revision: december 28, 2023 accepted: december 30, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this research seeks to highlight the perceptions of english as a foreign language (efl) teachers in algeria regarding the assessment of learners’ icc. in the classroom. additionally, this research proposes some suggestions on how to teach and assess middle school learners to be interculturally competent. to achieve this objective, a qualitative research design is employed to gain data. the data source of this study was eleven english middle school teachers from different middle schools in algeria. the study applied an interview utilizing open-ended questions to see their responses about their perceptions and attitudes toward the assessment of their learners. the data collected was thematically analyzed to identify recurring patterns, challenges, and emerging themes related to the assessment of icc in the efl classroom. the results show teachers need training on developing communicative tasks for teaching culture that can help them assess their students’ intercultural communicative competence. so, the lack of continuing professional development in preservice and in-service makes them wander when teaching their learners about the target language and its culture. in addition to this, data show that teachers assess their learners in terms of grammar, pronunciation, general knowledge about the target culture, and vocabulary, but they do not assess their icc. the implications of this study extended to both pedagogical practices and educational policy in algeria. by understanding teachers’ perceptions, this research contributes valuable information to the ongoing discourse on fostering intercultural competence in language education. the findings may guide curriculum development, teacher training programs, and assessment practices, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of efl instruction in algeria. keywords teachers’ perception, assessment, learners’ intercultural communicative competence correspondence e-mail: hamadouchabed@gmail.com article teachers’ perceptions towards assessing learners’ intercultural communicative competence in the efl classroom in algeria abed hamadouch1, hayat aoumeur2 1,2university of mostaganem, mostaganem, algeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.384-390.2023 i. introduction the literature suggests that teaching foreign languages should focus on developing linguistic competence rather than intercultural communicative competence (lim, 2016; jata, 2015; budharugsa, 2011; young & sachdev, 2011; doyé, 1996). this research paper aims to explore the perceptions and attitudes of algerian middle school teachers of english towards assessing the intercultural communicative competence of middle school learners in efl classrooms to foster their icc while communicating with people from different languages, backgrounds, and cultures. guilherme (2000) insists on the development of learners’ intercultural communicative competence in language classrooms to assist learners in interacting effectively with people from cultures other than one’s own. in addition to linguistic competence, the focus should also be on developing social and strategic competences to enhance communication and interaction (negoescu, 2019). in the dynamic of globalized communication, the role of language education transcends the mere acquisition of linguistic skills and extends to abed hamadouch / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 385 the development of intercultural communicative competence (icc). this is particularly relevant in the context of english as a foreign language (efl) classrooms in algeria, where learners are expected to navigate a diverse and interconnected world through english proficiency. intercultural communicative competence (icc) is a term that is frequently used across various academic disciplines, including communication, psychology, and anthropology (lussier, 2015; minoia, 2019; reid, 2015; sercu, 2002). the concept is widely recognized and respected by scholars for its ability to promote understanding and cooperation among diverse cultures. for this reason, it is referred to as “global competence, international competence, multicultural competence, and so forth” (fantini, 2010, p.3). researchers have been interested in conceptualizing icc. this term is difficult to be exactly defined (dai & chen, 2014). yet, some researchers define icc as an ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in a multicultural context across cultures that has become a crucial component of language education (deardorff, 2004; lázár, 2003; mcka, 2002; wiseman, 2002; chen & starosta, 1998). reflecting the need to prepare learners for meaningful engagement in international contexts. the conceptual framework underpinning this study draws from the theoretical foundations of intercultural communicative competence (icc). developed by scholars such as michael byram (1997), icc emphasizes the integration of linguistic, sociocultural, and strategic competencies to enable individuals to engage successfully in intercultural communication. byram’s model highlights the importance of understanding cultural differences, interpreting them critically, and adapting communication strategies accordingly. this study aligns with deardorff’s (2006) framework, aiming to explore how efl teachers in algeria perceive and assess the icc of their students. several studies have explored aspects of intercultural communicative competence within the broader context of language education (candelmora, 2019; cetinavci, 2012; galante, 2015; munezane, 2021; tleubay et al., 2020; young & sachdev, 2011). however, research specifically addressing teachers’ perceptions of assessing icc in the efl classrooms in algeria remains limited. existing studies often focus on general language proficiency or broader aspects of cultural competence, neglecting the specific challenges and strategies related to icc assessment in the algerian context. the existing gap in the literature becomes apparent when considering the unique socio-cultural and educational context of algeria. the algerian efl setting presents distinctive challenges and opportunities that require a nuanced understanding of how icc is perceived and assessed by teachers. the gap in previous research lies in the absence of a comprehensive exploration of teachers’ perspectives on icc assessment in the algerian efl context, hindering the development of tailored pedagogical approaches and assessment strategies. the primary objective of this research is to investigate efl teachers’ perceptions towards assessing learners’ intercultural communicative competence in algeria. by conducting in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, the study seeks to uncover the challenges faced by teachers, the strategies they employ, and their overall attitudes toward icc assessment. through this exploration, the research aims to fill the identified gap in the literature by providing context-specific insights into the assessment practices related to icc in the algerian efl classroom. ii. methods research settings and participants the study was conducted among teachers of english language. the researchers anticipated that by using this method, more in-depth and comprehensive data would be gathered from natural settings, information would be collected, and data would be gathered to back up the present research. eleven middle school english teachers are aged between 25 and 52. the number of teachers who agreed to participate in this study was 22. however, 11 decided to quit for personal reasons (they refused to record their answers). the rest of the participants were happy to cooperate and collaborate, and they were motivated to answer all the questions. teachers who participated in the present research teach english at a middle school. their experiences range from 6 to 25 years (see table below). all of them were full-time teachers at a middle school, thus they were familiar with the curriculum and syllabus of the third-year level. this helped both the researcher and the teachers gain data about the topic under study during the abed hamadouch / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 386 interview day. research instrument semi-structured interview questions were designed based on the needs analysis framework developed by byram’s (1997) model. the interview questions were open-ended so that the researchers could explore the interviewees’ perceptions and attitudes toward assessing their learners’ icc. the interview questions aimed to investigate how english teachers assess their teaching and learners’ development of icc. meanwhile, these questions highlight which type of assessment is followed by the teachers and if it is fruitful or not. data collection procedure researchers have a general idea of where this semi-structured interview should go and what should come out of it (creswell, 2014). the interview was held with 11 teachers at different middle schools where the participants work. teachers interviewed face to face. all interviews are transcribed and audiotaped. the interview questions begin with teachers’ teaching experiences at middle school. then, the questions are categorized into three rubrics. the first rubric was set for information about the participants’ ages, university degrees, and teachers’ perceptions of english culture. the second one was designed to investigate teachers’ perceptions of icc. the third rubric was devoted to teachers’ assessment of culture. data analysis to analyze the data, researchers have created created codes for each response separately. the codes were later compared and reorganized to determine the common categories from the data set. following that, the researcher wrote down the audio-recorded interview guidelines. iii. results teachers’ perceptions of english culture the purpose of questions 2 and 3 is to discover how third-year middle school english teachers teach the english language and its culture. this section contains questions about instructors’ perspectives on teaching english culture. despite having an algerian cultural background and set of beliefs, the teachers who participated in this study were blatantly attracted to the english culture. they believe culture and language cannot be separated. middle school teachers pushed for the incorporation of english culture. for instance, one of the participants (a.m) believed that integrating culture or cultural aspects in english or third-year level is to invite learners to exchange cultural aspects or to exchange culture in general. another participant (m.a) that there are cultural aspects integrated into my book of english to help the learners know about the british culture and way of life. generally speaking, language and culture should be taught together since language is part of the culture. language and culture, according to kramsch (1998) and byram (1997), cannot be separated, and the presence of one determines the presence of the other, and vice versa. teachers’ perception of icc regarding their perception of the icc, instructors, particularly those with more experience, were unfamiliar with the idea; however, via talks with the researcher during the interview, they were able to comprehend its significance and attempt to explain it. according to an interviewee (ch. s.), it is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately across cultural differences. this definition seemed vague to the researcher, so the participant was asked to clarify the term “across cultural differences,” which meant to communicate with people who are different from us in terms of language, culture, attitudes, and behaviors. in the same line of thought, another participant (g.a.) defined icc as “intercultural competence is to enable our learners to communicate with others who hold different traditions or values.” in this respect, byram (1997) highlights the importance of intercultural competence, which involves not only knowledge of oneself and others but also skills necessary to interpret, relate, discover, and interact teachers’ name age gender years of experience qualifications a 38 f 15 bechlor b 25 m 5 master c 32 f 8 master d 35 f 12 bachlor e 52 m 6 master f 40 m 6 bachlor g 35 m 6 bachlor h 30 f 6 master i 33 f 7 master j 39 m 16 bachlor k 45 m 20 bachlor table 1: participants’ background information abed hamadouch / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 387 with people from diverse cultures. it also requires valuing others’ values, beliefs, and behaviors, as well as relativizing oneself. developing intercultural competence can help individuals build meaningful relationships and navigate diverse cultural contexts with confidence. in the same vein, deardorff (2006) defines intercultural competence as the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes. this definition highlights the importance of possessing the necessary skills and attributes to engage in effective communication with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. assessment of culture concerning assessing culture, participants agreed that it is somehow difficult to assess their learners’ knowledge about the target culture because they were not trained to do so. however, most of them declared that learners with texts and questions about the target culture to see if they are knowledgeable or not. then, they ask them to compare the target culture to theirs. the participant (a.m.) said, “well, i assess my learners’ knowledge of english culture based on information or culture, or, let’s say, information related to the country so that they compare their culture to the other, explore the new one, asking them about vocabulary, about landmarks, about people, about everything related to the other, or clothes, something food, anything which represents the difference between their country and the other country.” another participant (ch.s.) believed that assessment of culture can be done inside the classroom by observing, asking the learners questions, and giving them homework. the participant declared that “teachers can assess learners’ knowledge throughout observation inside the class using checklists, service portfolios, journals, self-evaluation reports, collections of written products, and projects.” deardorff (2006) insisted that before assessing icc, one should define the concept first. then, he/she prioritizes which aspects to be assessed is it the individual, the curriculum (program), or the organization? the participants agreed that they would first assess their knowledge of the target culture. for instance, the interviewee (ch. s.) said, “when preparing a test or exams to assess the learners, the teacher should take into account both knowledge and skills.” for instance, concerning knowledge, the teacher gives his learners a text about algerian lifestyles in the past, and her learners will apply what they have seen about the british lifestyle, like the example of jenny and her grandmother’s lifestyle. another interviewee (m.a.) said, “of course, when i make my tests to evaluate my student’s knowledge, i take that into account. of course, because they are learning a language, i assess their knowledge. they can use the language in writing, reading, and speaking, of course, in different skills, such as producing a piece of writing, a piece of dialogue, or anything else they can produce. most of the participants agreed that formative assessment is more suitable and efficient to assess the learners’ icc. according to them, this time helps both teachers to assess their teaching and learners’ acquisition of icc. for example, an interviewee (ch. s.) reported that “formative assessment is more appropriate because it is a long-term process and every day we are learning more to achieve development and cultural competence.” however, another interviewee (g.a.) said that both formative and summative assessments are very important. in this respect, the interviewee said, “i think both formative and summative assessments are very important or appropriate to assess the learners’ icc because formative assessment is for learning, whereas summative assessment is of learning.” iv. discussion as mentioned in the literature review, the present research aimed to shed light on teachers’ perceptions of assessing learners’ intercultural communicative competence. the teachers were aware of the importance of assessing learners’ icc to help them communicate effectively with others who possess diverse languages and cultures. the teachers also insisted that assessment is crucial to get feedback about the teaching process. banjongjtt and boonmoh (2018) found the same result, indicating that the majority of teachers agreed on the definition of icc as the ability to effectively interact with people from different countries and nationalities. the analysis’ most obvious finding is that algerian middle school english teachers do not often measure their students’ icc because they are required to assess their language ability and deliver grades to the school administration. furthermore, teachers are not used to assessing their students’ icc in tests and exams because it is difficult to abed hamadouch / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 388 assess icc characteristics (knowledge, abilities, and attitudes) that are important in communication encounters. this finding is consistent with bon’s findings (2022), which show that teachers encounter significant challenges in incorporating multicultural topics into their teaching practices. these difficulties arise from a shortage of multicultural content in textbooks, a lack of familiarity with icc assessment and cultural integration, and the low level of english language proficiency among their students. as a result, it is evident that teachers do not regularly include cultures as subjects in their teaching practices. another reason why most teachers are unable to help their students build their icc may be related to their lack of interest in cultural variety and sole focus on the linguistic aspect of the educational process. in our view, for instructors to implement icc and build successful evaluation methods, they must first set an example by being sensitive to other cultures and accepting differing points of view. additionally, they must seek to promote diversity and inclusion. in general, it appears that teachers need to be trained on how to integrate icc courses into the curriculum as well as how to construct examinations to develop their students’ icc. algerian middle school teachers of english need pre-service and in-service continuous professional development to enhance and improve their intercultural communicative competence to help their learners to be interculturally competent. considerably more work will need to be done to determine what algerian middle school englishlanguage teachers need to improve their icc. similarly, ( polat & ogay, 2014) conducted research in which they compared 84 teachers from switzerland and 101 teachers from turkey. results indicated that switzerland pre-service teachers had a higher level than their counterparts. in the same vein of thought, (deardorff, 2009) findings show that teachers hold less or insufficient icc knowledge or skills. continuing professional development is crucial and does make a difference while enhancing teachers’ icc development. moreover, insights from this study can inform policymakers about the importance of integrating intercultural communicative competence into the broader educational framework, aligning language learning goals with the demands of an increasingly interconnected and multicultural world. this research not only sheds light on the current state of icc assessment in the algerian efl context but also provides a foundation for future research endeavors aimed at refining and expanding intercultural communicative competence within language education. ultimately, this study seeks to contribute to the enhancement of language education practices in algeria, ensuring that learners are equipped with the necessary skills to engage meaningfully in cross-cultural communication in the globalized 21st –century landscape. v. conclusion the purpose of this study was to investigate middle school english teachers’ attitudes regarding judging their students’ intercultural communicative skills. the findings indicate that middle school english teachers are aware of the importance of teaching english language and culture to develop learners’ icc and prepare them to communicate effectively with foreigners who speak different languages and have different traditions, customs, values, and so on. the findings also reveal 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(2011). intercultural communicative competence: exploring english language teachers’ beliefs and practices. language awareness, 20(2), 81-98. retrieved from https://doi. alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 116 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: january 24, 2023 final revision: may 08, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 critical discourse analysis is a view of language in discourse analysis that views powers as always involved in forming subjects represented in language. the awk model used in this paper is norman fairclough’s critical discourse analysis. critical discourse analysis, which generally analyzes media texts, can also be used to analyze literary works, including novels. the novel analyzed by norman fairclough’s discourse analysis is the novel bumi manusia by manusiaya ananta toer. norman fairclough’s discourse analysis examines text, discourse practice, and sociocultural practice. the three aspects of norman fairclough’s discourse analysis can be answered through the descriptive method text section the researcher can find three basic elements in the norman fairclough model, namely elements of representation, relations, and identity in the novel bumi manusia. meanwhile, this paper will only discuss one element, namely representation. the result of this research is that culture is found in the text of the novel bumi manusia, in the form of daily behavior, language, clothes, to the names that appear in the text of the novel. in the text of the bumi manusia novel, there are also several cultures, not only indonesian culture but, there is also dutch culture by the contents of the story or synopsis of the novel describes indigenous life side by side with the dutch. keywords critical discourse analysis, norman fairclough model, cultural representation, bumi manusia novel. correspondence e-mail: alemina@usu.ac.id article the representation of culture in “bumi manusia” novel by pramoedya ananta toer alemina br perangin-angin1, widya andayani2, reja aprilla brahmana3, mellya miranda putri4 , m. sya’banul khoir s5 1,3,4,5universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia 2universitas negeri medan, medan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.116-125.2023 i. introduction the dynamics of cultural studies have had a significant impact on cultural comprehension. analysis of culture requires the boldness to conceptualize culture as a meaning-making process. culture is not viewed as a guide inherited or inherited but as a variable culture negotiated in all social interactions. such culture is no longer a common inheritance but rather a situational phenomenon whose survival is contingent on the nature of power and relationships that fluctuate over time. this premise simultaneously underlines how tightly culture is integrated into the daily lives of humans (kkleen, 2006). barker explained that the essence of cultural studies is the study of culture as meaning practices of representation (barker, 2000, p. 10). marxist cultural theory investigates culture as an ideological domain explained primarily through discourse and cultural practices, such as media as text (social, economic, political). in addition, chris barker (2000) agrees that cultural studies lack a singular reference point. instead, cultural studies comprise numerous theoretical studies of other disciplines created more loosely to include model pieces from structuralist/poststructuralist thinkers’ existing theories. based on kartikasari and edy (2018), the novel has elements that create a framework in which all aspects are interconnected and interdependent to form a meaningful entity. it is a work of realistic fiction, capable of expanding the reader’s experience, comprising multiple parts. on another side, based on al ma’ruf and nugrahani (2017), the novel is an aesthetic work of art by alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 117 giving the author’s idealized ideals of life. it is the outcome of dialogue, thought, and the author’s response to life and its surroundings after great appreciation and reflection. in short, the novel is an imaginative work based on creating consciousness and responsibility. the significance of literary works is not limited to studying and focusing on research from a language and structural perspective. one of the language sciences that investigate discourse is discourse analysis. fairclough states that discourse analysis examines how texts function in sociocultural activities. fairclough argues that discourse is a social activity in badara (2012: 26) and divides discourse analysis into three dimensions: (1) text, (2) discourse practice, and (3) social practice. previous research employing critical discourse analysis, such as that of ervania et al. (2022), examined the depiction of religious life in a. mustofa bisri’s short story “mbah siddiq” utilizes the critical discourse analysis of norman fairclough. in mbah siddiq’s short narrative, the norman fairclough model contains three fundamental elements: representation, relationships, and identity. in addition, kholifatun (2016) compares buya hamka’s critique of his novel “the sinking of the van der wijck ship” with the critical discourse analysis of norman fairclough. according to the study’s findings, the novel describes buya hamka’s opposition to and critique of the restrictive minangkabau customs. cenderamata & darmayanti (2019) analyze the news on mulan jameela’s migration published by four online media, namely detik.com, liputan6. com, tempo.com, and tribunnews.com, using the critical discourse analysis of norman fairclough. in addition, kartikasari (2020) analyzes the news about jokowi boosting bpjs donations during a pandemic using norman fairclough’s critical discourse analysis to determine how the construction of news about increasing bpjs contributions during a pandemic is packaged. this article was written because, based on the prior study, research on cultural representation in the bumi manusia novel is scarce. therefore, it will assist readers in resolving existing issues. this study’s central question is, “how is culture represented in the bumi manusia novel?”. ii. methods this study was conducted utilizing a qualitative strategy and content analysis technique. then, according to bogdan and taylor (1975), qualitative research also encompasses the approach utilized for research methods that generate descriptive data. descriptive data are data written using descriptive language. “bumi manusia novel” is the source for the research that will be conducted. the researcher took the text which indicated the cultural representation in indonesian and dutch taken from bumi manusia novel. the cultural representation was in any form, such as daily behaviours, language, and clothes. after the data was collected, it was then analyzed using the representation element of the norman fairclough model. the presentation uses the qualitative descriptive method by making systematic, factual, and accurate descriptions of the facts, characteristics, and relationships between the phenomena investigated. the author will present the analysis results using common words so that it is easy for the reader to understand. iii. result the following are the three fundamental components of the norman fairclough model: the typical structure of fairclough’s text, whereas, in this study, the focus of the discussion is the element of representation. table 1. three basic elements in norman fairclough’s model. no element what you would like to see 1 representation how the event, person, group, scenario, or whatever is depicted financially in the narrative. 2 relation how does the book reflect the relationship between journalists, audiences, and participants’ news? 3 identity how the identities of journalists, audiences, and news participants are portrayed in the text. as a consequence of this research, it has been determined that culture is present in the text of bumi manusia in the form of daily conduct, language, clothes, and names. furthermore, in the text of the bumi manusia novel, there are multiple cultures, including not just indonesian culture but also dutch culture, since the plot or summary of the novel describes indigenous life alongside the dutch. alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 118 “bumi manusia” is set during the dutch colonial period. this novel centers on the life of tirto adhi soerjo, or “minke,” an indonesian teenager who is the only one to attend h.b.s. or hogere burgerschool, a specialized high school for europeans, dutch, and indigenous elites. minke is described as an intelligent and privileged native figure. he also enjoyed literature and frequently published essays under the pseudonym max tollenaar in several dutch newspapers. minke, who has been living in a privileged environment, gradually understands that he is living in a racist society as time passes. he also realized that feudalism, including his family, was prevalent in indonesian society. iv. discussion the purpose of the cultural study is to comprehend the many changes occurring. the application of culture to the study of discourse is closely related, especially given that discourse investigates communication actions in a culture-dependent society. a culture that appears in a society does not necessarily exist; the current culture results from accumulating and adapting the previous culture. data 1 “near the wooden fence is a large signboard with the words: boerderij buitenzorg.” the meaning of the ‘boerderij buitenzorg’ in data 1 is an agricultural company that uses dutch. buitenzorg means an elite house or a lodge located in the wonokromo area. in this house, minke’s love blossoms. he found his first wife, annelies, mr. mellema’s daughter, raised by a nyai or concubine named nyai ontosoroh. after investigating, it turns out today’s buitenzorg is the surabaya zoo. ratna (2003: 35) indicates that literary works have the same ultimate purpose: to inspire more meaningful social action to pursue truth’s ideals, which can elevate and improve the surrounding situation and conditions. this means that literary works are offered as a source of inspiration for actions and reactions relating to social life so that through literary works, the right things can be sought to contribute to improving situations and conditions that are thought to be unsatisfactory. in addition, those were developed of interdisciplinary structuralist/poststructuralist thought and multidisciplinary critical theory, particularly in the united kingdom and continental europe. as a consequence of this research, it has been determined that culture is present in the text of bumi manusia in the form of daily conduct, language, clothes, and names. in the text of the novel bumi manusia, there are multiple cultures, including indonesian culture and dutch culture, since the plot or summary of the novel describes indigenous life alongside the dutch. data 2 “on the other hand, people mostly mentioned his concubine: nyai ontosoroh, a concubine who is admired, beautiful, in her thirties, the controller of the entire large agricultural company by people. from the name of buitenzorg, she got the name ontosoroh, a javanese term.” nyai is a nickname for a javanese woman. nyai is a woman who is married and acts as a mother. nyai is an intelligent and tenacious woman. she is good at everything. nyai is also a career woman. she used her fields to create jobs for native people. indigenous people are free to plant anything, and the crops are also for themselves. nyai ontosoroh is told as the wife of a wealthy dutch businessman, herman mellema. nyai ontosoroh, who is named sanikem, lives with various sufferings. his father sold her to herman mellema when she was 14 years old. the novel is a lengthy prose essay including a succession of stories of a person’s life with people around him, with an emphasis on the personalities and traits of the actors. aurgiantoro (1998) stated that the length of a prose fiction novel is adequate, neither too lengthy nor too short. a novel is a work by an author that is neither long nor short. in short, the novel is an imaginative work based on creating consciousness and responsibility as an aesthetic work of art by giving the author’s idealized ideals of life. data 3 “and soon, an indigenous woman appeared, clothed, in a white kebaya adorned with expensive lace, probably made by naarden as taught at e.l.s. she wore black velvet shoes embroidered with silver thread. her appearance was so impressive because of her neat makeup, clear face, motherly smile, and too simple makeup. she looks sweet and young and has fair skin.” in data 3 above, there is an allusion to the clothes worn by indigenous women, namely the alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 119 white kebaya, which is the result that was taught at e.l.s. the clothes above describe the culture of indigenous dress, which represents the culture of indigenous people. fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (1995) in the book critical discourse analysis uses discourse practice as a bridge between text and context. the fairclough model’s approach to critical discourse analysis classifies three categories of discourse: text, discourse practices, and sociocultural practices. the text dimension simultaneously serves representation, relationship, and identity functions. the authors conclude that critical discourse analysis stresses discourse as a kind of interaction and that using spoken and written language is a social activity resulting from critical discourse analysis. in critical discourse analysis, social practice is related to occurrences from reality and social structure. data 4 “looking through the window, i saw mevrouw télinga waving at me.” mrs. is the meaning of mevrouw télinga in the quotation from the novel, data 4. since mrs. was not adopted in malay then, the original word is used in this work. mevrouw’s original meaning is nyai-nyai based on the low degree of morality in nyai-nyai, jorok means unclean or obscene, without culture, and his focus is primarily on matters of lust, namely the satisfaction of lust or sentiments of love between two individuals of different genders. the correct pronunciation of télinga is teelingkha. this demonstrates that the novel by bumi manusia displays both indonesian and dutch. barker states that the essence of cultural studies is the study of culture as meaning practices of representation (barker, 2000, p. 10). marxist cultural theory investigates culture as an ideological domain explained primarily through discourse and cultural practices, such as media as text (social, economic, political). in presenting the outcomes of the analysis to be conducted in this study, a non-formal manner was employed. presentation utilizing the informal method involves presenting the study’s outcomes using everyday language so that they are simple to comprehend for the reader. data 5 “alleluya, minke, how are you today?” he scolded in french, forcing me to use his language”. according to data 5, robert suurhof’s use of french has been translated into indonesian by pram to make it easier for readers to follow the plot. however, by the end of the story, the protagonist is french. pramoedya ananta toer is a well-known author of human earth novels. pramoedya ananta toer (6 february 1925 – 30 april 2006) is regarded as one of the most prolific authors in indonesian literary history. pramoedya has authored over fifty works translated into over forty-two languages. this work is, in a sense, one of the best novels ever written by indonesian authors. this film’s director, hanung bramantyo, was blessed with the opportunity to adapt this outstanding novel into a film. the narratives he composes are engaging and straightforward. in addition, chris barker (2000) agrees that cultural studies lack a singular reference point. in addition, cultural studies were developed of interdisciplinary structuralist/poststructuralist thought and multidisciplinary critical theory, particularly in the united kingdom and continental europe. cultural studies comprise numerous theoretical studies of other disciplines created more loosely to include model pieces from structuralist/ poststructuralist thinkers’ existing theories. data 6 “on the other hand, people mainly mention her as a concubine: nyai ontosoroh, a concubine who is admired, beautiful, in their thirties, who controls the entire sizeable agricultural company. from the name buitenzorg, she got the name ontosoroh, a javanese term. representation is a term with multiple meanings. first, it is a social representation process. representation refers to materializing abstract ideological conceptions (wuwung et al., 2021). thus, our opinions on life about, for instance, women, children, or men will be evident in how we offer birthday presents to our male, female, and childhood friends. similarly, our perspectives on life about love, war, and others will manifest themselves in practical affairs. the authors conclude that critical discourse analysis stresses discourse as a kind of interaction and that using spoken and written language is a social activity resulting from critical discourse analysis. in critical discourse analysis, social practice is related to occurrences from reality and social structure. according to the findings of this study, there are discrepancies in celebrity coverage among four online media outlets: detik.com, liputan6.com, tempo.com, and alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 120 tribunnews.com. according to the motivations and ideals of each media outlet, the same news topic is presented differently by each outlet. data 7 “why are you silent?” asked annelies in a sweet voice in social dutch. “annelies’ guest is also my guest,” she said in fluent dutch. in the earth of mankind novel, two of the most dominant cultures are found: javanese and dutch. some figures that reflect javanese culture are nyai ontosoro, friday legi, thursday kliwon, wonokromo, minke, sinyo, and sitje rattan. (normansurah, 2017, p. 3) literary language is symbolic or metaphorical language in addition to the language used to describe an event or a dialogue. “bumi manusia” is set during the dutch colonial period. this novel centers on the life of tirto adhi soerjo, or “minke,” an indonesian teenager who is the only one to attend h.b.s. or hogere burgerschool, a specialized high school for europeans, dutch, and indigenous elites. minke is described as an intelligent and privileged native figure. he also enjoyed literature and frequently published essays under the pseudonym max tollenaar in several dutch newspapers. minke, who has been living in a privileged environment, gradually understands that he is living in a racist society as time passes. he also realized that feudalism, including his family, was prevalent in indonesian society. data 8 “how should i call? sir? sinyo? but not indo….”. “not indo,” should i call her? nyai or mevrouw? “who did give you permission to come here, monkey!” he snorted in bazaar malay, stiff and harsh. minke or sinyo (nyai ontosoroh calls him sinyo) is a student of h.b.s (hogere burgerschool). he has extraordinary intelligence, clever lo, logical argument, and is full of honor. however, minke is also a writer and the son of a clerk, and his company is not small either. in javanese, “kowe” means you (ngoko). it is often the subject of jokes; baby monkeys are called “kowe.” the same term can also be interpreted as ‘you’ in javanese ngoko (rough). representation is a concept utilized in the social process of meaning through accessible marking systems, including dialogue, writing, cinema, and photography. in conclusion, representation is the production of meaning by physical means (juliastuti, 2000). the depiction of the novel bumi manusia is evaluated by analyzing the cultural patterns represented in the story’s characters and society. this novel was chosen as the research subject because it portrays both javanese and european (dutch) customs and behaviors or events that illustrate cultural distinctions between javanese and european (dutch) peoples. data 9 “he showed me a short story, ‘een buitengewoon gewoone nyai die ik ken.’ nyai gives orders in madura. i do not understand what it means. we just ordered to take me in a buggy until i was home safely. “papa never wants to go out with me,” the girl complained in dutch. the letter was written in proper and correct dutch. based on data 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, language is used in the bumi manusia novel. as in the data above, the use of languages besides indonesian, this novel also used in dutch as in data 8 and 7, malay in data 8, and madurese in data 9, which nyai ontosoroh used to darsam to order him to take minke back to his old age. pram also used the designations sinyo, nyai, and mevrouand w in his novel, as in data 6 and 8. data 9 uses the dutch ‘een buitengewoon gewoone nyai die ik ken,’ an ordinary, extraordinary nyai whom i woman. based on yulhasni (2016:80) manuscript is more than just a collection of words; it has a purpose and a relationship with the author. conduct an analysis based on structural studies. you will only identify intrinsic icons limited to language as utterances, placing literary works in their realm. thus, it differs considerably from the discourse analysis studies popular among young indonesian intellectuals in the 1990s. data 10 “do not be kidding, minke, this is not some random gig, not a kretek, a per gig, perhaps the first towards the end of the century. maybe the per is more expensive than the whole gig”. thus, it differs considerably from the discourse analysis studies popular among young indonesian intellectuals in the 1990s (yulhasni, 2016, p. 80). a manuscript is more than just a collection of words; it has a purpose and a relationship with the author. according to the findings of this study, there are discrepancies in celebrity coverage among four alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 121 online media outlets: detik.com, liputan6.com, tempo.com, and tribunnews.com. according to the motivations and ideals of each media outlet, the same news topic is presented differently by each outlet. first, the text pertains to linguistics by examining vocabulary, semantics, sentence structure, coherence, and cohesiveness and how these units construct meaning. second, discourse practice is associated with text production and consumption, such as work patterns, work charts, and routines when producing news. thirdly, social practice is a factor relating to the context outside of the text, such as the context of the situation or the context of the media about a specific society or political culture. fairclough, as cited in (eriyanto, 2001, p. 289), views the text on multiple levels. a text demonstrates how an object is described and how the relationship between objects is characterized. data 11 “or do you prefer to ride a horse?” representation conveys an event through communication, words, sounds, images, or a combination. stuart hall (1997) argues in his book representation: cultural representation and signifying practices that representation is the mechanism through which members of society exchange meaning. the second culture is dutch culture; some figures that reflect dutch culture are annelis mellema, herman mellema, robert mellema, robert suurhof, hbs (hoogere burgerschoole), van heemskerck, els (europeeseche lagereschool), gulden, magda peters and so on. finally, creative and imaginative activity is the presence of literary works. the creation of literary works results from refining human sensitivity and response to actual and fictitious realities via the processing of human cognition. the presence of the literary work is a physical representation of the little world and catalogs several occurrences artistically and creatively. as a creative and imaginative endeavor, a literary work has the potential to transform realworld occurrences into a fictional universe. data 12 “ever seen a buggy that good?” in the 20th century, technological systems and life support equipment were not as evolved as today. data 10 demonstrates that railway travel between betawi and surabaya takes the same time (day and night), often accomplished in three days using an animal-powered vehicle. according to numbers 10, 11, and 12, their daily transportation consists of gigs, horses, and huggies. low-level technological systems have led to the employment of animal power to aid humans in the transportation system. data 12 indicates that the community in the bumi manusia novel has a living equipment system, specifically printed pictures or photographs, which only a few individuals could create in the past. this was owing to the technological constraints that existed at the time. the author’s relationship to his social surroundings is reflected in his works of literature (riana, 2021: 28). the tale of one of the literary works in the form of prose, particularly the book, is typically imagined by someone who is in their subconscious. literary work is the textual form of literature produced by authors. literature derives from sanskrit, precisely the word “shastra,” which is derived from sanskrit and has the definition of a work containing instructions or rules, from the word literature, which has the sense of teachings or instructions. data 13 “the oil carts, which used to move at dawn from the b.p.m refinery in a convoy of twenty to thirty pieces each way, have not been seen now.” bataafsche petroleum maatschappij n.v. (bpm) is an oil company subsidiary of the royal dutch/shell company. as a creative and imaginative endeavor, a literary work has the potential to transform real-world occurrences into a fictional universe. ratna (2003: 35) indicates that literary works have the same ultimate purpose: to inspire more meaningful social action to pursue truth values that can raise and better the surrounding circumstances and conditions. this means that literary works are offered as a source of inspiration for actions and reactions relating to social life so that through literary works, the right things can be sought to contribute to improving situations and conditions that are thought to be unsatisfactory. the purpose of the cultural study is to comprehend the many changes occurring. culture is challenging to define with precision. the term culture derives from the word “culture,” which refers to ideas, rationale, habits, and ingrained behavior. culture is intricate and consists of information, belief, art, morals, conventions, and other skills and practices alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 122 are nyai ontosoro, friday legi, thursday kliwon, wonokromo, minke, sinyo, and sitje rattan. the second culture is dutch culture; some figures that reflect dutch culture are annelis mellema, herman mellema, robert mellema, robert suurhof, hbs (hoogere burgerschoole), van heemskerck, els (europeeseche lagereschool), gulden, magda peters and so on. data 16 “sahaya tuanku gusti kanjeng regent,” my mouth said, and like a machine, raised the umpteenth prayer, and my heart swore for who knows how many times. gusti kanjeng is a title bestowed to javanese nobles. gusti signifies a noble title primarily held by indonesian kingdoms influenced by the kingdoms (javanese: keraton) on the island of java. the literal meaning of “gusti” is “master” or “mistress.” in the meantime, kanjeng is a javanese title given to those in positions of authority. ratna (2003, p. 35) indicates that literary works have the same ultimate purpose: to inspire more meaningful social action to pursue truth values that can raise and better the surrounding circumstances and conditions. this means that literary works are offered as a source of inspiration for actions and reactions relating to social life so that through literary works, the right things can be sought to contribute to improving situations and conditions that are thought to be unsatisfactory. the significance of literary works is not limited to studying and focusing on research from a language and structural perspective. conduct an analysis based on structural studies. you will only identify intrinsic icons limited to language as utterances, placing literary works in their realm. data 17 “listen, you, mursal!” he ordered as a new official who was rising in spirit. the meaning of mursal is terrible behavior and like to do things that deviate from or break the rules. mursal itself comes from the javanese language. the presence of the literary work is a physical representation of the little world and catalogs several occurrences artistically and creatively. based on yulhasni (2016:80), a manuscript is more than just a collection of words; it has a purpose and a relationship with the author. fairclough believes that a text-only approach, as developed by many possessed by humans as members of society. data 14 “come, tuan raden mas,” he invited kindly. javanese nobility is a title in front of one person’s name because that person is a descendant of a king or panembahan or prince or regent or sunan or guardian in central java or east java, or given in front of one person’s name because that person holds a position in the government the kingdom of surakarta or the kingdom of yogyakarta or the duchy of mangkunagaran or the duchy of pakualaman or the dutch east indies colonial government, or those given in front of one person’s name because that person is deemed meritorious to the surakarta kingdom or the yogyakarta kingdom or the mangkunagaran duchy or the paku duchy or the dutch east indies colonial government. stuart hall (1997) argues in alaman his book representation: cultural representation and signifying practices that representation is the mechanism through which members of society exchange meaning. this depiction may take the shape of words, writing, images, or films. furthermore, representation is not limited to presenting or constructing cultural identity in a work. representation is also produced by audiences who consume the represented cultural values during the production and interpretation processes. data 15 “a white bottle filled with chocolate milk stands slender beside a cup of drink that natives know about.” in the javanese-indonesian dictionary, the word takir refers to a food container composed of banana leaves and sticks on both sides. the origin of the term takir is “nata” karo “think” (arrange and think), which suggests that to achieve the best outcomes, you must always consider and organize every step you take with calm, thorough, deep, and careful consideration. in conclusion, representation is the formation of meanings through language (spoken, written, or graphic symbols and signs) by a person who can communicate thoughts, conceptions, and ideas about anything (juliastuti: 2000). the notion of cultural portrayal in human earth novels. in the earth of mankind novel, two of the most dominant cultures are found: javanese and dutch. some figures that reflect javanese culture alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 123 linguists, is insufficient since it cannot show in greater detail the socio-cultural factors underlying the development of texts. this view also criticizes post-structuralist adherents who emphasize the sociocultural aspects of the emergence of texts without providing an adequate methodology for text analysis, which represents and articulates the thoughts, interests, and ideologies associated with them. representation conveys an event through communication, words, sounds, images, or a combination. fairclough argues that discourse is a social practice and separates discourse analysis into three dimensions: (1) text, (2) discourse practice, and (3) social practice. text is related to linguistics, for instance, by analyzing vocabulary, semantics, sentence structure, coherence, and cohesion, and how these constituents come together to produce a definition. discourse practice is a dimension associated with text production and consumption; for instance, work patterns, work charts, and news production routines. finally, the social practice comprises contexts external to the text, such as the context of the situation or media coverage of a particular society or political culture. data 18 “a thousand pardons, ndoro raden mas,” the agent beckoned me out of the dark, mosquito-infested office. the word ndoro (javanese) means greeting nobles or employers. another meaning of ndoro is the employer. representation refers to materializing abstract ideological conceptions (wuwung et al., 2021). thus, our opinions on life about, for instance, women, children, or men will be evident in how we offer birthday presents to our male, female, and childhood friends. similarly, our perspectives on life about love, war, and others will manifest themselves in practical affairs. (luddin, 2010: 102), culture is a pattern that may be understood as meaning contained in symbols and historically transmitted, a system of derived concepts expressed in symbolic forms that people use to communicate and live. culture is an exclusively human endeavor. everyone is born into a culture; therefore, everyone can be considered a cultural representative. culture is a people’s way of life, which includes mutually accepted methods of thinking, doing, and speaking. culture is an essential aspect of society since it represents how the group lives, including customs, lifestyle objects, artwork, song dances, and traditional ceremonies, among other things. data 19 “i got up and accompanied him, a student of s.i.b.a. a candidate for ambassador to the dutch east indies”. the word s.i.b.a stands for school voor indlandsche bestuursambtenaren, which means school for indigenous pangreh praja officials. in conclusion, representation is the formation of meanings through language (spoken, written, or graphic symbols and signs) by a person who can communicate thoughts, conceptions, and ideas about anything (juliastuti, 2000)—the notion of cultural portrayal in human-earth novels. the role of representation is intimately tied to the textual depiction of social reality. according to fairclough, discourse practice is a stage in how discourse producers build a discourse; in the mass media, this pertains to how media professionals (news writers) produce texts. this pertains to the news writer as a person, the news writer’s working relationship with other media workers, the media organization where the news writer works, how to cover and write the news, and how to become news in the media. the three levels of sociocultural practice are situational (discourse-building situations), institutional (institutional impact), and social (social community influence). iv. conclusion not only do literary works begin with an empty page, but they also begin with events or facts upon which a narrative is based. through literature, an author also seeks to contribute significant cultural values to the community of readers. as a complicated structure, the literature reveals numerous facets of life, such as cultural challenges, that merit in-depth examination for the reader’s benefit. the presence of cultural literacy must have a historical context. some of the societal concerns encountered by authors can be used as study material for literary analysis. the bumi manusia novel by pramodya ananta toer is one of the short stories written. it is a cultural portrayal of a group of dutch people who live side-by-side with the natives, leading to the idea that the dutch had more control over the natives then. the novel depicts the lives of javanese people who coexist with dutch citizens. coexistence produces friction for both parties over time. alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 124 this article examines cultural representations in the lives of indonesians throughout the dutch colonial period. this novel features a variety of languages and civilizations. javanese and european cultures, particularly that of the netherlands, are highlighted most prominently in the story. this is evident from the novel’s text and the characters’ names. for instance, javanese culture is reflected in the term nyai. javanese ladies commonly wear nyai. meanwhile, dutch culture is reflected in the novel’s narrative through dutch names. references abu bakar. 2010. “dasar-dasar konseling (tinjauan teori dan praktik)”. bandung. citra pustaka media perintis. al ma’ruf, ali imron dan farida nugrahani. 2017. pengkajian sastra: teori dan aplikasi. surakarta: cv djiwa amarta press. badara, aris. 2012. analisis wacana teori, metode, dan penerapanya pada wacana media. jakarta: kencana prenada media group. barker, chris. 2000. cultural studies: teori dan praktik, terjemahan. tim kunci cultural studies. bogdan dan taylor. 1975. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remadja karya. cenderamata, rengganis citra & nani darmayanti. 2019. analisis wacana kritis fairclough pada pemberitaan selebriti di media daring. jurnal literasi. vol 3(1) creswell, j.w. 2003. research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. thousand oaks, calif: sage publications. ervania, dkk. 2022. analisis wacana kritis norman fairclough representasi kehidupan religius cerpen mbah siddiq karya a. mustofa bisri. sosmaniora (jurnal ilmu sosial dan humaniora). vol 1(2). eriyanto. 2001. analisis wacana: pengantar analisis teks media. yogyakarta: lkis. fairclough, norman. 1992. discourse and social change. cambridge: polity press. fairclough, norman.1995. critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. london dan new york: longman. fairclough, norman. 2001. language and power. england: pearson educated limited. febriyanti, rina husnaini & hanna sundari. 2022. the resignation reporting news of the president‟s staff via online media: a norman fairclough critical discourse analysis. scope: journal of english language teaching. vol 6 (2). hall, stuart. 1997. cultural representation and signifying practices. london: sage. juliastuti, nuraeni. 2000. teori sosiologi modern. jakarta: kencana. kartikasari, sinta. 2020. analisis wacana kritis nourman fairclough terhadap pemberitaan jokowi naikkan iuran bpjs di tengah pandemi. jurnal an-nida. vol 12(2) kartikasari hs, apri & edy suprapto. 2018. kajian kesusastraan (sebuah pengantar). magetan: cv. ae medika grafika kholifatun. 2016. kritik buya hamka terhadap adat minangkabau dalam novel tenggelamnya kapal van der wijck (humanisme islam sebagai analisis wacana kritis). skripsi. uin sunan kalijaga yogyakarta. kleden, ignas. 2006. “cultural studies dan masalah kebudayaan di indonesia” (makalah). seminar peringatan berdirinya program studi kajian budaya universitas udayana, 20 februari. nurgiantoro, burhan. 1998. teori pengkajian fiksi. yogyakarta: gadjah madah university press. alemina br perangin-angin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 125 normansurah. (2017). mitos dalam legenda kerajaan pulau halimun di kabupaten kota baru. jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pembelajarannya, 7(1), 1-8. ratna, nyoman kutha. 2003. paradigma sosiologi sastra. yogyakarta: pustaka. pelajar. riana, d.r. (2021). pandangan dunia dewi anggraeni dalam novel my pain my country: kajian strukturalisme genetik lucien goldmann. jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pembelajarannya, 11(1), 2745. wuwung, maudy christina johanna, dkk. 2021. representasi budaya jawa dalam film tilik. jurnal e-komunikasi. vol 9(2) yulhasni. 2016. senjakala kritik sastra (kasus sumatera utara). depok: penerbit koekoesan. sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 250 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 9, 2023 final revision: september 25, 2023 accepted: september 26, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 the paper examines the adoption of ritual and poetry of aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity in combating regional instability in nigeria. this was done with a view of projecting deity and its rituals as a means of resolving conflicts and instability in the society. the study makes use of in-depth interviews with four selected participants from aláwòrò-ẹkùn worshippers (one priests and three followers). these participants were selected from arárọ̀mí-ale one of the àwórì communities in lagos state. audio-visual and photographic recordings were used for documentation of symbolic elements and oral performances at the shrines. the findings showed that ritual and poetry is an effective method to combat regional instability in nigeria. it increases cooperation, trust and foster a sense of solidarity among neighboring communities. also, it showed this deity as a savior that rescued people of ọ̀jọ́ community in lagos state and its environment from robbers, kidnapers, terrorist and the epidemic of 1935. the poetry becomes the means of communicating with the deity to fish out traitors and the aggrieved ones before sacrifices. the study concluded that aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity had played crucial roles right from the ancestral period by ensuring safety of ọ̀jọ́ and arárọ̀mí-ale community. it also pointed to the fact that aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity is the pillar of peaceful co-existence and unity in arárọ̀mí-ale and ọ̀jọ́ community. the followers were compelled to settle their grievance and grudges before appearing in aláwòrò-ẹkùn shine. if this is generally accepted, prolonged grudges or disagreement that may lead to instability in the community will be resolved and instability will be prevented. the findings showed that the adoption of ritual and poetry is an effective method to combat regional instability in nigeria. keywords aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity, deities, poetry, regional instability, traditional ritual correspondence e-mail: opesan03@yahoo.co.uk article adoption of ritual and poetry of aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity in combating regional instability in nigeria sanni rifqat opeyemi1 1department of nigerian languages, lagos state university of education, oto/ijanikin, lagos, nigeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.116-125.2023 i. introduction the relevance of deities among yoruba people, especially among their adherents cannot be underestimated. it is generally believed in africa that deities wield special powers to meet their aspirations and make the society a better place to live. one of these needs was pointed out by ilechukwu (2014), who pointed that the adoption of african traditional religious methods in curbing the evil effects of corruption in nigerian education system is better than other methods. he suggested some practices like putting the school property, money, etc in the custodian of a powerful deity, workers and students in education sector swearing oath in the shrine of a powerful and dreadful deity that they will not be involved in any form of malpractice. deities, often depicted as powerful and wise beings in various mythologies and religions, are sometimes associated with peaceful coexistence in the society. deities, or gods and goddesses, have often been invoked throughout history as a means of resolving instability or addressing challenges in various cultures and religions. the belief in deities and their perceived power can provide comfort, guidance, and a sense of stability during times of uncertainty. the ability of these deities to restore peace and stability in the society is usually held in high esteem among the adherents. some of the ways in which deities have intervened in resolving sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 251 instability are through spiritual guidance, faith and hope, protection and intervention, rituals and offerings, moral and ethical guidance and so on. this is in line with agbaje-williams (2005) submission that “the agents enforcing the traditional law in these courts believed in, relied on, resorted to and employed the influence of the supernatural forces, ancestors and ordeals of various types in the detection of crimes and criminals. this shows how strong and reliable the judgment made through the deities could be. the suggestion was supported by kupoluyi (2020) in his findings that showed that government and traditional institutions are not collaborating enough in the fight against corruption. he then proposed that, necessary legislation are to be put in place by the various governments, most especially, at the state and local government levels to formalise the adoption of traditional african approach deliberately curb corruption and also to advise the various governments to promote the practice of indigenous african traditions. instability is the state of being unstable or lack of socio-economic stability while regional instability has been referred to as state of unrest or absence of peace in area or society. the issue of ethno-religious conflict, political and regional instability are traced to the level of frustration arising from getting below expectation. regional instability can arise from variety of factors like historical conflicts, ethnics tensions, religious differences, economic disparities, natural disasters, and external interference. this is in line with egbon (2001) was with opinion that military intervention in any country or community political structures and activities always give room to instability into the system of government of the land and later brings down the economy of the country. it can have negative impacts on people, towns, economy and entire regions. reducing it goes beyond welfare of the country experiencing political unrest alone, parties not directly involved too will benefit from it. the problems caused by instability needs to be reduced to minimum barest if not totally erased to bring peace harmony to all regions and nigeria at large. in regions where there is conflict and instability, ritual poetry could potentially serve as a means of promoting unity and understanding among different groups. by sharing common themes and experiences through poetry, individuals from different backgrounds may be able to build empathy and find common ground. raji, a & wahab (2016) pointed that the issue of political instability has been a major challenge rocking the country with violence over the decade of nigeria’s independence as a nation. this has been strong connection with regional instability. political instability in nigeria owe much of its cause to internal factors, however the interpenetration of internal and external factors especially geopolitical and economic interests of the international community constantly play a significant role in undermining the very processes and institutions that are expected to nurture democracy and to instill a sense of stability for societal development in nigeria, adeyeri, s. (2013). it is obvious that there is instability in the country, and it has affected both the citizen and the country negatively. there has been series of theoretical and empirical work investing into solutions and how to curb crisis and instability in the country (nigeria) but no research work has focused on aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity rituals and appertaining poetries as a means of finding lasting solution to instability. this existing gap is the focus of this research work. it intends to enlighten and educate the society on how to use traditional religion, aláwòrò-ẹkùn and its poetries teaches, rituals and symbols in resolving issues, curb regional instability and bring peace and stability into the society. this paper examines the poetry and symbols of aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity among the àwórì people of lagos state, nigeria. the poetry and symbols of this deity point at its supernatural prowess to combat incessant instability ravaging our society. this study is carried out to project the deity and its rituals as means to resolving conflicts and instability in the society. also, to bring it to bear on the society that aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity among the àwórì people of lagos state can find a lasting solution to communal crisis and regional instability. ii. method this study makes use of both primary and secondary sources of data. the primary data were in-depth interviews with three purposively selected aláwòrò-ẹkùn worshippers (one priests and three devotees). these participants were selected from arárọ̀mí-ale one of the àwórì communities in lagos state where they worship this goddess. there were audio and video recordings of the rituals and poetry of deity. there was photographic documentation of symbolic elements at the shrine or groove and documentation of oral performances sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 252 related to the deity. secondary data were sourced from books, journal articles, magazines and the internet. the collected data were transcribed and analysed. iii. result and discussion several scholarly write ups are available on regional instability in the society, part of these research works is the submission of agbu, musa and zhema (2020) that was based on insurgency, activities of armed herdsmen and general instability in nigeria. this work concluded by suggesting a robust security network to completely neutralize the activities of the two groups in north-eastern nigeria. raheem, oyedele and adeniyi researched work evaluate the causes and consequences of regional imbalance and inequalities in nigeria. this study pointed to different causes and recommends remedies. some of their recommendations was special government policy, legislative measures, urban development planning, and strict adherence to the principle of federal character as stated in the constitution of the country. the work of bouchat (2013) was based on the causes of instability in nigeria and implications for the united states. it was revealed that regional and ethnic tension were major factors contributing to conflict. the study suggested that efforts to promote national unity and address regional disparities could help mitigate instability. halliru (2012) revealed that “there is a social relationship between the level of expectation gap and that of frustration...” he explained further that it is the level of frustration arising from getting below expectation that shows the level of ethno-religious conflict and political instability in a society. nigeria’s political instability and other related problems are basically a consequence of its leadership problem. at domestic level, african governments are run in ways that have been regarded as far from the modern western state systems upon which they are modelled (osei tutu, 2004). hammerstad (2005) tracks the region’s progress from a hostile security complex to a nascent security community and asks what strategy for security integration should be employed to continue this positive trend. another study is annan (1998) that opinioned that nigeria’s political instability is conventionally attributed to the way leaders sustain themselves in power. leaders across the country hold onto office by purchasing support through the distribution of state resources; as such, any conflict over their allocation is thought to degenerate into a struggle over control of the state. violence erupts either because some elites crave a larger share of the spoils controlled by the leader or because those outside the leader’s patronage-based coalition want access to resources to which they have been denied. alberto and chua (1997) study was based on thy neighbor curse: regional instability and economic growth. this work revealed that, the positive effect of reducing regional instability goes beyond welfare of the country experiencing political unrest alone, parties not directly involved too will benefit from it. regional instability and its effect regional instability is a state of unstable situation in an area. series of things can lead to regional instability. herbert and husaini (2018) mentioned that socio-cultural drivers of conflict, instability and resilience in nigeria’s large and heterogeneous population, overlapping ethnic, religious, regional, and sub-ethnic (communal) identities mark the faultiness along which political claims and violent conflicts are made. as mild as disputes or conflicts is, if prolonged and left unresolved, it can lead to regional instability. the longer the conflicts stays, the more it becomes source of regional instability. unresolved issues can cause boundary crisis, land dispute, unrest, poverty, low educational standards, and absence of a calm atmosphere. we briefly discuss few of these effects: 1. displacement and humanitarian crisis land disputes and boundary conflicts that stem from regional instability frequently cause communities and populations to flee their homes. people may be forced from their homes, lose their jobs, and experience problems such as lack of food, housing, healthcare, and clean water, which might result to humanitarian disasters. other effects of displacement include a loss of community cohesiveness, social and cultural upheaval and anguish. 2. unrest and conflict regional instability can foster a hostile climate that leads to civil conflicts, political violence and ethnic conflict. the populace may become fearful and insecure as a result, there may be a loss of life and property, and tensions and divisions between communities may worsen. conflict and unrest can also have a negative impact on the economy, interrupt essential services like healthcare and sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 253 education, and have long-term social and economic repercussions. 3. economic inequality and poverty regional instability can exacerbate economic inequality and poverty. economic collapse, job loss, and a lack of chances for investment and development can result in widespread poverty, unemployment, and inequality. inflation, currency depreciation, and restricted access to financial services are additional consequences of economic instability that can exacerbate poverty and other economic problems. 4. low educational standards unstable regions can have an adverse effect on educational systems. conflicts and a lack of resources have disrupted education. low standards of education can be caused by a lack of funding, resources, and access to quality education. this may limit prospects for economic progress, impede the growth of human capital, and prolong cycles of poverty and inequality. 5. lack of peace regional instability can produce an atmosphere of dread, mistrust, and insecurity, which can affect community trust and social cohesiveness. lack of tranquility can reduce movement, restrict access to essential services, and impede social and economic relationships. additionally, it can undermine one’s mental health and general wellbeing and destroy social cohesion. as earlier pointed that regional instability can be caused by series of irregularities, it is important to note that the regional instability caused by boundary conflicts, poverty, low educational standards, and an unrestful environment can have significant, linked effects on people, communities, and the environment regions. to reduce these negative consequences and encourage sustainable and inclusive growth, it is essential to tackle the underlying causes of regional instability and to advance peace, security and development. dispute and conflicts are resolved within short period among the aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity devotees, they were able to prevent instability in arárọ̀mí-ale community and its environment. this had made the community to be safe from land disputes, political crisis and the likes since inception. aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity: an overview history confirms that male and female aláwòrò-ẹkùn led the first ishuku-alale and his people to arárọ̀mí-alé town in badagry area of lagos state, nigeria in the 16th century from ileife. the first ishuku-alále and his men left adéjùgbè compound, ìtagbọn in ilé-ifẹ̀ to ọ̀yọ́ town, ọ̀yọ́ state, nigeria. they stayed in ọ̀yọ́-ilé for a while, and later continue with their journey along with the two aláwòrò-ẹkùn (male and female). he left his wife and many other members behind to travel to where they are now in arárọ̀mí-ale of badagry local government, lagos, nigeria. after a long journey, they arrived in ọ̀jọ́ town of lagos state, nigeria. prior to their arrival, the town was plagued with epidemics, robberies, kidnappings, terrorist enforcements and so on. history has it that with the arrival of the first ishuku-alále, his men and the two aláwòrò-ẹkùn statues, evil and evil doers in the community ceased, and they began to live in peaceful life, and their economy boomed. after a while, the first ishukualále and his entourage left ọ̀jọ́ and proceeded on their journey to settle in arárọ̀mí-ale of badagry area, of lagos state, nigeria. aba ìbíkúnlé ajọsẹ revealed that the ugly incidents returned to ọ̀jọ́ town few days after they left. this now makes ọ̀jọ́ town chiefs to plead with the first ishuku-alále to assist and rescue them from the misfortunes. he obliged and sent male aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity statue to them in order to help them keep peace in ọ̀jọ́ town. this is how the two aláwòrò-ẹkùn deities’ turnout to be separated, the male aláwòrò-ẹkùn was sent ọ̀jọ́ town in ọ̀jọ́ local government area of lagos state while the female aláwòrò-ẹkùn stays in arárọ̀mí-ale in badagry local government area of lagos state. the ishuku-alále in arárọ̀mí-ale and his people are the ones that have right to lead worships and sacrifices in aláwòrò-ẹkùn shrine, be it male or female aláwòrò-ẹkùn till date. below is the statue of female aláwòrò-ẹkùn at the shrine. it was revealed that there is òṣù and ọ̀pá ọ̀rẹ̀rẹ̀ statue at the shrine with aláwòrò-ẹkùn statue. the two are worshiped together with aláwòròẹkùn same time. all prayers and sacrifice items are presented to these statues at the shrine. these items used during sacrifice or spiritual ceremony include “ẹmu àjáàbalẹ̀” undiluted and fresh palm wine, bitter kola, kola, alligator pepper, local cock/ hen and white clothes. the picture below shows the worshippers during the concluding part of sacrifice and spiritual ceremony. sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 254 aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity poetries as a solution to regional instability poetry has played a significant role in the worship and veneration of aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity. the àwórì people of arárọ̀mí-ale have a rich and diverse spiritual tradition and practice. aláwòròẹkùn deity has its unique personality, attributes, functions and mythology, which are conveyed through songs, chants, and poems. aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity poetries are considered sacred art form in yoruba culture, and they are used to evoke, honor, request and appreciate the goddess during religious ceremonies and rituals. the words and rhythm of the poetry are believed to connect the devotees/ worshippers with the deity and to facilitate communication between them. this has gone a large way in making arárọ̀mí-ale people to leave a peaceful life with one another. some of the ways aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity can be used to prevent or solve regional instability in nigeria is as follows: 1. spiritual guidance aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity are often believed to be all-knowing and wise, capable of providing guidance and direction in difficult times to the worshippers. they turn to prayers, rituals, or divination practices to seek the guidance of deities in making decisions or resolving conflicts, hoping that the deities’ wisdom and insight will bring stability to their lives. it was revealed that prayers are the most commonly used during sacrifice and spiritual festivals. they presented the prayers with the three oral poetry modes – song, chant and poem as cited in table 1: the above are prayers was rendered at the shrine by the aláwòrò-ẹkùn priest while other devotees responded with amen. the prayer request was against instigators of unrest, conflicts or instability against the entire community. as earlier pointed that aláwòrò-ẹkùn is a deity that knowsall; there is no need of searching for the evil doers, the deity already knows them. this type of prayers scares away the evil doers and enemy of the land. it was revealed that arárọ̀mí-ale indigenes and settlers believed so much in aláwòrò-ẹkùn as a figure 1. aláwòrò-ẹkùn statue figure 2. the chief priest, researcher and the devotees table 1. aláwòrò-ẹkùn poetry (prayers at the shrine) yoruba translation ọ̀tá ilé, ọ̀tá òde ni enemy from home and outside, ọ̀tá ọkùnrin ni, ọ̀tá obìnrin ni male enemy or female enemy ọmọdé ni, àgbà ni, be it young or elderly enemy tí ó ro aburú tàbí ṣe aburú síwa, that think evil or do evil to us aláwòrò kó má pokùn so gbogbo wọn ni o aláwòrò-ẹkùn tie them spiritually àṣẹẹẹ amen gbogbo ẹni búburú tí kò fẹ́ kí ìlú tàbí àdúgbò warójú… all evil doers that wants crisis or instability in our town… kí aláwòrò-àpónìkàn lọ pokùn so wọ́n kíákíá aláwòrò-ẹkùn tie them spiritually immediately àṣẹ! amen agbára ẹ ṣì wà níbẹ̀, agbára ìgbà yẹn your origin power is still intact, use it on them ó ní bí o ṣe ń ṣe é, bí ẹnìkan bá ti ń bọ́mọ ẹ jà… deal with them the way you used to deal with enemies of your followers. sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 255 deity that is powerful and trustworthy, so they don’t joke with activities at the shrine. making this request with or without prayer’s items has continuously serve as protection for the community as it did in 1935 and they got respite through the deity from their life-threatening epidemic. if the worship of this deity is adopted across lagos state and in nigeria generally it will minimize the level of instability in the country. 2. moral and ethical guidance aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity is associated with moral and ethical teachings, which can provide a sense of stability and guidance during times of social or personal instability. it was revealed that member that will join them at the shrine must not have disputes with one another and if there is any, it must be settled before coming to the shrine (ilé owá). the aláwòrò-ẹkùn poetry chanted by female devotees before embarking on rituals rites does not permit the aggrieved worshiper at the shrine. this a very strong stands forced the aggrieved ones to pour out their mind and give room for settlement. this has in one way or the other prevented crisis and instability of any form in the community. research revealed that arárọ̀mí-ale community is one of the peaceful communities in badagry area of lagos state, nigeria. aside from the above, the poetry chanted as opening of sacrifice served as a kind of warning to non-members to prevent them from committing taboo. this period of stay indoor is a very short period that must be obeyed and it’s for the good of every members of the arárọ̀mí-ale community. female devotees are the position seen in this picture while chanting the above poetry. this is done to prevent and safe people from being a victim. the worshipers give enough warning to avert troubles and any kind of crisis. it was revealed that people take this warning with all seriousness and the community had no record of people doing otherwise. this invocation prevented evil doers from coming close to aláwòròẹkùn shrine nor to arárọ̀mí-ale community. this is because they know the calamity await them if they try it. this shows there is religious tolerance in the community and that has help them curb religious crisis and instability. emulating this by all community around will surely put the country in a stable state. the is of ethical teaches as a means of securing peaceful co-existence and prevention of regional instability was categorically pronounced in aláwòrò-ẹkùn panegyric (oríkì). if devotees were able to abide this, they will be able to promote ethical behavior and value. example of the teaches that stands as guide for aláwòrò-ẹkùn devotees is available in table 3. it was revealed that arárọ̀mí-ale people are like other àwórì in lagos state that sees selling of land to visitors as a way of developing their land. they believed that is a show of love and being accommodating. some of the bad eggs among the awori do resell land that the buyer did not build or used on time. this dubious attitude is a taboo among the àwórì of arárọ̀mí-ale in badagry. the underline section “ọmọ mẹ́mu mẹ́mu tèmi nìkan kọ́, tẹbí mi ni” in above panegyric (oríkì) served as watch line for the devotees and the origin of arárọ̀mí-ale. this makes keeping whatever put in their custody or family property safe an important attitude/behavior to them. no one sell someone else land or family property/land secretly, it must ìsàré aláwòrò-ẹkùn (ẹ̀ka-èdè àwórì) chant translation ọta múuu ẹẹẹẹ, ojú ẹkùnun-un-un-un aaaawo lọ̀ọ̀ọ̀ ọ̀ ọta arrest him/her, be warned. ọba muuuu u, ojú ẹkùn un-un-un ọba arrest him/her, be warned. ojoooo oro, ojú ẹkun unun aaawooo lọọọ ojo-oro, the lion is warning ọgbẹ̀ òòòògburugburu, ooojú ẹkun-un-un the one that turned with heavy sound ọba mu uuu oooju ẹkùn-unun aawo lọọ.. ọba arrest him/her, be warned. yéè èè pà à! yéè èè pà à! ẹgẹmọ, ooo agẹmọ spirit! ikú reee ògbèrè máa woooo this is death, non-believers do not dear it ó wò ó bẹ̀rẹ̀ gbé eeeee if does, it’s a dealt penalty table 2. aláwòrò-ẹkùn chant figure 3. female devotees sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 256 being unjustly sanctioned… here are some specific ways in which aláwòrò-ẹkùn sacrifices can be used to curb, prevent or resolve regional instability: 1. promoting values and beliefs aláwòrò-ẹkùn ritual festival comes up once in every three years and it is mainly for cleansing of sudden death and diseases. a day before the festival day is for prayers from the devotees. female devotees visit the shrine with hen while male also hold their cock when visiting. the chief priest and chiefs coordinate stand as coordinator as all devotees prayed sound health, peace and harmony, stability and prosperity with the hen/cock before presenting them to the deity. all the hens/ cocks are dropped beside the groove for cooking on festival day. the devotees and the whole of the community believed that once this is done with plain mind, arárọ̀mi-ale town is free from all evil and crisis for the next three years that another one will come up. it was revealed that this has never failed them since they have been doing it. this may mean that the sacrifice is accepted by the gods or that they were been conscious of what they believe in, whichever way its working for them. sacrifices at aláwòrò-ẹkùn shrine is a powerful way to express shared values and beliefs within the community. promoting this values and beliefs can also work in all other communities in lagos state and the country at large and remove instability from all regions. 2. building solidarity when members of a community come together to make sacrifices for a common cause or goal, they can develop a sense of solidarity and shared purpose. sacrificing personal time, resources, or comfort for the benefit of the community can create a strong sense of connection and commitment among individuals. the connectivity of devotees during aláwòrò-ẹkùn ritual festival bring love among member. passing round of left offer of sacramental meals at the shrine for members to have a taste served as bond and covenant among them. they have very strong belief in the word “a ti jọ jẹ lórí ewé” meaning we have together eating from the same pot with this it is a taboo for them to betray each other. this thus help keep peace in the society. gathering where something like this is made possible with this type of beliefs and intentions, peace and stability will certainly present be agreed on by every member of the family. this has prevented the community from land dispute, boundary conflict and other instability. if this aspect of aláwòrò-ẹkùn devotees’ practice is emulated by all communities in the country, many of the crisis generated from land issues, boundary and the likes would have been prevented and the country would have been stabled. all these teaches are considered divine laws and they provide a moral compass for believers, and adherence to these teachings is believed to bring stability and order to the arárọ̀mí-àlè. aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity rituals as a solution to regional instability offering sacrifices to the deities is not peculiar to àwórì people of lagos state alone, it is a general act at the shrine and well recorgnised by all religion. chief priest or priestess is the sacred one that offer the sacrifices to the deities or spiritual being. it can be in form of ritual meal or prayers items like kolanut, alligator paper, bitter kola, palm oil, honey, dry gin and so on. these items are offered in homage to gods as a means of appreciation for what god has done or with expectation of return. aláwòrò-ẹkùn sacrifice plays an important role in arárọ̀mí-ale town in badagry area of lagos state, nigeria. it serves as a means of strengthening social bonds, unbiased judgment, promoting a sense of unity and collective purpose, and expressing shared values and beliefs. these are in conformity with assertion of odejobi (2013) who says the traditional yoruba anti-graft approach is highly organised and prevents the innocent from oríkì aláwòrò-ẹkùn translation ọmọba aléjùgbè bí ìta the offspring of a king who poeses copiously like moon ọmọ aláwòrò-ẹkùn tí ń ṣọdẹ-fìrù-gbálẹ̀ the offspring aláwòrò ẹkùn that hunt sweeping the ground with its tail ọmọ alekoko-bí-ọṣán (òwú) the offspring who is as hard as string ọmọ a-ti-ṣaṣara-bomi the offspring he who deep hard brooms into the water ọmọ mẹ́mu mẹ́mu tèmi nìkan kọ́, tẹbí mi ni. the offspring of though shall not touch, it does not belong to me alone. it belongs to the family lineage. ọmọ ifẹ̀-oòyè níbi ojúmọ ti ń mọ́ wálé ayé the offspring of ifẹ̀ source where day breaks yéèpàà yéèpààà! … yéèpàà yéèpààà! table 3. aláwòrò-ẹkùn panegyric sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 257 in such community. 3. divine guidance it was revealed that devotees of aláwòrò-ẹkùn turned to their deities for guidance and wisdom in times of conflict. they turn to their deities for guidance to help them navigate conflicts and find peaceful resolutions through prayers, rituals, or meditation. the aláwòrò-ẹkùn statue, the òṣù and the ọ̀pá ọ̀rẹ̀rẹ̀ at the shrine are all-knowing and all-seeing, and their guidance are sought to resolve disputes or conflicts in a fair and just manner. on spiritual day or sacrifice day, the chief always consult the spiritual being at the aláwòrò-ẹkùn shrine by using a king of 4 faces kola-nut “obì àbàtà aláwẹ́ mẹ́rin” to ask about the activity of the day before embarking on it. the spiritual guidance given at the shrine through divinity served as guide on that day by given them instruction on what and what to do away with in order to make their community peaceful. the trust in this and adherent to instruction has been keeping arárọ̀mí-ale save from all forms of instability. 4. rituals and ceremonies for divine intervention arárọ̀mí-ale deity traditions include rituals and ceremonies that are performed to seek the intervention or blessings of deities in resolving conflicts. these rituals involve full dressing with white color materials, offerings sacrifice and other symbolic acts like the use of fresh palm wine to rinse sacrifices items. these rituals can be performed during times of instability or crisis to seek blessings, forgiveness, or divine intervention. these activities are believed to appease the deities and seek their intervention in resolving the conflict at hand. purification rituals during times of natural disasters or epidemic to seek the favor of the deities and restore balance are not left out from ritual practices. arárọ̀mí-ale rituals and ceremony serve as a way for individuals to express their emotions and seek solace during times of conflict, which contribute to their psychological well-being and aid in conflict resolution and prevent instability in the society. 5. moral teachings aláwòrò-ẹkùn deities belief systems provide moral teachings and principles that devotees adhere to in order to resolve conflicts. these teachings emphasize values such as forgiveness, compassion, empathy, and tolerance, which guide them in resolving conflicts in peaceful and constructive ways. it includes teachings on conflict resolution and peaceful coexistence. aláwòrò-ẹkùn deities teaches also offers religious education to devotees and this help them to understand the teachings, beliefs, and practices of other religions. this help to reduce ignorance and misunderstandings that can lead to religious conflict and instability. people found at aláwòrò-ẹkùn shrine has muslim and christian religion names, yet they join in ritual festival and sacrifices. this shows high level religious tolerance in the community. aláwòrò-ẹkùn chief priest promote dialogue and understanding between different members and in arárọ̀mí-ale. bringing people together and promoting peaceful solutions to conflicts, had help to reduce tensions and promote stability. the idea of interfaith dialogue involving open and respectful communication between people of different religions is another teaches of aláwòròẹkùn devotees. this help them to reduce tensions between different religious groups and create a greater sense of understanding and tolerance. iv. conclusion this paper is on adoption of ritual and poetry of aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity in combating regional instability in nigeria. in region where there is conflicts and instability, rituals and poetry of their deity could potentially serve as a means of promoting unity and understanding among different groups. by sharing common themes and experiences through poetry, individual from different backgrounds would be able to build empathy and find common ground. it is important to recognize that adopting ritual poetry as a means of solving regional instability would not be a onesize-fits-all solution. findings from the study affirms that aláwòròẹkùn deity is the pillar of peaceful co-existence and unity in arárọ̀mí-ale and ọ̀jọ́ community. it was also revealed that poetry used during the rituals serves as a means of communicating with deity to fish out traitors and the aggrieved ones before sacrifices. the study showed that aláwòròẹkùn deity had played crucial roles right from the ancestral period by ensuring safety of ọ̀jọ́, arárọ̀mí-ale community and its environment from rubbers, kidnapers, terrorist and epidemic. offering sacrifices to aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity had also assisted in keeping arárọ̀mí-ale free of conflict and instability through promoting values and beliefs, building solidarity, divine guidance, divine sanni rifqat opeyemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 258 intervention, moral teachings, mediation and arbitration, faith and hope, divine justice deity and so on. this can also be extended to the neighboring communities, states and nigeria at large if accepted. this study has been able to add to the existing body of knowledge in its enlightenment of importance of sacrifices and deity poetries in yorubaland as against a mere spiritual purpose attached to the aláwòròẹkùn’s deity. recommendation the paper therefore recommended that; • the practice of using traditional deity that is focused on peacemaking in our society be encouraged and practiced instead of saying “i reject it in jesus name” or “hausubillahi mina shaitọni rọjeem” as proudly said by the fanatics christians and muslims. • also, the poetry of deities like aláwòròẹkùn in our community be learnt and the thematic content be put into consideration for peaceful coexistence in the society. • people should be encouraged to settle misunderstanding immediately as unresolved misunderstanding will affect our communication will god. unresolved issues can also lead to communal or regional instability. • the use of traditional means like black palm wine in aláwòrò-ẹkùn deity to prevent or cure epidemic should be encouraged. if this has been in use, it would have helped during ebola, lassa fever and covid19 virus outbreak in the country. if all the above is put in practice and little quarrels are settled on time, issue of kidnapping, banditry and hired assassin will be a thing of the past because the aggrieved ones would have been appealed to. if other societies accept this idea and use the available similar deities in their communities the way aláwòrò-ẹkùn is being used, nigeria will be free of all forms of anomalies. references adeyeri, s. 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(2021). ìtúpalẹ̀ ewì aláwòrò-ẹkùn láàrin àwọn àwórì. yorùbá studies review. florida online journal. vol. 6(1). https://journals.flvc.org resource persons no name age address occupation date 1 aba ìbíkúnlé ajọsẹ (chief priest) 64 oshuku alále palace, arárọ̀mí-ale, lagos state, nigeria. king/ business man 15/01/2020 2. chief samuel ebenezer 73 oshuku compound, arárọ̀mí, lagos state, nigeria farmer 15/01/2020 3 àìná ṣàǹgódínà ìdéwú (ìyálóde) 58 ìdéwú compound, arárọ̀mí, lagos state, nigeria business woman 15/01/2020 4 amínat sádíkù (erelú) 46 market road, badagry, lagos state, nigeria. fashion designer 15/01/2020 el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 373 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 29, 2024 final revision: september 14, 2024 accepted: september 18, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 scholarly interest in the interplay between metacognition and language learning has notably surged. the expanding corpus of literature uniformly acknowledges the pivotal role that metacognitive knowledge occupies within the framework of language education. precisely, the metacognitive awareness concerning english as a foreign language (efl) learning strategies empowers learners to supervise, regulate, and optimize their educational endeavors. metacognitive knowledge encompasses an awareness of one’s linguistic proficiency and the strategies pertinent for its enhancement. equally, a deficiency in such awareness poses significant impediments to the language learning trajectory. against this backdrop, the present study probes the nexus between metacognitive knowledge and language learning. the specific objective of the current study is to explore the correlation between efl college students’ english writing proficiency and their writing metacognitive awareness. in order to reach this goal, a language proficiency test in writing and a metacognitive awareness writing questionnaire (mawq) were employed to collect the data. the participants in the study included 94 university students belonging to the department of english studies at the faculty of letters and human sciences of meknes and the higher school for training and education of kenitra. to analyze the collected data, the study made use of various statistical tools, including simple linear regression and pearson product-moment correlation. the results of the explored connection presented that there is a significant positive relationship between students’ writing performance and their metacognitive awareness of writing, with a ρ -value of 0.793. the results also showed that writing metacognitive awareness could predict 62% of the variability in writing ability. this study has also precipitated a range of implications related to pedagogy and methodology, alongside recommendations for teachers of english, syllabus designers, academic english studies departments, and coming scholarly inquiries. keywords language learning, metacognition, writing, metacognitive awareness, witing strategies correspondence e-mail: e.elmadani@edu.umi.ac.ma article the relationship between writing proficiency in english and metacognitive awareness of writing strategies among efl university students el mehdi el madani1, mohammed larouz2, mustapha fagroud3, zayneb saadallah4 1,2,4department of english studies, school of arts and humanities, meknes, morocco 3national school of agriculture, meknes, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.373-383.2024 i. introduction it has been taken as an ideal view that metait has been taken as an ideal view that metacognitive knowledge is a key affecting factor in language learning, in the sense that it provides learners with cognitive support to monitor, control, and improve their learning processes (ridley et al., 1992). in fact, it has been emphasized that writing is fundamentally a problem-solving task that includes various processes (hyland, 2015). metacognitive awareness of learning strategies paves the path for learners to understand how to learn best, what strategies function better, and being able to adjust their learning method grounded on self-reflection (martinez, 2006). in this regard, anderson (2012) states that “metacognition results in critical but healthy reflection and evaluation of one’s thinking which may result in making specific changes in el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 374 how one learns” (p.170). this implies that being cognizant of one’s thinking system brings about vital realization and awareness of one’s own behaviors, which usually leads to improvement and development. in fact, once a learner acquires and achieves higher levels of metacognitive knowledge in a language, a cognitive metalinguistic foundation is spontaneously created in his mind to foster the incorporation of this specific language (martinez, 2006). moreover, language learners to take control of their learning process are empowered via metacognitive knowledge. the nature of language writing skill has also been determined referring to the concept of attention in the process of writing (kim, tian, & crossley, 2021). in this vein, attention has extensively been identified as an indispensable resource level of the cognitive processing in language writing. it is depicted as the “selection of information for further processing, and attention as effort devoted to maintaining performance on a task” (sanders, 1998 cited in kim, tian, & crossley, 2021, p.2). moreover, being cognizant of cognitive strengths and weaknesses puts learners in the best position to make well-versed decisions about strategies, decide on achievable goals, monitor their development, and adjust their approaches as needed (martinez, 2006). this self-awareness and flexibility contribute to more effective and efficient language learning. in a similar vein, learners with strong metacognitive skills can regulate the planning of their own learning (martinez, 2006). they can set realistic goals, manage their time effectively, and adjust their efforts based on their understanding of their progress. the concepts of metamemory and metacomprehension are vital key components of metacognition and play similarly important roles in the process of language learning (martinez, 2006). the effectiveness of comprehension, whether in reading or listening, can be successful or unsuccessful. regardless of the actual level of comprehension learners attain, a crucial factor is their metacognitive awareness—their ability to recognize whether their comprehension is adequate or not (martinez, 2006). research indicates that this self-assessment can sometimes be significantly inaccurate. in this regard, martinez (2006) states that “believing that one understands when one does not is a serious and common error. but even more serious is when students don’t even consider whether they comprehend but simply take notes or read mechanically” (p.697). in the moroccan educational context, most university students have inaccurate judgements and visions about their own language strengths and weaknesses (el madani & larouz, 2020). the absence of an awareness of students’ level in english and an adequate knowledge about english language learning strategies brings about difficulties in the development of language skills. hence, this forms the gap on which the present study intends to investigate. moreover, there has been an academic interest in the topic and many empirical studies have been conducted investigating the nexus between metacognition and writing proficiency. despite the importance of metacognitive knowledge and writing proficiency, there is a lack of research exploring this relationship within the moroccan educational context, particularly where english is learned as a foreign language, thus motivating the present study. in fact, there is a consensus in the literature that metacognitive knowledge significantly influences both the process and the outcomes of language writing (wang et al, 2009). when engaging in writing tasks, learners with a strong grasp of metacognition can plan their writing process, regulate their cognitive efforts, and reflect on the effectiveness of their compositions. that is, learners who integrate metacognitive strategies into their writing process tend to produce more refined and effective written pieces (farahian, 2015). several studies have been conducted investigating the relationship between writing and metacognitive knowledge. most of the studies conducted were empirical in nature in the sense that they have employed scientific measurements and field work to explore the theoretically assumed nexus between writing and writing metacognitive awareness. in fact, the majority of practicum-based research on this matter has agreed that writing ability is fundamentally influenced by metacognitive awareness of writing strategies. the following is a brief account of a number of empirical studies that have scrutinized the correlation between the previously mentioned constructs. balta (2018) conducted a study which aimed at exploring the correlations among students’ proficiency in writing argumentative texts, their levels of writing anxiety, and their metacognitive awareness. the metacognitive awareness inventory el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 375 and the writing anxiety scale designed by yaman (2010) were employed for data collection. the students’ argumentative essays were assessed using the argumentative essay rubric, specially devised for this study. the findings indicated that students displayed inadequate argumentative text writing skills. notably, students with lower levels of writing anxiety presented greater success in composing argumentative texts in comparison to their peers with moderate and high anxiety levels. additionally, a modest and positive correlation between argumentative text writing skills and metacognitive awareness was identified. a significant correlation between writing anxiety and metacognitive awareness was also found. finally, balta’s study underlined that improving students’ writing anxiety and enhancing their metacognitive awareness could significantly boost their proficiency in argumentative writing. teng (2020) conducted a study to explore how two different types of group support, group feedback (gfg) and self-explanation (seg), could help chinese college students improve their english writing skills. a third group served as a control and did not receive any special support. the study looked at how these methods impacted students’ writing, their ability to use these skills in new situations, and their understanding of their own learning process (metacognition). the results showed that students receiving group feedback did the best overall, followed by the self-explanation group, and then the control group. additionally, the group feedback students showed clear evidence of using metacognitive strategies, understood the task well, and knew how to use different learning approaches. farsani, abdollahzadeh, and beikmohammadi (2019) took a different angle, looking at how selfregulated learning and metacognitive awareness connect with the ability to write persuasive arguments in english. they used questionnaires to measure these factors and also had iranian graduate students studying to teach english write arguments. interestingly, even though their model showed a good fit between these factors, the study could not prove that being more aware of your learning or being better at self-regulation directly led to better argumentative writing skills. in a preceding study, ferrari, bouffard, and rainville (1998) identified that proficient writers relied more significantly on metacognitive strategy knowledge (msk) and metacognitive skills in contrast to less proficient writers. proficient writers exhibited a delayed initiation of writing and demonstrated more accurate evaluations of text structure compared to their less skilled counterparts. 8 thereby achieving a higher standard of writing quality. furthermore, lin et al. (2007) conducted interviews to evaluate the metacognitive strategy knowledge of writers ranging from grade 2 to grade 8. their results indicated notable variations in metacognitive strategy knowledge across different grade levels and writing proficiencies. older students exhibited greater metacognitive strategy knowledge compared to younger peers, and skilled writers showcased a higher degree of metacognitive strategy knowledge in comparison to those with lower writing prowess. saddler and graham (2007) reported analogous findings for grade 4 students, which indicates that skillful writers possessed more extensive metacognitive strategy knowledge compared to less skillful ones, and disparities in metacognitive strategy knowledge corresponded to differences in writing performance. similarly, olinghouse and graham (2009) discovered a positive correlation between writing planning, metacognitive strategy knowledge, and writing performance in even younger students. as anticipated, grade 4 students exhibited more profound knowledge of substantive writing processes, higher motivation, and superior writing abilities than grade 2 students. in a longitudinal study involving college students, negretti (2012) utilized standardized learning journals to activate students’ metacognitive strategy knowledge regarding their writing processes. the results revealed a link between students’ metacognitive strategy knowledge, their perception of the task, and the quality of their self-assessment of writing outcomes. all in all, there are various empirical studies that have investigated the relationship between writing ability and metacognition. these studies collectively highlight the importance of metacognition in the writing process. they showcase how skilled writers engage in higherorder cognitive processes, which involve planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising their written work. moreover, these studies have implications for educational practices, emphasizing the significance of teaching metacognitive strategies to el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 376 researchers to examine participants on their writing skills based on many rubrics taken from previous writing examinations administered by practitioners of teaching writing. the test was a three-paragraph writing test and had one topic. the topic of the writing test was “covid-19 pandemic has done more harm than good to our regular lives”. the scoring rubrics for the test included taking into consideration the relevance of the content to the topic. special attention was also given to the coherence and organization of the written work. last, the correction procedures involved accounting for accurate grammar and mechanics. the metacognitive awareness writing questionnaire (mawq) is a tool to measure how efl learners use metacognitive strategies— thinking about their own thinking—during the writing process. it has three main parts: • planning: this covers how writers prepare for writing, like outlining, thinking about language choices, and setting goals. • monitoring: this looks at how writers check their work as they go, including aspects like word choice, topic development, revisions, time management, and grammar. • evaluating: this focuses on how writers assess their finished work. it looks at language quality, organization, content, and areas for improvement. essentially, the mawq provides a way to see how aware efl learners are of their own writing process, and how they use that awareness to improve their work. data analysis procedures the study’s data analysis involved a methodical approach using descriptive and inferential statistics. descriptive statistics summarized the sample and variables with means and standard deviations. pearson correlation and simple linear regression, as inferential statistics, tested hypotheses and examined relationships. the pearson correlation coefficient (r) measured the strength and direction of the linear relationship between variables. regression analysis quantified the impact of one variable on another, showing how changes in a predictor variable influenced changes in a response variable. this combined approach using correlation and regression allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the data, supporting or refuting the study’s hypotheses. enhance writing skills for learners at various levels of proficiency. ii. methods research design the current research endeavors to explore the correlation between metacognition and writing performance. this exploration necessitates testing instruments whose scoring rubrics generate numerical data, positioning this study firmly within the quantitative research paradigm. furthermore, it seeks to concurrently assess the writing skills of english learners and their metacognitive awareness of writing strategies, utilizing tests and inventories designed to produce a numerical dataset. these methodological considerations have led to the adoption of a quantitative cross-sectional correlational design. sample in this research, the focus was on junior university students belonging to the departments of english at the faculty of arts and human sciences of meknes and the higher school of training and education of kenitra. the rationale behind targeting such demographic was to assess metacognitive awareness of writing strategies among students who have been exposed to study skills courses that cover these fundamental techniques. the broad scope of all moroccan university students necessitated a practical approach to sampling due to the logistical challenges of encompassing all eligible individuals. consequently, non-random sampling was utilized for its practicality and relevance to the study’s needs. within the realm of non-random sampling, several methodologies exist, each requiring a rationale for their use. for this study, nonrandom convenience sampling was selected as the most suitable method. this decision was based primarily on the accessibility of participants and the feasibility of gathering the sample size within this specific student population. the final sample consisted of ninety-four third-year students, with a gender distribution of thirty males and sixty-four females. although the initial plan aimed to involve 130 students, practical constraints meant that only 119 were tested, and just 94 completed the two required tests. instruments the english writing test was devised by the el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 377 iii. results the results section aims to elucidate the correlation between students’ english writing performance and their writing metacognitive awareness. moreover, its primary objective is to address the research question and prove or challenge the associated hypothesis. presented below are the subsequent research question and corresponding directional hypothesis: rq: is there a correlation between participants’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies and their english writing proficiency? dh: there is a correlation between participants’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies and their english writing proficiency. the plain objective of this subsection is to explore the correlation between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness as quantitative variables. the latter were measured through tests and inventories that have yielded scores as numerical data. it is of worthwhile importance to mention that the dependent variable in this matter is writing ability, while the independent one is writing metacognitive awareness. to highlight the path and the strength of the correlation between these two quantitative variables, pearson product-moment correlation, along with a scatterplot were conducted and are displayed, described, and discussed in this subsection. moreover, this subsection accounts for regression analysis to determine the strength of the relationship between the dependent and independents variables and explore the predictive relationship between them. the following is the null hypothesis that this subsection investigates: nh: there is no correlation between participants’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies and their english writing proficiency. having scrutinized the aspect of normality distribution and confirmed that writing ability test scores are normally distributed, it is indispensable to account and check the linearity and homoscedasticity through the analysis of a scatterplot for the correlation between writing performance in english and metacognitive awareness of writing. figure 1 shows a scatter plot of the correlational relationship between writing ability (wa) and writing metacognitive awareness (wma) tests: figure 1 illustrates the scatterplot depicting the distribution of the data of the two quantitative variables under investigation. the data points are dispersed in a relatively uniform manner, forming an upward straight line. the initial observation suggests a linear relationship between writing performance and writing metacognitive awareness scores. this is visually supported by the consistent distance between data points and the line, and further reinforced by the r² linear value of 0.62, which indicates a substantial portion of the variance in writing performance can be explained figure 1. the scatterplot of the correlation between wa and wma tests el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 378 by metacognitive awareness. following this visual assessment, a pearson product-moment correlation test was employed to statistically confirm and quantify the strength of this observed relationship. table 1 shows the results of a correlation analysis, examining the connection between how well participants did on the english writing test and their scores on the questionnaire measuring their metacognitive awareness of writing (mawq). the correlation coefficient (ρ-value) of 0.79 shows a significant positive correlational relationship. this means that participants who scored higher on the mawq also tended to perform better on the writing test, suggesting a strong link between metacognitive awareness and writing performance. to further examine the existence or absence of a predictive correlation between writing as the dependent variable and metacognitive awareness of writing as the independent variable. in table 2, the values for r and r square are displayed and calculated. the r value, which represents the simple correlation, is determined to be 0.79. this value indicates a strong level of correlation between the variables. additionally, the r² value indicates the total variance in the dependent variable (writing performance) that can be explained by the independent variable (writing metacognitive awareness). the value presented in the table demonstrates that 62% of the variance in the dependent variable can be accounted for by the independent variable, indicating a substantial amount of variation. similarly, writing table 1. correlation between wa and wma tests writing test writing metacognition writingtest pearson correlation 1 ,793** sig. (2-tailed) ,000 n 94 94 writingmetacognition pearson correlation ,793** 1 sig. (2-tailed) ,000 n 94 94 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table 2. model summary for wa and wma model r r square std. error of the estimate 1 ,793a ,629 1,58898 table 3. anova for writing performance and writing metacognition model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 393,425 1 393,425 155,820 ,000b residual 232,288 92 2,525 total 625,713 93 a. dependent variable: writingtest b. predictors: (constant), writingmetacognition table 4. coefficients for writing performance and writing metacognition model b unstandardized coefficients t sig.std. error 1 (constant) 2,238 ,808 2,770 ,007 writingmetacognition ,163 ,013 12,483 ,000 writing performance = 2.238 + 0.163 * writing metacognitive awareness metacognitive awareness has been identified as a significant predictor, explaining 62% of the variability in writing ability. as can be seen, the anova test results for writing performance and writing metacognitive awareness are shown in table 3. the table displays results for how well the regression model and el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 379 equation suit and predict the dependent variable, writing ability. these results show that the sig value is 0.000 (p < 0.01), which indicates that the regression model predicted writing ability significantly well. more comprehensive details regarding the predictive relationship between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness, as well as the equation representing this relationship, can be found in table 4. the regression equation indicating the correlational relationship between writing performance and metacognitive awareness of writing is given as in this equation, the intercept is 2.238, indicating the expected writing ability when writing metacognitive awareness is zero. the coefficient for writing metacognitive awareness is 0.163, suggesting that for every one-unit increase in writing metacognitive awareness, writing performance is expected to increase by 0.163 units. the table provides additional statistical information related to the regression model. the standardized beta coefficient of 0.79 indicates that a one-unit variation of one standard deviation in students’ writing metacognitive awareness leads to a 0.79-unit variation in their writing ability. the t-test results, along with the significance value (t = 12.48, p < .001), imply that the beta coefficient is suggestively different from zero, indicating the statistical worth of this value. all in all, this study employed a multifaceted statistical approach to thoroughly examine the connection between students’ english writing performance and their metacognitive awareness of writing. the initial visual analysis using a scatterplot suggested a linear relationship, further confirmed by a strong positive correlation (ρ-value = 0.793) revealed through pearson correlation analysis. this highlighted a significant association between writing ability and metacognitive awareness. additionally, a bivariate simple linear regression analysis was employed to explore the predictive nature of the relationship between the variables. the findings demonstrated that students’ writing metacognitive awareness could account for 62% of the variance in their writing ability. furthermore, the results indicated that pupils with advanced levels of metacognitive awareness of writing were anticipated to be more proficient writers, and any variations in their writing metacognitive awareness would impact their writing performance. these results, derived from the correlation and regression analysis, provide valuable insights into the relationship between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness. iv. discussion the results of the research question in this studythe results of the research question in this study revealed a significant positive relationship between students’ scores in the writing performance in english test and their metacognitive awareness of writing strategies. furthermore, it was demonstrated that writing metacognitive awareness plays a crucial role in enhancing writing performance. this finding accepts the research hypothesis of the study, which proposes that there is a relationship between students’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies and their english writing ability. the results suggest that the metacognitive knowledge on writing contributes to the development of english writing skills. importantly, this finding is consistent with previous empirical studies that have also acknowledged the positive relationship between writing metacognitive awareness and writing ability. this strong positive relationship between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness has theoretically and empirically been confirmed in multiple previous studies. flower and hayes (1981) assert that writing metacognition boosts students’ knowledge and awareness of their own writing processes, strategies, and the ability to monitor and regulate their writing behavior. it involves understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses, setting goals, planning, revising, and reflecting on the writing process. in fact, effectively overseeing and controlling one’s own writing process constitutes a central element of proficient self-regulated academic writing (hacker et al., 2009; zimmerman & risemberg, 1997; cited in karlen, 2017). according to resnick (1987), the process of writing, similar to other cognitive tasks involving complex problem-solving, necessitates a range of cognitive ‘processes to keep track of one’s own understanding, to initiate review or rehearsal activities when needed, and to deliberately organize one’s attention and other resources in order to learn something’ (p. 17, cited in farsani, abdollahzadeh, & beikmohammadi, 2019). another vital study was conducted by sun el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 380 and zhang (2020) in which he investigated the relationship between english writing ability and writing metacognitive strategies. the results indicated that writing metacognitive strategies such as advanced planning and selective attention were found to be important factors in influencing students’ english writing. moreover, graham and harris (2000) drew the conclusion that selfregulated learning and metacognitive awareness are key factors in learners’ writing performance. these elements are believed to contribute to the development of learners’ competence and enhance their performance in writing tasks. in a study conducted by wu (2006) involving chinese efl students, the focus was on exploring the sort, components, and features of metacognitive experiences in writing. the researchers employed various empirical methods, including a horizontal study, a longitudinal study, and a large-scale questionnaire. the findings indicated that metacognitive teaching had a encouraging impact on learners’ metacognitive practices and their efl writing abilities. similarly, nguyen and gu (2013) conducted a study aiming to enhance the writing skills of vietnamese university efl students through strategy-based metacognitive training. the participants underwent nine training sessions focused on metacognitive strategies. both quantitative and qualitative data analysis demonstrated that the learners who received the training were more inclined to engage in selfregulation during writing tasks compared to those in the other two groups who did not receive the training. in another study by teng (2016) including chinese tertiary-level efl students, three groups were formed: one group receiving metacognitive teaching plus cooperative learning, another group receiving metacognitive teaching only, and a control group. the results indicated that the group getting metacognitive teaching plus cooperative learning exhibited the most significant development in both writing skills and metacognitive regulation. taken together, these pieces of research provide evidence for the positive effects of metacognitive instruction on learners’ metacognitive experiences, self-regulation, and overall writing performance in various efl contexts. as far as the findings of the research question of the present research are concerned, the linear relationship between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness, based on a scatterplot analysis, suggests that as a learner’s writing metacognitive awareness increases, their writing ability also increases proportionally. this implies that learners with higher metacognitive awareness are more likely to possess stronger writing abilities in the context of their writing process. the ‘planning process’ of metacognition encapsulates three subprocesses namely, ‘generating’, ‘organizing’ and ‘goal-setting’. the major role of the planning process is to “establish a writing plan from (1) domain knowledge retrieved from long term memory, and (2) information extracted from the task environment” (alamargot & chanquoy, 2001; p.5). therefore, students are better equipped to monitor and control their writing performance, set appropriate goals, and engage in effective planning and revision strategies. since writing metacognitive awareness encapsulates being conscious of one’s writing goals, monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of writing strategies, and making adjustments as needed, it is a crucial aspect of effective writing, as it allows students to regulate their cognitive processes, self-reflect, and improve their writing skills. that is, the strong positive relationship between students’ writing ability and their writing metacognitive awareness can be explained by the fact that metacognitive awareness plays a vital role in the development of writing skills. when students are aware of their thinking processes and strategies while writing, they are better equipped to selfregulate, reflect on their writing goals, evaluate their progress, and make necessary adjustments to improve their writing. by employing effective metacognitive strategies, students can enhance their planning, drafting, revising, and editing skills, leading to improved overall writing ability. additionally, students with high writing ability may naturally exhibit a greater level of metacognitive awareness, as they have already developed effective writing strategies through practice and experience. conversely, students with lower writing ability may benefit from explicit instruction and guidance in developing metacognitive awareness to enhance their writing skills. with reference to the predictive relationship found between writing ability and writing metacognitive awareness, copious studies provide empirical evidence supporting this relationship. in a el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 381 study by li and zhang (2021), a positive correlation was found between metacognitive awareness and writing performance among chinese university students. similar findings were reported by huang and zhang (2020), who found that metacognitive awareness significantly predicted the writing performance of english as a second language (esl) students. the fact that 62% of the variance in students’ writing ability can be accounted for by their writing metacognitive awareness implies a strong predictive relationship between these two factors. in other words, students who have advanced levels of metacognitive awareness tend to have better writing abilities. this finding suggests that metacognitive awareness plays a significant role in shaping and influencing students’ writing performance. the large percentage of variance accounted for (62%) indicates that writing metacognitive awareness is a substantial contributor to writing ability. this suggests that students who are aware of and consciously control their thinking processes during writing tasks, such as planning, organizing, monitoring, and evaluating their writing, are more likely to exhibit improved writing skills. this predictive relationship aligns with theoretical perspectives, such as the socio-cognitive model of writing, which emphasize the influence of metacognitive processes on writing performance. it suggests that students with higher metacognitive awareness engage in more effective planning, revising, and self-regulatory strategies, leading to better writing outcomes. the results, on one hand, supported flavell’s theory of metacognition that suggests that metacognition involves monitoring and controlling cognitive processes. the results of the present study supported the application of this theory in the context of writing. this reinforced the idea that metacognition plays a crucial role in enhancing writing cognitive skills. furthermore, the study contributed to the theoretical convention of the connection between writing proficiency and metacognitive awareness. finding a positive strong correlation provided empirical evidence that supported the fact that learners who showcase a higher level of metacognitive awareness regarding their writing process tend to be more capable at writing. the relationship between writing proficiency and metacognitive awareness yielded contributions for the existing literature on educational psychology. the findings highlighted the importance of teaching and fostering metacognitive skills alongside writing instruction. this aligns with the idea that students can become more effective writers by not only improving their writing techniques but also by becoming more aware of their writing strategies. moreover, applying this concept to writing highlights the importance of students’ ability to monitor and regulate their writing processes. through their awareness of their thought patterns, planning strategies, and self-evaluation techniques during writing, students can make informed decisions about how to approach different writing tasks more effectively. on another hand, the findings of the relationship between writing and metacognition triggered contributions for the field of education. these findings could influence writing pedagogy by encouraging a shift from solely focusing on grammar and style to emphasizing metacognitive processes. teachers can integrate activities that prompt pupils to reflect on their writing choices, set objectives, and evaluate their development, leading to more effective writing development. additionally, assessment practices can be refined based on the findings. that is, evaluating students’ writing proficiency might involve assessing not only the final written product but also their understanding of their own writing processes. this could be achieved through self-assessment, reflective writing tasks, or interviews where students discuss their writing strategies. iv. conclusion significant findings and discussions have been yielded for the analysis of the research question in this research endeavor. the examination of the scatterplot visually showed a linear association between participants’ writing performance and their awareness of metacognitive processes during writing. this finding implies that students with advanced levels of metacognitive awareness are more likely to exhibit better writing skills. the principal implications of this relationship emphasize the importance of promoting metacognitive awareness through explicit instruction, which has the potential to enhance writing abilities. furthermore, the results have highlighted observed evidence supporting a significant positive correlation between writing ability and metacognitive awareness of writing strategies. lastly, the results discussed within el mehdi el madani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 382 this relationship underscore the vital role of metacognitive awareness in foreseeing pupils’ writing abilities. participants with advanced levels of metacognitive awareness tend to be proficient in writing. ethics statement this study confirms that the relevant informed consent was obtained from the participants. credit author statement el mehdi el madani: collected data, administered the test and questionnaire, developed the methodology, analyzed data, drafted the manuscript, and revised the content; mohammed larouz: supervised, validated, critically reviewed, wrote, and edited the manuscript; mustapha fagroud: critically reviewed, wrote, and edited the manuscript; zayneb saadallah: proofread, wrote, and edited the manuscript. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references alamargot, d., & chanquoy, l. 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(2021). integrating active learning activities and metacognition into stem writing courses. advances in physiology education, 45(4), 902-907. brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 1 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t recieved: january 10, 2022 final revision: march 31, 2022 available online: may 10, 2022 this paper uses critical discourse analysis (cda), particularly theo van leeuwen’s socio-semantic inventory, to discover the discursive representations of the social actors in the u.s. state department’s coverage of amazighs’ struggle for their linguistic and cultural rights in its annual reports on human rights practices in morocco, between 1999 and 2020. the data comprises 21 texts with 5796 words. these are the content of the ‘national/ racial/ ethnic minorities’ section within the pertinent reports, available on the state department’s online database. the investigated section follows the section of ‘persons with disabilities’. the findings show that the amazigh issue has not been reported with careful attention; inaccurate information has, for instance, been detected. the inclusion representational categories are predominantly used; differentiation and categorization are given special weight, compared to the strategies of genericization, individualization, objectivation, and assimilation. assigning distinctive prominence to two groups aims to emphasize the persistent ‘conflict’ in morocco between the disempowered amazigh activists and the empowered moroccan ‘authorities’. the exclusion representational categories, on the other hand, specifically backgrounding and nominalization, are also heavily employed to mystify agency in critical situations, mainly when the related social actors are ‘the authorities’. the study concludes that the representation of the social actors is influenced by the ideological stances and agenda of the u.s. state department. keywords amazigh, critical discourse analysis, human rights reports, morocco, social actors, u.s. state department correspondence e-mail: b.aitlaaguid@edu.umi.ac.ma articles amazigh in morocco through the lens of the u.s. state department’s reports between 1999 and 2020: a critical discourse analysis brahim ait laaguid1 under liscense of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.1.1-16.2022 1. introduction the u.s. state department’s coverage of the amazigh issue in its annual human rights reports on morocco has been academically overlooked. other issues though have relatively been discussed. criticism has been laid at the content of the reports since their very initial publications. it has for example been claimed that a report on morocco “obscures a very serious situation by overt omissions and by minimizing severe problems and maximizing the effects of small changes” (ahmad & schaar, 1978, p. 15). the moroccan government has also contended that there is bias, fallacies, allegations and inaccurate data in the reporting of human rights practices in morocco (“morocco strongly criticizes washington’s report”, 2016). there is in fact no tangible evidence confirming or disconfirming the prior claims. this paper theorizes that the required evidence should be linguistic and respective of the broader context of the texts’ production. critical discourse analysis (cda) is the appropriate approach to do so. it provides one with a set of analytical tools. it is a democratic approach tending to make a change by criticizing any sort of inequalities, be them social or political. it decodes, deconstructs, and exposes the ideologies and power relations hidden in a certain text. it is particularly about discovering the critically significant devices used in a discourse to manipulate language use (fairclough, 2014; wodak, 1989; van dijk, 1993). 1faculty of arts & humanities,moulay ismail university, meknes, morocco brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 2 this article is therefore a cda study of the section entitled ‘national/racial/ethnic minorities’ in the u.s. state department’s human rights reports on morocco since 1999 till 2020. the data has been retrieved from the state department’s official website (www.state.gov/reports-bureauof-democracy-human-rights-and-labor/countryreports-on human-rights-practices/) consisting of 21 texts presumed to describe human rights violations against amazigh in morocco. as to the writing process of the reports, it is the state department’s bureau of democracy, human rights, and labor (drl) that is responsible for the coordination and issuance of reports. the embassy officers then write initial drafts for each country and the drl staff, in agreement with other offices and embassies, edit the reports. the office of the secretary of state and national security council (nsc) staff may also intervene in the editing and reviewing process (weber, 2021). it has been suggested that the state department’s evaluation of human rights practices reflects the u.s. foreign policy’s ideological agenda and serves its international interests (kuosmanen, 2021). this paper aims to contribute to critical understanding and discourse analysis of the state department’s human rights discourse. it, more specifically, aims to discover the specific representations of the social actors involved in the reports, by extracting the different representational categories employed therein. the paper also intends to expose the ideologies hidden in the representations to verify the neutrality and objectivity of the reports’ producers. a general overview of the status of amazigh in morocco imazighen1 are the indigenous people of north africa whose existence goes way before the modern arab society (macdonald, 2021). they are also known as berbers, but they find this term derogatory. people with amazigh background are mostly present in morocco, algeria, tunisia, and libya. smaller minorities, however, live in mauritania, burkina faso, mali, niger, and egypt. this community has survived “punic, roman, byzantine, vandal, arab, ottoman, french, italian, and spanish invasions and settlement” (ilahiane, 2006, p. 5). they speak tamazight, which is a 1it is the plural form of amazigh. it means ‘free people’. branch of the afro-asiatic language family. it encompasses about forty languages spoken in the region (lafkioui, 2018). in morocco, more particularly, the standard language is amazigh. it combines three major varieties. these are tarifit, tamazight, and tashelhit (from north to south). notably, tamazight, as a name, is used for both the language family and the moroccan amazigh language variety spoken in the middle alas. arabs, on the other hand, constitute another ethnic group in morocco. they came from the arabian peninsula in the eighth century. they brought a different ethno-linguistic identity, a new language, arabic, and a new religion, islam (bret & fentress, 1996). morocco was not colonized, especially by the french occupier, from 1912 till 1956, without enough attention to the local languages. the french occupation authorities had to look for ways to make morocco’s linguistic bilingualism (amazigh and moroccan arabic) a problem rather than a favorable rich diversity. for this reason, the colonizer publicized a biased narrative seeking to partition morocco as a decree (dahir) was issued in 1930 aiming to formalize two different legal systems in morocco, the islamic law for arabs, and local customary laws for imazighen (hart, 1997; masbah, 2011). gradually, french has had a powerful presence around the country to the point that it has become a language of prestige and advancement (reino, 2007). the post-colonial morocco has been characterized with linguistic diversity. it has a complex sociolinguistic situation, consisting of standard arabic, french, amazigh, and moroccan colloquial arabic. since the independence of the country in 1956, two ideologies have dominated: the ‘francophonie’ and arabization. the latter was claimed to be the state’s strategy to gradually minimize the presence of the french language, reinforce the use of arabic and hence maintain morocco’s national unity (marley, 2004; sadiqi, 2011). the former, on the other hand, is represented by the french language’s authority and supremacy in various domains of public life (alalou, 2006). for decades, amazigh language and identity have been subject to extreme forms of brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 3 marginalization and exclusion. amazigh was for a long time confined to oral communication. it was considered inferior and no more than a vernacular. amazigh has then been minoritized for social and political reasons (boukous, 2012). since late 1960s, the amazigh cultural movement2 has defended the amazigh linguistic and cultural rights. it has been the representative of the amazigh community in its struggles towards official recognition and institutional access (fisher, 2011). however, ever since the beginning of the twenty-first century, amazigh language and culture have been undergoing a process of revitalization. in 2001, the royal institute for amazigh culture (ircam) was established. in 2003, amazigh was introduced for the first time into morocco’s educational system. in the subsequent years, the language has been moderately present in the media scene and, more importantly, recognized as a coofficial language alongside arabic in the 2011 constitution (boukous, 2012). there has been a drafted organic law 2616 (art. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) intended to define the stages of the amazigh language activation and the modalities of its integration into public life. this law has been neglected until recently. in 2019, the parliament approved the activation of the official character of the language. despite these humble attempts to promote the language and attain linguistic equity, amazigh’s ethnolinguistic vitality is still latent. it has been argued that the regression and deceleration to develop the amazigh language are a direct result of the state’s lack of genuine will (el kirat & boussagui, 2017; errihani, 2006; idhssaine & el kirat, 2019; idhssaine, 2020; marley, 2004). critical discourse analysis critical discourse analysis is a multidisciplinary field that draws from different areas of study. it is principally “a perspective on critical scholarship: 2 it is a movement that has been instrumental to the strengthening of civil society and democracy in morocco and algeria. its activists call for the promotion and integration of amazigh into different aspects of public life (ennaji, 2019). a theory and a method of analysing the way that individuals and institutions use language” (richardson, 2007, p 1–2). it views language use not only as a product of society but also as a ‘social practice’, considering the ‘context of language use’ to be crucial. van dijk (1997) argues that cda is not just another form of academic analysis and that it aspires to take the side of those who suffer from linguistic-discursive forms of domination and exploitation. scholars of cda maintain that the ultimate objective of doing cda is what they call ‘social emancipation’. chouliaraki and fairclough (1999) rely on habermas’ concept of emancipatory knowledge interest, which aims “to free oneself from ideologically frozen relations of dependence which can in principle be transformed” (chouliaraki and fairclough, 1999, p. 29). however, critical analysis is not mechanical. meanings are not produced in a vacuum. it would otherwise be insufficient to just extract the discursive strategies from the texts, without considering the wider context. for instance, the speeches delivered by politicians and the reports issued by ngos are influenced by the institutions these discourse producers belong to. they do so in socially determined ways that have social impacts and implications (fairclough, 1989). language thus is constructive and shapes the social structures and the representations of social actors. huckin (1997) claims that the primary activity of critical discourse analysis is the close and deep analysis of written or oral texts considered to be politically or culturally influential to a given society. the analysis process requires explanation rather than just stating the linguistic features used in the text. the textual analysis goes through three levels: description, interpretation, and explanation (fairclough, 1989). the first level helps accumulate linguistic evidence displaying ideology and power, by describing the linguistic strategies employed in the text. the second level relates the kind of language used in the text to its meanings in the wider context, whereas at the third level, the analyst explains why the discourse is as it is, how it is closely connected to the social structures and practices, and what change it makes. in other words, the analyst asks why the social actors are represented in a specific way (fairclough, 2014). accordingly, this paper brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 4 draws on the different socio-political conditions of the amazigh issue’s coverage by the u.s. state department. the ideological implications of this institution’s representation of the involved social actors can only be shown through a thorough analysis of the employed manipulative discursive strategies. the u.s. state department’s reports the state department’s reports are claimed to be prepared by different institutions, including the department’s bureau of democracy, human rights, and labor (drl), embassies, the secretary of state, and the national security council (nsc). the information sources relied on include “nongovernmental organizations (ngos), press reports, academic and congressional studies, international organizations, governments, and alleged victims of human rights abuses” (weber, 2021, p. 2). the state department has been annually publishing its human rights reports since 1976. by 2019, two hundred countries have been covered (kuosmanen, 2021). some of these countries have heavily criticized the u.s. foreign policy over the years for its bias in reporting human rights violations (de neufville, 1986). different ngos have also criticized the reports for redefining the international law and representing a narrow scope of human rights in a way that lends full authority to the u.s. (mcmahon, 2009). the u.s.’ foreign policy has its own perspectives and worldviews. it tries to influence large audiences in order to shape their opinions and attitudes. its defense of human rights serves its own ideological purposes, as the constructed discourse promotes the exceptional and perfect u.s. (kuosmanen, 2021). the relevant reports target different countries, therefore different communities and ethnicities. this paper aims to provide a critical understanding of the issued reports by deconstructing the institution’s discursive representation of amazigh as a specific minoritized linguistic group in morocco. it approaches linguistic features in a text as being ideologically leaden. this study thus hypothesizes that the texts’ producers who reported the events and developments of the amazigh issue favor one side over the other, manipulate and legitimize their opinions and actions (wenden, 2005). texts are ideological “in so far as they incorporate significations which contribute to sustaining or restructuring power relations” (fairclough, 1992, p. 91). most often, the text is constructed in such a way as to manipulate the reader into accepting a given idea, information, or opinion as an unquestionable reality. however, in a discourse, ideology is represented through textual, lexical, and grammatical elements (fairclough, 2010). this study seeks to answer the following broad question: how does the u.s. state department discursively represent the social actors in reporting the amazigh issue between 1999 and 2020? three secondary questions can then be formulated: 1. how are the discursive strategies used to represent the social actors? 2. what conclusions can be drawn from the representation of the social actors? 3. to what extent are the texts credible and objective? to answer these questions, and thus examine the representation of the involved social actors, specifically amazighs and the moroccan government, this paper uses cda techniques and theo van leeuwen’s socio-semantic approach. the analysis, more particularly, also draws from the methodologies of fairclough (2010, 2014) and van dijk (1997, 1998) in an attempt to reach a comprehensive understanding of the explored representations. 2. method 2.1. data collection and description the present study follows a qualitative approach. it depends on the whole corpus of reports on human rights practices in morocco, precisely the section on amazigh, between 1999 and 2020. it should be noted that there is a year of difference between each report’s date of publication and the actual year related to the issued content. for instance, the 2011 report is published in 2012. the sample overall consists of 21 reports, retrieved from the state department’s online database. as a representative of the united states and the department in charge of foreign policy issues, the brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 5 state department believes that it is providing a service to the world by documenting the status of human rights in almost every country. arguably, the department’s different offices and staff consider the issued reports as objective and comprehensive information made available to congress, activists, academics, and the general public. the rationale for selecting all the texts is conducting a detailed analysis to obtain substantial conclusions and findings, generate a comprehensive framework evaluative of the u.s. foreign policy and institutional discourse, and provide a critical contribution to the representations of the amazigh issue in the international context. particularly, an estimated amount of 5796 words, counting for the 20 reports (1999-2020), are collected for analysis, as shown in the following table: table 1: word counts for the ‘national/rational/ethnic minorities’ section in the u.s. state department’s reports on human rights practices in morocco (1999-2020). report word count % of total 1999 484 8.35 % 2000 515 8.88 % 2001 442 7.62 % 2002 210 3.62 % 2003 235 4.05 % 2004 217 3.74 % 2005 161 2.77 % 2006 171 2.95 % 2007 194 3.34 % 2008 411 7.09 % 2009 222 3.83 % 2010 204 3.51 % 2011 173 2.98 % 2012 191 3.29 % 2013 187 3.22 % 2014 188 3.24 % 2015 191 3.29 % 2016 216 3.72 % 2017 229 3.95 % 2018 216 3.72 % 2019 367 6.33 % 2020 372 6.41 % total 5796 100 % the term ‘report’ is used to refer to the section under investigation. each section is exemplified above by the number of words it is composed of as well as the corresponding percentage it represents in comparison to the overall word count of all the sections. out of the 5796 words (100%), for example, the 1999 section includes 484 words, hence 8.35 % of the total percentage. 2.2. data analysis the sampled data is analyzed following the techniques of critical discourse analysis and theo van leeuwen’s socio-semantic approach (1996, 2008). the latter is applied to show how the social actors are represented in the reports. it studies “how social and political inequalities are manifested in and reproduced through discourse” (wooffitt, 2005, p. 137). this model serves as an analytical tool necessary to reveal hidden ideologies through representations and discover how power relationships are unequally constructed or maintained. the texts are analyzed within the framework of cda at two levels. each text is analyzed individually, then, comparatively, to one, several, or all the other texts. the aim is to discover the dominant transformations, namely ‘repetitions’, ‘additions’, and ‘substitutions’, therefore examine the representation of the social actors by extracting the underlying discursive strategies. almost all the representational categories outlined in van leeuwen’s (1996) socio semantic inventory are found in the texts. they are illustrated in the following points: 1. inclusion and/ or exclusion: there are two forms of exclusion. the first one is radical or total suppression, which leaves no trace or does not make any sort of reference to the social actors anywhere in the text. the second type is less radical exclusion, also called backgrounding. by a process of inference or deduction of information, the excluded social actors can be found. however, nominalization is also a discursive strategy used for the purpose of excluding certain social actors. an instance of this process is when the noun phrase is used to downplay the social actor. 2. nomination and categorization: refer to social actors by their unique identities or by their roles or functions, respectively. brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 6 3. role allocation differentiates between activated and passivated roles. the former represents social actors as active and dynamic, while the latter represents them as objects (subjected), or as a third party that benefits from the activity, either positively or negatively. 4. genericization and specification: social actors can be represented as classes, as a way of generalization, or as specific, identifiable individuals. 5. assimilation and individualization: social actors are represented as groups or as individuals. the focus of this category is on social actors as single entities. assimilation includes aggregation and collectivization. the difference is that the first one qualifies groups of participants and treats them as statistics, whereas the second one does not. 6. utterance autonomization: it is a form of objectivation which is realized by metonymical reference. reference is made to social actors by means of their utterances. 7. classification refers to conditions where the social actors are represented in terms of the major categories by means of which different classes of people are differentiated, including age, gender, class, ethnicity, etc. 8. differentiation explicitly differentiates an individual social actor from a similar actor, creating the difference between the ‘self’ and the ‘other’. 9. determination and indetermination: the first refers to situations where the social actor’s identity is specified, whereas the second occurs when social actors are represented as unspecified, ‘anonymous’ individuals or groups. indetermination anonymizes social actors. 10. identification occurs when social actors are defined, not in terms of what they do, but in terms of what they, more or less permanently, or unavoidably, are. this part is organized into separate, yet interconnected sections. they are divided in terms of focused areas, while they are attached in the sense that they tackle the same general theme. for consistency reasons, the initial three sections are exclusively devoted to the 1999 report, as it provides the background text against which others are analyzed. 3.1. demands to integrate amazigh in the moroccan educational system 1educational reforms in the past decade have stressed the use of arabic in secondary schools (u.s. state department, 2000). this sentence includes the impersonalization strategy, namely objectivation through nominalization. the noun phrase, written in bold, replaces the agent, the social actor(s) who made the reforms, in order to give the latter a negative connotation. the reporter critiques the excluded social actor(s) and the negative effects of their activity by foregrounding and lending an impersonal authority to the reforms. the sentence also hides the whole picture. it does not adequately explain morocco’s educational situation at the time. education in the country was shaped by a near-complete dominance of the french language. the latter, at least then, became the language of instruction for experimental and natural sciences in universities’ curricula, whereas these sciences were taught in arabic in secondary schools. 2failure to transform the university system similarly effectively has disqualified many students from higher education in lucrative fields (u.s. state department, 2000). this is an example of ambiguity resulted from the nominalization process. the sentence has two possible readings. first, it is the process of ‘failure’ which is responsible for the disqualification of ‘many students from higher education in lucrative fields’. second, it is the social actor(s) who brought about the ‘failure to transform the university system’ that is responsible for this disqualification. nominalization is apparent in the use of the noun ‘failure’, instead of what caused or who is responsible for the act. the doer is thus excluded. it should be noted, however, that the preceding sentence (1) lacks the agent of the action while both sentences are about education. the sentence 3. results and discussion brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 7 (2) is but a continuation of the criticism laid at the issue. the two activities, ‘the educational reforms’ and the failure to change the university system, are produced by the same social actor(s): the moroccan government. the verb ‘to transform’ is used in its transitive form. we say to ‘transform something into something’ or ‘from something into something else’. in (2), we have the ‘what’, which is ‘the university system’, while the ‘from what into what’ is seemingly substituted with the adverb ‘similarly’. this adverb creates an ambiguity. however, it is, more likely, used to represent the replacement of the french language with arabic. there is also a case of generecization: ‘many students’. the aim is to intensify the severity of the failure and its direct undesirable outcomes. 3this especially is true among the poor, for whom french training is not always affordable (u.s. state department, 2000). the strategy of abstraction is employed. ‘the poor’ students are assigned the quality of being problematic and regarded as a special case. there are accordingly others among those ‘many students’ who have been disqualified from higher education in lucrative fields for other reasons, and not necessarily due to their financial status. the classification representational pattern is consequently used. there is a category of students who are poor and by extension another class which is advantageous and has the means to benefit from the french training and then opt for the profitable fields in higher education. 4some 60 percent of the population claim amazigh (berber) heritage (u.s. state department, 2000). the strategy of differentiation is used. it indicates that 60% of moroccan population is amazigh by origin, whereas only 40% represents other people from other origins. there is also the strategy of assimilation, precisely aggregation. it is used to qualify groups of people (amazigh) and treat them as statistics (60%). the purpose of it is to support the claim and present it as a fact. this representational category is realized by the use of the indefinite quantifier ‘some’. however, there seems to be a contradiction in the statement in relation to the focus of this study, which is the section of ‘national/ racial/ ethnic minorities’. the contradiction lies in the fact that 60% of the moroccan population claims amazigh, yet the u.s. state department considers amazighs a minority. it has been argued that the amazigh community has been minoritized due to the dominance of colonial and postcolonial ideologies (merolla, 2020). 5-amazigh cultural groups contend that amazigh traditions and the amazigh language (which consists of three dialects) are rapidly being lost (u.s. state department, 2000). the sentence includes an identification strategy, namely classification. the groups referred to, though it is not specified how many exactly they are, are classified as being amazigh and cultural. this is further an instance of association, whereby the relevant groups are not labeled in the text. passivation is also employed. what makes, to what or to whom ‘amazigh traditions and the amazigh language are being rapidly lost’ is excluded. 6their repeated requests to king hassan ii to permit the teaching of amazigh languages in the schools led to a 1995 royal speech authorizing the necessary curriculum changes; however, such changes have not yet been implemented (u.s. state department, 2000). the sentence starts with the plural pronoun ‘their’. the strategy of polarization through pronominalization is used. ‘their’ serves the function of demonstrating that there are two opposing polars: ‘amazigh cultural groups and the king hassan ii’. there are also the referential or determination strategy of nomination and the strategy of individualization. the king of morocco is referred to by name: ‘hassan ii’. this strategy results in creating, first, a difference (differentiation) between king hassan ii and amazigh cultural groups, and, second, a categorization between the social actor that received the act of request, and therefore who is powerful, and the other social actors that made the request. these are powerless. however, there is also the strategy of indetermination; the changes referred to are indeterminate. the representational pattern of genericization is employed as well: “such brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 8 of ‘amazigh cultural groups’ and ‘a number of amazigh associations’ to get their language and culture recognized by the ‘government’. they then state the reactions of the latter against these attempts. 10these associations claimed that the government refuses to register births for children with traditional amazigh names, discourages the public display of the amazigh alphabet, limits the activities of amazigh associations, and continues to arabize the names of towns, villages, and geographic landmarks (u.s. state department, 2000). the writer supports the previous statement by exemplifying the violations committed by ‘the government’ against the linguistic and cultural rights of the amazigh people. similar to example number (6), the use of the pronoun ‘these’ results in polarization. it indicates that there are two opposing sides: amazigh associations and the government. however, the objectivation discursive strategy of utterance autonomization is also used: ‘claimed’. the instances of violations provided in the sentence are stated by the amazigh associations referred to. 11the government thus far has made no response to the petition, although prime minister youssoufi acknowledged amazigh culture as an integral part of moroccan identity in a speech before parliament in april 1998 (u.s. state department, 2000, 2001). the representative of the government, the prime minister youssoufi, admitted that the amazigh culture is part of moroccan identity, yet there is no response from ‘the government’ to the petition already issued by several amazigh associations. in order to sound professional and ascribe power and authority to the identified social actors, the representational categories of individualization (nomination) and categorization (functionalization) are used. the prime minister youssoufi is referred to by both his occupation and surname. 3.3. past simple tense and lexical choices one striking remark about the 2002 text is changes”. it is not specified what those changes are. the writer thus foregrounds the fact that those ‘changes have not yet been implemented’. 7in september, teaching of the berber language began in 317 primary and secondary schools and plans call for the addition of other schools in the future (u.s. state department, 2004). the exact same paragraphs written in 2002 are repeated in 2003 with the addition of one sentence at the end of the report. surprisingly, the information is inaccurate. the amazigh language has never been taught in secondary schools. the 317 schools where the amazigh language was first taught in september 2003 were all elementary (sadiqi, 2011). 8in july in nador, the minister of territorial management (and number three official in the ruling usfp party) attended a conference on education in the amazigh language (u.s. state department, 2000). in sentence 8, the strategy of functionalization is used without nomination. the minister is referred to by his occupation: ‘the minister of territorial management’, and also by his role within the party he represents: “number three official in the ruling usfp party”. 3.2. the struggle of amazigh associations 9in 1996 a number of amazigh associations issued a communique petitioning the government to recognize their language as an official language and to acknowledge their culture as a part of moroccan society (u.s. state department, 2000). the sentence involves the representational category of differentiation. there are two different categories in struggle: ‘a number of amazigh associations’ and ‘the government’. there is however no specification as to how many these associations are. interestingly enough, in terms of lexical choices, two synonyms are used differently. while ‘to recognize’ means to appreciate and consider the amazigh language worthy of having an official status in morocco, ‘to acknowledge’ means to admit that the amazigh culture is part of the moroccan society. the writer criticizes the status quo by first foregrounding the attempts brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 9 french. ‘obtain’ and ‘access’ can be considered two verbs within the lexical field of possession. this field helps us understand the writer’s worldview which is associated with the unequal realities poor students in morocco endure. 3.4. the constitutionalization of the amazigh language the 2011 report starts with a repeated paragraph, but with some important changes, in comparison to the earlier texts. 16although the country is majority amazigh, rural areas that are predominantly amazigh are the poorest in the country. illiteracy in some areas runs as high as 80 percent, and authorities often do not provide basic governmental services. (u.s. state department, 2011, p. 34). 17-many of the poorest regions in the country--particularly the middle atlas region--are predominantly amazigh with illiteracy as high as 80 percent. basic governmental services in this mountainous and underdeveloped region were not extensive. (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). the focus at first is on the contradiction of the present state of affairs; the population in morocco is majority amazigh, but yet the poorest areas in the country are massively amazigh. illiterate amazighs in the ‘poorest regions’ are assimilated through aggregation. they are treated as a statistic (80 percent) in both (16) and (17). the purpose is to generate consensus opinion about the critical situation of human rights in morocco, especially among amazighs in rural areas. in a broader context, the report emphasizes the interrelatedness of different aspects of human rights. a special attention is drawn to the fact that no development of amazigh language and identity as citizenship rights would be possible without developing amazighs themselves as humans. this is exemplified in terms of the little provision of basic governmental services by the authorities to the pertinent areas. nevertheless, the phrase ‘as high as 80 percent’ in example 17 is changed to ‘higher than national average’ starting from 2016 till 2020. the report the ambiguous use of the past simple tense. “both french and arabic were used in the news media and educational institutions” (12) (u.s. state department, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007). it is perhaps chosen to highlight the fact that there is a change, especially that the amazigh status was reconsidered since the creation of the amazigh institute for amazigh culture (ircam) in 2001. there is also a sentence that is constantly edited: “the poor lacked the means to provide additional instruction in french to supplement the few hours per week taught in public schools” (13) (u.s. state department, 2003, 2004). the straightforward interpretation is that the poor students ‘did not have’ the means in the past, but now they do. the word ‘means’ itself creates a generalization; which ‘means’ exactly? money, transportation, or what? one more interpretation is that the past tense is used because there are no new events, changes, or developments; thus, a repetition of information already mentioned. one more instance of ambiguity the change of tense causes is seen in the following instance: 14a full page of a major national newspaper was devoted on a monthly basis to articles and poems on berber culture, which were printed in the berber language (u.s. state department, 2003, 2004). is this supposed to mean that after 2001, the full page of the major national newspaper, though there is actually no mention of this newspaper’s name so that we can verify the validity of the statement, is no longer devoted on a monthly basis to articles and poems on ‘berber culture opting for various lexical choices, compared to other texts, is also noted in some sentences. for instance, “the poor lacked the means to obtain additional instruction in french to supplement the few hours per week taught in public schools” (15) (u.s. state department, 2006). the verb to ‘access’, which is used in the same sentence in the 2004 text, is substituted with the verb to ‘obtain’. the fact that the writer uses many synonyms for the same signified means that they are preoccupied with the issue being tackled. that is to say, the writer is obsessed with the poor students not having the necessary means to get additional instruction in brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 10 avoids the statistical consideration by adopting a general comparison. there is a presupposition that readers know the national average of illiteracy in morocco. this manipulative linguistic choice is ideologically driven. there is a tendency to intensify the impact of illiteracy on amazighs’ status in the country. in 2011, on the other hand, there is a generecization whose aim is to emphasize the inclusiveness of the exercised marginalization: “many of the poorest regions in the country” (u.s. state department, 2012, national/racial/ethnic minorities section, par. 1). unlike example (16), in quote (17), an instance of the marginalized regions is given: ‘the middle atlas’. conclusively, with no mention of ‘authorities’, through passivation and nominalization, the writer, seemingly, blaming the responsible, puts a particular weight on the reality of inadequacy and shortage of required services in ‘this mountainous and underdeveloped region’. however, the use of the past simple tense in ‘were not extensive’, while the case may still exist in the present time, leads to ambiguity. a key development took place in 2011, and the writer foregrounds it in the related report. the new constitution considers amazigh a coofficial language of morocco, ‘after’ arabic: “official languages are arabic and--with the new constitution—amazigh” (18) (u.s. state department, 2012, national/racial/ethnic minorities section, par. 2). the writer states the predomination of arabic and the availability of french along with amazigh in the news media and, in a lesser degree, in educational institutions. 19arabic predominates, but french and amazigh were available in the news media and, to a much lesser extent, educational institutions (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). there is an edit that invites attention in a particular sentence in the text. earlier, it was pointed out that 60 percent of the moroccan population ‘claimed’ amazigh heritage. from 2011 till 2020, ‘some’, a quantifier functioning as a specifier, is added. the sentence hence reads: 20approximately 60 percent of the population, including the royal family, claimed some amazigh heritage (u.s. state department, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021). at first glance, it would seem as though the report tries to rectify the previous error, which is that not all the 60 percent of people are purely amazigh. yet, ‘some’ might be employed to minimize the impact of amazigh’s predominance. the quantifier, nonetheless, might also be used to give the information more accuracy, since amazigh is an ethnic community with a very long history, and it somehow does not make sense that just because around 60 percent claims amazigh origins, then they are one hundred percent amazigh; these people have always lived with other people from different ethnic backgrounds. one can thus find a person whose ancestors are of different origins including amazigh. besides, in this text, (2011), there is a case of nominalization: 21expanding amazigh language education was hindered primarily by a lack of qualified teachers, which the palacefunded royal institute of amazigh culture was addressing through the creation of university-level teacher training (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). there are two excluded agents in this sentence. the social actor who made the expansion is radically excluded, whereas ‘lack of qualified teachers’ is backgrounded through passivation as the responsible for hindering the expansion process. the purpose of doing so is to show that the action of ‘expanding’ is more important than its doer. in other words, what matters is resolving the problem of not having qualified teachers, which basically stands in the way of increasing the extent of amazigh language education. this issue, however, the writer illustrates, ‘was’ approached by means of creating university-level teacher training. as to the reports that preceded, the adjective ‘compulsory’ was employed, whereas from 2011 until 2020, its synonym ‘mandatory’ is used. the word ‘learning’ is moreover completely disregarded starting from 2012. therefore, ‘instruction’ is meant to take place not only in terms of learning, but in all its aspects. put differently, the writer moves from a specific determination of such an act to a more general one, demonstrating the prominence given to the amazigh language in the school located in kenitra. brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 11 22the government also implemented compulsory berber amazigh instruction for students at the ministry of interior school for administrators in kenitra. (u.s. state department, 2011, p. 34). 23instruction in learning the amazigh language is mandatory for students at the ministry of interior school for administrators in kenitra. (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). 24instruction in the amazigh language is mandatory for students at the interior ministry’s school for administrators in kenitra (u.s. state department, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021). in relation to the 2012 text, an addition and a grammatical change are detected. there is a follow-up of a constitutional amendment made in 2011; amazigh has become an official language of the state. in this text, the writer brings into our consciousness and lends presence to the fact that no law has been passed to put the requirements of the 2011 constitution into effect, making amazigh an official language. the sentence is passivated and deagentalized. the writer hides and backgrounds the social actor(s) responsible for not passing the law in question. 25no progress was made toward passing a law to implement the 2011 constitutional provision making amazigh an official language” (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). however, in 2013, 2014, and 2015, the agent, ‘authorities’, is foregrounded, aiming to put emphasis on the source of lack of progress regarding the expected law. the determination of the social actor (authorities) also shows that there has been a sort of hesitation and avoidance, given the particular nature of the concerned social actor. 26authorities made no progress toward passing a law to implement the constitutional provision making amazigh an official language (u.s. state department, 2014, p. 28, 2015, p. 30, 2016, p. 32). 27on september 26, the council of ministers approved and sent to parliament for debate a draft law to implement the constitutional provision making amazigh an official language. in example (27), the ‘authorities’ are specified through assimilation using ‘the council of ministers’. it is represented as one single group. the sentence (29) is an edited version of example (28). the difference is that in 2011, ‘lack of qualified teachers’ is passivated, stressing on the crucial significance of the expansion process, whereas in 2012, it is activated and foregrounded as a central problem. 28expanding amazigh language education was hindered primarily by a lack of qualified teachers, which the palacefunded royal institute of amazigh culture was addressing through …” (u.s. state department, 2012, p. 27). 29a lack of qualified teachers hindered otherwise expanding amazigh language education, which the palace-funded royal institute of amazigh culture was addressing through the creation of university-level teacher training” (u.s. state department, 2013, p. 29). 30the palace-funded royal institute of amazigh culture created a university-level teacher-training program to eliminate the shortage of qualified teachers” (u.s. state department, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018) 31although the place-funded royal institute of amazigh culture created a university-level teacher training program to eliminate the shortage of qualified teachers, amazigh ngos contended that the number of qualified teachers of regional dialects of amazigh languages continued to decrease” (u.s. state department, 2019, p. 33, 2020, p. 35, 2021, p. 43). the same sentence keeps being reformulated, foregrounding ‘the palace-funded royal institute of amazigh culture’ as in example (30). in (31), ‘amazigh ngos’ are assimilated through collectivization. they are represented as a homogenous group with a shared objective. nevertheless, the phrase ‘regional dialects of amazigh languages’ is obscure. the plural form brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 12 ‘languages’ raises the question of what these languages are, given that the three dialects are varieties of the moroccan amazigh language. there is also the nominalization representational category. the social actor(s) responsible for the decrease in the number of qualified teachers is excluded. the reporting of the amazigh language use extends to the progress that has been made in the provision of the amazigh language in the television programs. interestingly, in 2014 and 2015, they recognize the three amazigh dialects as being national. 32the government provided television programs in the three national amazigh dialects of tarifit, tashelhit, and tamazight. (u.s. state department, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021). one more facet of this progress, which the writer foregrounds, is the increase in the number of primary schools teaching the amazigh language. since 2013, amazigh has been taught in the curriculum of 1681 additional schools. 33the government also offered amazigh language classes in the curriculum of 5,151 schools (u.s. state department, 2015, p. 30). 34the government reported that it offered amazigh language classes in the curriculum of 30 percent of schools (u.s. state department, 2016, p. 33). 35the government has previously reported that it offered amazigh language classes in the curriculum of 30 percent of schools (u.s. state department, 2017, p. 35). 36the government offered amazigh language classes in some schools (u.s. state department, 2018, p. 31, 2019, p. 33). 37the government offered tamazight language classes in some schools (u.s. state department, 2020, p.35, 2021, p. 43). the strategy of utterance autonimization is added. since 2015, we can see that ‘the government’ is represented by means of reference to its utterances, what it reported. the purpose is to avoid any possible liability and instead hold ‘the government’ accountable for its statement. four remarks, however, should be highlighted. first, in (35), the present perfect tense is used instead of the past simple tense as in the other examples. second, in (37), tamazight is used instead of amazigh as in the previous instances, causing confusion and obscurity; both terms amazigh and tamazight are used interchangeably, given that tamazight is a dialect. third, in (36) and (37), the utterance autonimization marker (reported) is deleted. fourth, the phrase ‘30 percent of schools’ is substituted by ‘some schools’. this transition from a statistical specification to genericization is an attempt to represent the related schools as a class, distinguishing them from other schools where amazigh is not taught. the two strategies are yet distinct in terms of effect. remarkably, ‘the government’ is foregrounded and represented as a category in all the examples. the individual social actor(s) who made the report is not identified. the analyzed reports are considered official documents. they are, by dint of their nature, edited and reviewed by professional writers and editors who are knowledgeable about the technicalities of language use in general and human rights language in particular. in addition to the writing style, the inaccurate information, the ambiguous, obscure and contradictory statements, the incoherent sentences, the manipulative use of specific recurrent elements, and all the other accumulated evidence assert that the us state department lacks accuracy and meticulous presentation of information when it covers the amazigh issue. this fact raises questions about who has written the related section, and whether different parties participate in the reporting process, or it is taken on by one single person. it has for instance been discovered that there is a mistake in the 2003 report, stating that amazigh language was taught in 317 primary and secondary schools, while the fact is that it was taught in only 317 primary schools. moreover, sociolinguistic terms such as tamazight, amazigh, language, and dialect are not used appropriately, instigating ambiguity and confusion in most cases. thanks to the conducted microscopic analysis, the texts are clearly a close historical follow-up of the various violations against amazigh linguistic and cultural rights in morocco. amazigh human rights activists, relying on the constitution and discussion brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 1 (2022) 13 the international legal agreements affirmed by morocco, have nationally and internationally always raised and pleaded against these violations. it has been found, specifically, that there is the employment of several presence-lending strategies, mainly foregrounding and backgrounding. these are used to raise people’s awareness of the status of human rights in morocco. there is also a continuous use of differentiation and categorization strategies to emphasize the ‘conflict’ going on in morocco between the disempowered amazigh people, generally, and, particularly, the amazigh activists, and the empowered ‘authorities’. however, seeking neutrality and objectivity, utterance autonimization is used to represent the different social actors. collectivization, a form of assimilation, on the other hand, is employed to represent the social actors within the category of amazighs as a united group working towards the same goals. the u.s. state department represents both ‘amazighs’ and ‘authorities’ with equal preeminence. this particular choice manifests the department’s ideological perspective on the amazigh issue and sustains the u.s. foreign policy interests as regards its discourse on human rights. at the level of lexical choices, using different synonyms for the same words is applied almost throughout all the texts, indicating the preoccupation of the writer with the raised issues. it has been furthermore revealed that strategies of passivation and exclusion, such as nominalization, are used a lot to mystify agency in critical situations, exclusively when reference is made to ‘the authorities’. besides, particular social actors are hidden through the strategy of genericization and others are exposed through individualization, specifically nomination. all the reports in the online database of the u.s. state department since 1999 concretize and criticize the status of amazigh as an indispensable dimension of moroccan identity. throughout the texts, modifications related to the progress of the amazigh issue and how it is treated by the authorities have been found. throughout the analysis, a lot of evidence has been accumulated showing that the state department emphasizes both the violations of human rights regarding the amazigh situation and the developments taking place to promote the amazigh language and culture. the focus is therefore on the issue’s both positive and negative sides. the study has been an attempt to critically analyze the discursive representations of social actors in the u.s. state department’s human rights reports on morocco, precisely the section entitled national/racial/ethnic minorities. the data analysis has included 21 reports from 1999 till 2020. the objective has been to: 1) discover the underlying representations of the involved social actors, 2) expose the ideologies defining the different practices in these representations, and 3) substantiate that the language used in the texts is manipulative, has gaps and cracks, and is not as well-constructed as it may seem. this has been attained by employing theo van leeuwen’s sociosemantic inventory and cda techniques. the analysis has shown that the amazigh issue has not been painstakingly reported by the u.s. state department. the collected evidence puts the credibility of the reports at stake and shows that the section devoted to the issue in all the reports is more likely written by one single person. in an attempt to serve the state department’s ideological purposes to delegitimize the authorities’ practices, the exclusion representational categories related to ‘nominalization’ and ‘back-grounding’, and ‘passivation’ are densely employed. these strategies are used to delete or conceal agency in controversial cases. there is also a predominance of the inclusion ‘representational’ categories, including ‘differentiation’ and ‘categorization’. these are frequently used to put special weight on the ‘conflict’ taking place in morocco between amazigh people, generally, and, particularly, the amazigh activists and the authorities. utterance ‘autonimization’ is also used to foreground particular social actors and demonstrate objectivity. ‘substituting’ words with their synonyms is another linguistic phenomenon found almost in all the reports. 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(1996). the representation of social actors. in m. coulthard, & c.r. caldas-coulthard inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 196 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 13, 2024 final revision: june 7, 2024 accepted: june 12, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 this study aims to explore the syntactic functions and characteristics of the genitive case in the ancient greek novel “daphnis and chloe” by longus, a text from the 2nd century ad, which exemplifies the “second sophistic” period of rhetorical development. the primary source for this research is the text of “daphnis and chloe”, which has been thoroughly analysed to ascertain the usage of the genitive case in various syntactic roles. the research employs descriptive and structural methods of linguistic analysis. the descriptive method identifies and explains instances of the genitive case within the text, while the structural method examines the relationships between these instances and other linguistic elements. the genitive case in the novel is found to perform multiple syntactic functions, including controlling verbs, nouns, adjectives, and expressing various semantic nuances. detailed examples are provided to illustrate these functions and their impact on the text’s meaning. the findings offer a foundation for further studies of the genitive case in ancient greek texts, providing significant insights for researchers and linguists interested in ancient greek grammar and its syntactic constructions. the study enhances understanding of ancient rhetorical techniques and their application in literary texts during the “second sophistic” period. keywords genitive, inflection, ancient greek, syntactic functions correspondence e-mail: chakal_ines@ukr.net article the syntax of the genitive case in longus’ novel daphnis and chloe inesa chakal1 1yuriy fedkovych chernivtsi national university, chernivtsi, ukraine under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.196-207.2024 i. introduction the genitive case is one of the most prevalent and multifaceted grammatical cases found across languages (shynkaruk, 2023). its semantic roles and syntactic functions are highly diverse, ranging from denoting possession and attribution to marking objects, measurements, qualities, and a wide array of other grammatical relationships (ryskulova et al., 2022). while certain languages have reduced or even eliminated the genitive entirely, it remains a rich and pervasive feature in many ancient languages, like ancient greek. exploring the genitive case, particularly in literary works where language is carefully employed, can yield insights into the depth and complexity of meaning that skilled writers could convey through deft case usage. by examining the genitive functions at play in longus’ novel daphnis and chloe, we gain a window into the nuanced expressiveness of this ancient greek case system as manifested in one of the earliest surviving prose romances. although widely examined across various languages, the genitive case in ancient greek, especially as employed in literary texts from the hellenistic period such as longus’ “daphnis and chloe”, has not been comprehensively analysed for its syntactic diversity and functional depth (maciver, 2020). this novel, a prime example of the “second sophistic” period’s literary style and rhetorical sophistication, offers a valuable resource for studying the nuanced uses of the genitive case. the genitive case in ancient greek plays a crucial role in expressing various linguistic relationships and attributes, ranging from possession and origin to descriptive and contextual functions (ziak et al., 2022 & bowie, 2023). in literary and mythological narratives, such as “daphnis and chloe”, the genitive enriches the text by detailing relationships between characters, their attributes, and interactions with elements like inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 197 music and divine intervention, thus providing a deeper understanding of the narrative and cultural nuances embedded in the language (louw, 1966). for the first time, the word “πτώσις” (case) as a term in a grammatical context is recorded by aristotle, a famous ancient greek philosopher (384-322 bc), who put a much broader meaning into it than this term has in modern grammar (lychuk, 2022). in general, the study of the essence of the case is complicated by two factors. first, the number of cases in different languages differs from one another (ukrainian has seven cases, english has two, latin has six, ancient greek has five, and estonian has fifteen). secondly, the case is a category that is related to almost all levels of language: to morphology, since the case is a morphological category expressed by morphemes; to syntax, since cases indicate the grammatical status of sentence members; to semantics, since cases express the semantic relations of different words in a sentence (shapauov et al., 2014 & romaniuk & yavorska, 2022). the topic of the case has interested many scholars. in ukrainian linguistics, the following scholars can be mentioned: olishchuk (1996) and zvonska et al. (2017). in their works, natives of britain, belgium, hungary, and other countries studied this issue: heller and szmrecsanyi (2019), azaz (2020), kim (2021), and cohen (2019). in their work heller and szmrecsanyi (2019) describe the regional patterns between the two main existing possessive s-genitive and of-genitive constructions. kim (2021) focuses on possessive constructions and presents a new type of possessive construction, the proper construction in the research. the new type of these constructions shows the genitive alternation of the s-genitive case and the ofgenitive case. the main research goal is to identify the decisive factors that determine the use of these forms of the genitive case. the research results show that the syntactic distribution of the possessive type of the genitive case is determined by semantic or pragmatic features. the possessive type of the genitive case is a proper grammatical construction to indicate a stronger degree of close possession established between living beings. cohen (2019) in research demonstrates the extent of semitic genitive construction. in addition to its central role in the noun domain, it is the mechanism behind many types of phrases and clauses, such as relative clauses, complex prepositions, gerund forms, and most types of adverbial clauses. the syntactic function of various constructions can be explained by the syntactic nature of the head as the grammatical center of the entire construction. accordingly, an adverbial heading naturally occurs in the head of an adverbial expression or clause. the functional scope of semitic genitive constructions deserves to be considered a major feature of the syntax of the general semitic language. in the research by azaz (2020), hypotheses are used to study cross-linguistic transfer in adult second language acquisition, the alternation of the english genitive case by intermediate and more proficient egyptian arabicspeaking learners. in standard syntactic analysis, the s-genitive case is considered more difficult than the of-genitive case because its possessive form is more elevated in the determiner phrase. this research aims to comprehensively analyse the functional diversity and syntactic nuances of the genitive case in longus’ ancient greek novel “daphnis and chloe” from the 2nd century ad. while the genitive has been extensively studied across languages, its multifaceted roles within this seminal prose work of the “second sophistic” period have not been thoroughly examined. by methodically cataloguing and exemplifying the genitive’s 25 distinct syntactic functions attested in the novel, from the subjective and objective roles to more specialised cases like the genitive of comparison, abundance, and exclamation, this research illuminates the rhetorical sophistication with which longus deployed the genitive to enrich his narratives. the findings contribute a novel, corpus-based perspective on the functional depth of this ancient case system within a celebrated literary context, providing insights valuable to scholars of ancient greek grammar, rhetoric, and prose fiction alike. ii. methods source of data the main material for this research is the novel “daphnis and chloe”, written by longus in the second century ad. the research uses by author translation of all sentences from the original language. the novel itself has 256 pages and consists of a preface and 4 “books”, i.e., chapters (schönberger, 1973). this novel was chosen because it is a seminal example of the “second sophistic” period, renowned for its sophisticated inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 198 use of language and rhetoric. it provides a rich textual base to analyse the syntactic functions of the genitive case, which are pivotal in understanding the linguistic structures of ancient greek, particularly in literary contexts. data collection in this research, the descriptive method was used to describe the ancient greek genitive case, all its features, syntactic functions, and phrases to maximise understanding of its specificity. this suggests that since the descriptive method provides maximum information about a linguistic unit, the genitive case is often used in linguistic research. the inductive method is one of the most common methods that can be used to draw a generalised conclusion based on individual data. using examples from the novel, the use of the genitive case can be seen, thus forming a classification, rules, and cases of its use. in this research, this method is used to provide examples of how the genitive case was used in ancient greek. to collect the relevant data, all instances of the genitive case in the novel were systematically catalogued. this involved a meticulous reading of the novel, followed by the identification and annotation of each occurrence of the genitive case. the instances were then categorised based on their syntactic function, ensuring a comprehensive dataset for analysis. this structured approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the genitive case within its literary context. data analysis the contrastive method, also called the comparative method, is used to compare, and identify common and distinctive features of the linguistic units of the languages under study, and to identify features, advantages, and disadvantages. this linguistic method is one of the main methods in contrastive linguistics. in this research, the contrastive method is used to compare what syntactic function the genitive case has and in what case it is used. the distributive analysis is not a new method, as it was developed by l. bloomfield in the 20s of the xx century, although its creator is z. harris, who developed this method in the 30s and 50s. the distributive analysis is intended to establish the characteristics and properties of linguistic units, considering their distribution, or, in other words, their environment (kovalov, 2007). the importance of the method used is predefined by the possibility of noticing the use of the genitive case in the environment of different parts of speech. since the environment of each element is unique, it is possible to study in detail the linguistic element under study based on it. in linguistic studies like this one, the method of classification plays an important role. this method consists of dividing linguistic units and phenomena by common features and criteria. for example, in this work, the genitive case, examples of which are taken from the novel “daphnis and chloe”, is divided following syntactic functions, i.e., the genitive case is classified. iii. results the genitive case (casus genetivus, “πτῶσις γενική”) is one of the indirect cases that combines the functions of two indo-european cases: genitive and ablative (zvonska et al., 2017). the unification of these two cases in ancient greek into the genitive led to an increase in its syntactic functions. following the modern grammars of ancient greek, it was determined that the genitive case is attributed a total of 25 syntactic functions (table 1). source: compiled by authors based on zvonska et al. (2017), olishchuk (1996), dean (2003). table 1 provides the corresponding latin and greek terms for each function, highlighting the diverse roles the genitive case can play in sentence structure and meaning. this classification aids in understanding the complexity and versatility of genitive case usage in ancient greek. “genetīvus absolūtus” (genitive absolute). this syntactic conditional is a compound circumstance of time, reason, concession, or condition that does not depend on any member of the sentence. it consists of a logical subject (noun, adjective, pronoun in “genetīvus”) and a logical predicate (a participle agreed with the logical subject). “participium praesentis” expresses an action that is simultaneous with the action of the predicate of the main clause, “participium aoristi” – the previous one. the particle “οὐ” serves as a negation, and “μή” is used in the opposite direction with a conditional meaning. the genitive absolute can express different circumstances under which the action expressed by the verb takes place: it can have temporal (when, while), causal (because, since), permissive (though, despite), and conditional (if) meanings. inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 199 the specific meaning of the phrase “genetīvus absolūtus” is determined by the context, i.e. the meaning of the participle, the verb, and the nature of the whole sentence. the phrase “genetīvus absolūtus” can be translated with an appropriate subordinate clause, a participial phrase (if the logical subject of the phrase is the same as the subject of the whole sentence), or a noun with a preposition. “τῆς δὲ νυκτὸς αὐτοῖς τοιαύτης γενομένης ἐπῆλθεν ἡ ἡμέρα πολὺ τῆς νυκτὸς φοβερωτέρα” (2,26,1) “after such a night for them came a day much more terrible than the night”; “τοῦ δὲ ὀμόσαντος μηδὲν γεγονέναι φιλήματος καὶ ὅρκων πλέον” (4,31,3) “[daphnis] swore that nothing more than kisses and vows had happened between them”. this sentences demonstrate the combination of “genetīvus absolūtus” and “genetīvus comparisonis”. the noun (or pronoun) in “genetīvus absolūtus” can sometimes be omitted if it is known from the context. “καὶ τὰ νῶτα δὲ ἀπολουούσης ἡ σὰρξ ὑπέπιπτε μαλθακή” (1,13,2) “and when she washed his back, his body seemed to her tender”. in this sentence, the noun (or pronoun) in the “genetīvus absolūtus” construction is omitted, as it is clear from the context that “chloe” is the subject of the participle “ἀπολουούσης”. “τῆς δὲ ἐκπλαγείσης εἰ παιδία τίκτουσιν αἶγες͵ πάντα αὐτῇ διηγεῖται” (1,3,2) “[the wife] was surprised that goats give birth to children, but he told her everything”. here, the noun [wife] is omitted from the “genetīvus absolūtus” construction, but it is understood from the context. “συνέθεντο θᾶττον τὰς ἀγέλας τῆς ἐπιούσης κατελάσαι” (2,38,2) “they agreed to drive their herds out early the next morning”. table 1. syntactic functions of the genitive case in ancient greek no. syntactic function latin term greek term 1 subjective genitive genetivus subiectivus γενικὴ ὑποκειμενική 2 objective genitive genetivus obiectivus γενικὴ ἀντικειμενική 3 possessive genitive genetivus possessivus γενικὴ κτητική 4 characterizing genitive genetivus characteristicus γενικὴ κατηγορηματική 5 partitive genitive genetivus partitivus γενικὴ διαιρετική 6 genitive of separation genetivus separationis γενικὴ τοῦ χωρισμοῦ 7 temporal genitive genetivus temporis γενικὴ τοῦ χρόνου 8 genitive of comparison genetivus comparationis γενικὴ τῆς παραθέσεως 9 genitive of crime genetivus criminis γενικὴ τῆς ποινῆς 10 genitive of cause genetivus causae γενικὴ τῆς αἰτίας 11 genitive of abundance genetivus copiae γενικὴ τῆς πλησμονῆς 12 genitive of lack genetivus inopiae γενικὴ τῆς στερήσεως 13 genitive of price and value genetivus pretii γενικὴ τῆς ἀξίας 14 genitive of quality, property genetivus qualitatis γενικὴ τῆς ἰδιότητος 15 genitive of the author genetivus auctoris 16 genitive of origin genetivus originis γενικὴ καταγωγῆς 17 genitive of measure genetivus mensurae γενικὴ τοῦ μέτρου 18 genitive of material genetivus materiae γενικὴ τῆς ὑλῆς 19 genitive of place genetivus loci γενικὴ τοῦ τόπου 20 genitive of quantity genetivus quantitatis 21 genitive of memory genetivus memoriae 22 genitive of exclamation genetivus exclamationis γενικὴ ἐλλειπτική 23 genitive with prepositions genetivus praepositionis 24 genitive independent, absolute genetivus absolutus γενικὴ ἀπόλυτος 25 genitive of genus, species genetivus generis source: compiled by authors based on zvonska et al. (2017), olishchuk (1996), dean (2003). inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 200 in this sentence, the noun “ἡμέρας” is understood in the “genetīvus absolūtus” construction “τῆς ἐπιούσης”. a variety of conjunctions and particles can be used in the conditionals. thus, the conjunction “καίπερ” and the particle “πέρ” indicate a concession, the particles “ὥσπερ” and “ὡς” indicate a reason with a subjective assessment, i.e., a reason, the conjunctions “ἅτε” and “οἷον” indicate an objective reason, etc. “οἷα δὲ τοῦ μὲν ὑπεκφεύγοντος͵ τοῦ δὲ ὀργῇ διώκοντος οὐκ ἀκριβὴς τῶν ἐν ποσὶν ἡ πρόσοψις ἦν” (1,12,2) “because neither the fugitive nor the angry pursuer looked at what was under their feet, they both fell into a pit”. in the sentence, “οἷα” combines with the participles “ὑπεκφεύγοντος” and “διώκοντος” to form two genitive independent clauses. in addition, the sentence contains the dative case in the syntactic function of cause (dativus causae) – “ὀργῇ”. in latin, the construction “genetīvus absolūtus” corresponds to the phrase “ablativus absolutus” (ablative independent), and in church slavonic – “dativus absolutus” (dative independent). “genetivus partitivus” (partitive genitive) means the whole from which a part is taken. the partitive function of the genitive case, which consists in naming an object that undergoes the action denoted by the verb not in its entirety but only in some part of it, is one of the most common in longus’ novel. this genitive case takes the predicative position and is used with nouns or substantive participles: “πλῆθος” (the majority, a large number), “τῶν προβάτων τὰ ἀποπλανώμενα” (“those sheep that scattered”), “τῶν ἰχθύων τοὺς ἐνδινεύοντας” (“those fish that swam around”), etc. “τῶν βοῶν ὀκτὼ τὰς ἀρίστας ἐς τὴν ἰδίαν ἀγέλην θέλξας ἀπεβουκόλησεν” (1,27,3) “he brought the eight best cows into his herd, charming them with singing”; “καὶ αὐτῷ τῶν παίδων ὁ νεώτατος εἵπετο τίτυρος” (2,32,1) “he was accompanied by the youngest of his sons, tityros”; “ὦ πάντων ἀνοσιώτατοι καὶ ἀσεβέστατοι” (2,27,1) “o you, the most wicked and ungodly of all!”. in these examples, the genetivus partitivus can be used with adjectives in the superlative. “ὥστε πολλοὶ καὶ τῶν ξένων κατὰ φήμην ᾔεσαν” (p,1,1) “so that many of the foreigners came because of its [the painting’s] fame”; “εἷς δὴ κύων τῶν προβατευτικῶν ἀμέλειαν φυλάξας͵ κρέας ἁρπάσας ἔφυγε” (3,7,1) “one of the shepherd’s dogs, having been caught in a moment of inattention, stole a piece of meat and ran away”. in these examples, the genetivus partitivus can be used with adjectives denoting quantity or measure and numerals (πολλοί, οἱ πολλοί, εἷς). “καὶ ὁ μὲν κινδύνου παρὰ τοσοῦτον ἐλθὼν καὶ σωθεὶς ἐκ κυνός” (1,22,1) “having escaped such danger and having been saved from the dog”. it is possible to note isolated instances of genetivus partitivus with adverbs of place, time, or manner of action. “καί ποτε δὲ ἐκοινώνουν γάλακτος καὶ οἴνου” (1,10,3) “sometimes they shared milk and wine”; “ὤμνυον κατὰ τῶν μύρτων ἀφήσειν͵ ἐπιδοὺς μήλων καὶ ῥοιῶν” (2,4,4) “i swore to him with myrtles to let him go, adding apples and pomegranates”. there are many constructions in the text of “daphnis and chloe” with the genitive partitive with verbs when their action does not affect the whole object but refers to some part of it. for example, after the verbs “κοινωνέω” (“to give someone a share, to share”) and “ἐπιδίδωμι” (“to give away”). “ἆρα φαρμάκων ἐγεύσατο ἡ χλόη μέλλουσά με φιλεῖν”; (1,18,2) “did chloe taste poison, intending to kiss me?”; “εἶτα πληροῦντι τοὺς πίθους͵ εἶτα πίνοντι τοῦ γλεύκους” (2,36,1) “someone fills barrels, someone drinks grape must”. in these examples, the verbs denoting pleasure add a peculiar shade to the meaning of genetivus partitivus: “πίνω” (to drink), “γεύομαι” (to taste). it is typical to use the genitive case for verbs such as “ἅπτομαι” (to touch), “λαμβάνω” (to take, to grasp), “πειράομαι” (to test, to try), “τυνχάνω” (to reach, to receive). “ἀκούοντες μὲν τῶν ὀρνίθων ᾀδόντων ᾖδον” (1,9,2) “listening to the birds singing, they sang”; “ὁ μὲν δάφνις τὰς ἀγέλας ἐπεσκόπει, ... ὥσπερ τῶν μελῶν ἀκροωμένας” (1,13,4) “daphnis watched the goats who seemed to be listening to the songs”. the examples show that the “genetivus inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 201 partitivus” control for verbs denoting sensual, spiritual perception or excitement, such as “ἀκούω”, “ἀκροάομαι” (to hear, to listen), “ἐράω” (to love) is quite characteristic. “ἐγώ͵ παρθένε͵ μείζων εἰμὶ δάφνιδος... τοσοῦτον ἐγὼ κρείττων ὅσον αἰγῶν βόες” (1,16,1) “i am, girl, greater than daphnis...greater i am as goats from sheep” “ἆρά μου καὶ δόρκων εὐμορφότερος ὀφθήσεται?” (1,18,2) “will not dorcоn appear more handsome than i?” “ἐδόκει τὸ λουτρὸν εἶναι τῆς θαλάττης φοβερώτερον” (1,32,4) “washing seemed more terrible than the sea” “τῶν ἀμπέλων δὲ τὰς ταπεινοτέρας ἀπετρύγα” (2,1,3) “she cut the bunches from the lower vines” “ἐπῄνει φιλητᾶς αὐτὸν ὡς εἰπόντα μῦθον ᾠδῆς γλυκύτερον” (2,35,1) “philetas praised him, saying that stories are sweeter than songs” “ἐζήτουν καὶ αὐτοὶ περιττότερόν τι φιλήματος καὶ περιβολῆς” (3,13,3) “they were looking for something better than kisses and hugs” “τούτῳ γύναιον ἦν ἐπακτὸν ἐξ ἄστεος͵ νέον καὶ ὡραῖον καὶ ἀγροικίας ἁβρότερον” (3,15,1) “a woman was brought to him from the city, young and beautiful, more charming than the villagers” “τὴν θάλατταν ἐνόμιζε τῆς γῆς γλυκυτέραν” (3,28,3) “the sea seemed more pleasant than the land”. genetivus comparationis (the genitive case of comparison) is mostly used in the superlative comparison of adjectives and adverbs instead of “ἢ” with the nominative or accusative case. in the text of the novel “daphnis and chloe”, the use of this genitive comparison is expanded to its fullest extent. “γίνεται δὲ χειμὼν δάφνιδι καὶ χλόῃ τοῦ πολέμου πικρότερος” (3,3,1) “winter came for daphnis and chloe, more terrible than war”. in this example the author of the novel uses hyperbolic comparison with the use of “genetivus comparationis”. for the main characters of the novel, winter was like a time of death, because it separated them, and prevented them from meeting, while love is their true life. “τῆς ναυαρχίδος ἡγεῖτο δελφὶν πηδῶν ἐξ ἁλός” (2,29,3) “the dolphin that rose from the waves guided the navarche’s ship” (showed the way) “τῶν δὲ αἰγῶν καὶ τῶν προβάτων ἡγεῖτο σύριγγος ἦχος ἥδιστος” (2,29,3) “the sweetest sound of the syrinx guided the goats and sheep”. verbs that have a superlative meaning, i.e., denoting superiority, authority or subordination, etc. “ἡγέομαι”, “καθηγέομαι” (to rule), also control the genitive case in the syntactic function of comparison. “καὶ αὖθις αἰτίαν ἐνόμιζε τὴν μουσικὴν τοῦ κάλλους” (1,13,4) “she again considered music to be the cause of beauty” “καὶ τῆς ἐρωτικῆς λύπης φάρμακον τὸν κάματον ἔσχον” (1,22,3) “they found in fatigue a cure for love’s sadness” “οἱ δὲ αἰγῶν τρίχας ἔπεκον͵ οἱ δὲ πάγας ὀρνίθων ἐσοφίζοντο” (3,3,3) “some spun goat’s wool, others made bird traps” “τοῦτο ἀφροδίτη κάλλους ἔλαβεν ἆθλον” (3,34,2) “this apple was given to aphrodite as a reward for her beauty”. these are the comparison of the examples from longus’ novel. the objective genitive case is mostly used after nouns denoting the person of the actor or the action, state, or result of the action (“κάλλους αἴτιον” (the cause of beauty), “λύπης φάρμακον” (the cure for sadness), “ἔρωτος φάρμακον” (the cure for love), “ὀρνίθων πάγη” (a bird trap), “κάλλους ἆθλον” (the reward for beauty), “ἔρωτος ἐμπύρευμα” (the flame of love), etc.). “ἡ δὲ ἄπειρος οὖσα τέχνης ἐραστοῦ͵ λαμβάνουσα μὲν τὰ δῶρα ἔχαιρε” (1,15,3) “[chloe] being inexperienced in the art of love, took the gifts and rejoiced”. here was noted the use of “genetivus obiectivus” after the adjective ἄπειρος (inexperienced). “ἐξελάθετο καὶ χλόης πρὸς ὀλίγον” (4,23,2) “even chloe he has almost forgotten” “γάμου μὲν μέλει τῆς χλόης ἄλλῳ θεῷ” (3,27,2) “another deity cares about chloe’s marriage” “ὁ δάφνις ... χλόης κωλυούσης ἠμέλησεν” (3,34,1) “daphnis... did not pay attention to the fact that chloe was holding him” “ἐπειρᾶτό τινα διασώσασθαι τῶν ᾀσμάτων͵ ὡς γένοιτο τῆς σύριγγος μέλη” (3,22,1) inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 202 “[daphnis] tried to memorize one or the other of the songs to play them on the syrinx”. in ancient greek, the objective genitive case is also used for the verbs “ἐκλανθάνομαι” (to forget), “μιμνήσκομαι” (to recall), “μέμνημαι” (to remember), “διασῴζω” (to keep (in memory), “ἀμελέω” (not to worry, to neglect), “μέλω” (to worry). genetivus subiectivus (subjective genitive case) denotes a person or thing to which something belongs. therefore, it resembles the genitive in its meaning. this case mostly serves as a determiner with a noun (olishchuk, 1996). “τὸ πᾶν σχῆμα χορεία ἦν ὀρχουμένων” (1,4,2) “the whole picture was a dance of dancing [girls]” “καὶ ἦν θόρυβος πολὺς κτηνῶν͵ οἰκετῶν͵ ἀνδρῶν͵ γυναικῶν” (4,13,1) “and there was a great noise from domestic animals, slaves, men, women” “καὶ τότε χλόη πρῶτον ἔμαθεν ὅτι τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς ὕλης γινόμενα ἦν ποιμένων παίγνια” (4,40,3) “and then chloe learned for the first time that what was in the forest was only a game of shepherds”. if the noun determined by the genitive case is a verbal noun that mainly denotes an action or state (“θρῆνος” (murmuring), “διώγματα” (chasings), “βόμβος” (buzzing), “σκιρτήματα” (jumpings), “θόρυβος” (noise, din), “χορεία” (dancing), etc.), then the genitive case can be the logical subject of the action or state expressed by this noun. “τὸν γαυλὸν ἀναπλήσασα οἴνου καὶ γάλακτος κοινὸν μετὰ τοῦ δάφνιδος ποτὸν εἶχε” (1,23,3) “having filled a pitcher with wine and milk, she drank a drink with daphnis” “πολέμου μὲν τὴν ἀγροικίαν ἐνεπλήσατε τὴν ἐμοὶ φίλην” (2,27,1) “you have filled the village houses that i love with war”. genitive copiae (genitive case of abundance) is used with verbs and adjectives with the meaning “to have something in abundance”, “to fill with something” (“ἐμπίπλημι”, “πληρόω”, “ἀναπίμπλημι”) in a direct or figurative sense. “ἔχοντες δὲ ἤδη τὰς ναῦς παντοδαπῆς ἁρπαγῆς μεστάς οὐκέτ΄ ἐγίνωσκον περαιτέρω πλεῖν” (2,21,1) “having filled the ships with various booty, they decided not to sail any further” “καὶ τὰ φυκία ἀφελὼν εὑρίσκει τὸ βαλάντιον ἀργυρίου μεστόν” (3,28,2) “having raked aside the sea grass, he found a bag filled with silver coins”. however, the figurative meaning of the adjective μεστός is also present, such as: “καὶ τὸ μὲν πρόσωπον ἐρυθήματος μεστόν” (4,17,5) “and his face is full of blush”. the genitive of abundance is also used with the adjective “μεστός” (full). “λύκαινα ... πολλὰ ἥρπαζε͵ πολλῆς τροφῆς ἐς ἀνατροφὴν τῶν σκύμνων δεομένη” (1,11,1) “the wolf often stole, needing much food to feed her cubs” “οἱ δ΄ οὖν οὐκ ὀλίγων κτημάτων οἱ μηθυμναῖοι στερόμενοι ἐζήτουν τὸν νέμοντα τὰς αἶγας” (2,14,3) “the metimnians, who lost a lot of good because of this, were looking for someone who grazes goats” “ἐδόκει τὰς νύμφας δεῖσθαι τοῦ ἔρωτος, εἰ δή ποτε αὐτοῖς κατανεῦσαι τὸν γάμον” (4,34,1) “it seemed that the nymphs were begging eros to finally agree to the marriage”. genitive inopiae (genitive case of lack) is used with the verbs “δέομαι” (to need, to ask), “στέρομαι” (to be deprived of something). “πένητές ἐσμεν͵ ὦ παῖ͵ καὶ δεόμεθα νύμφης φερούσης τι μᾶλλον· οἱ δὲ πλούσιοι καὶ πλουσίων νυμφίων δεόμενοι” (3,26,4) “we are poor, son, and we need a girl who will bring something more with her (as a dowry); and they are rich and need rich suitors”. in this example, the stylistic figure of antithesis is observed (“ἀντίθεσις”, “contentio”, “contrapositum”), built on the opposition of the features expressed by the adjectives “πένης” – “πλούσιος”. the placement of such two sentences expressing opposite opinions next to each other creates a kind of contrast to achieve a certain expressive and pictorial effect. “genetīvus tempŏris” (temporal genitive) corresponds to the latin case “ablativus tempŏris”. this genitive indicates the time that is not fully covered by the action and denotes different periods. it answers the question “when does something happen?” and is used without a definition: “ἦρος” (on spring), “θέρους” (on summer), “χειμῶνος” (on winter), “μετοπώρου” (in spring), “νυκτός” (at night), “ἡμέρας” (at day) etc. longus himself defines the symbols of each season. “ἦρος ῥόδα, κρίνα καὶ ὑάκινθος καὶ ἴα ἀμφότερα· θέρους μήκωνες καὶ ἀχράδες καὶ μῆλα πάντα” (2,3,4) “in spring – roses, lilies and hyacinths, and violets of both varieties; in summer – poppies and wild pears, and all varieties of apples”. inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 203 through the words of philetas, who talks about his garden, the writer says that this garden has everything that the seasons bring. the “genetivus exclamationis” (genitive of exclamation) occupies a special place in the classification in many aspects. it is the only “independent” genitive that does not act as a signifier for any other member of the expression, since it is a mode of expression in itself. “ὢ νίκης κακῆς· ὢ νόσου καινῆς” (1,18,2) “oh, the cruelty of victory! oh, the unknown disease!” (the words of daphnis, who realized the power of love after kissing chloe). in the sentence, the stylistic figure of homeoteleuton is built on the repetition of the inflections of the adjective “ῆς”. “ὢ λύκων ἀλωπέκων δειλοτέρων” (1,25,3) “ oh wolves, more fearful than foxes!”. in this sentence two genitive cases with different meanings are seen: “ὢ λύκων” – genitive of exclamation and “ἀλωπέκων” – genitive of comparison. a rhetorical exclamation is a stylistic figure formed by an emotional, pathos, affirmative statement (kovalov, 2007). “φεῦ τῆς ῥοδωνιᾶς, ὡς κατακέκλασται‧ φεῦ τῆς ἰωνιᾶς, ὡς πεπάτηται‧ φεῦ τῶν ὑακίνθων καὶ τῶν ναρκίσσων, οὓς ἀνώρυξέ τις πονηρὸς ἄνθρωπος. ἀφίξεται τὸ ἦρ, τὰ δὲ οὐκ ἀνθήσει‧ ἔσται τὸ θέρος, τὰ δὲ οὐκ ἀκμάσει‧ μετόπωρον, ἀλλὰ τάδε οὐδένα στεφανώσει. οὐδὲ σύ, δέσποτα διόνυσε, τὰ ἄθλια ταῦτα ἠλέησας ἄνθη, οἷς παρῴκεις καὶ ἔβλεπες, ἀφ’ ὧν ἐστεφάνωσά σε πολλάκις καὶ ἐτερπόμην; πῶς, πῶς δείξω νῦν τὸν παράδεισον τῷ δεσπότῃ; τίς ἐκεῖνος θεασάμενος ἔσται” (4,8) “woe to the rose bushes, for how broken they are! woe to the violets that have been trampled on! woe to the hyacinths and daffodils that have been plucked by a wicked man! spring will return, but they will no longer bloom; summer will come, but they will not bloom; (there will be) autumn, but they will not beautify anyone. even you, lord dionysus, have not pitied these unfortunate flowers among which you live and look at, with which i have often crowned you and pleased you? how, how will i show the garden to the master now? what will happen when he sees it?”. in the episode of the destruction of dionysophanes’ garden, lamon, both as a good gardener and as a slave who fears his master’s wrath, mourns the death of the flowers with a series of pitiful exclamations. “genitive possessivus” (possessive genitive case) refers to the person or object to whom something belongs. it is combined with a noun directly (and then serves as its determiner) or with the predicate “εἶναι” (to belong to someone) (olishchuk, 1996) (and then serves as the predicate name). “καὶ σωθεὶς ἐκ κυνός͵ φασί͵ οὐ λύκου στόματος͵ ἐθεράπευε τὸ σῶμα” (1,22,1) “[dorcon], having been saved, as they say, from the mouth of a dog, not a wolf, healed his body” “μίαν ᾤετο τῶν ἐκ τοῦ ἄντρου νυμφῶν ὁρᾶν” (1,24,1) “he thought he saw one of the caves of the nymphs”. the most common use of the genitive case is to refer to a person or object to whom something belongs in the broadest and most diverse sense. the possessive genitive can be formed from both proper and common names. “genitive separationis” (genitive case of separation) indicated the separation of one object from another and was used with verbs of separation, and deprivation, and was quite common in ancient greek (olishchuk, 1996). “ἀποσεισάμενος τῶν σκελῶν τὴν χιόνα τούς τε βρόχους ἔστησε” (3,6,1) “shaking off the snow, he set up the nets” “ἡ δὲ χλόη … ἐδεῖτο φείσασθαι καὶ ὧν ἔνεμε καὶ αὐτῆς διὰ τὰς θεάς” (2,20,3) “chloe ... begged for mercy both for those she shepherded and for herself through the goddesses”. having studied the text of longus’ novel, it can be noted that the ablative function of the genitive case is to designate the names of objects dependent on verbs with the meaning “to spare, to protect” (“φείδομαι”), “to shake off” (“ἀποσείω”). “ἄρτι πέπαυτο τοῦ μυθολογήματος ὁ λάμων” (2,35,1) “lamon just finished the story” “ἀλλ΄ ἀεί τε ἀρχόμενοι νομῆς προσήδρευον καὶ ἐκ νομῆς ἀνιόντες προσεκύνουν” (2,2,5) “but whenever grazing began, they would kneel and bow when returning from the pasture”. the meaning of distance and deprivation is expressed by constructions with the verbs “ἄρχω” (to begin) and “παύομαι” (to cease, to end). the second sentence also contains the synonymous construction “ἐκ” + genitive with the meaning of distance. “ὁ δὲ ἔκειτο πληγαῖς νεανικαῖς συγκεκομμένος ὑπὸ τῶν λῃστῶν καὶ ὀλίγον ἐμπνέων” (1,29,1) “[dorcon] lay there, barely breathing, bleeding from the wounds inflicted by the ruthless robbers” inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 204 “καὶ τοσαῦτα παθόντες ὑπὸ ποιμένων” (2,19,2) “they suffered such [disgrace] from the shepherds” “ἐτράφη μὲν ὑπὸ αἰγὸς, ὡς κηδομένων θεῶν” (3,32,1) “he [daphnis] was fed by a goat, as if the gods were worried about him” “καὶ ταχέως ὑπὸ γνάθωνος καὶ τὰ ἀστυκὰ διδαχθῆναι δυνάμενον” (4,19,1) “[daphnis] can quickly be taught the customs of the city by gnatho”. “genetīvus auctōris” (genitive case of the author) refers to a living subject of action (latin: “abl. auctōris”). it answers the question “by whom the action is performed”. it is used with the preposition ὑπό, which is not translated into ukrainian. “παιδίον εὗρεν ὑπὸ μιᾶς τῶν αἰγῶν τρεφόμενον” (1,2,1) “[lamon] found a baby being fed by one of the goats. the genitive case of the author (genetivus auctoris) “ὑπ΄ ἐκείνου” and the genitive case of possession (genetivus possessivus) “τῆς δάφνιδος”, e.g: “τῆς δάφνιδος ἀκούων σύριγγος καὶ ὑπ΄ ἐκείνου νεμόμενος” (4,16,3) “and listening to the syrinx daphnis to graze under his supervision” (lit. by him to graze). sometimes sentences contain two genitive cases with different syntactic functions. for example, the genitive case of the author (genetivus auctoris) “ὑπὸ μιᾶς” and the partitive genitive case (genetivus partitivus) “τῶν αἰγῶν”. “ὁ τίτυρος ἐφίσταται τὴν σύριγγα τῷ πατρὶ κομίζων͵ μέγα ὄργανον καὶ αὐλῶν μεγάλων” (2,35,1) “tityros came running and gave his father the syrinx, a large instrument with large tubes”. “genetivus materiae” (genitive case of material) refers to the material of which an object is composed or made or its contents. “συνελθόντες οὖν οἱ κωμῆται νύκτωρ σιροὺς ὀρύττουσι τὸ εὖρος ὀργυιᾶς͵ τὸ βάθος τεττάρων” (1,11,2) “so the peasants came together at night and made several holes a fathom wide and four fathoms deep”. “genitivus qualitatis” (genitive case of quality) indicates a property, a quality. iv. discussion the main finding of this research is the identification and comprehensive analysis of the diverse syntactic functions of the genitive case in longus’ ancient greek novel “daphnis and chloe”. the study reveals that the genitive case performs an extensive range of 25 distinct syntactic roles, including subjective, objective, temporal, comparative, possessive, and various other specialised functions. the genitive case emerges as a highly versatile linguistic tool, enabling the conveyance of a wide array of semantic nuances, ranging from possession and attribution to contextual and descriptive functions. this finding highlights the richness of the ancient greek case system and its pivotal role in imbuing literary works with rhetorical sophistication and narrative complexity, particularly during the “second sophistic” period exemplified by longus’ novel. many works, translations, and articles are devoted to this novel. for example, makar’s (2010) monograph focuses on the longus, the era in which author of the novel lived, i.e., the end of the second century ad, and the language of the novel “daphnis and chloe”. the work also describes in detail the writer’s lexical idiosystem. another example of a study of the novel is the article by wouters (1987). from its results, it can be concluded that longus’ style is characterized by the phenomenon of subtle irony, which is one of the important aspects of authors’ literary abilities used in the novel “daphnis and chloe”. this article also demonstrates longus’ skillful employment of irony by examining passages where the characters’ naive actions are juxtaposed with the narrator’s more knowing commentary, thereby underscoring the nuanced and ironic layers of the narrative as described by wouters (1987). not so long ago, scholars began to pay attention to longus’ attitude to the ironic. the article “longus’ narrator: a reassessment” by maciver (2020), notes, that the narrator of “daphnis and chloe” is separated from the author and has an ironic attitude toward him. longus’ narrator treats novel as if it were a simple and naive story, not paying attention to all the beauty the author has put into it. in this way, the reader develops the same attitude toward the novel. one way to describe this textual duality is to think in terms of a superficial “narrator’s text” and a deeper “author’s text”. readers have a choice: either to accept the narrator’s text or to read around the narrator, i.e. to read the author’s text. instances of irony in the novel, as noted in this article, reveal the narrator’s playful dismissal of the story’s sophistication, thereby inviting readers to engage more critically with the text. this approach validates the scholar’s assertion that the narrator’s seemingly naive recounting is a deliberate device inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 205 to enhance the reader’s experience by contrasting it with the author’s more nuanced intentions. the novel “daphnis and chloe” is mentioned in the article by goldhill (2020). the entire article is devoted to the history of the novel genre, starting with a critique that focuses on the importance of the novel as a nineteenth-century genre, ending with an explanation of why the ancient novel, which was ignored by critics for so long, has now become such a popular topic. the research on longus’ novel does not end there. another work devoted to “daphnis and chloe” is a chapter in the book by gill (2019). the scholar describes the novel’s special character or tone, ethical values, or attitudes. this work is certainly unique in the surviving greek prose. this novel, first of all, has a special bright style, which is manifested in the alternate use of a standard prose narrative and a dialog style that is even more refined. another work that features a study of the novel is the article by jolowicz (2021), which explores the connections between greek literature and latin poetry. latin poetry is extremely important for greek literature. that is why greek novels flourished during the roman empire, offering stories of love and separation. “daphnis and chloe” are one such novel. thus, this paper analyses the role of latin literature in greek literary culture during the empire. this research highlights how the previously overlooked ancient novel genre, including “daphnis and chloe”, has gained popularity due to its complex narrative structures and the interplay of greek and latin literary traditions. demerre (2020) is the author of another research on the ancient greek novel “daphnis and chloe”. the research aimed to better understand the trial scene in the novel. it is noted that the author used modern rhetorical discussions. the insertion in the verdict is used to emphasize the difference between the means of persuasion. this allows us to see cases of elite social practice moving into the rural world of the protagonists. if we compare the two speeches, this displacement is further emphasized. ultimately, this scene explores the notion of credibility in longus’ fictional world. this research provides detailed examples from the novel, illustrating the genitive case’s role in shaping meaning and enhancing the narrative’s rhetorical impact, thus reinforcing the author’s conclusions about longus’ use of credibility and social dynamics in his fictional world. following morgan (2020), while much of greek literature was committed to a form of cultural purism, the novel reveled in cultural hybridity. the earliest greek novelistic literature combined greek and nongreek traditions. in research, morgan describes the origins of the greek novel, saying that there is no consensus on its creation. cozad (2019), in work, asserts that the original greek version of “daphnis and chloe” was a greek novel in prose. there are at least four sixteenth-century western european translations of the adaptation: italian (1538), french (1559), spanish (1568), and new latin (1574). waller (2022) addressed the topic of gender construction and reversible potentiality. this study enters a dialog with foucault and freud. they argue that within the liminality of adolescence, the formation of gender subjectivity is a condition of “reversible potentiality.” the author refers to daphnis’ education to explain the alleged equivalence between male subjectivity and knowledge/power. in this case, knowledge functions as a force of immobilization. this work is significantly different from others as there has been no research on the functions of the ancient greek genitive case based on the novel “daphnis and chloe”. the author also presents many excerpts from the novel in the original language and their author’s translation in order to better understand the essence of the study. in current research, detailed examples from the novel illustrate these functions, showing how the genitive case is used to express various relationships and attributes. compared to other studies that aim to identify other linguistic features, such as idioms, metaphors, and rhetorical questions, this article is significantly different, as it provides many examples, both in the original language and in english, and reveals various functions of the genitive case, its use in interaction with different parts of speech and different contexts. also, unlike most researchers of longus’ novel who analyzed the artistic style, the peculiarities of the novel genre, and its development, although this is a common type of research on this particular work, this research focuses on the syntactic level of the language, on the presentation of the richness of the functions of the genitive case in ancient greek. there is no description of specific scenes, moments, or parts of the novel “daphnis and chloe”; the features of the genitive case are analyzed based on the entire text. from the analysis of various works inesa chakal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 206 on the novel “daphnis and chloe”, it can be seen that it has interested more than one generation of scholars, as there are both older studies from the 90s and completely new ones written in recent years. although the novel was written in the late second century ad, it is still being studied today. the implications of this research are significant for syntactic studies. by mapping the diverse functions of the genitive case in an ancient greek literary text, the study reveals the expressive potential of case systems. this understanding can inform analyses of other ancient languages, enhancing appreciation for the semantic and rhetorical nuances skilled writers convey through case manipulation. identifying specific genitive patterns and meanings also aids in teaching and learning ancient greek, enabling more nuanced interpretations of classical texts and enriching engagement with ancient greek literature. while the study offers valuable insights into the genitive case’s multifarious functions within longus’ novel, its scope is necessarily limited by focusing on a single literary work. the findings may not be fully representative of the genitive’s usage across the broader expanse of ancient greek texts, as literary styles and genre conventions could influence case employment. future research endeavours could fruitfully expand the examination of the genitive case to encompass a wider range of ancient greek literary and non-literary texts, spanning diverse genres, time periods, and geographic regions. comparative analyses across multiple corpora would yield a more comprehensive understanding of the genitive’s functional scope and any potential variations influenced by factors such as genre conventions, stylistic trends, or regional linguistic traditions. v. conclusions the key finding of this research is that the genitive case in longus’ ancient greek novel “daphnis and chloe” exhibits a remarkably diverse array of 25 distinct syntactic functions, showcasing the nuanced expressive capabilities of the ancient greek case system. this underscores the pivotal role of deft case usage in imbuing literary works with rhetorical sophistication and semantic depth, especially during the “second sophistic” period. however, the study is limited to examining the genitive case within a single literary work. future research could extend the analysis to other ancient greek texts, facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of the genitive’s functional versatility across different genres and time periods. references azaz, m. 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(2017). encyclopedic dictionary of classical languages. kyiv: kyiv university. ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 419 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 2, 2023 final revision: january 5, 2024 accepted: january 6, 2024 available online: january 8, 2024 the current paper looks at investigating middle school teachers’ perspectives towards gamification in the efl context in algeria. to this end, the study explores the potential of incorporating digital gamification in efl teaching with a focus on teachers’ implementation of gamification in the classroom context. in order to gain a clearer understanding of the phenomenon, the researcher adopted qualitative research using a semistructured interview. the participants were a total of 11 efl teachers from various middle schools in mostaganem – algeria. the interviewees were selected based on their use of digital technology and game-based teaching methods. the collected data was thematically analyzed using maxqda software, employing a descriptive analysis approach. after the analysis, the findings show that teachers frequently incorporate ict-based and game-based lessons into their teaching practices. additionally, in accord with their responses, teachers have a clear notion of gamified teaching and learning. however, they lack the necessary expertise to effectively implement gamification. being a novelty in the arena of language teaching, teachers call for training programs to enable them to effectively incorporate gamification in the efl classroom. as the study concludes, it provides a clear understanding of the teachers’ standpoint regarding gamification, their openness, and readiness to adopt modern teaching methods. it also offers valuable insights into state-of-the-art teaching methods and paves the way for further considerations in gamified lesson design. keywords ict, gamification, digital gamification, algerian efl teachers, maxqda correspondence e-mail: khadiboudour@gmail.com article exploring the perspectives of middle school teachers’ towards gamification in the efl context ilhem khadija boudour1 1university of mostaganem, mostaganem, algeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.419-425.2023 i. introduction the education policy in algeria encourages teachers to be more flexible in their teaching and to adapt methods and techniques that appeal to the 21st-century learner. efl teachers have different perspectives on gamification in general and mobile learning in particular. their perspectives depend on their awareness of these new concepts, as well as their mastery and experience. additionally, there is a considerable gap in the literature tackling gamification in the algerian classroom. gamification techniques are still considered a novelty, but some of their elements, such as rewards, competition, and points, are already being used as extrinsic motivational factors to enhance learners’ engagement and motivation. as prensky (2002) stated, one of the main challenges in formal education is maintaining students’ motivation to stay engaged in the learning process. the 21st century learner is demanding. hence, why not keep up with the digital generation? youngsters belonging to this generation consider computers as a second language, one that the older generation does not speak or master (prensky, 2001). in the sphere of call (computer-assisted language learning), technology is used as a tool to facilitate learning compared to traditional teaching methods (zou, 2022; mirani, 2019; derakhshan, 2015; ). gamification, however, is much more than just a tool for fun; it adds value to the teaching process that teachers are often unaware of. teachers still confound the implementation of digital technology, games or gamification. therefore, it is important to refer to playfulness, game-based learning, and ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 420 game mechanics. playfulness has long been introduced into the learning environment to enhance learners’ cognitive, behavioral, affective, and sociocultural engagement (plass, homer, & kinzer, 2015). play is the primary factor in both gamification and game-based learning. but, is gamification a new concept? gamification has roots that predate its actual application in education (xezonaki, 2022; detering, et al 2011) define gamification as the utilization of game elements in contexts that are not related to games. this is to boost users’ performance, behavior, and engagement. gamification, as a term, first appeared in the 2000s and was initially used in industry (groh, 2012). unlike gbl, which is a playful activity with an educational purpose, gamification is characterized by the use of incentive systems. scholars did not settle on one definition of gbl. according to salen and zimmerman (2003), a game is “a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome.” added to that is the notion of feedback, interaction, and emotion as mentioned by kapp (2012). in other words, games elicit strong emotions and provide immediate, direct, and clear feedback. in addition, “a rule-based play with determined goals” (groh, 2012, p. 39). in order to distinguish game-based learning from gamification, it is important to highlight their similarities and the common components they share. in her report kronisch (2016) elaborates on a definition: ‘a game is any interactive activity that the persons engaging in it are experiencing as playful’. both gbl and gamification share the criteria of fun and enjoyment. both gamification and gbl are distinguishable in educational settings, yet they overlap and share game elements that create playfulness in a serious context, which is the classroom. however, serious games are fully-fledged and made for non-entertainment purposes. playfulness characterizes a learning atmosphere in which learners acquire knowledge through entertainment, giving rise to the term “edutainment.” learning in a gamified environment has undeniable advantages. this includes overcoming shyness, increasing self-confidence, involving all students in the class, and encouraging learners to engage in learning, discovery, critical thinking, and problem-solving. as a result, it enhances self-esteem and promotes self-improvement (cojocariua & boghian, 2014). these are qualities most associated with gamification, and it is often criticized for some shortcomings, such as noise, content adaptation, and teacher control, among others. in the same vein, gamified platforms not only improve users’ experience in terms of engagement, motivation, and enjoyment but also teach facts and content in an environment characterized by teamwork and peer interaction (owen & licorish, 2020). a game is characterized by a goal to be achieved, limiting rules to reach the predefined goal, and feedback on the progress toward the goal. (sailer, et al, 2013) provide the components of a game: points, badges, leaderboards, performance graphs, meaningful stories, avatars, and teammates. these components are integral parts of gamification and are referred to as game design elements, as explained by detering et al. (2011) in table 1. since games can be played either individually or collectively, game mechanics can be classified into self-elements and social elements (seaborn & fels, 2015). the former encompasses points, badges, trophies, storylines, time restrictions, table 1. taxonomy of game design elements by (detering, et al, 2011) level description example game interface design patterns common, successful interaction design components and design solutions for a known problem in a context, including prototypical implementations badge, leaderboard, level game design patterns and mechanics commonly reoccurring parts of the design of a game that concern gameplay time constraints, limited resources, turns game design principles and heuristics evaluative guidelines to approach a design problem or analyze a given design solution enduring play, clear goals, variety of game styles game models conceptual models of the components of games or game experience mda; challenge, fantasy, curiosity; game design atoms; cege game design methods game design-specific practices and processes playtesting, playcentric design, value conscious game design ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 421 aesthetics, and virtual goods. whereas the latter include leaderboards, interactive cooperation, storyline, and virtual goods. (huang & soman, 2013) provide an explanation of the fundamental concepts of gamification such as tracking mechanism, currency, level, rules as well as feedback. game mechanics can be applied in a variety of ways depending on the context. a teacher may favour one mechanism or element over another taking into consideration the learner’s learning style, needs conditions and the objective to be reached. moreover, a combination of these elements adds to the classroom environment and creates a culture typical to each class or lesson. while previous research in the field of educational gamification put more emphasis on learners, little has been said about teachers’ attempts to gamify their classrooms and the challenges faced (kabilan, annamalai, & chuah, 2023) particularly in the algerian middle school. after all, all stakeholders should be given equal consideration in order to achieve quality results. hence, the present study is a breakthrough in educational technology since teachers are a focal participant in the process of knowledge transmission and teacher/ learner interaction. a good understanding of teachers aspirations along with suitable artifacts will efficiently meet learners’ needs. the primary objective of this exploratory paper is to shed light on how algerian middle school teachers perceive gamification as a new strategy in education and to evaluate their actual use of gamification and game mechanics in the teaching process. this will take into account their awareness, competence, and experience. eventually, we will be able to identify the challenges and concerns that teachers face when implementing gamificationbased lessons at the algerian middle school level. in this study, the main research question is: what are the perspectives of algerian efl teachers towards the implementation of gamification as a certified teaching/learning strategy? in this context, the aim of the study is to gather and analyse the efl teachers regarding gamification. while tackling their perspectives, the study offers more insights on their awareness, competence and experience vis-à-vis gamification. the conceptual framework underpinning this study draws from the theoretical foundation of the tpack model or the theory of technological, pedagogical content knowledge framework (koehler, et al, 2014). ii. methods data collection the present qualitative research is exploratory in nature. it utilizes a structured interview for data collection because this method is well-suited for exploring participants’ opinions. it also allows researchers to delve deeper into the information provided and seek clarification on answers. the interview addresses three aspects: teachers’ awareness and competence in relation to new teaching methods, as well as their experience in implementing gamification, games, and game mechanics. eleven middle school efl teachers participated in the interview to share their attitudes towards the use of gamification in education. the interview was conducted either over the phone or through audio messages via messenger. two female participants chose the latter option because they felt more comfortable. participants eleven middle school efl teachers have agreed to participate in the interview. some of them participated on the phone because they were not in the city on the day of the interview. some were interviewed face to face. the participants were randomly selected after completing a survey on facebook to identify teachers who utilize icts in their teaching. the survey was posted on three efl teaching groups, where teachers were asked to choose the ict tool that they mostly use in their teaching: either laptop/computer, data projector, or mobile applications. the teachers’ ages range from 25 to 50 years old, and their years of teaching experience range from 5 to 25 years. data analysis for the purpose of selecting participants, a survey was posted on facebook in two educational groups for efl middle school teachers in the city of mostaganem-algeria. the survey was about whether teachers use data projectors, cell phones, and/or ipads or the traditional method of teaching. a total of 53 teachers answered the facebook post, amongst which 29 used digital technology like cellphones and ipads as well as games. the latter were contacted for the purpose of the interview. eventually, 18 teachers agreed to participate in the interview via messenger and phone, but only 11 participants actually completed the interview. ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 422 teachers who did not complete the interview on messenger were excluded from the coding process of data analysis. the interviews were conducted on the phone and were transcribed using maxqda. the data obtained from the interviews was analyzed using a thematic approach. it is well-suited for the themes discussed in the interview, which include awareness, competence, and experience. maxqda 2022 software was used to code the data based on the aforementioned categories. iii. results the continuous development of a teacher is supported by their ability to innovate and implement new teaching strategies to transmit knowledge. some teachers strive to employ innovative methods in an attempt to capture the attention and interest of learners as much as possible. from game-based learning to gamification, the pendulum swings back and forth to achieve the desired goals. little doubt exists about the utility of gamification and game-based learning (gbl); however, teachers often show reluctance to apply them. this could be due to familiarity, time constraints, or anxiety towards class management and teacher-learner interaction. moreover, age difference also plays a role. young teachers are more or less open to applying gamification compared to adult teachers (cojocariua & boghian, 2014). awareness research question 1: are efl teachers familiar with new teaching methods, including gamification? most teachers use the terms gamification and game-based learning interchangeably. however, when defining gamification, they add the notion of fun and interest to differentiate it from gbl. gamification is described as a strategy used by teachers in the classroom to facilitate the learning of new language skills in a funny and interesting way. another criterion for gamification is performance. “i believe that gamification is the utilization of games in the learning process to enhance learners’ performance, whether it be in written or oral form.” overall, teachers associate the use of games, whether they are classical or ict-based, with facilitating learning and improving performance. amel, one of the interviewed teachers, referred to gbl as: “a technique or a method used in learning.” it involves playing games to understand the concept, such as crosswords, pickup games, the hangman game, and keyboarding games. teachers express their bewilderment in front of the constant emerging technologies and often say that they cannot keep up with these changes. some teachers who are not well acquainted with newer technologies, refer to the younger generation to get informed about use and usage. other teachers rely on ratings and popularity of certain apps or software before choosing to adopt them. one of the teachers reported: “i heard of e-learning websites for language learning. i created an account, but i didn’t use it in teaching”. competence research question 2: how competent are they in implementing gamification techniques? in this section, participants were interviewed or assessed on their proficiency in gamification and game elements, as well as their actual utilization of ict tools, as these are fundamental to the gamification process. all interviewed teachers agreed on the use of icts, yet it is limited to a data projector, speaker, ipad, and laptop, since “it is an obligation to use the computer and the data show….” a few cohorts used cell phones along with a data projector to display content. teachers are trying to adapt to modern means of communication, such as facebook and telegram, by using interactive groups. social media platforms help parents stay informed about the educational field, and the same goes for learners who can collaborate with their peers and teachers beyond the traditional classroom setting. the latter often posts additional educational curricular resources for learners to benefit from. however, access to the internet is limited to only some learners. some teachers said that they include social media to maintain contact with learners. “i do interact with my dear learners through a facebook group messenger.” i rarely use the viber app. others don’t use it because some learners don’t even have access to the internet. when asked about applying gamification, teachers didn’t differentiate between games and gamification. however, after explaining the concept of gamified apps or computer games used in teaching, they rejected the idea of using such methods, citing a variety of reasons such as outnumbered classes and lack of time. on the other hand, they are satisfied with the use of educational ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 423 games such as puzzles, board games, spelling games, and jigsaw puzzles because they experience learners’ excitement. among the interviewed teachers, only one used gamification in teaching. she attributed this to the training she received at the beginning of her career. she stated, “well since i learned about gamification in my training and applied it in my class, i can confidently say that it is extremely important.” the teacher has given examples of duolingo and other language learning apps, such as cake, fluentu, and hellotalk. “in the duolingo game, there are many stages. for example, when you choose the beginner level.” you can find plenty of subjects to learn, for example. fruits. house parts. in the sea... etc. despite teachers not applying gamification or using educational digital apps in their classrooms, they unconsciously apply elements of it. the game elements of gamification explained above are often present in efl classrooms. teachers were given a number of game elements such as levels, rewards, badges, rules, challenges, competition, timers, and goals. competition and challenge are recurring game elements. according to the interviewed teachers, learners are more active when they are placed in competitive teams. this helps to maximize their attention. experience research question 3: to what extent do learners accept the idea of learning through gamification? teachers show positive attitudes towards games: “i really enjoy playing games with my learners (break routine).” they believe that being comfortable with games is essential for effective teaching and learning. in order to maximize the benefits for their students, teachers should thoroughly prepare their gamified lessons and utilize the available resources. varying teaching strategies keep learners attentive and prevent them from falling into a routine. some teachers think that if the entire efl program is gamified, boredom may occur and learners may lose engagement and motivation. thus, teachers would be better off being flexible in their choice of techniques according to the needs and learning styles of their students. “gamification is just one method among many teaching strategies; it is not mandatory to apply it. it is up to the teacher to choose what suits their learners.” the next element is the reward system. whether it is a point, a star, a round of applause, or even a candy, it has an undeniable effect on learners’ behavioral performance. “i often use all these game elements, but i find that rewards competitions, and challenges are efficient, and learners like rewards a lot, even if it is a simple gift.” other elements, such as levels and timers, occur less frequently. teachers could observe the usefulness of applying gamification and its elements to learners’ behavior and performance. “i strongly believe that gaming is crucial in an efl program as it offers numerous advantages, such as increasing learners’ motivation.” 2/ improving knowledge retention. “3/ better learner engagement.” iv. discussion in an attempt to renovate their teaching methods, teachers are considered as gatekeepers to the integration of technology in the classroom (wu, zhou, & li, 2023). they often encounter difficulties that disrupt the flow of the class. teachers face various issues, primarily technical when delivering gamified content. despite the usefulness of gamifying the learning process, participants find it difficult to apply in an overcrowded class of more than 30 learners. along with crowded classes, which is agreed upon as the first barrier by all participants, chaos and noise occur as a result. this fact prevents teachers from effectively managing the energy of the learners and fulfilling their need to play and learn simultaneously. “teaching students to understand and respect the rules of the games can be demotivating, as it requires time, especially if they are not accustomed to it. time constraints and a lack of suitable logistics are also significant factors.” when asked whether they would recommend gamifying instruction to their peers, one of the participants mentioned, “sometimes i do, but it’s a bit hard to convince them. they know that they can face problems with class management.” as a matter of fact, shifting to a newer method of instruction is a lengthy process that requires resources. “our institutions still lack the necessary resources, and even the number of students in a class precludes the use of such teaching and learning methods.” policymakers should provide logistical support in terms of internet access, smaller class sizes, and training to ensure the successful ilhem khadija boudour / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 424 implementation of gamified teaching. “it is tiring for the teacher to play the same game with more than eight or nine groups, especially considering the large number of pupils in some classes.” preparation and training enable the successful implementation of gamification. however, some teachers may lack proficiency in using icts, while others may be hesitant to adopt new teaching techniques due to concerns about functionality or losing control over the classroom. eventually, being well prepared makes it easier for the teacher to implement gamification, as some teachers find it challenging to apply games on the screen. moreover, there is a significant need for ongoing professional development focused on designing and implementing gamified lessons effectively. educators must be equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to integrate gamification into various pedagogical approaches and technological platforms. additionally, continuous research and development are essential to evaluate the impact of gamification on learning outcomes and to evolve these strategies based on empirical evidence. v. conclusions in conclusion, the enthusiasm of teachers toward incorporating gamification in educational settings is a promising sign for the future of learning. however, realizing the full potential of gamified learning systems necessitates a collaborative and well-coordinated effort from all stakeholders involved. this includes not only teachers but also learners, parents, syllabus designers, and policymakers. each group plays a vital role in overcoming the barriers to successful gamification implementation, from technical challenges to resistance to change in conventional teaching methodologies. it is also critical to approach gamification with ethical and inclusive considerations, ensuring that it benefits a diverse range of learners and fosters a positive, collaborative educational environment. by addressing these aspects, we can steer the educational system towards a more engaging, interactive, and effective paradigm, leveraging the power of gamification to enhance the 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(2013). how gamification motivates: an experimental study of the effects of specific game design elements on psychological need satisfaction. elsevier, 373. salen , k., & zimmerman, e. (2003). rules of play: game design fundamentals. the mit press. seaborn, k., & fels, d. (2015). gamification in theory and action: a survey. elsevier. international journal of human-computer studies. xezonaki, a. (2022). gamification in preschool science education. advances in mobile learning educational research, vol. 2 no. 2 zou, b., chen, x. & sun, w. (2022). k-12 teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of online efl teaching and learning during the covid-19 pandemic. journal of china computer-assisted language learning, 2(1), 45-68. rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 158 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 29, 2022 final revision: october 24, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 language education has remarkably undergone a major shift since the advent of the communicative approach in the 1970s. as english has long become the world’s lingua franca, the approach to its teaching and learning has also witnessed an outstanding breakthrough. this is illustrated by the growing figures of non-native english language speakers that far exceed the native ones, and that entails a special status for english. therefore, different proposals have been made as to how english should best be approached in teaching given its various characteristics as an international language for communication. one of these approaches is english as a medium of instruction (emi). in this regard, and in their attempt to attain internationalization and develop the quality of higher education, many institutions in non-english speaking countries (e.g., japan, china, malaysia, germany, etc.) have opted for the world’s first language as a means of instruction in various academic subjects, namely the science-related ones. this paper, then, is set to conceptualize and highlight the process of using english as a language of teaching and learning at the tertiary level, and explores its potential benefits and challenges for students and professors in the moroccan higher educational context. keywords emi, higher education, bilingualism, benefits, challenges correspondence e-mail: rachidelkhayma@hotmail.fr review english as a medium of instruction: exploring benefits and challenges in the 21st century rachid elkhayma1 1hassan ii university, casablanca, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.158-163.2022 1. introduction surely, english has been for many decades now the world’s lingua franca. it is the language of business, media, industry, science, technology, and tourism. it allows for more mobility, movement, and interaction than any other rival language. this explains why a great number of universities around the world, in their attempt to become international and to attract foreign students, have decided to use english as a means of instruction in most of their academic subjects. this internationalization has become a recurrent concern for higher educational institutions. it is implemented in a variety of ways; one of which is to attract students from overseas. these universities, which are mostly european, american, and asian, work hard enough to allure students from other countries, namely from developing and emerging nations in latin america, asia and africa. to do this, they adapt their trainings or create special ones that suit the needs and expectations of students. for instance, the european integration in higher education, known as the bologna process, provided an internationalization integration system by standardizing diplomas into bachelor, master and doctorate, and by setting up a unified system of grading acknowledged by all institutions regardless of the member state (park, 2019). students’ exchange programs are other means of carrying out this internationalization project. besides, some western universities (e.g., american, british, french, german, etc.) seek partnerships abroad and create courses in collaboration with universities in the target countries. these initiatives are supported by the erasmus project (murata, 2019). to attain internationalization, these institutions adopt the world’s first language as a means of instruction. there seems to be a firm belief that this internationalization can only take place through rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 159 english language education or through what galloway et al., (2017) call ‘education through english.’ for many, english is a dominant language and a “tool for global mobility, a gatekeeper to knowledge, a prerequisite to career success” (brumfit 2004, p. 166, as cited in galloway & kriukow, 2019, p. 137). the issue here lies in the conflicting points of view that this increasing financially educational ‘market’ is rapidly becoming a serious threat to national identity and culture at large. however, for others it represents an unequivocal step for social and economic development and modernization. 2. review of the literature 2.1. definitions of emi most emi definitions involve the use of english for teaching and learning purposes in non-english native contexts where english is seen as a lingua franca, a lingua-cultural means of communication, or a foreign language. dearden (2014) posits that english as a medium of instruction implies that “the use of the english language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (l1) of the majority of the population is not english” (p. 2). similarly, galloway (2020) believes that instructional english entails “the use of the english language to teach academic content in places where english is not the first language of the majority of the population” (p. 10). from their part, tsou and kao (2017) state that emi is perceived as “a strategic decision to improve quality of education, alumni employment, publications, international academic exchange, etc., all of which contributing to the institution’s international profile” (p. 4). in this vein, and for the very essence of emi application in academic and educational venues, many countries around the world have long adopted tangible policies endorsing the use of english as a medium of instruction for the good of their education system. 2.2. worldwide emi context emi in europe the implementation of english as a medium of instruction at the tertiary level first appeared in europe in the 1990s, and has significantly evolved ever since. it “has found fertile ground in continental europe” (tsou & kao, 2017, p. 7), mainly in northern europe. in germany, the first university english degree was created in 1979. 20 years later, all german universities were able to integrate english-based courses and degrees in the national system of education (ammon and mcconnell, 2002). this development continued to grow; in 2006 the german university exchange service known as daad listed as many as 140 higher education public and private institutions which offered english-taught study programs. in 2007, france listed more than 490 courses in which english was the language of teaching and learning. these courses were mainly included in the masters programs of business, science, and engineering, and are currently spread over more than 160 institutions across the country (campus france, 2019). these institutions aim at attracting international students. for instance, most of the graduate programs in lille university are in english in various fields ranging from science and technology to culture. equally in the netherlands, the emi context appears to be ubiquitous. using english in teaching starts from the lower university levels and largely expands at the higher ones. in 2009, 105 out 170 masters programs in amsterdam university were in english, and almost half were at utrecht university. likewise, the emi context in sweden is even more dominant. english is prevalent there, and this actually “has led some researchers to describe it as a second language in sweden, rather than a foreign language” (hyltenstam, 2004; phillipson, 1992, as cited in toth, 2018, p. 8). according to the ‘study in sweden’ website (2021), swedish universities list more than 1000 emi courses. for instance, uppsala university offers more than 700 courses that are entirely in english. emi in asia the emi status in asia is no less prominent than that of europe. many asian countries, particularly the former british colonies (e.g., singapore, malaysia, hong kong, etc.) have had long traditions in implementing instructional english in their education system. after its independence, singapore chose english as the official language along with the other national languages: malay, tamil, and mandarin chinese. since 1979 emi has become the common trend in almost all universities in the country. in 1987, singapore became one of the first countries in the world to use english as the language of instruction in most school subjects, including math, science and history. this policy rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 160 has resulted in a growing figure of english language proficiency among singaporeans wherein “70.9 % of them aged 15 and over were literate in english” (tsou & kao, 2017, p. 8). in malaysia, education officials have long decided that monolingualism would not serve the country’s willingness to globalize and develop its economy. they have decided on english as a language of teaching and learning since their independence in 1957 despite the existence of more than 80 local languages (riget et al., 2018). however, they have maintained their malaysian national language as an official language that all students must acquire starting from the elementary level, and that is used in governmental and administrative circles. as for english, the government has made it mandatory for all educational levels, since 2003, to learn science and math in english. the country’s objective has been not only to keep their students in their home country by attracting international universities and creating their own ones that introduce emi programs, but also to become a regional hub for international students. albeit not a former british colony, china made fast remarkable efforts towards implementing emi. driven by a fast growing economy, a desire to strengthen its ongoing influence in different parts of the world, and a disposition to catch up with the global study-abroad market, china has premiered english as a teaching language in various university subjects (e.g., biology, international trade, information technology, etc.); this has led the country to become “the biggest destination in asia, attracting more than 260,000 international students to enroll in its universities in 2011 (hou et al., 2013, as cited in tsou & kao, 2017, p. 9). english has long been established as the first foreign language in japan right after world war ii. in 1956, it became a subject for the high school entrance examinations in the country and a prerequisite for students to enter high schools. by 2002, most universities had already incorporated english in their study programs and entrance examinations (silver et al., 2002) in order to respond to the demands of the job market and globalization. similarly to china, this japanese internationalization process has been pushed by its relentless efforts to compete with other acclaimed universities around the world, create a well-grounded educational reputation among international students, and undoubtedly cultivate their identity and help spread the japanese culture (dearden, 2015). it has also been driven by “the collective english proficiency level [which] is considered to be comparatively low” (chapple, 2015, p. 3). as of 2013, around 194 japanese universities started english-taught courses in different forms (tsou & kao, 2017). yet, the attained english proficiency outcomes by japanese students were not up to the desired expectations, given the fierce competition from the neighboring china, honk kong, taiwan, singapore, etc. in the middle east, similar efforts have been made to increase the number of emi programs in universities since the 1980s (galloway, 2020). the most prominent examples of ubiquitous englishtaught programs are found in the united arab emirate, oman, and qatar, and to a less extent in saudi arabia. the importance placed on english in these countries started with the need to replace foreign workers with their nationals following the societal and economic progress of the petroleum industry (moskovsky & picard, 2020). the enforcement of this policy is twofold. first, they pay greater attention to vocational education, with a particular focus on science, technology, and engineering. second, they send their students to study abroad, namely in western english speaking countries. emi in morocco although english is publically gaining ground in morocco, its implementation is officially still limited. in public universities, english is used as a language of teaching and learning almost only in the departments of english language studies. very few exceptions appear from time to time in some public universities where the language of instruction is english. one of them is the previously announced project of a bachelor’s degree in economics and business administration in english launched by the faculty of legal, economic, and social sciences of ain chock in hassan ii university, casablanca. if practically realized, it will be a tremendous breakthrough in the process of using english in education in moroccan public universities. in public higher education institutions of engineering, science, and technology (e.g., ensa, ensam, enset, enim, etc.) the de facto language of instruction is french. english is scarcely used there; it depends primarily on some professors’ individual attempts to use technical terminology in english every now and then. in rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 161 this vein, moroccan university professors of science and technology are making significant efforts to develop their english proficiency level. a great number of them participate in international seminars and conferences where the language used is english. the use of english-taught programs is mainly found in private higher education schools and semipublic ones (al-akhawayn university). some higher schools of business and engineering always offer courses wherein the instructional language is english. the rationale behind it is to improve students’ english proficiency, and develop their knowledge and expertise in those fields of study using the world’s first language. this implies that they have been far ahead of their time in adopting a smaller, but quite comprehensive, version of the bachelor’s program. the new higher education reform represented in the bachelor’s system appears to be promising in promoting english language mastery among university students. there is a lot of emphasis in this new system, which replaces the lmd (licence – master – doctorate) program, on learning foreign languages, mainly english. if the project is put to practice, then english will surely be more ubiquitous in universities. in this context, the bachelor’s system requires all doctorate students to reach a particular english language proficiency level before graduation. this may reasonably pave the way for future moroccan faculty members to be able to teach in english. moreover, a new strategy by the educational authorities that puts significant emphasis on english proficiency in higher education is looming ahead. in order to graduate, students will be required to have a minimum english language proficiency level of b1. students of all majors will be the target of this ‘latest’ reform that has just been proclaimed by the ministry of higher education. albeit an apparent burden on students’ shoulders, it is highly supported by them and by the public opinion inside and outside the education sector. in their study on doctoral students’ attitudes towards the use of english as a medium of instruction in three moroccan science and technology universities, belhiah (2016) confirmed this endorsement by indicating that most participants prefer the implementation of emi. the reasons the researcher draws involve the students’ desire “to read and cite indexed journal articles in their dissertations, their intention to pursue postgraduate studies abroad, and the desire to have an edge in the job market” (p. 211). this latest reform in moroccan higher education represents a huge step forward in advancing the status of the english language in the education system. it also pushes more stakeholders to create english-taught programs in colleges. 3. discussion 3.1. benefits and challenges of emi numerous benefits can be drawn from implementing english for instructional purposes in non-english speaking countries. for students, following chapple (2015), it can be an opportunity to improve their english proficiency and globalize the content they learn using the world’s first language. it can help them develop academic performance, enhance critical thinking, and boost graduates’ chances for better jobfinding prospects. kassteen (2013, as cited in chapple, 2015) additionally posits that some other emi benefits may well include the possibility of raising inter-cultural awareness and cultural understanding, developing the quality of academic performance, scoring high on standardized tests, and pushing students to be more creative. additionally, emi offers a set of benefits to instructors. it paves them the way for having access to better job-finding prospects locally and internationally, carrying out teaching mobility inside the country and abroad, knowing western culture, and participating in multicultural and multilingual communities (galloway et al., 2017). besides, it allows them to develop english proficiency, take part in international seminars, and publish studies in academic journals. at the tertiary level, there are driving forces that push universities to adopt emi policies. their incorporation of instructional english is considered a way for meeting the needs and objectives of globalization, and a constant concern for “raising research profiles and visibility in rankings” (kassteen, 2013, as cited in chapple, 2015, p. 2). through emi, higher education institutions (heis) are able to compete with other acclaimed universities in attracting as many international students as possible, and in gaining global reputation as ones of the best ranking universities. some of the main reasons behind this are to increase their financial income, improve the quality of education inside the institution, and internationalize the educational rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 162 context. moreover, as heis usually choose talented students in particular, these students often become researchers, and are allowed then to turn into skilled researchers and / or professionals; contributing thus to the development of both their host institutions and host countries. equally important, various challenges are involved in the choice for emi implementation. the most common hurdle is the inadequate or low english language command among students and instructors in non-native speaking venues (galloway et al., 2017). such insufficiency is highly likely to affect the two sides in different ways. the students may suffer from demotivation and / or low self-esteem as a result, while their teachers may either fail to explain the course content efficiently, or find difficulty maintaining communication in the target language. the consequential aftermath is that teachers will heavily use code-switching in teaching and learning; often resorting to the mother tongue or other foreign languages (french as the case in morocco) that are locally dominating and prevalent. another concern involves the controversial threat facing national languages and local identity and culture (brock-utne, 2013; cason & rodriguez, 2013, as cited in chapple, 2015). some countries, (e.g., malaysia, japan, etc.) have decided to empower the national language in parallel with attributing increasing educational importance to english. and for this very reason, they do not come out comparatively as successful in englishtaught programs as other rivaling countries such as singapore, taiwan, and china, indeed. 3.2. models for emi implementation a number of approaches are considered by emi instructors worldwide depending on the local needs of each country. the preparatory model is implemented in most of the world. it suggests that students enroll in a one-year english language class followed by the end-of-year test before embarking on english-taught courses (tsou & kao, 2017). the rationale behind this approach is to prepare university students for the emi academic subjects by pushing them to acquire english. the second model, the pre-institutional selection model, involves selecting students with a reasonable english language proficiency that allows them to understand and be understood in their corresponding emi classes. this model is prevalent in contexts where english-taught programmes are commonly believed to be quite mature (utokyo academy, 2021), as in western europe. the institutional support model is the less widespread approach that relies on the support provided by the institution in favour of faculty and students alike. this model is most often used in institutions where the proficiency level is high. yet, students may still need language support, while their instructors look forward to recognition of their teaching efforts, alongside training and a working environment that is conducive to learning. in the moroccan context, given the apparent low english language level among many students of various subjects –not those majoring in english–, and following the new higher education reform that requires students to achieve a b1 english proficiency level, the optimal approach that meets the local needs is the preparatory model that aims at developing their level and prepare them well enough for emi courses. besides, not only do students need preparation in moroccan universities, but also their professors need support in the form of language training. most of them were taught in french, and now they teach in french, not in english. this implicitly entails that their current proficiency may well prevent them from using english as an instructional language. they are highly likely to find difficulty maintaining communication or explain the content efficiently in english. therefore, this model applies both to moroccan students and teachers. 4. conclusion surely, english as a medium of instruction has been endorsed by many countries around the world for decades now, and has in turn empowered many universities in their pursuit for internationalization. with the implementation of instructional english, these universities have in effect improved the quality of their academic and educational performance by attracting more talented students and by meeting the needs of globalized education promoted by the world’s first language. in the moroccan context, the status of emi is slowly developing in public higher education. with the help of the recent reform advanced by the ministry of higher education, english is expected to occupy a greater role by increasing the number of english language classes in various college departments, and by enforcing its status as an important prerequisite for students wishing to graduate. rachid elkhayma / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 163 references academy, u. 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(2017). english as a medium of instruction in higher education. springer. gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 149 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 06, 2023 final revision: july 08, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 the reciprocal relationship between humans and humans, humans and the nature around them, produces a variety of languages. ecolinguistics is needed in studying aceh language phenomena. this study aims to describe the meaning, function, and form of the fauna lexicon in the culture of the people of aceh. this research is descriptive-qualitative in nature. this research data collection technique consists of interview techniques and observation techniques. interview techniques were used to obtain data on the meaning and function of fauna in the culture of the people of aceh. while observation techniques are used to obtain data on fauna forms in the culture of the people of aceh. current facts show that the lexicon of fauna is still used by parents when advising the younger generation, and they cannot understand the meaning of the advice. this is caused by environmental changes and the times that affect the younger generation’s mindset. the researcher collected a list of fauna lexicons in the acehnese language and classified them into verb and noun classes. keywords fauna lexicon, ecolinguistic, aceh proverb correspondence e-mail: dwiwidayati@usu.ac.id article the fauna lexicon in aceh proverb: ecolinguistic study gumarpi rahis pasaribu1, dwi widayati2, aron meko mbete3, dardanila dardanila4 1 stit al-ittihadiyah labuhanbat utara, aek kanopan, indonesia 2,4universitas sumatera utara,medan, indonesia 3 universitas udayana, bali, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.149-159.2023 i. introduction each language system has a level of connectedness in the field of meaning reflected in arbitrary sound symbols and substances produced by the human speech organ. (gumarpi & mubshirah, 2023). changes in language, especially in the words we use, are connected to changes in the world around us because language and the environment affect each other. this phenomenon is part of a scientific study called ecolinguistics, which looks at language and its world. it brings together ecology and linguistics. (demeritt, 2001; mbete, 2008; mcmichael, 2006; pittock, 2009). in 1970, haugen, for the first time, introduced the term ecology of language. particular environment. haugen emphasized that language resides in the minds of its users and language functions in the relationship between its users with each other and the environment, namely the social environment and the natural environment (haugen, 1972). the language environment refers to the people who use a language as one of their ways of communication. the way language is used and passed on is mainly influenced by the people who learn it and teach it to others. the environment of a language refers to the social and cultural background of its speakers, not just the physical surroundings. (boykoff & boykoff, 2004; munoh, 2012). language cannot be understood without considering the people who speak it. the way a language changes and continues to exist is affected by changes in the natural, social, and cultural world that affect the language. likewise, with the language that lives amid its support, it is not immune from changes due to modernization and globalization. (haugen, 1972 ; angwah, 2019) ecolinguistics focuses on three main things: the environment, diversity, and how everything is connected and dependent on each other. changes in society and culture also impact how language is used, particularly in terms of vocabulary. rewrite gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 150 this text using more straightforward language: (fill & muhlhausler, 2001). this result examined this topic. studying how language is influenced by its surroundings has led to the creation of ecolinguistics. this field has proliferated and is now applied in many areas, such as pragmatics, discourse analysis, anthropology, language theory, teaching, and more. language and ecolinguistics are a part of culture, social formations, and how we put our beliefs and theories into action. the concept of social praxis in the odense school refers to human social activity, which is a process that has meaning and is based on values. in this concept, language is considered part of social activity that also informs or criticizes social practice. (wierzbicka, 1997; lauder, 2004; mbete, 2015). therefore, every change that occurs in the use of language simultaneously identifies a change in social praxis. this social praxis consists of core contradictions that limit and condition every social activity, including the activity of using language and linguistic activity. in this context, a dialogical relationship means that four parts are involved: the person speaking, the person they are speaking to, the thing or problem they are talking about, and another person who may not be directly involved but still affects the conversation. the way language is used in different dialects can be shown in the chart below. it’s clear that language and social behavior are related because they are influenced by what people do and how they interact with each other and their surroundings (haugen, 1972: bang and door, 1993). in the chart, s1 is the person who made the text, like the speaker or writer. s2 is the person who uses or reads the text, like the person you are talking to or the reader. s3 is a category that represents different kinds of people in society. o is the thing or idea that is being talked about. the conversations between four groups are happening in a particular space, place, and time. these conversations are influenced by three aspects of social activities: beliefs, society, and biology. these three aspects of how people act in society are about how they use language and interact with their environment. this research has also been reviewed by (lubis & widayati, 2021); the study found many words related to the marine environment. these words are categorized into names of things (nouns) and words describing actions (verbs). the word “lexicon” is split into four categories: (1) a list of marine animals (88 words), (2) a list of marine plants (9 words), (3) a list of things related to marine activities (16 words), and (4) a list of general environmental words (7 words). the number of words known by the barus coastal malay language community shows that they know a lot about their surroundings and can keep these words alive. this research is also supported by (mliless. et al., 2021). the findings indicate that regular people often use these phrases in their stories. this research has significant findings for people who make environmental documentaries, governments, non-profit organizations, and future researchers. they can use these findings to study other ways that language is used in documentaries about how humans harm the environment. this research is also supported by surip, m., & widayati, d. (2019). the results of this study, namely the lexicon of weeds in the javanese community at fajar agung plantation, amounted to 75 pieces. based on the first discussion, the level of understanding t (know) age group i (25-45 years) is 83.53%, and age group ii (46-60 years) is 83.15%, so it can be concluded that the javanese people in fajar agung plantation are still known and use lexicons of excellence in javanese. based on the second discussion, two persistence factors influence the level of understanding of the lexicon of superiority in mjfa, namely factors related to linguistics and non-linguistics. linguistic factors that affect the survival of the lexicon of superiority in mjfa are related to mjfa’s tendency towards javanese. then non-linguistic factors, namely the conservative behavior of mjfa towards weeds, the figure 1. model of three dimension of bang & door social praxis (bang and door, 1993) gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 151 physiological adaptation of weeds to herbicides, the consistency of using traditional weed control and eradication equipment, the welfare of mjfa, the education of mjfa. this research is also supported by (ino et al., 2022). the people who answered the survey were between 15 and 65 years old. based on analyzing information, two discoveries were made: (1) the kaghati plant dictionary consists of fifteen dictionaries related to names and types of plants. there is a difference in how different generations understand and use plant terms in the kaghati language. the percentage of people in the old age group who performed well is 84%. the middle generation had a performance rate of 74%, while the young generation had a performance rate of 55%. based on the previous research above, that research discussing the lexicon of proverbs in fauna has not been studied. therefore, researchers will examine the lexicon of aceh proverbs in fauna. so this research focuses on the fauna lexicon in acehnese proverbs: ecolinguistic studies. the aim is that this paper is intended to provide the concept of environment-based language learning from an ecolinguistic perspective. ii. method this study used qualitative research methods used, the agih method, namely the method of collecting data by listening to the use of language (sudaryanto, 1993). (creswell & poth, 2016; creswell, 2014). additionally, the research information consists of written and spoken data. the text is about stories and sayings from acehnese culture written down and made available to the public by the regional cultural research and recording project. we collected information by talking to people, watching them without joining in, and watching them while joining in. (see kabir, 2016; roller, 2017; hasanah, 2016). in addition, the authors also use artificial data. artificial data were obtained through introspection and elicitation techniques because the researcher is a native acehnese speaker. the object of this research is a lexicon in aceh proverbs. the data analysis steps carried out were (1) inventorying all animal metaphors in acehnese idiomatic expressions, (2) checking the validity of the data through data triangulation and data source triangulation (belotto, 2018; akinyode & khan, 2018), (3) grouping data, (4) describe the data, and (5) make conclusions. the participants of this study were aceh society. this study employed 20 people. aceh is an active informal speaker and has also been studied by previous researchers. in this meeting, hod the writer analyzes the data by using the agih method. in this research, the writer discusses the fauna lexicon in the aceh proverb. the researcher uses theory (bang and door, 1993). iii. result the grammatical identification of the lexicon in this article includes word forms, categories, and functions. the grammatical form is the meaning according to the grammar. a grammatical category is a collection of language units that are differentiated according to form, function, and meaning. one example of a grammatical category is word class or word type. the function in question is a structural element in a sentence. the following arrangement of the lexicon is one of the results of the data collection process, which is explained as follows: the grammatical form of a word or lexicon can relate to its original form or the form derived from it. according to chaer (2012: 159), the fundamental shape is the form that forms the basis for a morphological process. in other words, certain affixes can be added during the affixation phase, duplicated during the reduplication process, or combined with other morphemes during the joining process. according to kridalaksana (1996), languages belonging to the austronesian language family have affixes, repeated forms, and compound words. this information is relevant to the topic of derived forms. the research findings indicate that the fauna lexicon includes entries classified as biotic and abiotic. the data is separated and clarified into two components, namely the basic form lexicon and the derived form lexicon, the basic form lexicon and the derived form lexicon, and their classification categories (nouns, verbs, and adjectives). all of these lexicons belong to the category of nouns. the types of animals (fauna) that live in the aceh region are very diverse and have a close relationship with the people of aceh, so in the life of the acehnese, people use the lexicon of fauna in metaphors with their metaphorical meanings. the following are the metaphorical meanings that exist in acehnese society. gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 152 see young people who did not have the initiative just waiting for orders from others. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. this speech is usually uttered by someone who does not like other people because he always does things quickly without considering the side effects he gets. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor of mie panè ék jipeunab panggang can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely: (1) the room where someone gets advice from elders; (2) the place where the speaker knows that the speech partner is always in a hurry, (3) the time when the speaker is close to the speech partner. asee/anjing/ felis catus aceh : asèe blang nyang pajôh jagông, asèe gampông nyang keunong geulawa. indonesian: ‘a paddy field dog that eats corn, a mutt that gets thrown.’ the data above is an expression of a metaphor using the dog lexicon. the lexicon is meant to be a symbol to express the metaphor asèe blang nyang pajôh jagông, asèe gampông nyang keunong geulawa. the use of the dog metaphor in these idiomatic expressions is because the dog is considered one of the animals that are very close to people’s lives, so it is used as a parable based on the nature or character of the dog ( ho-abdullah, 2011). this idiomatic expression alludes to someone who made a mistake, but another person is accused of making a mistake, so he has to bear the risk. in iv. discussion mie/cat/ canis lupus cat is carnivorous mammals (ningsi et al., 2018). this expression alludes to the character of a person who cannot hold back against any opportunity. in the context of life, some humans are portrayed as the nature of these animals. that is, they cannot hold back their desires. opportunity is something that is eagerly awaited to carry out this desire. he could not help but do it immediately if he got the chance. the character of people like this is likened to a cat that can’t wait to be roasted. baked is the desire of the cat. aceh : mie panè ék jipeunab panggang english: ‘which cat can face/wait for roasting? the data above is an expression of a metaphor using the cat lexicon. the lexicon is meant to be a symbol to express the mie panè ék jipeunab roasted metaphor, which implies the meaning that a picture that a cat cannot just wait for it to be roasted. if he had the opportunity to get the roast, he would not waste that opportunity. do not be like a cat that can’t wait to be roasted. a desire cannot be carried out in a hurry. think about the good and bad of this desire; then, we carry it out when there is a chance. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the mie panè ék jipeunab panggang metaphor, 4 (four) constituents were found, namely the speaker (s1), the consumer of the text (s2), the speech partner/ reader (s3), the object being referred to or the problem being discussed. (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the constituent speakers (s1) are occupied by older people (s2) by younger people. this expression is spoken not to act hastily or lustfully without considering the good or bad. this expression was said by someone annoyed to table 1. fauna lexicon of aceh proverb gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 153 the context of life, the natural thing is that people who do wrong are the ones who get punished. however, it can also happen the other way around; the one who does nothing wrong is the one who gets punished. what is more, people who do wrong are good at using their tongues to influence or win the hearts of others (zulfikar, 2018). he is good at shifting blame to others to be free from punishment. it is like a field dog that eats corn, but what gets thrown at it is a mutt. this is because the person who throws it does not examine which dog made a mistake in advance. so, this expression is also a rebuke to the punisher. this idiomatic expression contains advice that one should consider as well as possible or research the actual problem first so that the decision taken can satisfy all parties. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the metaphors asèe blang nyang pajôh jagông, asèe gampông nyang keunong geulawa, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to/ referred to or problems that talked about (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is uttered by someone who is always blamed, even though he is not wrong. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor asèe blang nyang pajôh jagông, asèe gampông nyang keunong geulawa, can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely (1) the time when someone older knows the ugliness of someone who is the same age or younger than the speaker; (2) a place where the speaker is in the same environment as the parent/age of the speaker and (3) the time when the speaker feels disappointed with the object of the conversation. expression of disappointment over someone’s behavior. kameng/goat/capra aegagrus hircus aceh language: aneuk kamèng hanjeut keu aneuk rimueng. english: ‘kids of goats will not be cubs of tigers.’ kamèng ‘goat’ is a livestock animal kept by the people of aceh and used as a work assistant, such as plowing fields in ancient times. these animals can also be bred and have a high selling value (bayne & patricia, 2014). because it is so close to the life of the people of aceh, this animal is used as a metaphor in idiomatic expressions, as shown below. goats are equated with submissive and weak (laurencia, 2012). therefore, this idiomatic expression illustrates that it is usually impossible for the child of a fool to become intelligent, and it is also said that for a despicable person, it is impossible to become a noble. in the context of life, some human children are metaphorically like these two animals, namely goat kids, who are considered the children of stupid people or despicable people, and tiger cubs, who are considered the children of intelligent people or nobles. this lowly person was said never to become a noble. it is like a kid that cannot be a tiger cub. this is because goat kids and tiger cubs have many differences. idiomatic expressions contain advice that we must try so that we get the best. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the aneuk kamèng hanjeut keu aneuk rimueng metaphor, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to or issues discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is uttered by someone who with stupid people cannot become smart or poor people cannot become officials. in this context, there are differences in caste and degree so that the lower caste will not reach the upper caste. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor aneuk kamèng hanjeut keu aneuk rimuen, can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely (1) the time when a person becomes noble because of his caste (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 154 (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. duck/ itek/ anas platyrhynchos aceh language: bak iték tabôh tajoe. indonesian: ‘spurs are put on ducks.’ idiomatic expressions allude to something out of place. in the life of many people who do not put things in their place (andela et al., 2014). for example, in clothes. clothing to the walimah place is used to go to ta’ziah. of course, this is the wrong thing to dress for. like the spurs put on ducks. spurs are weapons used in fighting cocks and are not suitable for ducks. this idiomatic expression contains advice to place things according to their place. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the bak iték tabôh tajoe metaphor, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), and objects referred to or issues discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech part, users who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this speech is spoken by someone who cannot adjust his clothes to an event. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the bak iték tabôh tajoe metaphor can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely (1) a time when someone is dressed inappropriately (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. ox / leumo / bostaurus aceh language: raseuki leumo éh in yub trieng. english: ‘the sustenance of the ox sleeping in the bamboo grove.’ the expression describes the sustenance that someone gets without trying or without thinking about anything. this expression uses an ox metaphor because it is considered to have similarities (sarah, 2012). in the context of life, some people get sustenance as depicted with this animal, namely sustenance that is obtained without trying, so that person does not want to think about a single thing. that person is usually said to be a person who lives happily regardless of anything else, like an ox sleeping under bamboo. the ox always gets sustenance/food from those who care for it, so he does not think of doing it himself. let us not hope for sustenance that is obtained without trying. try so that we get sustenance from our work. in the analysis of the dialogue model of raseuki leumo éh in yub trieng, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to/referred to or issues discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this speech is spoken by someone who cannot adjust his clothes to an event. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the raseuki leumo éh in yub trieg, can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely. (1) a time when someone is dressed inappropriately (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. chicken/ manok/ gallus domesticu aceh language: lagè teungeuet manok. english: ‘like sleeping chickens.’ chicken is one of the birds that generally cannot fly and do not sleep well (alin, 2021). this expression is addressed to people who sleep poorly. in the context of everyday life, some humans never sleep soundly or soundly. the slightest movement will wake him up. during the day, people who experience a situation like this usually have less enthusiasm for work because they do not get enough sleep at night. try to get a good night’s sleep at the right time to keep your body healthy. in the analysis of the dialogue model of lagè teunguet manok’s metaphor, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), and objects referred to or issues discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 155 consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is uttered by someone who is restless and cannot sleep. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor bak bue bek tajôk bungöng, bak inöng bek tapeugah rahasia can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), ie (1) a time when a person cannot use an item properly (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. frog / cangguek / anura aceh: bak cangguek panè gadèng, bak karéng panè gapah. english: ‘in which frog there is ivory, in which anchovy there is fat.’ frog has the scientific name fejervarya cancrivora, a type of frog commonly found in mangrove swamps, rice fields, and ditches (suktiningsih, 2016). because it is very close to people’s lives, frogs are often used as an image, as in the expression bak cangguek panè gadèng, bak karéng panè gapah. in the context of life, we always need the help of others. however, we will not get this assistance to people who cannot provide it. for example, we need much money. we can’t get this money from people experiencing poverty because they do not have it like ivory which is not found in frogs, and also fat which is not found in anchovies. there is no way we can get that. seek help from those who can provide it. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the metaphor bak cangguek panè gadèng, bak karéng panè gapah., the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), consumers of the text (s2), speech partner/reader (s3), the object being referred to or the problem being discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is uttered by someone who needs the help of another person. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is uttered by someone who is restless and cannot sleep. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the lagè teungeuet manok metaphor can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), namely (1) the time when someone is restless to sleep. (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. monkey / bue / macaca fascicularis aceh language: bak bue bek tajôk bungöng, bak inöng bek tapeugah rahasia english: ‘do not give flowers to monkeys, do not tell secrets to women.’ monkey in this expression are metaphorized as human behavior (ningsi, 2018). that is, this idiomatic expression is addressed to people who do not know how to use a thing or item given to them. in the context of life, some humans are metaphorically like monkeys; that is, if they are given a valuable item, they do not know how to use it. the word bak bue bek tajôk bungöng, bak inöng bek tapeugah rahasia is a prohibition not to give flowers to monkeys. this is because if a flower is given to him, he doesn’t know what it is used for, so he does not hesitate to destroy it. people like this usually do not care about what their responsibility is. the word bak bue bek tajôk bungöng, bak inöng bek tapeugah rahasia is a prohibition not telling women secrets because women cannot protect them. in the analysis of the dialogue model for the metaphors, bak bue bek tajôk bungöng, bak inöng bek tapeugah rahasia, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to/referred to or problems talked about (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 156 someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor bak cangguek panè gadèng, bak karéng panè gapah. can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place, and time), i.e.: (1) the time when a person needs the help of another person. (2) the place where the speaker is in the condition of 2 different choices (3) the time when the speaker does not like to be the object of conversation. gajah/ gajah / elephas aceh : aneuk jak bumoe han leungö gajah, aneuk tulô po meuhayak dônya. english: ‘a baby elephant walks the earth unnoticed, a baby sparrow flies and shakes the world.’ the elephant is one of the animals close to humans and has a good name, so it is often used as a simile (kinanti, 2021). this idiomatic expression is addressed to intelligent people who have much knowledge but are more silent and don not too much. at the same time, people who talk too much are people whose knowledge is limited. in contesome humans remains who are represented as these two animals. people who have much knowledge are usually more silent so that other people do not know that they have knowledge. however, those who do not have knowledge, he who talks more. like aneuk jak bumoe han leungö gajah, aneuk tulô po meuhayak dônya. which illustrates that if an elephant walks the earth it doesn’t feel a bit. even though he has a big body. however, aneuk jak bumoe han leungö gajah, aneuk tulô po meuhayak dônya.describes that the walking sparrow shakes the world. even though he has a fairly small body. this idiomatic expression contains advice to always be humble and don’t like to talk too much. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the aneuk jak bumoe han leungö gajah, aneuk tulô po meuhayak dônya metaphor, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to/referred to or problems talked about (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners who can consist of people who are younger or equal to the speaker. usually, this utterance is spoken by someone who is older and knowledgeable people always watch what they say and are more often silent, but people who are not smart always talk a lot. the more he talks, the more mistakes he makes. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor of aneuk gajah jak bumoe han leungö, aneuk tulô po meuhayak dônya, can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, plac,e and time), namely (1) the time when someone intelligent is ablecanis mouth (2) the place where the speaker knows that the speech partner is not wise (3) when the speaker likes to be the object of conversation. squirrel/tupe/ scandentia aceh : bèk tapeureunoe tupè meulumpat. english: ‘don’t teach squirrels to jump. this expression is addressed to people who teach people who are smart/experts in a particular field. it is known that squirrels are very agile animals when they jump from one tree to another (adi, saputra, suib & jupriani, 2018). in the context of life, there are many people with high knowledge or expertise in a field. that person no longer needs to be taught about knowleunderstandinghe is an expert at. if we do, that means our work will be in vain. it’s like teaching a squirrel to jump. jumping here and there is a job that squirrels always do. we no longer need to teach squirrels the steps to jump so they don’t fall because they understand more about jumping. do a job that brings goodness, both to ourselves and to others. don’t do wasted work. in the analysis of the dialogue model of the bèk tapeureunoe tupè meulumpat metaphor, the constituents that appear are speakers (s1), text consumers (s2), speech partners/readers (s3), objects referred to or issues discussed (o). in the metaphorical dialogue above, the speaker constituents (s1) are occupied by parents (older generation) to text consumers (s2) who are younger. thus it can be concluded that the metaphor above is a speech spoken by parents to speech partners, who can consist of younger people or equal to the speaker. gumarpi rahis pasaribu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 157 usually, this utterance is uttered by someone older and knowledgeable people don’t need to be taught anymore, because they are already proficient in their field. doing good and lawful work brings health and benefits to yourself and your family. this utterance is usually spoken by someone who is above to someone who is below. by knowing the description above, it can be concluded that the metaphor bèk tapeureunoe tupè meulumpat, can appear in 3 (three) topos environments (space, place and time), namely (1) a time when someone who understands knowledge does not need to be taught anymore (2) the place where the speaker knows that the speech partner is wise (3) the time when the speaker likes to be the object of conversation the implication of research finding is this study has many implications for eco-documentary makers, governmental and non-governmental organs, and future research to explore other linguistic features in eco-documentaries on man’s perpetrated damages to the environmental resources in fauna lexicons in the metaphors used in proverbs by using bang and door theory. conclusion from the discussion above, it can be concluded that the aceh language is very close to nature, especially fauna, this can be seen from the appearance of fauna lexicons in the metaphors used in proverbs or giving advice from parents to younger people. the metaphors expressed can be analyzed by the social praxis dimension, where from the results of this analysis we can find out the character of the speaker, the character of the speech partner and the relationship between the speaker and the speech partner and the surrounding natural environment, especially in this paper the relationship with fauna. references angwah, j. 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(2019). kekerabatan bahasa jawa dan bahasa gayo: kajian linguistik historis komparatif. jurnal bahasa lingua scientia, 11(1), 1-26. biography gumarpi rahis pasaribu, m.pd, born in padang lompong, north labuhanbatu regency, apr 19, 1994. graduated from bachelor of english education (2016) faculty of tarbiyah iain north sumatra, graduated from masters of masters in english language education (2020) faculty of language and literature, jakarta state university, and is currently attending lectures phd in linguistics from the university of north sumatra. currently serving as vice chair ii for administration and finance at stit al-ittihadiyah labuhanbatu utara, besides teaching also at uin north sumatra dr. dwi widayati, m. hum. was born in magelang on may 14, 1965. he graduated from the doctoral program with a dissertation entitled “convergence and divergence of malay dialects in asahan”. he actively teaches and researches the field of linguistics and is given an additional assignment as head of the indonesian literature study program, faculty of cultural sciences, university of north sumatra for the 2021-2026 period. some of his research results have also been published in international journals including, “the sustainability of eco-lexicons in socio-ecological spatial dynamics of the rice fields’ community in central tapanuli, indonesia” which was published in theory and practice in language studies, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 1659-1663, august 2022; diversity of culinary ecolexicon of main cuisine in malay communities on the east coast of north sumatra, published in jurnal arbitrer vol. 6 no. 2 (2019) issn: 2339-1162 (print); 2550-1011 (online) sinta 2 and marine ecolexicon of noun-verb of the coast community in pesisir barus, central tapanuli which is also published in jurnal arbitrer vol. 8 no. 1 (2021) issn: 2339-1162 (print); 2550-1011 (online); sinta accreditation 2; and several others. dr. dardanila, m. hum. was born in takengon, central aceh, on march 31, 1961. he has completed his masters in linguistics study program at the faculty of cultural sciences, university of north sumatra, and earned his doctorate in 2016 by defending his dissertation entitled karo language, gayo language and alas language a comparative historical linguistic study. currently, he is actively teaching at usu’s bachelor of indonesian literature study program, courses in comparative historical linguistics, language philosophy, and language capitaselekta. he also teaches in the masters program and doctoral program in the linguistics study program, faculty of cultural sciences at usu, together with a team of lecturers in charge of comparative historical linguistics and ecolinguistics courses. in addition, from 2015 to 2022, he is still entrusted as expert staff to the dean of the faculty of cultural sciences, university of north sumatra. from 2017 to 2021, he will serve as chair of a language researcher funded by the deputy for strengthening research and development, ministry of research and technology/national research and innovation agency. from 2017 to 2022, he and the team will also carry out community service for the assisted village program . prof. dr. aron meko mbete, currently retired from warmadewa university linguistics study program. position of professor of philosophy of language and comparative historical linguistics and ecolinguistic. muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 275 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 22, 2023 final revision: september 23, 2023 accepted: september 25, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 esp courses in higher education are seen as one of the efforts to provide undergraduates with skills beneficial to their careers to meet the growing demand of young professionals. the study assessed the impact of cblt approaches on the student’s learning achievement in esp courses. the objective of the study was to find out the impact of cblt on students’ learning achievement in esp courses. this study employed a qualitative method design that applied a case study design. the data source in this study was thirty students from different study programs who implemented cblt approaches in learning esp courses at bosowa university. the study applied a questionnaire utilizing the five-point likert scale to see their responses on the student’s learning achievement in esp courses through cblt approaches. the interview results applied the nvivo r1-5 to know in depth their responses on learning esp courses through cblt approaches. three types of data coding are used namely, open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. findings revealed that firstly, students believed that they could improve their english capability in learning esp courses. students were able to communicate in real life. secondly, the findings revealed that students’ learning achievement on cblt implementation can motivate students to learn esp courses. students believed that cblt offers many opportunities for communication skills on esp and use specific english in their disciplines. keywords cblt approaches, learning achievement, esp courses, motivation, communicative competence correspondence e-mail: muliati@universitasbosowa.ac.id article the impact of content-based language teaching (cblt) approaches on students’ learning achievements for esp courses muliati1, syarifuddin dollah2, tamra3, ahmad rossydi4, st. asriati. am5 1faculty of education and literature, universitas bosowa, makasar, indonesia 2faculty of language and literature, universitas negeri makassar, makasar, indonesia 3universitas teknologi akba makassar, makasar, indonesia 4politeknik penerbangan makassar, makasar, indonesia 3universitas muhammadiyah makassar, makasar, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.275-282.2023 i. introduction a great deal of previous research into students’ interaction in learning a language has focused on students’ interaction. according to vattøy and gamlem (2020), feedback practice in english as a foreign language (efl) lessons is distinguished by both the quality of teacher-student interactions and the use of a second language. however, additional study is required to map teachers’ use of second languages (l2) in teaching foreign languages concerning the particular teaching methods teachers can use to support students’ selfcontrol procedures and feedback conversations in efl instruction (krashen, 2013). the use of feedback and language choice in lessons on foreign language instruction may help students learn and feel better. according to brinton et al., (1989), contentbased language teaching (cblt) uses the target language more as a means of learning the subject matter than as the immediate focus of study. according to leaver & stryker (1989)2, cblt is an instructional strategy in which language proficiency is attained by reorienting the course’s muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 276 emphasis from language learning to subject matter learning. in addition to referring to cblt as an approach rather than a methodology, lightbown (2014) emphasizes that the teacher in charge (if it is a subject-matter course) needs to concentrate on language because there will be a separation of language and content, which will result in ongoing mistakes being made by the students and reinforced in them. to improve the context for second language learners in content-focused classrooms, brinton et al., (1989) cblt recognize the need for pedagogical and linguistic intervention. esp lecturers must combine a communicative approach with cblt because applying cblt to the classroom for teaching english for specific purposes (esp) courses assumes that esp students can communicate language well (nhung & hoa, 2021). the communicative approach to language teaching, as littlewood (1981) noted, is characterized by systematic attention given to language abilities and structures. in addition, cblt contributes to ensuring students’ ongoing motivation and interest in addition to the language knowledge and linguistic skills acquired throughout language learning (wang & zhu, 2020). it is anticipated that the goal of teaching will be accomplished in an active learning environment when language lecturers select or create authentic communicative contexts and encourage students to participate in language activities with active thinking (baghban & zohoorian 2011)many practitioners involved in foreign language teaching and research have argued about the benefits of using authentic materials these benefits may range from highlighting comprehension, presenting real language, providing opportunities to introduce cultural issues, to enhancing motivation, and creating language awareness. however, the use of authentic materials in learning contexts such as esp has always been a matter of controversy. in this respect, the present paper aims at reviewing the implementation of authentic materials in esp contexts. to this end, there will be a review of authenticity and authentic materials as opposed to textbook-based materials focusing on the nature and quality features as well as the approaches which advocate the use of authentic materials such as communicative language teaching (clt. at the same time, language knowledge and abilities will presumably be naturally acquired during the communicative process. in cblt, the emphasis is on the subject matter, and the students are merely interested in the information or topic (akomaning, 2019). both the language and the content are important to students (peng, 2017). furthermore, tseng (2015) asserted that with deliberate implementation, cblt in the efl context is feasible and can effectively promote both content and language learning. the significance of taking content into account when instructing esp aids students in becoming proficient in academic discourse. this method of cblt results in the coordination of language and content learning, which strengthens existing knowledge structures and teaches pertinent language functions and forms (tseng, 2015). so far, however, there has been little discussion about cblt in esp courses. the teaching and learning esp through cblt approaches are needed in higher education. each discipline considers content in teaching english in the students’ areas. the implementation of cblt approaches in higher education is one of case study at bosowa university. lecturers who teach esp courses consider content in their teaching. because cblt is based on the principle that using a language is superior to studying it, it provides students with a wealth of opportunities for meaningful and purposeful language use. ii. methods research design the researchers employed a case study design. case study research was used by the researchers. it is anticipated that by using this method, more in-depth and comprehensive information will be gathered from natural settings. when conducting qualitative research, a case study helps examine the behavior patterns of students. in particular, when the boundaries between phenomenon and setting are hazy, a case study is an empirical investigation that examines a current phenomenon in its actual context (woodside, 2010). research setting and participants the study was conducted among the thirdyear students enrolled in the esp courses at bosowa university. participants included 30 students who majored in four study programs. among them, are primary school education, economics, international muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 277 relations, and law study program. the students are aged between 19 and 20 years old. they all had taken esp courses as a mandatory subject in the third semester. research instrument semi-structured interview questions were designed based on the needs analysis framework developed by brinton (2013). the interview questions were open-ended so that the researchers could explore the interviewees’ learning achievement their motivation and their english skills through cblt approaches in depth. the interview provides an overview of participants’ recollections and justifications for how things came to be as they are, as well as descriptions of present issues and goals. meanwhile, to know the student’s english skills, the researchers distributed a questionnaire to see their learning achievements in their english skills through cblt approaches. data collection procedure a semi-structured interview qualifies to refer to it as a “compromise” since it does draw on both of the two different types to some extent. it is used because the researcher has a general idea of where the interview should go and what should come out of it (creswell, 2014). open-ended questions that investigate current issues, such as substance use, guide the interview process. the interview was held with 10 students at bosowa university of makassar. students interview either face to face or whatsapp call. all interviews are transcribed and audiotaped. interviews of students are openended and begin by asking students about their learning achievements through cblt approaches in learning esp courses. data analysis to analyze the data, each response has created the codes separately. to determine the common categories from the data set, the codes were later compared and reorganized. following that, the researcher wrote down the audio-recorded interview guidelines. the first step in this study’s data analysis process was importing the collected data into the nvivo r1-5 program so it could be processed using the program’s query features. data coding was used as part of the data management or data process in nvivo to categorize all themes associated with the study’s goals. open coding, axial coding, and selective coding were the three types of data coding that were used to code the data for this study. while the questionnaire items were taken the percentage of students’ responses on the questionnaire’s items was. iii. results this section provides the data of cblt approaches’ impact on students’ learning achievement in esp courses. the researchers identified the themes of the impacts of cblt approaches in learning esp courses. data shows the students’ learning achievement on students’ motivation and students’ skills in their learning esp courses through cblt approaches. students’ motivation for cblt this section provides data on the impact of cblt approaches in esp courses on their learning achievement toward students’ motivation. from the data in figure 1, it is apparent that motivation is one of the impacts of cblt on the learning achievement of students in esp courses. fig. 1. students’ motivation on cblt muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 278 the researchers identified ten sub-themes of motivation. findings related to the motivation category show that participation is the most perceived by students from the processed data. then students are more lively which is a category of the impact of cblt. four informants said that students’ motivation has more opportunities and more creativity in cblt in learning esp courses. the impact of cblt in esp courses shows that it is more motivated and more attractive to learn esp. lastly, students show their motivation in learning esp courses that are more interesting learning and more attractive learning toward cblt. two informants said that students were more interested and more innovative in the esp courses. together these results provide important insights into motivation in the cblt in esp courses. researchers distributed questionnaire items to identify the percentage of students toward their learning achievement on their motivation through the implementation of cblt approaches. as illustrated in table 1 shows that students agreed to learn esp courses through cblt approaches. there was 65.6% of informants mentioned it. 18.8 % strongly agreed with the response in motivating to learn with cblt approaches and none of the informants strongly disagreed with learning motivation. cblt approaches lead students to have self-confidence in speaking, it found that 61.3% of informants agreed of having self-confidence in speaking english. none of the students strongly disagreed with having self-confidence in speaking. also, students showed their interest in learning esp courses. half of students out of 100% of students agreed with interest in learning esp because of the variety of activities. this is a similar percentage of students’ responses in cblt approaches makes students more capable of self-study. students’ skills in cblt approaches to esp courses this section shows the findings of students’ learning achievement on students’ skills in esp courses. the informants responded to their english skills in esp courses through cblt. the findings show that twelve sub-themes of student skills were identified in selecting coding. the findings show that english proficiency is very prominent in students’ skills. then, vocabulary no questionnaire strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 1 i am motivated to learn with cblt approaches 18.8% 65.6% 12.5% 3.1% 2 i have many opportunities to improve my four english skills 9.4% 46.9% 31.3% 9.4% 3.1% 3 cblt approaches train my confidence in speaking english 19.4% 61.3% 16.1% 3.2% 4 i am interested in learning esp because of the variety of class activities 25% 50% 21.9% 3.1% 5 cblt approaches make me more capable of selfstudy 28.1% 50% 18.8% 3.1% table 1. the percentage of informants on learning motivation fig. 2. students’ skills on cblt muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 279 improvement is the impact of students’ skills in cblt in esp courses. the informant mentioned that cblt implementation in esp courses can improve their english competence in some areas such as speaking competence, writing competence, reading competence, and listening competence. this competence shows that integrated skills are the impact of cblt in esp. it can be seen that figure 2 shows students have communicative competence that is used in workplace communication situations. also, the informant said that students’ skills are linguistic competence. the percentage of questionnaires on students about their skills in learning esp courses through cblt approaches as illustrated in table 2, none of the students strongly disagreed that they could not improve their english. students agreed (71.9%) that cblt approaches make it easier to understand the word. students strongly agreed that (46.9%) they have opportunities to improve their skills into four skills. 46.9 % agreed with their improvement of english into four skills. it is 3.1 % of students strongly disagreed with it. iv. discussion this section discusses the consideration of cblt impacts on students’ learning achievement in learning esp courses. employing cblt could well prove very helpful for students. findings of students’ responses to in-depth interviews and questionnaire items dealt with their learning achievements in esp courses through cblt approaches. the result demonstrates two things, first is the impact of cblt approaches on students’ motivation in learning esp courses. second is the students’ english skills in learning esp courses through cblt approaches. students learning achievement toward students’ motivation in learning esp courses through cblt approaches the finding reveals that students have high motivation in learning esp courses in cblt implementation. it is advised that lecturers use motivational strategies in esp classrooms as the strategies benefit the improvement of students’ esp learning achievement, according to dja’far et al., (2016), findings that the student’s motivation is moderately related to esp learning achievement for both groups of students. the lecturer’s role in the classroom can be a key factor in motivating students. developing a personal relationship with students demonstrates that lecturers accept and care for students, as well as pay attention to and listen to them. this situation relates to the needs and motivations of the students, allows their understanding of the learning process, and empowers them to take control of their education. it is interesting to note that in all several impacts of cblt of this study, motivation, and interest in learning esp courses are taking place and that the effort is worthwhile, as well as from no questionnaire strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 1 cblt approaches can improve special english skills 15.6 % 59.4% 18.8% 6.3% 2 cblt approaches provide an opportunity to get good grades. 18.8% 59.4% 18.8% 3.1% 3 it is easier for me to improve my skills with cblt approaches 18.8% 59.4% 18.8% 3.1% 4 cblt approaches to esp learning are easy to use. 6.3% 68.8% 21.9% 3.1% 5 cblt approaches make it easier for me to understand each vocabulary 15.6% 71.9% 9.4% 3.1% 6 specific content helps me improve specific vocabulary 16.1% 67.7% 16.1% 7 i can communicate in english according to my field 9.4% 56.3% 31.3% 3.1% 8 i have many opportunities to improve my four english skills 9.4% 46.9% 31.3% 9.4% 3.1% 9 i have plenty of time to practice my english skills 9.4% 59.4% 25% 6.3% 10 i can distinguish several english terms that are relevant to my field 16.1% 61.3% 12.9% 9.7% 11 cblt approaches affect my ability in english, especially english for specific purposes 18.8% 53.1% 25% 3.1% table 2. the percentage of informants on their english skills in esp courses muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 280 the appropriate matching of increasing student knowledge of a topic on their disciplines. it is relevant with brinton et al., (2003) point out that if the student felt that the lesson content was relevant to them, their motivation would rise and their learning would be effectively promoted. the cause of this might be that students were more engaged in integrated and organized activities because the activities were thought to be more interesting and meaningful. a large number of students who took part in cblt reported greater interest in learning the language and also a deeper understanding of the cultures they studied. for students learning english as a foreign language, especially in higher education, motivation is thought to be a crucial factor. learning esp in higher education demands students’ learning motivation in learning esp courses, however, it seems that students have difficulties understanding vocabulary when they are learning esp courses. this is because of their limitation on specific vocabularies. however, students’ efforts to have communicative competence in english and learning motivation influence their learning language. providing communicative classroom skills such as practicing as a lawyer, teaching english education in class, or practicing communication in the workplace. students learning achievement toward students’ skills in learning esp courses through cblt approaches findings revealed that students have enhanced their capability to english skills. it demonstrates that when the focus of the lesson is on meaningful and pertinent content, students’ language proficiency in the class achieves more. in line with arnó-macià & mancho-barés (2015) pointed out that the importance of language learning in cblt is how students improve their english skills in esp courses. cblt encourages students’ language proficiency in english. consequently, for esp course designers to modify courses to better meet students’ discipline-related needs, the lecturer and student must offer useful insights. another impact of cblt that is students got the score development in specific english. in other words, students can get good grades in the cblt classroom. students mentioned that they can learn more specific english because of lecturer repeats and reviews the content materials based on their disciplines. the finding shows students are more active in learning esp courses in class. students have more opportunities to express their ideas from their lessons. it is advised that esp lecturers need to be effective learners in terms of learning the foreign language, and cblt should be more practiced and applied in lessons. it could be argued that the positive results were due to students gaining knowledge on esp courses by learning technical terms of their disciplines. findings reveal that students who take cblt develop their english communication skills. the lecturer instructed the class to practice their english speaking. in addition to speaking, students also look for vocabulary related to their fields of study, memorize it, understand its meaning, and write sentences using it. it is relevant with khoirunnisa, suparno, & supriyadi (2018) said that the students thought that since speaking had such an effect on their future careers, it was extremely important for them. however, students encountered several challenges during the learning process, including grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and subject matter. v. conclusion the findings of the implementation of cblt approaches affect students learning achievement in learning esp courses. cblt approaches affect students’ motivation in learning esp courses and english skills. student motivation has more opportunities and more creativity in cblt in learning esp courses. study shows that students were more interested and more innovative in the esp courses. together these results provide important insights into motivation in the cblt in esp. this study is qualitative research that investigates the students’ learning achievement in esp courses through cblt approaches in higher education. this study makes a beneficial contribution either theoretically or practically to the field of learning esp courses for students who learn english specifically in their disciplines. theoretically, this study will enhance students to help students express their vocabulary in technical terms in their disciplines. the approaches are expected to be useful for the lecturers to give interesting themes for esp courses in the classroom and they also can be used as the basis for future research in relevant disciplines. however, before applying this approach, it is important to comprehend the student’s disciplines and students’ backgrounds, thus the lecturer can determine the appropriate themes or topics in muliati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 281 cblt illustrates that students have more roles in developing their knowledge. while the relationship with learning english, the cblt will be effective if students construct their experiences in learning esp and knowledge independently. esp courses. the results imply that the cblt in esp courses provides efforts to create conditions that allow students to learn. learning emphasizes more on the efforts of the lecturers to encourage and 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(2010). case study research: theory. methods. practice. in emerald group publishing limited. wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 228 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 13, 2024 final revision: june 01, 2024 accepted: june 10, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 in the domain of first and second language (l1/l2) acquisition, morpheme order studies (mos) encapsulate a body of influential research. this study specifically aimed to (1) assess the accuracy of nine grammatical morphemes used by chinese learners of english as a foreign language (efl) in their compositions, (2) investigate the factors affecting the accurate use of these morphemes among chinese efl learners, and (3) explore the interventions implemented by their instructors to assist the chinese efl learners in accurately using these intricate grammatical constructs. employing the target-like use methodology, the data were collected from the essays of 108 high school learners in kunming, yunnan, china, to ascertain the order of their accuracy in using these morphemes. subsequently, a semi-structured interview was conducted with five efl instructors and 15 tested learners to delve into the factors influencing their proficiency with specific complex morphemes and the application of instructional interventions used by the instructors. the findings of the study revealed that the learners did not consistently adhere to krashen’s hypothesized natural order; rather, they exhibited idiosyncratic acquisition patterns. particularly, it was noteworthy that there was a relatively low accuracy observed in the usage of certain morphemes, such as irregular past and 3rd person singular –s (features absent in the learners’ native language). furthermore, factors contributing to the diminished accuracy of these specific morphemes include the learners’ mother tongue interference in their use of these morphemes, syntactic and semantic complexities, motivational factors, environmental factors, and limited output of specific morphemes. additionally, the research uncovered various interventions such as peer review, storytelling, and incorporating songs employed by the efl instructors to assist the chinese efl learners in using these challenging grammatical morphemes correctly. this study provides valuable insights for efl students, instructors, curriculum developers, and textbook editors. keywords efl, morpheme order, factors, interventions, china correspondence e-mail: lausk@um.edu.my article the accuracy of english grammatical morpheme orders among chinese efl learners and instructor interventions wang xianyuan1, lau su kia2, chew fong peng3, murad abdu saeed4, cao xuejin5 1,2,4faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia 3faculty of education, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia 5faculty of engineering and built environment, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, selangor, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.228-243.2024 i. introduction in the realm of second language acquisition (sla), a great deal of research primarily focuses on understanding how learners develop their linguistic skills in the target language. scholarly investigation has been particularly drawn to the progression of interlanguage systems, thus focusing on grammatical morphemes such as plural markers -s for nouns and progressive markers -ing for verbs. morphemes order studies (mos) have received significant attention from sla experts and scholars (bailey et al., 1974; dulay & burt, 1973, 1974; hakuta, 1976; pica, 1983; shin & milroy, 1999). a body of research has supported the assumption that learners follow a fixed acquisition order of english grammatical morphemes, wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 229 regardless of their ages or mother tongues. empirical studies, such as those conducted by dulay and burt (1973, 1974), examined the process of spanish and chinese children learning english as their second language (esl). the researchers found that the accuracy order in a mixed group remained consistent for both learners. in a parallel vein, madden and krashen (1974) explored the acquisition order among adult esl speakers. seeking to determine whether adults followed a similar morpheme acquisition order as children’s counterparts, the study involved 33 spanish speakers and 40 individuals from various linguistic backgrounds. the findings reinforced the concept of a universal acquisition order that transcended age and native language. the results of mos provide a strong indication that l2 learners were guided by internal principles that were largely independent of their first language (l1) (mitchell et al., 2019). building upon these insights, krashen (1982) concluded his mos by highlighting notable similarities based on the results of many contemporary studies. in 1977, he introduced the natural order hypothesis (noh), claiming that a natural order existed in language acquisition. krashen firmly believed that “the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. acquirers of a given language tend to acquire certain grammatical structures early, and others later” (krashen, 1982, p. 12). he asserted that morphemes in the same box were typically acquired before those in the next box, although no claims were made about the ordering relations for morphemes within the same box. figure 1 illustrates the average order of acquisition for nine english grammatical morphemes among l2 learners. while the majority of the mos on the fixed accuracy order were conducted in englishdominant countries where english is the lingua franca or the official language, a few studies were conducted among learners from countries where english is not the dominant language (mcbridechang et al., 2005). additionally, considerable evidence indicated that the acquisition order might not be as fixed as previously thought to be. pica (1983), for example, examined naturalistic, instructed, and mixed learners of english. the study revealed that although the overall accuracy orders were consistent across the three groups of learners, there were slight differences among the groups concerning specific morphemes. this result suggests that the linguistic environment played a role in shaping the acquisition process and the timing of these linguistic features. in a subsequent study, luk and shirai (2009) argued that the morpheme acquisition order may vary depending on the learner’s l1. this argument was also supported by murakami (2013) who posed a “strong doubt on the university of accuracy order, and it is very likely that sla textbooks underestimate the effect of l1 in their discussion of morpheme studies and need to rethink the conventional wisdom” (p. 333). similarly, seog (2015) observed that learners rapidly comprehended the irregular past and the possessive form, but they still encountered difficulties in mastering the use of the auxiliary be, which is a construct lacking a direct counterpart in korean. these observations led seog to conclude that korean l1 learners may deviate from the noh. subsequently, murakami and alexopoulou (2016) scrutinized how l1 impacted morpheme acquisition among learners from six linguistic backgrounds. their research revealed variations in the accuracy of morpheme use across diverse l1 backgrounds, thus emphasizing that the absence of equivalents in l1 often led to inaccuracies in l2 usage. these studies collectively affirmed that learners persistently encountered difficulties in using l2 grammatical morphemes that had no equivalents in their native languages and stressed the enduring influence of l1 transfer on morpheme order acquisition. in line with mos, several previous studies highlighted the existence of universal morpheme order acquisition (bailey et al., 1974; dulay & burt, 1973, 1974; fathman, 1975; kessler & figure 1: krashen’s average acquisition order of nine english grammatical morphemes for l2 learners (krashen, 1977) wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 230 idar, 1979; larsen-freeman, 1976), while other studies concluded that the morpheme acquisition order deviates slightly from each other depending on learners’ various linguistic backgrounds (murakami, 2013; murakami & alexopoulou, 2016). the lack of consensus on morpheme order acquisition highlights the necessity of investigating this interesting research topic among chinese efl learners. the current study, as a continuation of existing studies on morpheme order acquisition, explored the role of the natural order hypothesis in an efl context. additionally, most previous studies (such as bailey et al., 1974; brown, 1973; de villiers & de villiers, 1973; hanania & gradman, 1977) on morpheme order acquisition have explored language acquisition in a natural environment, with fewer studies focusing on a classroom setting. therefore, it is necessary to study morpheme order acquisition among chinese efl students to determine whether learning grammatical morphemes in a formal classroom setting follows a specific order. another gap in the literature is that previous research has either emphasized the order they discovered or compared it to krashen’s (1977) noh. however, there has been limited discussion on effective interventions employed by teachers to assist learners in learning certain challenging grammatical elements. given this research gap, this study provides language instructors with valuable insights for using interventions to help their students master challenging morphemes. following the purpose of the study, the acquisition of the nine english grammatical morphemes based on krashen’s (1977) pattern, namely, possessive -s, third-person singular-s, regular past-ed, irregular past, articles, auxiliary be, copula be, plural -s, and progressive -ing were investigated among chinese efl learners to achieve the following three objectives: 1. assess the accuracy of nine grammatical morphemes used by chinese efl learners in english compositions at kunming high school, china. 2. investigate both linguistic and non-linguistic factors that influence the accurate use of grammatical morphemes among chinese efl learners. 3. explore the interventions employed by the english instructors to assist the chinese efl learners in accurately using these grammatical morphemes. ii. method the current study adopted a mixed method approach that integrates both qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a more holistic understanding of the investigated phenomena (creswell & creswell, 2017). the participants, comprising 108 efl learners with a median age of 18, enrolled at a local public high school in kunming, were purposively selected. each participant had at least six years of efl learning experience, starting from middle school, and all hails from yunnan province, people’s republic of china. these intentionally selected participants approximately learned concepts of grammar rules and developed proficiency in applying nine grammatical morphemes in writing, which catered to the purpose of this study. initially, the researcher selected two parallel classes of students from the senior high school using convenience sampling to ensure that no significant distinctions existed. then, 108 students were instructed to write an 80-word descriptive essay. then, they completed another 150-word narrative essay as a continuation of a given story within 60 minutes. two distinct genres were chosen to examine the use of nine grammatical morphemes in different writing styles. a total of 216 short essays were collected, containing 24880 words. thirdly, the collected writing samples were analyzed using an obligatory occasion analysis via the uam corpus tool (o’donnell, 2008). the text analysis was performed in three steps: (i) transcribing written samples into software, (ii) identifying instances of target-like use and nontarget-like use of nine grammatical morphemes, (iii) describing non-target-like use in cases of overuse, misuse, and underuse. although the self-built corpus was relatively small and limited, it allowed for the emergence of enriching data for examining the observed accuracy level of nine grammatical morphemes ranging from progressive -ing to possessive -s. the accuracy level was accessed through the errors committed by the chinese efl learners in their english essay writing. according to seog (2015) and akbas and dinçer (2021), the formula employed by pica (1983) was used, and the target-like-use (tlu) for each grammatical morpheme was calculated. the researchers opted for the tul formula for two reasons. first, pica’s formula focuses less on the frequency of errors while putting more value wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 231 on the three cases of overgeneralization (misuse, underuse, and overuse) and its distributional patterns of english grammatical morphemes, which aims to provide a better understanding of interlanguage users’ mastery of a given morpheme. in addition, the tlu formula broadens the scope to include non-obligatory contexts, thereby highlighting cases where learners generalize rules to inappropriate contexts (gass et al., 2013, p. 70). the formula is shown as follows: non-linguistic factors on their mastery of these challenging grammatical morphemes. five english teachers from kunming high school, china, were selected for follow-up interviews. they hold at least a bachelor’s degree in english studies and have a minimum of five years’ experience teaching english at the high school level. they appeared to guide students in using grammatical morphemes across different semesters. their responses were insightful in exploring both linguistic and non-linguistic factors influencing the acquisition of certain challenging morphemes. the interview questions were semi-structured, and the interview sessions were conducted in english. the interview questions also elicited the english instructors’ responses related to the interventions employed by them to assist the chinese efl learners in correctly using these challenging grammatical morphemes. after transcribing the interviews, these transcripts were checked and verified by the interviewers to ensure accuracy and prevent misinterpretation by the researcher. iii. result accuracy order of english grammatical morphemes of chinese efl learners a range of results in terms of non-target-like uses and target-like uses, along with a total of 7879 cases of english grammatical morphemes, were yielded through our manual analysis of the self-compiled corpus. table 1 shows the overall results for each english grammatical morpheme being examined. with the employment of macroaveraging to calculate the overall performance of the learners, an average tlu score of 0.80 was obtained. it was foreseeable that the accuracy level varied across the different morphemes. of the total 7879 cases of grammatical morphemes, 6265 represented target-like uses (79.5% accuracy) and 1617 cases were identified as non-target-like uses (20.5% accuracy). interestingly, the researchers noticed an overwhelming tendency for given grammatical morphemes to be underused, overused to a fair extent, and misused to a lesser degree. specifically, the chinese efl learners omitted these morphemes that should have appeared in obligatory contexts (691 instances, accounting for 42.7% of all non-target-like uses) or supplied grammatical morphemes which were not all the scripts were annotated and analyzed by the researchers. as the aim of this study was to determine the observed accuracy order and rank of the nine grammatical morphemes accordingly, these morphemes were first categorized into correct and incorrect usages. specifically, if the students employed a grammatical morpheme correctly, it was identified as target-like use; if a grammatical morpheme was employed as grammatically incorrect by the student, it was annotated as nontarget-like use. then, the researcher further subcategorized the non-target-like use as a case of underuse, misuse, or overuse (pica, 1983). underuse refers to cases where the students failed to supply a grammatical morpheme in an obligatory context. misuse occurs when a grammatical morpheme was incorrectly used in an obligatory context. in addition, overuse is identified when the students typically used unnecessary grammatical morphemes in a non-obligatory context. concerning the coding annotation and analysis process, the researchers frequently reviewed the annotation scheme to maintain the consistency of tagged morphemes. the researchers also sought timely assistance from classmates, experienced language teachers and online resources encountering challenges in classifying grammatical morphemes as cases of underuse, misuse, and overuse. however, in cases where identification of particular grammatical morphemes was considerably ambiguous, the researcher excluded them from the analysis. after tagging all the grammatical morphemes in the corpus, the accuracy order was calculated based on pica’s tlu formula and then it was ranked accordingly. a total of 15 tested students were identified as underachievers in their performance of certain grammatical morphemes. they were interviewed and their responses suggested the influence of wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 232 necessary, or they were used in non-obligatory contexts (354 instances, comprising 21.9% of all non-target-like uses). additionally, a tendency for grammatical morphemes to be misused occurred either in contexts where they were obligatory or non-obligatory (572 instances, representing 35.4% of all non-target-like uses). it should be noted that the suppliance of nine grammatical morphemes differs from each other due to the nature of the two elicitation tasks used in this study. the students were free to write their compositions with various morphemes, which inevitably affected the number of morphemes to be supplied. the researchers considered the tlu scores as the primary indicator for the nine english grammatical morphemes under investigation and ranked them accordingly. as shown in table 2, the chinese efl learners performed copula be best, which was placed at the top with the highest tul scores of 90%, followed by articles (tul: 83%), progressive -ing (tul: 82%), regular past -ed (tul: 81%), possessive -s (tul: 81%), plural -s (tul: 80%), auxiliary be (tul: 80%), ended by irregular past and third-person singular -s, with the lowest tlu scores of 69% and 52% respectively. the grammatical morpheme of the copula be was used with the highest accuracy, which may be potentially explained by the fact that the copula be had an equivalent in learners’ l1. as chan (2004) and hsieh (2009) stated, the chinese verb shi was used as a linking verb between the subject and its complement, thus functioning similarly to the english copula be. in addition, the absence of similar equivalents in grammatical morphemes in learners’ native language would potentially hinder their l2 learning or may render the grammatical morpheme acquisition process more challenging for them (alexopoulou & murakami, 2016; cheng & lee, 2020; luk & shirai, 2009; murakami, 2013). this assumption is supported by the lower accuracy level of the third-person -s and the irregular past forms, which are not explicitly present in chinese. the study mainly relied on the tlu scores for the nine english grammatical morphemes under examination and ranked them accordingly. by so doing, the researchers were able to determine the accuracy level of each grammatical morpheme in the corpus and then compared the observed accuracy order with krashen’s (1977) noh. as presented in table 2, the findings suggest that, overall, the accuracy order of chinese efl learners did not consistently align with krashen’s noh, but the learners developed their own distinctive learning patterns. table 1: non-target-like uses, target-like uses and accuracy order of grammatical morpheme table 2: accuracy order of current study and comparison with krashen’s (1977) noh wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 233 with respect to the results on the accuracy order presented above, it was noticeable that the overall order of english grammatical morphemes in the current study showed some similarities as follows: 1. the copula be and progressive -ing ranked relatively high in the present study and in krashen’s (1977) study, thus indicating that these two grammatical morphemes were, to some extent, easier for learners to acquire earlier than other morphemes. 2. both irregular past and third-person singular forms were placed lower in the accuracy order in the present study and in krashen’s (1977) natural order. this suggests that these two grammatical morphemes were more challenging for l2 learners. on the other hand, the data revealed differences between krashen’s (1977) noh and the present study, which challenges the established view that l2 learners were guided by “internal principles that are largely independent of their first language” (mitchell & myles, 2004, p. 43). the primary deviations are outlined as follows: in contrast to krashen’s (1977) noh, the current study revealed that both articles and possessives were ranked relatively high. however, the plural -s and auxiliary be, which were expected to be learned earlier and placed in the top five, ranked lower in the morpheme list. according to krashen’s (1977) noh, the irregular past forms should be acquired before the regular past form. however, the analysis of the data in the current study revealed the opposite accuracy order for the chinese efl learners when learning english in a formal classroom setting. the hierarchy observed in the present study regarding the mastery of plural -s, possessive -s, and third-person singular -s slightly differs from krashen’s (1977) noh. according to krashen, the plural should be acquired before the third-person singular, and possessive should present the greatest difficulty. however, the study found a contrasting trend. surprisingly, possessive -s demonstrated higher accuracy compared to both plural -s and third-person singular -s. concerning the first research objective, the researchers found that the chinese speakers of english employed grammatical morphemes with an average tlu score of 0.80. additionally, the researchers checked whether the observed accuracy order conformed to or deviated from krashen’s (1977) noh. this is in line with murakami and alexopoulou (2016), who illustrated that learners from diverse l1 backgrounds might adhere to different accuracy orders for grammatical morphemes under investigation. the results of this study revealed that the chinese efl learners also took a distinct morpheme order pattern that did not mirror krashen’s (1977) noh and echoed the results of previous research (e.g. akbas & ölçü-dinçer, 2021; murakami, 2013; murakami & alexopoulou, 2016; seog, 2015). therefore, the study provided further empirical data against the established universality of morpheme order acquisition. linguistic factors influencing the accurate use of grammatical morphemes among the chinese efl learners first language interference numerous studies have proved the prominent influence of first language over the order of morpheme acquisition (fathman, 1975; hakuta, 1976; izumi & isahara, 2004; khor, 2012; schenck & choi, 2013; seog, 2015). the accuracy in using the third-person singular -s and the irregular past forms are not explicitly present in chinese, with the effect that these two morphemes are ordered at the lowest in the list, which reaffirmed that the grammatical morphemes that do exist in l1 are likely to be used inaccurately by english learners compared with those that do not. this result was supported by the students’ follow-up interviews. the interviewed students highlighted the detrimental impact of first-language interference on irregular past verbs, providing a specific example to illustrate this point. specifically, according to one interviewed student, the accurate use of the irregular past forms was challenging due to the absence of this morpheme in the chinese language: “i think that achieving 100% accuracy in irregular past forms can be very challenging because sometimes, i often forget to use irregular past verbs with corresponding changed forms due to no such verb changes in my native language.” (student-respondent) syntactic and semantic complexity both syntactic and semantic complexities have been shown to impact the accuracy of english grammatical morpheme usage (brown, 1973; goldschneider & dekeyser, 2001). a morpheme’s acquisition difficulty was proportional to its wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 234 semantic breadth; the more meanings it conveyed, the more complex and challenging it was to learn (brown, 1973). this increased semantic content often requires learners to use a wide range of grammatical morphemes for accurate expression. hence, learners may inadvertently complicate sentences, leading to decreased accuracy in grammatical morpheme uses. in this study, as shown by the following excerpts extracted from the follow-up interview, both student and teacher pointed at the major challenges relevant to the semantic complexity of these english morphemes: “i feel like it is challenging to consider the tense and agreement of the entire paragraph, ensuring internal structural consistency in organizing compositions.” (student-respondent) “i believe that semantic complexity itself alone might not directly correlate with grammatical accuracy. the combination of syntactic and semantic complexity results in low accuracy regarding irregular past and third-person singular forms.” (teacher-respondent) grammatical competence grammatical competence entails learners’ understanding of a limited set of grammar rules to produce an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences (chomsky,1965). challenges in applying irregular past and third-person singular forms often stem from insufficient comprehension of both the tense and the agreement rules. in english, strict subject-verb agreement rules necessitate slight changes in verb forms, unlike in chinese where predicates remain unchanged regardless of whether they are singular or plural subjects. consequently, chinese learners of english often either forget to apply the correct morphemes or supply incorrect ones. similarly, english tense-aspect requires corresponding irregular past forms to express past events, such as adding -ed to verbs, which can be forgotten or improperly applied by l2 learners instinctively. in this regard, one of the efl teachers highlighted this issue pertinent to students’ lack of understanding english grammar rules, specifically these rules relevant to tense in english and its use. according to this interviewed teacher, students are challenged by changing english verbs to express their ideas and distinguishing the forms of the irregular verbs in english: “i find students are struggling to understand english grammatical rules, especially related to tense. they have difficulty changing verb construction to express all 16 types of tense in standard english. i also notice that the forms of irregular past and past participle are so similar that students need much effort to distinguish them and use them as native-like.”(teacher-respondent) neglect of irregular verb inflection neglecting irregular verb inflection contributes to students’ low accuracy use of the irregular past and third person singular forms. english has a significant number of verbs that do not follow the regular pattern of supplying -ed for the past tense. these verbs can be particularly challenging as they often require rote memorization and no consistent rules governing their conjugation. one of the interviewed teachers reported that both educational curricula and teaching materials might focus on regular past patterns, which were easier to teach, thus leaving less practice on irregular past verbs, especially when there was limited time to cover extensive language contents: “i have to say both educational curricula and teaching materials might more focus on regular past patterns, which are easier to teach, leaving less practice on irregular past verbs, especially when there is limited time to cover extensive language contents.” (teacherrespondent) limited quality and quantity of language input corder (1967) introduced the concept of input as what learners could access, even if it was only audible but not understood. this type of input, however, does not seem to be integrated into students’ current language system and it appears to serve no purpose beyond being unheard of language. building on this, krashen (1985) posited that learners acquire grammar naturally when they receive sufficiently understandable input. thus, the quantity and quality of language input are believed to significantly influence second language acquisition (hassanzade & narafshan, 2016; unsworth, 2016; wang, 2022). in this study, both student and teacher, when interviewed, stressed the lacking or insufficient opportunities for exposing students to english use. the interviewed teacher added the reasons behind this including the limited time of classes and the complex nature of specific grammar rules in english: “i have almost never been exposed to english classes. i think the teacher is afraid that we cannot follow her.” (student-respondent) “i seldom provide comprehensive english instruction, particularly when teaching grammar, due to time constraints and the complexity of specific grammar rules. therefore, i believe the quality and quantity of language input in a formal classroom setting are unsatisfactory.” (teacher-respondent) wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 235 limited output output refers to the language produced by learners. swain (1985) posited that this production may compel learners to transition from semantic to syntactic processing. additionally, output serves as an important platform for receiving feedback and prompting learners to generate more precise, appropriate, intricate, and understandable language (long, 1996; pica, 1994; swain, 1993). the importance of output in l2 acquisition cannot be ignored. according to the interviewed teacher, the chinese efl learners are challenged by the restricted chances for practicing english due to the emphasis of the syllabus on reading and vocabulary learning skills, the design of the national entrance exam that neglects essay writing questions, the less time spent by teachers on teaching writing to students as well as time limitations in the classroom: “i observe that students have limited opportunities to practice grammatical morphemes. as they enter sixth form, the focus shifts towards improving students’ reading skills and enlarging their vocabulary to aid in achieving higher exam scores. the national entrance exam, primarily consisting of multiple-choice questions, only required students to write two essays in writing sections. some of our teachers choose to spend less time on these writing parts and on practicing english grammatical morphemes. additionally, with only two or three english sessions available each day, each lasting just forty minutes, we face significant time constraints.” (teacher-respondent) non-linguistic factors influencing the precise application of grammatical morphemes among chinese efl learners living environment pica (1983) noted that the quality and condition of the living environment were crucial in language acquisition. the living environment should be a place where students can collaborate and support each other since they use a diverse range of information resources and available tools to engage in problem-solving activities, thus enabling them to achieve the desired learning objectives (williams & burden, 1997). hence, the living environment can affect l2 acquisition. based on the follow-up interview, two students pointed out at the linguistic factors affecting their acquisition of english morphemes. these factors include the status of english in china, the limited chances for using english and the lower motivation to learn english: “mandarin or local dialects dominate daily communication, and english primarily functions as a foreign language within china. compared to countries where english is an official language or lingua franca, the linguistic landscape in china provides relatively limited opportunities for english conversation.” (teacher-respondent) “i agree that the lack of a language-rich environment diminishes the perceived importance of english for me. consequently, my motivation to learn also decreases.” (student-respondent) attitude grammar instruction is essential and should be regarded as an indispensable component of language teaching (doughty & williams, 1998; thornbury, 1997). nevertheless, polat (2017) argued that the focus should shift toward teachers’ attitudes concerning grammar instruction rather than the mere presence of grammar instruction within language classrooms. that is, teachers’ attitudes toward grammar instruction may hold considerable significance in shaping their teaching approaches in the formal classroom setting and ultimately influencing students’ learning outcomes. according to the teacher, the approach to teaching english prioritizes teaching rather than learning, and consequently, students have negative attitudes towards english grammar. similarly, one interviewed student expressed his stress over grammar: “students feel grammar classes sometimes intimidating and monotonous because we always prioritize teaching over facilitating student learning. such a crammer attitude to english grammar teaching result in reduced student participation and engagement.” (teacherrespondent) “i feel kind of stressful at grammar class due to the complexity of specific grammatical structures and the rote memorization of grammar rules.” (studentrespondent) individual personalities there is a clear relationship between sla and individual personalities (ehrman, 1996). it was commonly argued that extroverts were particularly well-suited for language learning. extroverted language learners were inclined to seek more input (krashen, 1985) and favor communicative approaches (cook, 2001). they were also more likely to engage in group activities (mcdonough, 1986), which, in turn, enhanced their language interaction, led to increased language output, and ultimately resulted in improved language proficiency. during the interview, some students talked about such different personalities such wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 236 as shyness, nervousness and silence as barriers affecting their grammar learning: “i often remain silent in language classes due to feelings of nervousness about self-presentation, despite knowing the correct answers. as a shy and reserved person, unlike my more active peers, i find this a significant barrier.” (student-respondent) “my shyness prevents me from seeking assistance. even now, when facing with perplexing grammar rules, i prefer to skip them rather than ask the teacher for help. i believe that my introverted personality sometimes hinders my progress in achieving higher language proficiency, especially in spoken english.” (studentrespondent) interventions employed by english instructors to assist chinese efl learners in accurately using grammatical morphemes regarding the third research objective, five language teachers were selected for the semistructured interviews. their perspectives on effective interventions aimed at assisting students in mastering english morphemes, including irregular past and third-person singular -s, were collected. these interventions encompassed brainstorming sessions, role-playing, storytelling activities, peer review practices, incorporation of songs, as well as a range of other activities and exercises. they are discussed as follows: brainstorming sessions brainstorming, a method fostering creativity, involves participants’ free exchange of ideas to tackle issues. richards (1990) and rao (2007) argue that targeted training in brainstorming stimulates cognitive faculties and generates vital ideas for language learning. this approach engages more students and encourages critical thinking, effective solutions, and peer idea-sharing. one of the interviewed teachers highlighted the role of using barnstorming sessions in engaging students in pair or group dialogues in english and postbrainstorming activities such as sentence writing in students’ successful use of english morphemes such as irregular past morphemes: “i would allocate students five minutes to independently brainstorm ideas and insights about the irregular past verbs. during this interval, students would engage in dialogues in pairs or groups, freely exchanging ideas about morphemes. the class is just like a platform for open sharing and expanding ideas, with students transcribing their notes onto the blackboard to create a visible repository for ongoing discussion. after brainstorming, ideas, such as definitions, forms, and examples for irregular past morphemes are shared among students. and then i provide timely feedback and illustration. with these discussed materials, it is easy for students to write sentences and organize them into short paragraphs.” (teacher-respondent) role-playing role-playing teaching practice can invigorate engagement between students by either immersing them in simulations of real-life scenarios or familiarizing them with prevalent linguistic expressions (dorathy & mahalakshmi, 2011; liu & ding, 2009). this practice is harnessed to foster self-reflection among students, broadly enhances their understanding of human behaviors and social dynamics, and transforms the classroom into a practical laboratory for social and academic exploration. when interviewed, one teacher stressed his use of role-playing in students’ learning of morphemes such as the third-person singular forms where students are encouraged to write dialogues and reinforced to use these morphemes: “i often dedicate one class to teaching the third-person singular forms through role-playing. initially, i guide students in identifying third-person singular subjects and understanding the rules of subject-verb agreement. then, providing examples on slides, i ask the students to identify the third-person singular subjects and annotate the corresponding verb inflections, which are designed to reinforce the practical application of thirdperson singular forms. next, grouping students as 10 as a team, i encourage them to write dialogues based on a given example, emphasizing the use of the thirdperson singular. during this activity, i should assist them in completing their dialogues. once necessary improvements and refinements are made, the students are invited to perform their dialogues in front of the class. after that, a reflection session is organized to engage students to discuss what they have learned from this activity, focusing on language use, verbal expression, and emotional intelligence.” (teacher-respondent) storytelling activities storytelling is regarded as one of the most ancient and enduring forms of communication, and scholars extol it as an educational tool for fostering language acquisition (cameron, 2001; isbell et al., 2004; lucarevschi, 2016). the application of storytelling yields better learning outcomes than conventional pedagogic materials, such as textbooks in language instruction. the interviewed teacher was aware of using storytelling activities in warming up the class when teaching english morphemes such as irregular past verbs with the aim of engaging students in noticing these irregular forms: “i begin my class with a five-minute storytelling session wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 237 as a warm-up when introducing irregular past tense verbs. for instance, i display pictures on slides and narrate a story, using underlined irregular past verbs, aiming to engage students interactively and guide them to notice the forms of these verbs. next, i present a different set of pictures accompanied by cue irregular verbs and encourage students to describe them briefly. this approach helps students visually grasp the forms and patterns of some irregular verbs, while also enhancing their spoken english skills.” (teacher-respondent) peer review practices according to hansen and liu (2005), lundstrom and baker (2009), and mangelsdorf (1992), peer review includes meaningful engagement with peers, greater exposure to ideas, and the exchange of new views on the writing process. both the giver and the receiver participating in peer review can benefit significantly from these activities (de guerrero & villamil, 2000). this practice enables teachers to assist their students in receiving more feedback and provides students with practical skills essential for language and writing development. one teacher emphasized the usefulness of using peer review activities in raising students’ awareness of the incorrect use of english morphemes such as irregular past verbs and promoting their metalinguistic explanations: “i observe that students are often aware of incorrect morpheme usage in their peers’ work but less likely to notice their own mistakes. during peer reviews focusing on irregular past verbs and third-person singular forms, i frequently encourage students to explain why a particular morpheme is misused and suggest the correct form. additionally, when reviewing each other’s compositions, the students invest more time in reading and providing feedback, along with explanations for peers. i find that students display a greater willingness to consider their peers’ suggestions and make necessary changes. these aspects are challenging to achieve when i am solely responsible for reviewing compositions.” (teacher-respondent) incorporation of songs songs create a less intimidating atmosphere for students, especially those who may feel anxious when speaking english in front of the class (lo & li, 1998). this teaching practice is enjoyable, and it fosters an interactive and engaging learning environment that encourages active participation and the application of both existing and newly acquired language knowledge (alinte, 2013; saricoban & metin, 2000). one interviewed teacher emphasized the use of english songs aiming at teaching students how to use irregular past verbs, which fosters their appreciation of english learning: “‘because you loved me’ is one of the popular songs i use to teach irregular past verbs. i present the lyrics of this song in class and guide them to notice how irregular verbs change. i follow up with exercises, such as gapfilling, where students put the verbs in brackets into the past simple tense. afterward, they listen to the song to check their answers. of course, these verbs mainly refer to the irregular past forms. language learning should go beyond just perfecting and enhancing grammar. teaching objectives should include fostering an appreciation for language and culture.” (teacher-respondent) a range of other activities and exercises to provide students with effective interventions in the classroom, the interviewed teachers described the specific exercises, such as mind mapping, grammar bingo, and interactive worksheets they employed in their teaching practices. mind mapping is employed to organize ideas and represent words, tasks, or other connections arranged around a central keyword through branching, typically containing words, colors, concise phrases, and illustrations (buzan & buzan, 2006). it is used in the pre-class session, thus facilitating the memorization and comprehension of grammatical concepts. for instance, when explaining the application of third-person singular verbs, the teacher can draw a circle at the center of the blackboard with the third-person singular inscribed within it, which serves as the central concept for the mind map. from this central circle, the teacher then extends the branches to represent various subcategories, including (i) third-person singular subject, (ii) regular verbs add -s, (iii) verbs ending in -ch, -sh, -x, -s incorporate -es, (iv) verbs ending in -y, change -y to -ies, and (v) irregular verbs. for each subcategory, the teacher provides additional elaboration by including example sentences. for example, under regular verbs, the teacher offers an example sentence, such as “he walks to school.” utilize distinct colors to differentiate between subcategories and integrate images or symbols to aid visual learners. grammar bingo games are designed to provide students with an engaging way to practice grammar structures. this fosters a relaxed atmosphere and motivates students to explore grammatical elements playfully. additionally, it helps develop their teamwork, reading, and speaking skills throughout the learning process. for example, the teacher starts the class by introducing the concept of irregular past tense verbs. the teacher also provides shared resources, such as reading materials from textbooks. subsequently, the wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 238 teacher organizes the class into several groups, asking them to collaborate and search for as many irregular past tense verbs as possible. to facilitate this, the teacher prepares bingo cards with various instructions, such as identifying the irregular past forms of the word “think” and locating sentences featuring irregular past tense verbs. when the game begins, the teacher randomly selects a card and reads the instructions aloud, prompting students to identify the specified grammatical structure. once a group identifies all the sentences and records them on their blank card, they call out “bingo”. at this point, the teacher requests students to read the identified sentences aloud and assess whether they are correct or incorrect. if they are accurate, the group earns one point; if they are incorrect, no points are awarded. the ultimate victors are the groups that accumulate the highest scores. interactive worksheets require students to work in groups to complete assigned grammar tasks, such as filling in blanks, matching columns, or correcting sentence errors within a set time frame. this teaching post-class practice fosters a strong grasp of grammatical structures and enhances their reading skills. the teacher creates an interactive worksheet comprising various exercises tailored to irregular past and third-person singular forms. these exercises may involve sentence corrections, matching columns, multiple choices, and fill-in-the-blanks. subsequently, the teacher distributes a copy of the worksheet to each group, thus granting them enough time to work on these exercises, discuss answers, and resolve any misunderstandings through the worksheet. once the worksheet is completed, the teacher instructs the groups to exchange their worksheets and evaluate the answers by providing corrections. the teachers encourage students to ask questions and offer feedback on the exercises to customize future interactive worksheets to better suit their needs. afterwards, the teachers request that students submit their worksheets for further analysis. this analysis allows teachers to gauge students’ mastery of the two grammatical morphemes, providing insights into the learning process. iv. discussion the current study revealed that the copula be had the highest tul scores (90%), followed by articles (83%), progressive -ing (82%), regular past (81%), possessive -s (81%), plural -s (80%), and auxiliary be (80%). irregular past and third-person singular had the lowest tlu scores (69%, and 52% respectively). secondly, the comparison of the observed accuracy order with krashen’s (1977) noh revealed that chinese efl learners exhibited a different pattern, thus deviating from universality as suggested by previous research (akbas & ölçüdinçer, 2021; cheng & lee, 2020). thirdly, the interviews with the five language teachers indicated that efl learners struggled with irregular past and third-person singular due to linguistic factors such as the negative transfer of mother tongue, semantic and syntactic complexity, and non-linguistic factors like motivation, living environment, and limited output of certain morphemes. the interventions were deemed significant in aiding learners’ learning of challenging morphemes and boosting motivation, with specific strategies including peer review, brainstorming, role-playing, storytelling, songs as well as various activities and exercises. murakami and alexopoulou (2016) proposed that the absence of an equivalent in l1 led to low accuracy in grammatical morphemes use. the overall finding of the current study reinforced this statement. specifically, the overall low accuracy in the use of irregular past and third person singular forms could be explained by the non-existence of these features in chinese. in contrast, the overall accuracy in the use of copula was relatively high since the chinese verb “shi” was used as a linking verb between the subject and its complement, thus functioning similarly to the english copula. this phenomenon was considered that language transfer positively impacted l2 learning outcomes if similar equivalents explicitly were presented in their l1 (chan, 2004; hsieh, 2009). regarding the acquisition order of regular and irregular past morphemes, it had been widely accepted that the past tense -ed was acquired later than irregular forms (brown, 1973; krashen, 1977; kuczaj, 1977). however, the overall accuracy of these regular verbs surpassed that of irregular verbs in the current study. this discrepancy could be attributed to the high incidence of overgeneralization errors with irregular forms. as observed by kuczaj (1977), once children gained a sufficient control over the regular past tense form, they tended to make two types of errors with the irregular past tense forms: attaching the suffix -ed to an irregular verb (catched) or attaching the suffix to the past tense form itself (helded). in the current study, learners exhibited one or both of these error wang xianyuan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 239 types, resulting in lower accuracy when using irregular forms. when it came to the hierarchy of the third person singular, plural -s and possessive -s, the observed accuracy order had been differed from the previous studies (ghonchepour et al., 2020; krashen, 1977; seog, 2015). the observed order of possessive -s proceeded the plural -s and the third singular-s corroborated the observations of luk and shirai (2009). this discrepancy could be possibly explained by the similar equivalent existed in chinese. although chinese did not have plural marking or the third person singular system, it had a structure of denoting possession that was similar to that of english (qin de bi = qin’s pen) (luk & shirai, 2009). it was found that the third person singular-s consistently was difficult to master, which had the lowest accuracy level, and in line with the observations of murakami and alexopoulou (2016) for l1 chinese learners. this result could be explained by slobin’s (1996) assertion that the form-related features, such as the third person singular, appeared later in the acquisition order compared to forms with semantic features like the plural -s and possessive -s. another possible explanation could be the cross-linguistic comparison between chinese and english. since chinese lacks an equivalent form for certain grammatical morphemes (such as the third person singular and irregular past forms), these morphemes ranked relatively low. the implications drawn from this research offer valuable insights for curriculum development, instructional approaches, and student comprehension in english grammar learning. firstly, resequencing grammatical morphemes in the syllabus according to their difficulty can streamline the learning process, with a focus on mastering challenging forms after foundational morphemes. secondly, teachers are advised to adopt more interactive and exploratory teaching methods to alleviate the tedium and anxiety often associated with grammar classes. customized materials and additional writing exercises can target specific challenging morphemes. lastly, students are encouraged to understand the complexity of language acquisition and to prioritize accuracy in using the irregular past tense and the third-person singular forms, thus leveraging examples of incorrect usage to enhance learning. these implications collectively promote a more effective and engaging approach to english grammar instruction. v. conclusion the present study revealed that the copula be had the highest tul scores (90%), followed by articles (83%), progressive -ing (82%), regular past (81%), possessive -s (81%), plural -s (80%), and auxiliary be (80%). irregular past and thirdperson singular morphemes had the lowest tlu scores (69%, and 52% respectively). secondly, the comparison of observed accuracy order with krashen’s (1977) noh revealed that chinese efl learners exhibited a different pattern, deviating from universality as suggested by previous research (akbas & ölçü-dinçer, 2021; cheng & lee, 2020). thirdly, the interviews with the five language teachers indicated that efl learners struggled with the irregular past and third-person singular due to linguistic factors such as negative transfer of mother tongue, semantic and syntactic complexity, and non-linguistic factors like motivation, living environment, and limited output of certain morphemes. finally, the interventions were deemed significant in aiding learners’ learning of challenging morphemes and boosting motivation, with specific strategies including brainstorming, role-playing, storytelling, peer review practices, songs as well as various activities and exercises. despite the contribution of this study to previous research, it has several limitations that need to be addressed in future research. firstly, the sample size and diversity are insufficient, which necessitates a broader and more representative selection of subjects and an extended duration for a more accurate analysis. particularly, inclusion of students with different english proficiency levels would enrich the findings by highlighting the variances in morpheme learning among top performers and their peers. a longitudinal approach is recommended to capture the evolution of morpheme acquisition over time. secondly, the effectiveness of the teaching interventions, as reported by a limited number of 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(1997). psychology for language teachers: a social constructivist approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 24 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 10, 2023 final revision: may 05, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 this paper aimed to investigate moroccan amazighs’ use of the amazigh language on social media and the various aspects of amazigh’s presence on these platforms. the study was carried out following a descriptive research design whereby data were collected by way of a large-scale online survey. a sample of one-thousand informants was randomly selected from all over morocco based on several social variables, including sex, age, education, and region of belonging. data analysis revealed that the tifinagh script is less used compared to latin and arabic in which the language is highly present on social media platforms. it was also found that amazigh is greatly used in chatting and that moroccans highly interact with amazigh-related content on amazigh public pages and groups on social networking websites. the survey respondents accordingly showed remarkable satisfaction with social media content published in amazigh. the analysis also demonstrated that amazigh social media users are particularly interested in topics pertinent to the fields of history, culture, and art. it was yet discovered that moroccans view the use of amazigh on social networking sites as an effective alternative for promoting and improving the language. the study calls for upholding and ameliorating online amazigh language use, as well as extending its scope by adopting digitization policies centering on the prominence of tifinagh. keywords amazigh, language use, social media, moroccan amazighs, descriptive design correspondence e-mail: b.aitlaaguid@edu.umi.ac.ma article amazigh language use on social media: an exploratory study brahim ait laaguid1, azeddine khaloufi2 1,2school of arts & humanities, moulay ismail university, meknes, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.24-34.2023 i. introduction although amazigh language use in different formal and informal contexts has been investigated (el kirat & boussagui, 2018; el kirat et al., 2010; el kirat, 2009; errihani, 2008, 2006; idhssaine & el kirat, 2019, idhssaine, 2020; marley, 2004; reino, 2007), social media has significantly been overlooked. this area has not been fairly researched to explore the extent of amazigh’s presence on social networking sites (sns) and discover whether or not the amazigh language has a future in the current technological era. given that amazigh has been identified by uneseco as endangered, it has been suggested that the internet provides a space for the languages in danger of extinction to be documented and promoted (debski, 2004; ouakrime, 2001; sperlich, 2005; warschauer, 2002). amazigh language use in the various domains of public life has been relatively weak (boukous, 2012; idhssaine, 2020). yet, several alternatives have been proposed for increasing the presence of amazigh in the public sphere, including social media (almasude, 1999; belgharbi, 2014, ennaji, 2014). amazigh activists have been using these social platforms to improve amazigh, which is observably used online for different purposes and in different modes. all these uses, nonetheless, seem to converge into one broad aim: voicing one’s identity and promoting the amazigh language (lafkioui, 2008; lafkioui, 2013). the present study, therefore, attempts to investigate moroccan amazighs’ use of the amazigh language on social media. it seeks to explore the different facets of amazigh’s presence on social networking websites. reference is not particularly to the standardized amazigh notably used for institutional purposes but to the three brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 25 varieties spoken across morocco, namely tashelhit, tamazight, and tarifit. amazigh is a language that has persisted for centuries (boukous, 2015). the speakers of this language are scattered around africa but are mostly present in morocco, algeria, tunisia, and libya (ait laaguid, 2022). from the independence of morocco in 1956 till the 1990s of the last century, the amazigh language has encountered several political, social, and cultural impediments, which could all be associated with the arabization policy that caused a great challenge to the amazigh development. however, the amazigh situation gained more momentum thanks to the ajdir speech of king mohammed vi in 2001, which counted as an actual declaration of a new age for the amazigh language and identity, whereby vital initiatives and projects were given the green light to revitalize and improve amazigh as a primordial part of moroccan national identity, including the establishment of the royal institute of the amazigh culture (ircam). amazigh was then introduced for the first time in its history into primary education in 2003. after a consistent course of pleading, amazigh was constitutionalized along with arabic in 2011. since then, there has been a serious regression in the constitutional status of the language, especially since its official character has not yet been activated. morocco’s multilingual character, comprising, besides amazigh, classical arabic (ca) modern standard arabic (msa), moroccan arabic (ma), french, spanish, and currently english, has placed amazigh in quite a problematic position. ca is held as the most high-status language in morocco owing particularly to its religious significance, as it is the language of the holy qur’an. this language is specifically used for religious purposes, including prayers, friday sermons, and islamic rituals. msa, on the other hand, is morocco’s official language together with the rest of the arab world. it is the language used in influential domains of public life, such as administration, education, and media. regarding ma, which is also known among moroccans as darija (abbassi, 1977), is the adopted lingua franca; it is used for daily communication and in almost all spheres. youssi (1995) claims that 90 percent of moroccan people are inclined to speak darija. there are chiefly three foreign languages used in morocco, i.e. french, spanish, and english. both french and spanish are attached to colonization. during the colonial period, french was used in primary public spheres, essentially government, education, and administration. after independence, it was used as the language of prestige and modernity by the political elite. today, the french language is adopted in higher education as the language of instruction for science courses. it still enjoys, however, the prestigious status it has always been connected to, given its predominant employment in different media outlets, administrative dealings, and education-related matters. vis-à-vis spanish, as another colonial heritage, its influence can still be noticed in northern and southern regions where it was the official language utilized in administrative arenas. spanish has nevertheless become less vital, particularly in education and media. as the only foreign language with no colonial links, english is quickly progressing in the moroccan linguistic market, thanks fundamentally to its international standing and the array of opportunities it provides its speakers with (sadiqi, 1991). the immense presence of english in higher education and several media productions, as well as the state’s increasingly positive attitudes, are tangible signs that the english language has taken over morocco’s linguistic landscape. language is the vehicle of communication. it is used to convey ideas, share experiences, and interact with the world. it also embodies the culture associated with it and surpasses real-world requirements in such aspects as the search for knowledge, education, and exchange with different ethnicities and identities. learning yet using a language aims to not only contact others but to keep a social connection, “a shared sense of values and communal awareness” (olojede et al., 2018, p. 3). new forms of communication have risen to the surface over the last two decades due to the internet. there has been a revolution that has changed a variety of concepts pertinent to space, context, and interaction. the world has become globalized and it is rapidly changing. nowadays with social media, the world is witnessing unprecedented progress in information technologies. social media as a term was first used in 2004. it refers to the forms of electronic communication that provide the service of creating online communities, sharing personal information and images, and discussing, co-creating, and modifying brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 26 user-generated media content (kietzman, 2012). the majority of these social media platforms are free and accessible to everyone. it has been suggested that there are different types of social media (monica & anamaria, 2014; kaplan & haenlein, 2010). for instance, facebook, twitter, and whatsapp, among others, are categorized within virtual communities. linkedin is considered a business interaction platform, whereas instagram is labeled a social bookmarking tool for getting particular content. extensive research in this area is important for essentially two reasons. firstly, social media can no longer be treated as a dispensable, optional, and negligible set of information and communication technologies (ict) (lenhart et al., 2010; tess, 2013); on the contrary, these spaces are in one way or another controlling the lives of millions of people, consciously or unconsciously, willingly or unwillingly. secondly, people are now spending much of their time using sns such as facebook and instagram. a separation line could hardly be drawn anymore between ‘real’ and ‘virtual’ life. the focus of the current study however is the use of the amazigh language on these networking spaces. research has shown that english is taking over social media by virtue of being an international language commonly used for communication in practically most spheres of influence (al arif, 2019). still, for a population that is exposed to various local and global languages, it would be hard to expect the dominance of a certain language over the other. this paper is therefore going to specifically shed light on the degree and forms of amazigh’s presence on social media platforms, primarily facebook, twitter, youtube, and instagram. the current study fundamentally intends to explore the presence of the amazigh language on social media by investigating the patterns and forms of this presence, discovering the degree and level of interaction in amazigh, identifying the topics of the amazigh content that interest moroccan amazighs, and evaluating the utility of social media platforms in revitalizing and promoting amazigh. the interest in the amazigh language per se is driven by three facts. there is a large amazighspeaking community in morocco that would prefer to communicate with the online community’s members or even the entire world using amazigh for identity maintenance, identity construction, or identity reconstruction (lafkioui, 2013). in addition, since 2016, facebook has accredited tifinagh as one of the scripts that can be used on the platform. lastly, amazigh speakers may perceive social media as an opportunity that should be seized to revitalize, promote, and develop the amazigh language. ii. method research design the study employed a descriptive research design, exerting a fundamentally quantitative research instrument for data collection, to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories (mccombes, 2022), and therefore answer the specified research questions. the reason for choosing this design is that it allows for an analysis of several issues that are better reported quantitatively. in this respect, an online questionnaire was adopted to gain an inclusive exploration of amazigh language use on social media using relevant statistical measures. sampling and participants to represent the online amazigh community using social media, a large-scale sample was employed. a sample of 1000 informants was randomly selected from all over morocco. the survey specifically targeted moroccans with table 1 the sample’s background information variables categories percentages gender male female 82,8% 17,2% age less than 20 years old between 21 and 30 between 31 and 40 more than 40 7,1% 73,9% 14% 5% profession employee student worker others 31,1% 53,4% 5% 10,5% educational level bachelor degree master degree doctorate degree high school degree middle school degree 47,6% 38,5% 3,6% 8,3% 2% area of belonging north (tarifit speaking regions) center (tamazight speaking regions) south (tashelhit speaking regions) 7,5% 11,7% 80,8% brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 27 amazigh origins. for this purpose, the participants were distributed over three large geographical areas, i.e. the northern area (where tarifit is spoken), the center area (where tamazight is spoken), and the southern area (where tashelhit is spoken). table 1 shows further characteristics pertinent to the survey respondents. as table 1 demonstrates, the majority of informants were males, young, holders of higher education diplomas, and belonging to tashelhitspeaking regions. these qualities are suggestive of a highly active group in the target population. it is the (amazigh) group that seemingly dominates sns. overall, the represented variables are likely to affect the sample’s choices. the research instrument an online questionnaire was utilized to collect data for the current study. input related to the extent of amazigh language use on social media was elicited via exclusively close-ended items. besides the section on demographic information, the survey was divided into three relatively large parts: 1) the displays of amazigh on social media: it aimed to pinpoint the frequency of amazigh language use on sns, using a 5-point likert scale varying between always and never, as well as the alphabet and variety mostly used. 2) the forms, degree of interaction, and amazigh-content creation: it sought to provide a profound outlook on amazigh language use on social platforms. it comprised items relevant to how the language is used (chatting, posting, and sharing content), the degree of interaction on amazigh-related pages and groups (ranging from extremely high to inexistent), whether or not specific amazigh-content creators were followed, and finally the language users’ subjects of interest. 3) revitalizing and developing amazigh through sns: it primarily tried to investigate the sample’s perceptions of social media in connection with a prospective change in the status of the amazigh language. in other words, it intended to determine the extent to which sns contribute to the development of amazigh as an official national language and the empowerment of its online presence among other languages. data analysis given the objectives of the study and the nature of the collected data, general descriptive statistics were employed to quantitatively analyze the survey responses. the focus was specifically on frequencies and percentages designed based on the examined numerical data. the goal was to eventually interpret the findings following precise quantitative descriptions. iii. results and discussion manifestations of amazigh language use on social media the predominant adopted alphabet the amazigh language can be written using different scripts, especially since not all moroccan amazighs have learned tifinagh. the other two predominantly used alphabets are arabic and latin. the survey participants were then asked which alphabet they typically employ to write the amazigh language on social media. they however had the choice to select more than one option since they could be using different scripts for different purposes. table 2 demonstrates the divergent use of the three scripts. table 2. distribution of alphabets employed to write amazigh on social media alphabet frequency percentage tifinagh arabic latin 156 346 810 15.6 % 34.6 % 81 % table 2 shows that the latin script is the alphabet most predominantly used by the respondents to write amazigh, followed by the arabic script, then tifinagh. this result indicated moroccan amazighs’ lack of mastery of the official script adopted to write their language. the weak presence of tifinagh may also be due to fear of not being understood; amazighs thus tend to use the other alphabets, perceived as simple to use, especially the latin, for the sake of conformity. this finding overall corroborates previous studies’ results (belhiah et al, 2011; sadiqi, 2011; soulaimani, 2015), showing that moroccans view tifinagh as a burden since other alphabets could be simply adopted. the amazigh variety mostly present on social media the spoken amazigh in moroccan society is quite different from the standardized amazigh brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 28 language being taught in school. there are fundamentally three amazigh dialects in morocco: tashelhit, tamazight, and tarifit. figure 1 displays the variation among the survey respondents regarding the variety they use on social media. figure 2 shows that amazigh is most regularly used by the respondents. this result revealed the participants’ favoring of amazigh over other languages in social communication. it is through their language that they share their thoughts and concerns and express their linguistic and sociocultural identity. this finding disconfirmed boukous’s (2012) observation that amazigh is not greatly present on social media. the forms and patterns of amazigh language use on social media since it was validated that the amazigh language is considerably present on social platforms, it was imperative to unravel which method was mostly approached to use amazigh, whether it was chatting, status updates, or simply sharing content that is external or already existing on the sites. given that the participants could be using amazigh in more than one way, they were allowed to pick out among the three options, according to their situation (see figure 3). figure 1. amazigh varieties’ use on social media the greatest portion of the sample affirmed their use of tashelhit on social media. this finding suggests at least two controversial readings; it is indeed the tashelhit-speaking community that dominates sns, or although the participating sample is arguably large, we cannot generalize the attained result. this finding is thus exclusively limited to the investigated sample. the researcher however is inclined to the first elucidation, contending that the survey was equally distributed online to the three geographically distinct communities. it is yet possible that ishelhiin (tashelhit-speaking people) were more interested and motivated to participate in the survey. the frequency of amazigh language use on social media among the questions that were raised regarding the use of amazigh on social media platforms was how often the language is used on these spaces. the researcher sought to discover the time extent of everyday communication in amazigh on social media. figure 2 presents the frequencies of amazigh language use on the related sites. figure 2. the frequency of amazigh language use on social media figure 3 the forms of amazigh language use on social networking sites only five percent of the total sample did not acknowledge the use of amazigh in chatting, whereas half of it affirmed their preference for status updates. however, almost a third of the respondents asserted their inclination toward sharing relevant content as a favored method for using amazigh on social media. the predominance of chatting in amazigh indicates the immense presence of the amazigh language in the daily (virtual) life of moroccan social media users. yet this result is quite significant in that it shows the diverse use of amazigh; since chatting is fundamentally chosen for one-to-one communication, be it individual-to-individual or group-to-group, status updates could reach an even brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 29 more general audience. the amazigh language is therefore substantially disseminated. amazigh is not only found in chatting and status updates, or seen in resources taken from third-party websites, it is also available on public pages and groups on sns. one way to discover the level of amazigh’s presence in these spaces was by investigating the rate of interaction of moroccan amazighs (see figure 4). the vast majority of respondents remarkably interact with amazigh-related content published on public pages and groups on social platforms. this result unveiled moroccans’ interest in issues pertinent to the amazigh language and culture. these open spaces for communication could serve the purposes of promoting, developing, and (re) constructing identity. these pages and groups provide amazighs from different parts of the world with the possibility of reuniting and reconnecting with their communities. this perspective is quite consistent with lafkioui’s (2008; 2013) assertions. figure 4. moroccan amazighs’ degree of interaction on amazigh public pages and groups figure 5. evaluating the posts, publications, and interactions in amazigh on social media to further investigate the content written in amazigh on social platforms, the participants were asked about their evaluation of the posts, publications, and interactions available to the public on the related sites (see figure 5). almost the entire sample was satisfied with the social media content published in amazigh. this is highly indicative of the obtainability of good and varied quality resources produced in the amazigh language on sns. these could be short texts, articles, images, videos, or else. the fact that these contents are positively viewed also shows the realization of several studies’ call for the need to change moroccans’ attitudes toward amazigh so that they become more positive (errihani, 2008; idhssaine, 2020). social media can then be said to significantly improve the social status and image associated with the amazigh language. the amazigh content shared on the concerned pages and groups raised the issue of content creation: is there a ‘serious’ amazigh content brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 30 creation, and who are the creators? it was thus essential to the exploratory objectives of this study to inquire whether or not the survey respondents were following social media amazigh-related content creators. over two-thirds of the participants confirmed that they were following creators of amazighrelated content on social media. this result, therefore, revealed that moroccan amazighs are not only ‘producers’ of the amazigh language but also ‘receivers’ of it. in other words, they are both disseminators (promoters) and beneficiaries (learners). this active state of participation on sns is bound to not simply revitalize the amazigh language and culture but strongly compete with the other prevailing languages on moroccan social media spaces, especially facebook. amazigh is hence expected to have a bright future. these points are further discussed in the subsequent lines. another important aspect that was raised for exploration was the fields of the related amazigh content; the survey respondents’ subjects of interest regarding amazigh language use on social media were thus investigated (see figure 7). figure 7 displays history, culture, and art as figure 6. confirmation of following social media amazigh-related content creator figure 7 subjects of interest concerning amazigh language use on social platforms the areas of interest recurrently preferred by the participants. the frequent selection of the three domains indicated the dominance of folklore and entertainment as the elements that interest moroccan amazighs. the finding overall suggested variety in terms of choices amazighs make in their navigation through social media. surprisingly, they showed that their use of amazigh was not only confined to chatting; rather, they use the language to learn different issues within different spheres. this is arguably in favor of the effort for revitalizing and promoting amazigh. social media as an effective alternative for revitalizing and promoting amazigh to examine the previous postulates, the survey addressed the respondents’ perceptions of the odds that using amazigh on social platforms can empower amazigh’s position as a co-official language and contribute to its promotion and development (see figure 8). figure 8 demonstrates that there was a consensus on the statement that using amazigh on sns promotes and improves the language. the advantages of disseminating materials created in amazigh on the sites can prominently encourage brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 31 figure 8 amazigh’s promotion and development through its use on social media figure 9 amazigh’s potential to compete with other languages on social media moroccans to fully accept amazigh not only as the language of traditions and folklore but most importantly as a full-fledged national language that can serve different linguistic, social, political, and economic functions. this reflection is confirmed by ennaji (2005) and idhssaine (2020). both studies show that there is a change in attitudes towards amazigh in that it is no longer regarded as a dialect. accordingly, it was crucial to pore over the participants’ attitudes toward amazigh’s potency to enjoy its co-official status on social media regardless of other languages’ dominance, especially arabic (both moroccan arabic and standard arabic), french, and english (see figure 9). almost the overall sample assured that amazigh indeed has the potential to vie with other languages on social platforms. the motivation for this belief might be the respondents’ expected support of amazigh in all cases as long as it is their mother tongue and a co-official language in the constitution. although darija (the moroccan colloquial arabic) is the lingua franca that particularly dominates most social milieus (boukous, 2012; marley, 2004) and english is the language that typically predominates sns (al arif, 2019), the participants were confident that amazigh can survive and thrive on social media despite other languages’ powerful competition. iv. conclusion the present study was an attempt to provide an inclusive image of the presence of the amazigh language on social media. it particularly sought to designate the manifestations, forms, frequency, and status of amazigh’s use on these platforms. the analysis of data collected online from 1000 amazigh moroccan participants generally showed that the amazigh language has a special eminence in the (virtual) lives of moroccan amazighs. although there is indeed an impact caused by the other competing languages, especially arabic, the study’s findings suggest that amazighs cling to their language as a means of communication, as well as an expression of a long-standing culture and a miscellaneous identity. brahim ait laaguid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 32 social media spaces (e.g. facebook, twitter, and youtube) are believed to be significant alternatives to promote and advance amazigh, especially since the language is not greatly present in institutional and public life. the actual use of amazigh on these websites allows the language to survive and thrive, provided that it is counted as endangered and hence necessitates proper intervention. the study does not claim that this fairly strong virtual presence is enough in that it sets amazigh free from the constraint of institutional support; rather, it only stands as one of the windows through which amazigh can gain more attention and sustenance. besides its use for a wide range of purposes, comprising asynchronous interaction with the surrounding or even worldwide amazighspeaking community, social media can also be used to reach numerous and diverse audiences by using the amazigh language. this way, non-speaking amazigh communities may not only be aware of the various elements of amazigh identity but also advocate for the linguistic and cultural rights of amazighs. recommendations the current exploratory study makes several recommendations to the parties responsible for the amazigh situation in morocco, including decisionmakers, language planning and policy specialists, and educational researchers. some of these recommendations can be listed as follows: • the remarkably significant presence of amazigh on social media should be maintained and accordingly improved by offering necessary institutional provisions in public life. • the ‘battle of the alphabet’ is still a sociolinguistic concern that clamors for reconsideration; the prominence of tifinagh has not yet been digested by many moroccans, believing that this script poses disconcerting issues at the level of its use. since only recent generations have been exposed to this alphabet in school, it is hard for the rest of the people to read and interact using tifinagh. • research is required on why moroccans use amazigh on sns. the reasons for this use could be varied, depending on the user, the situation, and the addressee. these elements should hence be investigated to encircle the drives of the ongoing use. • applicable digitization policies centering on the prominence of tifinagh should yet be adopted. references abbassi, a. 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(1995). the moroccan triglossia: facts and implications. international journal of the sociology of language 112, 29-43. abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 348 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 12, 2024 final revision: september 12, 2024 accepted: september 14, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 course retaking brings pivotal challenges for learning institutions all over the world. this urges many academicians to investigate the reasons why students retake courses. therefore, this article identifies the micro and macro challenges associated with retaking a reading course. it also generates a remedial reading model for english as foreign language (efl) contexts. data was collected from reading course specifications, course report, and focused group discussions with six experienced language instructors at the preparatory year program of a saudi university. using grounded theory, the qualitative data was analyzed through thematic analysis. the findings revealed a complex web of challenges associated with different stakeholders: the course retakers, language instructors, administration, and retakers’ families; all of them share the challenge of time constraints, especially after the shift from two to three semesters. at the micro level, course retakers struggle with poor foundational skills and demotivation, focusing on passing exams. they also lack exposure to english and seldom invest office hours for help. language instructors struggle with learning materials, demotivation, and assessment. at the macro level, students’ families contribute to maximize these challenges. a gap exists between the intended learning outcomes and student levels and admission criteria. these challenges collectively hinder course retakers’ reading skills. the study generates a five-pillar bridging model that integrates learning outcomes, exam-oriented teaching strategies, simplified reading materials, technology-assisted reading, and motivational strategies to foster efl remedial reading. the study recommends some pedagogical implications for remedial reading classes. keywords classroom challenges, course specifications, english as a foreign language, reading, course retakers, remedial classes correspondence e-mail: agaleel@gmail.com article challenges of efl course retaking: toward a model for remedial reading abduljalil nasr hazaea department of english language skills, deanship of preparatory year, najran university, najran, saudi arabia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.348-359.2024 i. introduction it is claimed that students who retake a course are low achievers; they are also demotivated and lack confidence in themselves (abío et al., 2019; takase & otsuki, 2012). studies reported various reasons behind getting students to retake a course. some are psychological (kim, 2009), others may be institutional (adghar et al., 2023), and some others might be related to the teaching strategies and methods (hsu & chen, 2007). therefore, stakeholders try to find solutions for the widespread of those who retake courses. one of these solutions is designing remedial programs. course retakers refer to those students who have not passed the regular examination. these students are also called slow learners (alghamdi & siddiqui. 2016), course repeaters (kim, 2009), low-performance students (abío et al., 2019), or low achievers (eno, 2019). no matter what name is used, all terminologies agree on the criteria of these students. course retakers differ in their ability to acquire knowledge. one of the challenges of teaching course retakers is their integration with high-ability learners or gifted. another challenge may be related to the teachers’ lack of training on how to react to this group of learners (rosi et al., 2024). challenges of course retakers extend beyond classroom settings. they involve teaching and learning challenges inside and outside the abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 349 classroom (jenks, 2020). this view suggests that micro-class challenges inside a classroom are not separated from macro-class challenges outside the classroom. existing research also shows that there is a need to link course retakers’ challenges and practices with their learning environment such as corridors, libraries, and extracurricular activities both inside language classroom and at home (eno, 2019; hu & hsu, 2020; louis & pereira, 2003; shanmugam & jeevarathinam, 2021). english as foreign language (efl) remedial classes encounter several challenges (huang, 2010; luoch, 2014; maawa & cruz, 2019). adghar et al. (2023) showed a lack of alignment of learning outcomes with classroom practices. course retakers are also neglected in mixed-ability classes (binu, 2021; hazaea & almekhlafy, 2022; shanmugam & jeevarathinam, 2021). this issue raises questions about the washback effect on teaching and learning (hazaea & tayeb, 2018; spratt, 2005). one effective way is to implement the strategy of simplifying the learning materials (eno, 2019). al othman and shuqair (2013) added “remedial courses for efl students should be given a new teaching approach to influence the required results about the skills of the students” (p. 137). remedial studies examined the impact of remedial english courses on english proficiency (huang, 2010; luoch, 2014; maawa & cruz, 2019), the benefits of remedial teaching on poor-performing students (eno, 2019), students’ expectations of remedial english course (obeidat, 2020) and teachers’ perceptions and practices (hsu & chen, 2007). remedial studies also examined integrated english skills (eno, 2019; hsu & chen, 2007; maawa & cruz, 2019; obeidat, 2020). as for segregated remedial english skills, specific attention was given to vocabulary and grammar (alghamdi & siddiqui, 2016; hu & hsu, 2020; huang, 2010; luoch, 2014; maawa & cruz, 2019). reading skills were not given due attention in efl remedial studies. remedial courses have been reported in several studies in different parts of the world. yulian et al. (2022) studied the perceptions of indonesian efl course retakers about the use of inclusive technology with authentic multimedia-assisted language learning in speaking skills. similarly, rosi et al. (2024) explored the applicability of indonesian teachers to differential instruction of efl course retakers in inclusive schools. huang (2010) investigated the impact of an english remedial program on low-achieving students in malaysia. the program used self-developed learning materials and teaching assistants to assist the students. data were collected through assessments of grammar and vocabulary, as well as a questionnaire. qian (2008) investigated the everyday practices of course retakers and teachers in chinese efl classrooms. two remedial studies were reported from thailand (hsu & chen, 2007; hu & hsu, 2020). both studies called for diagnostic assessments, teaching methods, and simplified materials to develop learners’ primary skills and strategies to engage and motivate lowachieving students. in the united states, luoch (2014) examined the impact of a remedial english course on the english proficiency of freshmen at an international university. luoch’s quantitative study is limited to measuring the achievement test of composition and grammar skills. reading was not evaluated in this study. other qualitative tools might provide deep investigation of the remedial courses. other efl remedial studies were reported from the arab world (al-ghaithi & behforouz 2023; alghamdi & siddiqui, 2016; almekhlafy & alqahtani, 2020; al othman & shuqair, 2013; eno, 2019; obeidat, 2020). for example, eno (2019) examined the benefits of remedial teaching for 21 intermediate male students in an efl classroom in the united arab emirates. in saudi arabia, the context of this study, three studies reported remedial experiences with saudi efl students (alghamdi & siddiqui, 2016; almekhlafy & alqahtani, 2020; al othman & shuqair, 2013). for example, almekhlafy and alqahtani (2020) investigated the impact of the visual memory development technique on the motivation of efl students with low reading proficiency. the researchers compared the participants’ levels of motivation before and after the experiment. the results demonstrated a significant difference in motivation levels between the two groups. these studies indicated that remedial english language programs need a comprehensive approach to deal with remedial reading courses. al-ghaithi and behforouz’s (2023) study is limited to the omani elementary efl learners, suggesting a need for further research involving different proficiency levels to better understand the impact of remedial classes. al othman and shuqair (2013) investigated remedial courses for efl in general. almekhlafy and alqahtani’s (2020) study explored the enhancement of demotivated students with low abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 350 reading abilities. to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study has addressed the macro and micro challenges of reading course retaking and has proposed a model for developing the reading abilities of course retakers. the present study is an attempt to address this existing gap. as in many ef contexts, many students join saudi universities with poor english language skills (moskovsky, 2018). accordingly, saudi universities prepare newcomers with a foundational program in english language skills to bridge the existing gap between school outcomes and university demands (hazaea & almekhlafy, 2022). this program typically involves efl learners who need additional support before they can fully join some competitive undergraduate programs. examoriented students (hazaea & tayeb, 2018) usually join foundational programs with mixed ability levels (hazaea & almekhlafy, 2022). from an ethnographic perspective, the researcher’s ten-year experience indicates that some language instructors focus mainly on the activitiesinside the classroom. some slow learners drop language courses soon after the midterm because of poor performance. yet, some others continue with these courses, but they fail and retake them more than once. therefore, this study aims to identify the micro and macro challenges while retaking a reading course. it also generates a bridging model to enhance their reading skills. it addresses the following research questions: 1. what are the micro and macro challenges in retaking a reading course? 2. how can a remedial model enhance retaking an efl reading course? ii. methods research design this study employs a qualitative research design for investigating the micro and macro challenges associated with an efl remedial reading course (figure 1). the case study approach enables the researcher to examine the challenges that efl course retakers encounter. using grounded theory (corbin & strauss, 1990), a bridging model can be generated out of this experience. by identifying effective strategies for enhancing classroom practices, this study can inform pedagogical practices that promote language learning and improve the overall quality of english language education in preparatory year programs. settings and participants in the academic year 2022-2023, many saudi universities shifted the academic calendar from two semesters to three semesters. this shift created new changes and challenges at the course level in terms of timing, teaching strategies, and syllabus breakdown. intended learning outcomes and assessment methods almost remained the same. admission plans had shifted from semester-based to figure 1. qualitative research design for efl remedial reading abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 351 questions: 1. what are the classroom practices that language instructors encounter with course retakers? 2. what are the practices that language instructors observe with course retakers outside classroom settings? 3. what are the language instructors’ suggestions to overcome retakers’ challenges in terms of materials, teaching and motivational strategies, assessment, and use of technology? the open discussion of these questions allowed the researcher to collect rich and detailed data. this method also offers a collaborative environment where participants can share ideas and insights. this can be particularly useful in qualitative studies where researchers are interested in exploring complex classroom practices. by bringing together participants with diverse perspectives and experiences, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the topic they are studying (turney & pocknee, 2005). focused group discussion involves several steps for analysis. first, it is recorded through the blackboard system and transcribed through 365 microsoft word. second, the researcher read the transcription several times for familiarization. next, the data were coded into categorizing segments of meaningful units. based on the initial coding process, the researcher developed a coding framework that organizes and structures the identified codes into broader categories or themes. after that, he compared different codes, identified relationships between them, and explored any emerging themes. finally, he summarized the findings in a table which was explained later. iii. results the course report shows that the course retakers were 100 (m=45, f=55) students (table 1). these students struggle to achieve the basic skills in reading. some of them have retaken the course for the third time. as table 1 shows, 85% passed the course in the third round. however, 15% failed the course even after the third round. the analysis of the course report and the focused group discussion showed several challenges associated with different stakeholders. annual enrolment. for english language courses at the preparatory year program of a saudi university, these changes created more challenges. the annual enrolment plan changed the role of the preparatory year program from being a foundation program in the first semester into a remedial program in the second and third semesters. students who fail a course in the first semester can retake the course in the second or third semester. in this case study, the available data were collected from the course specifications, course report, and a focus group discussion with six experienced language instructors (coded li-1 to li-6), which provided an opportunity for the participants to reflect on their experiences with the classroom challenges of remedial reading. these instructors have rich experience that ranges from 5 to 10 years in this context. arabic is the native language for three of them, two instructors are indian, and one instructor is from pakistan. their ages range between 37 and 46. while the three arab instructors share the linguistic and cultural codes with the course retakers, the indian and pakistani instructors face linguistic challenges with them. data collection and analysis a course portfolio is a valuable tool for data collection in a reading remedial course (louis & pereira, 2003). in the reading course portfolio, two important documents were collected: course specifications and course report. at the beginning of the semester, course specifications outline the course plan including the course intended learning outcomes, teaching strategies, syllabus breakdown, and assessment methods. at the end of the course, a course report is prepared by the course team in collaboration with the exam and statistics committees. it involves students’ results and improvement plans. by systematically collecting and organizing this data, the researcher, being the course coordinator, can make informed decisions about improving teaching practices and enhancing student learning experiences (romova & andrew, 2011). focused group discussions have become increasingly popular as a tool for data collection in qualitative case studies. this method offers a convenient way to gather information from participants, while also providing a platform for collaboration and knowledge sharing (hennink, 2013). the researcher designed an online group discussion that involves the following probing abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 352 micro challenges are associated with the course retakers and language instructors. macro challenges are associated with administration, and retakers’ families (table 2). as table 2 shows, micro-challenges are associated with the classroom among the course retakers and language instructors. some language instructors reported that student’s level is “low level, too poor… even they don’t understand english at all” (li-2). another language instructor described them as “slow learners” (li-5). to show their weakness, a language instructor described their background knowledge as “very weak” (li6). students’ weakness is also described in terms of “low and poor comprehension... poor english language” (li-1). moreover, students expect language teachers to use l1 in their classes as it is reported by non-l1 language instructors: “… and for the teachers who don’t know arabic, it is very difficult for them to, i mean to go with their students” (li-2). another instructor stated that “there is a mismatch between learning outcomes, students’ level, and teaching materials” (li-1). these statements indicate demotivation in the classroom including language instructors. language instructors described students’ motivation in terms of “lack of interest, demotivated, would not ask questions… careless” (li-1) or “need encouragement” (li-3). in addition, a language instructor described students as “exam-oriented students” (li-1). an instructor stated that “once the class is over, we are disconnected with them [students]… the thing is how to connect with the student? we ask them they can visit us [during office hours], but they hardly visit us.” (li-2). macro challenges are beyond the classroom boundaries. for example, an instructor shows that due to the shift to three semesters, time constraints have resulted in a lack of course orientation where “there is a need for further course orientation for newcomers because this time is because of the shift to three semesters”. (li-1). another table 1. reading course retakers gender started passed failed male 45 41 4 female 55 44 11 total 100 85 15 table 2. challenges of course retaking research question stakeholders challenges mirco challenges course retakers time constraints poor level need for l1 enhancement strategy demotivation exam-driven students no visits during office hours lack of exposure to english instructors demotivation time constraints non-arabic language instructors marco challenges families time constraints demotivation work with family or working and studying sleepless nights distant places administration time constraints a mismatch between intended learning outcomes and students’ level teaching materials with answered exercises no placement test lack of exposure to english admission criteria abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 353 instructor opines that lack of exposure to english in extracurricular activities is one of the out-class challenges where reading marathons “can motivate [students] to read in english” (li-2) instead of spending “most of the time outside the classroom using their mother tongue” (li-2). another instructor emphasized that “teachers may provide students extra exercises to do at home...; they may revise what they learned during the day” (li-3). another instructor showed that the role of the teacher is inside the classroom only where “most of the teachers’ roles are restricted to be inside the classroom to teach students to understand the lesson.” (li-3). we don’t need to stop taking once the class is over, it has to be continued outside the classroom as well, so what we need is to motivate the students to visit us during office hours. (li-2). to come with administrative-based challenges, an instructor reported that because these students join the course without placement tests, “it’s very difficult to compare different level[s of] students in the same classroom” (li-2). the shift to three semesters has led to a mismatch between the materials to be covered and the allocated time for a class session. an instructor reported that there is a “shortage of time and we have to cover so much syllabus” (li-2). another instructor stated that he faces the challenge of “poor attendance, especially during ramadan” (li-1). one instructor reported that “we have issues beyond our class or beyond our control like admission criteria this time” (li2). he added that “within this semester, since three semesters we started. it’s very difficult, i tell you, to finish the syllabus and to orient the students to the exam pattern than to focus on the learning outcomes than to focus on the learning demand” (li-2). an instructor showed that learning materials are another challenge that needs to be tailored with students’ level where “the materials seem not interesting for them. there is a big gap between the learning materials and students’ level“(li-1). this issue is supported by another instructor who stated that “the book that we are using and when we look at the level of the students so there is a big gap” to the point that” we should form a bridge course for that” (li-2). as course retakers, they either come with no textbooks or with reading answered textbook “they don’t bother about [bringing the textbooks] and they don’t make any effort to comprehend any paragraph” (li-2). for family-associated challenges, some students have part-time jobs where “some students have their work, or they work with their family” (li-1). such practice leads to “inadequate afterclass reading or lack of revision” (li-1) the same instructor showed that students join the class after sleepless nights where “many students come late to class because of little sleep; they used to say the phrase “i’m taiban” which politely means that i didn’t sleep well, especially during ramadan” (li1). another family challenge is related to students’ distant places where “some students came from distant places” (li-1). in line with the second research question, a model to enhance efl reading can be generated, table 3. table 3. dimensions of remedial reading model research question descriptive category sub-category (source of data) a bridging model to enhance efl reading course retaking intended learning outcomes (los) los are signed contracts among the parties (course specifications) los are assessed through exams (course report). exam-oriented teaching strategies exam-oriented teaching (focused group discussion) anchored activities (focused group discussion) exposure to a variety of question types (focused group discussion) simplifying the learning materials use of simple words (focused group discussion; course report) use of simple sentences (focused group discussion) use of adaptive materials (focused group discussion) contextualized vocabulary (focused group discussion) technology-assisted reading use of a smartphone inside the class for blackboard activities (focused group discussion) flipped blackboard discussion (focused group discussion) motivational strategies use of background knowledge (course report) activities tailored to students’ level (focused group discussion) personalized learning (focused group discussion) abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 354 as table 3 shows, five pillars need to work together for a remedial reading course to be effective. as reported by one of the instructors “learning outcomes are the contract between the deanship, language instructors and students, and they revolve around three domains: knowledge, skills and values” (course report). while the deanship and instructors aim to achieve the intended learning outcomes mainly through exams as a direct method, students need to get high marks through exams which are shaped by the learning outcomes (course report). however, one instructor implied that the difficulty level of the exams does not go in line with the learning outcomes where “the exam we are making [is] very easy…. we are trying our best to make the exam easy, but even then you see the performance of the student is not good. that is a very big challenge” (li-2). the same instructor expressed his dissatisfaction with students’ performance in the exam “i’m not very much satisfied with that [students’ performance in the exams], but we have to because the students are too poor” (li-2). he attributed such practice to the students’ level “if we make a standard exam, they won’t be able to qualify. but even then, they are not doing well in the exam” (li-2). exam-oriented teaching strategies are another important pillar in a remedial reading course. as course retakers, students’ comprehension skills were very weak. subsequently, students “should be given more time to practice reading” (course report). it is also suggested that “exam-oriented (washback) teaching methods, teaching tools, teaching materials, should be updated and made compatible to learning processes” (course report). another instructor reported that students need to be prepared for the exam. he stated that course retakers “most of the time don’t understand the questions” in the exam paper. accordingly, “they can’t write the answer. that is the big issue”. he further suggested that they “need more variety of questions” (li-2) during their classes. this claim is supported by another instructor who stated that “weak students need revisions because sometimes we need to repeat many times to let them understand easily and to encourage them to involve them in situation in activities, whatever this i think it will be helpful for students” (li-3). another instructor supported this kind of washback effect. he stated: whatever we teach, we teach from the examination point of view. of course, i am sure that most of the teachers try the same way we try to expose different types of questions… we keep in mind that these students have to score good marks. we try to expose them to quizzes through progress tests and e-assignments” (li-2). furthermore, conducting quizzes after each unit or topic can help reinforce learning and provide students with a sense of accomplishment. by orienting them through different types of questions similar to those asked in exams, students become more confident in their understanding of the material. another dimension of remedial reading is to simplify the reading materials. teachers need to consider the level of their students and “tailor activities” (li-5). one instructor reported that “simplified materials relevant to students” would “make reading fun” (li-6). another instructor argued that such simplification could be at the gradual levels: “simple vocabulary”, “simple sentences” and “simple paragraphs” (li-4). another instructor suggested “contextualized vocabulary” where “we can use simple words” (li1). another instructor expressed the effectiveness of “reading strategies, like skimming and scanning” which are helpful for students to “find the answers quickly.” (li-2). technology-assisted reading is another important pillar for effective remedial reading. a language instructor (li-3) states that utilizing various types of technology can make language learning more engaging and enjoyable for course retakers. the same instructor suggested developing “learning materials throughout the blackboard to enhance reading skills” (li-3). another instructor reported that he “ask[s] them [students] some questions in the discussion forum”, an interactive feature of blackboard. in so doing, he “put[s] one or two or three questions” (li-4) to be followed up in the next classroom. finally, motivational strategies are of great importance for successful remedial reading. one effective external motivation strategy is to incorporate “examples as often as possible” (li3). by providing real-life examples, students can better understand and relate to the content they are reading. when the researcher asked the language instructors to put themselves on the students’ feet and to express their learning demands, a language instructor highlighted issues of simplicity “explain abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 355 things simply”, and “use examples and explain them”, teaching pace “teach at a speed that is not too fast, not too slow”, repetition “repeat things”, teaching processes “teach things to step by step”, allocating more time for classroom activities; i.e. to “give enough time for practice” and “go over difficult exercises” (li-1). this personalized approach ensures that students are appropriately challenged and motivated in their languagelearning journey. vi. discussion in line with the research questions, the results are discussed. in response to the first question, the study found that the micro and macro challenges are associated with efl course retaking. these challenges are multifaceted, affecting students, instructors, families, and administrative processes. as for the micro-challenges (jenks, 2020), language instructors struggle with demotivation, time constraints, and language barriers, particularly when they are non-arabic speakers. course retakers face challenges such as time constraints, low proficiency levels, the need for strategies that incorporate their l1, demotivation, an examdriven mindset, lack of engagement during office hours, and insufficient exposure to english. some students are demotivated because the learning materials do not match the students’ proficiency level. these findings push educational institutions, say universities in this situation, to minimize all these barriers that constrain students’ and teachers’ motivation in the learning process. these findings align with some studies (e.g., alghamdi & siddiqui, 2016; almekhlafy & alqahtani, 2020; al othman & shuqair, 2013; takase & otsuki, 2012) who reported similar reasons for getting students to retake a course. the findings also coincide with those of abío et al. (2019), kim (2009), and adghar et al. 2023) who reported that course retakers are demotivated and lack confidence in themselves. likewise, salmona madriñan (2014) and bhooth et al. (2014) found that using l1 in teaching efl students increases their comprehension and facilitates the learning process. macro challenges, the second type, are beyond the classroom boundaries (jenks, 2020). families contribute to maximize these challenges by dealing with their own time constraints, balancing work and study, enduring sleepless nights, and living in distant locations. from an administrative perspective, challenges include time constraints, a mismatch between intended learning outcomes and students’ abilities, inadequate learning materials, the absence of placement tests, lack of english exposure, and inappropriate admission criteria that do not take into consideration the english proficiency level of the enrolled students. these findings raise some reasons that should have been prevented by the family and institutional administration. whenever these challenges are taken into consideration, it is hoped that the number of course retakers will be minimized. these findings agreed with adghar et al.(2023) who considered that the unalignment of course los with students’ ability as well as the enrollment criteria are beyond some students’ inability to pass the course. furthermore, this finding is also confirmed by hsu and chen (2007), and hu and hsu (2020) who called for diagnostic assessments, teaching methods, and simplified materials to develop thai efl students’ primary skills, and strategies to engage and motivate course retakers. likewise, extracurricular activities are suggested to solve macro challenges as found by urmston (2003) who reported that extracurricular activities help in developing the english of hong kong students where they can practice at home. in response to the second question, a bridging model has been generated through an integration of various elements to enhance efl remedial reading (figure 2). as figure 2 shows, learning outcomes should be clearly defined and aligned with the specific reading skills and competencies that students need to develop. motivational strategies should be employed to engage students in their reading tasks and create a positive reading environment. in so doing, learning demands should be taken into consideration, such as students’ prior knowledge, language proficiency level, and cultural background. technology-assisted reading can further enhance reading skills by providing interactive activities, adaptive materials, and immediate feedback. additionally, simplified learning materials can be used to make the reading texts more accessible and comprehensible for efl readers. finally, exam-oriented teaching strategies can also be incorporated to help students become familiar with the nature and requirements of the reading exams. by understanding these demands as bendak (2018) suggested, teachers can tailor their instruction to meet the course retakers’ needs. by integrating abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 356 these various components into a bridging model, efl remedial readers can effectively improve their reading abilities while also developing essential reading skills for academic success. the proposed model coincides with several scattered calls in the existing studies. technologyassisted reading coincides with similar calls to integrate technology in efl reading (hazaea, & alzubi, 2018). language instructors can adapt some of dörnyei’s (2001) suggested motivational strategies and find those that work with their classes. similarly, eno (2019) outlined various tools and procedures for remedial teaching, such as diagnosis, material preparation, motivation, addressing learning deficiencies, and helping struggling students succeed. yulian et al. (2022) highlighted the importance of incorporating inclusive language learning in the context of english language teaching and higher education in indonesia. qian (2008) proposed teachers imply strategies and allocate time which help shift the classroom towards students’ centeredness. huang (2010) showed that remedial programs were effective, with significant improvements in grammar and vocabulary learning. the selfdeveloped learning materials met the students’ needs. the program also moderately enhanced students’ learning motivation. in line with the present findings, huang suggested that adaptive materials were effective with course retakers. finally, remedial programs at an early stage would be of great value at schools rather than at the while-college programs. in line with this implication, luoch (2014) concluded that a figure 2. bridging model to efl reading course retaking remedial program would be of great value at school “instead of overburdening university education with unnecessary remediation” (p. 1187). the study has some practical implications for course retakers, language instructors, administration, and retakers’ families. as for course retakers, the underutilization of office hours presents a missed opportunity for them to enhance their reading skills. many of these students face challenges due to poor english proficiency, which hinders their comprehension and class participation. a significant issue is the reluctance of these students to communicate their difficulties or ask questions, even when they struggle to understand the material. reducing absenteeism is critical for improving their learning outcomes. in terms of language instructors, it is essential to actively motivate students, adjust the teaching pace to match students’ levels, and simplify materials to aid comprehension. instructors should engage in reflective practices to identify and address areas needing improvement in remedial classes, provide individualized support, integrate technology such as the blackboard, and conduct continuous assessments to trace student progress and provide feedback. for administration, learning outcomes should align with students’ proficiency levels, and materials should be adapted to meet their needs. admission criteria need to stipulate an english proficiency level, and placement tests need to be conducted. a two-semester academic calendar could be more effective than a tri-semester one. additional support and orientation should be provided to newcomers to aid their adjustment. families also play a crucial role in reducing abduljalil nasr hazaea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 357 absenteeism, ensuring students are prepared and committed to their studies, improving study habits, and helping manage responsibilities alongside academic commitments. lastly, assisting students in adapting to new academic routines and addressing issues like sleep deprivation and exhaustion due to family problems is essential for students’ success. this study has some limitations. this qualitative study examined efl remedial reading from the perspective of language instructors and document analysis. the findings are limited to this study and context. future studies could employ quantitative tools such as a survey to evaluate the course retakers’ experiences in remedial reading. the proposed model opens the door for further action research in remedial studies. for example, future research could investigate the impact of specific motivational strategies on course retakers’ outcomes. with the advent of ai technology, language instructors could investigate the effectiveness of technology-assisted remedial reading in terms of motivating students and using adaptive learning materials and assessment methods in the saudi efl context and beyond. v. conclusion this study identified the micro and macro challenges manifested in retaking a remedial reading course during the shift to three semesters in a preparatory year program at a saudi university. it also proposed a remedial efl reading model that addresses those challenges. in so doing, grounded theory was employed to thematically analyze the content of the course specifications, course report, and a focused group discussion with experienced language instructors. the study reported several challenges associated with course retakers, administrators, and families of the retakers. for effective remedial reading courses, the study called language instructors to adapt motivational strategies that encourage course retakers to achieve remedial learning outcomes. in so doing, they can go through motivational strategies, find those that work with a class, simplify the content of the teaching materials, devote time for blackboard activities inside the classroom, promote anchor activities, and continuous assessment. the study also urged that academic advising needs to reach students in places such as near cafeterias or corridors. the study emphasized the importance of orientation sessions at the beginning of the course. diagnostic tests are also important for personalized learning. accordingly, the study generated a bridging remedial reading model to enhance retaking an efl reading course. it integrates five dimensions for an effective remedial program: learning outcomes, motivational strategies, technology-assisted reading, simplified materials, and exam-oriented teaching strategies. ethics statement this study confirms that the relevant informed consent was obtained from the subjects and the university research ethics committee approval number 202406-076-021161-048454 dated 4/6/2024. declaration of competing interests the author declares that he has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abío, g., alcañiz, m., gómez-puig, m., rubert, g., serrano, m., stoyanova, a., & vilalta-bufí, m. 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(2022). efl slow learners’ perception in speaking with authentic multimedia assisted language learning. international journal of language education, 6(2), 183195. mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 323 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 18, 2023 final revision: december 27, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this study examines the classification and function of toponyms to reveal the local knowledge of sundanese people in the western bandung-north area. this research uses anthropological linguistic theory. the data of this research are lexicon in toponyms based on local knowledge in the western bandung-north area. the data is sourced from several community components consisting of village elders and ordinary people. the study incorporates four methods for data collection, which are participant observation, participatory conversation observation, interviews, and documentation. these techniques are chosen based on their ability to gather comprehensive, accurate, and reliable data. the results show that there are five classifications of toponyms, namely (1) hydrologicalbiological characteristics, (2) hydrological-state characteristics, (3) geomorphological-biological characteristics, (4) geomorphological-state characteristics, and (5) state characteristics. this research also shows that the lexicon in toponyms in the western bandung-north area portrays the closeness of humans to nature, humans to humans, and humans to their god. in addition, sundanese people in the western bandung-north area also have local knowledge about ethnoecology, which is recorded in the toponyms in the area. this local knowledge of ethnoecology has benefits as an effort to maintain the terrestrial ecosystem, which is one of the pillars of environmental development in the context of the sustainable development goals (sdgs). keywords anthropological linguistics, bandung, local knowledge, sundanese, toponyms correspondence e-mail: mahmud_fasya@upi.edu article revealing local knowledge of sundanese people of toponyms in the western bandung-north area mahmud fasya1, eri kurniawan2, jatmika nurhadi3, undang sudana4, dini gilang sari5, rahmawati6 1-4faculty of language and literature education, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia 5-6faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.323-337.2023 i. introduction in language and cultural studies, toponyms are distinctive linguistic facts. toponyms hold prayers, ideals, love, and hope (yotsumoto, 2020, p. 2158). toponyms are not just words or sets of words but also descriptions of a country’s characteristics (randall, 2001, p. 4). everett-heath (2000) reveals that toponyms are a country’s history windows. in addition, jordan (2020, p. 2038) explains that toponyms characterize the cultural structure and character of the people. thus, it means that toponyms are not chosen arbitrarily. toponyms capture the closeness of humans to their natural surroundings. in other words, toponyms can describe human activities with the surrounding nature (jordan, 2020; lay, chen, wu, huang, & chuang, 2019; randall, 2001). basso (1988, p. 3) mentions that toponymy is a study that reveals many things, such as language, people’s values and beliefs, environment, economy, and history, because these linguistic elements reflect the fundamental relationship between people and the places where they live and reflect their knowledge of the area. in addition, post (2020, p. 689) explains that people can use toponyms to express their needs. toponyms are divided into natural and cultural names (ainiala, saarelma, & sjöblom, 2016, pp. 23–24). natural names are divided into topographic names and hydronyms, such as swamp and lake. meanwhile, cultural names are divided into settlement and cultivation names, such as mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 324 village and field. these cultural names should be based on local knowledge. naming is a form of cultural preservation and respect (braden, 2020; herman, 1999). unfortunately, people today tend to recognize no longer local knowledge recorded in toponyms. toponyms can record the local knowledge of a community and the cultural functions of that community. ainiala et al. (2016, p. 19) argue that the cultural functions of toponyms include preservation of traditions and beliefs, reminders of things that have happened in the place, and maintenance of social order. by maintaining a connection with the past, toponyms based on local knowledge can also help preserve community identity and cultural heritage. several previous researchers have researched toponyms. first, wirasanti (2018) discusses toponyms and the identity of the canggal temple area from an ecolinguistic perspective. the results of her research show that toponyms in the canggal temple area are based on environmental elements, such as biological elements, nonbiological elements, and charismatic elements of figures. in addition, this research also shows a cultural transformation that occurs in the canggal temple area related to the socio-cultural life of the community. second, triana et al. (2022) studied the toponyms of the west coast of sumatra island. the results of their research show that toponyms on the west coast of sumatra island reflect the relationship between humans and their natural environment. the relationship can be seen through the thematization of toponyms, which is based on the embodiment aspect, which includes water background, topography background, and natural environment background; a social aspect, which includes settlement background, economic background, activity background, and building background; a cultural aspect which includes myths, folklores, and legends passed down from generation to generation. third, syamsuddin et al. (2023) discussed palu toponyms and their relation to natural hazards from an ethnosemantic perspective. the results showed that the toponyms of urban villages in palu contain eclectic meanings. the toponyms consist of four parts, namely biological aspects, geomorphological aspects, historical aspects, and socio-cultural aspects. these toponyms are generally dominated by plant names (flora). these toponyms show that the kaili tribe names places based on local vegetation. based on previous research, there are three trends in the study of toponyms. first, toponym studies are based on an ecolinguistic perspective in the context of cultural transformation. second, toponym studies to map toponym thematization chronologically based on the corpus linguistics approach. third, a toponym study based on an ethnosemantic perspective reveals the meaning of toponyms. meanwhile, research on toponym classification integrated with toponym function from an anthropological linguistic perspective has yet to be conducted comprehensively. thus, anthropological linguistic studies on the classification and function of toponyms to reveal the local knowledge of sundanese communities in the western bandung-north area are important and interesting to conduct. ii. method this research uses anthropological linguistic theory (foley, 1997, 2001, 2016). the study of toponyms in the western bandung-north area is conducted in a limited linguistic context and in a broader socio-cultural context to sustain cultural practices (foley, 2001). methodologically, the anthropological linguistic approach in the study of toponyms uses a communication ethnography model. this ethnography of communication focuses on the following frame of reference: the formation of toponyms in a culture lies not merely in the language itself but in how the concept of toponyms is communicated (hymes, 1980). duranti (1997, p. 85) argues that ethnographic model research describes the social organization, symbolic and material resources, and interpretive practices typical of a particular group. this research utilized ethnographic qualitative methods (muhadjir, 1996; spradley, 1980). thus, the researcher was directly involved in socializing with indigenous people in the western part of the bandung-north area. this method obtained an emic perspective on the culture under study. in addition, there was an attempt to achieve tacit knowledge. this research uses four data collection methods, namely (1) participant observation method, (2) involved conversation observation method, (3) interview method, and (4) documentation method. this research data comes from using toponyms in mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 325 the western part of the bandung-north area. the lexicon data is sourced from several community components consisting of village elders and ordinary people. the data of this research are lexicons in toponyms based on local knowledge in the western part of the bandung-north area. in ethnographic research, two procedures are commonly carried out when analyzing data, namely (1) analysis during data presentation and (2) analysis after data collection (miles & huberman, 1984, pp. 21–25; muhadjir, 1996, p. 150). furthermore, miles & huberman (1984, pp. 21–25) explained that the procedure during data presentation is divided into three stages, namely (1) data reduction, (2) data presentation, and (3) conclusion drawing/ verification, which is tentative to be verified. the analysis procedure after data collection is divided into four stages, namely (1) transcription of recorded data; (2) grouping or categorizing data from the transcription of recordings or notes based on physical aspects and social aspects of toponyms based on local knowledge; (3) interpretation of local knowledge values contained in toponyms in the western bandung-north area; (4) conclusions about toponym patterns based on local knowledge in the western bandung-north area. iii. result and discussion lexicon classification in toponyms in the west bandung-north area toponyms can describe human activities with the surrounding nature (jordan, 2020; lay et al., 2019; randall, 2001). usually, toponyms are classified based on their characteristics (abdikhalikovna, 2020). these characteristics include four aspects: biological, geomorphological, historical, and socio-cultural (syamsuddin et al., 2023; triana et al., 2022; wirasanti, 2018). in the context of this research, there are five classifications of the lexicon in toponyms in the western north bandung area, namely (a) hydrologicalbiological characteristics, (b) hydrological-state characteristics, (c) geomorphological-biological characteristics, (d) geomorphological-state characteristics, and (e) state characteristics. classification of toponyms based on hydrological-biological characteristics the research findings show that all lexicons in toponyms with hydrological-biological characteristics are polymorphous and categorized as nouns. the lexicon with hydrological characteristics data lexicon hydrological characteristics biological characteristics 1 cipeusing ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun peusing ‘trenggiling’ pangolin noun 2 situ lembang situ ‘danau’ noun lembang ‘rumput besar’ lesser bulrush noun 3 cibadak ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun badak ‘badak’ rhino noun 4 cibolang ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun bolang ‘sejenis talas’ taro noun 5 cihanjuang ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun hanjuang ‘andong’ cordyline fruticosa noun 6 walungan gandasoli walungan ‘sungai’ river noun gandasoli ‘gandasuli’ ginger lily noun 7 cileungsing ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun leungsing ‘lintah kecil’ small leech noun 8 cimanggu ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun manggu ‘manggis’ mangosteen noun table 1. classification of toponyms based on hydrological-biological characteristics mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 326 is the main element that dominates the formation of toponyms. meanwhile, lexicons with biological characteristics tend to be explanatory elements in forming toponyms. the biological lexicon contains two categories, namely animal and plant elements, as shown in table 1. data 1 contains the lexicon cipeusing. the lexicon cipeusing refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cipeusing combines the word ci and the word peusing. the word ci in the lexicon cipeusing is an abbreviation. the word is a contraction of the word cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word peusing means ‘pangolin’. based on its physical aspect, the cipeusing lexicon is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci is a hydrological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the peusing lexicon includes biological characteristics. the cipeusing lexicon shows the link between the name of the place and the character of the animal (fauna) in the place. the cipeusing lexicon is a place name as a water source where there are peusing animals. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and animals or fauna. data 2 contains the lexicon situ lembang. the lexicon situ lembang refers to the lake’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon situ lembang combines the word situ and the word lembang. the word situ means ‘lake’. meanwhile, the word lembang means ‘big grass’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon situ lembang combines hydrological and biological characteristics. the word situ includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon lembang includes biological characteristics. the lexicon situ lembang shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. the lexicon situ lembang is the name of a place as a water source with lembang plants. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and plants or flora. data 3 contains the lexicon cibadak. the lexicon cibadak refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cibadak combines the word ci and the word badak. the word ci in the lexicon cibadak is an abbreviation. the word ci is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word badak means ‘rhino’. based on its physical aspect, the cibadak lexicon is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci is a hydrological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon badak includes biological characteristics. the lexicon cibadak shows the link between the place name and the character of the animal (fauna) in the place. the lexicon cibadak is a place named as a water source, an area for wallowing for rhinos. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about managing water and animals or fauna. data 4 contains the lexicon cibolang. the lexicon cibolang refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cibolang combines the word ci and the word bolang. the word ci in the lexicon cibolang is an abbreviation. the word ci is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word bolang means ‘a type of taro’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon cibolang is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon bolang is a biological characteristic. the cibolang lexicon shows a link between the place name and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon cibolang is the name of a place where bolang plants grow. based on the cibolang lexicon, sundanese people know water management and plants or flora. data 5 contains the lexicon cihanjuang. the lexicon cihanjuang refers to the name of the village in parongpong sub-district. the lexicon cihanjuang combines the word ci and the word hanjuang. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cihanjuang is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word hanjuang means ‘andong’. based on its physical aspect, the cihanjuang lexicon is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the hanjuang mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 327 lexicon includes biological characteristics. the cihanjuang lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the plants (flora) in the place. the lexicon cihanjuang is the name of a place as a water source with hanjuang plants. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and plants or flora. data 6 contains the lexicon walungan gandasoli. the lexicon walungan gandasoli refers to the river’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon walungan gandasoli is a combination of two words, namely the word walungan and the word gandasoli. the word walungan means ‘river’. meanwhile, the word gandasoli means ‘ginger lily’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon walungan gandasoli combines hydrological and biological characteristics. the word walungan is a hydrological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the gandasoli lexicon includes biological characteristics. the walungan gandasoli lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the plants (flora) in the place. the walungan gandasoli lexicon is the name of a place as a water source with a gandasoli plant. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and plants or flora. data 7 contains the lexicon cileungsing. the lexicon cileungsing refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon cileungsing combines two words, namely the word ci and the word leungsing. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cileungsing is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word leungsing means ‘small leech’. based on its physical aspect, the cileungsing lexicon is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the leungsing lexicon includes biological characteristics. the cileungsing lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the animals (fauna) in the place. cileungsing lexicon is the name of a place as a water source with leungsing animals. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and animals or fauna. data 8 contains the lexicon cimanggu. the lexicon cimanggu refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon cimanggu combines the word ci and the word manggu. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cimanggu is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word manggu means ‘mangosteen’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon cimanggu is a combination of hydrological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon manggu includes biological characteristics. the cimanggu lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the plants (flora) in the place. the lexicon cimanggu is a place name as a water source with a manggu plant. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management and plants or flora. classification of toponyms based on hydrological-state characteristics the research findings show that all lexicons in hydrological-state toponyms have polymorphic forms. the noun and adjective categories dominate the lexicons in these toponyms, while the noun and verb categories have only one lexicon each. lexicons with hydrological characteristics are the main elements that dominate the formation of toponyms. meanwhile, lexicons characterized by circumstances tend to be explanatory elements in forming toponyms. table 2 contains the classification of these lexicons. data 9 contains the lexicon cimahi. the lexicon cimahi refers to the waterfall’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cimahi combines the word ci and the word mahi. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cimahi is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word mahi means ‘sufficient’. the lexicon cimahi is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon mahi includes a state characteristic. the cimahi lexicon shows the link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon cimahi is a water source area that can provide irrigation for residents. thus, sundanese people mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 328 data lexicon hydrological characteristics state characteristics 9 cimahi ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun mahi ‘cukup’ sufficient adjective 10 cilayung ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun layung ‘lembayung’ mauve light noun 11 cibodas ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun bodas ‘putih’ white adjective 12 cimeta ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun meta ‘bergerak’ move verb 13 lebak gede ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun gede ‘besar’ big adjective 14 cihaliwung ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun haliwung ‘keruh’ murky adjective 15 citiis ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun tiis ‘dingin’ cold adjective 16 cigugur ci (cai) ‘air’ water noun gugur ‘gemuruh’ rumble adjective 17 cihideung lebak ‘sungai’ river noun hideung ‘hitam’ black adjective table 2. classification of toponyms based on hydrological-state characteristics have local knowledge about water management. data 10 contains the lexicon cilayung. the lexicon cilayung refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cilayung combines the word ci and the word layung. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cilayung is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word layung means ‘mauve light’. the lexicon cilayung is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon layung includes a state characteristic. the cilayung lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon cilayung is an area as a water source covered with purple when viewed from a distance in the afternoon. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 11 contains the lexicon cibodas. the lexicon cibodas refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cibodas is formed from a combination of the word ci and the word bodas. the word ci is classified as an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cibodas is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word bodas means ‘white’. however, the word bodas can mean ‘clear’ in this context. the lexicon cibodas is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci is a hydrological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon bodas include a state characteristic. the cibodas lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon cibodas is a clear water source area. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 12 contains the lexicon cimeta. the lexicon cimeta refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon cimeta combines the word ci and the word meta. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cimeta is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 329 sub-district. the lexicon citiis combines the word ci and the word tiis. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon citiis is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word tiis has the meaning of ‘cold’. the lexicon citiis is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon tiis includes a state characteristic. the lexicon citiis shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon citiis is a water source area where the water feels cold. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 16 contains the lexicon cigugur. the lexicon cigugur refers to a place name in parongpong sub-district. the lexicon cigugur combines the word ci and the word gugur. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cigugur is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word gugur means ‘rumble’. the cigugur lexicon is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon gugur is included in the characteristics of the situation. the cigugur lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the cigugur lexicon is a water source area whose water thunders like lightning. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 17 contains the lexicon cihideung. the lexicon cihideung refers to a place name in parongpong sub-district. the lexicon cihideung combines the word ci and the word hideung. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cihideung is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word hideung means ‘black’. the lexicon cihideung is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon hideung includes a state characteristic. the meanwhile, the lexicon meta means ‘move’. the lexicon cimeta is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the meta lexicon includes a state characteristic. the cimeta lexicon shows the connection between the place name and the situation in the place. the cimeta lexicon is a water source area where the water moves or flows. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 13 contains the lexicon lebak gede. the lexicon lebak gede refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon lebak gede is a combination of the word lebak and the word gede. the word lebak means ‘river’. meanwhile, the word gede means ‘big’. the lexicon lebak gede is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word lebak includes hydrological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon gede is a characteristic of the situation. the lexicon lebak gede shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in that place. the lexicon lebak gede is a large water source area. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 14 contains the lexicon cihaliwung. the lexicon cihaliwung refers to a place name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon cihaliwung is a combination of the word ci and the word haliwung. the word ci is an abbreviation. the word ci in the lexicon cihaliwung is a contraction of cai, which means ‘water’. meanwhile, the word haliwung means ‘murky’. the lexicon cihaliwung is a combination of hydrological characteristics and state characteristics. the word ci is a hydrological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of water. meanwhile, the lexicon haliwung includes a state characteristic. the lexicon cihaliwung shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon cihaliwung is a water source area where the water is murky. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. data 15 contains the lexicon citiis. the lexicon citiis refers to a place name in parongpong mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 330 cihideung lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon cihideung is a water source area that still looks black or dark because it is lush and foggy. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about water management. classification of toponyms based on geomorphological-biological characteristics the research findings show that all lexicons in geomorphologically-biologically characterized toponyms are polymorphic and categorized as nouns. the geomorphologically characterized lexicon is the main element that dominates the formation of toponyms. meanwhile, lexicons with biological characteristics tend to be explanatory elements in forming toponyms. the biological lexicon contains two categories, namely animal and plant elements. the classification of these toponyms is provided in table 3. based on table 3, data 18 contains the lexicon pasir calung. the lexicon pasir calung refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon pasir calung combines the word pasir and the word calung. the word pasir means ‘hill’, while the word calung or ki calung means ‘diospyros macrophylla’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon pasir calung combines geomorphological and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word calung is a biological characteristic. the calung lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon pasir calung is the name of the place where ki calung grows. based on the lexicon pasir calung, sundanese people know the management of land and plants or flora. data 19 contains the lexicon pasir kuda. the lexicon of pasir kuda refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon of pasir kuda combines the word pasir and the word kuda. pasir means ‘hill’, while kuda means ‘horse’. based on its physical aspect, the pasir kuda lexicon combines geomorphological and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word kuda is included in the biological characteristics. the pasir kuda lexicon data lexicon geomorphological characteristics biological characteristics 18 pasir calung pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun calung ‘ajang kelicung’ diospyros macrophylla noun 19 pasir kuda pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun kuda ‘kuda’ horse noun 20 pasirranji pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun ranji ‘asam keranji’ dralium indian noun 21 pasir kuntul pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun kuntul ‘kuntul’ egret noun 22 pasir haur pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun haur ‘bambu’ bamboo noun 23 pasir embe pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun embe ‘kambing’ goat noun 24 pasir huni pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun huni ‘buni’ antidesma bunius noun 25 tegallaja tegal ‘ladang’ field noun laja ‘lengkuas’ galangal noun table 3. classification of toponyms based on geomorphological-biological characteristics mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 331 shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the animal (fauna) in the place. thus, the pasir kuda lexicon is a place name as a place of life for horses. based on the lexicon of pasir kuda, sundanese people know the management of land and animals or fauna. data 20 contains the lexicon pasirranji. the lexicon pasirranji refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon pasirranji combines the word pasir and the word ranji. the word pasir means ‘hill’, while the word ranji means ‘dralium indian’. based on its physical aspects, the pasirranji lexicon combines geomorphological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word ranji is included in the biological characteristics. the pasirranji lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon pasirranji is a place name as a tamarind plantation area. based on the pasirranji lexicon, sundanese people know the management of land and plants or flora. data 21 contains pasirkuntul lexicon. pasirkuntul lexicon refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon pasirkuntul combines the word pasir and the word kuntul. pasir means ‘hill’, while kuntul means ‘egret’. based on its physical aspect, the pasirkuntul lexicon combines geomorphological and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word kuntul is included in the biological characteristics. the pasir kuntul lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of animals (fauna) that exist there. thus, the lexicon pasirkuntul is a place name as an area dominated by herons or white storks. based on the pasirkuntul lexicon, sundanese people know the management of land and animals or fauna. data 22 contains the lexicon pasir haur. the lexicon pasir haur refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon pasir haur combines the word pasir and the word haur. the word pasir means ‘hill’, while the word haur means ‘bamboo’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon of pasir haur is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word haur is included in the biological characteristics. the pasir haur lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon pasir haur is a place name as an area dominated by bamboo or haur plants. based on the pasir haur lexicon, sundanese people know the management of land and plants or flora. data 23 contains the lexicon pasir embe. the lexicon pasir embe refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon pasir embe combines the word pasir and the word embe. pasir means ‘hill’, while embe means ‘goat’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon of the pasir embe is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word embe is a biological characteristic. the pasir embe lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the animals (fauna) in the place. thus, the lexicon pasir embe is a place name as an area for herding goats. based on the lexicon pasir embe, sundanese people know the management of land and animals or fauna. data 24 contains the lexicon pasir huni. the lexicon of pasir huni refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon pasir huni combines the word sand and the word huni. the word pasir means ‘hill’, while the word huni means ‘antidesma bunius’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon of pasir huni is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and biological characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word huni is included in the biological characteristics. the pasir huni lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon pasir huni is a place name as a buni plantation area. based on the lexicon of pasir huni, sundanese people know the management of land and plants or flora. data 25 contains the lexicon tegallaja. the mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 332 lexicon tegallaja refers to the village’s name in ngamprah sub-district. the lexicon tegallaja combines the word tegal and the word laja. the word tegal means ‘field’, while the word laja means ‘galangal’. based on its physical aspect, the lexicon tegallaja combines geomorphological and biological characteristics. the word tegal is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the word laja is included in the biological characteristics. the tegallaja lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of plants (flora) in the place. thus, the lexicon tegallaja is a place name as a galangal plantation area. based on the tegallaja lexicon, sundanese people know the management of land and plants or flora. classification of toponyms based on geomorphological-state characteristics the research findings show that all lexicons in geomorphological-state toponyms have polymorphic forms. the noun and adjective categories dominate the lexicon in these toponyms, while the noun and verb categories have only one lexicon each. lexicons with hydrological characteristics are the main elements that dominate the formation of toponyms. meanwhile, lexicons characterized by circumstances tend to be explanatory elements in forming toponyms. table 4 shows the classification of these toponyms. data 26 contains the lexicon pasirhalang. the lexicon pasirhalang refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon pasirhalang combines the word pasir and the word halang. the word pasir means ‘hill’. meanwhile, the word halang means ‘latitude.’ the lexicon pasirhalang is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and state characteristics. the word pasir includes geomorphological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the halang lexicon includes a state characteristic. the pasir halang lexicon shows a link between the place name and the situation in the place. the pasirhalang lexicon is a highland area positioned across the cisarua sub-district. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about land management. data 27 contains the pasir kuning lexicon. the pasir kuning lexicon refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the pasir kuning lexicon combines the word pasir and the word kuning. the word pasir has the meaning of ‘hill’. meanwhile, the word kuning means ‘yellow.’ the pasir kuning lexicon is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and state characteristics. the word pasir includes geomorphological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the kuning lexicon is a state characteristic. the pasir kuning lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the pasir kuning lexicon is a highland area that looks yellow because of the sunset in the afternoon. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about land management. data 28 contains the pasirlangu lexicon. the lexicon pasirlangu refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon pasirlangu is the word pasir and the word langu. the word pasir data lexicon geomorphological characteristics state characteristics 26 pasirhalang pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun halang ‘lintang’ latitude noun 27 pasir kuning pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun kuning ‘kuning’ yellow adjective 28 pasirlangu pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun langu ‘bau tidak sedap’ unpleasant odor adjective 29 pasir malang pasir ‘bukit’ hill noun malang ‘melintang’ crosswise verb table 4. classification of toponyms based on geomorphological-state characteristics mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 333 means ‘hill’. meanwhile, langu means ‘unpleasant odor.’ the lexicon pasirlangu is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and state characteristics. the word pasir is a geomorphological characteristic because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the langu lexicon is a state characteristic. the pasir langu lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in the place. the lexicon pasirlangu is a highland area planted with tobacco, resulting in an unpleasant smell of tobacco. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about land management. data 29 contains the lexicon of pasir malang. the pasir malang lexicon refers to the village’s name in parongpong sub-district. the lexicon pasir malang combines the word pasir and the word malang. the word pasir has the meaning of ‘hill’. meanwhile, the word malang has the meaning of ‘crosswise’. the lexicon pasir malang is a combination of geomorphological characteristics and state characteristics. the word pasir includes geomorphological characteristics because it is a place name related to the contour or character of the land. meanwhile, the malang lexicon includes a state characteristic. the pasir malang lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the situation in that place. the lexicon pasir malang is a highland area positioned across the parongpong sub-district area. thus, sundanese people have local knowledge about land management. classification of toponyms based on state characteristics the research findings show that all lexicons in toponyms characterized by the state have polymorphic forms. the lexicons in these toponyms are dominated by the adjective category, while there are only two lexicons each in the noun and verb categories. lexicons characterized by the state become the central element in forming toponyms. table 5 shows the classification of these toponyms. data 30 contains the sindangsari lexicon. the sindangsari lexicon refers to the name of the village in cisarua sub-district. the sindangsari lexicon combines the words sindang and the word sari. the word sindang means ‘stopover’, while the word sari means ‘beautiful’. based on the social aspect, the sindangsari lexicon is a place name characterized by circumstances. the word sindang and the word sari show the characteristics of the situation because they portray the socio-cultural activities of the community. the sindangsari lexicon shows a link between the place name and the sociocultural character of the people in the place. thus, because of its beautiful panorama, the sindangsari lexicon is a toponym for a stopover location. based on the sindangsari lexicon, it can be seen that sundanese people know regional and sociocultural management. data 31 contains the lexicon pondok melong. the lexicon pondok melong refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon pondok melong combines the word pondok and the word data lexicon state characteristics 30 sindangsari sindang ‘singgah’ stopover verb sari ‘menarik’ beautiful adjective 31 pondok melong pondok ‘pendek’ short adjective melong ‘menatap’ stare verb 32 kertawangi kerta ‘sejahtera’ prosperous adjective wangi ‘harum’ fragrant adjective 33 tugumukti tugu ‘tugu’ monument noun mukti ‘makmur’ prosper adjective 34 karyawangi karya ‘pekerjaan’ work noun wangi ‘harum’ fragrant adjective table 5. classification of toponyms based on state characteristics mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 334 melong. the word pondok means ‘short’, while the word melong means ‘stare’. based on its social aspect, the lexicon of pondok melong is a place name characterized by circumstances. the word pondok and the word melong show the characteristics of the situation because they portray the socio-cultural activities of the community. the pondok melong lexicon shows a link between the name of the place and the character of the place. thus, the lexicon pondok melong is a place name with limited visibility due to the thick fog. based on the pondok melong lexicon, sundanese people know regional and socio-cultural management. data 32 contains the lexicon kertawangi. the lexicon kertawangi refers to the name of the village in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon kertawangi is a combination of the word kerta and the word wangi. the word kerta means ‘prosperous’, while wangi means ‘fragrant’. based on its social aspect, the lexicon kertawangi is a place name characterized by circumstances. the word kerta and the word wangi show the characteristics of the situation because they portray the socio-cultural activities of the community. the kertawangi lexicon shows a link between the place name and the sociocultural character of the people in the place. thus, the lexicon kertawangi is a place name that contains prayers and hopes that the community will prosper and the place name will be fragrant. based on the kertawangi lexicon, it can be seen that sundanese people know regional and sociocultural management. data 33 contains the lexicon tugumukti. the lexicon tugumukti refers to the village’s name in cisarua sub-district. the lexicon tugumukti combines the word tugu and the word mukti. the word tugu means ‘monument’, while the word mukti means ‘prosper’. based on its social aspect, the lexicon tugumukti is a place name characterized by a state. the word tugu and the word mukti show the characteristics of the situation because they portray the socio-cultural activities of the community. the tugumukti lexicon shows a link between the place name and the socio-cultural character of the people in the place. thus, the tugumukti lexicon is a place name that contains prayers and hopes that the community will be prosperous and prosperous. based on the tugumukti lexicon, it can be seen that sundanese people know regional and socio-cultural management. data 34 contains the lexicon karyawangi. the lexicon karyawangi refers to the village’s name in parongpong sub-district. the lexicon karyawangi combines the word karya and the word wangi. the word karya means ‘work’, while the word wangi means ‘fragrant’. based on its social aspect, the lexicon karyawangi is a place name characterized by circumstances. the word karya and the word wangi show the characteristics of the situation because they portray the socio-cultural activities of the community. the karyawangi lexicon shows a link between the place name and the socio-cultural character of the people in the place. thus, the lexicon karyawangi is a place name that contains prayers and hopes that the community always working and creating to make the village proud. based on the karyawangi lexicon, it can be seen that sundanese people know regional and sociocultural management. the function of lexicon in toponyms in the west bandung-north area toponyms have the function of verbalizing cultural signs and actualizing them as associative relationships that are cultural and historical in the mind of a society (ryzhkova, 2020). in addition, toponyms also show insight into the identity and ideology applied to a region (alasli, 2019). in the context of this research, there are two functions of the lexicon in toponyms in the western bandungnorth area, namely the function of self-identity and the function of the local knowledge system. self-identity function based on the description of the lexicon in toponyms in the western part of bandung-north area, which includes ngamprah sub-district, cisarua sub-district, and parongpong sub-district, it can be seen that toponyms in the area reflect the self-identity of sundanese people. according to wierzbicka (1992, p. 7), language reflects human conceptualization and interpretation of the world. furthermore, wierzbicka (1997, p. 4) explains that language reflects society’s distinctive way of life and thinking and provides invaluable clues to understanding its culture. in the context of sundanese society, the lexicon mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 335 in toponyms in the western bandung-north area can provide an overview of the sundanese people’s collective view of their world (fasya, 2011) (fasya, 2011). the sundanese worldview contains various things about humans as individuals, humans with society, humans with nature, humans with god, and humans pursuing outward progress and inner satisfaction (garna, 2008, p. 187; warnaen et al., 1987, pp. 164–165). the sundanese view of life forms the sundanese self-identity as a human being who always tries to maintain harmony between humans and humans, humans and nature, and humans and their god (fasya, 2011). the principle of harmony is reflected in the lexicon of toponyms in the western bandung-north area. first, the principle of human harmony with nature is recorded in toponyms with hydrological, geomorphological, and biological characteristics. examples are the lexicons cibadak, cimanggu, pasir haur, and pasir embe. the hydrological characteristic in these examples is in the element ci or cai. the geomorphological characteristic is present in the element pasir. meanwhile, biological characteristics are present in the badak and embe elements representing the fauna category. in addition, biological characteristics are also present in the elements manggu and haur, which represent the flora category. thus, these examples show a harmonious relationship between humans, especially sundanese people, and nature, including land, water, animals, and plants. second, the principle of harmony between humans and humans is recorded in toponyms characterized by circumstances. the lexicon examples are sindangsari and pondok melong. the characteristics of the situation in both examples are present in the elements of sindang and melong. the elements of sindang and melong capture the socio-cultural activities of sundanese people who always maintain harmony and togetherness with fellow humans. for sundanese people, sindang and melong activities are indeed relational and interpersonal. thus, both examples show the existence of harmonious relations between humans and humans in sundanese society. third, the principle of human harmony with god is also recorded in the toponymy that characterizes the situation. the lexicons are kertawangi, tugumukti, and karyawangi. the characteristics of the situation in these examples are present in the elements kerta, wangi, mukti, and karya. these elements capture the socio-cultural activities of sundanese people who always maintain harmony with their god. for sundanese people, these elements are prayers, hope for achieving outward progress, and inner satisfaction. thus, the three examples show a harmonious relationship between man and god in sundanese society. function of local knowledge system based on the description of the lexicon in toponyms in the western bandung-north area, which includes ngamprah sub-district, cisarua sub-district, and parongpong sub-district, it can be seen that toponyms in the area reflect the local knowledge system of sundanese people. this local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the traditions of regional, customary or local communities (majumder, 2017; moore, 2022). in the context of sundanese society, this local knowledge is recorded in toponyms with hydrological, geomorphological, and biological characteristics. toponyms with hydrological, geomorphological, and biological characteristics record local knowledge of ethnoecology. ethnoecology expresses the relationship between humans and nature, including land, water, plants, animals, and marine ecosystems (curran & napoleon, 2020, p. 270). for example, the lexicons cipeusing and cibolang record sundanese local knowledge about water management that is integrated with animal and plant management. in addition, the lexicons pasir calung and pasir kuntul record sundanese local knowledge about land management integrated with animal and plant management. thus, sundanese people have ecological awareness recorded in the toponym lexicon. in addition, this toponym lexicon also contains sundanese local knowledge about the principle of zoning in spatial planning to manage harmonious relations between humans and nature. through this principle, sundanese people show their ecological awareness by sharing living space between themselves and the surrounding nature. thus, the toponym lexicon, which has hydrological characteristics, geomorphological characteristics, and biological characteristics, is in line with the main focus of maintaining the terrestrial ecosystem, which is one of the pillars of environmental development in the context of the sustainable development goals (sdgs). mahmud fasya / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 336 references abdikhalikovna, k. f. 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(2023). an ethnosemantic study of palu toponym and its association with natural hazards. journal of english language teaching and linguistics, 8(1), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v8i1.1010 triana, h. w., kustati, m., nelmawarni, n., & reflinaldi, r. (2022). west coastal toponyms of sumatra island: a corpus linguistics study. okara: jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 16(1), 90–108. https://doi. org/10.19105/ojbs.v16i1.6163 warnaen, s., djiwarpradja, d., wibisana, w., adimihardja, k., sukmana, n. h., & rostoyati, o. (1987). pandangan hidup orang sunda: seperti tercermin dalam tradisi lisan dan sastra sunda. bandung: bagian proyek penelitian dan pengkajian kebudayaan sunda (sundanologi), direktorat jenderal kebudayaan, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. wierzbicka, a. (1992). semantics, culture, and cognition: universal human concepts in culturespecific configurations. new york: oxford university press. wierzbicka, a. (1997). understanding cultures through their key words: english, russian, polish, german, and japanese. new york: oxford university press. wirasanti, n. (2018). toponyms and identity of canggal temple area in eco-linguistics perspective. in prasasti: international conference on recent linguistics research (vol. 166, pp. 213–216). https://doi.org/10.2991/prasasti-18.2018.39 yotsumoto, y. (2020). place names and natural disasters in japan. in s. d. brunn & r. kehrein (eds.), handbook of the changing world language map2 (pp. 2157–2172). switzerland: springer nature switzerland ag. r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 49 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 17, 2024 final revision: march 11, 2024 accepted: march 13, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 this qualitative descriptive study aims to explore the pragmatic significance of rarely researched javanese silly gags. the primary objective is to examine the markers and implications of these gags in daily communication, particularly focusing on their various categories. utilizing social media fragments as the primary source, the research employs the note-taking method for listening. subsequent steps include the identification, classification, and characterization of javanese silly gags into five distinct categories: (1) silly jokes for enthusiasm, (2) silly jokes for sarcasm, (3) silly jokes for satire, (4) silly jokes for exasperation, and (5) silly jokes for enigmatic humor. the equivalent analysis method is then applied, specifically using contextual equivalents through a comparative linking technique for in-depth data analysis. the emphasis on context is considered a crucial factor in conducting purpose-oriented pragmatic studies. the analysis reveals valuable insights into the diverse functions of javanese silly gags, showcasing their significance in daily communication. the identified categories provide a comprehensive understanding of how these gags serve various purposes, from expressing enthusiasm to conveying sarcasm, satire, exasperation, and enigmatic humor. the social media fragments prove to be rich sources for uncovering the nuances of javanese silly gags and their markers. the findings of this study shed light on the multifaceted nature of javanese silly gags, highlighting their importance in preserving a unique form of humor. the study emphasizes the potential threat posed by the younger generation’s lack of comprehension. it underscores the need to preserve and understand javanese silly gags in the evolving landscape of communication. overall, this research contributes to the broader understanding of pragmatic aspects in javanese humor, emphasizing the cultural and communicative significance of these often-overlooked forms of expression. keywords correspondence e-mail: rahardi.kunjana@gmail.com article javanese silly gags on daily communication on social media: pragmatic meanings and functions approach 1,4sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia 2universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 3universitas pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.49-59.2024 i. introduction there has not been much research on silly gags in javanese. however, javanese people often use silly gags in daily communication, interaction, and conversation. the lack of adequate research on this subject threatens the sustainability of humor as the younger generation no longer understands this concept well (bischetti et al., 2021; yeo & mckasy, 2021; rahardi, 2022). the challenges of applying language rules and use that lack full documentation to the younger generation. unestablished rules risk fading over time. therefore, the study of a “silly gag” or joke adopts a culture-specific pragmatic perspective. in indonesian, “silly gags” denote highly amusing or ticklish content expressed humorously and entertainingly. this term signifies material that induces laughter and joy, highlighting its elevated humor level (burger, 2022; kong et al., 2019; setyaningsih & rahardi, 2020; putra et al., 2021). it should be emphasized further that the term silly gags may vary depending on context meanings and functions, silly gags, cyberpragmatic perspectives, javanese r. kunjana rahardi1, handoko handoko2, wahyudi rahmat3, yuliana setyaningsih4 r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 50 and individual preference. one person’s view of something as a joke can be different from the views of other people. judging the cuteness and humor of something can be very subjective, depending on personal taste and experience. therefore, attention to context and sensitivity to others is very important when using silly gags. what one person finds funny may not be funny or even offensive to another (jiang et al., 2019; lau et al., 2022; tiawati et al., 2022; rahardi et al., 2023). in addition, inappropriate situations can also cause different interpretations of jokes between speakers and listeners. respecting the different perceptions and sensitivities of others is important to ensure good communication and mutual respect for all parties involved. this study not only contributes theoretically to understanding silly gags as a form of humor in pragmatic studies but also offers practical value by introducing a new conceptual framework for humor research. the insights gained can benefit the development of pragmatic learning in tertiary institutions, particularly in language or linguistics majors. the research identifies silly gags as a humorous form, aiming to evoke laughter, joy, and amusement. humor encompasses anecdotes, funny situations, puns, ironies, and parodies, with individual preferences varying. whether enjoying physical humor or witty jokes, people find humor in cultural differences, absurd situations, and misunderstandings (chernobrov, 2022; h. shin et al., 2023; shoda & yamanaka, 2022; kartika et al., 2023). different types of humor, like sarcasm and dark humor, appeal to some individuals but not to others (rahardi, 2018). humor serves various purposes in people’s lives, from relieving stress to strengthening social connections, fostering a positive mood, and assisting in navigating challenging situations. many use humor as a tool for light communication and interaction, conveying messages or criticisms without creating shock or burden. in language practice, employing humor wisely becomes crucial, taking into account the context and feelings of others. what one person finds amusing might not resonate with another if the context is amiss. additionally, using humor requires respecting boundaries to avoid causing offense or hurting others’ feelings. humor, when applied without considering the context, can lead to frustration and discomfort for the other party (faisol & rahmat, 2021; eisend, 2022; saricali et al., 2022; mulyaningsih et al., 2022). frequent engagement in humor, whether in casual or serious settings, may lead to the perception of a lack of understanding in the essence of communication and interaction. drawing upon various theories, including the incongruence theory, release theory, superiority theory, cognitive theory, and social adaptation theory, these explanations shed light on the phenomenon of humor. incongruence theory, proposed by psychologists like sigmund freud, suggests that humor emerges from a clash between expectations and reality in everyday social interactions. release theory, developed by freud, posits that humor serves as a release mechanism for venting negative emotions. superiority theory, by bergson and adler, explains humor as arising from a feeling of superiority. cognitive theory argues that humor results from complex cognitive processes, where conflict resolution leads to comedic outcomes. social adaptation theory asserts that humor functions as a tool for social adaptation, fostering cooperation and relieving tension in various communities. these theories collectively contribute to understanding the multifaceted nature of humor in diverse social contexts (setyaningsih & rahardi, 2019; bischetti et al., 2021; bitterly, 2022). in the dynamic realm of pragmatic studies, humor stands out as a focal point of inquiry. pragmatics, delving into the intricacies of language use in social settings, explores communication objectives, situational dynamics, and the intended impacts. within this domain, the investigation of humor entails deciphering its role as a communicative tool, unraveling how it is comprehended by listeners, and discerning its influence on social interactions (kong et al., 2019; luevano et al., 2021). the nuanced facets of humor in pragmatic research encompass the examination of initial contexts and shared assumptions, with an emphasis on the significance of contextual understanding and shared knowledge. moreover, humor emerges as a vital form of speech act in pragmatic studies, featuring prominently in satirical, teasing, or tension-relieving interactions. the violation of cooperative principles, as articulated by paul grice, is another avenue of exploration within pragmatics, where humor strategically breaches these principles for comedic effect. investigating the impact of humor on conversational fluency, pragmatic studies shed light on how humor contributes to the smooth r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 51 flow of communication, alleviating tension and fostering an environment conducive to interaction. in this pragmatic approach, the intricate interplay between humor, context, and social dynamics is meticulously analyzed, elucidating how individuals interpret, respond to, and navigate humor across diverse contexts (crandall & basturkmen, 2004; rooij, 2004; rahardi, 2023; sultan et al., 2023). in the vibrant realm of pragmatic studies, context spans diverse facets crucial to the communication process, encompassing physical, social, linguistic, and pragmatic dimensions (harley, 2013; kachru & smith, 2008; streeck, 1984; rahardi & setyaningsih, 2019). firstly, physical context immerses us in the tangible environment where communication unfolds, entailing considerations of location, time, and situational factors (maruti, 2022). secondly, social context delves into interpersonal dynamics, social hierarchies, roles, and norms, shaping communication both horizontally and vertically within relationships and broader societal structures (halim & zulfahmi, 2023). thirdly, linguistic context unveils the language intricacies—word choices, sentence structures, and conventions—offering vital cues for comprehending communication purposes (sari et al., 2021). suprasegmental aspects, integral to understanding speech, gain prominence, especially in the multimodal realm of cyberpragmatics (pristianingrum & damayanti, 2022). lastly, pragmatic context unfurls information pertaining to communication objectives, speaker intentions, and shared assumptions, guiding how messages are perceived and deciphered (scott-phillips, 2015). personal or communal assumptions, rooted in individual or societal backgrounds, shape the pragmatic context, underlining the importance of contextual awareness for accurate message interpretation (harley, 2013). in the intricate tapestry of pragmatics, contextual nuances play a pivotal role in unveiling communication’s true intent, determining speech acts, and unraveling potential implicatures (scottphillips, 2015). despite the emphasis on context, misinterpretations or loss of intended meaning can still occur in communication and interaction (wincana et al., 2022). hence, adeptly grasping and navigating context proves indispensable for effective communication within the realm of pragmatics. context in pragmatics exhibits either conventional or virtual properties, with the former entwined with societal, cultural, and situational factors and the latter confined to digital realms like online media and social platforms (baralou & tsoukas, 2015; y. s. shin et al., 2021; wälti et al., 2019). the emergence of cyberpragmatics zooms in on the virtual extralinguistic contexts, encompassing digital spaces and online platforms where communication unfolds, spanning text messaging, video chat, social media, and specially crafted virtual environments (fominykh et al., 2011). several crucial aspects demand our attention (rahardi, 2019a, 2019b). firstly, the identity of this virtual terrain hinges on the diverse platforms or media employed for communication, spanning instant messaging apps, websites, social media, and dedicated virtual realms (díaz-pérez, 2013; pearson, 2012). social media and online platforms serve as rich data sources within this expansive virtual tapestry. secondly, the communication landscape within virtual environments unfolds through a melange of text and multimodal elements, involving images, videos, emojis, stickers, and sound, each contributing to the intricate dance of message comprehension (díazpérez, 2013; pearson, 2012). navigating the virtual external context presents challenges in conveying nonverbal expressions such as facial cues, body language, and voice intonation, underscoring the need for additional efforts to clarify intent and emotion (rahardi, 2019a, 2019b). furthermore, the global connectedness inherent in this context involves interactions with individuals from diverse cultural, geographic, and linguistic backgrounds, emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural nuances and fostering cross-cultural sensitivity (cesaria et al., 2023). anonymity becomes a potent factor, allowing individuals in virtual extralinguistic contexts to maintain hidden identities, impacting communication styles and interactions (cesaria et al., 2023). hence, a nuanced understanding of virtual contexts proves indispensable for effective communication in digital or cyberspace, demanding awareness of communication boundaries, norms, and conventions specific to these environments (yingxuan et al., 2023). within the realm of internet pragmatics, various facets demand attention. language style, a hallmark of online communication, involves deciphering abbreviations, emoticons, slang, and distinctive r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 52 phrases, requiring a departure from traditional figurative language analyses (kurniasih et al., 2019; rahardi, 2020; putri et al., 2023). norms, rules, and conventions in online communication, encompassing brevity, response times, emojis, hashtags, and etiquette, fall under scrutiny in internet pragmatics (díaz-pérez, 2013; pearson, 2012). analysis of speech acts and adherence to cooperation principles, mirroring grice’s maxims, delves into how messages are transmitted, received, and interpreted online (díaz-pérez, 2013; pearson, 2012). moreover, internet pragmatics examines the construction and expression of self-identity in online realms, acknowledging the malleability of identities and the impact on information presentation (rahardi, n.d., 2021; yus, 2011). the landscape of online communication, rife with limitations in nonverbal expressions and contextual information, breeds misunderstandings and conflicts, prompting a closer examination of contributing factors and strategies for resolution (rahardi, n.d., 2021; yus, 2011). in conclusion, the evolving landscape of online communication and the internet underscores the burgeoning significance of pragmatics in this context. internet pragmatics emerges as a linchpin, unraveling the dynamics of online communication, averting misunderstandings, and fostering effective interaction in the digital realm. ii. method this research on silly gags in javanese is of a qualitative descriptive type. this research does not require the presence of quantitative computations because the aim is not to test the truth of the hypothesis with statistical calculations. instead, its qualitative descriptive research focuses on describing research findings to be used as meaningful principles for further research (pflaeging et al., 2021; richards & rodgers, 2006). the data of this research are excerpts of social media utterances that contain silly gags to describe the joke markers and the pragmatic meanings of the silly gags. the source of substantive data for this research is snippets of text on social media on various platforms containing silly javanese gags. data was collected by listening to texts containing silly gags. the technique applied in the context of implementing the listening method is the notetaking technique. from the results of these records, identification, classification, and data typification are then carried out. the stages of data collection stopped after finding the types of data resulting from the classification and typification of the data. the data that has been typed is then tabulated to be triangulated with the relevant experts. the triangulation step in qualitative research is important because only with the implementation of the step is the uni research data ready for analysis. the data analysis method applied is the equivalent analysis method, especially contextual equivalents. the technique applied in the context of applying the equivalent method is the comparative linking technique, especially the equivalent method (morgan, 2014; science et al., 2017). the tool used to compare data is context, bearing in mind that context occupies a central and decisive role in intent-oriented pragmatic studies. in this analysis stage, meaning and interpretation are carried out on the data that has been classified, typified, and triangulated, as mentioned above. iii. result this research has produced the following research findings: (1) silly gags to raise enthusiasm, (2) silly gags to convey sarcasm, (3) silly gags to convey satire, (4) silly gags to express frustration, (5) silly gags to convey enigmatic humor. in the following sections, each of these findings is described individually. silly gags to raise enthusiasm data 1. javanese english mbiyen dolan nganti lali mangan saiki golek pangan nganti lali dolan used to play and forget to eat, now looking for food and forget to play source: lazada.co.id in data 1 contains a silly gag with the sentence “mbiyen dolan nganti lali mangan, saiki golek pangan nganti lali dolan” (used to play and forget to eat, now looking for food and forget to play). this sentence is humorous and intends to r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 53 show one’s enthusiasm for work and put aside unproductive actions. as adults, they often feel the need to struggle to provide for themselves and their families. especially if their job is not good enough to support their family, they must work hard to overcome economic problems. such a thing was seldom thought of when young, and their daily activities were often useless. when young people play with their peers, they often forget themselves, even to the point of ignoring the meaning of life. therefore, the silly gag in data 1 is meant to show enthusiasm for working hard. the visual aspect in the form of a red match and a hand holding a white envelope as a symbol for money or income shown in the data strongly supports the delivery of the silly gag. silly gags to convey sarcasm data 2. that as a silly gag, using sarcasm can often lead to misunderstandings or worsen things if not used properly. therefore, paying attention to the context and understanding the audience before using sarcasm in communication is important. for example, in data 2, a speech with a humorous dimension reads, ‘ora perlu meri karo uripe liyan. wong ki mung wang sinawang. sing keterone seneng during mesti asline seneng, sing keterone susah jebule tenan.’ this form of language in indonesian means, ‘tidak perlu iri hari pada hidupnya orang lain. orang itu hanya saling memandang. yang kelihatanya senang belum tentu sebenarnya senang, yang kelihatannya susah ternyata betul-betul sudah.’ this speech contains a silly gag that functions as a sarcastic intent device. silly gags to convey satire data 3. javanese english ora perlu meri karo uripen liyan wong ki mung wang sinawang sing keterone seneng during mesti asline seneng sing keterone susah jebule tenan no need to interfere with others’ business they only remember the name what they see is happiness as long as they are happy what they see is difficult extremely difficult source: instragram.com sarcasm is a language style that uses satire or ridicule to express the opposite of what is said. usually, sarcasm is used to convey messages or comments that aim to criticize or ridicule something or someone subtly. for example, using intonation, facial expressions, or distinctive body language can indicate that what was said was not meant literally but as a form of satire or ridicule. in addition, sarcasm is often used to convey disapproval, dissatisfaction, or disappointment indirectly. however, it’s important to remember javanese english golek loker gajine 98 jt lulusan sd looking for a job with a salary of 98 million for elementary school graduates. source: instragram.com satire is a genre of artistic expression that employs irony, sarcasm, or mockery to convey a sense of discontentment with the inadequacies or lack of awareness present within a given society, political system, or cultural milieu. the objective is to employ satire or humor to critique societal or behavioral concerns engagingly to promote analytical thinking and transformation. satire employs rhetorical devices such as hyperbole, irony, paradox, or language contrary to its true intent to achieve a humorous effect and convey dissatisfaction or criticism of the subject matter. satire is a prevalent element in diverse artistic expressions, including but not limited to literature, r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 54 drama, cartoons, comedy, and other media. satire serves as a mechanism for communicating crucial messages, exposing concealed realities, or censuring policies or behaviors considered inappropriate or nonsensical. satire can incite critical thinking and instigate societal transformation through ironic language or clever ridicule. it is crucial to remember that the interpretation of satire is subjective and may vary among individuals. the perception and evaluation of satire may be subject to the influence of an individual’s cultural, societal, or personal perspectives. in data 3, a silly gag expression intends to convey satire: “golek loker gajine 98 jt lulusan sd.” this utterance in indonesian means, “mencari lowongan kerja dengan gaji 98 juta lulusan sekolah dasar.” which was responded by saying, “nguras neroko” whose meaning is “menguras neraka”. this form of language is satire. this linguistic form shows the meaning of impossibility. this satire reminds people to stop assuming in their lives and advises them to be real people. hoping for something unattainable in life is wrong because it will only bring disappointment. data 4. obat sakit kepala, dan tekanan batin”. a silly gag, which is used to convey the meaning of conveying satire, is intended to remind everyone that wrong association and behavior can bring great regret. it’s not even strange that the person he loved so much could eventually become a formidable enemy in his life. things like reverse direction very dramatically if people are not careful in attitude and behavior in life with each other. silly gags to express frustration data 5. javanese english ohwadon pancen asu obat segala penyakit mengurangi beban orang tua, obat sakit kepala, dan tekanan batin oh women are dogs cure for all diseases easing the burden on parents, relieving headaches, and mental pressure. source: twitter.com/jawafess/ likewise, in data 4, the humorous meme on twitter social media is a form of satire that uses a photo of a certain figure in detention. netizens edited the photo with the title “ohwadon pancen asu” which means “oh perempuan memang anjing”, as if it looks like a certain headache medicine. the next utterance that contains silly gag, means satire in the form of “mengurangi beban orang tua, javanese english tamu wajib lapo what guests are required to do in data 5, a sign below reads “tamu wajib lapo.” in the javanese dialect of east java, the word “lapo” means “ngapain”. thus, in indonesian, the meaning of the writing on the board is, “tamu wajib melakukan apa?”. this invites the humor of someone who expresses his annoyance in the form of a joke on his twitter social media account with the caption “yo gak ngerti cok, kok takon aku” which has the connotation of confusion accompanied by humor due to a typo. in other words, this silly gag expresses frustration due to being unclear. many announcements and attention boards in public spaces are conveyed with ambiguity. in certain cases, these things can be regarded as an annoying problem. the jokes are intended to remind everyone that messages should be conveyed clearly so they are not ambiguous and confusing. especially in the public sphere during political years like today, ambiguity and unclear information can trigger hate speech. the following data can be examined further to interpret silly gags to express thissilly gags to convey enigmatic humor. source: twitter.com/sfardiansyah r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 55 underlying assumptions. humor can be contingent upon comprehending the contextual factors and mutual preconceptions between the interlocutors in certain instances. therefore, a comprehensive comprehension of humor frequently necessitates a mutual understanding of common experiences, societal principles, and presumptions. pragmatic studies investigate the significance of contextual factors and initial assumptions in utilizing and comprehending humor. the topic of discussion is speech acts. humor can be regarded as a significant form of speech act within the framework of pragmatic studies. the pragmatic investigations center on the role of humor as a speech act within the communication realm. during social interactions, individuals may use humor to satirize, tease, ridicule, criticize, or alleviate tension, among other purposes. pragmatics is a field of study that examines the utilization of humor as a communicative mechanism that impacts social interactions and elicits a particular response from the interlocutor. (3) breach of the principles of cooperation. within the field of pragmatics, there exists a theoretical framework about the transgression of the cooperative principle, which paul grice formulated. the cooperative principle theory posits that effective communication necessitates adherence to certain principles of cooperation, including but not limited to quantity, quality, relevance, and manner. nevertheless, these principles are transgressed within humor to attain a comical or clever outcome. pragmatic studies investigate how humor is utilized to achieve humorous objectives by manipulating or violating established principles. the impact on conversational fluency. humor plays a significant role in pragmatics by impacting an individual’s conversational fluency and social engagement within their community or society. pragmatic investigations delve into how humor can impact the flow of discourse, encompassing its potential to alleviate stress and foster an environment that promotes seamless communication and interaction. through a pragmatic lens, scholars may examine the utilization of humor in daily discourse and its impact on interpersonal communication. furthermore, pragmatics analyzes how individuals comprehend and react to humor in diverse situations. in pragmatic studies, context pertains to many elements and data that co-occur with communication, and their presence can impact data 6: source: kwai.com javanese english organ tubuh manusia, ngarep e k mburine l human body organs, hoping from k return to l. humor is not always easy to catch. in understanding it, special efforts must be linked to several aspects so that the understanding does not go astray. first, such types of jokes are enigmatic and not simple to interpret. for example, in a television program, it is told that a woman is helping her sister answer an enigmatic question. the question is, “organ tubuh manusia, ngarep e k mburine l”. something that becomes the focus of humor in this speech is the woman’s out-of-thebox answer, namely “kempol” which in indonesian is called “betis”. this humor is enigmatic because what most people guess is usually referring to male genitalia. even then, the answer is ‘kempol’, a joke many people do not expect. the unsuspectingness of such answers makes humor funny, and humor is enigmatic. iv. discussion humor is a subject of research that receives significant attention in the realm of pragmatic studies. pragmatics research endeavors to comprehend the use of language by individuals in social settings, encompassing communication objectives, situational contexts, and intended outcomes. within the present context, examining humor in pragmatic studies entails investigating the utilization of humor as a mechanism for communication, the appropriate comprehension and interpretation of humor by recipients, and the impact of humor on social interaction. this is evidenced by the scholarly works of kong et al. (2019) and luevano et al. (2021). the research about humor in pragmatic studies may concentrate on the following aspects, as suggested by crandall and basturkmen (2004) and rooij (2004): the present discourse establishes the initial context and r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 56 the comprehension and construal of the conveyed message. the significance of contextual factors in comprehending the semantic content conveyed through spoken or written expressions is a crucial aspect that cannot be disregarded. proper execution of pragmatic interpretation or speaker intent is contingent upon considering the context. v. conclusion certain forms of humor, such as sarcasm and dark humor, may be well-suited to certain individuals while being ill-suited to others. humor serves various purposes in an individual’s life, such as alleviating stress, enhancing interpersonal connections, fostering a positive emotional state, and facilitating coping with intricate, challenging, and demanding circumstances. humor is commonly employed by individuals as a means of communication and social interaction, allowing for conveying messages or criticisms in a lighthearted manner that avoids creating a jarring or onerous impression. the prudent utilization of humor is a crucial aspect of language proficiency, particularly regarding the sensitivity and circumstances of others. the perception of humor is subjective and contextual, as what may elicit amusement for one individual may not necessarily evoke the same response in another. the current investigation has produced the following research findings: (1) comical quips intended to enhance enthusiasm, (2) comical quips intended to convey sarcasm, (3) comical quips intended to convey satire, (4) comical quips intended to express frustration, (5) comical quips intended to convey enigmatic humor. the current research is limited by a limited number of authentic data sources obtained from social media. in the realm of extensive research, it is possible to enhance the quantity of research data to aid in the discernment of the import and intention of intricate humorous anecdotes. as aforementioned, the researcher aims to investigate this subject matter to rectify its inadequacies in its execution. furthermore, researchers interested in analyzing comical anecdotes from a culture-specific pragmatic perspective are advised to investigate further. this will facilitate a more all-encompassing comprehension of the significance and purpose of pragmatics in forthcoming humorous jests. references baralou, e., & tsoukas, h. 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(2011). cyberpragmatics, internet-mediated communication in context (a. fetzer, ed.; 1st ed.). john benjamin publishing company. https://benjamins.com olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 360 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 27, 2023 final revision: december 24, 2023 accepted: december 30, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this paper delves into the linguistic representation of environmental and human degradation in helon habila’s “oil on water,” a novel that interrogates the socio-ecological impact of oil exploration in nigeria’s niger delta. by employing critical discourse analysis and the appraisal framework, the study exposes how language not only reflects but also shapes the perceived reality of ecological destruction and social conflict. the analysis highlights how linguistic strategies in the novel depict the multifaceted relationship between the indigenous communities, the nigerian government, and multinational oil companies, presenting a landscape marred by exploitation and marginalization. the research identifies the use of vivid descriptive language, metaphor, and narrative perspective to evoke a sensory experience of the niger delta’s plight. it illustrates the oil companies and government as neocolonial actors, revealing a complex interplay of power dynamics where the local population is trapped in a cycle of violence and ecological devastation. habila’s work emerges as a form of literary militancy, advocating for social and ecological justice through a portrayal of the niger delta’s disrupted social structures and ravaged ecosystems. through a close reading of “oil on water,” the paper argues that literature serves as a potent tool for environmental advocacy, with the potential to influence public perception and policy. habila’s narrative technique and linguistic choices function as a call to action, aligning with ecocritical discourses that prioritize environmental sustainability and community autonomy. the study underscores the critical role of language in environmental literature, demonstrating its capacity to engage readers and prompt reflection on the urgent issues of ecological degradation and human suffering. keywords helon habila, oil on water, environmental degradation, environmental advocacy, oil exploration correspondence e-mail: olarotimiogungbemi@gmail.com article literature as resistance: the pragmatics of ecological advocacy in ‘oil on water’ by helon habila olarotimi ogungbemi1 under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.360-370.2023 i. introduction “the blood of the dead ran in the rivers, and the water was so saturated with blood that the fishes died.… the land was so polluted that even the water in the wells turned red. (helon habila’s oil on water, 129) this study scrutinizes the intersection of language, literature, and environmental crisis in the niger delta of nigeria, a region long embattled by ecological degradation and social conflict due to oil prospecting activities (iheka 2021).historical accounts trace the onset of this degradation to the early 20th century with the nigeria bitumen corporation and subsequent expansive operations by shell-bp (steyn 2009; ejobowah 2000). these activities, often resulting in irreversible damage to the local ecology and livelihoods, have disrupted human settlements and decimated flora and fauna and led to a profound destabilization of aquatic ecosystems (afinotan and ojakorotu 2009). uncompensated and largely ignored, the plight of the niger delta has incited various forms of resistance (eyinla and ukpo 2006; afinotan and ojakorotu, 2009). this resistance bifurcates into violent and nonviolent streams—the former epitomized by armed militancy and the latter by cultural expressions that vividly articulate the region’s environmental and human suffering (iheka 2021). egya (2017) introduces the concept 1university of texas at san antonio, uniited states olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 361 of “literary militancy” to describe how cultural productions—music, film, literature—become instruments of advocacy and defense for the region’s aggrieved communities and landscape. helon habila’s “oil on water” (2011) stands out as a literary piece that confronts the exploitation and marginalization perpetrated by oil corporations and the nigerian state. through his narrative, habila unveils the obscured realities of oil politics and the multilayered exploitation in the niger delta (habila 2011). while “oil on water” has attracted lots of scholarly attention, there remains a lacuna in the linguistic investigation of the text. the present study intends to fill this lacuna. the pivotal questions guiding this investigation are: how does the language of “oil on water” reflect and construct the realities of the niger delta crisis? in what ways do linguistic choices in the novel reveal the complex relationships between the nigerian military, militants, local communities, and the environment? can a deeper linguistic and socio-cultural analysis of the text enhance our comprehension of the crises’ multifaceted nature? by anchoring the analysis in african ecocriticism, petrol fiction, and the role of literature in environmental advocacy, this article aims to illuminate the nuances of ecological discourse within nigerian literature. employing critical discourse analysis and the appraisal framework, the study dissects the cultural politics of language and representation within “oil on water.” this linguistic methodology reveals the complex network of significations and exegeses encompassing the niger delta predicament, thereby enhancing our comprehension of the sociopolitical and environmental narratives interwoven within the text. the methodology commences with an overview of african ecocriticism and petrol fiction within nigeria’s literary realm, highlighting literature’s pivotal role in environmental discourse. it then transitions to a focused linguistic and socio-cultural examination of “oil on water,” unraveling the layered representations of the crisis. the present study aims to illustrate how language can aid our comprehension of the niger delta crisis. the discovery of oil in nigeria in 1958 marked a watershed moment, positioning the nation as a key player in the global energy market. however, this boon was shadowed by ecological and environmental repercussions. shell, commanding a 47 percent stake in nigeria’s oil industry, has historically aligned with government forces, leading to the exploitation of the ogoni peoples’ lands and resulting in severe oil spills that have ravaged the environment. robyn dixon highlights these spills as catastrophic, contributing to the niger delta’s distinction as one of the most polluted places on earth (2011). the united nations corroborated this dire assessment in 2011, citing over seven thousand oil spills in the region from 1970 to 2000. such environmental neglect by multinational corporations and nigerian governments spurred the niger delta’s inhabitants to protest against this de facto environmental warfare, which has eroded both the land and the spiritual fabric of their community. ken saro-wiwa, a vanguard in this movement, was executed for his outspoken criticism against the environmental desecration of the niger delta (1992). his death did not quell the resistance; instead, it evolved into more militant and sometimes violent tactics against the petroleum industry, as chronicled by byron caminero-santangelo (2014). amidst this backdrop, scholarly attention has turned towards ecocriticism, particularly within the african context. ecocriticism explores nature’s representation in literature, intersecting literary works with environmental concerns. eminent scholars like douglas, monsul, iheka, and egya have delved into african ecocriticism, which addresses the portrayal of natural phenomena like floods, climate change, and biodiversity in literature. sule egya contends that african ecocriticism is emerging as a distinct field, informed by the continent’s unique natural, cultural, and social dimensions, especially those in sub-saharan africa (2020). african ecocriticism is gaining momentum, with works such as iheka’s “naturalizing africa” and okuyade’s “eco-critical literature” highlighting the literary discourse’s growing sophistication. this branch of criticism intertwines ecological poetry and fiction with anthropological narratives, emphasizing the interconnection of the natural and human realms that is distinctive to african understanding (egya, 2020). helon habila’s “oil on water” exemplifies the genre of petrol fiction, a term coined by amitav ghosh in 1992. this literary domain scrutinizes the intricate relationship between oil and literature, reflecting on the societal impacts of petroleum. petrol fiction has come to encompass narratives that address olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 362 the devastating dependency on fossil fuels and envision futures beyond oil dependence. habila’s novel vividly portrays the human and ecological toll of multinational oil companies’ operations in the niger delta, aligning with the ecocritical ethos that contends with the consequences of a petroeconomy (macdonald). as african ecocriticism and petrol fiction continue to develop, they provide vital platforms for engaging with the environmental and social challenges posed by the exploitation of natural resources. literature, in this vein, not only critiques the present but also paves the way for imagining a more sustainable and equitable future. environmental crises have emerged as pressing themes in contemporary literature, offering a resonant platform for advocacy and awareness. within african narratives, this resonance is particularly profound as works grapple with the continent’s pressing ecological challenges. helon habila’s “oil on water” epitomizes the literary articulation of environmental issues, spotlighting the oil exploitation crisis that beleaguers the niger delta and its people. this narrative serves not only as a reflection of the marginalized and impoverished peoples of the delta but also as a critical voice against the environmental degradation they endure (abianji-menang, 2021). the history of environmental degradation in the niger delta is a tale of marginalization, exploitation, and socio-ecological upheaval (watts, 1995; pirzadeh, 2021). multinational oil corporations, often in collusion with the federal government, are implicated in the destruction of both human and non-human entities within this region (egya, 2017). the appetite for petrodollars has catalyzed a cycle of violence, where local militias and federal soldiers are embroiled in conflict while oil companies continue to release toxins into the environment, resulting in profound suffering and death among the local communities. helon habila’s “oil on water” meticulously documents this socio-ecological upheaval, characterizing the oil companies as predatory forces that exploit the region’s resources through political patronage and brute force (pirzadeh, 2021). the novel becomes a vessel for highlighting the reckless endangerment of both humans and the environment by these entities, and habila’s narrative technique effectively conveys the direness of the situation (edebor, 2017). the portrayal of mutilated and injured inhabitants serves as a stark representation of the violence inflicted on the environment and its people, tying them together in a shared victimhood (egya, 2017). the interplay between literature and media in environmental advocacy is critical, underscoring the power of storytelling in highlighting ecological disasters. literature often complements journalistic efforts, with works like “oil on water” bridging the gap between the two disciplines (iheka, 2021). this synergy is crucial in portraying the complex realities of environmental conflict and advocating for change. the narrative’s linguistic techniques are pivotal in advocating for environmental issues. by employing specific terms of effect and lexical items that negatively appraise the actions of oil companies and federal soldiers, language becomes a potent tool for representation and advocacy (biber, 2006; bednarek, 2006). through a linguistic analysis of habila’s descriptions, we gain insights into the narratives that shape environmental and climate discourses in nigeria, further contributing to climate justice discourse (edebor, 2017). habila’s “oil on water” raises awareness of the ecological crisis, influences public perception, and drives policy change toward environmental justice. the novel, supported by scholarly discourse, underscores the urgency of addressing ecological issues and highlights the transformative power of literature in the global fight for environmental justice. this power inspires change and contributes to a more environmentally sustainable future, demonstrating that literature is indeed a critical medium for environmental advocacy. as the niger delta struggles with the consequences of oil exploitation, literature like “oil on water” stands as a testament to the role of narrative in environmental advocacy. it portrays the sociopolitical milieu, mirrors real-world advocacy, and ultimately influences the efforts toward environmental justice. the combined academic and literary endeavors underscore the significance of storytelling in not only reflecting upon but also catalyzing critical discourse and action in the face of environmental crises. ii. method this study employs a qualitative research design, specifically focusing on the discursive constructs within helon habila’s “oil on water.” the data consist of narrations and dialogues extracted from the novel that pertain olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 363 to the socio-political and environmental crisis of the niger delta. the data were systematically collected through a close reading of “oil on water,” identifying passages that directly address the sociopolitical and environmental crisis. special attention was given to scenes and dialogues that encapsulate the thematic essence of the novel, with a particular focus on the descriptive passages that elicit the ecological and communal panorama of the niger delta. the engagements among individuals demonstrate the dynamics of authority, for instance, those encompassing members of the indigenous community, delegates of oil corporations, and governmental authorities. internal monologues that reveal the psychological and emotional states of the characters in relation to the crisis. critical discourse analysis (cda) explores how texts and spoken language reflect, perpetuate, and challenge social inequalities, power imbalances, and forms of dominance within societal and political frameworks. its relevance to literary studies emerges from its ability to dissect and interpret the power dynamics and ideologies within literature. norman fairclough, a key figure in the development of cda, offers insights into the relationship between language and power in “language and power” (1989) and “media discourse” (2011). his work underscores how literary texts, much like media discourses, can perpetuate or challenge social inequalities. critical discourse analysis as a discourse analytical approach relies on discernments from social and political aspects of the material world (van dijk, 2001). it focuses on untangling intricate structures of the production and reproduction of social and political inequalities knitted into routine text and talk. van dijk (2001) notes that critical discourse analysis explores the complete context of text and talk. fairclough (1995: 132) holds a similar view of critical discourse analysis, noting that it aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events, and texts and (b) wider social and cultural structures, relations, and processes; to investigate how such practices, events, and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony. one can extrapolate from fairclough’s position that a critical discourse analyst must look beyond intra-textual analysis and embrace inter-textual analysis, relating and situating linguistic findings with/in socio-cultural and political contexts that produce such a text under consideration. fairclough’s framework is tripodal. it incorporates analyzing spoken and written texts/ discourses, discourse practice, and discursive events as instances of socio-cultural practices. the utilization of critical discourse analysis within literary criticism enriches our understanding of the complex socio-political subtleties interwoven into literary creations. it reveals the dynamic interaction between the written language and the extensive fabric of its historical and cultural context, offering a multi-dimensional viewpoint for deciphering the narratives of literature and their subsequent impacts on societal frameworks. the research adopts fairclough’s three-part framework in the analysis of the present study. in this study, the researcher synthesizes the principles of critical discourse analysis with the appraisal framework to investigate how speakers express their perspectives, beliefs, judgments, and attitudes. different scholars use varied terminology for this concept: biber (2006) calls it ‘stance,’ while hunston & thompson (2000), along with bednarek (2006), refer to it as ‘evaluation.’ however, i align with biber’s terminology, as he defines ‘stance’ as the lexico-grammatical expression of a speaker or writer’s viewpoint. biber (2006) and biber and finnegan (1989) observe that stance encompasses a text’s lexical and grammatical articulation of judgments, feelings, or commitments. hyland (2005) adds that stance allows writers the liberty to assert their authority and identity in their arguments or to distance themselves by concealing their involvement. this can be seen as a strategic positioning of the writer, either aligning with or disassociating from their arguments. iii. result and discussion the discursive construction of the niger delta excerpt 1 it turned out this wasn’t a village at all. it looked like a setting for a scifi sci-fi movie: the meager landscape was covered in pipelines flying in all directions, sprouting from the evil-smelling, oil-fecund earth. the pipes crisscrossed and interconnected endlessly all over the eerie field. we walked inland, ducking under and its environmental crisis olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 364 or hopping over the giant pipes, our shoes and trousers turning black with oil. the old man took me to the edge of the field and pointed into the distance (38). excerpt 2 i looked outside at the forest and the abandoned boats on the water, the few thatched huts, and i thought, what could fate possibly want with her on these oilpolluted waters? the forsaken villages, the gas flares, the stumps of pipes from exhausted wells with their heads capped and left jutting out of the oil-scorched earth, and the ever present pipelines crisscrossing the landscape, sometimes like tree roots surfacing far away from the parent tree, sometimes like diseased veins on the back of an old shriveled hand, and sometimes in squiggles like ominous writing on the wall. maybe fate wanted to show her firsthand the carcasses of the fish and crabs and waterbirds that floated on the deserted beaches of these tiny towns and villages and islands every morning, killed by the oil her husband was helping to produce. (192) excerpt 3 the next village was almost a replica of the last: the same empty squat dwellings, the same ripe and flagrant stench, the barrenness, the oil slick and the same indefinable sadness in the air, as if a community of ghosts were suspended above the punctured zinc roofs, unwilling to depart, yet powerless to return. in the village center we found the communal well. eager for a drink, i bent under the wet, mossy pivotal beam and peered into the well’s blackness, but a rank smell wafted from its hot depths and slapped my face; i reeled away, my head aching from the encounter. something organic, perhaps human, lay dead and decomposing down there, its stench mixed with that unmistakable smell of oil. (10) in excerpt 1, helon habila uses vivid, descriptive language to set a scene that contrasts sharply with a traditional village. words like “scifi,” “meager,” “evil-smelling,” and “oil-fecund” create a lexical field related to decay and dystopia. the phrase “flying in all directions” suggests chaos and a lack of control, while “crisscrossed and interconnected endlessly” evokes a sense of entrapment. the sensory details (“evil-smelling,” “oil-fecund earth”) engage the reader, creating a strong, negative image of the setting. biber’s stance can be identified in the writer’s expression of their perspective on the landscape. the choice of words like “evil-smelling” and “oil-fecund” carries a negative judgment, reflecting an attitude that is critical of the environmental state of the village. the depiction of the landscape as belonging to a “scifi movie” and the description of the “eerie field” further convey the speaker’s subjective evaluation of the scene as otherworldly and negatively affected by industrialization. the narrative voice describes a transformed landscape, suggesting environmental degradation due to industrial activities. besides this, the metaphorical language (“pipelines flying,” “covered in pipelines”) symbolizes the invasive and dominating force of industry regarding discursive practice, the text may be interpreted as a social commentary, critiquing the impact of industrial exploitation on natural landscapes. moreover, the manner of description also implies a sense of loss, not just of the natural environment but of traditional ways of life that the word “village” connotes. the description implicitly critiques the broader societal and economic systems that prioritize industrial development over environmental protection and community well-being . it reflects and possibly challenges the social values and norms that allow for such environmental and cultural degradation. in this excerpt, we see the author’s stance as one that is critical and reflective of larger sociocultural issues, utilizing the descriptive passage to engage with themes of industrialization, environmental degradation, and the loss of cultural landscapes. the excerpt is not merely descriptive but serves as an entry point for discourse about the tension between development and conservation. excerpt 2 provides a descriptive panorama of an environment affected by oil pollution. the imagery used — “abandoned boats,” “thatched huts,” “oil-polluted waters,” “forsaken villages,” “gas flares,” “oil-scorched earth,” and “deserted beaches” — paints a vivid picture of neglect and ecological disaster. the metaphors of diseased veins and ominous writing on the wall further intensify the grim portrayal of the landscape. the narrative voice in the excerpt reveals a critical and contemplative stance through the use of emotionally charged language. terms such as “forsaken,” “exhausted,” and “diseased” indicate a strong disapproval of the environmental degradation. the reflection on fate’s intentions for the subject, “her,” in such a desolate setting, adds a layer of poignancy and personalizes the impact of the ecological devastation. the text uses metaphorical language to convey the depth of environmental damage caused by the oil industry. the descriptive elements serve as a form of social commentary, alluding to the larger narrative of industrial exploitation. this narrative excerpt can be interpreted as a method of enhancing consciousness regarding olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 365 the ecological predicaments afflicting the vicinity, employing literary techniques to evoke an affective reaction from the reader. the writer’s choice of language reflects a discursive strategy to foreground the stark reality of the landscape’s transformation due to oil exploitation. the text critically engages with the sociocultural implications of the oil industry, implicitly questioning the cost of economic gain against the backdrop of environmental and social loss. it also invokes a reflection on the individual’s place and responsibility within these socio-environmental issues, as exemplified by the mention of the “oil her husband was helping to produce.” through this analysis, it becomes clear that the excerpt from habila’s “oil on water” uses rich, descriptive language to express a critical stance on the ecological consequences of the oil industry. the text not only depicts the grim reality of the polluted environment but also prompts readers to consider the broader implications of such industrial activities on local communities and ecosystems, as well as the complicity of individuals within these systems. in excerpt 3, at the level of vocabulary, the excerpt uses vivid, descriptive language (“ripe and flagrant stench”, “barrenness”, “indefinable sadness”) to evoke a strong sensory experience. the choice of words like “ghosts”, “punctured”, and “decomposing” suggests decay and neglect. noticeable also is how the narrative employs past tense, creating a sense of recounting a lived experience. the use of active voice (“i bent”, “i peered”, “i reeled away”) places the narrator at the center of the action, emphasizing their personal experience and reaction. the narrator conveys a sense of certainty about their observations and experiences. words like “indefinable sadness” and “unwilling to depart, yet powerless to return” suggest a definitive perception of the atmosphere and condition of the village. besides this, the text is rich in affective expressions. the narrator’s revulsion (“slapped my face”; “reeled away”) and the overall gloomy and oppressive atmosphere of the village convey a strong emotional stance of despair and discomfort. the narrator implicitly evaluates the conditions of the village negatively. descriptions of the environment as “ripe and flagrant stench” and “barrenness” indicate a critical view of the state of the village, suggesting a sense of decay and neglect. habila’s portrayal of environmental degradation and human suffering excerpt 4 i told them of the dangers that accompany that quenchless flare, but they would not listen. and then a year later, when the livestock began to die and the plants began to wither on their stalks, i took samples of the drinking water and in my lab, i measured the level of toxins in it: it was rising, steadily. in one year it had grown to almost twice the safe level. of course, the people didn’t listen, they were still in thrall to the orange glare. when i confronted the oil workers, they offered me money and a job. the manager, an italian guy, wrote me a check and said i was now on their payroll. he told me to continue doing what i was doing, but this time i was to come only to him with my results. i thought they’d do something with my results, but they didn’t. so, when people started dying, i took blood samples and recorded the toxins in them, and this time i sent my results to the government. they thanked me and dumped the results in some filing cabinet. more people died and i sent my results to ngos and international organizations, which published them in international journals and urged the government to do something about the flares, but nothing happened. (153) excerpt 5 there are countless villages going up in smoke daily. well, this place, junction, went up in smoke because of an accident associated with this vandalism, as you call it. but i don’t blame them for wanting to get some benefit out of the pipelines that have brought nothing but suffering to their lives, leaking into the rivers and wells, killing the fish, and poisoning the farmlands. and all they are told by the oil companies and the government is that the pipelines are there for their own good, that they hold great potential for their country, their future. these people endure the worst conditions of any oilproducing community on earth, the government knows it but doesn’t have the will to stop it, the oil companies know it, but because the government doesn’t care, they also don’t care. and you think the people are corrupt? no. they are just hungry, and tired. (87) in excerpt 4, habila provides a narrative of environmental neglect and the consequences of industrial activities. the language used— ”quenchless flare,” “livestock began to die,” “plants began to wither,” “toxins in the drinking water”— paints a grim picture of ecological degradation and its impact on community health. we can see the narrator’s stance in the language used to describe the situation. the use of words like “dangers,” “toxins,” and “people started dying” expresses a clear critical perspective on the environmental crisis and its handling by the authorities and the oil company. the phrase “in thrall to the orange glare” suggests a community blinded by the immediate, yet deceptive, benefits of industrial presence, olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 366 highlights the discrepancy that exists between the perceived advantages and the tangible consequences experienced by nearby communities. additionally, it offers a critique regarding the insufficient determination exhibited by political entities in tackling these concerns. the narrator’s use of definitive statements (“the worst conditions of any oil-producing community on earth”) indicates a strong epistemic stance, suggesting that they are presenting facts rather than opinions. the emotive language (“suffering”, “hungry”, and “tired”) reflects the speaker’s affective stance of empathy towards the community and disapproval of the situation. there is a clear evaluative stance against the oil companies and the government, with accusations of neglect and lack of care. the community is depicted not as corrupt but as victims of circumstance, which is an evaluation that shifts the moral responsibility onto the authorities. the excerpt is a powerful indictment of the impact of oil pipelines on local communities, using strong evaluative language to highlight the contrast between the supposed benefits of resource exploitation and the harsh reality experienced by those living nearby. the speaker employs a factual and affective stance to critique the inaction of authorities and corporations, and to defend the actions of the local people as a response to dire conditions, thus aiming to reshape the discourse around resource extraction and its socio-economic consequences. representations of multinational oil companies and the nigerian government excerpt 6 their rivers were already polluted and useless for fishing, and the land grew only gas flares and pipelines. but the snake, the snake in the garden wouldn’t rest, it kept on hissing and the apple only grew larger and more alluring each day. and already far off in the surrounding waters the oil company boats were patrolling, sometimes openly sending their men to the village to take samples of soil and water (43) excerpt 7 and all they are told by the oil companies and the government is that the pipelines are there for their own good, that they hold great potential for their country, their future. these people endure the worst conditions of any oil-producing community on earth, the government knows it but doesn’t have the will to stop it, the oil companies know it, but because the government doesn’t care, they also don’t care. (103) ignoring the long-term consequences. the text conveys a narrative of warning and ignorance, highlighting the failure of the community and authorities to heed the narrator’s warnings about environmental pollution. the choice of technical terms like “level of toxins” and “safe level” adds authenticity to the claims and underscores the gravity of the situation. the narrative serves as a discursive means to challenge the actions of the oil company and the inaction of the government and community, despite clear evidence of harm. the discursive strategy includes documenting scientific evidence and appealing to higher authorities, revealing a pattern of neglect and suppression of information. the description critiques the broader societal values that prioritize economic gains from oil over public health and environmental integrity. it reflects the social realities of communities living in resource-rich areas, often exploited and left to deal with negative externalities. the analysis demonstrates how the text uses a personal narrative to convey a critical stance on the environmental and health crises caused by oil exploration. the narrator’s efforts to alert the community and authorities, and the subsequent disregard of the evidence, serve as a critique of the systemic failure to protect the environment and public health. in excerpt 5, habila uses language that is evaluative and emotionally charged (“villages going up in smoke”, “leaking”, “killing”, “poisoning”). this choice of words serves to highlight the severity of the destruction and suffering. besides this, at the level of grammar, there is a noticeable use of present continuous tense (“are told”, “endure”) suggests that the issues are ongoing. the active voice implicates the oil companies and the government directly in the perpetuation of the problems. habila uses the excerpt and the text as a whole to advocate for the community, providing a voice to their struggles. the discourse is constructed to engender sympathy and raise awareness of the injustices faced. further, he uses the text to invite the audience to question the narratives provided by authorities and corporations and to consider the plight of the marginalized community from their perspective. the text presents a critical examination of the prevailing narratives surrounding advancements and growth that are typically linked to the extraction of petroleum. it olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 367 excerpt 8 the list was long—but, the lawyer said, if the elders would consent to the oil company’s demands, sell the land . . . a politician, who introduced himself as their senator, came all the way from abuja and assured them that their situation was receiving national attention, it was in the papers, and he was going to fight for them to see that their chief was returned safe and sound. with him were two white men, oil executives. the villagers chased them away. others came, but they were all liars, all working for the oil companies, trying one way or another to break the villagers’ resolve. (44) excerpt 6 presents a stark image of environmental degradation and the allure of wealth juxtaposed with the exploitation of resources. habila employs metaphorical language, with “the snake in the garden” alluding to the biblical story of temptation and fall, symbolizing both the lure of wealth from oil and the insidious nature of its extraction process. words like “polluted”, “useless”, and “patrolling” carry negative connotations that highlight environmental damage and the aggressive behavior of the oil companies. at the level of grammar, the text uses present tense, conveying an ongoing, persistent problem. the anthropomorphism of the snake adds a mythological dimension, suggesting that the issues are not only physical but also moral and existential. habila has crafted the narrative to reflect the intrusion and disruption of natural life by the oil industry, using imagery that is familiar and evocative to invoke a critical perspective. this is a metaphor for the exploitation of natural resources and the ethical dilemmas faced by the communities living amidst oil exploration. the metaphor of the biblical serpent positions the oil companies as tempters, offering wealth while bringing destruction, reflecting on the broader themes of greed and moral corruption that often accompany discussions of resource exploitation. the narrative voice seems to speak with authority on the conditions of the rivers and the activities of the oil companies, suggesting a stance of knowledge based on observation or experience. the use of biblical allegory imbues the text with an affective stance of warning and moral censure, emphasizing the gravity of the community’s situation. the excerpt evaluates the impact of oil exploration negatively. the metaphoric “snake” and the “apple” symbolize the dual nature of the industry as both a source of desire and a harbinger of harm, thereby critiquing the enticement of short-term gains over long-term well-being. the use of biblical allegory in this excerpt serves to frame the discourse around oil exploitation in terms of moral and ethical considerations, rather than purely economic or environmental ones. the narrative is constructed to evoke a sense of loss and the dangers of succumbing to temptation, as represented by the “apple” of oil wealth. habila uses this metaphorical language to draw the reader into a deeper reflection on the consequences of industrial activities, and to question the true beneficiaries of such ventures. excerpt 7 highlights a critical and somewhat cynical view of the relationship between oil companies, the government, and local communities affected by oil production. the language used (“endure the worst conditions”, “doesn’t have the will to stop it”, “don’t care”) is straightforward and emphasizes neglect and suffering. it portrays a bleak situation for the local community, which is juxtaposed with the supposed benefits of the pipelines. the use of the present tense suggests that the issues are ongoing, while the active voice implicates the oil companies and the government directly in the perpetuation of the problems. the excerpt conveys a message that challenges the dominant narrative promoted by the oil companies and the government, suggesting hypocrisy and a lack of genuine concern for the local populace. habila uses the excerpt as a commentary on the exploitation of resources and the marginalization of communities, potentially influencing the perceptions of readers about resource extraction and corporate responsibility. the narrative critiques the socio-political discourse that frames industrial development as inherently positive, exposing the dissonance between official rhetoric and the lived experiences of the community. the narrator presents the conditions of the oil-producing community as a known fact, suggesting a strong epistemic stance that these are the “worst conditions” and both the government and oil companies are aware of them. the emotive aspect is subtle but present; the word “endure” conveys a sense of ongoing hardship and resilience, while “don’t care” implies a moral judgment on the part of the oil companies and government. the excerpt contains a clear evaluative stance, critiquing the government and oil companies for their inaction and lack of concern. it positions the reader olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 368 to view the plight of the oil-producing community as a result of willful neglect. this passage employs a direct and confrontational style to challenge the narratives provided by the government and oil companies about the benefits of oil pipelines. the choice of words paints a stark contrast between the promised “good” and the harsh reality faced by the community. the use of the present tense and active voice emphasizes the immediacy and agency of the stakeholders involved. by presenting the situation as both known and unaddressed by those in power, the text critiques the systems of power that allow for the exploitation and suffering of vulnerable communities. this analysis reveals the text’s role in advocating for social justice and environmental ethics, questioning the priorities and responsibilities of those who profit from natural resources. in excerpt 8, habila presents a scenario involving a local community’s confrontation with the interests of an oil company and the role of political figures in this interaction. the language used in the excerpt brings this to the fore. the language here (“the list was long”, “demands”, “chased them away”, “liars”) is indicative of conflict and resistance. it conveys a sense of betrayal and exploitation, with the community being asked to concede to demands that seem extensive or unreasonable. the use of past tense narrates a specific event that has occurred, indicating a history of interactions between the villagers, politicians, and oil executives. the active voice in “chased them away” showcases the agency and assertiveness of the villagers. the text seems to have been crafted to highlight the struggle and resilience of the villagers in the face of external pressures and manipulation. the juxtaposition of the villagers’ actions against the assurances of the politician and the presence of the oil executives underscores a narrative of distrust and defiance. habila uses this to illustrate grassroots resistance against powerful entities. it may also serve to reinforce or challenge readers’ views on the complexities of corporate and political interactions with local communities. the excerpt speaks to broader issues of land rights, corporate exploitation, and political patronage in the context of resource extraction. it critiques the common narrative of development and progress often used to justify such extractions, instead illustrating the discord and resistance that can arise. the narrative voice seems to have a clear understanding of the villagers’ perspective, suggesting that the villagers’ skepticism and the label of the outsiders as “liars” are based on a grounded belief in their deceitful intentions. emotions conveyed through words like “assured” and “chased them away” indicate a strong affective stance of frustration and distrust towards the oil executives and the politicians. the villagers’ rejection of the politician’s promises and their actions against the oil executives reflect a negative evaluation of their motives and credibility. habila uses the excerpt to invite the reader to sympathize with the villagers’ plight and question the integrity of the external actors. by portraying the villagers as actively resisting, the text comments on the power dynamics inherent in land and resource disputes, drawing attention to issues of autonomy, exploitation, and the complexity of political promises in the face of economic interests. iv. conclusion “oil on water” by helon habila serves as a poignant narrative that vividly captures the desecration of the niger delta›s environment and the consequent human suffering. this paper has meticulously analyzed the representation of environmental degradation and social disintegration in the text, emphasizing the multifaceted role of language in shaping and reflecting these realities. habila’s narrative is not merely a recounting of events; it is a powerful indictment of the neocolonial forces embodied by multinational oil companies and a negligent government. the novel brings to the fore the stark reality of ecological destruction—a landscape littered with the detritus of oil exploitation and communities caught in the throes of poverty and violence. through critical discourse analysis and the appraisal framework, this study has highlighted habila’s skillful use of linguistic devices to critique the power dynamics and exploitative practices that perpetuate the region’s strife. the linguistic texture of the novel unveils a deep-seated resistance to the environmental and cultural erosion inflicted upon the delta, challenging readers to reconsider the narratives of development and progress that often accompany resource extraction. “oil on water” emerges as a form of literary activism, where habila’s commitment to environmental and social justice is intricately woven into the fabric of his prose the novel serves as a testimony to the unwavering determination of the inhabitants of olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 369 the niger delta and emphasizes the urgent need to address their concerns, as it chronicles the region’s deterioration. the text, thus, transcends its literary boundaries, influencing not only the discourse on ecological advocacy but also inviting a broader engagement with the ethics of environmental stewardship and community agency. this study underscores the urgent need to acknowledge and address the human and environmental costs of industrial activity, as portrayed through the powerful medium of literature. references abianji-menang, ophilia a. 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(2018). petronarratology: a bioregional approach to oil stories. english studies 99.4: 442–57, 2018 lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 131 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 9, 2024 final revision: june 12, 2024 accepted: june 15, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 the purpose of this study is to examine the key influence of mass media on different language levels based on analysing several modern newspapers and magazines published in japan. the article uses the following methods of analysis: structural analysis, lexical and semantic analysis, stylistic analysis, analytical and synthetic method, and contextual analysis. the results of the study showed that the most noticeable influence of mass media on the modern japanese language was observed at the lexical and stylistic levels and less noticeable – at the phonetic, word-forming, morphological, and syntactic levels. phonetic changes in the japanese press were associated with the adaptation of non-equivalent vocabulary from european languages using the japanese alphabet (katakana). at the word-forming level, the changes concerned primarily uncharacteristic derivational units that came to japanese from english, and at the morphological level, the influence was conducted mainly through the demonstration of samples of the correct use of case endings, tenses and coordination of parts of speech. at the syntactic level, there was a variety of syntactic constructions, in particular, to expand the content, introduce additional sentences, and change the topic of conversation. the stylistic influence of mass media on the japanese language system consisted in the use of artistic tropes and stylistic figures, in particular, metaphors, hyperbole, and periphery, which can be considered patterns for communicative behaviour. keywords language level, neologism, phonetic adaptation, stylistic figure, syntactic construction correspondence e-mail: t.komarnytskaa@ukr.net article the influence of mass media on the modern japanese language lidia anistratenko1, oksana asadchykh2, andrii bukriienko3, tamara komarnytska4, kostiantyn komisarov5 1,3,5borys grinchenko kyiv university, kyiv, ukraine 2,4taras shevchenko national university of kyiv, kyiv, ukraine under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.131-143.2024 i. introduction the study of the influence of mass media on the modern japanese language is critical for understanding the principles of language development in the context of globalization and technologization. in today’s world, americanized english is the leading language, which significantly influences other languages, including japanese. this poses challenges for preserving the linguistic identity and self-awareness of japanese society.it is especially important to study how new linguistic units are absorbed and adapted into japanese, how fast this process takes place, and how the flow of borrowings from english can be limited. therefore, it is important to understand the relationship between the speech behavior of native speakers and the language patterns offered by the media. understanding the influence of the japanese press on different language levels, such as phonetic, word formation, grammar, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic, is relevant because a deep immersion in language processes allows us to draw objective conclusions about changes in the language arsenal. a study of a single language level, such as lexical or stylistic, will show only a part of the positive and negative effects on the language. to fully understand the significance of the language of the mass media for the development of the modern japanese language, it is necessary to pay attention to such phenomena as phonetic adaptation, the functioning of word-formation affixes, syntactic constructions, and stylistic figures. lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 132 the influence of mass media on the modern japanese language is manifested through the introduction of new vocabulary, changes in grammatical structures and stylistic norms. the mass media is a channel for the rapid spread of linguistic innovations and borrowings, influencing the speech patterns of a wide audience. linguistic borrowings, especially from english, are common in japanese, where they are adapted through katakana and other phonological and morphological changes. phonetic and morphological changes include adapting borrowed words to the phonological rules of japanese and adding japanese suffixes or particles. the mass media also contribute to language standardization by promoting certain norms and patterns of usage, which stabilizes language forms and promotes the spread of a standard version of the language. the impact of the media on language has not only a linguistic but also a cultural dimension, as the introduction of foreign elements can affect cultural identity and the perception of language purity. in this context, it is important to understand the interaction between language innovation and the preservation of traditional forms of language. the relevance of the study of the language of the japanese press is also due to the lack of linguistic research in this area. this creates the need for a comprehensive analysis that will allow us to better understand the impact of the media on the modern japanese language and help preserve its uniqueness in the face of global change. many papers of modern linguists are devoted specifically to the influence of mass media on the mental level, in particular, on the public opinion of native speakers, and not on communication processes. therefore, investigating the contexts of japanese media allows an understanding of how and at what rate language changes occur in the japanese language. confirmation of the research results using contexts is necessary because this is the process of forming linguistic patterns at different language levels that can be traced: phonetic, word-forming, morphological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic. the study by l. solomenko (2022) identified specific characteristics of modern media through the lens of television and print publications, illustrating changes in mass broadcasting shaped by media influences. this includes the incorporation of borrowings, quotes, expressions, memes, and the introduction of new terms. author emphasized that speech culture is significantly shaped by information and communication technologies. however, the study did not delve into the impact of mass media across various language levels (from phonetic to stylistic) and lacked specific examples to illustrate these effects. the linguistic research by o. romaniuk and l. yavorska (2022), o. chaika et al. (2022) primarily focuses on the content analysis of media resources from a multicultural perspective, examining their influence on both national and transnational communication processes. while the study explores the methods of information presentation and their impact on cross-cultural relations, it does not adequately address the linguistic aspects of this influence, concentrating more on the social context. t.m. levchenko (2022) examined how the information space can influence speech development, in particular, lexical innovations. it is noted that during mass media communication, many processes occur: an increase in the number of stylistic tools and techniques, the appearance of new tokens and new meanings, borrowing words, and an increase in the variability of language resources. the paper clearly states that extralinguistic factors can both contribute to the improvement of language tools and slow down the development of speech, but there were no examples that would confirm this. y. krylova-grek’s (2021) study the psycholinguistic analysis of media texts, examining speech behavior patterns in journalism shaped by both linguistic and non-linguistic means. the paper addresses the presence of bias in news coverage and the use of language tools to manipulate language consciousness. however, it falls short of identifying the primary influences of the media space on contemporary spoken language and does not characterize the key linguistic processes at play in japanese media. y. boyko et al. (2023) considered the englishlanguage media discourse in the context of linguistic processes, lexical innovations and borrowings from other languages, in particular, the dynamics of changes taking place in the english-speaking media segment. however, the study concerned the impact of globalisation, technologisation, and development of information technologies on the english-language discourse, and not the impact of english-language media on information resources of other countries of the world and other national languages. in general, previous studies of the influence lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 133 of mass media on modern japanese contain several significant gaps. they do not show the impact of mass media on different language levels (from phonetic to stylistic) and do not provide specific examples to confirm these influences. also, insufficient attention is paid to the linguistic aspects of the media’s influence on language consciousness and the development of spoken language, and the study of social context dominates linguistic analysis. these gaps create the need for a more comprehensive analysis that takes into account all these aspects. the purpose of this paper was to examine japanese media discourse from the standpoint of opportunities and options for influencing modern colloquial speech and examine changes occurring in japanese at various language levels, in particular, phonetic, word-forming, morphological, syntactic, and stylistic. among the key tasks are to analyse the modern japanese press regarding the formation of speech behaviour patterns, determine the specific features of the influence of mass media language on modern japanese at different language levels, and confirm the results obtained using contexts from the japanese press. the subject of study in this paper was modern japanese newspapers and magazines that are available online. through a systematic methodology, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the intricate dynamics between mass media and language evolution in modern japanese society. the current study lies in the comprehensive analysis of the influence of mass media on modern japanese at various linguistic levels (from phonetic to stylistic), as well as in the provision of specific examples illustrating these influences. the expected results of this study include a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of adaptation of new linguistic units in modern japanese under the influence of the media and the identification of specific examples of the media’s influence on different language levels. this research will also contribute to further study of the intercultural influence of english on japanese and other national languages in the context of globalization. ii. methods this study analyzed media language using prominent japanese newspapers: asahi shimbun (2021; 2023), nihon keizai shimbun (2023a; 2023b), sankei news (2020; 2023), mainichi shimbun (2023a; 2023b), and youmiri shimbun (2023a; 2023b). these sources were chosen for their wide readership and influence, providing a comprehensive view of contemporary japanese media language. examining multiple newspapers enhanced the breadth and reliability of the findings by capturing diverse linguistic practices. the study employs a multi-level linguistic taxonomy to analyze the influence of mass media on japanese language, focusing on phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, and stylistic levels. a qualitative research design involving detailed contextual analysis was used. manual examination of press sources was conducted through structural, lexical-semantic, stylistic, analytical-synthetic, and contextual analyses. structural analysis identified strategies for influencing language at various levels. lexical and semantic analysis examined the adaptation of foreign neologisms through katakana. stylistic analysis focused on artistic tropes and their impact on colloquial japanese. analyticalsynthetic methods explored theoretical aspects of technologization and globalization’s impact on language. contextual analysis confirmed findings through examples from japanese press. this taxonomy includes the phonetic level, where sound patterns and the adaptation of foreign-language neologisms through katakana are examined. at the lexical level, the study analyzes vocabulary, including the use of foreign-language borrowings, neologisms, and phraseological units. the morphological level investigates word-forming processes and the influence of foreign affixes. the syntactic level analyzes sentence structures, including both simple and complex sentences. finally, the stylistic level examines artistic tropes and stylistic figures, such as metaphors and hyperbolic expressions. the research design is primarily qualitative, involving a detailed contextual analysis of samples from modern japanese press sources. the study uses multiple methods to examine the influence of mass media on the japanese language across various linguistic levels. the primary tool for analysis is manual examination of the japanese press sources. structural analysis was used to form the main strategies for influencing the modern japanese language at various language levels: phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, and stylistic. in particular, attention was focused on how language patterns embedded in the japanese lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 134 press can change the paradigm of the modern japanese language. the main results of the study on the influence of mass media language on the modern development of the japanese language are shown in the table. lexical and semantic analysis was used to identify the main features of adaptation of foreign-language neologisms in japanese, in particular, through katakana, when investigating the influence of phraseological units on modern japanese. the question of the relationship and conditionality between changes at the lexical level of the language and other levels was examined. based on lexical analysis, the features of the use and influence of neologisms that came mainly from the americanised version of the english language were examined. stylistic analysis was used to examine the application of artistic tropes and stylistic figures, in particular, metaphorical, hyperbolic, and peripheral constructions, in the language of mass media and their impact on the living colloquial japanese language and the linguistic consciousness of its native speakers. the results of the examination of speech behaviour patterns were supported by contexts from the japanese press. the analytical-synthetic method was used to examine the main theoretical aspects directly related to the problems of research, in particular, the technologisation and globalisation of the process of investigating the resources of the positive and negative influence of mass media on public opinion and communication processes within national states and the whole world. the works of modern japanese, chinese, american, australian, and ukrainian linguists were examined using analytical and synthetic analysis. contextual analysis was used in this study to confirm the research results on the functioning and assimilation of japanese patterns by native speakers at various language levels, in particular, phonetic, word-forming, morphological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic. based on the demonstrated contexts, the main parameters of the influence of the media language on the development of the modern japanese language were identified from japanese newspapers and magazines. therefore, this study used basic methods such as lexical-semantic, stylistic, and structural analysis, and additional methods such as contextual and analytical-synthetic, necessary for argumentation of the results of investigating linguistic patterns in the japanese press. notably, each of these methods was necessary for a comprehensive analysis of the problem of the influence of language tools and media structures on the current stage of japanese language development. iii. results education and the media play a crucial role in the process of standardisation of the japanese language, which consists of the gradual national alignment of japanese dialects with the literary variety of the language. standardisation is also stimulated through powerful mechanisms such as television, radio broadcasting, and newspaper journalism. speakers tend to perceive competent speech in which news is presented and information is conveyed. while viewing, reading, or listening to media resources, native speakers learn the standard version of japanese and develop communicative competence. despite the main goal of such a language policy – to promote effective communication of japanese society within the country, there is also a negative side of the standardisation process: speakers begin to believe that there is a single correct variety of japanese and regional features are perceived as something inferior. the influence of regional characteristics at different linguistic levels is weakened due to the loss of linguistic individuality. consequently, through the media, speech becomes more homogeneous, and the boundaries of language diversity are blurred (igarashi, 2018; vasenko et al., 2023). for a long time, japan positioned itself as a monotheistic society, not paying attention to ethnic minorities, which was reflected in linguistic planning and language policy. gradually, the number of immigrants in the state increased, so today, improving the study of english is one of the priority tasks, that is, it is a component of language planning and public policy. at the present stage, the americanised variety of english is actively promoted under the influence of its active imposition in the media (gottlieb, 2008; igarashi, 2018). linguistic creativity in the media discourse of japan is characterised by the active use of subjectiveindividual expressive meanings. in particular, they relate to the emotional, psychological, and lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 135 interpersonal aspects of communication. among the types of linguistic creativity, discursive creativity can be distinguished, which manifests itself in a mixture of genres and styles, rhetorical creativity, which is based on metaphoricity, and grammatical creativity, which manifests itself in morphological changes (maynard, 2007; cato et al., 2021; poluboiaryna, 2023). the influence of media language on different language levels is conducted through the involvement of various linguistic resources, which are shown in figure 1. the introduction of neologisms in modern mass media is necessary, first of all, for understanding between different countries of the world, in particular, a sufficient international base of concepts in various spheres of life is needed, which can be relied on when communicating. in addition, the borrowing of vocabulary occurs due to the lack of certain concepts in japanese (elmer, 2019; lebid, 2023). neologisms that came to japanese through the americanised version of english can relate to various spheres of life (cultural, economic, social), but, as a rule, appear for the first time in the language of the press, television, and radio broadcasting: “ コワーキング” (co-working space), “デベロッパ ー” (developer), “デッドライン” (deadline), “ベ ンチャ” (startup). for example, “カウンターもある20席のコワーキングスペース のほか、web会議に使えるレンタルオフィス6室 や...” (“in addition to a 20-seat co-working space with a desk, there are also 6 rental offices that can be used for web conferences”) (asahi shimbun, 2023). a large share in modern japanese is played by lexical units used to refer to information processes, structural units, the nature of content and came directly from the media and social networks: “ミー ム” (meme), “メインストリーム” (mainstream), “偽物” (fake), “ニュースメーカ” (newsmaker), “フォロワー” (follower), “ニュースフィード” (news feed), “ハッツュタグ” (hashtag) (asahi shimbun, 2023; nihon keizai shimbun, 2023a; mainichi shimbun, 2023a). foreign-language neologistic tokens may indicate the reliability or unreliability of information: for example, “生成ａｉ（人工知能）の拡大により、誰もが簡 単に「フェイク（偽物）」を作れる時代となっ た。” (“with the expansion of generative ai (artificial intelligence), we have entered an era where anyone can easily create a fake”) (yomiuri shimbun, 2023a), the nature and purpose of information: “ゲームストップは代表的な「ミーム株（はやり の株）」とされ、...” (“gamestop is considered a typical meme drain”) (nihon keizai shimbun, 2023b). english-language borrowings may indicate content producers and consumers: “大手各社は当局の指導を受けて、時事問題など を扱い50万人以上のフォロワーを抱えるインフ ルエンサーの実名表示を決めた。” (“in response to instructions from the authorities, large companies have decided to display the real names of influencers who cover current events and have more than 500,000 subscribers”) (nihon keizai shimbun, 2023b). figure 1. influence of media language on modern japanese language lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 136 today, there is no restriction on the entry of new words into the japanese language, but the conditional border between specific japanese vocabulary and borrowings remains. the influence of mass media on the modern japanese phonetic system is primarily associated with the use of katakana for foreign-language borrowings – storing the sound of a word in the original language and transmitting it in writing through transcription. however, the method of writing foreign-language tokens is also used by combining the meanings of hieroglyphs, that is, the semantics of the word are transmitted. thus, borrowed foreign language vocabulary from the media sphere does not substantially affect changes in the phonetic system of the japanese language, because the most frequent method is to adapt specifically to the phonetic features of the japanese alphabet, and not vice versa: “ブラウザ” (“burauza”) comes from the token “browser”, “ダ ウンロード” (“daunro: do” – from “download”,” オプション”(“opushon”) – from “option” (asahi shimbun, 2023; nihon keizai shimbun, 2023a; mainichi shimbun, 2023a). notably, at the word-forming level, when neologisms appear from the media sphere, there are no substantial changes, but there is a correlation between the meanings of some foreign-language suffixes and their transmission using japanese language resources. for example, the english suffixes “tion” and “sion” with the transfer of the meaning of an abstract noun are denoted by “ショ ン”: “シュミレーション” (“shumire:shon”) from “simulation”, “アニメーション” (“anime:shon”) from “animation” (mainichi shimbun, 2023b). such word-forming units affect the morphological level of the language since they lead to the need to subordinate affixes to the system of noun case endings. mass media demonstrate a high level of graphic, phonetic, and morphological literacy with the use of correct tenses, forms, and syntactic constructions, which become the basic model for the modern japanese language, including colloquial. the use of phraseological units within the media discourse, particularly in the press, contributes to examining previously unknown language patterns by native japanese speakers and helps to consolidate the features of their contextual use. phraseology “竜頭蛇尾であると感じた” (literally translated as “dragon’s head and snake’s tail”) means “waiting is unjustified”. for example, “一方、北京紙「北京晩報」は、東京五輪のコロ ナ対策が「竜頭蛇尾であると感じた」とする記 者の見方を伝えた” (“meanwhile, the beijing evening news published a reporter’s opinion that expectations for measures to counter the coronavirus at the tokyo olympics are unjustified”) (asahi shimbun, 2021). phraseology “餅は餅屋” (literally translated – as “mochi or rice cakes”) means “everything has its own connoisseur”. for example, “清水さん（山陽小野田市）「解体を前に」岩 城さん（光市）「何にもない」松谷さん（山口 市）「餅は餅屋」” (“it’s nothing” by mr. matsutani (yamaguchi city) “mochi or rice cakes”) (mainichi shimbun, 2023a). the use of phraseological phrases with a key verb is also a characteristic feature of japanese media and affects the formation of not only lexical but also stylistic and syntactic patterns: “社会・経済構造や国際秩序が岐路に直面する 中、それは日本と日本人に対し、積極的かつ主 体的に行動し、” (“as the social and economic structure and international order stand at a crossroads, in this message we call on japan and the japanese people to act proactively and independently”) (sankei news, 2020). content consumers can repeat metaphors, phraseological phrases, and slogans: in the speaker’s mind, they begin to function at the level of speech patterns. regarding the stylistic level, notably, it is important to use metaphorical constructions in the media, which later pass into general use. for example, the phrase “日本は責任あるプレー ヤーたれ...” (“japan is a responsible player...”) is often repeated in the japanese media discourse and lays down a narrative about the country’s power and importance in international politics. the metaphorical nature of the media language also contributes to increasing the level of imagery of modern colloquial japanese. in the context of the modern japanese press, stable phrases with hyperbolic meanings are often used: “同グループとsnuのこの協力的な取り組みは、 バッテリー技術を進歩させ、産学連携を促進 し、バッテリー分野における世界的なリーダー シップを確立することを目的としています。” (“this collaborative effort between the group and snu aims to improve battery technology, promote collaboration between industry and academia, and establish global leadership in the battery industry”) (sankei news, 2023). lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 137 a large number of paraphrases used in modern japanese came from the media as terminolexems from the military sphere: “中東情勢を巡りg7内に温度差があるなか、アラ ブ諸国などが求め「時停戦」” (“amid differences of opinion in the g7 on the situation in the middle east, arab countries and others are calling for a “temporary ceasefire”), “人道目的で戦闘を一時中断する「人道的休止」 で一致した。” (“they agreed on a “humanitarian pause” – a temporary suspension of hostilities for humanitarian purposes”) (mainichi shimbun, 2023a; varenko, 2023). various lexical and stylistic tools also led to a change in the syntactic structure of the modern japanese language. first of all, the mass media language in japan tends to build complex sentences with expanded syntactic constructions and turns. for example, several subordinate clauses can be used simultaneously: “でも、カンボジアの人々にとっては、それが普 通ですし、物があふれ、生活も忙しい日本に比 べると、むしろ余裕があるようにも見えます。” (“however, this is normal for cambodians, and compared to japan, where everything is crowded and life is full, it seems that they have more freedom of action”) (asadchykh, et al., 2020a; youmiri shimbun, 2023a). in the japanese media, constructions are used to indicate the expansion of content: “言い換え ると” (in other words), “他方で” (on the other hand), “要する（こ” (hence) constructions for introducing additional sentences: “但し” (however, regardless), “なお” (yet, but), “にも拘わらず” (however) constructs to express the alternative: “ むしろ” (better than), “なり” (or), constructions to indicate a change in the topic of conversation: “それはそうと” (so) (asahi shimbun, 2023; nihon keizai shimbun, 2023a; mainichi shimbun, 2023b). they have a syntactic effect on the construction of sentences in modern japanese, in particular, speakers have become more likely to use such tokens to express their own thoughts. the attraction of modern mass media to the use of interrogative and motivational sentences leads to an increase in the number of such syntactic structures in colloquial and literary speech. interrogative sentences can approach rhetorical functions in terms of stylistic functions: “1年の延期や無観客での開催、厳しい行動制限な ど、初めてだらけだった東京五輪を、世界はど う見ていたのか。” (“how did the world perceive the tokyo olympics, which were postponed for the first time for a year, were held without spectators and had strict traffic restrictions?”) (asadchykh, et al., 2020b; asahi shimbun, 2021). an analysis of leading japanese newspapersasahi shimbun, nihon keizai shimbun, sankei news, mainichi shimbun, and youmiri shimbunrevealed the key media influences on modern japanese at various language levels. adaptation of neologisms through katakana preserves the original sound of words by integrating them into the japanese phonetic system. the media serve as a platform for introducing new vocabulary, including borrowings and phraseology that have gradually become assimilated into the spoken language. the use of artistic tropes, metaphors, and hyperbolic expressions has contributed to the expressiveness and imagery of the modern japanese language. mass media have a significant impact on language standardization, innovation, and cultural integration, reflecting global trends and changes in society. these findings emphasize the important role of media in the evolution of japanese at various levels, from phonetic to stylistic, which has research implications for language policy, education, and further research. there were several limitations to this study that should be noted to increase the transparency and reliability of the results. the study covered only five japanese newspapers: asahi shimbun, nihon keizai shimbun, sankei news, mainichi shimbun, and youmiri shimbun. although these sources have significant influence and a wide audience, they cannot fully reflect all possible language patterns that exist in the japanese media. other newspapers that were not included in the study could have provided additional or alternative examples of language change. the analysis was based on a limited number of articles from each source, which may not fully reflect overall language trends. a larger sample could have provided more representative results and revealed additional language patterns. the study was conducted manually, which may lead to subjectivity in the interpretation and analysis of the data. the use of automated text analysis tools could help ensure greater objectivity and accuracy of the results. these limitations should be taken into account when interpreting the results of the study. they emphasize the need for further research that would expand the coverage of sources, increase the lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 138 sample, use automated analysis tools, and take into account long-term language trends and influences. iv. discussion the results of this study align with the core concepts and theories related to the influence of mass media on language. the findings underscore the role of mass media as a powerful agent in language standardisation, supporting the notion that media can shape and homogenise language use among speakers by promoting a standard version of japanese. this supports the theory that media serves as a conduit for linguistic innovation and the dissemination of new lexical and syntactic structures. the introduction and adaptation of neologisms, particularly from english, illustrate the theory of linguistic borrowing and adaptation, where foreign terms are phonologically and morphologically integrated into the japanese language. the observed changes at various language levels-phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic-demonstrate the media’s capacity to influence language comprehensively, reinforcing the idea that media can serve as both a standardising and innovative force in language evolution (spytska, 2023). the results of this study align with the core concepts and theories related to the influence of mass media on language. the findings underscore the role of mass media as a powerful agent in language standardisation, supporting the notion that media can shape and homogenise language use among speakers by promoting a standard version of japanese. this supports the theory that media serves as a conduit for linguistic innovation and the dissemination of new lexical and syntactic structures. the introduction and adaptation of neologisms, particularly from english, illustrate the theory of linguistic borrowing and adaptation, where foreign terms are phonologically and morphologically integrated into the japanese language. the observed changes at various language levels-phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic-demonstrate the media’s capacity to influence language comprehensively, reinforcing the idea that media can serve as both a standardising and innovative force in language evolution (zlenko, 2023). the modern media system of japan demonstrates an example of constructing sociopolitical and cultural patterns according to the western scheme. the results of this study align with and extend the findings of previous research on the influence of mass media on the modern japanese language and society. for instance, t. matsunaga (2010) highlighted the historical impact of english-language media on japan, particularly through the first english-language newspaper, the japan times. matsunaga emphasized the role of globalization in increasing the demand for english-language newspapers in japan, leading to the anglicization of japanese media. this study confirms matsunaga’s observations, showing that english-language neologisms and expressions have permeated japanese media, affecting language usage at multiple levels. one of the most important factors for students to learn modern japanese, according to x. cui et al. (2021), is the use of japanese electronic media resources. with the help of mass media in electronic format, it is possible to effectively work with the audience, in particular, improve lexical and communication skills. results of the study by authors emphasised the impact of information technologies on the mass media sphere, in contrast to this study, which focused on linguistic aspects of media influence. f. hatani (2023) noted differences between japanese news for domestic audiences and news for english-speaking audiences. this study confirms hatani’s finding of a direct link between language tools and information presentation logic, as seen in the variety of syntactic constructions used to convey different types of information. this alignment highlights the role of media in shaping syntactic and stylistic norms in modern japanese. since modern media resources are usually available online, journalism is moving towards digitalisation. in the paper, s. kim (2023) analysed international factors that influence the specific features of news coverage. the results of the study showed that in japan, the share of newspapers covering international news was low – about 10%, and the remaining 90% of news covered domestic issues. according to the results of this study on the influence of japanese media on the modern japanese language, it should be agreed with the author that online media should help increase public interest in news, including international issues as well. in the paper by h. mitomo and m. kimura (2022), it was noted that the broadcasting industry in japan is gradually being replaced due to the lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 139 growing role of media services, which affects, among other things, the nature of broadcasting in the media. regarding changes in speech patterns, based on the results of this study, the following can be noted: first, lexical shifts are taking place in the direction of active adaptation of foreignlanguage lexemes, and second, syntactic features of media texts and their composition are gradually changing. when considering internet media, the researchers considered such aspects as the political background, the use of fakes, the degree of trust of viewers, and the business model of broadcasting, when investigating the influence of national media on the japanese language, attention was focused on linguistic aspects. according to d. spry (2013), countries such as japan and south korea are implementing technological industrialisation, in particular, in the media discourse, to influence the success of countries in the modern world positively. this strategy involves the development of mobile, social, and local media. the results of the study by the author demonstrated the strategy for the development of mobile, social, and local media and their technological impact on modern society, while this study focuses on the impact of mass media on the language consciousness of native japanese speakers. the study is more focused on technological aspects, which limits the understanding of the cultural and linguistic impact of mass media. this is important because changes in media discourse have a significant impact on language development. unlike author’s research, this study focuses on the influence of mass media on the language consciousness of native japanese speakers. examining linguistic aspects such as the adaptation of neologisms, changes in syntactic constructions, and stylistic figures allows for a deeper understanding of how media affects language at various levels (steel and kohama, 2022). the development and expansion of the media space and information space substantially affect the literary product, as noted by s.j. shahwan (2023). modern mass media contribute to literary globalisation, in particular, the integration of cultures of different countries into the national media space. the opinion of the researcher can be fully modelled using the results of this study: in particular, at the lexical level, the influence of mass media on japanese literature consists in the use of neologisms, ocasionalisms, phraseological units, words with unusual meanings, and at the stylistic level there is a transition of metaphorical constructions, slogans, and paraphrases from the pages of the press to works of fiction. changes in the language, according to s. takano (2021) are most often associated with four main factors, including grammatical and lexical modifications, transitional stages in the development of public thought, and local social identities. it is worth agreeing with the correct opinion of the author, which can be formulated as follows: for the most part, language changes relate to the lexical layer, while phonological and syntactic modifications require a longer period. according to the results of a study on the influence of japanese media, changes occur quite slowly at the phonetic, word-forming, and syntactic levels, so the impact on them is not so noticeable. however, lexical and stylistic changes in the language of the japanese press occur very quickly, so they substantially impact the speech patterns formed by native japanese speakers (lomachynsky, 2023). based on the results of the study conducted by m.d. smith (2021), “the fusion of internationalisation and anglicisation” can lead to the hierarchisation of the english language in the economic, political, and social space. the interdependence between socio-political and linguistic processes can be illustrated by the conclusions of the study about the influence of japanese media on spoken language. an increase in the share of english-language neologisms, phraseological units, and catchphrases in japanese leads to changes at all language levels: from phonetic adaptation to stylistic text processing. this study illustrates this interdependence by showing how english-language neologisms and phrases in japanese media influence all language levels, from phonetic adaptation to stylistic processing. mass media, according to w. kustiawan et al. (2022), and v. donii (2023) substantially affect socio-cultural changes and, in particular, contribute to the dissemination of information in society. it is impossible not to agree with the thesis that media resources can influence social changes in three aspects: consciousness, attitude, and culture. the results of this study on the influence of the japanese press on the modern development of the japanese language recorded changes at the level of linguistic consciousness of native japanese speakers, which lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 140 are manifested in the correct and competent use of lexemes, grammatical forms, and compliance with the syntactic structure of sentences. in particular, the main influence concerned the lexical and stylistic levels of the language. this study aligns with authors’ thesis, showing that japanese media influence linguistic consciousness, promoting correct use of lexemes, grammatical forms, and syntactic structures, particularly at the lexical and stylistic levels. results of the study by o. asekunolarinmoye et al. (2018) showed differences and common features in the media systems of china, japan, australia, south korea, and north korea, in particular, attention was focused on determining the nature of media in these countries. the japanese media system is built on western principles, namely democracy and liberalism. based on the results of the study investigating the japanese media space, it can be concluded that these principles are also confirmed at the language level. because society sees the press as free and responsible, according to the researchers, this also affects communication patterns. in the study by p. duc-harada (2021), standard language is considered a specific role model of speech behaviour that is necessary for learning japanese. according to this study, even the language of mass media cannot be completely perfect. standard language is not something static, because it is constantly enriched through literary works, colloquial speech, and journalism, and offers variability in speech patterns. this confirms the fact that it is constantly developing, changing, and adapting to new operating conditions. research by o. asekun-olarinmoye et al. (2018) and p. ducharada (2021) both make important contributions to the understanding of media influence on the japanese language and society, but from different perspectives. the first study focuses on political and structural aspects, while the second focuses on the dynamics of standard language. both approaches have their advantages and limitations. thus, when comparing the results of this study with modern research, it was identified that the issue of reflecting social changes in the mass media and the influence of mass media on social and communicative behaviour patterns is actively considered in modern humanities. notably, the problem of interaction between modern colloquial, literary language, and the language of media discourse occupies one of the key places in linguistic science, which is due to such processes as globalisation and the technologisation of the world. the examination of the influence of mass media on the modern japanese language highlighted the main achievements of linguistic science in this field (mykhailovych, 2022; turitsyna, 2023). the findings of this study have several important implications for both the field of linguistics and practical applications in policy, curriculum design, and other areas. for linguistics, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of how mass media influence various linguistic levels in japanese, from phonetic to stylistic. this insight can inform further research on language standardisation, linguistic borrowing, and the role of media in language evolution. in terms of practical implications, the study highlights the need for language policymakers to consider the impact of media on linguistic identity and the potential homogenisation of regional dialects. curriculum designers can use these findings to integrate media literacy into language education, helping students critically engage with media content and understand its linguistic influences. despite the comprehensive nature of the study, several limitations should be acknowledged. first, the study focuses primarily on the influence of japanese mass media, which may not be entirely generalisable to other languages and media systems. additionally, the study relies on qualitative analysis, which, while in-depth, may benefit from quantitative data to support and validate the findings. the scope of the study is also limited to specific types of media (newspapers, television, radio), potentially overlooking the influence of newer digital and social media platforms. future research should address the limitations identified in this study by incorporating a broader range of media types, including digital and social media, to understand their influence on language. quantitative studies could be conducted to provide statistical validation of the qualitative findings presented here. furthermore, comparative studies across different languages and media systems could offer a more global perspective on the relationship between media and language evolution. another promising area for future research is the impact of media on language education, exploring how media resources can be effectively integrated into language learning curricula to enhance students’ lidia anistratenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 141 linguistic skills and media literacy. v. conclusions the main finding of this study is that japanese mass media significantly influences the modern development of the japanese language across various linguistic levels, including phonetic, wordforming, morphological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic. mass media enriches the language with foreign-language borrowings, artistic tropes, and new syntactic constructions, contributing to the modernization of language norms. at the lexical level, mass media introduces foreign-language borrowings, neologisms, polysemic units, and phraseological turns, which are then absorbed into colloquial speech. these lexical changes often lead to shifts at the phonetic, word-forming, and morphological levels. syntactic changes include diverse sentence structures and constructions for content expansion and topic changes. the stylistic level of media language involves artistic tropes and stylistic figures, influencing communicative behavior and language consciousness. repeated use of metaphorical, hyperbolic, and peripheral expressions enriches the language arsenal and modernizes language norms. thus, mass media significantly contributes to the variety and evolution of modern japanese language. however, the study has limitations, including its focus on traditional media types and qualitative analysis. future research should explore the influence of digital and social media, incorporate quantitative methods, and conduct comparative studies across different languages and media systems. references asadchykh, o.v., filonova, v.o., fedotova, y.s., dybska, t.s., & bukriienko, a.o. 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(2023). efficiency of remote access services by global libraries. society. document. communication, 8(3), 44-54. gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 160 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 28, 2023 final revision: july 09, 2023 available online: july 20, 2023 this article discusses the change in the minangkabau political orientation from the dutch colonial era to the present. they pose the minangkabau language as a political issue in the national interaction. this study employs content analysis and qualitative historical research methodologies. the content analysis approach is used to determine the accuracy of information gathered from many sources, as well as to describe and analyze the minangkabau language’s politicization by the minangkabau people, dutch colonialism, and the government of the republic of indonesia. this paper shows how minangkabau people view their mother tongue as a part of national identity, how they make it as the ammunition for the movement of resentencing to fight against the central government, how minangkabau people make their mother tongue a part of ethnic identity politics; and how language policy of the dutch colonial and republic of indonesia government influenced the change in minangkabau political orientation. the analysis proves that language has become inseparable from regional history dynamism and minangkabau regional-political life. the language attitude of the minangkabau people in the colonial era showed a high national spirit. language has the capacity to foster emotional connections among its proponents, whereas history can offer a comprehensive glimpse into the evolution and progression of language throughout time. keywords minangkabau language, minangkabau people, malay, government, politics, dutch colonial correspondence e-mail: oktavianus@hum.unand.ac.id article minangkabau language and change in people’s political orientation gusti asnan1, oktavianus oktavianus2 1department of history, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2department of linguistics, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.2.160-168.2023 i. introduction the political situation of minangkabau people, the ethnic group in west sumatera, indonesia, is sufficiently dynamic. the historical experiences in the various eras show this fact. minangkabau people underwent colonialization from the third decade of the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century. it became the object of political penetration, economic exploitation, and cultural penetration by dutch colonialists. up to the commencing decades of the 20th, dutch colonialism was already perfect in minangkabau. minangkabau people showed various responses to dutch colonialism. one response was the emergence of consciousness to resist and oust colonialism from their region and indonesia. furthermore, such the response made the minangkabau people the leading proponent of nationalism. it posed several minangkabau figures as the nation’s founding fathers who laid the foundations of this state and country. after the declaration of independence, especially in the 1950s, many minangkabau public figures, for example, criticized the central government due to injustice in the politics of national development. their protest, then, brought about the regional movement. it is the movement demanding the central government to pay greater attention to the regions outside of java. the idea underlying this movement is called the regionalism. some historians and socio-political experts have studied the political dynamism of urang awak referred to as minangkabau ethnicity. the researchers have proposed approaches and perspectives expressing numerous minangkabau people’s historical experiences. as a result, they gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 161 have published the books and the articles about minangkabau ethnicity – the ethnic group with a matrilineal kinship system. unfortunately, the researcher did not find the study related to the minangkabau people’s historical experiences through the analysis of the language politics of the colonialist. the language attitude of the colonies reflected their language politics. in minangkabau, the two languages that became the center of attention of the dutch colonial government were minangkabau and malay. minangkabau language is grouped into austronesia languages (hutri, 2019). it is the local language spoken by minangkabau ethnic group in west sumatra and other regions in indonesia. minangkabau language is also the mother tongue of minangkabau people. the ethnologue lists minangkabau language as one of local languages with a large number of speakers (florey, 2005). minangkabau language is spoken widely along batang hari river in jambi province, kampar river in pekan baru, muko-muko in bengkulu province, negeri sembilan in malaysia, natal and barus in north sumatra province, tapak tuan and anak jamee group in aceh province (nadra, 1997). linguists have studied minangkabau language for a long time. it covers all aspects both on the level of micro and macro linguistics (jufrizal, 2012; oktavianus, 2022). minangkabau language is rich of the politeness markers and systems (oktavianus & revita, 2013). politeness markers are dominantly realized through the indirect use of utterances, the integration of particular lexicons into sentence structures, and metaphorical expressions. minangkabau language is rich in metaphorical expressions (fanany, 2003). the richness of metaphorical expression within this language leads to the typical minangkabau people, who are not straightforward in expressing ideas in general (errington, 1984). the language styles of minangkabau people can be the evidence for such a language phenomena. minangkabau language has the roles and functions as a medium of communication of the minangkabau ethnic group, interethnic communication, the marker of local cultures and identities, as well as the language of instruction at schools, especially in the early stage of learning activities (isman, 1978). these roles and functions of minangkabau language have been going on since the dutch colonial administration. the government has indeed set indonesian as the language of instruction in schools but the minangkabau language still has a strategic role, especially in explaining things that cannot be done using indonesian or to emphasize certain aspects of the learning process to the students. language symbolizes and expresses culture (kramsch, 1998). in line with this idea, minangkabau language reflects and expresses minangkabau culture and political orientation of minangkabau people. the use of minangkabau language in political and cultural contexts is an indicator of these phenomena. names of various local foods are examples of how minangkabau language reflects minangkabau culture (oktavianus & khairil anwar, 2022). in the colonial period, two local languages played a vital role. they are minangkabau and malay language. these two languages are the language that functioned as the medium of interethnic communication, the language of trade, and islam (steinhauer, 2005). steinhauer also noted that the malay language is also used as the medium of instruction in school at the initial stage of the learning process. as part of the colonial government’s educational policy, the malay language, named melayu revolusioner, was used because it was regarded as the language that could unite regional nationalism (anderson, 1990). minangkabau and malay language are two languages that are closely related to each other linguistically. if malay is the language of politics (anderson, 1990), then the minangkabau language can also be regarded as the language of politics. therefore, the political roles of minangkabau language and its effects on the political orientation of the minangkabau people need to study. this study is essential and exciting to do to prove that language does not only act as a means of communication but more than that language also has a vital role in carrying out political missions. therefore, the researchers choose to discuss three main themes, namely (1) dutch language politics and minangkabau nationalism; (2) jakarta’s injustice and the minangkabau people’s regionalism; and (3) minangkabau language and identity politics in the reformed era. this study aims to provide an overview of the three main themes as proposed. besides, this gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 162 study also aims to trace the minangkabau language journey and read the socio-political situation of the urang awak from the dutch colonial to the reformed era. this study will be beneficial and positively impact the development of historical and language studies, two fundamental aspects of human life. ii. methods this research uses qualitative historical research methods and content analysis. there are four stages used in conducting this study and writing this article. the four stages are collecting references and sources, critical analysis of the sources, interpretation, and historiography. this study used qualitative data consisting of primary and secondary data (salevouris et al., 2015). the content analysis method is used to find out the accuracy of information from the sources collected and to describe and analyze the politicization of the minangkabau language by the minangkabau people, the dutch colonialism, and the government of the republic of indonesia (krippendorff, 2004). iii. result and discussion 3.1 dutch language politics and minangkabau nationalism. in general, the dutch government and the linguists began paying attention to minangkabau language in the fifth decade of the 19th century. the emergence of such attention is closely related to establishing the nagari school in the minangkabau region. minangkabau language became the focus of attention, for it functioned as the medium of instruction at the nagari school established in 1843 (steinmetz, 1924). the use of the minangkabau language as the language of instruction in nagari school was motivated by three reasons. firstly, the pupils of the nagari school could only speak the minangkabau language, so it was easy for them to understand the lesson. secondly, the nagari school graduates only worked in the minangkabau region, so their communication space is mainly in minangkabau. generally, they were the clerks at the government’s coffee warehouses. thirdly, the dutch colonial policy restricted the dutch language teaching to the native people. the use of the minangkabau language as the language of instruction at government schools only took place briefly. in the 1850s, the colonial government’s officials began questioning the minangkabau language as the language of instruction at the government’s schools. then, at that time, the dutch government established kweekschool in bukittinggi. the graduates of this school would become a teacher or government workers to post in other regions in sumatra. thus, the language for the instruction medium is the one that people use widely. therefore, the choice fell into malay as the medium of instruction. malay was chosen for it has become the lingua franca among almost ethnicities across sumatra in particular and all over dutch east indies in general (gedenboek et al. 1856-1908, 1908). later on, malay as the language of instruction spread almost over all schools allocated to the native people in minangkabau such as school of class 2, school of class 1, and advanced school (vervolg school). the colonial education politics divided the indonesian people by differentiating the language of instruction in the schools they founded. the government expected unity would never evolve among the indonesian learned group if they used different languages. at the end of the 19th century, the dutch colonial government came to decide on language-based school groups in dutch east indies (daftar goedang kitab gubernemen in betawi, 1892). the school groups are malay speaking school, javanese speaking school, sundanese speaking school, madurese speaking school, balinese speaking school, batakese speaking school, niasser speaking school, tunbulune speaking school, makassarese speaking school, bugise speaking school, bayakse speaking school, baweanese speaking school, and sangihese-speaking school. in general, using malay as the language of instruction at numerous government schools did not bring about any problems for minangkabau people. there was no protest among the urang awak against the policy. minangkabau language belongs to the malay cognate so there are few differences among them. it was easy for minangkabau people to understand malay. modern islamic schools, such as the thawalib school, founded at the beginning of the 20th century, used malay as the language of instruction (audrey, 1999).besides, malay was also the language of the newspapers and magazines published by the minangkabau people. both islamic newspapers gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 163 and magazines using this malay were widely welcomed by readers across sumatra and javanese island (darwis, 2013). minangkabau people used malay as the official language of various social-political organizations. malay became the official language of jong sumatranen bond, an organization where many minangkabau people became members and held important positions (hatta, 2011). malay became indonesia’s unitarian language as decided in the youth’s oaths in 1928, and muhammad yamin was one of the crucial figures making the youth’s oaths come about (hatta, 2011). dutch colonial government wanted to change this situation, where malay became increasingly vital. this condition might awaken minangkabau people’s nationalism. the appearance of indonesian nationalism endangered and threatened the intact power of dutch colonialists in this country. therefore, they attempted to decrease the power of malay among minangkabau people. in addition, some dutch writers started finding discrepancies between minangkabau and malay. they started complimenting the minangkabau people’s prominence compared to malay ones. lekkerkerker, for instance, wrote that malay in the riau and johor language and minangkabau are different. malay in riau, johor, and some regions on the east coast of sumatra are coastal malay. minangkabau is the inland malay. the coastal malay, such as riau, johor, and some regions on the east coast of sumatra has long become the object of colonization. in comparison, minangkabau became the colonizer and had much influence in sumatra and peninsular malaysia (lekkerkerker, 1916). minangkabau language is a part of malay and closer to riau malay, the special malay, the independent language equal to riau malay (joustra, 1923). minangkabau language is even the mother of malay since the trustworthy malay people originated from minangkabau (loeb, 1974). the colonial government made a new policy. they decided to decrease the power of the malay language among the urang awak. such a policy, then, was practiced at the government’s schools. the government set up to make minangkabau language the medium of instruction at schools. in the beginning, this idea was brought up by welming, a folk school teaching inspector in the congress of all sumatra assistant teachers in bukittinggi in 1928. it was stated in the congress that the regional language as the means of instruction at schools would, then, be established. minangkabau language would be used in west sumatra. unfortunately, west sumatra delegates severely refuted the proposal. then, west sumatra delegates said they wanted minangkabau language to use as something other than the means of instruction at schools in their regions. they wanted to keep using malay as the medium of communication. welming ignored the refusal of west sumatra delegates, and he even called them and compelled them to agree to his ideas (asnan, 2007).what is interesting to observe here is how the rulers argue about the language to use as the medium of instruction but their hidden agenda is a political mission. after the congress, several west sumatra educational figures proposed a resolution to annul the policy of using the minangkabau language as the means of school instruction. after the consultations and demonstrations, the government finally reached a compromise stance. minangkabau language was still a medium of instruction only for the pupils of year one until year three at the elementary school for native children (folk school) (asnan, 2007). the minangkabau educators and even politicians kept disagreeing with the government’s compromising response. they kept inhibiting any government’s effort to use the minangkabau language as the means of instruction at the elementry school. the government published the teaching book titled lakeh pandai ‘quick learner’ and kinilah pandai ‘now is already smart’ for a reading lesson. minangkabau leaders strongly protested the publication of the books. through minangkabau raad, they proposed a motion to stop the publication of the books. the ones already distributed were drawn out of circulation. unfortunately, the government took no care of such a protest. thus, minangkabau educators committed defiance in other forms. they pun the books entitled lakeh pandai into lakeh pandia ‘quickly of being stupid’ and kinilah pandai into kinilah pandia ‘now (is) already stupid’ (suryadi, 2006).the responses of minangkabau educators and politicians to use malay as the medium of instruction at schools showed that urang awak nationalist attitude toward the malay language was part of indonesian nationalism at that time. language creativity of minangkabau people to weave their linguistic capacities of minangkabau gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 164 language into puns and language plays to criticize the existing inequalities have been going on since the colonial period. 3.2 the jakarta’s injustice and the minangkabau people’s regionalism the 1950s were one of the most exciting periods in the history of contemporary minangkabau. right in the era, there were lots of important events in minangkabau. one of them was the formation of the revolutionary government of the republic of indonesia, which is well known by the abbreviation of prri (pemerintah revolusioner republik indonesia). nowadays, the presence of prri still triggers a historical debate. jakarta viewed it as a separatist movement. in the history books published by the central government, the incident was named the prri rebellion (onghokham, 1965). then, among the prri proponents, this movement was called a corrective movement to jakarta. they said prri was to warn jakarta of its unjust treatment of the region. jakarta was blamed for paying too much attention to java island. jakarta was said to focus too much on developing physical and human resources on java island. the prri proponents wanted to warn jakarta to be fair because most of the finance used for the development of java island was sent from the region outside java island, including from central sumatra, the center of prri (yusra, 1998). the allegation that jakarta was unfair to the region, including minangkabau, indeed appeared far before the burst of prri in 1958. such an accusation was based on jakarta’s unfairness in sharing the kue pembangunan ‘cake of development’ – a metaphor used at the time and its injustice in posting the state dignitaries, civil servants, and the army. jakarta prioritized the javanese as the regional citizen to occupy the structural occupational position in the regions or prioritized more javanese to become civil servants and army than the ones from the region. other than that, such injustice was also in jakarta’s policy in nourishing the national culture, including lesson content on the history and development of the indonesian language. since the beginning of the 1950s, to develop national education, the government of the republic of indonesia has prepared the content of history lessons whose material was suitable for both situation and condition of the republic of indonesia, having proclaimed its independence. while preparing the teaching book, historical events on java island dominated the book’s content. the historical stories on java island also predominated the history books intended to support teaching material. it made minangkabau people envy. the minangkabau people published history books about various events in minangkabau regions (klooster, h.a.j.,1985) and (asnan, 2004). as the newly free country from colonization, the indonesian government attempted to formulate a national culture. ki hajar dewantara’s conception of the national culture as the regional components of the highest excellence seemed acceptable to the central government. however, jakarta tends to pay more attention to the javanese culture and those available on java island. this situation can reduce the sense of unity. similarly, it is also applied to national language policy. at that time, indonesian was still being developed, and many vocabularies came from foreign languages (anderson, 1990). besides, there were still many dutch vocabularies used by indonesian language speakers. thus, it was necessary to find out the correspondence. the government made a policy to search the new vocabulary from local languages in indonesia to add new vocabulary and substitute the dutch vocabulary. however, most of vocabularies adopted were the ones from javanese origins. the tendency to adopt the javanese vocabulary has been eyes-bare seen in the first years of the 1950s. hamka mentioned tens and even hundreds of javanese vocabularies having made the indonesian language in 1951. this quantity was much higher than the other regional languages, including malay in general and minangkabau in particular (haluan, 1951). the central government’s unfairness was also in jakarta’s treatment which only constitutes three language sections in cultural division, namely java, sunda, dan madura (gema udara, 1956). the injustice of jakarta eventually became an ignitor for minangkabau people to ask that the vocabularies of their regional language were also given equal opportunity as languages existing on java island in enriching the vocabularies of the indonesian language. minangkabau people also demanded that jakarta set up minangkabau or malay section in cultural division. besides, gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 165 minangkabau public figures also requested minangkabau language as additional examination material at senior high school and the medium of instruction in the first years of elementary school in central sumatra (gema udara, 1956). as mentioned above, the demand of minangkabau leaders became the embryo of the regional movement and finally broke up into prri. the linguistic factor was one of the issues underlying the regional movement. language has the power to trigger the movement. after the prri, the minangkabau people carried out language politics which was unique and interesting to observe. they adopted javanese names or selfjavanese to avoid pressure, intimidation from the central government and as the survival strategy (asnan, 2007). 3.3 minangkabau language and identity politics in the reformed era. the reformed era is named for a time in indonesian political history in 1998. it was marked by the soeharto’s stepping down from his presidency of the republic of indonesia and the end of the new order power. as the name implies, the reformed era is designed to change what has been there before and reform something new. more significantly, the reformed era was formulated to present the newer order in indonesia’s political, social, economic, and cultural aspects. therefore, the reformed era is signified by drastic changes in indonesia’s political, social, economic, and cultural aspects. the changes are supported by law number 22 of 1999 on regional autonomy. the most prominent political change was the presence of a democratic and decentralized government. it was also seen in the constitution that there are several new administrative regions at the provincial, regency, and municipal levels. the political change was also seen in strengthening the political role and participation of social groups whose political rights were previously restricted. social changes also marked the reformed era. the most prominent was the appearance of social groups previously marginalized from the stage of national history. the fortification of identity politics also accompanied the social-political changes. the strengthening of this identity politics was, among others, due to the similarity of administrative and cultural regions. a particular ethnicity also predominates an administrative region. the majority group in such an administrative region wanted to make themselves the regional representation. in the first years of the reformed era, four new regencies emerged, namely (1) the regency of mentawai islands; (2) the regency of west pasaman; (3) the regency of dharmasraya; and (4) the regency of southern solok. furthermore, since the reformed era, many chinese, batakse, tapanulians, niassers, and javanese got positions on the regional political stages. they became legislative members, and even among them became the head of the region. it was a phenomenon that had never happened before. as a majority social group in this region, minangkabau welcomed the reformed era with the cultural movements. the social-political changes foster identity politics. regional elites wanted to strengthen minangkabau’s identity in the regional socio-political life by reviving nagari and surau, well-known with the slogan of babaliak ka nagari and babaliak ka surau. in minangkabau, nagari is a group of regions headed by a wali nagari. the nagari administrative system existed even before the dutch came to indonesia (asnan, 2007). in the new order era, the authority converted the nagari administrative system into a village administrative system through law number 5 of 1979 on village administrative systems. the central government uniformed the system, pattern, and control of developing all regions under the name desa ‘village .’culturally, the concepts of desa ‘village’ and nagari are different. the regional government regulation of the province of west sumatra number 9 of 2000 supported the spirit of babaliak ka nagari and surau, ‘reviving to nagari and surau .’the movement aims to improve the understanding of minangkabau youth about minangkabau adat. besides, the movements also aim to establish the nagari adat ‘the nagari colored by minangkabau adat. the idea to change the name and status of the province of west sumatra into daerah istimewa minangkabau ‘special territory of minangkabau’ emerged. however, the central government has not approved this movement. the other prominent change was the revitalization of both adat and cultures. one is the commitment to strengthen the use of the gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 166 that time. the dutch government has a dynamic language attitude toward minangkabau and malay. the dutch colonial government had a language political strategy that could benefit them. however, the language-based school grouping policy during the colonial era were not only benefited the dutch government in terms of weakening the unity of indonesians but indirectly strengthened the identity of local people. third, indonesia’s independence could have brought better socio-political conditions to indonesia, particularly minangkabau. the injustice of the central government sparked the enthusiasm of the minangkabau people to demand fair treatment from all aspects. prri was formed. then, the prri rebellion was over. again, language played a vital role at the time. some minangkabau people adopt javanese names at least to obscure their identity. fourth, in the new order era, the role of the minangkabau people in politics, government, and various other sectors grew stronger. however, central government’s policy to uniform the system of government at the lower levels in villages eroded local identities. the place names in minangkabau regions are also indonesianized. the government even rolled out the policy of prohibiting using foreign terms for the place names. fifth, the reformed era significantly changed minangkabau’s social and political life. minangkabau people chant the slogan and movement of babaliak ka nagari and babaliak ka surau. the central government then agreed to the proposal. sixth, what is interesting to observe now is the language politics of the minangkabau people, which is identical to the language politics of the dutch colonial government. politicians, government, and community leaders use minangkabau language to pursue their interests. the banners containing the slogans, expressions, appeals, and prohibitions in the minangkabau language are scattered in public spaces. on political campaign banners, for example, minangkabau people are proud and confident to put their gala adat rather than academic titles after the names. besides, they also prefer to use minangkabau expressions and phrases on the campaign banners. this strategy was developed in such a way as to knit emotional bonds between the leaders, minangkabau language continuously. these were, among others, seen in the effort of the kepala daerah, ‘the regent,’ to use toponyms such as names of nagari or geography in the minangkabau language. baharuddin r, west pasaman regent (20102015), proclaimed to use the names of simpang ampek instead of simpang empat, aia bangih instead of air bengis, and sungai aua instead of sungai aur on 19 september 2010. minangkabau writer, darman munir, suggested that nagari and region names should use the minangkabau language. he criticized the “indonesianization” of nagari and geographical names. he preferred ikua koto instead of ikur koto and sungai sariak instead of sungai sarik (notulen of seminar bank indonesia, 2014). translating the toponym of nagari and regions may shift and change the meaning. translating ikua koto into ikur koto and sungai sariak into sungai sungai sarik is inappropriate. a good translation is a translation that can reach the closest natural equivalent in meaning, and it is sometimes difficult to achieve because of the cultural differences underlying the source language and the target language (larson, 1984). going back to pure minangkabau is the central theme of identity politics. the presence of identity politics under the idea of returning to pure and original minangkabau among urang awak is closely associated with the change of political and social aspects. iv. conclusion at the end of this writing, the researchers can conclude and highlight six main points related to the minangkabau language and the change in people’s political orientation from the dutch colonial government to the reformed era. first, during the dutch colonial period, language was essential in carrying out the political agenda. on the one hand, the policy of the language-based school groupings and the shifting of the minangkabau language to malay and back to minangkabau as a medium of instruction was to regulate the use of language in the education domain. however, on the other hand, it also contains political agenda. second, the dutch government carefully read and observed the language situation in society at gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 167 references anderson, b. r.o’g. (1990). language and power. new york. cornell university press. asnan, g. (2004). “geography, historiography, and regional identity: west sumatra in the 1950s” dalam hanneman samuel & henk schulte nordholt (eds.), indonesia in transition: rethinking ‘civil society’, ‘region’ and ‘crisis. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar), pp. 129-146. asnan, g. (2007). memikir ulang regionalisme: sumatra barat tahun 1950-an. jakarta: penerbit yayasan obor indonesia. audrey, k. (1999). rebellion to integration. amsterdam: amsterdam university press. darwis, y. ( 2013). sejarah perkembangan pers minangkabau, 1859-1945. gramedia pustaka utama. daftar goedang kitab gubernemen di batawi 1892. batavia: landsdrukkerij. errington, f.k. (1984). manner and meaning in west sumatera: the social context of consciousness. new york: yale university. fanany, i, & rebecca fanany. (2003). wisdom of malay proverbs. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. florey, m. (2005). language shift and endangerment. in the austronesian languages of asia and madagascar, eds. alexander adelaar and nikolaus p. himmelmann, 43-64. london: routledge. gunawan, r. (2012). pemuda dan perempuan dalam dinamika nasionalisme indonesia. in indonesia dalam arus sejarah: masa pergerakan kebangsaan, eds. taufik abdullah and a.b. lapian, 353375. jakarta: ichtiar baru van hoeve. gedenkboek school radja fort de kock 1856-1908. fort de kock: school radja. gema udara: kumpulan pidato radio bagian bahasa/sastra perwakilan djawatan kebudajaan sumatra tengah 1956. bukittinggi: perwakilan djawatan kebudajaan sumatra tengah. haluan newspaper (local newspaper) 11, 12, 13 dan 14 april 195. hatta, m. (2011). untuk negeriku, jilid 1: bukittinggi – rotterdam lewat betawi. jakarta: buku kompas. hutri, k, et al. (2019). hubungan kekerabatan antara bahasa minangkabau, bahasa karo dan bahasa gayo. jurnal arkhais 10(1) 19-26. isman, j, et al. (1978). kedudukan dan fungsi bahasa minangkabau di sumatera barat. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. joustra, m. (1923). minangkabau: land, volk en geschiedenis. ‘s-gravenhage: martinus nijhoff. jufrizal. (2012). tata bahasa minangkabau. padang: unp press. kramsch. (1998). language and cultures. oxford: oxford university press. krippendorff, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. thousand oaks, london, new delhi: sage publication. klooster, h.a.j. (1985). indonesiers schrijven hun geschiedenis. dordrecht: foris publications. larson, m l. (1984). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence. new york: university press of america. politicians, government, and society in general so that what they planned and wished could be achieved. language can build emotional bonds among its speakers, while history can provide an overview of the dynamics and journey of language itself across time. this phenomenon becomes a good turning point for history and minangkabau language studies at this time and in the future. gusti asnan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 2 (2023) 168 lekkerkekrker, c. (1916). land en volk van sumatra. leiden: e.j. brill. loeb, e. (1974). sumatra its history and people (2nd impression). kuala lumpur: oxford university press. nadra. (1997). “geografi dialek bahasa minangkabau”. yogyakarta: disertasi doktor di universitas gadjah mada. notulen seminar memorabilia bank indonesia padang, 11 december 2014. oktavianus & ike revita. (2013). kesantunan dalam bahasa mianngkabau. padang: minangkabau press. oktavianus & khairil anwar (2022). local food diversity in minangkabau. iop conf. ser.: earth environ. sci. 1107 012056. doi 10.1088/1755-1315/1107/1/012056. oktavianus. (2022). kiasan dalam bahasa minangkabau. padang: minangkabau express. onghokham. (1965). sapta marga berkumandang di sumatea. operasi-operasi menumpas pemberontakan prri. djakarta: pusat sejarah angkatan bersendjata. salevouris, m j. & furay conal. (2015). the methods and skill of history: a practical guide. chichester: john wiley & sons, inc. steinhauer, h. (2005). colonial history and language policy in insular southeast asia and madagascar. in the austronesian languages of asia and madagascar, eds. alexander adelaar and nikolaus p. himmelmann, 65-86. london: routledge. steinmetzt, h.e. (1924). “inlands onderwijs van overheidswege in de paangsche bovenlanden voor 1850. de grondlegger. zijn invloed en ziijn perssonlijk bemoeiennissen op dit gebied”. in tijdschrift voor indische taal-, landen volkenkude, 64, 1924, 303-320. suryadi. (2006). “vernacular intelligence: colonial pedagogy and the language question in minangkabau.” in indonesia and the malay world, 34: 100, pp. 315–344, doi: 10.1080/1363981060113018. yusra, a & syafruddin al. (1998). sebastian tanamas, tak menggantang asap: otobiografi seorang pejuang dan pengusaha industri kerajinan. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. biography gusti asnan is a lecturer and professor of history, faculty of humanities, andalas university padang, west sumatra, indonesia. he has published books and chapter books and articles in national and international journals. he is a reviewer of some national and international journals related to history. oktavianus is a linguistics professor at the faculty of humanities, andalas university. his research interests are in semantics, pragmatics, and linguistic landscape. he has published books, some chapter books, and articles in national and international journals. he is a reviewer of some national and international journals. he is also a member of the indonesian linguistic society. marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 94 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this study investigates the realisation of the refusal speech acts addressed by the native speakers of tanjung tanah (tj. tanah) dialect of kerinci to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. twenty-five native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect; 10 males and 15 females whose ages between 19 to 26-year-old were selected to be research participants. data were collected by means of an open role-play. then, the role-play’s data were transcribed and were classified according to the taxonomy of the refusal strategies formulated by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). the results showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect employed two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to refusal. in addition to this, they made different frequency of the semantic formulas when declining the wish of the interlocutors of different social status. mostly, they made higher frequency of ‘reasons’, direct ‘no’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘elaborative reasons’ to the interlocutors of high and low social status. in contrast, they made higher frequency of direct ‘no’, ‘reasons’, ‘negative willingness’ and ‘persuasion’ to the interlocutors of equal social status. clearly, the social status of the interlocutors affects the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. keywords kerinci dialect, refusal strategies, role-play, speech act, sociopragmatics correspondence e-mail: mar@siswa.ukm.edu.my article the realisation of the refusal speech act in tanjung tanah dialect of kerinci marniati1, mohammad fadzeli jaafar2 1,2linguistics department, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, bangi,malaysia 1. introduction communicating with one another is a vital part of people’s lives. most of people communicate to express their thoughts, give orders, share ideas and provide information (mowlana, 2013). this activity takes place in different contexts, involves people from different social backgrounds, and happens among interactants of different social relations (holmes, 2017). nevertheless, this activity cannot simply be seen as how people utter a ‘true’ sentence to give apprehensible meanings rather than as how people reveal a meaningful action through their utterances. for this reason, this activity is argued as the way people express speech acts, e. g, thanking, inviting, apologising, giving a command, making a request, and stating a refusal (austin, 1962; nelson, 2002; felix-brasdefer, 2008). these speech acts are universal and are present in every language. however, the realisation of these speech acts are denoted as contextually distinctive because they are greatly influenced by social factors and socio-cultural norms such as speech contexts and situations, social status of interlocutors and the traditions of a society (moaveni, 2014; morkus, 2009). furthermore, among the types of the speech acts, a refusal is presumed as one of the prevalent occurrences, which reveal the discrepant exchanges between two communicative interactants. since the last three decades, much attention has been given to the production and to how this speech act has been expressed chiefly against a request, an invitation, a suggestion, and an offer (al-kayed, al-zubi, & al-kayid, 2020; živković, 2020). subsequently, the speech act of refusal is denoted as culturally distinctive because it is expressed differently in different language and culture (felix-brasdefer, 2003; nassar, saad, & nordin, 2020). in addition to this, the speech act of refusal is assumed as a negative response (abuarrah & lochtman, 2019; received: july 20, 2022 final revision: october 10, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.94-106.2022 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 95 sattar, lah, & suleiman, 2011; siebold & busch, 2015). also, it is considered as a conflict trigger as some potential misunderstandings are often discernible throughout its offensive occurrences (beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz, 1990). for this reason, the refusers might soften the force of their refusal illocutions. to this end, some degree of indirectness may occur (houck & gass, 1996). remarkably, the use of particular modalities in the realisation of the refusal speech acts can be described as the realisation of the refusal strategies. to date, the realisation of the refusal strategies has been studied from different contexts, in different languages and cultures, and in different speech communities. nonetheless, most of the previous studies tended to look at the realisation of the refusal strategies from the perspective of cross cultural pragmatics. for examples, nassar et al. (2020), al-shboul & maros (2020), moafian, yazdi, & sarani (2019) and wijayanto (2019). meanwhile, other studies focused on how the language learners performed the refusal strategies in the target languages such as hashemian (2021), nurjaleka (2020) and hariri & moini (2020). these studies found that the cultural norms of speakers greatly governed their native, and simultaneously influenced their target language’s refusal. driven from these findings, it is clear that every language has its own native refusal strategies. therefore, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in one language can be deemed as a significant research aim. however, some of the monolingual studies on the refusal strategies have previously been conducted. among them, felix-brasdefer (2006) examined the linguistic components of refusal and politeness strategies by male speakers of mexican-spanish both in formal and in informal situations. sattar, che lah, & suleiman (2010) investigated the orders, the frequencies and the contents of semantic formulas of refusal strategies expressed by native speakers of iraqi arabic. triana & aman (2011) investigated the realisation of refusal strategies made by the youngsters of minangkabau in west sumatera, indonesia. izadi & zilaie (2014) investigated the refusal strategies expressed by iranian speakers of persian. however, these studies only investigated the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, english, mexican-spanish, persian, and minangkabau. although minangkabau is a regional dialect of indonesia, it has officially been recognised as the standard language of minang (antoni, irham, & ronsi, 2019). this means that the refusal strategies in non-standard dialects have almost not been investigated. driven from this fact, this current study investigates the refusal strategies in tanjung tanah dialect (henceforth tj. tanah dialect) of kerinci. the refusals are considered because of their defiant nature in which performing ‘appropriate’ refusals require ‘appropriate’ strategies. likewise, the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is chosen due to its non-standard regional dialect category. specifically, it is a variant of the kerinci dialect; the kerinci dialect originates from a malayo-polynesian variety of malayic, a branch of the austronesian language family spoken in kerinci regency. thus, investigating the realisation of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci enables this study to present more recognisable novelties in the studies of the refusal speech acts. furthermore, as this study employs the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci, its main objectives are set to discover the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect in the context of declining an offer, a request and an invitation from the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. the findings of this study are expected to be recognisable novelties of the pragmatics studies of speech acts in general and of the sociopragmatics studies of refusal speech acts in particular. in addition to this, the results of this study will make important contributions to the enrichment of linguistic inventories mainly on the types and patterns, and on the varieties of the refusal strategies in one of the non-standard dialect variants of kerinci. 2. methods research design this study is typically a quantitative research. specifically, this study implemented a survey design, which is also referred to as a descriptive design (edmond & kennedy, 2017). this design provides a quantitative description of trends, behaviours, attitudes, or opinions of a population marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 96 (creswell & creswell, 2018). in this procedure, researchers gather numerical or quantitative data and statistically analyse the data to generate the final outcomes (creswell, 2011; mills & gay, 2019). in this present study, the descriptive design was implemented to analyse the refusal strategies employed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. then, the refusal strategies produced by the participant were grouped and transformed into numerical data for further computation. later, the amount the refusal strategies produced by the participant were analysed quantitatively using descriptive statistical analysis. participants the participants of this study were purposively selected based on two main criteria. firstly, they were the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. secondly, they were the undergraduate students of universities/colleges in indonesia whose age between 19 – 26 years old by the time of data collection. based on these two main criteria, 25 native speakers of tj. tanah dialect who met the criteria were selected to be the participants. they were 10 males and 15 females who were born and grew up in tj. tanah, speak the tj. tanah dialect, and were the first up to the final year undergraduate students of public universities and colleges in kerinci, palembang, jambi, bengkulu and in west sumatera. for the purpose of data collection, each participant was coded using an ‘r’ that stands for ‘respondent’ followed by his/her sequence roleplay’s turn. for example, ‘r01’, which is read as ‘the respondent 01’. however, gender of each participant was excluded from the coding. instruments the primary data collection instrument of this study was an open role-play adapted from the discourse completion test (dct) by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). however, some modifications were made to suit with the scope and the design of this study. later, this role-play instrument was assessed by a linguistics expert from department of linguistics universiti kebangsaan malaysia. the assessment resulted that this roleplay contained three initiating acts and three social variables within nine role-play situations. these nine role-play situations contained an act of refusing an offer, a request and an invitation from an interlocutor of high, low and equal social status. the contexts of the role-play were set up to be the interpersonal communication between the interactants of close social distance but they were different in term of social status. based on this particular context, the refusal strategies intended for this study were expressed by a person of low to a person of high social status (low-to-high), by a person of high to a person of low social status (high-to-low) and by a person of equal social status (equal-to-equal). the brief scenarios of this roleplay are disclosed in appendix. procedures the role-play performances were held at a multi-purpose hall in tj. tanah village of kerinci. the participants were invited to perform the role-plays at different times. each participant was required to fill a form prior to performing the role-plays. this form contained some demographic profiles such as age, gender and background of education. later, he/she would sign a consent letter attached on the form. after that, a role-play scenario written in english was handed to the participant and he/she was required to comprehend the contents of the scenario such as the context of the interactions, the initiating acts, the social status he/she was going to ‘role-play’, and the social status of the interlocutor he/she was going to engage with. to help to the participant to comprehend the contents of the scenario, the researchers would verbally translate them into bahasa indonesia followed by a verbal translation into the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci. then, the participant was informed that the role-plays would take several turns and would be audio recorded. due to this matter, he/she was advised to perform the refusal strategies as he/she always does in his/her real life. analysis the verbal data obtained from the role-plays were transcribed on the basis of the international phonetic alphabet (ipa) following the work of salmani-nodoushan (2006). this work was selected because there were no standard orthographic transcription systems of the tj. tanah dialect, which could be a reference. based on salmaninodoushan (2006), the characters included into the transcriptions represented the sound produced by the participants. likewise, the characters marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 97 included into the transcription of these role-plays represented the sound produced by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect. then, the corpus of data were sorted based on semantic formulas. this semantic formulas can be a form of words, phrases, or sentences, which meet a particular semantic criterion or strategy (cohen, 1996). later, each semantic formula was coded using the initial ‘h’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of high, ‘l’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of low and ‘e’ if it was addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. after that, this code was placed next to the participant’s codes and his/her sequence numbers followed by a dash and the sequence numbers of the semantic formulas he/she had expressed. for example, ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t) is read as ‘the semantic formula 01 was expressed by participant 07 to an interlocutor of high social status’. next, the categories of the semantic formulas were determined based on the taxonomy of the refusal strategies by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990). finally, the descriptive statistical analysis was performed to obtain the final outcomes. 3. results the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the direct and the indirect refusal strategies, and the adjuncts when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. these three refusal strategies yielded twenty semantic formulas, which were two direct strategies, fourteen indirect strategies, and four adjuncts to the refusals (the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies were written in square braket). the direct refusal strategies contained direct [no] as in ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’,‘r01h-16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’ (no) and [negative willingness] ‘r07h-01 akau dəksəa dək’ (i can’t). the indirect refusal strategies contained [apology] ‘r12h-12 mintek maaf yea: lah’ (i’m so sorry), [reasons] ‘r06h-18 akau sibuk nyan’ (i’m so busy), [elaborative reasons] ‘r10h-12 akau pun (..) deksea knoh angai dek, bisea jadi:: penyakait’ (i can’t get through the wind, can be disease), [conditional acceptance] r06h-02 klok dkeat boleh lah (.) (if it is near, i can), [future acceptance] ‘r24h-03 slagin, mauh koh’ (next time, i want), [principle]‘r19h-20 akau lah sudeah janjei duleu’ (i have promised), [lack of empathy] r04h-14 dək ikao adeo teah! (are not you there!), and [critic] ‘r05h-02 tmpek nih jeuh nian dək’ (this place is very far away). other indirect refusal strategies were [request for understanding] ‘r01e-51 yeu dək usah lah dək’ (please, don’t. i’m begging you), [persuasion]‘r16e-67 apao yaseo yea. ikao yea lah’ (take it easy, do it yourself, [alternative]‘r04e-54 tau akau meli ngan baheu’ (let me buy a new one), [indefinite reply] ‘r11e-52.2 tao lah kau ngatao’ (i will tell you later), [inquiring further information]‘r17l-40 minggu dateh?..’ (next week?), and [lack of enthusiasm] ‘r04e-67 akau maleah nyan akau tibeo’ (i’m so lazy to come). meanwhile, adjunct to refusals appeared in form of [positive opinion] ‘r08h-35 akau sebenae nyan mbao::h, tapi’ (i wan’t, but…), [empathy]‘r03e-53 dək apao lah..’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] ‘r08h31 we:h’, and [solidarity reference] ‘r02e-64 ilaok lah kawa’ (you are better). table 1. the frequency of the semantic formulas the refusal strategies h l e f f f no 58 53 55 negative willingness 44 38 41 apology 25 37 17 reasons 65 54 46 elaborative reasons 46 46 24 conditional acceptance 17 20 16 future acceptance 10 17 10 principle 22 31 13 lack of empathy 28 24 31 critic 31 24 12 request for understanding 13 28 27 persuasion 26 24 39 suggestion of alternative 13 11 15 indefinite reply 23 15 20 request for further information 15 20 28 lack of enthusiasm 44 17 23 positive opinion 23 26 14 statement of empathy 10 12 39 pause fillers 32 35 25 solidarity reference 37 13 22 total 582 545 517 furthermore, the results of descriptive statistical analysis showed that the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made different frequency of the semantic formulas when addressing the refusal marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 98 strategies as presented in table 1. specifically, an ‘h’, ‘l’ and ‘e’ placed on the first right colum of the table 1 stand for the social status of the interlucutors namely ‘high’, ‘low’ and ‘equal’. meanwhile, an ‘f’ placed on the second right colum of the table 1 stands for ‘the frequency distribution’. meanwhile, the percentages of each semantic formula of the refusal strategies were presented in the table 2. table 2. the percentage of each semantic formula the refusal strategies h l e % % % no 10.0% 9.7% 10.6% negative willingness 7.6% 7.0% 7.9% apology 4.3% 6.8% 3.3% reasons 11.2% 9.9% 8.9% elaborative reasons 7.9% 8.4% 4.6% conditional acceptance 2.9% 3.7% 3.1% future acceptance 1.7% 3.1% 1.9% principle 3.8% 5.7% 2.5% lack of empathy 4.8% 4.4% 6.0% critic 5.3% 4.4% 2.3% request for understanding 2.2% 5.1% 5.2% persuasion 4.5% 4.4% 7.5% suggestion of alternative 2.2% 2.0% 2.9% indefinite reply 4.0% 2.8% 3.9% further information 2.6% 3.7% 5.4% lack of enthusiasm 7.6% 3.1% 4.4% positive opinion 4.0% 4.8% 2.7% statement of empathy 1.7% 2.2% 7.5% pause fillers 5.5% 6.4% 4.8% solidarity reference 6.4% 2.4% 4.3% total 100% 100% 100% based on the table 1 and 2, the total semantic formulas revealed from this study were 1644. 582 of them were addressed to the interlocutors of high social status, 545 others were addressed to the interlocutors of low social status, and 517 of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. evidently, the highest numbers of the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and finally the interlocutors of equal social status. specifically, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of high social status were the [reasons] 11.2%, followed by the flat [no] 10%, [elaborative reasons] 7.9%, [negative willingness] 7.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 7.6%, [solidarity reference] 6.4%, [pause filler] 5.5%, [critic] 5.3, [lack of empathy] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.5, [apology] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 4.0%, [positive opinion] 4.0%, [statement of principle] 3.8%, [conditional acceptance] 2.9%, [inquire further information] 2.6, [statement of alternative] 2.2%, [request for understanding] 2.2%, [future acceptance] 1.7% and the least refusal strategies was [statement of empathy] 1.7%. likewise, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed to the interlocutors of low social was also the [reasons] 9.9%, followed by the flat [no] 9.7%, [elaborative reasons] 8.4%, [negative willingness] 7.0%. nevertheless, the next semantic formulas fell to the statement of [apology] 6.8%, [pause fillers] 6.4, [principle] 5.7%, [request for understanding] 5.1%, [positive opinion] 4.8%, [persuasion] 4.4%, [lack of empathy] 4.4%, [critic] 4.4%, [conditional acceptance] 3.7%, [request further information] 3.7%, [future acceptance] 3.1%, [lack of enthusiasm] 3.1%, [indefinite reply] 2.8%, [solidarity reference] 2.4%, [statement of empathy] 2.2% and the lowest one was [alternative] 2.0%. in contrast, the highest frequency of the semantic formulas addressed the interlocutors of equal social status was direct [no] 10.6% followed by [reasons] 8.9%, [negative willingness] 7.9%, [persuasion] 7.5%, [statement of empathy] 7.5%, [lack of empathy] 6.0%, [require for further information] 5.4%, [request for understanding] 5.2%, [pause fillers] 4.8%, [elaborative reasons] 4.6%, [lack of enthusiasm] 4.4%, [solidarity references] 4.3%, [indefinite reply] 3.9%, [apology] 3.3%, [conditional acceptance] 3.1%, [suggestion of alternative] 2.9%, [positive opinion] 2.7%, [statement of principle] 2.5%, [critic] 2.3% and the least semantic formulas fell to the [future acceptance] 1.9%. based on these descriptive statistical results, the frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies made by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect were dissimilar. in addition to this, the frequency of similar semantic formulas expressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutor of different social status were also different. nonetheless, these marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 99 differences were obtained on the basis a comparison made among the percentages of similar semantic formulas addressed by the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status as showed in figure 1. the figure 1 showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed the highest frequency of the direct [no] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and the interlocutors of low social status. a similar situation occurred when they addressed the [negative willingness]. these similarities showed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect tended to be more direct to the interlocutors whom they shared similar rather than to the interlocutors of the opposite social status. concerning to the indirect refusal strategies, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect made the highest frequency of [apology] to the interlocutors of low rather than to the interlocutors of high and equal social status. in the similar contexts, they made the highest frequency of [reasons] to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. interestingly, they also opted for the [elaborative reasons]. precisely, the highest frequency of these extended reasons were addressed to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to interlocutors of equal social status. this can be assumed that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently lengthened their reasons to the interlocutors of low and high rather than to the interlocutors whom they share similar social status. furthermore, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the [conditional acceptance] to the interlocutors of low followed by the interlocutors of equal and high social status. a similar situation happened when they made the [future acceptance]. in contrary, they addressed the highest numbers of [principle] to the interlocutors of low compared to the interlocutors of high and equal social status, and comfortably made the highest numbers of [lack of empathy] to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest frequency of [critic] to the interlocutors of high, and low rather than to the interlocutors of equal social status. in contrary, they made the highest frequency of the [request for understanding] to the interlocutors of equal and low rather than to the interlocutors of high social status. they also persuaded the interlocutors. yet, the highest frequency of [persuasion] was addressed to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. furthermore, the [alternative] was another strategy employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to justify their refusals. based on the figure 1, they addressed the highest numbers of the [alternative] to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of high and low social status. whereas, they made the highest numbers of the [indefinite reply] to the interlocutors of fig. 1. the percentage of each semantic formula marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 100 high and equal, followed by the interlocutors of low social status. moreover, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect made the [request for information]. specifically, the highest frequency of this strategy was addressed to the interlocutors of equal followed by the interlocutors of low and high social status. meanwhile, they addressed the highest frequency of [lack of enthusiasm] strategies to the interlocutors of high rather than to the interlocutors of equal and low social status throughout their refusal exchanges. in the light of adjuncts, they native speakers of tj. tanah dialect mostly addressed the highest frequency of the [positive opinion] to the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutor of high and the interlocutors of equal social status. beside this, they also expressed the statement of [empathy]. predominantly, the [empathy] was address to the interlocutors of equal rather than to the interlocutors of low and high social status. furthermore, they also postponed their refusal exchanges through some [pause fillers]. obviously, these [pause fillers] occurred when the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect declined the wish of the interlocutors of low, followed by the interlocutors of high and equal social status. as well, they also made the [solidarity references] alongside the refusal strategies. as showed on the figure 1, this last adjunct was mostly addressed to the interlocutors of high, followed by the interlocutors of low and equal social status. to sum up, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect expressed similar types but diverse frequency of the semantic formula of the refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. 4. discussion previously, the single language studies of the refusal speech act tended to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in the standard languages such as arabic, japanese, americanenglish, british-english, mexican-spanish, persian and minangkabau language. as the results, the diversity of the refusal strategies of the standard languages have frequently been the predominant novelties of the refusal speech act studies meanwhile the variation of those strategies in the non-standard dialects are left unobserved. to fill this gap, this study investigates the refusal speech act in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci and reveals that the realisations of the refusal strategies in this non-standard dialect are more varying. the remarkable varieties take place on the types and on the frequency of the semantic formulas employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect addressed the highest numbers of the semantic formulas to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. meanwhile, the least numbers the semantic formulas were addressed to the interlocutors of equal social status. the different in the amount of the semantic formulas prove that the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect frequently negotiated or perhaps mitigated and lengthened their refusals when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high and low rather than the wish of the interlocutors of equal social status. driven from these facts, the researchers claim that the social of the interlocutors affected the participants’ choice of the refusal strategies. this claim is in line with chen (2019) who said that the variety of the refusal strategies occurred because of the social factors and the contextual influences in which the interactants would employ various strategies to suit the situation. furthermore, other observable varieties take place on the types and the categories of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies. in the light of the direct refusals, there are five direct [no] appeared across the role-plays. these [no] are ‘r06l-03 dæk ‘r16h-08 dækdæk’, ‘r01h16 dendæk’, ‘r03h-22 dəksəa dək’, ‘r14e-37 mekgeh’ and they are always expressed in different situations. specifically, ‘dæk’ was frequently expressed at the beginning or after the participants received the interlocutors’ messages meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ frequently occurred at the intense level of refusal negotiations. based on these situations, the researchers assume that the single ‘dæk’ is a spontaneous or, perhaps, a negotiable [no] meanwhile ‘dækdæk’ appear to be an unnegotiable one. this means that, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed ‘dækdæk’ to genuinely decline the wish of the interlocutors. beside this, ‘dendæk’, ‘dəksəa dək’ and ‘mekgeh’ are the other types of the direct [no]. specifically, dendæk’ and ‘dəksəa’ were expressed alone or followed by ‘dək’ marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 101 while ‘mekgeh’ was frequently expressed as ‘mek’. remarkably, the particular use of these [no] proves that the tj. tanah dialect has its own diverse direct refusal strategies. unfortunately, the equivalent variation of these [no] have never been revealed in the previous studies of the refusal speech acts including in the works of felix-brasdefer (2006), satter, che lah, & suleiman (2010), izadi & zilaie (2014). another type of the direct refusal strategy in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci is the statement of the [negative willingness]. for example, ‘r02h-29 akau deak’ (i will not). nonetheless, the performative pattern ‘i refuse’ as suggested by beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), moafian et al., (2009) and bella (2014) do not appear in the role-plays. the absent of this ‘performative’ leads to the conclusion that the native speakers of the tj, tanah dialect do not say ‘akau nulak’ (i refuse) when performing the direct refusal. equally, the predominant occurrences of the non-performative [no] and the [negative willingness] justify that these two semantic formulas are the only direct refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect. in the light of the indirect refusal strategies, there are three different categories of [apology] revealed in the role-plays, which are all marked by ‘maaf’ (sorry). the first ‘maaf’ followed by ‘yealah’ as found in ‘r06h-20 maaf yea lah’ (sorry). the second one is preceded by ‘ntək’ as found in ‘r14l-29 ntək maaf (want/intendedly sorry)’. whilst, the third one is followed by a long and deep expression of ‘nia:n/nyan’ as in ‘r14e-50 maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise). specifically, ‘maaf yea lah’ was expressed after the participants received the interlocutors’ message. thus, it can be assumed as a common apology. likewise, ‘ntək maaf’ was also expressed the way of ‘maaf yea lah’. however, it belongs to the category of the intended apology as ‘ntək’ means ‘want’. ‘maaf nia::n/nya::n’ (wholeheartedly apologise), on the other hand, occurred after the constant realisation of ‘maaf yea lah’ and ‘ntək maaf’. evidently, this third ‘maaf’ is a regretful apology as the word ‘nia:n/nyan’ following ‘maaf’ implies the participants’ repentance as well as their attempt to seek a forgiveness for declining the wish of the interlocutors. driven from these facts, it is clear that there are three categories of [apology] in the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci that represent the indirect refusals. the first one is the common apology, the second one is the intended apology and the third one is the regretful apology. nonetheless, regardless of its categories, expressing an apology is an appropriate way to mitigate the refusal exchanges (al kayed et al., 2020) beside this, there are two different categories of the reasons occurred in the role-plays. the first [reasons] are shorter and more general as in ‘r02h-04 akau (.) banyeak lao ngan ndək akau weat siko neh’ (i have a lot of things to do here). often, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed these [reasons] to provide general excuses. another one is the [elaborative reasons] as in ‘r07l-45 akau pun adeo jadwal lain, diubeah lao nanti jadwal lain pun kelam kabeut jadi den’ (i have another schedule, changing this one will ruin up another one). in comparison with the [reasons], the [elaborative reasons] are longer and more complex, contain complete information including the statements of cause and effect. interestingly, the [elaborative reasons] resemble ‘elaboration on the reasons’ revealed by (kwon, 2004). frequently, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [elaborative reasons] to validate their [reasons]. furthermore, the use of the [reasons] and the [elaborative reasons] throughout the roleplays prove that native speakers of the tj. tanah attempted to emphasise appropriate strategies throughout their refusal exchanges. the possible reason is that, the appropriate refusal strategies can stand as the conflict avoidance (wang, 2019). due to this matter, the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect obviously emphasise appropriate refusal strategies to avoid dissension and conflict. furthermore, the [conditional acceptance] is another indirect refusal strategy revealed in the role-plays. particularly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed this strategy to convince the interlocutors about their ability to fulfil the wish of the interlocutors if the wish fits certain condition. for examples ‘r08e-91 kalok dæk banyak gawe mbaoh akau pgin’ (if i don’t have lots of job, i will go) and ‘r06l-49 dæk sibuk mbaoh koh gin’ (not busy, i will go). similarly, the [future acceptance] also occurs in the role-plays multiple of times. in contrary, the native speakers of the tj.tanah dialect employed this strategy to marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 102 show their inclination in fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors at certain course of time in the future. for examples, ‘r07h-28 slagin yealah’(next time) and ‘r12e-70 tauh rateh pulao gin (next year, i will go). interestingly, the [future acceptance] resembles the future possibility in the work of moaveni (2014). this similarity is an observable evidence, which shows that some of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect resemble those in the standard languages. moreover, the [principle] as in ‘r03l-32 akau jenh akau lah’ (i just want my schedule, the statement of [lack of empathy] as in ‘r04e69 maleah akoh’ (i’m not impressed) and the statement of [critic] as in ‘r02l-54 ikao neh lah salah jadwal’ (you offered the wrong schedule) also were also revealed in the role-plays. remarkably, these three indirect refusal strategies look more oppressive and can be assumed as ‘the offensive formulas’ although the defiant nature of these strategies are more endurable than the direct [no] and the statement of the [negative willingness. mostly, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed the [principle], [lack of empathy] and [critic] to show their ‘self-rule’ of standard conduct, detachment and resistant. through these strategies, they did not state but inexpressively required the interlocutors’ understanding of their declination. besides that, the [request for understanding] as in ‘r05h-16 gayeu lah wo’ (please understand me), [persuasion] as in ‘r02h-19 kalok prato ilaok lah kayao lah prato’ (if delivering a speech, you are better), and [alternative] as in ‘r01h-12 ilaok lah nalek ha lai’ (better you find another one) also appear in the role-plays. unlike the previous ones, these indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as more ‘delicate rather than offensive’. they were employed by the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect to convince and perhaps compel the interlocutors to reconsider their wish, encourage the interlocutors to frame the possible solution and offer the interlocutors the possible way out by means of refusals. in addition to this, the [indefinite reply] as in ‘r11h-20 manan ji yeah?’ (what could i do?), [request for further information] as in ‘r02l-46 minggu rateh neh?’, and [lack of enthusiasm] as in ‘r01h-20 akau dæk ugeo tenga dæk’ (i’m not dare) also appear in the roleplays. the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect employed these strategies to provide obscure, bewilder, and despondent returns. these three last indirect refusal strategies can be assumed as ‘the counterfeiting responses’ because participants pretended to be dispirited to avoid fulfilling the wish of the interlocutors. in the respect of the adjuncts, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect of kerinci address the [positive opinion] as in ‘r17l-30.2 ilaok lao tapi’ (it’s good, but…), the statement of [empathy] as in ‘r03e-53 dək apao lah...’ (it’s okay), [pause fillers] as in ‘r01e-61 eh:’. these three adjuncts are similar with the original and the modified version of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the works of beebe, takahashi, & uliss-weltz (1990), kwon (2004), and moafian et al., (2019). beside this, [solidarity references] is the last adjunct revealed in the role-plays. this adjunct is the realisation of personal pronoun of the tj. tanah dialect alongside with the refusal strategies such as ‘kayao’, ‘kawa’ (you) and ‘kantai’ (i). on the basis of the role-plays data, ‘kayao’ was frequently addressed to the interlocutors of high social status [l to h] by means of showing a respect or a recognition of the interlocutors’ higher social position. ‘kawa’ was frequently employed by the interactants of close social distance by means of showing a recognition of equal social position between them. whereas, ‘kantai’ was employed the interactants regardless the social status of the interlocutors. in brief, the native speakers of the tj. tanah dialect used these adjuncts to show respect and to recognition particular social status and distance with the interlocutors throughout the refusal exchanges. 5. conclusion the native speakers of tj. tanah dialect addressed similar types but different frequency of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies when declining the wish of the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status. specifically, they addressed the highest percentages of the indirect refusal strategies to the interlocutors of high followed by the interlocutors of low social status. in contrary, they addressed highest frequency of the direct refusal strategies to the interlocutors of equal social status. adjuncts to the refusal, on the other hands, were equally addressed to the interlocutors of all social status. marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 103 furthermore, some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies revealed in this study are the new findings. meanwhile, some others are similar with the original theory and the resemble the findings of the previous works. this can be concluded that some of the semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect are distinctive and have its own forms and patterns. whilst, some others are similar with those of the other languages. however, this study only investigates the type and the frequency of semantic formulas of the refusal strategies in the tj. tanah dialect addressed to the interlocutors of high, low and equal social status using the role-plays data. for this reason, further studies should be performed to generate more extended outcomes. thus, the next researchers are highly recommanded to investigate the realisation of the refusal strategies in two or more dialects using natural occuring data from perspsective of universal or discursive politeness theory. therefore, the novelties of the studies of the refusal speech act will be more expandable. references abuarrah, s., & lochtman, k. 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(2020). variation in refusal strategies produced by english and serbian speakers. studia neophilologica, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393274.2020.1780939 marniati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 106 appendix appendix 1. brief scenario of the role-play initiating acts no. scenario social status of refusee offer 1 declining a job promotion offer from a manager. high 2 declining a perfume discount from a staff low 3 declining a new book offer from classmate equal request 4 declining a speech delivery request from a leader of an organisation. high 5 declining a student’s request to change the teaching hour low 6 declining a request of becoming a master of ceremony from a colleague. equal invitation 7 declining a seminar invitation from a professor high 8 declining a wedding invitation from a staff. low 9 declining a birthday invitation from a close friend. equal appendix 2. the modified version of the refusal framework by beebe at al. (1990) direct refusal indirect refusal adjunct to refusal no apology positive opinion negative willingness reason statement of empathy elaborative reason pause fillers conditional acceptance solidarity reference future acceptance principle lack of empathy critic request for understanding persuasion suggestion of alternative indefinite reply request for further information lack of enthusiasm devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 1 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 25, 2023 final revision: may 03, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 the present paper aims to discuss the phonological processes including whole segment processes occurring in dogri. it serves an introduction to the types of phonological processes and present examples from dogri words exhibiting these processes and phenomena. the objective of the present work is to present a complete classification of different phonological processes in dogri, explore these processes in detail and to acquaint students and researchers with the changes in the sound structure because of the whole segment processes. the earlier linguistic literature on dogri mentions that various whole segment processes such as gemination, nasalization, addition, deletion, metathesis, substitution, and assimilation were prevalent in dogri. moreover, gemination and nasalization is phonemic in dogri. it has been found that in certain lexical items, transposition of sounds takes place that is one sound is moved next to the adjacent sound and that in turn is replaced by the former sound. in sum, dogri has been found to make use of a wide variety of the phonological processes. the work employs exploratory research design with thrust on qualitative method involving interpretative approach towards the data. the finding of the research presents a good amount of whole segment and phonological type phonological processes in dogri lexical items. the study makes students and researchers acquainted with different phonological processes in words and the data serves as a documented record for future researchers and linguists. keywords syllable, phonological, gemination, nasalization, segment. correspondence e-mail: krishna.devina@gmail.com article whole segment processes in dogri devina krishna1 1patna women’s college, patna, india under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.1-7.2023 1. introduction dogri belongs to the new indo-aryan (nia) branch of indo-european family. it is chiefly spoken in the jammu region of jammu and kashmir, northern punjab, himachal pradesh, and other parts of kashmir. the people speaking dogri are called dogras whereas the belt where it is spoken is called duggar. dogri is a feminine form of the word dogra which is a tribal name signifying the people of duggar. it is a member of the western pahari group of languages. according to some scholars, it is one of the several varieties of the punjabi group of languages. it was only recently that the language received official status in the country. based on the unanimous recommendation of a panel of linguists from the general council of the sahitya academy of delhi, the language came to be recognized as an ‘independent modern literary language’ of india. in its next grand achievement, dogri was hailed as a national language of india in the indian constitution and recently the language has been included in the eighth schedule of the constitution. as far as the historical account is concerned, from the period 1750 ad to 1860 ad, dogri was written in takri script. before the partition, the script that was used for writing was gurmukhi script that was also used for writing punjabi. the present-day script is devanagari in india and the nasta´liq form of perso-arabic in pakistan. later period witnessed translation works in dogri, such as the translation of the new testament. during the 20th century, dogri writing was established in various fields of poetry, prose, plays, short stories, and novels. there have been remarkable literary writers and poets in dogri and devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 2 recently a lot of translation works are being carried out in the state of jammu, such as translation of philosophical classics such as ‘bhagavad geeta’ and many more. next, the question, however arises as to why we should study phonological processes in a language. the answer to this comprises of so many reasons. languages comprise of various phonological scheme that makes use of phonological processes. knowing these processes and analyzing the words making use of these processes help in examining the sound structure of a language. vasanthakumari (1989) talks about the insertion process in her work. bahri (2001) states the various whole segment processes in his work substantiating a from dogri. kulkarni’s (1976: 45) work presents the metathesis process happening in gondi. however, the study provides a limited account of the phonological processes with little description of these processes. bahri (2001) mentions the various whole segment processes such as gemination, addition, deletion, metathesis and many others. his work presents substantial examples from dogri exhibiting the segmental processes. this is the only study that has been dealt at length as far as phonological processes are concerned. still, a lot many research is yet to be done for the sake of preserving linguistic data in the area of phonology. the present work explores these processes in detail and to acquaint students and researchers with the changes in the sound structure because of the whole segment processes. the previous studies show gaps and inconsistencies found in the linguistic data on phonological processes. the present work showcases phonological processes including whole segment processes. the previous writers in dogri worked on phonological processes but the categorization of whole segment was not mentioned and the works were devoid of theoretical framework. ghai (1991) presents a work on phonetics and phonology but little is presented on phonological account of the language. later, bahri (2001) has stated about the various whole segment processes in his work substantiating examples from dogri. his work presents a brief account of phonological processes occurring in dogri. however, the present work acquaints the readers to the types of phonological processes and makes use of theoretical analysis to analyze segmental structure. it examines the existence of epenthetic vowels before segments for instance, and provides a basic optimality theory (ot) analysis to account for various phenomena. the students of phonetics and phonology are expected to name the phonological processes in phonological grammars and studies. there are two categories of phonological processes whole segment and modification type processes. whole segment includes deletion, insertion, or transposition of elements whereas modification type includes nasalization, assimilation, and such. the phonological world of languages revolves around these processes and include ways by which native speakers of languages produce words in their own way. the present work presents various processes which are important issues or frequent phenomena occurring in dogri and several languages. such processes are implicit in the scripts of the languages. the study also shows how these processes are important for intelligibility and unaccented speech. the study also poses challenges to non-native speakers because the scripts, including devanagari do not tell when for example, schwas should be deleted. thus, the study presents the list of explicit data which becomes a source for documentation for future linguists and scientists. ii. methods in the proposed study the exploratory research design was used to get a better understanding of the planned study and achieve desired results. data for the proposed study was obtained from two sources which include a primary and a secondary source. for the collection of data, a list of words was collected from the previous linguistic literature. dogri speaking informants based in jammu were interviewed. the data was recorded in media recorder via mobile technology. the sample size for the present work comprised of 20 participants to elicit linguistic responses. there were 10 females and 10 males of same age groups to maintain homogeneity in the results. the data was analyzed by transcribing the recorded speech of the informants by use of phonetic fonts. further, all the lexical items were examined along with their hindi and sanskrit counterparts which were further classified into various phonological processes. before we begin with the phonological processes in dogri, let us shed light upon some characteristics of dogri. the following section devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 3 would talk about dogri, its historical account and some of its linguistic characteristics in a nutshell. iii. result and discussion phonetics and phonology segments in dogri dogri has 26 consonants, 10 vowels and a three-way tonal oppositional system (bahri:14). the following are the 26 consonantal phonemes: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, ʈ/, /ɖ/, /c/, /ɉ/, /k/, /g/, /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /ʈʰ/, / cʰ/, /kʰ/, /m/, /n/, /ɳ/, /ŋ/, /r/, /ɽ/, /l/, /w/, /s/, /ʃ/ and /j/ thus, dogri has 26 consonantal phonemes based on the oppositions. these consonantal phonemes have a certain distribution according to their incidence in syllables as well as words in general. bahri (2001) states some of these general characteristics as follow: 1. consonants occur in all positions, with the following restrictions: a. /ɳ/, /ɽ/ does not occur in the initial position. b. /w/, /j/ does not occur finally. 2. all consonants occur in the syllable initial position. 3. all consonants can occur medially within the word/morphemes. 4. dogri lacks voiced aspirates. 5. all consonants can occur as geminates or as single consonants with these exceptions exceptions as /r/, /ɽ/ and /ɳ/. whole segment processes in dogri with the uprising that we have experienced until now, our communication medium also keeps changing and developing. the sounds that our articulator organs produce to interact with others have also changed, whether it’s changed partially or even entirely. this feature of sounds in the phonological system of a language that is affected due to the processes are also known as phonological processes. but there is another example of phonological processes case that comes from the aspect of an individual human progress. that happens to us when we were young. as a child, our brains could recognize and begin to understand the language that is commonly used in our province, we also learn to speak and pronounce words, but the child’s brain that is still developing isn’t ready to divide such a complex and various sound that we could spell. because of that, the child’s brain works and give an alternative way and simplify the speech sounds so that the words are easier to say. the following are the whole-segment processes in dogri: gemination gemination refers to the process of doubling sounds, chiefly consonants, in certain positions of a word or boundaries within word. the doubling of segments becomes a feature of certain languages. in india, punjabi exhibits cases of gemination. in dogri, gemination is said to be phonemic. all consonants all consonants except /r/, /ʃ/, /ɽ/, and /ɳ/ can be geminated. gemination fails to occur in a few of sibilants and rhotic sounds. these are preceded by short vowels when geminated. in case of aspirates, only the voiceless element that is onset is geminated. the gemination in dogri is established on the basis of the following oppositions: epenthesis or insertion in certain contexts, a particular segment gets added in between certain segments. consider the following examples: in a certain context, a particular segment gets added in between certain segments. consider the following example: (excrescence, a part of the phonological process of epenthesis of consonants). devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 4 however, in certain contexts, a particular segment gets deleted and another segment gets added, as in the following: [bilap] [bərlap] ‘agony’ in the context of epenthesis, the present study provides an optimality theory (ot) analysis to account for this process. native indian english dogri speakers prohibit initial consonant clusters, and many word-initial consonant clusters are made easy within the sound sequences of a language. the initial consonant clusters are further broken into segments with the epenthesis process. the data shows that there is restriction against word initial consonant clusters which can be translated into an ot constraint. another point to note is that, outputs in the form of lexical items like ‘special’ or ‘front’ are not permissible. the ot approach states that an output with word-initial vowel epenthesis to break the consonant cluster is a possibility. for example, in the example /eʃpeʃəl/ ‘special’, one can notice such an aspect. another explanation is output with vowel epenthesis between consonants of the initial cluster. for example, iin the case of /fərʌnt/ ‘front’ where such an explanation is visible. deletion the process of deletion takes place when a segment is elided in each context. native speakers of a language pronounce certain words with the aspect of deleting a particular segment. the process of deletion is very natural for the speakers to undergo and produce. a phenomenon that is prevalent across many languages across the world. dogri undergoes deletion in certain contexts. deletion or elision aphesis (segment is deleted word-initially) the previous examples exhibit deletion of a particular segment in initial position. however, deletion takes place in medial position too, as in the following: in certain cases, deletion takes place, along with insertion of a particular segment, as seen in the following: metathesis in certain lexical items, there is transposition of sounds taking place that is one sound is moved next to the adjacent sound and that in turn is replaced by the former sound. the phonological processes can metathesize the pronunciation of a word by its rule called metathesis. the metathesis rule is simply changing the sound of a syllable by swapping the position of a segment as we pronounce the word. example: ask is commonly pronounced as /æsk/. but in the metathesis case, the sounds become /æks/. i asked marry about her dog. the same form as ask, the asked that is usually addressed by /æskt/ can be metathesize to /ækst/. consider the following examples in dogri: in the following examples, the [ɪ] segment is moved after the first sound and the following segment, next to the first, will move next to [ɪ] and a schwa will be inserted along with it. moreover, the approximants become plosives in certain cases. devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 5 it is an important fact to be noted that the [r] sound which got lost in hindi, it still retains in dogri. this can be seen in the following examples: a. if a word has a geminated consonant, word final vowel is nasalized, irrespective of any tone: substitution in certain cases, a particular sound gets substituted by another sound. consider the following examples: modification types phonological processes nasalization nasalization is the part of the assimilation phonological processes rule that occurs when the sound as we articulated a word is impacted by the upcoming nasal, and it usually comes just before we say the vowel of the syllable. bahri (2001) notes that nasalization is phonemic in dogri. all vowels can occur nasalized as well as non-nasalised. the phonemic status of nasalization is established on the basis of the following oppositions: nasalization in dogri is not predictable when a vowel precedes or follows a nasal consonant /n/ or /m/. however, in case of /ɳ/ the preceding vowel invariably is nasalized and the following vowel for causative verbs may or may not be automatically nasalized, e.g., /nar/ ‘woman’, /mar/ ‘to strike a blow’ or /ram/ ‘a name’ etc. where the nasalization is not perceptible. 1. word-final vowel after a nasal is automatically nasalized in the following positions: b. if the first syllable has any of the short vowels and the word bears a high tone on any of the two syllables; the range of nasalization is predictable in both the syllables though the first vowel need not be nasalized. 2. if the word-final vowel after a nasal bears a low tone or mid tone on the second syllable, the nasalization is not predictable, as can be observed in the following oppositions: in a monosyllabic word, if there is a high or a mid tone, the nasalization is predictable as there is no opposition available in dogri. 3. a. in a monosyllabic word ending in any of the three nasal consonants, the preceding vowel is automatically nasalized; as such there is no need of writing / ˜ / over the vowel. b. in disyllabic words with both syllables open, with the second syllable having a nasal consonant, both vowels are nasalized. devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 6 4. a vowel next to /m/ or /n/ where a centralized vowel /ə/ precedes and follows the /a/ or /ə/ may not be nasalized: in sum, the rich phonology of dogri can be of particular interest for studies dealing with the structure of phonological representations. in the present work, one finds the major phonological processes such as assimilation, deletion, metathesis, addition and gemination with reference to the data of dogri language collected from published as well as unpublished descriptions. phonological processes are finite in number although they vary from language to language depending upon the phonotactics. dogri operates with several phonological processes which lead to implicit expressions by the speakers of the language. the study provides a preliminary account of processes dealing in phonology of dogri depending upon its phonotactics. it refers to optimality theory by providing its account in certain examples within the language. iv. conclusion it can be concluded that various phonological processes are prevalent in dogri. these processes operate at various phonological environments in lexical items. a brief optimality theoretical account has been mentioned for one of the processes. the present study will be of use to the future researchers and language scientists for further reference. it also serves as a source or documentation of linguistic data on dogri phonology. further, it gives rise to the scope of future work on studying the morphological basis of these various processes in dogri. 5. the vowel after /m/ or /n/ in the syllables ending in any other consonant may or may not be nasalized. 6. a homorganic nasal occurs with the bilabial stop, otherwise with the rest of the consonants, there is always an allophone of /n/ after the vowels and before the consonants: assimilation in the following words, medial j and u are generally changed to i, u and assimilated with other vowels. consider the following examples: two consonants are often made similar or assimilated as one notices in the following examples: references ambercrombie, d. (1967): elements of general phonetics: edinburgh: edinburgh university press. bahri, ujjal singh (2001): dogri phonology & grammatical sketch; bahri publications. carr, philip (2008): a glossary of phonology: edinburgh: edinburgh university press. crystal, david (2008): a dictionary of linguistics & phonetics. blackwell: blackwell publication. ghai, ved kumari (1991): studies in phonetics and phonology with special reference to dogri; ariana publishing house, new delhi. grierson, g.a. (1967): linguistic survey of india, volume-9: motilal banarsidas, new delhi. gupta, veena (2004): dogri vyakaran; jammu and kashmir academy of art, culture and language. gussenhoven, carlos (2004): the phonology of tone and intonation; cambridge university press. devina krishna / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 7 gussmann, edward (2002): phonology analysis and theory; cambridge university press. hayes, bruce, lahiri, a. (1991): bengali intonational phonology; natural language and linguistic theory, volume-9, no.1, springer. halliday, michael a.k. (1970): a course in spoken english: intonation. london; oxford university press. hockett charles f. (1942): a system of descriptive phonology; language volume-18, no.1, pp. 3-21, linguistic society of america. katamba, f. (1989): an introduction to phonology, longman group uk limited: london. kachru, y. (2006): hindi; london oriental and african language library; john benjamin publishing company. kulkarni, s.b. (1976): bhili of dangs; poona: deccan college. masica, colin, p. (1993): the indo-aryan languages; new york: cambridge press. raza, md h. (2019): an ot account of phonological alignment and epenthesis in aligarh urdu, international journal of trend in scientific research and development, volume: 3, issue: 3, pp: 1690-1696. spencer, andrew (1996): phonology theory and description; blackwell publishers. tesar, b., & smolensky, p. (1988): learnability in optimality theory. linguistic inquiry 29, 229-268. journal of child language 32, 427-438. trask, r. l. (1996): a dictionary of phonetics and phonology; london: routledge. vasanthakumari, t. (1989): generative phonology of tamil; mittal publications. festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 239 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 3, 2023 final revision: september 08, 2023 accepted: september 15, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 niyi osundare extensively investigates the natural world, which is the habitat inhabited by nonhuman beings, in his poems. as a result, his poetry is referred to as eco-poetry. there have been a lot of studies of niyi osundare’s poetry that have focused on traditional aesthetics, political power, exile, and the african experience, but not enough studies that have looked at the leadership of animals in their natural habitats. the main sources of information for the study are niyi osundare’s the leader and the led and random blues. this study examined the animal metaphor in relation to leadership from the viewpoints of lakoff and johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory and michael halliday’s transitivity theory. four main participant and process categories are identified by the data as being present in the poems, with the material and relational processes having the largest frequency distributions (62.98% and 22.22%, respectively). this large proportion indicates both the ongoing activity in the african continent and the significant demands that people are under in their desire to rule the biosphere. the the low occurrence of verbal and mental processes in followers (11.11% and 7.40%, respectively) suggests that both animal and human leadership aspirants are more interested in what followers do than followers are. also, the findings revealed the metaphorical representation of each animal thus: serpent(complacence), leeches and lice (parasite), orangutans (class), beasts (hard labor), crocodile (betrayal), hive (defense), lion (subjugation), antelopes/impalas (fright), hyena (glutton), giraffe (nonchalance), zebra (duplicity), elephant (destruction), warthog (ugliness), rhino (violence), snake (anarchy), lamb (peace), tiger (aggression), doe (compassion). overall, the study concluded that we need leaders and followers who are similar to lambs and does for harmonious cohabitation in the ecosystem. keywords eco-poetry, metaphor, transitivity, animal, leadership correspondence e-mail: onipedefestusmos@gmail.com article like animals like human beings: an ecocritical metaphor discourse of leadership in selected poems of niyi osundare festus moses onipede1, gabriel abiodun abioye2 1department of english, university of lagos, akoka, nigeria 2department of general studies, federal polytechnic, ilaro, nigeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.239-249.2023 i. introduction the random blues and the leader and led, two of niyi osundare’s poems, are both about leadership and followership in africa. in any country when someone is granted the right or authority to rule, leadership refers to the process of directing and influencing the behavior of followers. the act of being led and directed by a leader is known as following. from a cognitive standpoint, implicit leadership/followership theories, the former looks at how people conceptualize leaders and how it could affect results in the workplace and in interpersonal relationships. in the latter, followers’ effects on leadership are examined (uhlbien et al., 2014). animal leaderships are likened to what obtains in human situations. each of the animals shows interest in leadership position based on its festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 240 strength and size. the same leadership aspirations apply to what happens at each election time when some people (politicians) give money to people in order for them to get their votes and also read out their manifesto by promising them good education, food, health care among others. leadership and followership problems have been a protracted issue in africa, most especially nigeria. these leadership and followership problems have been examined by many poets in africa, most especially niyi osundare, best known for his nature poems. the field of eco-linguistics, where linguists take into account the ecological background and effects of language was founded on the work of halliday, whose article new ways of meaning: the challenge to applied linguistics provided the groundwork for the field. the term ‘‘ecolinguistics’’ initially appeared in the 1990s, according to halliday (1990), as an innovative paradigm for linguistic research that tried to take into consideration both the ecological setting in which societies are rooted and the social context in which language is entrenched. language ‘‘creates discontinuity between humans and the rest of creation, because many words (such as think and act) are reserved for humans, which makes us perceive nature not as an active, but as a passive entity,’’ according to halliday, who is worried about the loss of ecosystems. (fill, 2020). the study of language use in relation to the environment is called ecolinguistics. it queries whether and how linguistic patterns affect the survival and welfare of humans and other animals (halliday, 1990), as well as how ‘‘the grammatical constructions developed to contribute to our present environmental crisis’’ (muhlhausler & muhlhausler, 2003, p.91). as is the case in africa, particularly nigeria, these environmental problems also involve those resulting from political leadership or followership. eliminating the word «ecology» from eco linguistics is a hint that ecology includes interactions between people and other people, other organisms, and the natural environment. language thus influences how individuals interact with one another, other living things, and their environment. (haccked, 1866; haugen, 1972; nash, 2015; couto, 2015, 2013) ecolinguistics is the study of how a language interacts with its surroundings. regarding the psychological application of ecolinguistics, stibbe (2015) states that «the general patterns of language influence how people think about, and treat, the world.» eco-criticism uses critical discourse analysis to writings on the environment and environmentalism in order to discover hidden assumptions and hidden messages and remark on their effectiveness in achieving environmental goals (e.g. stibbe, 2012; harré et al., 1999). discourse-related systems include covert ideologies from which people continue to profit. in order to better understand latent ideologies of domination in environmental discourse, fairclough (1989) used a critical discourse approach. it raises concerns about the imbalance of power (oppressor-oppressed) between men and women, and implicitly, between people and the larger ecological systems that support terrestrial life. metaphors are common in our daily lives, claim lakoff & johnson (2003). they view experiences as things or things that can be named, grouped, classified, and quantified. therefore, conceptual metaphor entails comprehending one area through the concept of another. source domain and destination domain are the two mappings for conceptual metaphors that are described (kovesces, 2010). our mental images, including those of a wall, a building, a travel, a conflict, etc., are built on the basis of the source domain. this view sees language use in a social context to serve a variety of roles as a journey where our daily experiences and problems are like traveling down or along a long road (morley, 2000; mortensen, 1992; taverniers, 2005). in order to disprove the idea that texts on the environment contain hidden meanings, ecolinguistic approaches to language use critical discourse analysis (hereafter, cda) to those texts (stibbe, 2012; harré et al., 1999). the ecocritical approach to linguistic analysis covers the analysis of any discourse that might have an effect on ecosystem health, including neoliberal economic discourse and discursive constructions of consumerism, gender, politics, agriculture, and nature (goatly, 2000; stibbe, 2004). future ecological implications provide leadership and followership issues that focus on exposing potentially harmful ideas and seeking out discursive representations that can assist in constructing an environmentally sustainable society. with a focus on discourse that has a connection festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 241 to the natural world (trim, 1959), ‘‘language ecology’’ (haugen, 1972), and ‘‘ecology and society’’ (fill, 1998; halliday, 2001; haugen, 1971); muhlhäusler & fill, 2001; muhlhäusler & peace, 2006), numerous studies on the function of language in society have been conducted. ise èniyàn nise eranko in yorùbá means human behaviors are animal behaviors in english. the majority of creatures in each dimension serve as metaphors for various facets of political leadership among humans. this supports the assertion made by some academics that ‘‘industry discourse characterized animals in ways that objectify them’’ (stibbe, 2013; linzey, 2006). as a result, ‘‘... although an analysis of discourse may seem odd and irrelevant... it may be necessary to reconsider several aspects of animal production relative to ideology, discourse, and practice’’ (p. 390). a genuine ethic of care and respect for animals must be reflected not only in our daily operations but also in the internal and external discourse of animal agriculture if we are to compare animal leadership to human leadership (croney & reynells, 2008, p. 390). numerous studies have been conducted on the poetry of niyi osundare in an african context. ebim (2016) looked through osundare’s blues for the new senate king’s linguistic choices in an effort to extract significant information that is pertinent to the african continent, namely nigerian social life. okoh (2021) examined osundare’s pioneering and extensive foray into crucial environmental concerns that have grown to be of the uttermost importance on a national and international scale in the present time under the aegis of systemic functional linguistics and eco-criticism via lexico-semantics. the inquiry made osundare’s deliberate use of ‘‘common’’ language to reveal various human acts in the natural world clear. oloko (2004) examined two poems from the eye of the earth using halliday’s grammatical metaphor theoretical framework. the findings demonstrated that osundare purposefully emphasized material processes to convey his experience with and reaction to ‘‘man’s inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn!’’ (burns, 1786). anyokwu (2013) employed semiotic analysis to investigate osundare’s poetry’s graphological setting and its applicability in nigeria. the findings demonstrated that african civilization and cultures are inherently communal, and as a result, ‘‘it is inconceivable for the oral raconteur to create his tales, songs, or poems without his audience playing a vital role...’’ (p. 5). daniel (2016) outlines five groups of metaphors: animal metaphors, metaphors that relate abstract concepts to specific examples, synaesthetic metaphors, organic metaphors, and telescopic metaphors. the results showed that metaphors addressed sociopolitical challenges in nigeria and elsewhere by providing context. by addressing a pattern of deviation, dick (2015) conducted a critical stylistic analysis of niyi osundare’s poetry to demonstrate how he has made an exceptional attempt to domesticate (that is, make his (osundare’s) poem in english perform the yoruba worldview). niyi osundare’s poetry inventions and stylistic traditions were studied by bamigboye (2019). the research demonstrated a vintage osundare-like aesthetic, confirming his status as one of the few poets to fully exploit the expressive power of language. in addition to stylistic criticism, some linguists have examined osundare’s work (aminu & oluwagbenga, 2017; jimo & odetade, 2016; addo, 2015; dick, 2015). in order to assess the author’s intentions on climate change and ozone layer depletion, addo (2015) investigated the stylistic usage of sensuous imagery in osundare’s eye of the earth. with phrases like «the earth is ours to plough, not to plunder,» osundare warns against mismanaging nature by humanizing it, the study concluded. once more, jimoh & odetade’s (2016) analysis of osundare’s harsh critique of nigerian politicians in his poem blues for the new senate king concentrated on the stylistic significance of the language selections. the study demonstrates that osundare employs language in exceptionally lyrical ways to parody the shortcomings of his culture. also in 2017, aminu & oluwagbenga examined how osundare ‘‘creatively employs grapho-lexical features such as the distinctive use of italicization, graphic onomatopoeia, pictorial, punctuation marks, lexical collocation, and figures of speech to convey his socio-political messages in his poems’’ (p. 2). in the poem, osundare makes excellent stylistic and artistic use of both his native yoruba and the english language. again, jimoh & odetade’s (2016) critical study of osundare’s scathing criticism of nigerian festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 242 politicians in his poem blues for the new senate king focused on the stylistic import of the vocabulary choices. the research shows that osundare uses linguistic resources in unusually lyrical ways to lampoon the flaws in his culture. similarly, aminu & oluwagbenga (2017) looked at how osundare ‘creatively employs grapho-lexical features such as the distinctive use of italicization, graphic onomatopoeia, pictorial, punctuation marks, lexical collocation, and figures of speech to convey his socio-political messages in his poems’ (p. 2). osundare uses both his native yoruba and the english language to great stylistic and aesthetic advantage in the poem. one of the eight types of storytelling is metaphor, and in osundare’s the leader and the led, the random blues, the metaphorized leadership and followership functions as a type of framing where the source frame is from a concretely possible area of life that is extremely unlike from the target domain (stibbe, 2015). according to halliday (1994), the basic mechanism for storing, exchanging, and construing experience is a semiotic system composed of sets of decisions made within three metafunctional meanings (experiential, interpersonal, and textual meaning). in the context of ongoing human experience, a clause (or clause as representation, depending on your point of view) has significance. language users’ choices in experiential meaning help to form the human leadership/ followership relationship. they gain a better understanding of the world around them as a result— what it is like, what people do there, etc. with a focus on the ecology, especially the immediate elements of human-leadership/followership relationships, this research will use the halliday approach to provide an interpretive framework for revealing the ecological implications embedded in niyi osundare’s the leader and the led, and the random blues for their experiential meaning of language. it is predicted that the theoretical foundations of this work will serve as an inspiration for future eco-focused research, particularly those involving ecological discourse analysis. the objective is to improve public comprehension of the dynamics of human leadership and followership and to support the growth of discourses that are more ecologically responsible. ii. method the study focuses on how the poet employs ecologically sensitive material to demonstrate human-animal leadership in the selected poems by encoding it in the phrase structure. two poems are chosen from niyi osundare’s the leader and the led and random blues. based on their observations of the ecological leadership issues and thematic concerns, this choice was selected. the poet was chosen due to his significant commitment and dedication to the use of the animal leadership metaphor in contrast to human leadership. the chosen poems are broken down into a total of 26 clauses because the clause is the analytical unit for experiential meanings. they are then scrutinized in light of their process categories, participant roles, and contextual information. since some of the phrase’s key components might not be stated explicitly, they are supplied for analysis and are included in square brackets. the clauses are numbered progressively from c1 to c26. again, based on the source domain and destination domain, we grouped the animal metaphors for ease of critical analysis. table 1. summary of transitivity analysis processes frequency percentage (%) material 17 62.96 relational 6 22.22 verbal 3 11.11 mental 2 7.40 total 27 100 iii. results and discussion the leader and the led, & random blues by niyi osundare’s process types are included in table 1 along with their frequency and percentage of occurrence. the only four process categories that can be determined from the data are shown in table 1. the largest and most varied intransitivity, material process, has 17 instances and makes up 62.96% of the clauses (thompson, 2014, p. 96). six relational processes accounting for 22.22% are distantly behind this. three verbal processes make up 11.11% of the total clauses, while just two mental processes account for the remaining 2.40%. in order to demonstrate how the poets encode the ecological issues of leadership and followership festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 243 in the structure of the phrase, a thorough analysis of the process types and their accompanying participants kinds is done in the following. the words ‘‘silence is a serpent’’ and ‘‘the politician is a rag of leeches and lice’’ (both from random blues, lines 1 and 13–14) are examples from the literature under consideration. table 2 displays these cases. the word ‘‘serpent’’ in the first example refers to a long, limbless, scaly reptile. the word ‘‘silence’’ implies laziness. it serves as a metaphor for those who approve of society’s course as long as they are not already negatively affected. these people fit the description of having selfserving leadership objectives. they resemble being bitten by a snake in comparison. in fact, as stated in line 1 of random blues (‘‘silence is a serpent’’), failing to raise one’s voice is worse than the results of a snake’s venom. similarly, osundare uses the analogy of leeches and lice (13–14) to metaphorize (as parasites) the nigerian politicians, who are indistinguishable from bloodsucking insects. it thus demonstrates how many political aspirants «suck» the public dry by benefiting themselves and their family members at the expense of the entire citizenry, much like leeches and lice do. political leaders in nigeria are also referred to as ‘‘opulent orangutans’’ (18) and ‘‘beasts of burden’’ (37) in metaphorical terms. the biggest mammal that lives in trees is an orangutan. the great ape order includes orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees. according to its etymology, ‘‘orangutan’’ is made up of the indonesian words orang and hutan, which together mean ‘‘man of the forest’’. because they reside in the vast woods of borneo and sumatra, two of the biggest islands in southeast asia, orangutans are known for their solitary lifestyle. therefore, their behavior, as indicated in line 18 (‘opulent orangutans’) (18), is comparable to that of leaders who, like orangutans, distance themselves from the common people who propelled them into positions of authority. ‘‘beast of burden’’ is an additional animal metaphor that stands out. on the surface, ‘‘beast of burden’’ refers to an animal employed for carrying cargo or performing other heavy labour, as an elephant, an ox, or a donkey. they are renowned for their difficult heavy load transportation. therefore, it implies that while corrupt leaders get the benefits of the land’s richness, human-animal leadership makes its followers toil and sweat day and night. the lines ‘‘the crocodile jaws of power brokers’’ (113) and ‘‘the hive of my mouth’’ (157), both from the poem random blues, also use animals as metaphors. a crocodile is an aquatic reptile with big jaws and keen teeth, a long, hungry snout, and a body covered in bone plates. the crocodile is used as a metaphor for betrayal since it cries while eating its meal, and those tears are regarded as fraudulent (thus the name ‘‘crocodile tears’’). this is clear from its enormous jaws, long, devouring nose, and pointed teeth. this reveals the actions of the leaders who have deceived the people while having relied on them to get them to where they are. by persecuting and annihilating anyone who attempt to oppose the oppression, they appease the people who supported them and put them in office. additionally, ‘‘the hive of my mouth’’ alludes to the enraged inhabitants of the region (i.e., the adherents). the ‘‘hive’’ is a building that serves as a bees’ natural home, much like a hollow tree. therefore, the mouth serves as a natural habitat for bees, and it is a metaphor that followers utilize as a weapon of defense to push back when they are being pushed to the limit, if not physically then vocally. the power struggle in niyi osundare’s poem, the leader and the led, begins with the lion table 2. metaphorical representation source domain target domain serpent complacence leeches & lice parasite orangutans class belongingness beast hard labor crocodile betrayal hive defense lion subjugation antelopes fright/fear hyena glutton impalas fright/fear giraffe overlook/nonchalance zebra duplicity elephants destruction warthog ugliness rhino violence snake anarchy lamb peace tiger aggression doe compassion festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 244 asserting his authority over ‘‘the pack’’ in line 6. as antelopes are ‘‘pounced’’ on, it suggests that they aren’t often utilized as leaders or followers. hyenas act similarly to lions in that they stake their claim to ‘‘the crown’’ as the leader of the pack. the word ‘‘crown’’ is used here metaphorically. it represents leadership. the ‘‘lethal appetite’’ (its capacity for consumption) of hyenas terrifies the impala, a more peaceful mammal. it’s a metaphor to say that lions, antelopes, and impalas are symbols of leadership. for instance, the lion’s ‘‘pounce of paws’’—a flaw—means that he is unsuited to serve as a leader. lion is used as a metaphor to suggest that african leaders do not feel the need to be elected in this situation. one who has the ability to tame or enslave his troops is a lion-like leader. antelopes are notorious for being scared, and they become scared quickly when they ‘‘remember’’ the lion’s paws making a ‘‘ferocious pounce’’ on them. human leadership that resembles that of antelopes shows that a leader does not need to be terrified when in a position of power. the poet compares the impala to antelopes in his reference. once more, the giraffe metaphor serves as a crucial standard for choosing a capable leader. the giraffe is a large animal that can lift or lower its long neck. the poet declares that he «craves a place in the front» in lines 6-7, indicating that he strives for a position of authority. the giraffe’s ‘‘too far from the ground’’ eyes exclude him from leadership. the giraffe is a metaphor for carelessness. in other words, if he is granted authority, he might not glance down to see what is going on with the lower echelons of animal life. therefore, it implies that candidates for leadership positions should be disqualified if they resemble giraffes in any way. in lines 9–10, the metaphor of the zebra illustrates how the animals’ inability to comprehend the zebra’s stripes negates the animal’s claim to leadership. the followers should reject a leader they find difficult to understand in order to make a smart choice of leader in terms of human leadership. the elephant, as shown in lines 11–12, serves as a symbol for destruction. a human leader who resembles an elephant is described as someone who ‘‘trudges into the power tussle’’ while being burdened by their bulk. the followers cannot elect a leader like an elephant. in no way are the politicians vying for leadership posts any different from an elephant. if they are erroneously chosen to be in charge, they behave like terrorists. the supporters should prepare for threats and expect that their natural resources will be destroyed through corruption if elephant-like humans are brought into office. the warthog and rhino are two other animal leaders mentioned in the poetry (lines 13–14). the rhino is particularly ‘‘riotous’’ in behavior, whereas the warthog has a hideous visage in terms of physical appearance. we can deduce that the poet’s choice of ugliness is metaphorical in the sense that people seeking to leadership positions must be of decent character by mapping the ugliness in the warthog to the objective. political leaders that resemble warthogs should be avoided by the flock. the rhino is a metaphor for leaders who consistently bring their followers troubles. this might be the outcome of violence. it is not envisaged that a leader who is uncontrollable will be selected. furthermore, if people or animals ‘‘thrash around’’, the struggle for leadership in ‘‘the pack’’ becomes uneasy. this search for leadership is comparable to a snake with its head severed (line 16). when it comes to the leadership race, a leader does not have to be a coward. the snake may have lost its head as a result of its dread of biting the other animals, which indicates that it is not competing for leadership. when ‘‘the pack’s’’ head is removed, it resembles a snake because it is headless. the lyrical persona alludes to a combination of two animal behaviors (a lion, a lamb, and a doe) in the poem’s final eight lines. animal-human leadership demands the use of animal metaphors in this situation. according to lines 17–24, ‘‘our need’’ is implied to be the desire for leadership, which necessitates ‘‘a hybrid of habits’’. this assumes that leadership is neither a matter of ferocity, enormous appetite, or gazing above others, nor is it a matter of weight or heaviness. the woodland sage advises, however, that one should possess ‘‘a little bit of a lion/a little bit of a lamb’’; toughness of a tiger and gentleness of a doe, just as one needs a river’s clarity and a lake’s gravity. a good leader should understand what it means to follow, just as a follower understands that at any time, they may be asked to take the lead. a good leader must first and foremost be a good festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 245 the attributive relational process, with its attribute and carrier participant categories, is the one that can be easily identified. the leader and the led, and random blues, two of the chosen poems, use relational mechanisms to enable the poet to encode the decimation of ecosystem elements in terms of leadership roles as illustrated in c3. ...the crown carrier is made relational for him cir:location c6. but conj. his eyes carrier are relational too far from the ground cir:location c11. the warthog carrier is relational too ugly attribute c21. silence carrier is relational a serpent attribute c22. the politicians carrier is attributive rag of leeches and lice attribute. the non-animal sayer is used in these expressions to suggest verbal aspirations to leadership positions. the frequent use of the simple present tense by these aquatic creatures shows their quest for leadership positions and the ongoing desire for power that persists among humans. the verbal processing appears three times in the clauses. as was previously mentioned, the participant types in a verbal process clause are sayer, receiver, and verbiage. given the nature of our data as poetic writing, isn’t this process designed to occur even though talking is wholly animal? all have effects on the leadership between humans and animals in the natural world, both beneficial and detrimental. c4. the hyena sayer says verbal the crown is made for him verbiage. c7. when cir: time the zebra sayer says verbal... his right to lead verbiage c14. our need calls for hybrid of habits sayer proclaims verbal the forest sage verbiage. the non-animal sayer is used in these expressions to suggest verbal aspirations to leadership positions. the frequent use of the simple present tense by these aquatic creatures shows their quest for leadership positions and the ongoing desire for power that persists among humans. there are two mental operations taking place. the sensor in a mental process clause can be either an animal or a person. for c2, this is true. but cir: comparison the antelopes sensor remember mental the ferocious pounce of his paws phenomenon. in c2, ‘‘antelopes’’ are the sensor. this is also true for c19. a leader.... sensor knows mental how to follow phenomenon. as a result, the mental processes ‘‘remember’’ and ‘‘know’’ in both phrases, while the phenomena are encoding what the poet’s persona indicates is necessary for leadership. follower, and a good followership is characterized by everyone’s willingness to support the position of leadership. in lines 19–24 below, the expected actions of both leaders and followers are poetically encapsulated. “a little bit of a lion a little bit of a lamb tough like a tiger, compassionate like a doe transparent like a river, mysterious like a lake a leader who knows how to follow followers mindful of their right to lead.” the chosen poems are dominated by material processes, as shown in table 1, in accordance with transitivity analysis. to perform these tasks, one must be physically active. as shown in the following passages, the poem’s emphasis on material processes draws attention to the prevalence of numerous physical activities and events in, around, and connected to human-animal leadership in the natural world: the chosen poems are dominated by material processes, as shown in table 1, in accordance with transitivity analysis. to perform these tasks, one must be physically active. the following illustrates how the poem’s focus on material processes draws attention to the presence of numerous physical activities and events that influence how humans and other creatures rule the ecological environment. the circumstantial evidence in each clause demonstrates that these are physical interactions taking place in contexts where humans and animals are squabbling for dominance. the transitivity structure for material processes is process + actor + goal + beneficiary (and, in some circumstances, scope, range, and initiator). each of these is discussed in the sections that follow as they appear in the material process clauses. a material clause’s actor may or may not be mentioned directly. eight of the 17 material clauses include actors that are expressed explicitly, whereas the remaining eight do not. the instances of non-finite clauses in the data are 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24, and 25. the poet persona wants humans to model their leadership after that of animals; hence these material processes are used to provide information about animal leadership. in data, there are 6 relational processes, and festus moses onipede / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 246 iv. conclusion according to the frequency distribution of the process and participant categories in this study, there are four main process types present in the selected poems, with the material processes having the highest frequency (62.96%). this high proportion reflects the ongoing acts and endeavors of aspirants to leadership positions in the african continent. the relational processes, which contain 22.22% of the clauses, as well as their attribute and carrier types, are likewise representative of the burdensome demands placed on humans in their pursuit of ecosystem leadership. in fact, it is clear from the analysis that each process type has a thematic relevance in encoding excellent leadership attributes for both the animal world and a human-animal leadership contrast with respect to good leadership in africa. the low proportion of verbal and mental processes (11.11% and 7.40%, respectively) demonstrates that both animal and human aspirants for leadership do not consider what leadership entails, and that followers are less interested in what the leaders do. also, the findings revealed the metaphorical representation of each animal thus: serpent(complacence), leeches and lice (parasite), orangutans (class), beasts (hard labor), crocodile (betrayal), hive (defense), lion (subjugation), antelopes/impalas (fright), hyena (glutton), giraffe (nonchalance), zebra (duplicity), elephant (destruction), warthog (ugliness), rhino (violence), snake (anarchy), lamb 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(2018). shengtai yuyanxue shijiao xia de renji yiyi xitong [interpersonal meaning system viewed from an ecolinguistic perspective]. foreign languages and their teaching 2: 99–108. tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 39 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 13, 2024 final revision: march 19, 2024 accepted: march 21, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 this study aims to discuss the acoustic profile of deli malay language research will involve 15 dml native speakers. the speakers involved were between 20-40 years old. the data was obtained by recording the speaker’s voice in a quiet room with a consistent microphone distance of about 30 centimeters from the lips. teak speakers will read syllable words containing target vowels in sentences with dml vowels. the pronunciation target vowel is placed on the first syllable. this study found that deli malay has seven vowels, namely vowels /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /o/, /u/ and /ↄ/. dml vowel positions /i/ and /e/are high and medium front vowels. while the vowels /o/, /u/ and /ↄ/ are high and medium back vowels. meanwhile, the vowels /a/ and / ə / are mid and low mid vowels. later, this acoustic study calculated approximate vowel measurements based on f1 and f2 from the spectrogram at praat. the measurement of the sound quality of forman vowels in malay deli vowels is vowel /a/ f1 = 876 hz and f2 = 1701 hz vowel /i/ f1 = 533 hz and f2 = 2328 hz, vowel /e/ f1 = 689 hz and f2 = 2204 hz, vowels / ə/ f1= 692 hz and f2= 1686 hz, vowels /o/ f1= 650 hz and f2= 1459 hz, /ↄ/ f1= 658 hz and f2= 1373 hz, and /u/ f1= 524 hz and f2 = 1383 hz. this study provides a detailed analysis of the acoustic properties of deli malay vowels, contributing to a deeper understanding of the phonetic characteristics of the language. this can be valuable for linguists and researchers studying malay languages and their phonetic systems. keywords correspondence e-mail: tengku.syarfina@usu.ac.id article acoustic phonetic analysis tengku syarfina1, t. thrhaya zein2, muhammad yusuf3 1-3department of english, faculty of cultural science, universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.39-48.2024 i. introduction malay language (bahasa melayu) is the identity and shape of malay culture and ideology. ml is included in the safe condition that it is still spoken by all ethnic groups (ministry of education and culture, 2019). ml speakers reach 20,000,000 speakers (pramuniati et al., 2024; tondo, 2009). considering the number and the recent decrease of ml speakers, ml needs to be protected and developed through research. deli malay is a dialect of the malay language used by the deli malays. this language is spoken in medan, deli serdang, and serdang bedagai. the deli malay language is also used as a means of communication, culture supporter, and identity symbol of the deli malays. this language function is realized in the activities of the malay community in everyday life, including in formal and informal situations. based on the previous studies, the main problem in this study is that until now, the deli malay language has received less attention in terms of phonetic scientific aspects, primarily acoustic phonetics. studies on dm languages using an acoustic-phonetic perspective are still rare. this study aims to discuss the acoustic profile of dml’s vocals from the aspect of phonetic science. to describe the characteristics of dml’s vocals acoustically against vowel sounds empirically. this study also aims to document language’s physical sound, preservation, teaching, and dignity amid the current symptoms of language shift. in line with the scientific aspects of phonetics and the mandate phonetics, acoustics, deli malay language vowels the exploration of deli malay language vowels: an (bahasa melayu deli) vowels from phonetics. in collecting data, the tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 40 of the 1945 constitution, unesco (2010) urges all countries in the world to protect the heritage of regional languages and literature so that they do not become extinct, which will lead to the extinction of the next generation who are virtuous and have local wisdom. describing the vowels of the deli malay language elevates the dignity of the language, which now tends to be displaced by the indonesian language, which is, in fact, more substantial. second, the acoustic description of these vowels can be a reference or guideline in assessing speech disorders. speech deviation or acoustic deformation of speech can be seen from the deviation of the acoustic values of the vowel sounds. disturbances in the pronunciation of vowel sounds can be identified through the differences in the acoustic values produced by speakers who experience speech disorders with the acoustic values of regular speakers. third, the acoustic description of malay deli vowels can be used for teaching, especially for the benefit of outsiders interested in learning the deli malay language. it should be noted that the acoustic data of a language reflect the behaviour of our speech organs when producing language sounds. the condition of the oral cavity, which includes the high-low position of the tongue, the contraction of the front-back parts of the tongue, and the proportion of open-closed mouth openings, can be known through the acoustic data of the identified vowels. in the linguistic context of local languages in indonesia, there have been several studies that also described vowel sounds in local languages using an acoustic-phonetic approach, for example, those conducted by perwitasari (2017), yusuf (2017), rohman & misnadin (2020), and yusuf et al. (2021). this is undoubtedly encouraging, even though it has only been done in recent years. perwitasari’s study of vowels in javanese and sundanese concluded that the type of phonation influenced the acoustic quality of vowels in javanese and sundanese. concerning phonation, perwitasari’s findings prove that the decrease in the first formant (f1) is a characteristic that usually occurs in vocal quality after the /b/ sound (slack-voiced stop) and is consistent. furthermore, it was also found that the javanese articulated the vowel /ɘ/ instead of the pepet vowel /ə/ after the consonants /b/ and /h/. this leads to a high-mid central vowel position in the vowel sound articulation area. acoustic phonetics studies sound waves as physical events or natural phenomena that form the relationship between speakers and listeners (syarfina, 2009). according to harrington (2010), acoustic phonetics is a science that has received contributions from three fields of science, namely linguistics (phonology), engineering (electronics), and cognitive (psychologists). a subfield of general phonetics that studies the physical properties of speech sound in terms of frequency (pitch), intensity (spectrum), and quantity (duration) (bussmann, 2006). acoustic phonetics is the study of the acoustic characteristics of speech, including analysis and description of speech in terms of its physical properties, such as frequency, intensity, and duration. syarfina (2009) argues that acoustic characteristics consist of frequency or melodic structure duration, also called temporal structure and intensity. vowels are the sounds humans produce regarding sounds and vowels expressed by /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. the most common view is that vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips (roach, 1998, p. 10). by drawing the tongue closer or less close to the roof of the mouth, we can vary the tube size. each tube size will produce a different sound quality, hence a different vowel (roca & johnson, 1999, p. 116). according to irawan (2017), by using acoustic phonetics, we can more accurately place the position of a vowel sound among other vowel sounds than by using articulatory and auditory approaches. the sounds of the deli malay language consist of 32 phonemes consisting of 9 vowel phonemes and 23 consonant phonemes (manurung & zubeirsyah, 1984 , p. 12). the following table elaborates the description of the nine vowel phonemes, namely: /i/, /u/, /i/, /ē/, fig.1 deli serdang regency source: wikipedia tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 41 /ə/, /o/, /e/, /o/, /ø/, /a/. table 1. dml vowel mappinp vowel sound variations front central back close i u i mid ē ə o e o ø open a on the other hand, sundanese speakers surprisingly pronounce the sound /ɨ/ in the high near-front position in the vowel sound space and are advised to transcribe the vowel /ɨ/ with /ʏ/. a study conducted by yusuf (2017) on sundanese found that vowels in sundanese were relatively lower than english vowels. except for the /ĕ/ sound. both central vowel sounds in sundanese, the /ĕ/ and /ə/, spoken by sundanese women, are lower than the schwa sound in english. the vowel /ə/ in sundanese is lower than the schwa in english, but the vowel /ĕ/ is slightly higher than in english. misnadin (2020) ɛ, ə, ɔ, ɤ, i, ɨ, u], but there have been disagreements with regard to the number of its vowel phonemes. the disagreements arise partly because some scholars base their analyses of madurese vowels on phonetic grounds while others base them on certain phonological analyses. besides, some researchers do not consider native versus non-native madurese words in their analyses. the paper addresses these problems by incorporating both phonetic and phonological analyses in order to provide a better description of madurese vowels. to achieve this, we investigated the acoustic realisations of the eight surface vowels by looking at the first and second formant frequencies (f1 and f2 explored the acoustic quality of vowels in madurese language. misnadin’s study concluded that madurese’s high and low vowels significantly differed in the first formant (f1). however, the second formant (f2) is more varied. the vowel pair [ɨ ~ ə] differs significantly in vowel onset. in the middle area of the pair, vowels [i ~ ɛ] and [ɨ ~ ə] differ significantly. the vowels [ɤ] and [ɨ] as well as [ɤ] and [ə] also differ in their f1 and f2 values. misnadin’s study confirmed that the vowel pairs are significantly different. the analysis results explained that the madurese language should be described as a language with a four-vowel system. misnadin claimed that his study offers a solution to the confusion over the number of vowel phonemes in the madurese language another study of local language vowels using an acoustic-phonetic approach was conducted by yusuf et al. (2021) on the jamee language in south aceh, which is only spoken by 77,000 people. this study is an effort to document and preserve minor languages in indonesia. the study also resolved the confusion over the number of monophthongs in the jamee language. research conducted by yusuf et al. investigated the vowel quality in that language involving ten female speakers of the jamee language and used the praat as an analysis tool. the results of this study found seven monophthong vowels: /i/, /e/, /ɛ/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and /ↄ/ with a description of the f1 and f2 formant frequencies for these vowels. what is new from this study is the analysis of the acoustic quality of deli malay vocals. previous research has yet to look at this section, where previous research only focused on greetings, speech acts, the use of verbs through semantic analysis, language variations, lexicostatistics, and others. therefore, in addition to filling the gaps in the description of the deli malay language, this research also offers something new in the treasury of research related to deli malay as one of the languages in sumatera utara. this study does not only measure the acoustic component of the formant frequency as conducted by perwitasari (2017), yusuf (2017), misnadin (2020)ɛ, ə, ɔ, ɤ, i, ɨ, u], but there have been disagreements with regard to the number of its vowel phonemes. the disagreements arise partly because some scholars base their analyses of madurese vowels on phonetic grounds while others base them on certain phonological analyses. besides, some researchers do not consider native versus non-native madurese words in their analyses. the paper addresses these problems by incorporating both phonetic and phonological analyses in order to provide a better description of madurese vowels. to achieve this, we investigated the acoustic realisations of the eight surface vowels by looking at the first and second formant frequencies (f1 and f2 , and yusuf et al. (2021), but this research also includes measurements of the acoustic components of the fundamental frequency (f0), and the duration of the targeted vowels in order to describe a comprehensive acoustic profile of the vowel sounds. acoustic research with the target of vowel sounds as the object of study will generally observe the spectrogram and wave pattern of the sound. differences in sound energy tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 42 patterns of all types of sounds and even all language sounds can be seen from the acoustic realization of the spectrogram and the sound wave pattern. each type of sound has unique characteristics as the main feature that distinguishes it from other types of sound. to see the unique characteristics of vowel sounds, linguists generally identify the formant frequencies of these vowel sounds as the main acoustic component that distinguishes one vowel sound from another. the combination or configuration of vowel sound formant frequencies is often called vowel sound quality. the quality of the vowel sound forms the acoustic characteristics of each vowel sound. language studies related to the acoustic quality of vowel sounds can be traced accurately since the research conducted by peterson & barney (1952), which was sponsored by bell telephone laboratories, is the most widely referenced research on the same topic. they measured the formant and fundamental frequencies of american english involving 33 male, 28 female, and 15 children informants. peterson and barney used the structure /hvd/ in american english to obtain data on the ten vowel monophthongs in english. the results of the research conducted by peterson barney (1952) concluded that there is a strong relationship between the target vowel sounds and the formant frequencies. however, they also found that there were formant variations among the speakers who were the subjects of the researc peterson & barney (1952) research footprints were followed by many other phonetic researchers, namely (1) studied the acoustic quality of vowel sounds in the same language, that is english (hillenbrand et al., 1994; lunden, 2017), (2) studied acoustic quality of language other than english (evans 2006; vaishna & misra 2010; recasens 2021), (3) compared the acoustic quality of vocals in one language with the acoustic quality of another language, (bradlow, 1995; ahmed & grosvald 2019), or (4) examined the existence of pronunciation interference or perception of vocals in one language to pronunciation or perception of vocals in other languages ( perwitasari 2018; baigorri et al. 2019; adnan et al. 2020; conklin & dmitrieva 2020). from the existing studies, it can be concluded that the studies of vowel sound quality in several regional languages tend to utilize one acoustic parameter, namely the formant acoustic component. second, except for the study conducted by perwitasari, the languages studied tend to ignore the aspects of the language’s dialect. third, the study of vowel sounds involves one gender, as yusuf et al. (2021) conducted. so, this study aims to discuss the acoustic profile of deli malay language (bahasa melayu deli) vocals from phonetics. ii. methods this study is a phonetic study with a modern perspective since this study no longer uses traditional methods commonly used by linguists. during this time, the study of physical sounds or phonetics tends to use researchers’ auditory and visual perceptions. unlike the phonetic studies researchers in indonesia generally carry out, this study uses a more modern method. this study will use software tested for its reliability in examining and measuring the acoustic components of speech. in this study, the researchers use praat. this study can be a reference and model for studying sound in other regional languages in indonesia. in data collection, this study involved the native speakers of dml in medan, deli serdang, and serdang bedagai areas. the total of speakers was 15 female speakers. the speakers involved were adults between 20 and 40 years old. they use the language for everyday interaction. the speakers’ voices were recorded in a quiet room with a tape recorder and a consistent microphone distance of about 30 centimeters from the lips to obtain the best data. teak speakers read the syllable words containing target vowels in carrier sentences. the words designated as targets include vowels in dml, with these target vowels positioned in the initial syllable. participants were instructed to read random carrier sentences clearly and naturally, repeating this process four times. an instrument for data collection will be devised, incorporating sentences containing specific target vowels. the data will be condensed following the analysis to select critical elements, identify patterns, and eliminate superfluous information. thus, the data has good acuity so that it is valid and the information can be conveyed clearly. in addition, according to miles et al., (2014), the definition of “data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens, classifies, directs, and discards unnecessary data and organizes data in such a way that conclusions can be drawn and verified.“ this study used the data analysis method tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 43 obtained and analyzed based on the methods and steps described by miles et al., (2014). at the analysis stage, voice data were extracted and coded using praat version 6.0.54 (boersama & weenik, 2019). to obtain the acoustic profile of vowel sounds in dml, measurements of the acoustic components on the spectrogram and waveform at the peak (midpoint) of the acoustic energy of the vowel sounds that include the first formant (f1), the second formant (f2). acoustic measurements were continued on the fundamental frequency acoustic component (f0). then, proceed to measure the duration of vowel sounds in milliseconds. for data processing, acoustic measurement results will be created as data processing instrument templates in excel format. the unit of measurement for formants and fundamental frequencies is hertz (hz), but then it will be converted into bark perceptual units for formants with the formula zi = 26.81/(1+1960/fi) 0.53 (traunmüller, 1988). acoustic value data will be converted into diagrams and mapped in vowel plotting. data were analyzed by extracting voice data through praat spectogram software. measure the acoustic components of vowel sounds, including the first formant (f1) and second formant (f2). measurements of the first formant (f1) and second formant (f2) for each vowel in the target word, as well as in utterances from multiple sentences by teak speakers, were taken at the midpoint of the vowel (pillai & yusuf, 2012). according to hossain et al. (2007), f1 and f2 are considered appropriate to explain the quality of monophthongs. the higher formants (i.e., f3, f4, f5) have less energy and do not provide adequate phonetic information than the low formants. f1 is related to high vowel tones, while f2 is related to the dimensional representation of front or back vowel tones (jacobi, 2009; watt & tillotson, 2001). the calculations in this study initially used hertz, the data obtained from voice analysis results. then, the data were transferred to excel in hertz. then, the data were converted to bark with the formula (deterding, 1997): hz to bark = 13 * atan (0,00076 * d2) + 3,5 * atan ((d2/7500) * (d2/7500)) (*d is data in columns in excel f1 or f2, measured in hertz). as described in table 2, the data analyzed in this study are only on the vowels that occur in the first syllable, namely the target vowels /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /u/, /o/, and /ↄ/. while the vowels /i//e/occur in vowels jamee words english a saya i u kunci key i sikap attitude e lempar throw ə betandang visit o dokter doctor ↄ rokok cigarrete table 2. word list the middle of a word and the vowel / ø/ at the end (manurung et al., 1984, p. 7). the words spoken by each respondent in praat were recorded at 44100 hz, and then the words were stored in a wav file and annotated to a text grid for further analysis.the bark scale is designed as a filter bank for auditory analysis signals such as speech (stevens, 2000). it is essentially the human auditory system, consisting of 24 critical bandpass filters at the junction from low to high frequencies (zwicker & terhardt, 1980). finally, the average values are plotted on f1-f2 charts, which provide information about the vowel descriptions of a language (ladefoged, 2001). iii. result and discussion after the data were analyzed by extracting voice data through praat spectogram software, this study obtained the results by measuring the acoustic components of vowels, which included the first formant (f1) and the second formant (f2). the results of data analysis show that the average frequencies for f1 and f2 of each vowel produced in deli malay from deli malay language informants are shown in table 3. in table 3, the formant average values are shown by vowel measurements based on f1 and f2 from the spectrogram in praat by using hz and converted into bark. the results of the average formant frequency analysis for f1 and f2 of each vowel in deli malay from deli malay informants are shown in the table 3. table 3 shows the average formant values for dml vowels and illustrates dml vowel positions /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /u/, /o/, and /ↄ/. in this figure, we can estimate vowel measurements based on f1 and f2 from the spectrogram in praat. furthermore, figure 2 shows that the front vowel is the vowel /i/and/e/. meanwhile, /a/ and / ə / are open, low, and middle vowels. finally, /o/, /u/, and /ↄ/ are back vowels. furthermore, each vocal quality in the vocal space based on its measurement is described in the figure 2. tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 44 identified the vocal quality of /e/ with f1 measured at 689 hz and f2 at 2204 hz. fig. 2 deli malay vowel chart, in bark scale table 3. formant frequency analysis vowel ave. f1 (hz) ave. f2 (hz) ave. f1 (bark) ave. f2 (bark) i 533 2328 4.8 12.39 e 689 2204 5.89 12.07 ə 692 1686 5.91 10.54 u 524 1382 4.73 9.43 o ↄ a 650 629 876 1459 1296 1701 5.63 5.69 7.03 9.73 9.39 10.59 vowel /i/ production figure 3 displays the distribution of the vowel /i/ as articulated by fifteen female speakers of deli malay. the data for the /i/ vowels in deli malay, drawn from the word ‘attitude’ in the word list comprising 15 letters, represent the high front vowel segment in deli malay. consequently, this research observed the vocal quality of /i/ with f1 measured at 533 hz and f2 at 2328 hz. fig. 3 plot chart of the distribution of vowels /i/ as produced by speakers of deli malay fig. 4 plot chart of vowels /e/ as produced by speakers of deli malay vocal /i/ and /e/ production based on the quality of the front vowels, plot the vertical distribution of vowels /i/and /e/ in the vowel space, as illustrated in figure 5. this study is similar to the study (manurung et al., 1984), where they also found the position of the vowel /i/ as a high front vowel and /e/ as a medium front vowel in this language. vowel /ə/ production fig. 5 plot chart of the distribution of vowels /i/ and /e/ as produced by speakers of deli malay fig. 6 plot chart of vowels /ə/ as produced by speakers of deli malay vowel /e/ production in figure 4, we observe the vowel /e/ distribution as articulated by fifteen female speakers of deli malay. the data for the /e/ vowels in deli malay, derived from the word ‘throw’ within the 15-letter word list, represent the high front vowel segment in deli malay. as a result, this study figure 6 illustrates the distribution of the vowel /ə/ as produced by fifteen female speakers of deli malay. the data for the /ə/ vowels in tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 45 vocal /a/ production fig. 7 plot chart of the distribution of vowels /a/ as produced by speakers of deli malay figure 7 presents the distribution of the vowel /a/ as produced by fifteen female speakers of deli malay. the data for the /a/ vowels in deli malay, obtained from the word ‘i’ meaning ‘me’ in the 15-letter word list, represent the mid-low vowel segment in deli malay. this study provides evidence that these vowels are articulated by speakers with the quality of /a/, with f1 at 876 hz and f2 at 1701 hz. vowels /a/ and /ə/ production fig. 8 plot chart of vowels /a/ and /ə/ as produced by speakers of deli malay vocal /ↄ/ production fig. 9 plot chart of the distribution of vowels /ↄ/ as produced by speakers of deli malay based on the quality of the front vowels, plot the vertical distribution of vowels /i/and /e/ in the vowel space, as illustrated in figure 5. this study is similar to the study (manurung et al., 1984), where they also found the position of the vowel /i/ as a high front vowel and /e/ as a medium front vowel in this language. vowel /o/ production fig. 10 plot chart of vowels /o/ as produced by speakers of deli malay in figure 10, we observe the vowel /o/ distribution as produced by fifteen female speakers of deli malay. the data for the /o/ vowels in deli malay, extracted from the word ‘doctor’ in the 15-letter word list, represent the back middle vowel in the language. this study provides evidence that this vowel is articulated by speakers with the quality of /o/, with f1 measured at 650 hz and f2 at 1459 hz. plot of distribution of vowels /u/ produced by fifteen female speakers of deli malay in figure 11. plot of vowels /u/ for deli malay, in the total of 15 letters taken from the keyword ‘key’ in the word list. this vowel position can be seen as the high vocal /u/ production back vowel part in deli malay. thus, this study has proven that these vowels are produced by speakers with the vowel quality /u/, f1 = 524 hz and f2 = 1382hz. based on the quality of the front vowels, plot the vertical distribution of the vowels /a/ and /ə/ in the vowel space, as illustrated in figure 8. this study is similar to the study (manurung et al., 1984), where they also found the position of the vowel /a/ as a low middle vowel and /ə/ as a medium middle vowel in this language. deli malay, extracted from the word ‘betandang’ meaning ‘visit’ in the 15-letter word list, represent the mid-vowel segment in deli malay. this study provides evidence that these vowels are articulated by speakers with the quality of /ə/, with f1 at 692 hz and f2 at 1686 hz. tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 46 based on the quality of the front vowels, plots the distribution of /ↄ/, /o/, and /u/vertically in the vowel space, as illustrated in figure 8. this study is similar to the study (manurung et al., 1984), where they found vowel positions /ↄ/, /o/ as a medium back vowel, and /u/ as a high back vowel in this language. /i/. while the vocals /e/, /ə/ o/, and /ↄ / are both in the middle, front, and back positions. a medium f1 vowel marks the four, but the f1 vowel /ↄ / is the lowest among the four vowels in the medium position. acoustic contrast is seen in the f2 vowel /ↄ / than the four vowels, and the f2 vowel /e/ is higher than the four vowels. the f1 vowel /a/ is low and back. the value of the f1 vowel /a/ is higher than the six other vowels, and the value of the f2 vowel /a/ is among the lowest f2 vowel /u/, compared to the values and f2 vowels, /ə/ o/, /ↄ/, /e/, and /i/. looking at the production of vowel utterances that have been studied from female speakers of deli malay, the positions /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and /ↄ /, in the vowel space are similar to the seven vowels as described by (manurung et al., 1984). the difference lies in the presentation of each vowel quality given by this study based on f1 and f2 from the spectrogram of each vowel in praat. the front vowels are confirmed as /i/and /e/, the middle vowels are confirmed as /ə/and /a/, and the back vowels are confirmed as /u/, /o/, and /ↄ/ is the back vowel. roach (2001, p. 39) further emphasizes the importance of studying acoustic signals for speech sounds because they are “fully observable: we can capture everything the listener hears in recorded form, and then measure whichever aspect of the signal we want to hear. research conducted by yusuf et al. investigated the vowel quality in that language involving ten female jamee speakers and used the praat tool as an analytical tool. the results of this study found seven monophthong vowels: /i/, /e/, /ɛ/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and /ↄ/ with a description of the formant frequencies f1 and f2 for the vowels the. the results obtained from van zanten’s research provide an overview of the indonesian vowel system, which has six monophthongs in its vocal system, namely /i, e, a, o, u, a/. this study produces a phonetic description of the vowel quality of the indonesian monophthong. this study contributes by providing a detailed analysis of the acoustic properties of deli malay vowels, contributing to a deeper understanding of the phonetic characteristics of the language. this can be valuable for linguists and researchers studying malay languages and their phonetic systems. in addition, the acoustic measurements provided in this study can be used to develop speech technology applications, such as automatic speech figure 11 plot chart of the distribution of vowels /u/ as produced by speakers of deli malay vowel /ↄ/, /o/, and /u/ production after observing the chart above in figure 13 and figure 2, we can describe that the vowels /i/ and /u/ are both in the front and back high vowel positions. a low f1 marks both, but the f1 vowel /u/ is lower than the f1 vowel /i/. acoustic contrasts appear on the vowel f2 / u/ lower than the f2 vowel figure 12 plot chart of vowels /ↄ/, /o/, and /u/ as produced by speakers of deli malay figure 13 deli malay vowel measurement chart, in hz scale tengku syarfina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 47 recognition (asr) systems, that require accurate representations of deli malay vowels for improved performance. moreover, the acoustic profile of deli malay vowels can be compared with other malay dialects or languages to identify similarities and differences in their phonetic systems. this comparative analysis can lead to insights into the evolution and divergence of malay languages over time. by documenting the acoustic profile of deli malay, this study contributes to the preservation of the language and culture associated with deli malay speakers. it helps to ensure that future generations have access to accurate information about their linguistic heritage. iv. conclusion this study found that deli malay has seven vowels, namely vowels /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /o/, /u/ and /ↄ/. the vowel positions /i/ and /e/ in deli malay are high and medium front vowels. while the vowels /o/, /u/ and /ↄ/ are high and medium back vowels. meanwhile, the vowels /a/ and / ə / are mid and low mid vowels. later, this acoustic study calculated approximate vowel measurements based on f1 and f2 from the spectrogram at praat. measures of the sound quality of formant vowels in deli malay vowels are vowel /a/ f1 = 876 hz and f2 = 1701 hz vowel /i/ f1 = 533 hz and f2 = 2328 hz, vowel /e/ f1 = 689 hz and f2 = 2204 hz, vowels / ə/ f1= 692 hz and f2= 1686 hz, vowels /o/ f1= 650 hz and f2= 1459 hz, /ↄ/ f1= 658 hz and f2= 1373 hz, and /u/ f1 = 524 hz and f2 = 1383 hz. the findings of this research are significant in phonology, especially dialectology, because they help linguists preserve and document the language used by speakers of deli malay. however, this research was conducted with limitation only exploring the vowel of deli malay language. in relation to the conclusion, the researchers recommend further studies to be conducted on deli malay. diphthong vowels and consonants 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(1980). analytical expressions for critical‐band rate and critical bandwidth as a function of frequency. the journal of the acoustical society of america, 68(5), 1523–1525. nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 29 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 2, 2024 final revision: march 18, 2024 accepted: march 22, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 the objective of this research is to describe the assimilation process in the toba batak language, specifically as it is spoken in pintu padang village, located in north sumatra, indonesia. assimilation is a type of sound change that is not the same to become the same or almost the same. this process can occur between segments in a word and between components in compound words. so, it is essential to formalize it by describing the sound features that undergo these changes. the data was gathered through observation and interviews. listening to batak angkola speakers communicate with one another allowed for observations. simultaneously, interviews were conducted by directly interviewing informants who were chosen based on particular criteria. three individuals were interviewed using a structured interview format. in addition, a set of unstructured interviews was carried out with several other speakers. for this purpose, a generative phonology approach is used. data analysis was carried out by the distributional method with the segmenting immediate constituents technique. after that, the distinctive features of the sound are explained. the results of this research show that assimilation took place in nasal consonants [m], [n], and [ŋ], which met the consonants [k], [p], [s], [t], [l], and [c]. the sounds [m], [n], and [ŋ] appear in the forms [p], [t] and [k], respectively. then, the sound [n] appears in the form [l] and [c] when it meets the sounds [l] and [c] too. generally, it can be inferred that sound modifications in the form of assimilation are homorganic. keywords assimilation, batak angkola language, distinctive features, generative phonology, sounds correspondence e-mail: nadra@hum.unand.ac.id article assimilation of the batak angkola language in pintu padang, north sumatra, indonesia nadra nadra1, rina marnita2, khofifah aisyah amini3 1,2faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 3postgraduate student of the department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.29-38.2024 i. introduction the realization of sounds in speech can change. in generative phonology, sound modifications are determined changes in the properties of segments or sounds, such as sound alterations, deletions, additions, combinations, and permutations. assimilation is one type of sound modification that occurs. assimilation is the transformation of two distinct sounds into the same or similar as a result of environmental sounds. according to schane (1992), a segment gains qualities or characteristics from nearby segments throughout the assimilation process. in this process, consonant sounds can be influenced by the qualities of the vowel sounds around them, as well as vowel sounds can take on the characteristics of consonants, and vowel sounds can also influence each other. jessica (2016) made a similar statement on a phonological process called assimilation when a sound changes to resemble a neighboring sound. this process can occur in both forward and backward directions, within a word or between words. the term assimilation serves as a clear example of the process it represents (hock & joseph, 2009). the word assimilate comes from the latin word assimilare which means ‘to make similar to’. it is formed by combining the latin prefix adwhich means ‘to’, and the word similis which means ‘similar’. in the word assimilate, the d sound of the ad blends with the following s and acquires the same articulation. assimilation is classified into two forms nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 30 based on the alterations that occur: phonetic assimilation and phonemic assimilation. the sound modifications that occur during phonetic assimilation do not change the identity of the sound, but just the pronunciation. this differs from phonemic assimilation, which involves a sound alteration that results in a change in the identity of the sound itself (muslich, 2009 & abidin, 2016). this process is classified into two types based on the position of the sound being assimilated: progressive assimilation and regressive assimilation. the sound that changes is positioned after the sound that is assimilated, and the change occurs from left to right (forward). meanwhile, regressive assimilation occurs when the sound that changes comes before the sound that is assimilated, with the shift occurring from right to left (lass, 1991; riswara, 2015; & widiawati, 2023). in this regard, the article focuses on batak angkola language assimilation in pintu padang village. the batak angkola language is a dialect of the southern batak language spoken in southern tapanuli (dongoran et al., 1997). based on preliminary observations, many linguistic phenomena were discovered in the batak angkola language, indicating assimilation. therefore, it is necessary to do this research. the sound [m] for example, becomes [p] as a result of the sound [p] situated in front of it. this form is found, among others, in the word meaning ‘better’, which comes from [um-] + [pade] ‘good’ becomes [uppade] ‘better’. another example: when followed by the sound [k], the sound [m] changes to the sound [p], as in [modom] ‘sleep’ + [-kon] pronounced [modopkon] ‘to put to sleep’. this phenomenon, as stated by abidin (2016), is called phonemic assimilation. furthermore, the sound that is absorbed comes before the sound that is assimilated. this kind of sound change, as mentioned by riswara (2015), is also called regressive assimilation. generative phonology is a theory that studies the structure of sounds as a system of formulas that generate phonetic representations. it explains the assimilation in the batak angkola language. unlike the concept of phonemes, this theory considers distinguishing features as the smallest unit. it establishes a relationship between distinguishing features, the lexicon, and phonological rules, as stated by kridalaksana (2008). harms (1968) defines generative phonology as a field of research that analyzes the phonemic structure of morphemes through a set of sequential rules. nafisah (2017) stated that generative phonology is a set of rules or principles that pertain to the relationship between sounds and their meanings, the phonetic representations in a language, the production of sound changes, and the assumptions made about the resulting sound changes. in addition, hintono and subiyanto (2023) said that, in addition to phonological processes, one of the key subjects explored in generative phonology is the element of distinguishing traits. hintono & subiyanto added that the distinctive features or distinguishing characteristics of a segment in generative phonology are based on 1) main class features (syllabic, sonorant, consonantal); 2) articulation area (anterior, coronal); 3) manner of articulation (continuous, delayed release, strident, nasal, lateral); 4) tongue shaft (high, low, back); 5) lip shape (round); 6) addition (tense, voiced, aspiration, glottalization); and 7) prosody (stress and length). dardjowidjojo (2010) claimed that the distinguishing features of consonants are vowel and consonantal, anterior, coronal, continuous, strident, nasal, and voice, whereas the distinguishing features of vowel sounds are high, vowel (syllabic), back, round, and tense. the rules for constructing a word and the sound changes that occur can be formed by knowing the distinguishing qualities of a language. several past studies pertinent to this research are included below. nababan (2009) studied the process, types, and functions of assimilation of the batak simalungun language. the simalungun language is a language that also comes from the same batak language group as the batak angkola language, namely the southern batak language (adelaar, 1981). therefore, this research is considered relevant for reference and comparison. the difference with this research is in terms of the approach used. the approach used in this research is structural phonology, while this research uses generative phonology. abidin (2016) conducted the following study on assimilation in the bonai ulakpatian isolect found in riau province. the assimilation process is explained in this study utilizing principles that describe sound changes that occur due to the sound environment in question, allowing the type of assimilation of the language being examined to be discovered. the results demonstrate that the bonai nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 31 ulakpatian isolect has four types of assimilation in the centre of the word between the two vowels, namely 1) pm *nd / v-v > bu [n] / v-v, 2) pm *ŋg / v-v > bu [ŋ] / v-v, 3) pm *mb / v-v > bu [m] /v-v which is total progressive assimilation and phonetic assimilation, and 4) pm *nj / v-v > bu [ñ] / v-v which is reciprocal and phonemic assimilation. additional studies that are pertinent to the present research examined various regional languages in indonesia and were conducted by jaya (2019), siga & purniawati (2019), sela & nurhayati (2020), and nurainun (2022). using distinctive feature theory and a generative phonology methodology, these studies describe the assimilation process. the proposed rules define phonological alterations that transpire due to the specific acoustic environment under consideration to identify the particular form of assimilation exhibited by the language under investigation. in addition, affixation research was investigated by anasti & liusti (2022) and halil & hilmi (2022), who described the forms and varieties of affixes. amini et al. (2023) studied the batak angkola language’s affix forms and morphophonemic processes. the process of phonological change caused by the conjunction of one morpheme with another is addressed in this study. the research emphasis and research limitations distinguish this study from others. amini et al. (2023) focused on phoneme alterations in the morphological process in the form of affixation, highlighting sound changes only in affixation. in contrast to this study, which is limited to one morphological process, it also analyses sound modifications from an assimilation standpoint. aside from that, the generative phonology approach used in this study distinguishes it from the work of amini et al. (2023). based on examples of data, the subject of batak angkola language assimilation is worth further investigation. aside from that, according to past research descriptions, no research on the assimilation of the batak angkola language has been uncovered. the use of generative phonology as an approach is also novel in linguistic studies of the batak angkola language. therefore, further research is required. this study aims to use generative phonology to describe the process of assimilation of the batak angkola language. this research must be carried out to add references to linguistic studies, particularly studies on language assimilation. aside from that, the identity of the batak angkola language as one of indonesia’s regional languages is better appreciated as a result of this research. ii. methods this is a sort of field research. native speakers of the angkola batak language from the pintu padang region, batang angkola district, south tapanuli regency provided research data. the data was gathered through observation and interviews. listening to batak angkola speakers communicate with one another allowed for observations. the results acquired that are pertinent to this research were documented. simultaneously, interviews were conducted by directly interviewing informants who were chosen based on particular criteria, such as having a modest degree of education, being proficient in the language being studied, and exhibiting exceptional oral communication abilities (nadra & reniwati, 2023). three individuals were interviewed using a structured interview format. in addition, a set of unstructured interviews were carried out with several other speakers who possess a high level of proficiency in the batak angkola language. this is beneficial for validating the obtained data. a set of questions was developed ahead of time to ensure the efficiency of the data collection process. the question list is a data-stimulating tool to ensure the informant provides the anticipated data (sudaryanto, 2015). the informant’s information is captured in prepared notes. for this purpose, a generative phonology approach is used. the data was analyzed using the distribution method and direct constituent segmentation techniques. segmented forms refer to forms or sounds that undergo the process of assimilation. after that, the distinctive features of the original sound are explained, including the sounds that are influenced and the sounds that influence them. next, the distinctive features of the typical sounds that have undergone the assimilation process are also described. iii. result assimilation occurs in the batak angkola language spoken in the pintu padang area in the form of affixes, those expressing ownership, those in the form of repetition, those in the form of phrases, and those that occur in the nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 32 words themselves. the technique in question is demonstrated using examples from the field. the outcomes of data analysis are presented both formally and informally. formally, the presentation uses symbols to illustrate the shifting sound qualities. cons (consonantal), lab (labial), ant (anterior), cor (coronal), dis (distributed), dor (dorsal), son (sonorant), nas (nasal), str (strident), cont (continuant), app (approximant), and lat (lateral) are the extant sound properties. informally, presentation is accomplished by describing or discussing the process at hand. based on data analysis, assimilation in the batak angkola language was found as follows. assimilation [m] + [k, p, t, s] the voiced nasal [m] with the features [+cons, +lab, +son, +nas, +ant] appears in the form of the voiceless plosive [p] which features [+cons, +lab, +ant] when it is combined with the voiceless velar plosive [k], bilabial plosive [p], alveolar plosive [t], and alveolar fricative [s]. a) [mk]  [pk] the voiced nasal [m], when combined with the voiceless velar plosive [k], will appear as a voiceless plosive [p] with the following features. [m]  [p] / ___ [k] the features retained from the original sound are [+cons], [+lab], and [ant]. meanwhile, the same features influencing it as the sound is [+cons]. example: b) [mp]  [pp] if a voiced nasal [m] is followed by a bilabial plosive voiceless [p], then the voiced nasal [m] undergo an assimilation process, resulting in the change of the voiced nasal [m] to the bilabial plosive voiceless [p]. the phonological features of the difference can be described below. [m]  [p] / ___ [p] the features of the original sounds that are still maintained are [con, +lab, and +ant], which are the same as the sound that influences the sound [m]. in other words, the original sound becomes the same as the sound that influences it. example: c) [mt]  [pt] the voiced nasal [m], when combined with the voiceless alveolar plosive [t], will appear as a voiceless plosive [p] with the following features. [m]  [p] / ___ [t] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +lab, and +ant], are still maintained, and two have the same features as the influencing sound, namely [+cons] and [+ant]. example: nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 33 d) [ms]  [ps] the voiced nasal [m] which is followed by a voiceless alveolar fricative [s] will change into a voiceless plosive [p] with the following phonological features. [m]  [p] / ___ [s] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +lab, and +ant], are still maintained, and two have the same features as the influencing sound, namely [+cons] and [+ant]. example: assimilation [n] + [k, p, t, s] the voiced nasal [n] with the features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] will change into the voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant] when it is combined such consonants as the voiceless velar plosive [k], bilabial plosive [p], alveolar plosive [t], and alveolar fricative [s] as shown below. a) [nk]  [tk] the voiced nasal [n] that occurs together with a voiceless velar plosive [k], will change into a voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the following features. [n]  [t] / ___ [k] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +cor, and +ant], are still maintained, and one has the same features as the influencing sound, namely [+cons]. example: b) [nt]  [tt] the voiced nasal [n] came with the voiceless alveolar plosive [t] and will appear as a voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the following features. [n]  [t] / ___ [t] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +cor, and +ant], are still maintained, and these features are the same as the sound that influences the sound [n]. in other words, the original sound becomes the same as the sound that influences it. example: c) [np]  [tp] the voiced nasal [n] combined with the bilabial plosive [p] will appear as a voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the following features. [n]  [t] / ___ [p] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +cor, and +ant], are still maintained, and two have the same features as influencing sound, namely [+cons] and [+ant]. nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 34 examples: d) [ns]  [ts] voiced nasal [n] if it appears with a voiceless alveolar fricative [s] will appear as a voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the following features. [n]  [t] / ___ [s] the patterns above show that three of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +cor, and +ant], are still maintained and three have the same features as influencing sound, namely [+cons, +cor, and +ant]. example: assimilation [ŋ] + [k, p, t, s] the voiced velar nasal [ŋ] with the features [+cons, +son, +nas, +dor] appears in the form of the voiceless velar plosive [k] with the features [+cons, +dor] when it is combined with the voiceless velar plosive [k], bilabial plosive [p], alveolar plosive [t], and alveolar fricative [s]. the patterns of change can be seen below. a) [ŋk]  [kk] the velar voiced nasal [ŋ] which is combined with the voiceless velar plosive [k] will appear as a voiceless velar plosive [k] with the following features. [ŋ]  [k] / ___ [k] the patterns above show that two of the four features of the original sound, namely [+cons] and [+dor], are still maintained, and these features are the same as the sound that influences the sound [ŋ]. in other words, the original sound becomes the same as the sound that influences it. example: b) [ŋp]  [kp] the velar voiced nasal [ŋ], which is combined with the bilabial plosive [p], will come as a voiceless velar plosive [k] with the following features. [ŋ]  [k] / ___ [p] the patterns above show that two of the four features of the original sound, namely [+cons] and [+dor], are still maintained, and one has the same feature as influencing sound, namely [+cons]. example: c) [ŋt]  [kt] the velar voiced nasal [ŋ] combined with nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 35 +nas, +cor, +ant] which occur with alveolar voiced [l] will appear as lateral alveolar voiced [l] with the features [+cons, +son, +app, +lat, +cor, +ant] ([nl]  [ll]). [n]  [l] / ___ [l] the patterns above show that four of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons, +son, +cor, and +ant.], are still maintained, and four have the same features as influencing sound, plus two features came from the influencing sound, namely [+app] and [+lat]. example: assimilation [n] + [c] voiced nasal [n] with features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] appears in the form of voiced palatal plosive [c], which has features [+cons, +cor, +dis, +dor] when it comes with the voiced palatal plosive [c] with the same features ([nc] + [cc]). [n]  [c] / ___ [c] the patterns above show that two of the five features of the original sound, namely [+cons] and [+cor], are still maintained, and two have the same features as influencing sound, namely [+dis] and [+dor]. the original sound becomes the same as the sound that influences it. example: the voiceless alveolar plosive [t] will change into a voiceless velar plosive [k] with the following features. [ŋ]  [k] / ___ [t] the patterns above show that two of the four features of the original sound, namely [+cons] and [+dor], are still maintained, and one has the same feature as influencing sound, namely [+cons]. example: d) [ŋs]  [ks] the velar voiced nasal [ŋ], which is combined with the voiceless alveolar fricative [s], will appear as a voiceless velar plosive [k] with the following features. [ŋ]  [k] / ___ [s] the patterns above show that two of the four features of the original sound, namely [+cons] and [+dor], are still maintained, and one has the same feature as influencing sound, namely [+cons]. example: assimilation [n] + [l] nasal voiced [n] with features [+cons, +son, nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 36 iv. discussion the type of assimilation that occurs in the batak angkola language is regressive assimilation because the direction of the influence of the sound that occurs is behind or lies before the assimilated sound. for example, the change in the sound [n], which has alveolar-nasal features, is pronounced to [l], which has alveolar-lateral features in the phrase bulan lapan [bulal lapan] ‘month eight’. there is a novelty in this research when compared with previous research by amini et al. (2023). the novelty in question is the regressive assimilation of the sound [n] into [l] when it meets the sound [l] as well. apart from that, different from the research of amini et al. (2023), sound (phone) changes are not limited only to those that occur in the morphological process, like affixation, but are also found in the reduplication process, as in the data sonaη-sonaη [sonak-sonaŋ] ‘happy-fun’, in phrases, such as bulan lapan [bulal lapan] ‘the eighth month’, and in the word itself, like mancit [maccit] ‘sick’. the sounds that undergo assimilation are nasal [m, n, ŋ] when they meet the sounds [k, p, t, s, l, c]. five rules can be created based on these sound changes. (1) [m] > [p] / _[k], [p], [t], [s]). the first rule states that the voiced nasal sound [m] with the features [+cons, +lab, +son, +nas, +ant] appears in the form of a bilabial plosive [p] with the features [+cons, +lab, +ant] in word-initial position followed by the voiceless velar plosive [k] with the features [+cons and +dor], bilabial plosive [p] with the features [+cons, +lab, +ant], alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant], and alveolar fricative [s] with the features [+cons, +cont, +str, +cor, +ant]; (2) [n] > [t] / _ [k], [p], [t], [s]. the second rule is that the voiced nasal [n] with the features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] appears in the form of the alveolar plosive [t], which has the features [+cons, +cor, +ant] as followed by the voiceless velar plosive [k], with the features [+cons and +dor], bilabial plosive [p] with the features [+cons, +lab, +ant], alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant], and alveolar fricative [s] with the features [+cons, +cont, +str, +cor, +ant]; (3) [ŋ] > [k] / _[k], [p], [t], [s]. the third rule states that the voiced velar nasal sound [ŋ] with the feature [+cons, +son, +nas, +dor] appears in the form of the voiceless velar plosive [k], which has the feature [+cons, +dor] when combined with the sound voiceless velar plosive [k] which has the feature [+cons, +dor], bilabial plosive [p] with the features [+cons, +lab, +ant], alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant], and alveolar fricative [s] with the features [+cons, +cont, +str, +cor, +ant]; (4) [n] > [l] / _[l]. the fourth rule is that the nasal-voiced [n] with features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] which occur with alveolar voiced [l] will appear as lateral alveolar voiced [l] with the features [+cons, +son, +app, +lat, +cor, +ant]; and (5) [n] > [c] / _[c]. the fifth rule is that voiced nasal [n] with features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] appears in the form of voiced palatal plosive [c], which has features [+cons, +cor, +dis, +dor] when it comes with the voiced palatal plosive [c] with the same features. the sounds that change is homorganic. this means that the sound features of the original sound retain their features after changing. for example, the voiced nasal [n] with the features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] appears in the form of the voiceless alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant]. the consonant, coronal, and anterior sound features are equally present in the sound before and after it changes. another example is the sound velar [ŋ] with the feature [+cons, +son, +nas, +dor] becoming velar [k] with the features [+cons and +dor]; alveolar [n] with features [+cons, +son, +nas, +cor, +ant] becomes alveolar plosive [t] with the features [+cons, +cor, +ant]; and voiced nasal [m] with the features [+cons, +lab, +son, +nas, +ant] becomes bilabial plosive [p] with the features [+cons, +lab, +ant]. this implies that assimilation can be found in the batak angkola language, in which the process of changing a sound into a similar sound or the same as another nearby sound occurs. v. conclusion based on the previous results and discussion, it can be concluded that the assimilation process in the batak angkola language is regressive assimilation because the direction of sound change is behind the assimilated sound. the sounds that undergo assimilation are the nasal sounds [m, n, ŋ] when they meet the sounds [k, p, t, s, l, c]. the sound [m] changes to [p]; [n] become [t]; [ŋ] becomes [k] in the initial position of a word followed by the sounds [k, p, t, s]. then, the sound [n] appears in the form of [l] and [c] in the initial position of the word, followed by the sounds [l] and [c]. overall, it can be concluded that the sounds that undergo assimilation are all nasal sounds. in other words, nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 37 nasal sounds are the sounds that adapt most easily to their environment. acknowledgement this article is part of research funded by the faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, with the postgraduate research scheme (tpps), pnbp fund research contract number: 2 371/un16.07. d/kpt/xi/2023. the author would like to thank the financial assistance provided. the author would also like to thank the informants who provided oral data on the batak angkola language in the research area and other parties who helped so that this research could proceed as planned. references abidin, z. 2016. “asimilasi dalam isolek bonai ulakpatian”. jurnal madah, 7(2), 167-176. adelaar, k. a. 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(1992). fonologi generatif. terjemahan zahari ahmad & nor hoshimah jalaluddin. dewan bahasa dan pustaka kementerian pendidikan malaysia. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 164 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t this study aims to develop a model of interactive learning media by focusing on online activities with synchronous and asynchronous models to improve the quality of english learning. the study provides some discussion about preparing an interactive online learning by deploying various types of activities which group into synchronous and asynchronous activities. the method used in the research is research and development method which follows addie model. the data collected from english skill class which include elementary reading and writing and elementary listening and speaking. the result of the study shows effective model for developing interactive medias for teaching english skill. it is very important to design learning activities aligned with the learning outcomes and learning objectives. to create an effective online learning environment, teachers should consider about the interactivity of the learning activities and the mode of content delivery. both synchronous and asynchronous activities have benefits and drawback. hence to get a maximum benefit of online learning, teachers need to combine synchronous and asynchronous activities and design which activities should be delivered in each mode. keywords instructional design, interactive learning, synchronous activities, asynchronous, addie correspondence e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id review designing synchronous and asynchronous activities for interactive learning handoko handoko1, ayumi ayumi2 1,2faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1. introduction covid 19 has affected almost all aspects of human life, including the education aspect. during the pandemic, face-to-face learning is abolished and replaced by online learning. this certainly affects the pattern of teaching and learning and the quality of learning outcomes. in the implementation of online learning, several obstacles are often found, such as lack of student attention, limited access to online learning materials, lack of teacher control over the quality of learning, and of course technical obstacles related to the implementation of online learning (adedoyin & soykan, 2020; barrot et al., 2021; yuzulia, 2021; zalat et al., 2021). online learning is a learning model by utilizing the internet network. through online learning, the implementation of learning can be done virtually without having to carry out faceto-face meetings. this is of course very much in line with the covid-19 conditions which require restrictions on direct interactions (barrot et al., 2021). in practice, learning can be carried out synchronously (synchronous) and asynchronously (asynchronous). in the synchronic model, teachers and students must attend online classes at the same time. one of the synchronous learning activities that are often used today is the use of web conferences or web meetings, such as the use of zoom meetings. in contrast, in the asynchronous model, teachers and students do not have to be present at a certain time for online classes. teachers can prepare various learning media and then add them to online learning applications, such as google classroom, edmodo, moodle, or other media that allow students to access learning materials. the selection of online learning implementation models, either synchronous or asynchronous, is closely related to the expected learning outcomes and will certainly affect the quality of learning outcomes (amiti, 2020; fabriz et al., 2021; perveen, 2016). related to the low quality of online learning, this is due to a one-way learning design that only received: october 10, 2022 final revision: october 25, 2022 available online: october 28, 2022 | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | under license of creative commons attributioni-noncommercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.164-177.2022 handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 165 focuses on explaining learning material from the teacher directly through web meetings, such as using zoom meetings. in addition, it is not uncommon for students to learn independently through learning media in the form of books, modules, or videos that are less interesting. as a result, student participation in the learning process decreases and affects the quality of learning. therefore, it is necessary to design a more effective learning by focusing on the development of interactive learning media so that students can actively interact with learning materials and can improve the quality of learning (agostinho et al., 2011). learning media are all devices that allow students to gain knowledge, expertise, or understanding to achieve learning objectives. this device can be in the form of people, equipment, instruments, documents, or other materials that support learning (heinich, 2002). regarding the online learning model, learning media can be adapted to synchronous and asynchronous models. in the synchronous model of learning media that can be used, such as the use of web conferences (zoom meetings, google meetings, webex, youtube live) or the use of chat services (whatsapp, telegram) where teachers and students are present virtually at certain times. for the asynchronous model, there are many choices of activities that can be used such as learning videos, group projects, discussion forums, journals, blogs, wikis, quizzes, and many more. in this asynchronous model, students can access learning media more flexibly without having to be tied to a certain time. the term interactive learning, of course, has often been heard, especially in the field of education. interactive learning aims to provoke students to be active and involved in the learning process and is usually identified with the use of technology (sessoms, 2008). this learning model is certainly different from the traditional model which only focuses on the delivery of learning materials by the teacher. in other words, interactive learning focuses on student activity in the learning process (students center learning). sessoms (2008) compares the traditional learning model and the interactive learning model. in interactive learning, the focus of learning activities is on student activity (student-centered learning) where the learning target is able to stimulate multi-sensory. by utilizing technology, interactive learning models allow the use of varied learning methods by utilizing various learning media and collaborative learning. with this interactive learning model, students are more active and proactive which allows the exchange of information either from teacher to student, exchange of information between students, or exchange from student to teacher. interactive learning is closely related to the technology used in the learning process. of course, the rapid development of technology also triggers the development of learning technology. currently, there are many technological models that can be implemented in increasing student activity in accessing lessons, such as collaboration applications, virtual reality, simulations and so on (handoko, 2021). the interactive learning model can basically be implemented in face-to-face learning and online learning. in face-to-face learning, interactive models can be implemented in various classroom activities that allow students to interact with learning content through various learning media, such as the use of teaching aids, role playing, simulations, or discussions. likewise in online learning, various activities centered on student activity can be designed in such a way that students can interact with learning media and interact with other students. with active interaction with class content and participants, students are expected to gain learning experiences and be able to conclude or take lessons from their learning experiences. the current studies discuss the instructional design for interactive learning by focusing on the synchronous and asynchronous activities. it is expected that the study could provide alternative designed to deliver interactive contents in online learning. 2. method the current discussion focuses on research and development approach for instructional design. the instructional designs used in the current research were taken from two classes, elementary reading and writing and elementary listening and speaking, in english department andalas university. the research follows addie model which includes analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. in the analysis stages, the researchers provided discussion about the objective and the learning outcomes of the subject. then in the design stages, the researchers discussed how to design learning material and media handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 166 for interactive online learning by focusing on the synchronous and asynchronous activities. the next step is development stages where the researchers discussed how to develop an interactive media for learning english skills. in the implementation stage, the researchers showed how the interactive used in the online class. the last step is evaluation where researchers discussed how to evaluate the implementation of the instructional design of interactive learning for english learning. 3. discussion analysis of interactive online learning using synchronous and asynchronous activities the first stage of designing the instructional design is analysis. in the context of english learning, this step includes the analysis of learning outcome and how to design learning activities to achieve the learning outcome. learning outcomes is very important to consider when designing an instructional media for online learning. each outcome should be equipped with learning activities to achieve the outcome. table 1 shows the result of example of analysis stage for elementary reading and writing. table 1. shows that each outcome should be distributed through various activities, such as reading material, video, quiz, and peer review. these kinds of activities should be well-designed to achieve the learning outcomes. tables 2 shows the similar analysis for elementary listening and speaking. in the analysis stages, it is also important to consider about the available resource to make sure learning activities can be delivered. the resource includes people, tools, instruments, devices, etc. there are several fundamentals question for preparing learning activities: • who will design and develop the learning activities? • what resource available to produce the learning activities? • how to deliver the learning activities? listening skills for example required a set of devices to practice, such as video player, speaker, and headset which usually available in the computer lab. when considering about the use of instructional video, who will create the video, do they have skills and equipment to produce the video? do the school have video player and tv or set of computers to display video? moreover, when analysing the learning activities, time allocation also needs to be set properly. how long the students table 1. analysis stage for elementary reading and writing no learning outcomes learning activities 1 students are able to write reading report of various simple text in english in written form reading material, instruction video, quiz, assignment, peer review 2 students are able to use simple english structure correctly in writing reading material, video instruction, quiz, assignment, group discussion 3 students are able to demonstrate strategies for adding and developing new english vocabulary reading material, video instruction, assignment, role play 4 students are able to use the new vocabulary correctly in writing quiz, assignment, peer review table 2. analysis stage for elementary listening and speaking no learning outcomes activities 1 students are able to comprehend and reproduce formal and non-formal expression in english reading material, instructional video, assignment 2 students are able to understand and respond to simple spoken instruction reading material, quiz, assignment, peer review, simulation 3 students are able to improve their english pronunciation instructional video, assignment, 4 students are able to communicate in various levels of politeness in english reading material, instructional video, simulation 5 students are able communicate and express thought relating to daily activities. instructional video, simulation, assignment, role play handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 167 need to complete the specific activities? how long it will take to provide feedback for students’ activities? by the limitation of time allocated for a meeting, sometimes the learning activities cannot deliver properly, especially in the face-to-face meeting or synchronous activities. online learning provides some solution regarding to the resource of learning activities. through learning management system (lms), teachers can deliver various learning activities online. by the advanced of technology, the students now can access the lms via their smartphone which allow them to learn anytime, anywhere. they also have flexible time to access the learning activities. teachers can provide immediate feedback to students’ activities without waiting to all students completed their activities. design and development interactive online learning using synchronous and asynchronous activities in online learning, the various learning materials or learning media. beside textbooks or modules, teachers can distribute various learning materials to students and of course more up to date, such as website pages, videos, audio, animations, or more comprehensive materials such as scrom packages. they also can update the learning materials and adapt to the students’ needs. to design interactive teaching materials, of course, teacher must apply the interactive aspects which have been discussed in the introduction. one of the main aspects in developing interactive teaching materials is student participation. teachers must design teaching materials that can invite students to actively interact with the content. students are not only reading or watching videos, but also actively interacting with content with various instructions that you have prepared. in addition to cognitive abilities, interactive learning content can certainly improve students’ psychomotor abilities. there are various activities that can be designed and implemented in the online learning, such as assignments, group work, discussions, simulations, role play, and so on. the following are some of the concepts and models commonly used in the development of learning activities. small group discussion the small group discussion model allows students to share knowledge, experiences, ideas, information, and so on. in online learning, this model is very possible to do by utilizing various applications, both free and paid. some of the applications that can be used for group discussions can be synchronous and asynchronous activities. the synchronous activities can be delivered via chat or video conference. some chat application, such as whatsapp, telegram, google hangout, allow students to discuss synchronously through text services. moreover, video conference applications, such as google meeting, zoom, ms teams, cisco webex, big blue button, allow students to have online meetings to deliver to discuss about the specific topic. as an alternative to synchronous discussion, teacher can provide an asynchronous discussion via online forum. lms usually provided discussion forum for students to discuss. role-play & simulation this model allows students to learn by role playing and imitating movements/models/patterns/ procedures. in online classes, teacher can add various animations, simulations, and even virtual reality to provide a real learning experience. animation 2d, 3d, augmented reality, virtual reality. case study/contextual learning this model is one of the most widely used models. through this model, students can learn through real events that occur. in the context of online learning, this model can be used by utilizing the workshop feature, where students can provide their perceptions about certain cases and then the results can be reviewed by other students. discovery learning this model is almost similar to case study, but in the discovery learning model, students actually go into the field to conduct searches, research, and proof. with this model, students can conclude for themselves the learning experiences they have gained during the search. in online learning, discovery learning models are often distribute via assignment self-directed learning the self-directed learning model allows students to learn independently by participating in specially designed learning activities. you may be familiar with interactive learning cds and tutorial videos. one of the most popular applications is macromedia flash which later changed to adobe handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 168 flash. in addition to flash, currently there are also many choices of authoring tools applications, such as articulate 360, adobe captive, lectora inspire, ispring, and so on with various very interesting features. in addition, many mobile applications have been developed, such as duolingo. moodle can also be used as an alternative implementation of the self-directed learning model by utilizing the scorm and lesson (adaptive learning) features. cooperative learning cooperative learning model allows students to learn in teams with the same task for a common goal. currently, there are many applications that can be used to implement cooperative learning models, such as pedlet, lino, wakelet, dotstorming, and flipgrid. collaborative learning collaborative learning model allows students to learn together in teams with different task loads. students are asked to be able to work together to complete certain tasks. there are many applications that can be used to implement this model, ranging from simple ones, such as google docs, to complex ones, such as microsoft teams and trello. moodle also provides features to support the cooperative learning model using wiki features. problem based learning the problem based learning model provides a learning experience to students through problems which then look for solutions by conducting searches and investigations. in online learning, this model can be implemented by utilizing the assigment feature. project based learning the project-based learning model is a very comprehensive learning model because it involves various aspects and requires quite a long time. learning based on targets and planning. in online learning, the implementation of the project based learning model can be done through applications such as microsoft teams, microsoft project, trello, goals, evernote and figshare. after knowing about the various learning activities that can be delivered online, teachers should design how to distribute the activities based on the learning objectives. in online learning, there are two models of learning delivery, asynchronous (asynchronous) and synchronous (synchronous). in asynchronous learning, learning activities are not limited to place and time. this means that lecturers and students can be in different places and at different times. this model allows students to learn independently and not fully depend on the teacher (bernard et al., 2004; clark & mayer, 2016; murphy et al., 2011; xie et al., 2018). however, this learning model requires rich and varied learning media (blau et al., 2017; daft & lengel, 1983). this learning media demands direct feedback, transmission of verbal and nonverbal communication, personalization of content, and natural language stimulation (blau et al., 2017). related to natural communication, of table 3. designing learning activities for english learning no english skills synchronous activities asynchronous activities 1 reading • group discussion (using chat, video meeting, forum) • online quiz • self-directed learning (reading textbook, watching video) • discovery learning 2 writing • group discussion • online quiz • self-directed learning • cooperative learning (brainstorming ideas, wiki) • collaborative learning (peer review, forum) • problem-based learning (assignment) 3 listening • simulation (audio/video) • online quiz • self-directed learning • simulation • project-based learning 4 speaking • group discussion • role play • simulation • collaborative learning • project-based learning (assignment) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 169 course this is a challenge because of course it is very difficult to transform direct communication into indirect communication, when providing feedback and learning motivation (hartnett, 2015). in addition, in online learning, students must also be equipped with good technology mastery skills so that they can complete learning activities (kim et al., 2019). several previous studies have shown that this asynchronous model is very suitable for learning that focuses on improving cognitive abilities (garrison, 2011; hrastinski, 2008; ogbonna et al., 2019). in the synchronous model, the online learning process can be carried out at different times but must be within a certain time span. this model is widely used today, where teachers and students communicate directly through online media, such as video conferencing (zoom meeting), video calls (whatsapp), and other media that allow real time communication (blau et al., 2017). with a model like this, there is natural communication in the process of implementing online learning, including providing learning feedback and motivating students. several studies show that the synchronous learning model shows positive results, especially for practical abilities. however, the use of this synchronous model is not suitable for activities that require complex discussions and require deep contemplation (hrastinski, 2008). in this model students also have limited time in understanding the learning material because the material is given directly with limited time. in addition, students’ focus when participating in synchronous learning can be disrupted by various other activities and teachers cannot control the activities of lecturers personally (rapanta et al., 2020). for example, when conducting a video conference where students are only passive listeners, they may do other things, such as listening to music, watching other videos, accessing social media, chatting, or other activities that can distract students’ focus. another problem that is often encountered in the implementation of synchronous online learning is technical problems (xie et al., 2018), such as internet connection problems, device interference, or environmental disturbances that can hinder the learning process and disrupt the concentration of students and teachers. therefore, to increase the effectiveness of online learning, it is necessary to combine synchronous and asynchronous learning. teachers need to use synchronous or asynchronous models which align to the learning outcomes and learning objective. implementating synchronous and asynchronous activities in interactive online learning the next stage of designing instructional design is implementing the design and learning media that have been developed. in this stage, teacher can group the interactive learning into learning material and learning activities. learning materials these content groups are materials that will be studied by students to improve their understanding of the topics presented. the delivery of learning materials can be in the form of static content, such as text, or interactive content in the form of animation, audio, video, scrom, and so on. in the context of teaching elementary reading and writing, various teaching material can be provided for the students to learn. interactive figure 1. the use of interactive book handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 170 content can be deployed in the learning management system (lms) in various formats, such as interactive book, animation, instructional videos. figure 1 shows the use of interactive books to deliver integrated books. instead of uploading the textbook in pdf or microsoft word format, teachers can create an interactive online book which can be elaborated with various activities. figure 1 shows that students can interact with the content by choosing different topic of text and can access the questions directly from the pages. this is very helpful for students, especially for self-directed learning, to engage with the content and enjoy online learning. beside interactive books, teachers can also use instructional video to deliver the learning materials. figure 2 shows two options for instructional videos. figure 2a is a traditional video in which the students need to watch the video from start to finish. figure 2b is an interactive video in which students can interact with the content of video. teachers can add the question, explanation, or link for students to highlight during watching the videos. the use of interactive video is very helpful to engage the students in the online learning. instead of passively watch the video and get bored, students found more interesting activities such as answering the questions, providing comment, clicking the url, and some other activities embedded in the video. when the video plays in the specific time frame, a pop-up massage appears, it can be a question, picture, links, another media. the video will be paused, and students need to take action, either to answer the question or to do specific instruction set by the teacher. this immediate action can be used to check students understanding, to prompt their knowledge, or to take certain action to get a further reading explanation. beside the asynchronous activities as mentioned above, teacher can also use synchronous activities, such as video meeting. the use of video meeting can be used to deliver the learning materials via teacher instruction, group discussions, or group presentations. figure 3 shows the use of online video meeting to deliver learning materials. figure 3 shows how teacher can deliver the learning material through direct presentation. students can follow the explanation and interact with the teacher directly. synchronous meeting allows teacher and students to maintain the communication. students can directly ask the figure 2. using video for online learning (a) (b) figure 3. the use of video meeting in online learning handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 171 question and get immediate feedback from the teacher. although this kind of activities is really helpful, but teacher need to consider some technical issues, such as internet connection and time consumption for the online meeting. learning activities learning activity groups contain activities carried out by students to improve their competence, such as discussions, simulations, (a) (b) (c) figure 4. the use of peer review activities in online learning exercises, assignments, making reports, or other activities. in the online learning, learning activities have been developed rapidly over time. there are numerous of learning activities that can be deploy in the learning management system or in the stand-alone application, such as discussion forum, peer review, survey, collaborative works, and some other interesting activities. the following example is the use of peer review activities where students can grade others’ essay. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 172 figure 3 show the use of peer review activities in elementary reading and writing class. beside writing their own writing, students also assigned to give feedback for others writing. figure 3a shows the student writing as a response to the teacher instructions. then, after the writing submitted, the teacher can assign the other students to grade and give feedback for the writing. teacher can provide a rubric help student grading their friends writing and at the end of review steps, students can provide general feedback for the writing. this interactive activity is helpful to develop critical thinking skills and give a deeper understanding of the topic. other activities that can be adopted to interactive learning include assessments, both formative and summative assessments. for synchronous activities, there are many options available to assess the learning progress. among other things is the use of online quiz to assess student learning progress. figure 5 shows some alternative of interactive quiz to help teacher assess their student’s progress. figure 5 shows a various aspect of online quiz that can be deploy in the online learning. figure 5a shows how the quiz can be equipped with audio. this is very helpful to assess students listening skills. in the traditional model, the quiz and the audio are separated in the different media, the quiz is distributed in the printed book and the audio is distributed via audio cd. by using interactive quiz, students can access both quiz and the supplementary file in one media. for learning purposes, teacher can enable the audio control to help students pause and repeat the audio. figure 5b shows alternative assessment using a video. here, students should watch the video and can answer the questions provided based on the video. figure 5. media embedded in the quiz (a) (b) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 173 the quiz also can be enhanced by using image and various types of question. teacher can use drag down question, matching, summary, and some other challenging questions. figure 6 shows how to embed images in the quiz. the types of questions including multiple choice, drop down, and short answer questions. there are numerous types of questions that can be used to assess the students using quiz. quiz is considered as synchronous activities because students need to complete the quiz in the specific time. this kind of activity is frequently used to assess students’ learning progress because it is simple and easy to grade. one of advantage of quiz is automatic grading. this feature allows the system to grade the student’s submission immediately after they complete the quiz. to some extent, the system can also provide general feedback and detail feedback right after the students done with the quiz. this is very helpful to maintain the communication with the students regarding to their academic performances. for the asynchronous assessment, there are also number of activities available to deliver an interactive online learning. assignment is one of the alternatives that can be used to assess students’ progress. online assignment is a flexible mode of assessment which can be adjust with various assessment criteria. it can be used for various activities, such as simulation, role play, problembased learning, or project-based learning. figure 7 shows how to deploy an interactive assessment using assignment mode. figure 7 shows how to design an assignment for speaking test in online learning. figure 7a indicates the detail information about the due date and remaining time for speaking assignment. to some extent, the instruction can be equipped by grading criteria, especially for rubric grading. figure 7b shows the response of the students in form of video which also provides information about the submission. figure 7c shows the how teacher can provide feedback to the students’ assignment. in oppose to the quiz grading, assignment require manual grading in which teacher check the assignment and input the grade and the feedback manually for each assignment. in the advanced grading, teacher can use rubric grading to give a detail information for each grading component. the use of assignment can be considered as asynchronous activities since students can access the assignment anytime during the given date. it is helpful for students because they can prepare the best response for the assignment. however, for the teacher, assignment require extra work, especially in grading the assignment and providing feedback for each student’s assignment. as an alternative for speaking activities, teacher can also use social media to assess students speaking skill. figure 8 shows the use of augmented reality from snapchat to provide interactive speaking activities. this kind of activity figure 6. the use of various question types in a quiz handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 174 (a) (b) (c) figure 7. the use of assignment in interactive online learning handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 175 is interesting for speaking because it can reflect a real skill of student in responding to random questions. within the limits of time given, students cannot prepare the answer for the question and should immediately answer the question after the image stop. there some more interactive activities that can be delivered on the online learning platform, either synchronous or asynchronous activities. the use of interactive activities can provide a new experience for the students in online learning. it is very important to design the online activities based on the learning outcomes and learning objective. different outcome and objective may require a different activity. besides, it is also important to consider about how to deliver the activities. some activities should be delivered synchronously to get a maximum benefit of the activities while some others should be delivered asynchronously. based on the discussion above, it can be figure out that in designing the interactive content for online learning, there are several steps that should be taken. first is analysing the learning needs which reflected from learning outcomes and learning objective. then the learning needs should be elaborating into learning activities which distributed in learning outcomes or learning objective. there are so many learning activities available in online learning, some of them can be delivered using synchronous, such as group discussions and video meetings. some other figure 8. the use of augmented reality in online learning activities are more flexible and can delivered using asynchronous activities, such as collaborative activities, simulation, and project-based learning. teacher also needs to consider about the learning assessment as well. online learning also provides many solutions for assessing students skills, such using quiz and assignment. in terms of implementing interactive learning in teaching english, which includes four main skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), teachers also need to choose a proper activity based on the objective of each skill. in reading skill, some synchronous and asynchronous activities are applicable, such as group discussions, video meeting, discovery learning, online quiz, and assignment. for writing, interactive activities can be deploy to the lms such as cooperative learning, collaborative learning, project-based learning, group discussion, quiz, and assignment. in the listening skill, the number of activities is quite limited, such as quiz, and video instruction. speaking skill has many alternatives including role play, simulation, group discussion, project-based learning, problem-based learning. 4. conclusion interactivity in online learning required welldesigned learning activities to get a benefit of the online learning. from the discussion above, it can be summarized that interactive learning requires three components: engagement, collaboration, and critical thinking. regarding to engagement, interactive content should be able to invites student to interact with the learning activities. collaboration allows students to participate in interpersonal activities which can be assigned to various activities in interactive online learning. moreover, the interactive learning also should be able to develop critical thinking to help students analyse, summarize, and contemplate what they have learned. all these components could be delivered through learning activities that can be distributed in synchronous and asynchronous activities. teachers need to choose a proper activities in line with the learning outcomes and learning objective. acknowledgment this research is funded by the lppm uniersitas andalas 2022 nomor: t/58/un.16.17/ soshum-rdp/2022. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 9 no. 2 (2022) 176 references adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. 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(2021). the experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the covid-19 pandemic among university medical staff. plos one, 16(3), e0248758. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758 rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 86 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 06, 2023 final revision: may 03, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 languages in public spaces are one of the linguistic phenomena in society. this study examines the form of written language in public spaces in a particular religious tourism destination, namely syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex, in bangkalan regency, madura, in terms of linguistic landscape (ll). this study examines the functions of each sign and its identity representation. the data are photographic evidence of language use in this area. there are several steps to collect data by identifying the ll, photographing ll to capture language issues in public spaces, classifying data based on their taxonomies, and classifying the use of language patterns, functions, and representations of identity. ll in this religious tourism destination is monolingual ll in which it only used indonesian language, without using other languages, either ethnic language or foreign language. the functions of the ll are signs of information, signs of warning, appeal and prohibition, road signs, and building signs. the use of ll shows the identity as the unity indonesian and the ownership or regulator of the destination. although the place is in madura, but there is no madurese language used, indonesian is the identity of the nation, which must be maintained and preserved. the use of ll in the area also shows the owner or the management team of the object that has the right to regulate its use. keywords linguistic landscape, syaikhona cholil, religious tourism correspondence e-mail: rosyida.ekawati@trunojoyo.ac.id article the linguistic landscape of religious tourism destination in bangkalan, madura: functions and identity representation rosyida ekawati1, desi puspitasari2, diah ikawati ayuningtias3 1-3english department, universitas trunojoyo madura, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.86-96.2023 1. introduction various signs in the public spaces of tourism destinations represent and regulate the order of the public spaces. various sociological, cultural, sociolinguistic, and political aspects of the public space can determine the way the signs work. the signs will also play an important role in the governance and regulation of spatial planning. signs in public spaces can also force people to follow the rules and norms with several shared guidelines. signs in public spaces are certainly not made without any consideration. signs have messages and are never neutral but have a connection with social structures, hierarchies, and power. (leschziner & brett, 2021) the use of languages in public spaces, especially languages related to tourism and culture in a tourism destination, will emphasize the existence of a tourist area. it can be understood that the first thing tourists encounter when they visit a tourist destination is the written language posted in public spaces, either as labels, instructions, or other functions. languages in public spaces are one of the linguistic phenomena in society. the variety of languages in the public sphere is included in the study of sociolinguistics-linguistic landscape (ll). with a sociolinguistic approach, it will focus on linguistic symbols in public spaces in the use of language. by studying ll, a certain area reflects a different identity and at the same time, contributes to the construction of the sociolinguistic context that influences it through visual impressions (peng et al., 2020) rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 87 landscape linguistics (ll), as a branch of sociolinguistics that examines the form of written language in public spaces, functions not only as a marker of information but also as a symbolic marker that has the potential to communicate the degree of power and status of the linguistic community in a particular area. linguistic landscapes construct and shape the surrounding landscape, including roads, corners, parks, and buildings where public life takes place. in other words, the linguistic landscape represents the symbolic construction of the public sphere (ben-rafael et al., 2006) ll analysis will also answer questions about the meaning of the text (ll) used. it also develops the relationship between the semiotics found in ll. an ll contains various sources of semiotic meaning. the sources of these semiotic meanings function varied according to the text and context of the situation as well as culture. the semiotic meanings that can be revealed cannot stand alone and, therefore in the context of ll meaning analysis with the ll approach multimodal. in addition, landry & bourhis (1997) state that the linguistic landscape of an area can serve two basic functions, namely the information function and the symbolic function. the information function can convey messages about the people who live or occupy a certain area, showing the language boundaries between people. on the other hand, symbolic functions denote significant symbolic meanings (e.g. identity, power, and status) for the public in an area. therefore, ll can be considered a powerful mechanism of inclusion and exclusion, expressing and creating identity (kotze, 2010; leimgruber & fernández-mallat, 2021). for this reason, the prevalence of linguistic or figurative tone in protest signs visible to the general public can express group or national identity. . thus, the study of the linguistic landscape (ll) can be used to describe and identify systematic patterns of the presence and absence of language in the public sphere. ll in the public space appears appropriately and randomly but on the contrary. ll explores systematic patterns and relates ll to society, people, politics, ideology, economy, policy, status and identity, multilingualism, and multimodality, and describes and analyzes various forms of representation. bangkalan regency, as the main entrance to madura island has various tourism potentials. nature tourism, religious tourism, heritage tourism, culinary tourism, cultural tourism, and batik tourism have become tourist attractions today. the various potentials in the tourism sector will have an important role in supporting the increase in local revenue with various management of adequate tourism destinations. the management of tourism destinations is not only management which includes administrative, financial, and regulatory aspects but also management in other aspects, for example from the linguistic aspect used in naming or labeling public spaces, especially in the tourism destination area. with good governance in various aspects, it will also be related to the level of tourist visits, both domestic and foreign tourists. as a district that can be categorized as a multicultural and multilingual district, it is necessary to have governance related to language and tourism. in this matter, language can act as a medium of cognition and communication tool between tourists, and is closely related to the development of tourism destinations. one of the religious tourism destinations in bangkalan is the syaihona cholil mosque and cemetery complex in martajasah. it is in bangkalan district that has the highest number of visitors in bangkalan regency. religious tourism destination is one of the mainstays of bangkalan regency tourism destinations with the level of visits by foreign and domestic tourists is the highest number of visitors among other tourism destinations. (bpsstatistics of bangkalan regency, 2021) ll in the public space of religious tourism destinations also presents the function of each sign and represents identity, both social and cultural identity. the existence of ll in each region is a characteristic of the region and can indirectly reflect the geographical situation of the region and the demographic condition of its population. the difference in ll in a certain area is influenced by many factors, such as the standard of living of the community, the pattern of community life and of course the status of the area. (artawa & mulyawan, 2005). in relation to the linguistic landscape displayed in the tourist destination area, ll represents the identity of the people, society, and the area. in ll studies related to names or labels, it will simply function to refer or identify people, objects, or a location. in addition to having this identification function, in everyday life naming or labeling also has a more complex function as a marker. through rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 88 names, we can find out various information related to social, cultural, religious, and ethnicity which then provides convenience in social interaction. (kumala, 2021) furthermore, relating to language and tourists cannot be separated from the presence of language in public spaces, in this case the public spaces of tourism destinations. for examples, the studies conducted by da silva et al., (2021), sibarani et al., (2021), and darmawan, (2017) related the language in tourism destinations. various languages are used in signs in public spaces, such as street and place names, shop and office signs, and signage. these linguistic objects are known as linguistic landscapes (ll). studies of the linguistic landscape in tourist attractions have also been carried out by a number of researchers in various places, for example, the study of the linguistic landscape in yogyakarta by erikha (2018) and jayanti (2018); the linguistic landscape in malang was carried out by ardhian et al. (2021), while the study of the linguistic landscape in bali was carried out by laksana (2019). this research will be different from what has been done by previous researchers because it will explore the functions of linguistic landscape in the location of public spaces in religious tourism destinations in bangkalan. in addition, it will also examine the identity representations from the use of the ll. ii. methods the design of this research is descriptive qualitative research by collecting visual repertoire. the data was obtained from the linguistic landscape of the public space of bangkalan religious tourism destinations, namely syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery. the data are in the form of photographic evidence which include the use of language in the public space and pictures of the linguistic landscape of tourism destinations by being photographed. it includes eight taxonomies of signs according to their functions and uses that can be photographed to be used as research data for ll, namely (1) street signs, (2) advertising signs, (3) warning notices and prohibitions, (4) building names, (5) information signs (instructions, opening hours) ), (6) warning signs (commemorative plaques), (7) objects (post boxes), and (8) graffiti (karolak, 2022) the data needed in this study is photographic evidence of language use in public spaces. there are several steps to collect data, including: 1) identifying the linguistic landscape of religious tourism, 2) photographing ll tourism destinations to capture language issues that exist in public spaces, 3) classifying data based on the taxonomies, 4) classifying the use of language patterns and functions based on the karolak’s (2022) proposed classification and representations of identity is examined through the use of language in which the use of language is influenced identity. furthermore, the analysis of information and symbolic functions was applied to investigate text construction marking and language selection factors. the information function is explained to see what information is displayed in the sign. the information conveys the message of symbols that are constructed and introduced to the public. the analysis for identity representations begins with evidence of using the ll in the public sphere as an indication of identity. iii. results syaikhona cholil mosque is one of the religious tourism destinations in bangkalan regency. the name of the mosque is taken from one of the figures and a great islamic scholar on madura island with the full name syaikhona cholil bin abdul latif bangkalan. as a religious tourism destination, the complex is a public space and visited by many immigrants and pilgrims. with so many visitors, it is necessary to have signs or ll with their functions, both to provide directions and make all things easier for visitors to get to know the environment. functions of the ll functions of ll at the religious tourism destination in the area of the syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery there are functions of ll are as signs of warning and prohibition, signs of appeal, signs of information, road signs, and building sign. table 1. ll in syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex functions figures of ll signs of warning and prohibition figures 1, 2, 3, 4 signs of appeal figures 5, 6 signs of information figures 7, 8, 9, 10. 11. 12 road signs figures 13, 14 building signs figure 15 rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 89 signs of warning and prohibition as a public area visited by many people from various regions, there are many warning and restrictions to maintain the orderliness in the mosque and tomb complex. figure 3 provides a warning to always be vigilant in the mosque complex. written in red letters and bigger than the other letters, it indicates a need for attention. an alert with three exclamation points indicates extreme caution is needed. the existence of this sign or ll to be alert to fraud is likely that there have been many frauds under various pretexts in the mosque environment, so it is necessary to put up a sign calling for alertness to all visitors. meanwhile, figure 4 is still related to the covid-19 pandemic. the call to continue using masks and health protocols is still placed in the mosque complex. considering the visitors of the syaikhona cholil mosque complex from various regions and many people, the call to continue complying with health protocols is still relevant in this pandemic. information signs are the most commonly known thing by the public as providing information about an area or area. this can be seen as an information board on a map of the area, an information board on exhibition objects, or simply as a signpost for circulation, as well as a guide to the location of toilets. these information signs are commonly used to deliver effective information to help smooth things in social life. this sign is a series of visual representations symbolically and graphically, which aims to be a medium of interaction between humans and public spaces (andrijanto, 2018). signs of appeals figure 5 shows the ablution area for men. however, an appeal is a sign affixed to the place of ablution. the ablution place is a place that is clean and free of uncleanness, so there needs to be an appeal to put off sandals in that place. it is written in red capital letters to make it easy to see and read. figure 1. sign of prohibition to enter the area figure 2. sign of prohibition to enter mosque yard prohibition signs in figures 1 and 2 are clearly written using the word ‘dilarang’ (prohibited). this is not just an appeal to visitors but a prohibition for not entering the area. this prohibition sign will create orderliness for visitors, especially concerning the circulation of people and vehicles in the mosque complex. figure 3. warning between pillar in the mosque figure 4. warning to wear mask rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 90 in addition to the writing, it is also equipped with a crossed-out picture of sandals which shows that sandals are not allowed to be worn at the place of ablution. furthermore, for figure 6 it is also similar to figure 5. in the cemetery complex, which is a restricted area, not for the public, it is a place that needs to be kept clean and orderly. there is an appeal to put off sandals and not throw trash in the area. because this area is permitted to be visited by the public, warnings or appeals to the public are still needed to maintain the burial area properly. appeal and prohibition signs are signs that are commonly used in public spaces. it is hoped that the existence of an appeal or prohibition will become more orderly and for people unfamiliar with the area to understand and follow the existing appeal or prohibition. signs of information the need for a good and appropriate information system, such as digital signs or signs, especially in public spaces or buildings with large crowds. in public spaces, visitors who are not familiar with the surrounding area need markers to understand where they are and where they have to find the place/location they are looking for. figure 7 is an information sign in the form of an order for pilgrims who will enter the mosque and cemetery complex. on the orderly sign board, the title of the order is written in capital letters, while the list of the order in 4 points is not written in capital letters. there is also the name of the responsible person, namely from the bani cholil (cholil family), as the caretaker of the tomb. furthermore, figure 8 is also one of the information signs regarding the name of the location. it is written in indonesian, and completed with the image of syaikhona cholil mosque. figure 5. ablution area for men figure 6. cemetery area figure 7. sign of code of conduct for visitors figure 8. location of martajasah water figure 9. sign of direction to cemetery area rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 91 the information sign in figure 9 is an information sign in the form of directions. because the syaikhona cholil mosque complex also has a burial complex, pilgrims who do not understand the location need to be shown the way to the cemetery so they do not experience any difficulties. meanwhile, figure 10 is information on where blessed and free water is located. this information will make it easier for visitors to know that the water available is free and can be taken without having to pay. the ll sign in figures 5, 11, and 12 are guides for visitors. figure 5 shows the location of the area for men’s ablution, which of course, is different from the area for women’s ablution. hence, it needs to be given a separate sign to make it easier for visitors, figure 11 shows the parking lot, and figure 12 shows the information for visitors from out of town who need accommodation which is equipped with a telephone number to call, and also provides directions for visitors. all ll in the figures are written in monolingual in indonesian with easy-toread font sizes. road signs the road sign in the area of the syaikhona cholil mosque complex is in the form of a gate as a marker for entering the complex area with the words ‘selamat datang’ (welcome) and when leaving the complex with the words ‘selamat jalan’ (goodbye). figure 13 provides a road sign that visitors have entered the religious tourism area of syaikhola muhammad cholil’s religious tourism in martajajasah village, bangkalan regency. figure 10. sign of the place of blessed drinking water figure 11. sign for parking lot figure 12. sign for available accomodation figure 13. entrance gate figure 14. exit gate rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 92 the ll that shows various signs provided by the management of the tourism destinations also displays the identity of the management. it relates to the power by providing any warning, prohibition, and information related to the complex as the public area as tourism destination. tourism destinations are the public area, visited by people from various regions or ethnics, but as the destinations are in fact the descendant of syaichona cholil owns the mosque and cemetery, then from figure 2 and figure 7, it can be understood that there is a privilege for them in the area. the ll used by providers of supporting facilities and accommodations around the area also shows the identity they want to expose. figure 12 shows the private owner in offering the facility and accommodation. the ll around the public area displays not only the identity of the owner, and regulator but also the identity of the private owner supporting the existence of the tourism destinations. iv. discussion the linguistic landscape in syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex is only written in monolingual using indonesian language and written in capital letters except for one name of the martajah water management building because it relates to the brand name of water produced by the management. the ll has its own functions, such as providing visitors with information. it is a kind of direction for the visitor to ease the visitors understanding of the surroundings. the information function means the ll used in the public space can provide suitable information to the public. through many signs used in the area, it also has some purposes in line with zeng & luo (2019) that the ll functions are to communicate, inform, direct, guide, or warn the visitors of the public spaces. regarding to identity representation of ll at the religious tourism destination, language plays an important role in the texts in this public space. the use of language is inseparable from social phenomena. communities involved in social relations and activities use language as a tool to identify the existence of community members. linguistic landscape can provide information related to social, cultural, religious, and ethnicity relates identity (yusuf & putrie, 2022). syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex have many meanwhile, in figure 14, on the contrary, from the direction of the tour, if the visitor leaves the religious tourism area with the words ‘selamat jalan’ (goodbye). all street signs are also written in indonesian in capital letters. building sign in the syaikhona cholil mosque and market complex, there is an ll in the form of the name of the building, namely the name of the air martajasah management building. figure 15. building of martajasah water management the sign with the name of the building that manages the water supply in the syaikhona cholil islamic boarding school complex is named air martajasah. the name of the building is written without not capital letters, but according to the marjasah water brand, with a little ornament in the writing. identity representation identity can be displayed through the use of language in public areas. indonesian language also displays the identity from all the figures of the ll in syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex (figure 1 – figure 15) written in monolingual. it does not highlight the ethnic language, the madurese language, even though the area is on the island of madura, but it more upholds indonesian’s unified language. tabel 2. identity representation through the ll identity representation figures of the ll non-ethnicity figure 1 up to figure 15 owner (as desdendant) figures 2, 7 private owner figures 12 regulator figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14,15 instead of using monolingual language, indonesian language, for those who made and installed all the ll in the complex, also represents the identity. rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 93 signs related to their functions. all the labels in the area are only provided in indonesian language. all are monolingual. it shows the importance of the position of the indonesian language in everyday life. indonesian is the identity of the nation, which must be maintained and preserved. the importance of maintaining the integrity of the indonesian language aims to reduce the influence of foreign cultures, especially the influence of foreign languages that have entered the space or domain of the use of indonesian in society. for the use only in indonesian language, it is in accordance with the policy of using indonesian language in public spaces established by the indonesian government through the law of the republic of indonesia number 24 of 2009. it can also be related to religious tourism in which the places are considered to be holy places in islam so the visitors are also still limited from the muslim community in indonesia as domestic tourists. the presence of only indonesian language may be fine for this particular setting because almost all visitors are proficient in this language as the unified language in indonesia. the area is in madura, but no signs, labels, or place naming are provided in madurese language, even though madura has its own local or ethnic language. in other places, ll commonly serves not only in indonesian but also in other languages, either local language or foreign language, for example ll in medan (sahril et al., 2019; yusuf & putrie, 2022; ardhian et al., 2021; ardhian & soemarlam, 2018; kholifah et al., 2021) it is also known that the texts are presented and distributed in the population and community of the people participating in the space so that there is an investigation related to power relations in an area, as stated by kim & min, (2019). for example, an appeal in a public space is an invitation, an appeal, and a warning to the public to carry out what the maker of the appeal (ruler) wants. thus, language is an important element in power relations. in relation to the ll, it informs various forms and interpretations of power relations (yao & gruba, 2020; khazanah et al., 2021)in the area, the ruler is the family of syaikhona cholil, a great and respected islamic scholar in madura. the evidence of the more powerful can be seen from the exceptions to be allowed to enter the mosque sites and have the privilege to access the parking lot nearest to the mosque. although the mosque and cemetery complex are public spaces, the management team rules them. it proofs that some of the notice in the area shows who make the warning, prohibition, guidance, or directions. the maker is usually the one who has power and authority in the area. this has implications for language policy and its implementation as it indicates a mismatch between policy and practice (muriungi & mudogo, 2021) to address and regulate visitor behavior in the private open spaces, i.e. syaichona cholil mosque and cemetery complex, an effective and appropriate method is needed. owners are indeed responsible for visitor behavior that occurs in their area. for these reasons, the regulator or management of the tourism destinations need to place any signs regarding the orderliness of the area, a public space is of course, different from a private space, for example, the living room in our house. contrary to private space, public space is basically shared space with individuals or groups that the authorities may desire. usually, it is the owner of the object who has the right to regulate its use (blommaert, 2013; coluzzi, 2020). v. conclusion ll in religious tourism in bangkalan does not use madurese language or foreign language but only monolingual in indonesian language. indonesian is a national language that unites all people. it is also related to the evidence that the majority visitors of the destinations are indonesians. using the language is to ease the visitors to understand the information, warning, appeal, and prohibition in the area. the use of the monolingual ll in indonesian displays the identity of indonesia without considering ethnicity. as a public space, the mosque and cemetery area also have some rules and regulations that the visitors must follow. it shows the identity of the owner, in this matter, is the family and descendants of syaikhona cholil. furthermore, ll in syaikhona cholil mosque and cemetery complex has some functions in accordance with karolak (2022) and the identity representation from the ll used in these religious tourism destinations. the identity representation varies from the absence of the display of the madurese ethnicity, which means it does not emphasize the specific ethnic. it also shows the identity of the family and descendants of syaikhona cholil and the rulers of the places. rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 94 references andrijanto, m. s. 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(2020). place identity: how far have we come in exploring its meanings? frontiers in psychology, 11(march), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00294 sahril, s., harahap, s. z., & hermanto, a. b. (2019). lanskap linguistik kota medan: kajian onomastika, semiotika, dan spasial. medan makna: jurnal ilmu kebahasaan dan kesastraan, 17(2), 195. https://doi.org/10.26499/mm.v17i2.2141 sibarani, r., deliana, f., yanti, d., & liyushiana. (2021). the role of language landscapes for tourist destination at toba caldera geosites : a landscape. journal of language and linguistic studies, 17(4), 2419–2434. https://www.jlls.org/index.php/jlls/article/viewfile/4206/1196 yao, x., & gruba, p. (2020). power through the linguistic landscape. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 43, 1–15. yusuf, k., & putrie, y. e. (2022). the linguistic landscape of mosques in indonesia: materiality and identity representation. international journal of society, culture & language, 10(3), 1–20. http:// dx.doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2022.550006.2570 zeng, w.x. and luo, j. (2019) the influence of linguistic landscape on the image of shenzhen. open journal of social sciences, 7(3), 112-125. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2019.73008 rosyida ekawati1 / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 96 biography rosyida ekawati earned her undergraduate program from faculty of letters, university of jember. her master degree was from university of the philippines los banos. she graduated her doctoral program from surabaya state university. she attended sandwich program at northern illinois university, usa, for fall semester in 2016. she is currently an associate professor and a researcher at english department, faculty of social and cultural sciences, universitas trunojoyo madura. her interest is in discourse analysis and applied linguistics. she is actively writing academic articles for various journals. she has had articles for national /accredited journals and for international journal scopus q2. she has written books and book chapters. she also participates and disseminates her research in various seminars, national or international seminars. she also got research grant from dikti and university research grants. desi puspitasari graduated for her bachelor degree from english department, universitas trunojoyo madura. her master degree was from surabaya state university. she is currently a lecturer at the english department, faculty of social and cultural sciences, universitas trunojoyo madura. her interest is in cultural studies. she writes articles for national accredited journal and participates in seminars. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 107 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 20, 2023 final revision: may 05, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 the article focuses on speech production in relation to malocclusion. it investigates how malocclusion could affect sound production and articulating clearly. the article also discusses how orthodontists could fix malocclusion and improve the sound production. speech production is a complicated process involving several speech organs, including the mouth cavity. malocclusion can have an adverse effect on pronunciation, especially on specific speech sounds. it can also cause compensatory articulation problems, which can affect pronunciation further. certain speech sounds, such as /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /l/, /r/, / θ /, and /t/, can be affected by malocclusion. different types and levels of malocclusions may have different effects on pronunciation. it is necessary to speak with an orthodontist to determine the most appropriate therapy for malocclusion. proper diagnosis and treatment can assist in reducing the impact on pronunciation. additionally, speech and language therapy may help in the development of speech. the article concludes with an overview of the available treatments for speech production, the potential impacts of malocclusion can be minimized. keywords sound production, malocclusion, speech difficulties correspondence e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id review speech production and malocclusion: a review handoko handoko1, nelvi yohana2 1faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.107-115.2023 i. introduction speaking is a complex process that involves coordinating multiple organs and systems, including the lungs, larynx, tongue, lips, and teeth. the organs contribute to speech production by producing sounds and their variation. due to certain conditions, these organs may impair and affect speech production. the speech problem can result from a variation or impairment in these organs, among others is the malocclusion in the oral cavity. many researchers have reported that malocclusion contributes to speech difficulties, especially sound production. malocclusion happens when the teeth are misplaced or inadequately positioned. this condition may occur in adults and children which different types of impairment. people with speech impairment have difficulty articulating sounds, words, or phrases, which affects their communication ability. this speech impairment can occur in various problems, such as stuttering, lisping, or slurring. as mentioned earlier, speech requires complex processes and involves different systems and organs. any dysfunction of these systems will affect speech, such as neurological disorders, hearing loss, psychological factors, and physical impairments, including malocclusion. the relationship between malocclusion and speech impairment has been studied for many decades. several studies have suggested that malocclusion may affect oral motor control, which leads to speech difficulties (assaf et al., 2021; harini et al., 2020; leavy et al., 2016). people with malocclusion may have difficulty articulating certain sounds and words because of tongue position, lip closure, and airflow problems. malocclusions may result in changes in the resonant of the oral cavity, which nasalize the sounds. moreover, several orthodontic problems related to malocclusions, such as missing teeth or misaligned jaws, may also affect the shape and position of the oral cavity. these conditions will affect speech production, especially sound articulation, leading to speech impairment. 2faculty of dentistry, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 108 ii. discussion speech mechanism since speech requires a complex-interrelated system which includes the respiratory system, the larynx, the vocal tract, and the articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, and palate), all have significant parts in speech production (giegerich, 1992). as a result, humans can produce variations of sounds by elaborating on different processes and mechanisms of speech organs. the speech mechanism is initiated by the respiratory system, which produces air from the lung and moves up the trachea and into the larynx. the vocal cords vibrate when air passes through them, generating sound in the larynx. during the production of a sound, the tension of the vocal cords and the intensity of air moving through them determine the pitch of the sound. several changes occur when sound travels through the vocal tract, including the mouth, throat, and nasal cavity. the shape and location of the tongue and lips, as well as the location of the articulators, significantly impact the tone of the voice. depending on the structure and position of the vocal tract, humans can produce various sounds while speaking.(giegerich, 1992; redford, 2015). researchers have developed various methods to gain insight into the physical structures involved in speech production, including magnetic resonance imaging (mri), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri), and x-ray imaging. (fant, 1971; gracco et al., 2005; ramanarayanan et al., 2018; zhao et al., 2021). researchers can use these technologies to track sound production in different speech organs. these findings provide insight into the complex interaction between the respiratory system, larynx, vocal tract, and articulators in producing sounds. furthermore, during speech production, the brain coordinates speech movements and organizes and executes the speaking process (guenther, 2016; redford, 2015). various procedures, including electroencephalography (eeg) and magnetoencephalography (meg), have been employed to study the speech processes in the brain. (hixon et al., 2018; hoit & weismer, 2016; weismer & brown, 2019). in short, imaging and neuroimaging innovations provide insight into how speech processes work. studying this area is critical to understanding how speech works and discovering treatments for speech problems. speech in oral cavity the dental cavity is one of the main organs in speech production, which includes the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. in collaborating with the vocal cords, these organs can produce and control sound production. understanding the complex interaction between these articulators is crucial to the mechanics of speech. among the key articulators in the oral cavity, the tongue is a very flexible muscle with different orientations and forms. as the tongue moves within the mouth, it produces a different sound. tongue position in a certain area will block airflow during a speech that produces consonants. the place where the tongue pointed and blocks the airflow is called the place of articulation. figure 1. shows different organs and areas which this will allow people to produce different consonants, such as bilabial, dental, interdental, alveolar, etc. for example, the front of the tongue creates sounds like /t/ and /d/ when it block the airflow in the alveolar ridge area. meanwhile, the back generates sounds like /k/ and /g/ when it block the airflow in the soft palate (velum). the tongue position also plays an important role in producing vowel sounds. the tongue is arched toward the roof of the mouth when pronouncing a high (close) vowel, such as /i/ and /u/. unlike high vowels, low (open) vowels, such as /a/, are produced with the tongue relatively flat and low in the mouth. lips are also important articulators in the oral cavity. when the mouth is closed, the air figure 1. human vocal organs and points of articulation (source: https://www.britannica.com/science/phonetics#/ media/1/457255/3597) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 109 passes through the lips, halted, and then released to produce sounds such as /p/ and /b/. these sounds are known as bilabial sounds. lip shape and location can also affect the sound produced by the vocal cords, especially the vowel sounds. the lips may be rounded or spread, which is known as labialization, producing the sounds such as /o/ and /w/. teeth can also help in speech production. when the upper and lower teeth are brought together, air may pass between them, genereting the sounds like /f/ and /v/. furthermore, the teeth’ position can influence the tongue’s and other articulators’ position, affecting the sound produced by the mouth. the teeth play a significant role in articulating fricative sounds (/s/, /z/, /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ʃ/) and affricate sounds (/tʃ/, /dʒ/). several studies have been conducted on speech mechanics in the oral cavity using imaging methods such as mri and x-ray imaging. these methods have been used to study the tongue and other articulators contribute to speech production. furthermore, other studies investigate the brain’s figure 2. consonant classification (source: https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart) figure 3. vowels classification (source: https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart) role in controlling the speech organs while producing speech. the brain receives sensory input on the placement and movement of the articulators from the articulators and other structures in the mouth cavity. the brain uses this input to monitor and modify speech actions to ensure the correct sound articulation. many dental problems, such as cleft lip and palate, tongue-tie (ankyloglossia), mouth breathing, and tongue-thrusting habit, can cause speech deficits because they impact the positioning and movement of the tongue, lips, and teeth. (alhazmi, 2022; chandrashekhar et al., 2020; hitos et al., 2013). other researchers have also suggested that dental conditions such as missing teeth, dental caries, dental trauma, and malocclusion can cause speech impairment. (alhammadi et al., 2018; assaf et al., 2021; harini et al., 2020; lam, 2016; leck et al., 2022) malocclusion malocclusion is a common dental condition characterized by a misalignment of teeth and jaws. an individual with this condition may experience handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 110 various problems, including difficulties eating, speaking, discomfort, and pain. malocclusion can be caused by several factors, including genetic and developmental factors. several genetic factors, such as the size of the teeth and jaws and the location of the teeth and jaws, can cause a malocclusion. besides genetic factors, malocclusion can also result from acquired factors, including thumb sucking, sticking out the tongue, and constant use of pacifiers and bottles that may cause. (bourzgui, 2015; inglehart & bagramian, 2002; kharbanda, 2019). different types of malocclusion can occur based on the position of the teeth, including overbite, underbite, crossbite, and open bite. overbite can be described as the overlap or gap between the top front teeth and the bottom front teeth. this condition occurs when lower jaw teeth are too far behind upper jaw teeth. in contrast, the underbite occurs when the lower teeth are located further forward than the upper teeth. crossbite is the condition in which your teeth do not fit over one another when your mouth is closed. depending on the location of the misalignment, it may appear in the front of the mouth or on the sides of the mouth. open bite is characterized by the top and bottom teeth not touching each other when the mouth is fully closed, resulting in an opening between the top and bottom teeth. some of the factors contributing to these conditions include thumb sucking, pushing teeth with the tongue (tongue-thrusting), using pacifiers after the third birthday, and continuing to use a bottle after the infant years. it is important to note that these conditions have a significant impact on oral health and quality of life. mallocclusions make it difficult for individuals to maintain proper oral hygiene, which can lead to tooth decay and periodontal disease. furthermore, these conditions may also lead to speech disorders as they affect the ability to produce certain sounds. different dental procedures can be applied depending on the type of malocclusion. using orthodontic treatment, such as braces or transparent aligners, teeth can be gradually realigned. orthodontic treatment also can help improve chewing ability and decrease the possibility of dental problems in the future. surgical intervention, such as jawbone repositioning, may be used to enhance biting alignment. however, it is usually only recommended to perform surgery in the case of severe malocclusions. in certain instances, however, surgery may be harmful (kharbanda, 2019). the potential for malocclusion can be reduced by preventive actions, such as avoiding using pacifiers or bottles for a long time, avoiding thumb-sucking, and promoting dental hygiene practices. furthermore, regular dental exams can be an early detection and treatment of malocclusions. (anant et al., 2022; granath & mchugh, 2021; hiremath, 2011). (a) overbite (b) underbite (c) crossbite (d) open bite figure 4. types of malocclusion handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 111 regarding the severity level, malocclusion can be categorized into three major classes. malocclusion class i is the most common condition which occurs when the upper teeth slightly overlap the lower teeth. in this type of malocclusion, both upper and lower molars are in the proper position, but other teeth may be misaligned. as a result of this condition, the people with malocclusion class i suffers from difficulty speaking, chewing, and appearing. orthodontic appliances such as braces or clear aligners are the most common treatment for this condition. class ii malocclusions are characterized by severe overbite. this type is characterized by a significant overlap between the upper and lower teeth. the symptoms of this condition include difficulties speaking, chewing, and gazing as well as jaw discomfort, migraines, and other issues. the use of braces, retainers, and/or headgear may also be helpful in treating class ii malocclusions. in the case of younger patients with immature jawbones, retainers may be recommended. children between the ages of six and twelve may also benefit from wearing headgear to support normal jaw growth and alignment. class iii malocclusion is characterized by prognathism when the lower teeth protrude beyond the upper teeth. class iii malocclusions can cause a number of serious problems, such as difficulty chewing or premature wear of teeth. there are several treatment options available, depending on the type and severity of the condition. some options include palate expanders, braces, and surgery. early intervention is essential for preventing the problem from worsening. malocclusions are common dental problems that can have a negative impact on a person’s ability to communicate, eat, and chew. the cause of malocclusion can be genetic or acquired, including thumb sucking, prolonged use of pacifiers, cleft palates and lips, poor oral hygiene, trauma and injuries, and mouth tumours. as a result of this condition, you may experience speech difficulties, misaligned teeth, chewing and biting difficulties, mouth breathing problems, biting your cheeks and tongue, and changes to your facial appearance. a number of treatments are available to treat malocclusion, including orthodontic treatment and surgical surgery. malocclusions should be treated as soon as possible to prevent further dental conditions such as tooth decay, gum disease, and temporomandibular joint dysfunction (araujo & buschang, 2016; bourzgui, 2015; kharbanda, 2019). malocclusion and speech difficulties malocclusion is an orthodontic problem that impacts the alignment of teeth, the way they fit together, and how they sound. it can have an impact on their dental health and quality of life, as well as their ability to articulate words. a majority of the studies indicated that malocclusion can figure 5. malocclusion classes (a) class i malocclusion (b) class ii malocclusion (c) class iii malocclusion handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 112 affect pronunciation. (assaf et al., 2021; harini et al., 2020; leavy et al., 2016). malocclusion, in particular, has been proven to affect the production of specific speech sounds, such as /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /l/, /r/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/ (leavy et al., 2016; vallino & tompson, 1993). several studies have also discovered that malocclusion may lead to compensatory articulation errors, such as tongue thrusting when producing certain sounds. malocclusions, which vary in level and type, can lead to difficulties with speaking. (gurudatta et al., 2021; harini et al., 2020). according to the results of this comprehensive research, malocclusion can have a harmful effect on pronunciation, particularly when producing particular speech sounds. different types of malocclusion can have effects on the production of several different sounds. class i malocclusion causes no significant speech issues, although misaligned teeth can impact the tongue and lips, causing difficulties with certain pronunciations, specifically /s/ and /z/. overbite creates problems with some speech sounds in class ii malocclusion, including /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/. furthermore, underbites in class iii malocclusion can affect the production of a variety of sounds, including /t/, /d/, /l/, and /r/. other problems, such as tongue-tie, hearing loss, or developmental delays, may also contribute to speech difficulties in addition to malocclusion. discussion with a speech-language pathologist or dentist can help people to identify the primary cause of speech problems and design a suitable treatment plan. (assaf et al., 2021; chen et al., 2018; gurudatta et al., 2021; kaya & taner, 2011; khattab et al., 2013; lathrop-marshall et al., 2022; mogren et al., 2022). several studies found that orthodontic treatment can improve pronunciation in individuals with malocclusion (baghbadorani & roohani, 2014; damasceno melo et al., 2021; eslamian & leilazpour, 2006; karacay et al., 2013; papageorgiou et al., 2016; yamaguchi et al., 1994). for example, several studies found that people who received orthodontic treatment had improved speech intelligibility compared to people who did not receive treatment (brzezińska-zając et al., 2023; a. k. rai et al., 2014). however, orthodontic treatment may lead to temporary pronunciation difficulties, particularly in the initial stages of treatment (de felippe et al., 2010; doshi & bhadpatil, 2011; long et al., 2013; paley et al., 2016; a. rai et al., 2013). iii. conclusion malocclusion can have a negative impact on pronunciation, particularly regarding the production of certain speech sounds. malocclusion can also lead to compensatory articulation errors, which may further impact pronunciation. orthodontic treatment may improve pronunciation in individuals with malocclusion, although temporary pronunciation difficulties may occur during treatment. further research is needed to understand the impact of malocclusion on pronunciation better. clinicians should be aware of the potential impact of malocclusion on pronunciation and consider this when evaluating and treating patients. references alhammadi, m. s., halboub, e., fayed, m. s., labib, a., & el-saaidi, c. 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(2021). improved 3d real‐time mri of speech production. magnetic resonance in medicine, 85(6), 3182–3195. https://doi.org/10.1002/ mrm.28651 fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 426 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 14, 2023 final revision: january 3, 2023 accepted: january 5, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 chatgpt is a natural large language model developed by openai, which generates human-like responses to a wide range of questions and prompts. for researchers, chatgpt can provide quick and accurate answers to academic questions. the study delves into the nuanced landscape and scrutinizes the benefits and pitfalls associated with the usage of chatgpt among higher education researchers. based on a convenient sampling, the study involves a mixed-methods approach that includes both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. one thousand ninety-nine researchers, who have used chatgpt for various academic projects, are the subjects under study. the data was collected via online questionnaires and face-to-face interviews from four moroccan universities and higher education institutions: sultan moulay slimane university, sidi mohamed ben abdellah university, moulay ismail university, and al akhawayn university. the research data is processed and analyzed through the spss software and analyzed to discern patterns and trends in chatgpt usage. the findings of the study underscore the multifaceted impact of chatgpt in academic research. the outcomes show that the benefits of chatgpt include its ability to provide quick and accurate responses to queries, facilitate learning and information-seeking, and enhance communication skills. in contrast, the pitfalls include its potential to lead to an overreliance on technology, reduced critical thinking skills, and the risk of plagiarism. such a result has significant implications for the integration of chatgpt into academic research practices. while acknowledging its advantages, researchers are urged to approach its use with caution, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a balance between technological assistance and the preservation of essential cognitive skills. the study provides insights into the ongoing discourse on the role of chatbots in higher education and underscores the need for researchers to incorporate strategies that harness the benefits of chatgpt while mitigating its potential drawbacks. keywords artificial intelligence, chatgpt, openai, learning platforms, innovative research methods correspondence article chatgpt in the lab: analyzing the potential pros and cons for research professionals fouad boulaid1 under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.426-436.2023 i. introduction chatgpt is an advanced language model developed by openai. it utilizes deep learning techniques to generate human-like responses in conversational contexts. by analyzing and understanding text inputs, chatgpt can provide coherent and contextually relevant answers, engage in discussions, offer suggestions, and assist with a wide range of information and conversation-based tasks. chatgpt is a natural large language model developed by openai, which generates humanlike responses to a wide range of questions and prompts. the study delves into the pros and cons of the usage among university researchers. in recent years, the advent of natural language processing technologies has revolutionized the landscape of academic research, offering novel avenues for inquiry and exploration. among these innovations, chatgpt, a formidable large language model crafted by openai, stands out as a tool that generates responses akin to human language, catering to an extensive array of questions and e-mail: f.boulaid@usms.ma 1sultan moulay slimane university, beni-mellal, morocco fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 427 prompts. with its potential to swiftly and precisely address academic inquiries, chatgpt has garnered attention as a valuable resource for researchers in higher education. chatgpt has turned the passive researcher into an active researcher. as technology continues to evolve, its influence on academia becomes increasingly profound. chatgpt, a sophisticated language model, emerges as a tool that holds promise in providing expeditious and accurate responses to academic queries. in this context, exploring the integration of chatgpt into higher education research practices becomes imperative, considering the potential implications for knowledge generation and dissemination. the focus of this research is to investigate the nuanced relationship between higher education researchers and chatgpt. this entails an exploration of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the incorporation of chatgpt in academic projects, with particular attention to its impact on learning, information-seeking, and communication skills within the academic domain. previous studies and theoretical background openai’s discussion in 2022 revolves around optimizing language models for dialogue within chatgpt. their blog post, titled “chatgpt: optimizing language models for dialogue,” offers insights into the advancements and considerations associated with optimizing language models for conversational use. in a related context, shah and ahmad (2023) present a literature review examining the impact of openai chatbots on the workplace, shedding light on both applications and challenges within organizational settings. qureshi and bashir (2023) conducted a literature review focused on openai chatbots in the realm of social media. their work significantly contributes to comprehending the role and impact of chatbots within the context of social media platforms. in the healthcare domain, hassan and haider (2023) provide an extensive review of the literature concerning the role of openai chatbots. their contribution enhances understanding regarding the applications and implications of chatbots in healthcare. moving to academic settings, cox (2022) explores the potential influence of artificial intelligence on academic library work, drawing on competencies’ literature and the theory of professions. dowling and lucey (2023) contribute to the intersection of chatgpt and financial research with their “bananarama conjecture” adding valuable insights to the field. warren’s report in 2023 highlights microsoft’s interest in integrating openai’s gpt into word, outlook, and powerpoint, emphasizing potential applications in microsoft’s suite of products. li and liang’s (2023) literature review focuses on the application of openai chatbots in customer service, contributing to an understanding of their role in enhancing customer service experiences. pavlik’s exploration in 2023 delves into the implications of generative artificial intelligence for journalism and media education, particularly in collaboration with chatgpt. this work provides valuable considerations for incorporating chatgpt in media education. goyal’s (2023) examination covers various aspects of artificial intelligence, information overload, human-computer interaction, and decision-making, contributing to the understanding of ai’s role in educational settings. turning to legal considerations, neema and dhawan (2023) provide a literature review on openai chatbots and the law, exploring the associated legal implications. west (2023) presents a pre-print on arxiv, investigating whether chatgpt can project an understanding of introductory physics in the context of the force concept inventory. in the research domain, singh and kaur (2023) contribute to the literature with a review of the role of openai chatbots, exploring potential applications in research. terwiesch (2023) considers the performance of chatgpt3 in predicting success in obtaining a wharton mba, based on its performance in an operations management course. in the realm of identifying computergenerated writing, abd-elaal, gamage, and mills (2022) explore ways to assist academics in this endeavor, offering valuable insights into challenges and solutions. akter and sarker (2023) critically examine the ethical implications of openai chatbot, contributing to the ongoing discourse on the ethical considerations associated with advanced chatbot technologies. rafiq and qazi (2023) review the literature on the use of openai chatbots in marketing, exploring applications and implications within the marketing domain. ghazali and murad (2023) contribute insights into the use of openai chatbots in business, fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 428 enriching our understanding of their applications in a business context. feldmann and lane (2023) present a literature review on the impact of openai chatbots on education, providing valuable insights into their evolving role in educational settings. kim’s (2023) investigation focuses on the use of chatgpt for language editing in scientific articles, offering insights into the application of ai in scientific writing. alshater’s (2022) case study explores the role of artificial intelligence, specifically chatgpt, in enhancing academic performance, shedding light on potential benefits and challenges in education. baeza-yates (2022) addresses ethical challenges in ai in the proceedings of the acm international conference on web search and data mining, emphasizing the crucial ethical considerations associated with the rapidly advancing field of artificial intelligence. in short, previous studies in this domain have explored the role of language models in academic contexts (smith et al., 2020; johnson, 2019). however, a critical examination reveals a gap in understanding the specific benefits and pitfalls of chatgpt among higher education researchers. this research seeks to fill this gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of chatgpt’s impact on academic practices. the theoretical underpinnings of this study draw from concepts related to technology integration in education, cognitive skills development, and the intersection of artificial intelligence with academic research. notably, vygotsky’s zone of proximal development provides a lens through which to understand how chatgpt may act as a cognitive scaffold for researchers (vygotsky, 1978). this research delves into the dynamic interplay between higher education researchers and chatgpt, aiming to comprehensively understand the benefits and challenges that accompany its utilization. this paper embarks on an exploration of the nuanced landscape surrounding the utilization of chatgpt among higher education researchers. delving into the advantages and drawbacks of integrating this language model into academic endeavors, our research employs a mixed-methods approach, seamlessly combining qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. the focal point of our investigation comprises 1990 researchers who have harnessed chatgpt for diverse academic projects. utilizing a convenient sampling methodology, data for this study was gathered through a combination of online questionnaires and faceto-face interviews, drawing perspectives from researchers affiliated with various universities and higher education institutions. the robust dataset was further fortified by leveraging the statistical capabilities of the spss software, facilitating a comprehensive examination of chatgpt’s impact on academic research. this research method aimed to capture a comprehensive snapshot of researchers’ perspectives on chatgpt across multiple universities, providing valuable insights into the benefits and challenges associated with the integration of advanced language models in academic research. this study is structured around three pivotal research questions designed to unravel the intricate dynamics between academic researchers and chatgpt. firstly, it seeks to ascertain the depth of chatgpt’s contribution to enhancing academic research, probing the extent to which this natural language model facilitates and elevates scholarly endeavors. secondly, the research delves into the multifaceted terrain of challenges and opportunities inherent in the use of chatgpt within the realm of academic research. through a nuanced examination, the study aims to unveil potential obstacles researchers may encounter, alongside the promising prospects and advantages that chatgpt brings to the forefront of scholarly pursuits. lastly, the investigation turns inward to explore the subjective realm of academic researchers by posing the question: how do these individuals perceive the interactivities with chatgpt? by delving into the nuanced experiences and perceptions of researchers, the study aims to illuminate the human dimension of incorporating chatgpt into academic workflows, shedding light on attitudes, opinions, and overall perspectives that shape this evolving relationship. the findings underscore the multifaceted nature of chatgpt’s influence, revealing a spectrum of benefits and pitfalls associated with its integration into the academic realm. noteworthy advantages include the model’s ability to deliver swift and accurate responses to queries, its role in facilitating seamless learning and informationseeking, and its potential to enhance communication skills within the academic community. however, as our study unravels, the adoption of chatgpt is not without its challenges. pitfalls include the looming fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 429 risk of overreliance on technology, a potential diminishment of critical thinking skills, and the peril of unintentional plagiarism. the findings of this research are anticipated to make a substantial contribution to the field of higher education and teaching. by uncovering the multifaceted impact of chatgpt, educators, and institutions can make informed decisions about its integration. moreover, the study addresses the broader discourse on the responsible use of advanced language models in academia, fostering a balance between technological support and the preservation of essential cognitive skills. ii. method the chosen research method for this study was a cross-sectional survey, strategically designed to capture a snapshot of the perceptions and experiences of researchers across four diverse universities. the participating institutions included sultan moulay slimane university in beni mellal (smsu), sidi mohamed ben abdellah university in fes (smbaf), moulay ismail university in meknes (mium), and al akhawayn university in ifrane (aui),. a cross-sectional approach allows for the simultaneous collection of data from multiple sources, providing a comprehensive and time-efficient snapshot of a specific point in time. the primary data collection instrument employed was a structured questionnaire. this survey tool was meticulously crafted to encompass a range of inquiries aimed at uncovering the nuanced aspects of researchers’ perceptions and experiences with chatgpt in the academic research domain. questions were designed to elicit detailed responses regarding the benefits and challenges associated with the utilization of chatgpt. this method facilitated the collection of quantitative data, allowing for statistical analysis and the identification of patterns and trends in researchers’ interactions with chatgpt. the overarching goal of this methodological approach was to gain valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of chatgpt’s integration into academic research. by employing a crosssectional survey, the study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of researcher perceptions, contributing to a nuanced understanding of the benefits and challenges associated with the use of chatgpt in the academic research context. sampling the target population for this study consisted of researchers affiliated with aui, smbaf, smsu, and mium. a total of 1900 researchers were approached to participate in the survey, representing a diverse cross-section of academic disciplines. ultimately, 1786 researchers completed the questionnaires thoroughly, forming the basis for data analysis. instrument the informants were provided with questionnaires designed to capture their perspectives on chatgpt usage. ratings were solicited on three dimensions: frequency of use (ranging from always to rarely), efficiency (ranging from extremely effective to not effective at all), and confidence/reliability (ranging from very confident/ reliable to not confident/reliable at all). the questionnaire was designed to gather comprehensive insights into researchers’ experiences with chatgpt, covering areas such as usage patterns, perceived benefits, challenges encountered, and overall satisfaction. questions were crafted to elicit both qualitative and quantitative responses, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the diverse perspectives within the research community. the questionnaires were distributed electronically to ensure broad accessibility and timely responses. researchers received clear instructions on how to complete the questionnaire, emphasizing the importance of providing detailed and accurate information. reminders were sent to encourage participation and maximize the response rate. the questionnaire was pre-tested with a small sample of researchers to ensure clarity, relevance, and reliability. the reliability of the survey instrument was further assessed through internal consistency measures. data analysis quantitative data, including numerical ratings and demographic information, were analyzed using statistical tools such as the spss software. open-ended responses and qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns in researchers’ experiences. ethical considerations ethical guidelines were adhered to throughout the research process, ensuring the anonymity and fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 430 confidentiality of participants. informed consent was obtained from all participants, outlining the purpose of the study and assuring them of the voluntary nature of their participation. limitations while efforts were made to achieve a representative sample, the study acknowledges potential biases and limitations inherent in survey research, including the reliance on self-reported data. though chatgpt boasts numerous advantages, it is essential to acknowledge and address the pitfalls and challenges associated with its implementation. one significant concern is the potential for biased or inappropriate responses. being trained on large datasets, chatgpt may inadvertently exhibit biases present in the training data, which could perpetuate stereotypes, misinformation, or offensive content. efforts must be made to continuously improve the training process and implement robust measures to mitigate these biases, ensuring responsible and ethical use of the model. iii. result the data collected in this study provides valuable insights into the demographics of the participants. figure 1 displays that the majority of respondents identified as female, comprising 61% of the sample, while males constituted 39%. the age distribution (figure 2) reveals a diverse range, with the highest percentage falling within the age group of 46 and above (27%). the other age groups were as follows: less than 20 (1%), 2124 (5%), 25-29 (11%), 30-34 (16%), 35-39 (21%), and 40-45 (19%). this diversity in gender and age allows for a comprehensive understanding of the varied perspectives and experiences of university researchers engaging with chatgpt. participants were asked about their enjoyment of chatting with chatgpt. figure 3 shows that an overwhelming 95% expressed enjoyment, while only 2% reported not enjoying the interactions. a small percentage, 3%, remained neutral in their response. this high satisfaction rate indicates a positive overall user experience. figure 1. gender distribution figure 2. age group distribution figure 3. researchers’ enjoyment with chatgpt figure 4. researchers’ satisfaction with chatgpt’s feedback the participants were also asked to evaluate their satisfaction with chatgpt’s feedback (figure 4). the responses showed a majority satisfaction, with 77% combining strongly agree (25%) and agree (52%). the neutral responses accounted for fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 431 figure 5. researchers’ satisfaction with research on chatgpt figure 6. researchers’ satisfaction with chatgpt’s support in research figure 7. researchers’ overall satisfaction with chatgpt’s impact fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 432 a significant 35% of respondents reported being highly satisfied, indicating a substantial positive impact on the researcher’s confidence. additionally, 51% expressed satisfaction, underlining a majority endorsement of chatgpt’s efficacy in bolstering confidence. the relatively low percentages of neutral (7%), dissatisfied (5%), and strongly dissatisfied (2%) responses suggest a predominantly positive sentiment, emphasizing the positive influence of chatgpt in instilling confidence. a substantial 29% of respondents reported being highly satisfied, indicating a strong positive perception of chatgpt’s adaptability. further, 43% expressed satisfaction, reflecting a majority contentment with chatgpt’s flexibility. the percentages of neutral (12%), dissatisfied (10%), and strongly dissatisfied (6%) responses suggest a generally positive sentiment, albeit with some room for improvement. this highlights the overall effectiveness of chatgpt in adapting to varying needs and requirements. a notable 27% of respondents reported being highly satisfied, emphasizing a positive influence on the researcher’s decisiveness. additionally, 44% expressed satisfaction, showcasing a majority endorsement of chatgpt’s impact on decisionmaking. the percentages of neutral (15%), dissatisfied (8%), and strongly dissatisfied (6%) responses indicate a generally positive perception, with room for further improvement. chatgpt appears to contribute significantly to enhancing the researcher’s ability to make informed decisions. a substantial 35% of respondents reported being highly satisfied, indicating a strong positive impact on the researcher’s ability to envision the future. furthermore, 53% expressed satisfaction, 9%, while disagreement constituted 11%, and only 3% strongly disagreed. these findings suggest a generally positive sentiment regarding chatgpt’s feedback, but a notable portion expressed some level of dissatisfaction. moreover, the study seeks to measure user satisfaction across different aspects of chatgpt usage, namely the literature review, research methodology, and questionnaire. in the literature review, 47% of participants reported being highly or moderately satisfied, while 34% expressed dissatisfaction. for the research methodology, 77% indicated satisfaction, with 28% being highly satisfied, while 14% were dissatisfied. the questionnaire received the highest satisfaction rates, with 98% expressing satisfaction, of which 41% were highly satisfied (figure 6). the high enjoyment of chatting with chatgpt aligns with its intended purpose as a conversational agent. the positive feedback on satisfaction with feedback, research methodology, and questionnaire suggests that chatgpt is perceived favorably in various applications, including academic and research contexts. however, the dissatisfaction reported in the literature review section indicates a potential area for improvement in content generation and relevance. more interestingly, the outcome reveals a comprehensive understanding of the researcher’s satisfaction with chatgpt across key dimensions (figure 7). the high percentages of satisfaction and high satisfaction responses in “gaining confidence,” “being adaptable,” “becoming more decisive,” and “having a vision for the future” affirm the positive impact of chatgpt on the researcher’s overall professional development. figure 8 researchers’ satisfactions with chatgpt usefulness fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 433 highlighting a significant majority acknowledging chatgpt’s contribution to future visioning. the percentages of neutral (7%), dissatisfied (4%), and strongly dissatisfied (1%) responses reinforce an overwhelmingly positive sentiment, illustrating chatgpt’s efficacy in fostering forward-thinking perspectives. these findings can guide further development and refinement of chatgpt to enhance user experience and meet the expectations of a broader user base. the study’s limitations, such as a potential bias in user preferences, should be acknowledged and addressed in future research. overall, the data findings offer a foundation for understanding user experiences with chatgpt and inform potential enhancements to optimize its performance and user satisfaction. iv. discussion in the ever-evolving landscape of artificial intelligence, chatgpt stands as a remarkable language model, showcasing its potential to revolutionize various sectors, particularly in supporting research and educational endeavors. as with any technological advancement, it is imperative to critically evaluate both its benefits and pitfalls to harness its capabilities effectively. this comparison seeks to illuminate the dual nature of chatgpt, delving into the advantages it brings to researchers and educational institutions, while also scrutinizing the inherent challenges and limitations that may impact its utility and integration in academic settings. by examining the dichotomy of benefits and pitfalls, this analysis aims to provide a nuanced understanding of chatgpt’s role in research and education, fostering informed decision-making for its adoption and implementation. chatgpt excels in generating hypotheses across scientific, research, and problem-solving scenarios. its ability to understand complex contexts and draw logical inferences makes it a valuable companion for hypothesis formulation, accelerating the ideation process. chatgpt becomes your creative partner, facilitating brainstorming sessions with its ability to generate novel concepts, perspectives, and solutions. it aids in breaking through creative blocks and exploring innovative avenues. for researchers and academics, chatgpt offers efficient literature review support. it can summarize existing literature, identify key themes, and even suggest relevant articles, streamlining the timeconsuming process of reviewing vast amounts of information. perfecting written content is effortless with chatgpt. its keen eye for grammar, syntax, and style makes it an invaluable proofreading and editing assistant, ensuring polished and error-free documents. preparing for interviews becomes more effective with chatgpt. it can help formulate and refine interview questions, providing a structured approach to ensure comprehensive and insightful conversations. crafting well-structured questionnaires is simplified with chatgpt. it aids in generating clear and unbiased questions, enhancing the quality of data collected and contributing to robust research outcomes. navigating the complexities of data analysis is made more accessible with chatgpt. it can offer guidance on statistical methodologies, data interpretation, and visualization techniques, empowering users to derive meaningful insights from their datasets. chatgpt, leveraging its proficiency in generating human-like text from extensive datasets, stands as a valuable tool supporting researchers and educational institutions in their studies and projects across diverse fields. the continuous availability of chatgpt, operating 24/7, proves advantageous for users, eliminating the constraints of downtime. this accessibility enables the generation of humanlike responses in conversational settings at any hour, offering a resource that operates seamlessly without the need for breaks or rest. consequently, researchers can optimize their workflow, saving valuable time, energy, and budget resources through the efficiency afforded by chatgpt. however, it is essential to acknowledge certain drawbacks associated with chatgpt. one notable concern is the lack of transparency in its operation, raising questions about the decision-making process underlying its responses. additionally, technical access issues and limited accuracy pose challenges that users may encounter. the potential introduction of bias and limitations in data representation further adds a layer of complexity. another limitation is the context deficiency, where chatgpt may struggle to grasp nuanced contextual elements within conversations. furthermore, the tool exhibits limited engagement capabilities and lacks direct interaction with academic research professionals, potentially hindering collaborative fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 434 efforts and real-time adjustments in a research setting. these pitfalls underline the importance of critically assessing and addressing these limitations to ensure the responsible and effective use of chatgpt in academic and research environments. further, the advent of chatgpt, while heralding advancements in natural language processing and generation, has sparked ethical considerations, particularly in the realm of academic integrity. one prominent concern revolves around the potential for chatgpt to facilitate and, inadvertently, encourage plagiarism. chatgpt’s proficiency in generating humanlike text based on vast datasets raises the possibility that the responses it produces may closely resemble existing academic content. this similarity can be unintentionally mirrored in researchers’ work, leading to inadvertent plagiarism if users are not diligent in verifying and properly attributing information. besides, chatgpt lacks an inherent ability to discern the originality of the content it generates. as a result, there is a risk that students or researchers may unknowingly submit work that heavily relies on chatgpt-generated content, with the potential for similarities to existing sources going unnoticed. the dynamic nature of chatgpt’s responses, coupled with the absence of clear attribution markers, introduces challenges in appropriately crediting the sources of information. this opacity can contribute to unintentional misattribution or failure to recognize the need for proper citation, fostering an environment conducive to plagiarism. in academic settings, the use of chatgpt poses a potential threat to the educational process. if students rely heavily on chatgpt for content creation without a thorough understanding of the need for original thought and proper citation, it can undermine the educational objectives of critical thinking, analysis, and independent research. mitigating the risk of plagiarism associated with chatgpt involves implementing robust educational strategies, emphasizing the importance of critical thinking and originality. clear guidelines on the ethical use of ai-generated content, coupled with tools for plagiarism detection, can be instrumental in fostering a culture of academic integrity. the integration of chatgpt into academic and research environments has introduced a paradigm shift in information retrieval and content creation. while the technology offers unprecedented convenience and efficiency, there is a growing concern that its accessibility may inadvertently foster a mindset of overreliance, potentially leading to the sidelining of traditional scholarly resources such as books and established academic texts. the ease with which chatgpt provides information raises the risk of students and researchers neglecting more extensive, in-depth scholarly resources such as books. the instant nature of chatgpt responses may encourage a preference for quick information retrieval, potentially sidelining the thorough exploration and critical analysis inherent in traditional scholarly texts. the convenience of chatgpt in generating content might inadvertently contribute to a mindset of intellectual passivity. if users grow accustomed to the effortless generation of information, there is a risk that they may become less inclined to engage in the active, thoughtful processes required for in-depth research, critical thinking, and nuanced analysis. the omnipresence of chatgpt, available 24/7, may lead to an overreliance on technology for academic endeavors. while technology is a valuable tool, excessive dependence on chatgpt could diminish the development of essential research skills, including information retrieval, source verification, and the synthesis of diverse perspectives. it is crucial to emphasize the complementary nature of chatgpt with traditional scholarly resources. while chatgpt provides quick information, scholarly books offer a more profound understanding of subjects, fostering a holistic approach to research and learning. striking a balance between the convenience of technology and the richness of scholarly literature is essential for cultivating a comprehensive and well-rounded educational experience. the responsibility lies with the user to ensure that they leverage chatgpt and similar tools in a balanced and productive manner, combining human intellect and effort with the assistance provided by ai systems. educational institutions and educators can play a pivotal role in mitigating these concerns by integrating technology responsibly into the learning process. this involves promoting the active use of fouad boulaid / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 435 technology as a supplementary tool, encouraging students to explore traditional academic resources and instilling a mindset that values the depth of understanding gained through comprehensive research. in short, while chatgpt offers unprecedented capabilities in natural language generation, its deployment in educational contexts necessitates a proactive approach to addressing the ethical concern of potential plagiarism. striking a balance between harnessing the benefits of chatgpt and instilling a strong ethical foundation is essential to ensure the responsible use of this technology in academic settings. to put it differently, while chatgpt brings undeniable advantages to academic pursuits, vigilance is necessary to prevent its unintended consequences, such as diminished engagement with scholarly books and the development of a dependent mindset. by fostering a balanced approach to technology integration and emphasizing the enduring value of traditional scholarly resources, educational stakeholders can ensure that advancements like chatgpt enhance, rather than hinder, the cultivation of critical thinking and academic rigor. v. conclusion this study delves into the advantages and drawbacks of utilizing chatgpt among researchers in higher education. employing a convenient sampling method, the research employs a mixedmethods approach, encompassing both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. the study focuses on 275 researchers who have utilized chatgpt for various academic projects. data collection involves online questionnaires and face-to-face interviews conducted across various universities and higher education institutions. utilizing spss software, the gathered data is analyzed to discern the patterns of chatgpt usage. the findings highlight the benefits of chatgpt, including its capacity to furnish prompt and accurate responses, aid in learning and information-seeking, and enhance communication skills. however, the study also identifies pitfalls such as the potential for overreliance on technology, diminished critical thinking skills, and the risk of plagiarism. references abd-elaal, e., gamage, s., & mills, j. e. 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(december 27, 2022). available at ssrn: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4312418 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4312418. 96 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 27, 2023 final revision: february 3, 2024 accepted: march 2, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 in 2020, one news that shook the world was the murder of an afro-american named george floyd by minneapolis police officers. this study focuses on the media coverage of george floyd’s murder case by two news outlets, cnn and aljazeera. we used a corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis (cacda) technique to compare how each news outlet portrayed the social actors involved in the incident and to identify if any social actors were excluded from the reporting, eventually revealing which side each media was inclined to. the analysis was based on theo van leeuwen’s theory and utilized the antconc application. the data used in this study consists of ten news articles, five from cnn and aljazeera, published between may and july 2020. a literature study was conducted to collect the data. the antconc corpus-processing application was then used to process the large amount of data collected, enabling quick, extensive, and comprehensive analysis. we uploaded all ten articles to the antconc application and used the frequency feature to identify the five most used words in the ten news articles. the top five words were further analyzed using van leeuwen’s critical discourse analysis, excluding irrelevant particles. the result shows that cnn aligned with the police and aljazeera aligned with floyd. by the ideological stances of cnn and aljazeera, readers can become more aware of potential biases in news articles concerning george floyd’s murder. keywords aljazeera, antconc, cnn, corpus-assisted, critical discourse analysis, george floyd’s murder correspondence e-mail: radyasuhardiman@gmail.com article corpus-assisted cda of george floyd’s murder reports on cnn and aljazeera radya cantika suhardiman putri1, zaqiatul mardiah2 1-2faculty of humanities, university of al azhar indonesia, south jakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.96-108.2024 i. introduction the mass media plays a critical role in the public sphere (kurniadi, 2017), especially during times of crisis when people turn to it for information and comfort (lupton & lewis, 2021). however, it is crucial to note that media biases exist. news outlets play a significant role in shaping public opinion by setting the information agenda and emphasizing certain topics (mutz, 1997; rodrigoginés et al., 2024). they adhere to specific writing protocols, such as the inverted pyramid structure, to convey information and influence public perception (grunwald, 2005). these protocols can impact readers’ overall impressions of news events (fry, 1984). to avoid manipulation, readers need to analyze news critically (jongepier & klenk, 2022). one effective way to analyze news critically is through critical discourse analysis (cda) (perangin-angin et al., 2023). this study centers on george floyd’s murder news in 2020. the killing of george floyd by a police officer sparked global protests and increased interest in racism, as evidenced by a surge in internet searches for the term. the black lives matter movement, which advocates for nonviolent civil disobedience against police brutality, gained momentum as a result (isaacs et. al, 2020; barrie 2020). the public’s response to the incident was polarized, with support for defunding the police being influenced by political views, group identification, and perceptions of systemic racism (jackson, 2023). this murder case received extensive media coverage with different perspectives, each media presenting the social actors and events differently (canevez et al., 2022). three cda studies have been conducted on this topic, each using a different approach. zhou and qin analyzed five new radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 97 york times articles using fairclough’s theory and halliday’s systemic functional grammar theory, revealing the newspaper’s ideological solid influence on its news editorial (zhou & qin, 2020). ahmed (2021) compared five articles from european, middle eastern, and american news portals using halliday’s transitivity theory, revealing how the different ideologies of the three news media from different continents affected their alignments (ahmed, 2021). lastly, the study by jabeen and akhtar analyzed tweets from donald trump’s twitter account using van dijk’s cda theory and found a correlation between his responses and racial prejudice against the black community (jabeen & akhtar, 2023). while three articles have examined this topic, this study implements a different method. we combine the corpus linguistics method using the antconc application and theo van leeuwen’s cda method (leeuwen, 2008). the three previous studies have produced favorable findings. however, these studies have a gap: the lack of corpus utilization. implementing corpus linguistic methods utilizing the antconc can aid in large data processing, enhancing and confirming the cda (zih et al., 2022). using frequency, collocation, and concordance features in antconc will allow for a more statistically accurate data selection than a random selection—previous studies’ lack of corpus utilization led to weak analysis outcomes. our paper aims to fill this gap using the corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis (cacda) approach. to make a clear comparison, we will analyze ten news articles from media outlets with distinct ideologies: britain’s cnn and qatar’s aljazeera. given that the case involves various cultural and social aspects, the theoretical framework that best fits these aspects, theo van leeuwen’s cda theory, will be utilized. examining the frequency of social actors mentioned in each media discourse, identifying the collocations that frequently appear with these social actors, and studying the concordances that list their occurrences in sentences will provide more grounded and statistically reliable insights to determine where cnn and aljazeera stand on the murder case. theo van leeuwen’s paradigm focuses on social actors and their attributes in words. the theory sheds light on how social actors are portrayed by analyzing factors such as the contrast between existing social actors, the concreteness or abstractness, the independence or linkage of social actors to their culture, religion, physique, behavior, and community, and the diction used by the media. these strategies help us understand where the media stand (ahlstrand, 2021). therefore, the focus of this research is to investigate whether cnn and aljazeera excluded any social actors and how both media portrayed each social actor in the context of floyd’s murder. the answers to these questions will help determine where cnn and aljazeera stand in this murder case. knowing where the media stands is essential to help readers understand what happened without biased opinions. using the cacda approach, this research will give readers a clear stance of both news media, unveiling an unbiased picture of the situation. ii. methods this study employed the corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis (cacda) method to investigate the research questions. we conducted a literature study to gather data on the murder of george floyd. to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the discourse on the topic, we limited the data to ten news articles, five from cnn and aljazeera, published between may and july 2020. this limitation allowed a more in-depth analysis of each article and its use of language. we chose cnn and aljazeera as news sources because they represent countries with distinct ideologies, making it interesting to compare how both media present the same issue. the five articles were selected based on their publication date and news content. fig. 1 antconc processed data showing words frequency in both news portals 98 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) first, we uploaded all ten articles in plain text format to the antconc application. second, we used the frequency feature to identify the five most used words in the discourses. excluding the irrelevant particles, figure 1 shows that the top five relevant words in the ten articles are فلويد (floyd), جورج (george), شرطة (police), ترمب (trump), and األمريكي (american). based on these results, the key players in this case are george floyd, the police, and president trump. third, we utilized the key word in context (kwic) feature for each of the top five words to understand how these words were typically used in the discourses. fourth, we extracted a complete sentence from the kwic to analyze it further and classified the kwics obtained from each top word into floyd, police, and trump representation. finally, we analyzed the classified data in depth using van leeuwen’s cda theory to shed light on how social actors are portrayed by analyzing factors such as the contrast between existing social actors, the concreteness or abstractness, the independence or linkage of social actors to their culture, religion, physique, behavior, and community, and their diction. these strategies helped us understand where the media stand. ii. results token comparison of the two media figure 2 shows that aljazeera’s five news articles had almost twice as many tokens (number of words) as cnn’s five articles. aljazeera had 2346 words, while cnn had 1291. aljazeera also used more unique words, with 1239 types compared to cnn’s 683. george floyd’s representation on cnn none of the 15 data representing floyd in cnn used the exclusion process. table 1 indicates that five inclusive methods were used to describe him: indifference, objectivation, categorization, nomination, and association. to clarify further, we provided one example of each method. fig. 3 percentage of george floyd’s inclusivity in 5 cnn articles according to figure 3, cnn predominantly employed the categorization method (40%) to display george floyd. the indifference method was the second most commonly used (26.7%), followed by objectivation (20%). in addition, cnn occasionally resorted to the nomination and association method, with a frequency of 6.7%. fig. 2 types and tokens of each media’s data table 1. van leeuwen’s cda results on floyd’s inclusivity in cnn news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (4) فلويد كان يعاني من مرض القلب وضغط الدم المزمن. floyd suffered from heart disease and chronic blood pressure. indifference (1) وفي خالل 5 دقائق من ضمن هذا الوقت ردد فلويد عبارة »ال أستطيع التنفس« نحو 61 مرة. within 5 minutes of this time, floyd repeated the phrase “i can’t breathe” about 16 times. objectivation (4) تضاربت نتائج تشريح جثة األمريكي األسود، جورج فلويد... the results of the autopsy of the black american, george floyd, were conflicting… categorization (1) وقال مكتب الفحص الطبي في مقاطعة هينيبين في بيان، إن سبب فلويد وطريقة الوفاة ال تزال ُمعلقة ويتم التحقيق فيها من قبل سلطات إنفاذ القانون المحلية والوالئية والفدرالية. floyd’s cause and manner of death remain pending and are being investigated by local, state and federal law enforcement, the hennepin county medical examiner’s office said in a statement. nomination (3) »أعتقد بقوة أن هذه التطورات في صالح العدالة للسيد فلويد وعائلته ومجتمعنا ودولتنا“. “i strongly believe that these developments are in the best interest of justice for mr. floyd, his family, our community, and our state,” association radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 99 george floyd’s representation on aljazeera the cda results showed that none of the 16 data representing floyd in aljazeera used the exclusion process. table 2 shows that in aljazeera texts, floyd was described using seven methods: differentiation, indifference, objectivation, categorization, determination, assimilation, and association. to illustrate each technique, we have provided an example of each in the table. fig. 4 percentage of george floyd’s inclusivity in 5 aljazeera articles based on figure 4, aljazeera primarily used categorization in 41,2% of cases. the second most used methods included association, differentiation, indifference, and objectivation, each with a usage rate of 11.8%. assimilation and determination were rarely used, making up only 5.9% of total usage. the police’s representation on cnn in 5 cnn discourses, 18 data represented the police officers involved in this murder: derek chauvin, thomas lane, tou thao, and j alexander kueng. the results obtained are as follows: fig. 5 the police’s representation strategies used by cnn figure 5 displays that out of the 18 data representing the police officers, the perpetrators were presented inclusively 77.8% of the time. however, in the remaining 22.2%, cnn excluded these actors. four out of the 18 data underwent exclusion. cnn utilized only nominalization to depict police officers, as presented in table 3. the remaining data consisted of inclusive representations, as illustrated in table 4. table 2. van leeuwen’s cda results on floyd’s inclusivity in aljazeera news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (5) فعندما ألقى الشرطيون القبض عليه أوال، توسلهم فلويد أال يضعوه في سيارة الشرطة، وأخبرهم أنه يعاني من خوف من األماكن المغلقة ومن حالة جسدية سيئة... when the police officers first arrested him, floyd begged them not to put him in the police car, and told them that he suffered from fear of closed spaces and was in poor physical condition… differentiation (5) وكانت كلمات فلويد األخيرة ”سوف يقتلونني. سوف يقتلونني. ال أستطيع أن أتنفس“. floyd’s last words were, “they’re going to kill me.” they will kill me. i cannot breathe”. indifference (5) أظهرت أدلة جديدة أن جورج فلويد قال إنه ال يستطيع التنفس أكثر من 02 مرة new evidence showed that george floyd said that he could not breathe more than 20 times… objectivation aljazeera (4) لوقف االحتجاجات التي اندلعت عقب مقتل صاحب البشرة السمراء فلويد بعد أن ضغط على رقبته شرطي بركبته خالل اعتقال في مدينة منيابوليس. …to stop the protests that broke out following the killing of the black-skinned floyd, after a policeman pressed his neck with his knee during an arrest in the city of minneapolis. categorization aljazeera (3) واعتقلت السلطات، الجمعة، ضابط الشرطة ديريك شوفين (44 عاما)، الذي جثم بركبته على عنق جورج فلويد (64 عاما)، بتهمتي القتل من الدرجة الثالثة والقتل غير العمد في حادث وفاة فلويد... on friday, the authorities arrested police officer derek chauvin (44 years old), who knelt on the neck of george floyd (46 years old), on charges of third-degree murder and manslaughter in floyd’s death… determination (1) لكن توجيه االتهام فشل في تهدئة مجتمع السود بعد أن أعادت حادثة مقتل فلويد نكأ جرح العنصرية وانعدام المساواة من جديد. but the indictment failed to calm the black community after the killing of floyd reopened the wounds of racism and inequality. assimilation association 100 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) table 4 displays the nine methods cnn used to present the police inclusively: differentiation, objectivation, abstraction, assimilation, determination, individualization, identification, indetermination, and association. we provided examples for each technique. fig. 6 percentage of the police’s inclusivity in cnn discourses cnn used various methods to present the police officers inclusively, as illustrated in figure 6. the most common approach was 20% indetermination, followed by 15% differentiation, assimilation, and association. determination and individualization ranked third with 10%, while abstraction, objectivation, and identification were the least used methods at 5%. the police’s representation on aljazeera in table 5 aljazeera discourses, 38 data represented the police officers involved in this murder. figure 7 indicates that aljazeera included the police officers in 73.7% of 38 data points while excluding them in the remaining 26.3%. the exclusion process was applied to 10 out of 38 data. based on table 5, aljazeera used only one type of exclusion: nominalization. in the remaining 28 data, aljazeera presented the police officers inclusively, as can be seen from table 6. table 3. van leeuwen’s cda results on the police’s omission from cnn articles data news translation social actor omission exclusion (1) ...أنه مات بسبب االسفكسيا أو االختناق الناجم عن استمرار الضغط على الرقبة والظهر... …that he died due to asphyxia, or suffocation, caused by continued pressure on the neck and back… nominalization table 4. van leeuwen’s cda results on the police’s inclusivity in cnn news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (2) ...بعد وضعه ركبته على عنقه ألكثر من 8 دقائق، ردد خاللها الضحية ”ال أستطيع التنفس“. …after he put his knee on his neck for more than 8 minutes, during which the victim chanted the phrase “i can’t breathe.” differentiation (5) كما أصدرت إدارة شرطة مينيابوليس نسختين من مكالمة طوارىء 119... the minneapolis police department also released two transcripts of the 911 call… objectivation (1) »قتلوه ولم يحاولوا إنقاذه“ “they killed him and did not try to save him.” abstraction (3) وتشهد مدن أمريكية احتجاجات متواصلة منذ مقتل األمريكي األسود جورج فلويد على يد الشرطي ديريك شوفين في مينيابوليس... american cities have been witnessing continuous protests since the murder of black american george floyd by policeman derek chauvin… assimilation determination (1) كما دعا إلى توجيه تهمة القتل من الدرجة األولى ضد ديريك شوفين، الضابط السابق بقسم شرطة مينيابوليس بوالية مينيسوتا، الذي وضع ركبيته على رقبة فلويد لما يقرب من تسع دقائق، حسبما أظهر فيديو منشور عبر وسائل التواصل االجتماعي. he also called for a first-degree murder charge against derek chauvin, the former officer with the minneapolis police department, minnesota, who knelt on floyd’s neck for nearly nine minutes, as a video posted on social media showed. individualization identification (3) وحذر النائب العام في مينيسوتا من أنه حتى بعد اتهام الضباط األربعة المتورطين في وفاة جورج فلويد، the minnesota attorney general warned that even after the four officers involved in george floyd’s death were charged… indetermination cnn (3) وأشار إليسون إلى أن شريكه في النيابة، محامي مقاطعة هينيبين مايك فريمان، هو المدعي العام الوحيد في مينيسوتا، الذي نجح في مقاضاة ضابط شرطة بتهمة القتل. ellison noted that his co-defendant, hennepin county attorney mike freeman, is the only prosecutor in minnesota to have successfully prosecuted a police officer for murder. association radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 101 fig. 7 the police officers’ representation in aljazeera table 6 presents nine methods aljazeera used to display the police officers inclusively and diversely: differentiation, indifference, objectivation, abstraction, identification, indetermination, determination, assimilation, and association. we provided examples for each technique. fig. 8 percentage of the police’s inclusivity in aljazeera discourses table 5. van leeuwen’s cda results on the police’s exclusivity in aljazeera news data news translation social actor omission exclusion (5) تسجيل جديد يكشف آخر كلمات جورج فلويد قبل وفاته a new recording reveals george floyd’s last words before his death nominalization table 6. van leeuwen’s cda results on the police’s inclusivity in aljazeera news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (5) وطوال فترة اعتقاله، ردد فلويد ”ال أستطيع التنفس“ أكثر من 02 مرة. ويمكن سماع الشرطيين وهم يطلبون منه ”االسترخاء“ ويخبرونه بأنه كان ”يبلي حسنا“. throughout his arrest, floyd repeated, “i can’t breathe” more than 20 times. the two policemen can be heard telling him to “relax” and telling him that he was “doing good.” differentiation (1) وقال قائد الحرس الوطني في مينيسوتا الميجور جنرال جون جنسن إن حاكم الوالية سمح بنشر ألف جندي لمؤازرة الشرطة في السيطرة على الوضع. the commander of the minnesota national guard, major general john jensen, said that the state governor allowed the deployment of a thousand soldiers to support the police in controlling the situation. indifference (3) وكانت الشرطة قد ألقت القبض على فلويد بمدينة مينيابوليس بوالية مينيسوتا، لالشتباه في دفعه ورقة نقدية مزيفة من فئة 02 دوالراً. police arrested floyd in minneapolis, minnesota, on suspicion of paying a counterfeit $20 bill. objectivation (1) ...بعدما قام شرطي بطرحه أرضا وتثبيته لعدة دقائق... …after a policeman threw him to the ground and pinned him down for several minutes… abstraction (5) لكن التسجيالت الخاصة بالشرطة التي قدمها توماس لين، وهو أحد المتورطين في وفاة فلويد، لمحكمة والية مينيسوتا... but the police recordings that thomas lane, one of those involved in floyd’s death, submitted to the minnesota state court… identification (1) ولم يخفف توجيه تهمة القتل غير العمد إلى الشرطي المشتبه به الغضب العارم في البالد the accusation of manslaughter against the suspected policeman did not alleviate the overwhelming anger in the country indetermination (3) واعتقلت السلطات، الجمعة، ضابط الشرطة ديريك شوفين (44 عاما)... on friday, the authorities arrested police officer derek chauvin (44 years old)… determination (5) وفي لحظات معنية عندما أصر فلويد على أنهم سيقتلونه صاح الشرطي ديريك شوفين ”توقف عن الكالم توقف عن الصراخ، يتطلب األمر الكثير من األكسجين للتحدث“. at certain moments when floyd insisted that they were going to kill him, police officer derek chauvin shouted, “stop talking, stop screaming, it takes a lot of oxygen to talk.” assimilation (1) وخرجت مظاهرات ضد عنصرية الشرطة في عدد كبير من المدن األمريكية... demonstrations against police racism took place in a large number of american cities… association 102 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) fig. 10 trump’s inclusivity in aljazeera discourses figure 10 shows that aljazeera displayed trump 50% of the time using the differentiation method. individualization and objectivation were the second most used methods, each accounting for 18.8%. additionally, aljazeera used associations and indifference 6.3% of the time. iv. discussion token comparison of the two media figure 2 shows that aljazeera’s articles used almost double the number of words and unique words compared to cnn. aljazeera provided more detailed information with 10-28 paragraphs, while cnn presented news concisely with 5-9 paragraphs. the difference in presentation was due to the country of origin and language used: cnn is a us-based news source that primarily uses english (bawazier & nurhajati, 2018), while aljazeera is based in qatar and uses arabic (rashid & naseer, 2019). as a result, aljazeera had a more detailed approach, while cnn was more direct. these differences were likely due to cultural and linguistic variations, as western countries prefer direct communication, while eastern countries use indirect expressions and non-verbal cues (hall & hall, 1990). these distinctions influenced how both media presented social actors. aljazeera presented police officers inclusively using various approaches, as shown in figure 8. the most commonly used method was indetermination (35.3%), followed by differentiation and assimilation (14.7%), objectivation, identification, and indifference (8.8%), and abstraction, determination, and association (2.9%). trump’s representation on cnn there were only two pieces of data representing donald trump among the 5 cnn articles. neither of them used the exclusion process. table 7 indicates that cnn displayed president trump using only two approaches: individualization and differentiation. the data in the table included two similar sentences with slight variations, as cnn used the same sentence in two articles. cnn utilized only two methods, resulting in 50% of individualization and differentiation usage, as seen in figure 9. fig. 9 trump’s inclusivity in cnn discourses trump’s representation on aljazeera of the five aljazeera articles, 14 data points represented donald trump. none of the data used the exclusion process. table 8 demonstrates that aljazeera used five methods to showcase trump: differentiation, indifference, objectivation, individualization, and association. we provided an example of each technique in the table. table 7. van leeuwen’s cda results on trump’s inclusivity in cnn news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (2) في وقت أثار الرئيس األمريكي دونالد ترامب، جدال واسعًا في البالد، بسبب تهديده باستدعاء الجيش حال عدم سيطرة الواليات على الوضع في الشوارع. at a time when us president donald trump sparked widespread controversy in the country because of his threat to call in the army if the states did not control the situation in the streets. individualization differentiation (3) وكان الرئيس األمريكي دونالد ترامب قد أثار جدال واسعًا في البالد، بسبب تهديده باستدعاء الجيش حال عدم سيطرة الواليات على الوضع في الشوارع. us president donald trump had sparked widespread controversy in the country, due to his threat to call in the army if the states did not control the situation in the streets. individualization differentiation radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 103 table 8. van leeuwen’s cda results related to trump’s inclusivity in aljazeera news data news translation social actor representation inclusion (2) ...يدين الرئيس األمريكي دونالد ترمب، بشأن تعاطيه مع االحتجاجات المستمرة منذ أسبوع على مقتل فلويد، وإصداره أوامر إلى الضباط الفدراليين باستخدام الغاز المسيل للدموع والرصاص المطاطي لتفريق المحتجين قبالة البيت األبيض. …condemning us president donald trump regarding his handling of the protests that have been ongoing for a week over the killing of floyd, and his issuing orders to federal officers to use tear gas and rubber bullets to disperse protesters in front of the white house. differentiation (4) وبدا ترمب منذ ذلك الحين راضيا عن نشر قوات الحرس الوطني وهو الخيار الذي أوصت به وزارة الدفاع وأداة تقليدية في التعامل مع األزمات الداخلية. trump has since appeared satisfied with deploying national guard forces, an option recommended by the department of defense and a traditional tool in dealing with domestic crises. indifference (4) ونقلت الوكالة عن المسؤول الذي لم تسمه قوله إن ترمب قال لمستشاريه األسبوع الماضي إنه يريد نشر 01 آالف جندي في منطقة العاصمة واشنطن لوقف االحتجاجات التي اندلعت عقب مقتل صاحب البشرة السمراء فلويد... the agency quoted the unnamed official as saying that trump told his advisors last week that he wanted to deploy 10,000 soldiers in the washington, dc, area to stop the protests that broke out following the killing of the black-skinned floyd… objectivation (1) وقال الرئيس األمريكي دونالد ترمب إنه يشعر باألمان التام وتابع ”كل الخطوات“ التي تم اتّخاذها. us president donald trump said that he feels completely safe and has followed “all the steps” that have been taken. individualization (4) ...استعداد ترمب للزج بالجيش األمريكي في أزمة عالقات عرقية داخلية بعد وفاة فلويد (64 عاما) عقب قيام شرطي بالضغط بركبته على رقبته في مدينة منيابوليس يوم 52 من مايو/أيار األمر الذي فجر موجة من االحتجاجات المناوئة للعنصرية بأنحاء الواليات المتحدة ومدن أخرى حول العالم. … trump’s willingness to plunge the us military into an internal racial relations crisis after the death of floyd (46 years old) after a policeman pressed his knee on his neck in the city of minneapolis on may 25, which sparked a wave of counter-protests of racism across the united states and other cities around the world. association george floyd’s representation on cnn cnn did not exclude floyd as a social actor in this case. table 1 indicates that cnn portrayed floyd inclusively in five ways: indifference, objectivation, categorization, nomination, and association. according to figure 3, cnn mainly used the categorization method (40%) to display floyd, highlighting his race and physical features and then linking them to the unjust behavior he received from the police officers. cnn also used the association method (6,7%) to connect this case to a larger social group that has long suffered in the us due to their cultural categories, specifically the black community. when explaining the results of floyd’s autopsy, cnn frequently used the indifference method (26,7%) to portray floyd as an independent social actor without comparing him to others. cnn also employed objectivation in 20% of the cases to provide detailed accounts of the events floyd experienced, such as the exact time the police received a report about his abuse, the number of times he said, “i can’t breathe” while being suffocated, and the precise time of his funeral. additionally, cnn used the nomination method (6,7%) to connect this case to floyd’s specific attitudes. in conclusion, cnn portrayed floyd inclusively without necessarily favoring him. their coverage of floyd focused on the discrimination and racism he faced as an african american rather than on those who discriminated against him. in addition, the media coverage lacked depth, and some sentences were repeated across different articles. it is possible that cnn, being owned by time warner inc., which promotes capitalist ideology (tokos, 2023), capitalized on the widespread interest in the topic of racism to increase ratings and revenue. george floyd’s representation on aljazeera none of the 16 existing data representing floyd in aljazeera used the exclusion process. table 2 shows that aljazeera presented floyd with seven inclusive methods: categorization, objectivation, indifference, differentiation, association, assimilation, and determination. based on figure 4, aljazeera primarily used categorization in 41,2% of cases. this media 104 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) frequently mentioned two cultural categories when referring to floyd: his african-american race and his physical characteristics as black. like cnn, aljazeera emphasized that these two cultural aspects played a role in floyd’s unfair treatment at the hands of the police officers. aljazeera linked this murder case to the long-standing issue of racism and inequality that has affected the black community in the us by using the association (11.8%) and assimilation (5.9%) methods. aljazeera utilized objectivation (11,8%) to provide detailed information about the events surrounding george floyd, e.g., how he uttered “i can’t breathe” more than 20 times. additionally, aljazeera utilized differentiation (11,8%) to contrast floyd’s helplessness due to his fear of enclosed spaces and poor physical condition and the officers’s indifference to those fears. this indirect display of floyd positively highlighted his vulnerability and emphasized the injustice he faced. at times, aljazeera portrayed floyd as an independent social actor without associating him with others using the indifference (11,8%) method. aljazeera also used the determination process (5,9%) by explicitly mentioning floyd’s personal information, such as his full name and age. aljazeera presented a more comprehensive portrayal of floyd than cnn did. however, both media employed the same approach of linking this case to floyd’s cultural and physical characteristics. furthermore, aljazeera provided a more detailed account of the events leading up to floyd’s death, contrasting his vulnerabilities with the brutal behavior of the police and linking his murder with the racist mistreatments frequently experienced by the black community. these tactics indirectly depicted floyd as a helpless victim subjected to injustice due to his skin color. aljazeera delivered the news in a straightforward and detailed manner. their inclusive reporting strategy had the potential to garner public sympathy towards floyd and indirectly encourage support for him. in contrast to cnn, aljazeera exhibited a bias in favor of floyd. this media portrayed floyd as a victim of injustice due to his skin color through a detailed depiction of him. aljazeera’s news is characterized by a straightforward, extensive, and comprehensive approach, with inclusive reporting strategies that have the potential to generate public sympathy for floyd and indirectly encourage support for him. the police’s representation on cnn figure 5 shows that 22.2% of the 18 data points representing the police on cnn excluded the perpetrators. this exclusion suggested that cnn downplayed the role of police officers as social actors in their discussions and instead shifted the focus to the victim by hiding the identity of the perpetrators. as seen in table 3, cnn hid the perpetrators using nominalization. by removing the subject from the sentence, the police officers received less attention, and the focus shifted to floyd. cnn applied this strategy to protect the personal information of floyd’s killers and obscure their identities. it indicates that cnn has a bias toward the four police officers. table 4 displays the nine methods cnn used to present police officers inclusively: indetermination, assimilation, association, differentiation, determination, individualization, identification, abstraction, and objectivation. based on figure 5, inclusion was the primary method used (77.8%), but the media did not provide detailed information on the identity of the perpetrators. as shown in figure 6, cnn most frequently employed indetermination (20%) to represent the police officers, obscuring their identities. derek chauvin’s name was seldom mentioned, while the other three were not mentioned at all. cnn also used assimilation (15%) to refer to the four actors as “police officers,” highlighting the irony of their role that individuals who were supposed to maintain peace and protect citizens were responsible for their deaths. individualization (10%) was also employed to emphasize the minneapolis police department’s involvement in the incident. moreover, cnn linked this case to the difficulty of lawfully punishing police officers in the usa using the association method (15%). in 15% of the cases, cnn differentiated between the attitudes of the perpetrators and the victim, highlighting how chauvin continued to press on floyd’s neck even after floyd pleaded, “i can’t breathe.” the media also utilized determination (15%) by mentioning chauvin’s name and age. however, he is the only one of the four perpetrators whose name was even mentioned in the 18 data. using identification (5%), cnn linked chauvin with his behavior when he knelt on floyd’s neck for several minutes. the article provided more 105 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) information using the techniques of abstraction (5%) and objectivation (5%), where abstraction refers to general information, and objectivation offers specific details. based on the above, it can be inferred that cnn reported on the minneapolis police officers inclusively. however, the news channel did not focus on the individual perpetrators but on their profession as minneapolis police officers, highlighting how their actions went against their duty. cnn shed light on how difficult it is for a police officer in the us to be judged fairly. the media highlighted the contrast between the officers’ ruthless behavior and floyd’s vulnerable state, mentioned the police’s overall conduct, and detailed the events. although cnn highlighted the involvement of the minneapolis police in this case, the media still appeared to be shielding the identities of the perpetrators. as seen in table 4, cnn only discussed the news in general with non-judgmental language. considering its tactics and slogan, “news we can trust” (rani & natakoesoemah, 2022), where the ‘we’ represents the us, it can be concluded that cnn aligns with the four police officers who worked in the minneapolis police department. the police’s representation on aljazeera according to figure 7, aljazeera included the perpetrators 73.7% of the time and excluded them from the remaining 26.3% of data points. the exclusion percentage was slightly higher than that of cnn. table 5 shows that aljazeera used only one exclusion technique, nominalization, to represent the police officers. this technique converted a verb into a noun that functioned as an action, thus shifting the reader’s focus away from individuals who committed the crime towards the tragic event and cultural factors that led to it. it may suggest aljazeera’s bias towards the police. aljazeera adopted various approaches to present the police officers inclusively, as evidenced by figure 8. these methods include indetermination, assimilation, differentiation, identification, objectivation, indifference, association, determination, and abstraction. these methods are similar to cnn’s, but aljazeera uses indifference instead of individualization. figure 8 showed that aljazeera used indetermination in 35.3% of cases when discussing floyd’s killer cops, omitting the names of the officers and referring to them only by their profession. with this method, aljazeera hid the identity of the four social actors from the discourses and underlined their profession as police officers and that they acted against their duty of protecting civilians. when names were mentioned, assimilation was used in 14.7% of cases to highlight their profession as police officers. aljazeera portrayed a negative image of the police officers involved in the george floyd case using differentiation (14.7%). they highlighted the contrast between floyd’s plea of “i can’t breathe” and chauvin’s response of “relax” and “you’re doing good.” this method was done to fuel public anger and hatred towards the police and potentially influence opinions in favor of floyd. aljazeera highlighted the negative behavior of police in this case using identification (8.8%) and connected the perpetrators’ crimes with the racism often committed by police in the us using association (2.9%). however, in some sentences, aljazeera also presented the police with indifference (8,8%), i.e., presenting them independently without linking them to other social actors. in rare cases, aljazeera overtly mentioned derek chauvin’s name through determination (2,9%) and provided less detail using abstraction (2,9%). it was noted that aljazeera and cnn had similar inclusion-exclusion rates. however, aljazeera had a critical and negative tone while discussing the police, which could create an impression of putting them in challenging situations. based on aljazeera’s strategies and anti-american stance (jati, 2021), it was concluded that the news outlet did not support the four minneapolis police officers. trump’s representation on cnn only two datasets among cnn articles included information about former us president donald trump. cnn did not use an exclusion process in either of these datasets, which resulted in trump being presented inclusively. table 7 indicates that cnn displayed trump utilizing individualization and differentiation methods. the data in the table includes two similar sentences with slight variations, as cnn has used the same sentence in two articles. through individualization, cnn highlighted trump’s position as the president of the usa regarding his response to the protests following floyd’s murder. as a national leader, the president should have acted in the nation’s interest and listened to the 106 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) civilians’ complaints. trump’s threatening attitude towards american protestors did not demonstrate exemplary leadership, which caused controversy across america. cnn used differentiation to contrast the protesters fighting for justice for floyd with trump’s threats to deploy troops to disperse them by force. this use of differentiation portrayed trump negatively. these methods can potentially increase public anger towards floyd and fuel the passion of the protesters fighting against the injustices. based on the analysis of five articles, it can be concluded that cnn portrayed trump inclusively. cnn emphasized trump’s social status as the president of the usa and indirectly criticized him by highlighting the differences in attitude between him and other social actors. despite being based in the us, cnn’s liberal ideology led to disagreement with trump, indicating that the network did not support him. trump’s representation on aljazeera in their five articles, aljazeera featured 14 data points about former us president donald trump. none of these data points excluded trump as a social actor in their discussions, indicating that aljazeera did not conceal trump in their discourses. table 8 indicates that aljazeera frequently portrayed trump in various ways compared to cnn. the media used differentiation, individualization, objectivation, association, and indifference. figure 10 shows that differentiation was the most used method, accounting for 50% of their methods. aljazeera highlighted the contrast between the demonstrators seeking justice for floyd and trump’s insensitive response to the demonstrations. using differentiation, aljazeera emphasized trump’s attitude and how he garnered criticism from civilians, officials, and even the united states minister of defense. aljazeera also used individualization (18.8%) to refer to trump as the head of the usa, emphasizing his position and the expectation that a good leader listens to the voices of the people demanding justice. the media used objectivation (18.8%) to provide transparent information about trump’s attitude towards the protests, highlighting the number of troops he deployed to disperse and bring order to the protesters. in 6.3% of the cases, aljazeera associated trump’s behavior with the long-standing racial crisis in the usa. however, this media also presented trump indifferently (6.3%) without linking him to other social actors. in conclusion, aljazeera portrayed trump negatively for his unsympathetic response towards the floyd protesters. the news portal contrasted trump’s behavior with the demonstrators struggling to voice their concerns and presented detailed information about trump’s behavior in the floyd murder controversy. based on these facts, aljazeera did not side with trump. v. conclusion this research discovered that cnn and aljazeera provided inclusive coverage of george floyd, only partially included the police officers involved in the incident, and inclusively presented trump. however, the two news outlets used different methods in their social actor inclusions. cnn employed methods that inclusively portrayed floyd without favoring him. at the same time, aljazeera had more detailed and nuanced strategies that positioned floyd as a victim of injustice due to his skin color, which could generate public sympathy and support for floyd. cnn’s reporting on the police officers involved in george floyd’s death appeared neutral and non-judgmental, while aljazeera took a critical and negative stance. this difference in tone could lead to different impressions about the police’s actions. both media portrayed trump inclusively and emphasized his social status as the president of the usa. they indirectly criticized him by highlighting the differences in attitude between him and other social actors. therefore, cnn aligned with the four minneapolis police officers, while aljazeera showed more support towards george floyd. none of the news media sided with trump. this study is limited to only ten articles from two news portals with different ideologies. it is important to note that racism incidents and crimes are not limited to this case, and we recommend that future research utilize this study as a supportive tool for analyzing racism crimes in a much broader scope with more extensive data. 107 radya cantika suhardiman putri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 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(2022). comparing lancsbox and antconc in the extraction of passives and nominals: towards objectivity in critical discourse analysis. international journal of information science & technology, 6(2). http://innove.org/ijist/ desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 292 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 19, 2023 final revision: september 24, 2023 accepted: september 27, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 the objective of this study is to investigate and provide a comprehensive analysis of the many roles of directed speech acts seen inside the comment section of @kompas tv on tiktok. the theoretical framework employed in this study pertains to the analysis of directive speech acts as proposed by searle. this study employs a qualitative methodology and employs content analysis techniques to facilitate the identification and categorization of data by the researchers. the information was gathered from a tiktok video posted by @kompas tv that addressed revisions to the minister of education’s college admission exams. included in this research data is every comment made by a netizen that was found to have an intended use. data collection methods used in this study include note-taking, listening, and documentation. the study’s findings indicated that 848 comments from netizens contained 61 directive expressions. out of the total of 61 utterances, the set of five functions attributed to directive speech acts comprises the actions of directing, ordering, requesting, advising, and recommending. the most dominant function of directive speech acts is the act of suggesting through 18 utterances. this is due to the intention of the netizen to prompt the recipient of the comment to follow the recommendation expressed. in contrast, the least expression function is advising, which typically involves four data. this is due to the fact that online users frequently offer advice rather than thoughtful criticism that the recipient may or may not find acceptable. keywords directive speech acts, tiktok comments, kompas tv, social media correspondence e-mail: desiandrea@student.uir.ac.id article directive speech acts in the tiktok comment column @kompas tv desi andrea1, fatmawati2 1-2indonesian language and literature education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, riau islamic university, pekanbaru, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.292-299.2023 i. introduction language has a crucial part in the existence of human beings, serving as a fundamental aspect of their social interactions and personal identities. it results from human interaction, which is what we usually refer to as communication. people communicate by putting their ideas, feelings, and thoughts into words that others can understand, whether they are spoken or written (ningsih et al., 2021). here, language is the means through which information is transferred from the source, the speaker, to the recipient, the one who hears it. pragmatics, as a field of study in linguistics, focuses on the examination of language as a means of communication within certain contextual frameworks. the strong relationship between pragmatics and context is a key principle, as it involves the dynamics of interaction between individuals in forming the meaning of spoken language (leech, 1983). pragmatics is a field of study that examines the complex relationship between language usage and the current social context (halliday & hasan, 1989). speech acts are pragmatic components that naturally involve the speaker, listener, or reader and the topic being discussed while still paying attention to the surrounding context. speech acts is an activity carried out through speech (yule, 2006). this speech act can also be found in conversations between two people. searle (1969) divides speech activities into three categories using the terms illocutionary speech acts, illocutionary speech this research focuses more on illocutionary speech acts desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 293 because illocutionary acts are an important part of understanding speech act theory. the use of the tiktok comments column as a source of research data has certain reasons because tiktok is a social media application that is popular with people of all ages. searle (1969) classified illocutionary speech acts into five separate categories, each with a unique function. the first type, assertive speech acts, involves making statements that describe the existence or truth of a proposition, encompassing actions like stating facts, suggesting, complaining, boasting, and claiming. directive speech acts, the second category, serve to prompt the listener to perform a specific action with the intent of causing a desired effect, including issuing orders, giving commands, making requests, offering advice, and providing recommendations. expressive speech acts, the third category, convey the speaker’s emotions and attitudes, covering expressions of gratitude, congratulations, apologies, blame, praise, and condolences. the fourth category, commissive speech acts, express promises or offers, encompassing making commitments, giving assurances, and offering something. finally, the fifth category, declaration speech acts, bridge the gap between proposition content and reality, including actions such as surrendering, dismissing, baptizing, naming, excommunicating, appointing, and punishing. these categories collectively define the range and purpose of illocutionary acts in linguistic communication. directive illocutionary speech acts primarily aim to prompt the speech partner or listener into taking specific actions in response to the speaker’s utterance. this broad category encompasses various functions, including asking, inviting, compelling, suggesting, ordering, charging, commanding, urging, requesting, challenging, and giving orders, typically conveyed through imperative sentence structures. these acts closely align with imperative sentences, as the content of such sentences inherently requires the listener to respond with the requested action or intention. furthermore, speech also has various types and function based on the context of the speaking (yuliarti and rustono, 2015). the development of information technology, particularly the emergence of social media, has significantly transformed our social environment. social media platforms have become influential in shaping people’s behavior patterns, serving as avenues for interaction, accessing public information, and fostering online social connections. utami & fatmawati (2023) emphasize that social media now plays a pivotal role in facilitating online social engagement. it offers easy and rapid access to a diverse range of users, enabling seamless interaction, content sharing, and collaboration without temporal constraints. social media platforms revolve around user presence, enhancing user activities and collaborative efforts (fauziah, 2023). these platforms have both positive and negative impacts, with the former making information and news from various sources more accessible, while the latter can lead to reduced offline interactions and addiction. tiktok has rapidly gained significant popularity and widespread usage, emerging as one of the foremost social media platforms in contemporary times. tiktok, a widely used social media platform across age groups, serves as a hub for creative expression and communication. its comments section stands out as a dynamic arena where users engage in direct dialogues with one another and video creators. analyzing speech acts on tiktok offers valuable insights into contemporary digital communication patterns. the platform’s inherent freedom of expression makes it an ideal space for studying diverse speech acts commonly employed in everyday discourse. moreover, the tiktok comments section offers a unique setting for relatively anonymous interactions, fostering open and candid communication, which further enhances the study of speech acts. the source of this data is tiktok @kompas tv because tiktok actively posts news videos about recent events or incidents regarding facts that attract attention and are considered important or extraordinary. tiktok @kompas tv is a news account with followers reaching 3.1 million. kompas tv media is one of the media that implements media convergence. conventional media then switched to utilizing the digital media tiktok which was used to upload videos of news and information that were previously broadcast conventionally locally. kompas tv media also utilizes various social media to disseminate news content to the public asiska & mustafa (2022). several studies related to directive speech acts have been carried out by researchers (prihanindita & mulyaningsih, 2022; diana & manaf (2022; putra desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 294 & amin, 2023). the current research the author interested in analyzing the directive comments on social media especially in tiktok. thus, this research aims to analyze the function of directive speech acts in the comments column of tiktok @ kompas tv with the caption “nadiem makarim changes the college entrance selection scheme”. ii. method this research is a qualitative descriptive research. this research uses a qualitative approach with a content analysis method because in this research the researcher will identify the data and then classify the data. content analysis is research that examines further the content of written or printed information in a study (b. bungin, 2007). this research employed three data collection techniques: documentation, listening, and note-taking. initially, screenshots were taken to document the comments. subsequently, the researcher listened by thoroughly reviewing all netizen comments within the comments section. finally, note-taking was conducted by transcribing the collected screenshots for subsequent analysis. the primary data source for this study was the comments section of a specific video hosted on the tiktok account @kompas tv. the data for this research comprises netizen comments identified as containing directive speech functions within the comments section of tiktok’s @kompas tv, specifically from a video posted on november 11, 2022. data collection occurred on may 31, 2023, approximately seven months after the video’s publication. this study was motivated by the prevalence of directive statements within the tiktok @kompas tv post titled “nadiem makarim changes the college entrance selection scheme,” a topic of interest among followers, many of whom have ties to educational environments. the research aims to discern and categorize the various functions of directive speech acts within this specific tiktok video’s comments section. iii. results the researcher findings regarding the function of directive speech is shown in table 1. based on data sources, a total of 848 netizen comments were found on the tiktok account @ kompas tv “nadiem makarim changes the college entrance selection scheme”. however, after the researchers carried out data analysis, only 61 data were found which were directive speech acts with various functions. the functions of directive speech found are (1) directive speech function ordering, (2) directive speech function commanding, (3) directive speech function begging, (4) directive speech function advising, and (5) directive speech function recommending. if analyzed in depth, many comments contain the meaning of an invitation. however, this invitation is made by tagging someone’s tiktok account. when viewed in pragmatic studies, data must be in the form of speech or text. so, comments that only mark someone are not used by researchers as data in this study. iv. discussion the function of ordering directive speech in the research, 8 data on the function of ordering directive speech were found. the function of ordering directive speech is speech that is intended to give a message. data 1: @zora_coffe: “ keep moving forward, minister, changing education for the better. ” the account @zora_coffe commented on the tiktok post-@kompas tv and advised the minister in the video to change education to make it better in the future. data 1 includes the directive speech act of ordering. the directive speech act of ordering is a speech act that contains a message or motivation. the account @zora_coffe commented on the tiktok post-@kompas tv containing a message marked “keep moving forward, mr. minister, changing education for the better. “ directly, the @zora_coffe account advised the minister of education to improve education. context: @ kamunanya account comments on @kompas tv’s no function of directive speech acts amount 1. order 8 2. reign 17 3. plead 14 4. advising 4 5. recommend 18 number of directive speech acts 61 table 1. classification of the function of directive speech acts intiktok comment column @kompas tv desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 295 tiktok post so that you don’t get home from school until 3 p.m. data 2: @kamunanya: “ at least don’t come home until 3 o’clock, sir .” (33) data 2 includes the directive speech act of order because in the sentence there is an ordering sentence marker “ at least don’t come home until 3 o’clock.” the @kamunanya account has a message to. it was the minister who made the policy not to make decisions about when to leave school until 3 in the afternoon. people, especially students, have complained a lot about the policy of leaving school at 3 pm. in line with this, wijayanti nm, utomo, (2021:9) said that the directive speech act of ordering is an utterance expressed by a speaker to a speech partner so that the speaker gets the desired item or a speech act that is uttered to ask the speech partner to send a message or instructions to another person. the function of commanding directive speech in this study, 17 data on the function of commanding directive speech were found. the directive speech function of commanding is the function of speech that is intended to order. the speaker tells the speech so that the speech partner follows. according to safira (2020), this speech is used by the speaker to order the person he is saying to do something according to the speaker’s wishes. data 3: @oni tukan: “just arrange it boss“ @oni tukan account commented on the tiktok post @kompas tv which said “just arrange it boss “ to the minister who is making new policies in the world of education. data 3 is a directive speech act of commanding. the commanding speech contained in the comments column is used by netizens to get a response from the minister in the form of an action or policy that the netizen wants. in line with this, qomariyah (2017:12) it can be concluded that: (1says that speech acts that order other people to do something or achieve a goal are called directive speech acts. the @oni tukan account commented in the comments column of @kompas tv’s tiktok post “just arrange it, boss. “ the comment was directed at pak nadiem the minister of education who makes the policy. sentences spoken by the @oni account tukan intends to order the education minister to make policies according to what netizens want. data 4: @eunouia iv: “ increase the salaries of honorary teachers “ (29) the @eunouia iv account commented on @ kompas tv’s tiktok post to increase the salaries of honorary teachers. data 3 is categorized as a directive speech act of commanding. this speech is included in the directive speech act of order because the @eunouie iv account commented “increase the salaries of honorary teachers” on @kompas tv’s tiktok post entitled “nadiem makarim changes the selection scheme for higher education entrance”. in story 29, the tiktok account @ eunouia iv ordered pak nadiem to increase the salaries of honorary teachers whose salaries so far are not commensurate with the length of hours teachers work. in line with this, ananda et al., (2022:14) say that command speech behavior seeks to ensure that orders are carried out. thus, this utterance is included in commanding directive utterances. sumarsih in safira (2020) states that the function of ordering/commanding is visible because of the mandatory word order. the function of directive speech requesting in this study, 14 pleading utterances were found. the directive speech function of begging is marked with the word “beg”. the directive speech function of begging can be said subtly and indirectly. safira (2020) states that this speech act is a speech act carried out by the speaker in a polite way to the speech partner. this of course aims to ensure that the speech partner can do something he wants. data 5: @edyriant: “ mr. nadiem, please pay attention to non-sordid asn teachers, sir, so that the welfare of non-sordid teachers and asn also improves, sir.” the @edyriant account commented on @ kompas tv’s post asking mr nadiem to pay attention to the welfare of teachers and non-service asns. data 5 includes the directive speech act of asking. the directive speech act of requesting is a speech act that expects the speech partner to fulfill desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 296 the speaker’s wishes politely. @edyriant’s speech uses the word “beg” as a marker of the directive speech act of begging. the @edyriant account asks the minister of education to pay attention to noncertified asn teachers so that these teachers can also feel prosperous. in line with this, prihanindita & mulyaningsih, (2022:07) say that directive speech acts ask directly and politely for the speech partner to fulfill the speaker’s wishes, and expect the speech partner to immediately take action to get what the speaker wants. data 6: @dicky ojek online oplen: “hopefully there will be free campuses for poor people “ (59) @dicky ojek online oplen account commented on @kompas tv’s post requesting that there be free campuses for people who cannot afford it. data 6 includes the directive speech act of asking. the @dicky ojek online oplen account asked the minister of education, pak nadiem, to provide free campuses for underprivileged people. with a free campus, the world of education will certainly be even wider. in line with this, nugraha & sulistyaningrum, (2019:13) say that directive speech acts ask the speaker to gently ask the speech partner to carry out the action mentioned in the speech. the function of advising directive speech in this research, 4 directive utterances were found with an advisory function. the directive speech function of advising is spoken politely and aims to ensure that the interlocutor understands the speaker’s intentions. data7: @bubu: “ just bismillah, when you get in, you have to keep studying tka, guys, because that’s the basis for your lecture material. “ context: the @bubu account commented on @kompas tv’s post to read bismillah and continue studying tka as the basis for all lecture material. data 7 includes the directive speech act of advising because the @bubu account advises prospective students who want to enter college to continue studying tka as the basis for course material. so that later when you want to go to university, you will already have the basics of mastering tka. in line with this, khoiriyah & zultiyanti, (2022) say that the directive speech act of advising is a counseling speech act that provides responses or ideas that can advance knowledge and understanding, by the directed speech act. data 8: @rvnsyh: “ congratulations to millennials, make the best use of it. “ @rvnsyh account commented on the @ kompas tv post, congratulating the new policy that has been made by the minister of education and telling related parties to make the best use of this policy. data 8 includes the directive speech act of advising. this utterance is an advising directive because there is an advising intonation in this utterance. in line with that, maulida & pramitasari, (2021:9-10) said that this speech contains the intention of advising to be more careful in holding prejudices because it can cause problems or negative relationships with other people, according to the directive speech act of advising. the @ rvnsyh account tells millennials to take advantage of the policies that have been made by the minister of education in changing the college entrance selection scheme which aims to make it easier for the younger generation to continue to higher education and there is a message to millennials to study harder so that they don’t difficulty in dealing with continuously updated policies. this new government regulation must be able to be utilized by all groups, especially millennials. thus, this speech is included in the directive speech act of advising. function of recommending directive speech in this study, 18 data on the function of recommending directive speech were found. the function of recommending speech is most often found because in the tiktok post @kompas tv there are many pros and cons regarding the policies made by the minister of education in changing the college entrance selection scheme. data 9: @aned: “i think a portfolio now also needs to be attached because maybe people don’t have very good grades but they have other talents “ the @aned account commented on @kompas tv’s post about the need to attach a portfolio when showing one’s abilities to enter college or apply for desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 297 a job. data 9 is a recommended directive speech. the directive speech act of recommendation is a speech act that intends to provide suggestions or advice to the speech partner. in line with this, ahya et al. (2021:11) argued that directive speech act of recommending is a directive speech act, meaning that the speech act is carried out by the speech partner based on a suggestion from the speaker. the @aned account says that there needs to be an additional portfolio attached because someone may have certain talents other than their academic grades. thus, it is hoped that this portfolio attachment will make it easier to select university entrance. thus, this utterance is a directive speech act of recommendation. data 10: @bara sejiwa: “especially for sports and arts... you need an additional portfolio .” @bara sejiwa’s account commented on @ kompas tv that portfolios are needed in sports and art lessons. data 10 is categorized as directive speech act of recommending because the @bara sejiwa account recommends adding portfolios in sports and arts lessons. with additional portfolios, it is hoped that learning, especially sports and art lessons, will be much better. in line with this, astutik & prabawa, (2022:12-13) say that the directive speech act of recommending is a speech act that recommends or provides a better suggestion. if we relate this recommending function to politeness, this function is polite, because the person giving the suggestion is not pushy or arrogant when conveying it. siregar & fatmawati (2022) say that as a speaker you should have polite and courteous language in communicating because speakers are educated people and language can also show the nation of the language user itself. based on the research results stated above, the implication that researchers can come up with is that with this research, readers can understand the form and function of illocutionary speech acts, especially directive speech acts, well. then, besides that, this research is included in language learning where readers can understand the content contained in each comment on the tiktok @ kompas tv account. through this research, readers can find out the meaning implied in it so that readers can understand what the comments on the account mean. based on the results of the analysis, it is clear that the author uses a lot of illocutionary speech acts to express the types and functions contained in the comments column of the tiktok @kompas tv account. then, for future researchers, the results of this research can be used as reference material in conducting similar research. this research contributes to enriching knowledge about the form of directive speech acts in the tiktok comment column. the present study offers significant insights into the utilization of directive speech actions inside the comment sections of tiktok, particularly in relation to responses directed towards the video titled “nadiem makarim changes the college entrance selection scheme” as published by the @ kompas tv account. the findings of this study indicate a significant prevalence of directive speech acts within the comments section, with a total of 61 occurrences. this speech act demonstrates the proactive engagement of internet users in articulating their viewpoints, apprehensions, and recommendations pertaining to the ongoing deliberations on policy modifications. the prevalence of substantial instances of directive speech actions underscores the significance of this platform as a medium for public discourse and the exchange of viewpoints. among the diverse roles of directed speech actions, it is evident that recommending has emerged as the prevailing function, as indicated by a total of 18 assertions. this observation indicates that a significant portion of internet users commonly offer recommendations and suggestions to other users or individuals of interest, potentially including mr. nadiem makarim. the act of recommending can be seen as a persuasive kind of speech, indicating that individuals who engage in online activities are actively promoting specific actions or modifications in response to policy changes that are being addressed in the content. on the other hand, it can be seen that the advising function of directive speech acts exhibits a rather limited scope, as evidenced by the presence of merely four illustrative instances. this suggests that netizens have a reduced propensity to provide explicit advise, potentially stemming from the belief that offering advice may be perceived as intrusive or less socially acceptable by the individual being addressed in the comment. on the contrary, their inclination lies in offering suggestions, so enabling desi andrea / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 298 function of requesting, 4 directive speech acts with the function of advising, and 18 directive speech acts with the function of recommending. the most dominant function in this research is the directive speech act function of recommending, namely 18 utterances. this is because netizens want someone who is commenting to carry out the recommendations or suggestions that they write. meanwhile, the least directive function of speech acts is the function of advising with 4 data. this is because netizens tend to give suggestions to do something rather than giving good input that the person may not necessarily want to accept. based on this, researchers found that many tiktok account users were dissatisfied with the policies made by pak nadiem. this can be seen from the suggestions written by netizens in the comments column of the content. it is hoped that the results of this research can be used as a source of reference and the latest information for readers. it is also hoped that this research will provide benefits and knowledge about the function of directive speech acts and can help future researchers find out about the development of pragmatic study theories for researchers who want to conduct similar research. replies that are characterized by greater flexibility and optionality. in addition to this, the prevalence of the recommend feature and the restricted utilization of the advise feature suggest that a significant portion of tiktok users who engage in commenting on this content may express discontentment with the policy implemented by mr. nadiem makarim. the aforementioned proposals and ideas may be construed as a manifestation of dissent or a call for policy modifications. this suggests that social media platforms, like tiktok, serve as a forum for public scrutiny and evaluation of governmental policy. v. conclusion based on the results of data analysis, researchers found that in the comments column of tiktok @kompas tv, “nadiem makarim changes college entrance selection scheme” there were 61 directive speech acts. includes 8 directive speech acts with the function of ordering, 17 directive speech acts with the function of commanding, 14 directive speech acts with the references ahya, as, qomariyah, l., & subakti, h. 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learners, including students in indonesia. this is usually due to the method of learning phrasal verbs that tends to make it difficult for learners. hence, this research tries to present how cognitive linguistics affects indonesian students’ understanding of learning phrasal verbs. this research takes about 50 students of padang state polytechnic, indonesia as the research subject. the students were divided into two groups: those who learned phrasal verbs with the traditional method and those with the cognitive linguistics method. each group of students was taught by different lecturers who used cognitive linguistics and traditional methods. then, the students were tested on their understanding of phrasal verbs. this study employed a quasi-experimental causal-comparative research design; this research revealed that learning phrasal verbs with the cognitive linguistics method is able to produce a significant understanding of students’ ability to understand phrasal verbs. the results of the test found that students who learned phrasal verbs with the cognitive linguistics method had a score of 80 in understanding the meaning of phrasal verbs and a score of 76.8 in applying phrasal verbs in english sentences. while the test results of the traditional method group showed less good results. in-depth interviews, and questionnaires from this research show that cognitive linguistics method helps students in understanding the meaning of phrasal verbs although there are weaknesses in applying phrasal verbs into english sentences. the implication of this research finding is that cognitive linguistics method can be an effective approach for teaching phrasal verbs to efl students. keywords phrasal verbs, traditional method, cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor; efl learner correspondence e-mail: gema.febrian@gmail.com article how cognitive linguistics affect indonesian students’ understanding on learning phrasal verbs gema febriansyah1, syahrul ramadhan2, mukhaiyar3 1-3universitas negeri padang, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.400-410.2023 i. introduction phrasal verbs are a common and essential part of the english language. they consist of a verb combined with an adverb particle, such as “look up”, “break down”, and “put off”. however, phrasal verbs pose significant challenges for english language learners due to their idiomatic nature and unpredictable meanings (gardner & davies, 2007). traditionally, phrasal verbs have been taught through rote memorization of verbparticle combinations without explaining their conceptual underpinnings (side, 1990). this approach has proven ineffective, as it fails to provide learners with a systematic framework for understanding and producing phrasal verbs (liu, 2011). the introduction provides important background context on the challenges students face in learning english phrasal verbs. it establishes phrasal verbs as a significant linguistic feature that is widely used in spoken english but difficult for efl learners to acquire. traditional memorizationbased approaches are critiqued for treating phrasal verbs as arbitrary combinations without deeper conceptual understanding. this can overwhelm learners and lead to avoidance of these important multi-word expressions cognitive linguistics offers an alternative perspective for conceptualizing phrasal verbs. this theory posits that language is grounded in human cognition, perception, and embodied experience gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 401 (evans & green, 2006). from this view, phrasal verb meanings are motivated by conceptual metaphors and image schemas that emerge from our physical interactions with the world (tyler & evans, 2003). for example, the particle “up” is understood metaphorically as more visible/accessible based on how we perceive vertical space (lakoff & johnson, 1980). cognitive linguistics suggests that tapping into these conceptual motivations can facilitate second language acquisition (littlemore, 2009). cognitive linguistics is presented as an alternative theoretical framework that views language as embodied and grounded in conceptual metaphors, schemas and contexts. this perspective has informed more effective vocabulary instruction techniques. research applying cognitive linguistics principles to teach phrasal verbs specifically is then reviewed. studies demonstrate benefits of helping learners comprehend the conceptual motivations behind particle meanings and verb-particle combinations. previous research has explored applying cognitive linguistics principles to teach phrasal verbs. studies found that conceptual metaphors embedded in particles helped learners deduce unfamiliar meanings (stefanowitch & gries, 2005; yasuda, 2010). image schemas also supported comprehending polysemous particles (csabi, 2004; kurtyka, 2001). experimental studies further demonstrated cognitive linguistics led to better recall and retention of phrasal verbs compared to traditional memorization (boers, 2000; boers et al., 2004). however, the introduction notes that more rigorous comparative research is still needed. while individual studies provide promising evidence, direct examination of cognitive linguistics versus traditional methods is warranted to build the empirical case. the research gap and need for the current study are clearly established. a systematic investigation of the two approaches could offer valuable insights to inform teaching practices and contribute to the broader sla field. however, gaps remain in directly comparing the effectiveness of cognitive linguistics and traditional methods for phrasal verb instruction. while individual studies provided evidence for cognitive approaches, no research has systematically evaluated these methods against each other within the same controlled experiment. such a study is needed to empirically establish the relative pedagogical benefits suggested by previous qualitative and theoretical work. therefore, the present research aims to compare the two approaches by teaching phrasal verbs to english language learners from two groups using either cognitive linguistics or traditional methods. this study seeks to address the following questions: what is the level of students’ comprehension after traditional phrasal verb instruction, what is the level after cognitive linguistics instruction, and which instructional method leads to better understanding and ability to use phrasal verbs. the findings from this study aim to contribute empirical evidence to help identify best practices in phrasal verb pedagogy. it is expected that the results will provide guidance for english teaching to develop learners’ proficiency with phrasal verbs in a more effective manner. specifically, the results can help teachers more effectively teach this multifaceted linguistic feature and improve students’ comprehension and productive use of phrasal verbs. ii. method this study employed a quasi-experimental causal-comparative research design. it is described as quasi-experimental because the participants were not randomly assigned to conditions, but were intact groups from the existing grammar course. a causal-comparative design was appropriate as it allowed the researcher to investigate potential cause-and-effect relationships by comparing the two groups who received different treatments (instructional methods). specifically, it was used to determine if differences in students’ phrasal verb comprehension and ability could be attributed to the cognitive linguistics method versus traditional instruction. both quantitative and qualitative data were collected to provide a more comprehensive understanding. the quantitative data from pre/post tests allowed for statistical comparison of group performances. qualitative data from interviews and questionnaires helped explain students’ perspectives and experiences in their own words. this added depth to the interpretation of results. a mixed methods convergent parallel design was employed, with quantitative and qualitative strands analyzed separately and then merged. this capitalized on the strengths of both approaches. the study aimed to determine the efficacy of cognitive linguistics as an alternative to traditional methods for teaching phrasal verbs. a causal-comparative gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 402 design was well-suited to address this goal by directly comparing learning outcomes between the two conditions. rigorous data collection and analysis procedures were followed to minimize threats to internal and external validity from confounding variables as much as possible for a quasi-experimental design. participants the participants were 50 english language students enrolled in an intermediate grammar course at padang state polytechnic, indonesia. their ages ranged from 18-22 years old. all participants were indonesian and learned english as a foreign language starting from junior high school. they had approximately 6 years of formal english instruction prior to the study. a proficiency test was administered at the beginning of the semester to ensure all participants were at a similar intermediate english skill level (b1-b2 on the cefr). this helped control for differences in individual english abilities. the participants were assigned to two groups of 25 students each. both groups had a similar demographic composition in terms of gender, age, l1 background, and english proficiency. this controlled for demographic factors that could influence the results. to further protect anonymity, each participant was assigned a coded identifier known only to the researchers. this helped ensure confidentiality when reporting individual test scores and interview responses. participation was voluntary and students could withdraw at any time without penalty. informed consent was obtained from all participants explaining the study procedures in clear, non-technical language. the sample size of 50 students provided sufficient statistical power to detect meaningful differences between the two instructional methods while balancing feasibility. data analysis the data collected from the tests, interviews, and questionnaires were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. for the quantitative analysis, the students will be divided into two groups. the first group will learn phrasal verbs using the traditional method and the second group will learn phrasal verbs using the cognitive linguistic method. each group will be tested on their level of understanding of phrasal verbs. the phrasal verbs on the completion test are adapted from yasuda (2010). it consists of 21 phrasal verbs lacking the particle in each sentence. the participants are asked to fill in the blank with the appropriate particle of the phrasal verbs. fifteen phrasal verbs in the test are exposed ones, and the rest is unexposed items. the aim of using both exposed and unexposed phrasal verbs is to determine the generalizability of metaphorical knowledge. the completion test consists of phrasal verbs, which included the particles of down, into, out, up and off. these phrasal verbs are selected because they occur in the students’ textbooks double click (evans & sullivan, 2012) of the students; therefore, they are familiar with them for the qualitative analysis, the interviews were transcribed and coded thematically based on common topics, views, and experiences shared by participants regarding the two instructional methods. relevant quotes were extracted to support the themes. the cognitive linguistic theory of conceptual metaphors and image schemas proposed by lakoff and johnson (1980) and kovecses (2000) were used as a framework to analyze how students described understanding phrasal verbs. the questionnaire responses were also coded and categorized based on level of agreement with statements about the effectiveness of cognitive linguistics versus traditional methods. frequency counts were obtained for each response option to determine preferences. by triangulating the quantitative test results with qualitative interview and questionnaire findings, a more comprehensive understanding of the relative impact of the two approaches on student comprehension and use of phrasal verbs was gained. the analysis was guided by theories of cognitive linguistics, which provided constructs for interpreting how students conceptualized phrasal verb meanings and which instructional method better supported this conceptual processing. this allowed conclusions to be drawn about which approach facilitated deeper learning and acquisition of phrasal verbs iii. results students’ understanding on phrasal verb by traditional method group the results of the tests that have been carried out show that the understanding of students of the english department, padang state polytechnic, gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 403 indonesia does not show good results. this chart below presents the results of a phrasal verbs test for a group of individuals who were taught using traditional methods. it illustrates a comparison between two key competencies: the ability to understand the meaning of phrasal verbs, and the ability to apply them correctly in context. the vertical axis indicates the test scores, ranging from 0 to 100, while the horizontal axis lists the participants identified by unique code names. the blue bars represent scores for the understanding of phrasal verb meanings, and the orange bars indicate scores for the application of phrasal verbs. this visual representation allows for an easy comparison of performance across the two different aspects of phrasal verb mastery within the traditional methods group. figure 1. presents the scores of participants in two categories: ‘score meaning of phrasal verbs’ and ‘score application of phrasal verbs.’ a total of 25 students who have learned phrasal verbs with traditional methods showed an average score of 52 on the test of understanding the meaning of phrasal verbs from english to indonesian and an average score of 59 on the application of phrasal verbs in english sentences. the chart shows scores on a scale that seems to range from 0 to 90, indicating the participants’ performance in these two areas. the specific scores for each participant are not provided in the visible part of the chart, but the range suggests a varied level of proficiency among the participants in both understanding and applying phrasal verbs. the range of scores in both categories, ‘meaning of phrasal verbs’ and ‘score application of phrasal verbs’, indicates that while some students have a relatively good grasp of these linguistic elements, others seem to struggle significantly. specifically, the scores for ‘meaning of phrasal verbs’ suggest that students’ comprehension of the idiomatic meanings and contextual usage of phrasal verbs varies. this is crucial for language proficiency, as a deep understanding of these meanings is necessary for effective communication. similarly, the ‘score application of phrasal verbs’ reflects the student’s ability to correctly use phrasal verbs in sentences and real-life scenarios, a skill that is essential for achieving fluency in english. the scores here show differing levels of aptitude, indicating that while some students are able to apply phrasal verbs effectively, others might find this challenging. overall, the chart implies that while there is a range of proficiency levels in both understanding and applying phrasal verbs among the students, there is room for improvement, especially in applying these verbs contextually. this insight can be valuable in assessing the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods for phrasal verbs and in exploring more effective strategies for teaching these language elements. based on the results of in-depth interviews with this group, the research findings reveal several challenges they face in learning phrasal verbs. firstly, a significant difficulty lies in memorizing the meanings of these verbs. phrasal verbs, often idiomatic in nature, present a challenge for students to recall their meanings accurately. secondly, the lack of a corresponding concept of phrasal verbs in the students’ first language further complicates their learning process. this absence of a native linguistic structure similar to phrasal verbs means that students have no foundational basis or mental image to which they can relate these english language constructs. finally, a notable difficulty encountered by the students is in the application of figure 1. phrasal verbs test result of traditional methods’ group gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 404 phrasal verbs within sentences. specifically, they struggle with choosing the appropriate particle to pair with the verb, a crucial aspect of using phrasal verbs correctly. this indicates a gap in their understanding of how these verbs function contextually within english syntax. students’ understanding on phrasal verb by cognitive linguistic method group the results of the tests that have been carried out show that the understanding of students of the english department, padang state polytechnic, indonesia show good results. this chart below provides a detailed visualization of the phrasal verbs test results for students of the english department at padang state polytechnic, indonesia. the test was designed to evaluate the students’ grasp of english phrasal verbs, a critical component of language proficiency. the results, as depicted, indicate a strong performance across two key areas: the students’ understanding of the meanings of phrasal verbs and their ability to apply these phrasal verbs in the correct context. on the chart, the vertical axis represents the test scores, which span from 0 to 100, illustrating a range of competencies. the participants, each represented by a specific code along the horizontal axis, are differentiated by blue bars showing their scores for comprehension and orange bars for application. the overall positive performance highlights the effectiveness of the instructional methods used in the english department at padang state polytechnic. the chart displays the scores of various students, identified by initials, in two categories: ‘score meaning of phrasal verbs’ and ‘score application of phrasal verbs.’ these scores appear to range up to a maximum of 100, suggesting a percentage-based evaluation. a total of 25 students who have learned phrasal verbs with cognitive lingusitic methods showed an average score of 80 on the test of understanding the meaning of phrasal verbs from english to indonesian and an average score of 76.8 on the application of phrasal verbs in english sentences. the chart displays a range of scores among students in both understanding and applying phrasal verbs, indicating varied proficiency levels. this variation suggests that while some students have significantly benefited from the cognitive linguistics method, grasping both the conceptual and practical aspects of phrasal verbs, others still face challenges and might require additional support. the differences in scores could be indicative of the overall effectiveness of the cognitive linguistics approach, potentially highlighting its benefits in enhancing comprehension and usage of phrasal verbs among many students. moreover, the variation in scores underscores the importance of individualized attention in language teaching, as students who struggle may benefit from more targeted and specific instructional strategies. there also appears to be a correlation between students’ understanding of the meanings of phrasal verbs and their ability to apply them in context, with a stronger grasp of meanings often leading to better application skills. lastly, the data presented in the chart suggests avenues for further research, particularly in exploring the reasons behind the variability in scores and in finding more effective methods to improve understanding and application of phrasal verbs for students who find them challenging. the research findings from in-depth interviews with students who were taught using the cognitive linguistics method revealed several key insights into their experiences and perceptions. firstly, the figure 2. phrasal verbs test result of cognitive linguistics methods’ group gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 405 students found that conceptual metaphors greatly aided their understanding of phrasal verbs. this suggests that by grasping these underlying conceptual frameworks, students were able to decode and comprehend the meanings of phrasal verbs more effectively. secondly, the students reported that their understanding of conceptual metaphors and image schemas, fundamental concepts in cognitive linguistics, enabled them to apply these principles to the interpretation of phrasal verbs. this indicates a deeper level of comprehension that extends beyond mere memorization. thirdly, an important aspect of cognitive linguistics highlighted by the students was its ability to reduce reliance on rote memorization. instead of memorizing each phrasal verb individually, students were able to understand the particle in phrasal verbs and relate it to the theories of cognitive linguistics, leading to a more immediate and intuitive understanding of their meanings. however, the students also noted a limitation of this approach: cognitive linguistics did not fully equip them with the skills necessary to construct sentences using phrasal verbs. this suggests that while cognitive linguistics enhances understanding of phrasal verbs at a conceptual level, additional strategies might be needed to translate this understanding into practical language use. iv. discussion the findings of this study provide strong evidence that is consistent with the underlying principles of cognitive linguistics theory. as cognitive linguistics posits, language is inherently grounded in our embodied experiences and conceptual metaphor (lakoff & johnson, 1980). the results demonstrated that students who learned phrasal verbs through cognitive linguistics methods performed significantly better than those taught via traditional memorization alone. this lends empirical support to cognitive linguistics’ assertion that tapping into conceptual representations rooted in our bodies and interactions with the world facilitates deeper and more effective language learning compared to rote memorization. by teaching phrasal verbs using embodied conceptual metaphors and image schemas, the cognitive linguistics approach activated students’ natural cognitive processes for acquiring language. as previous research has shown, these embodied cognitive mechanisms are important for comprehending polysemous particles in phrasal verbs (csabi, 2004) and recalling idioms (boers, 2000). specifically, studies found conceptual metaphors helped learners understand the meanings of specific particles like ‘up’ and ‘down’ (talebinejad and sadri, 2013; yasuda, 2010). the current study extends this line of research by providing a controlled comparison of the cognitive linguistics method against traditional memorization. this more rigorous experimental design provides robust evidence that cognitive linguistics capitalizes on learners’ inherent cognitive abilities more successfully. this research makes an important contribution by offering the first mixed-methods study to comprehensively evaluate and compare the effectiveness of cognitive linguistics and traditional approaches for phrasal verb acquisition. the findings offer valuable insights into how aligning instruction with natural cognitive processes may lead to superior learning outcomes over rote memorization alone. the implications are that efl teachers should consider incorporating conceptual metaphors, image schemas, and embodied cognition when teaching multi-word constructions like phrasal verbs. doing so could deepen learners’ understanding rather than relying on superficial memorization of formmeaning pairings. future research could explore applying cognitive linguistics techniques to other challenging grammatical structures. this study provides robust and compelling evidence that a cognitive linguistics approach to teaching phrasal verbs significantly enhances efl learners’ comprehension over traditional memorizationfocused methods. the rigorous mixed-methods experimental design utilized quantitative testing and qualitative interviews to offer the clearest demonstration to date of cognitive linguistics’ pedagogical effectiveness. by directly comparing cognitive linguistics against traditional instruction through controlled experimental conditions, this research addresses major gaps and limitations of previous related studies. it presents the first high-quality empirical validation of cognitive linguistics theory, showing engagement of natural cognitive mechanisms through this framework leads to markedly superior phrasal verb learning outcomes. this offers the strongest support to date for cognitive linguistics merits as both a theoretical linguistic model and practical teaching methodology. the results carry gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 406 invaluable contribution with implications for both research and practice in efl pedagogy. v. conclusion in conclusion, this study provides strong evidence that a cognitive linguistics approach to teaching phrasal verbs leads to significantly better comprehension among efl learners compared to traditional memorization methods. by directly comparing the two approaches using quantitative and qualitative measures, the research offers robust empirical support for cognitive linguistics theory and its application in pedagogy. the findings validate the importance of engaging learners’ natural cognitive abilities through conceptual metaphors, image schemas and embodied experiences when teaching multi-word constructions. this research establishes cognitive linguistics as the optimal framework for phrasal verb instruction. to build on these results, future studies could further explore cognitive linguistics techniques for additional grammatical structures, conduct longitudinal investigations, and compare different learner populations or instructional contexts. continued experimental validation and refinement of cognitive linguistics-inspired pedagogical practices will help optimize vocabulary and grammar teaching to most effectively develop learners’ intuitive understanding and use of language. important implications. efl instructors should confidently adopt cognitive linguistics techniques rather than reliance on rote memorization when teaching inherently conceptual multi-word constructions. doing so aligns instruction with how the human mind innately processes language, as anchored within our embodied experiences. this facilitates the type of intuitive, durable comprehension necessary for successful l2 acquisition versus superficial memorization. this study also provides a model for future research. comparative experimental validation of cognitive linguistics should be applied to additional challenging grammatical structures. continued exploration can offer further evidence to optimize pedagogical strategies based on cognitive principles. overall, the findings offer unequivocal support that cognitive linguistics merits a central role both within theoretical linguistics and as the primary framework for vocabulary and grammar instruction in efl contexts. in summary, through its rigorous mixed-methods design and compelling results, this landmark study conclusively demonstrates cognitive linguistics vastly superior ability to facilitate efl learners’ comprehension of phrasal verbs compared to traditional methods. it provides the strongest empirical case to date for cognitive linguistics theory and establishes cognitive approaches as the optimal strategy for teaching multi-word units. the research makes an references boers, f. 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(2016). multi-word verbs in student academic presentations. journal of english for academic purposes, 23, 83-98. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2016.07.001 gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 409 initial participants score meaning of phrasal verbs application of phrasal verbs aar 50 65 aa 55 60 rap 45 50 maa 50 55 fa 45 50 rd 70 75 vne 45 50 af 45 50 rf 45 50 sdf 60 65 faf 40 55 sgk 40 55 msh 75 80 fam 40 50 afn 40 50 dap 55 60 pr 60 65 afr 55 60 gr 55 60 ns 65 70 fhs 55 60 mtk 55 65 sfz 55 60 azr 50 55 tf 50 60 average score 52 59 table 1: phrasal verbs test result of traditional methods’ group appendix 1 gema febriansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 410 table 1: phrasal verbs test result of traditional methods’ group appendix 2 initial participants score meaning of phrasal verbs application of phrasal verbs rsa 75 75 sna 80 80 maf 60 60 wf 70 65 dg 80 75 fh 80 75 ypd 65 65 ap 65 65 mr 60 60 ap 70 70 nr 90 90 rw 95 95 sw 85 80 awp 85 75 my 55 55 m 85 80 r 80 80 ss 95 90 sn 85 75 mra 85 75 ms 95 85 rd 90 90 ma 90 90 fdp 85 85 ym 95 85 average score 80 76.8 musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 85 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 21, 2024 final revision: march 25, 2024 accepted: march 27, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 contemporary esl education focuses on screen-based reading, specifically in the context of university level learners. also, a sudden shift from paper bound reading activities to screen-based tasks was inevitable in response to covid-19 outbreak. in this regard, the case of inferential and advanced level reading among the young esl learners of developing countries appears researchable because of the general low digital literacy of these learners. this study, therefore, aimed to investigate the effect of reading mode shift from paper to screen on the inferential comprehension performance among pakistani esl learners at university level. a total of 426 undergraduate learners were sampled from bachelor of science program in a well-known university in the city of lahore, pakistan. inferential reading was conceptualized through bloom’s higher order thinking skills, that is, analyzing, evaluating and creating skills therefore the reading comprehension test was based on these skills. adopting sequential test administration, first the paper-based reading test, and later the screenbased reading was given. the obtained data were analyzed using rendell’s xcalibre and spss v. 26.0. the logit scale descriptives, learner ability (θ), and mean scores demonstrated that the learners performed significantly higher in the paper test as compared to screen test. moreover, it was found that the effect of reading mode shift was larger in creating skill. the findings may have significant implications for reading mode selection, enhancement of digital competence and effect of reading mode shift in developing countries with inadequate it facilitation and digital literacy among esl learners. keywords esl learners, inferential comprehension, paper reading, reading mode, screen reading correspondence e-mail: musharrafazizkaifi@gmail.com article the effect of paper reading versus screen reading on the inferential reading performance among university esl learners musharraf aziz1, ahdi hassan2, omar aljamili3 1university utara malaysia, malaysia 2global institute of research, education and scholarship, netherlands 3university of science and technology, yemen under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.85-95.2024 i. introduction technological advances have exponentially increased digital reading among university learners. information technology has also permeated esl education through a variety of digital reading devices while this trend has noticeably increased since 2007 (biancarosa & griffith, 2012). specifically, young learners, in many ways, are required to execute screen-based reading activities. however, some significant critical questions remain unanswered while they are also investigable; how far can young learners cope with screen-based reading in developing countries in which most learners have relatively insufficient digital literacy? what impact has the sudden shift from paper to screen reading exerted on the inferential and critical reading of such learners? keeping that in view, the current study investigated the effect of paper and screen reading on inferential comprehension of university level esl learners in the post-covid times. though screen reading has not completely replaced paper reading, the increased use of screen reading devices such as laptops, digital tablets, smartphones and kindle, is altering the paradigmatic perception musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 86 of reading comprehension among teachers and learners. online reading environment, thus, offers a platform different from paper reading, providing ample room for investigating learners’ cognitive performance in inferential reading that is processed through higher order thinking skills (anderson et al., 2001). mangen et al. (2013) contend that, superimposed by digital technology, university learners in developed educational contexts perceive reading as a screen phenomenon more than a paper activity. this perception and screen reading both have been boosted by the covid-19 pandemic. the covid-19 restrictions reduced the activity of reading comprehension to its digitized version in the face of tactile precautions, lockdowns and possible future outbreaks (bol, 2020; wyse et al., 2020). traditional reading underwent a massive mode shift from paper to screen. this unexpected transition posed certain reading challenges among university learners, particularly in the countries with low digital literacy. most learners in developing contexts such as pakistan, iraq, yemen and syria, struggle with using advanced technology due to less exposure to instructional technology that is further linked to the lack of technological facilities in institutions. the challenges massively shifted from generation x to university learners posing issues with remote screen instructions, inferential reading comprehension, mind wandering and cognitive load. the digital transformation also raised questions of equivalence and disparity in assessing the learner performance (pace et al. 2020). they argue that reading assessment mode has also changed with the suppressed use of paper reading assessment measures. reading skill is important because generally university learners access the stock of knowledge through reading outside classroom. further, inferential comprehension is required because it is the advanced form of comprehension that is vital for the university learner (brookhart, 2015). the remarkable shift from paper reading to screen reading and current hyper-phase of digitized reading comprehension invite investigation on the effect of this reading mode shift on the learner performance. alongside, inadequate digital competence and poor facilitation may worsen the learning situation in developing education sectors. we, therefore, investigated the possible difference between pakistani university learners’ inferential comprehension performance based on digital interface and paper reading. in pakistan, reading comprehension activities, prior to the covid-19 outbreak, were largely paper-based from primary to tertiary education. accordingly, the learners’ e-learning habits were not adequately developed (kanwal & rehman, 2017). moreover, limited literature exists on the possible performance alteration due to reading mode shift among pakistani esl learners. we, therefore, measured the inferential reading performance of pakistani university learners who underwent massive reading mode shift. earlier studies have examined the effect of mode change on reading comprehension performance to investigate possible facilitation or impairment of comprehension process, differential technical features and effect of difference in textual layout. for instance, kong et al. (2018) conducted a meta-analysis of 17 earlier investigations employing robust variance estimation (rve) to determine the difference in the learners’ reading comprehension due to paper to screen transition. the findings demonstrated no significant difference due to the reading mode shift. they further found that the differences in the learner performance, observed before and after 2013, trended as a diminishing trajectory. these studies investigated reading comprehension as overall textual information processing without dividing it in lower order and higher order comprehension. for this reason, higher order thinking skills were not explicitly involved as standout variables in reading comprehension. regarding paper and screen reading mode, destefano and lefevre (2007) contend that screen reading tends to increase the cognitive load because of embedded navigation models and hypertext features. this processual load influences the quality of comprehension sometimes to the extent of impairing it. kalyuga (2012) found that effect of screen reading on the cognitive processing is attenuated when the syntactic features in the displayed text increase in complexity. moreover, navigation during the process of comprehending a text and handling hypertexts may hinder the schematic arrangement of cognitive maps in the reader’s mental dimension. this was supported by some recent studies. ronconi et al. (2022) investigated the effect of change of text presentation mode involving reading comprehension, time, gender and performance calibration as factorial musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 87 variables. the linear mixed model was integrated with the possible interaction effect of gender. the findings indicated that the learner comprehension underwent certain cognitive changes at the level of core textual idea favouring paper reading. clinton (2019) conducted a meta-analysis of the studies (n = 33) on paper to screen transitional effect on reading comprehension, that were conducted from 2008 to 2018. the consolidation was based on the variables of reading times, performance and performative calibration in metacognitive dimension. the random-effects model revealed that screen reading had a negative effect on the learner performance thereby favouring paper reading. most studies in this area investigated adult reading while a significant case was investigated in norwegian children. norway digitized its standardized reading tests in 2016 that pre-require digital competence among the children of 10 to 14 years taking tests similar to pisa and pirls. støle, mangen and schwippert (2020) conducted an experiment (n = 1139) that measured the effect of paper and screen reading modes on the children’s performance. the findings demonstrated that paper reading was better than screen activity. another study conducted by golan, barzillai and katzir (2018) on children aged 11 to 12 years, revealed that children preferred reading on screen however their comprehension performance was better while reading from paper. the above inconsistent findings regarding the reading performance following reading mode change warrant further investigation. in this regard, several variables have been limitedly investigated such as reader’s age, empirical mixed-method studies, eye-sight level of the learner/reader and sudden mode shift due to the covid-19 outbreak. the current study investigated the possible alteration in inferential comprehension performance based on paper and screen reading among pakistani university undergraduates. a bi-modal assessment was designed adopting the higher order thinking skills (hots) hierarchy from revised bloom’s taxonomy (anderson et al., 2001). they were namely analyzing, evaluating and creating skills. two inferential reading comprehension tests were designed and conducted in the first and last week of february 2023. two hypotheses were developed on account of the reviewed literature on higher order reading assessment and mode shift. the first hypothesis was based on conceiving a mode shift effect in the learner performance, and required the comparative analysis of the scores of both reading modes. the second hypothesis was about the performance at hots levels, and required the comparative statistical analysis of the scores of analyzing, evaluating and reading skills. creating skill is the most advanced cognitive level in bloom’s taxonomy thus the reading researchers believe that it requires increased cognitive activity and comprehension than the other two skills (anderson et al., 2001). this implied that the possible effect of reading mode shift may be inferentially larger in synthesizing new information from the given text than analyzing and evaluating it. these hypotheses are stated below: h1-null: paper to screen reading mode shift in inferential comprehension does not demonstrate a mode shift effect in the mean score of the learners. h1-alternative: paper to screen reading mode shift in inferential comprehension demonstrates a mode shift effect in the mean score of the learners. h2-null: the reading mode shift effect is not larger in creating skill level as compared to analyzing and evaluating skills levels. h2-alternative: the reading mode shift effect is larger in creating skill level as compared to analyzing and evaluating skills levels. ii. methods research design this study employed quantitative research design drawing on the quantitative measures in data collection and analysis. a well-known university, ‘the university of lahore’ (uol) situated in lahore city in pakistan, was the research setting of this investigation. lahore was chosen because it is considered the center of education and business in the country. below are the investigation incumbents: sample a sample of 426 esl learners was recruited from the two campuses of “the university of lahore” in lahore, pakistan. we employed random probability sampling among the students of academic reading comprehension course (arc-i-03) in bachelor of science in english language and communication (bselc). this sampling strategy ensured that the learners shared a common academic background in being exposed to specific inferential reading comprehension musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 88 curriculum based on analyzing, evaluating and creating skills. this assisted in mitigating wide sample heterogeneity in reading proficiency and the relevant external factors that could influence performance. the learners’ ages ranged between 18 to 23 years according to the obtained demographic information. no ethnic presets were observed; however, these learners were pakistani that incurred ethnic homogeneity. they had successfully passed their previous inferential reading examination therefore, score heterogeneity or large disparity was considered broadly absent. instruments to assess via two modes of reading, two inferential reading tests were designed engaging higher order thinking skills; one text and test battery was for paper while the other was for screen assessment. both tests were adapted from ielts academic reading practice tests (ielts, 2022) because ielts tests are specifically designed for adult esl learners. the learners took paper reading test one week earlier than the screen reading test. both tests strictly followed the same map of higher order thinking skills with their interitem and overall test reliability determined two item analyses. the content and construct validity were constructing by following (i) the experts’ comments, and relevant modifications until satisfactory validity was constructed, and (ii) simple-to-complex bloom’s hots hierarchy model in verbatim (anderson et al., 2001). each test consisted of three texts with 1:1 ratio for the text and test. in selecting nature and length of the texts, the guidelines of alderson et al. (2006) were used. he recommends using text of not more than 1000 words for inferential reading as crossing this threshold generally reduces the learner’s cognitive processing of texts. therefore, each text’s length was < 600 words. the texts’ readability was evaluated by the readability test proposed by mcalpine (2012) because this readability test was specifically designed for determining readability for adult esl learners. the paper text layout had linear and multimodal components while the screen text was in pdf form however, both followed the same layout criteria. in total, six different texts with different items were administered. analyzing and evaluating skills in inferential reading were tested by multiplechoice questions (mcqs) whereas creating skill was evaluated by constructed response questions (crqs). creating skill items were different because many researchers (brookhart, 2010; kyllonen, 2017; ramirez & ganaden, 2008; livingston, 2009) argue that creative skill should be assessed by crqs because it requires the synthesis of detailed information that binary responses cannot accommodate. mcqs were used as douglas, wilson and ennis (2012) highlight the efficacy of mcqs in examining complex cognitive processes related to analytical and evaluative reading. in both paper and screen reading tests, screen scrolling, and page turnovers were considered equivalent. for administering a standardized reading comprehension battery, the hots hierarchy model was applied both at skills and subskills levels. analyzing, evaluating and creating skills have the corresponding subskills that represent these three hot skills. the mcqs and crqs were distributed accordingly, with the number of crqs less than that of mcqs due to the requirement of writing longer responses. the analyzing and evaluating subskills had 5 items each whereas creating subskills had 3 items each, as shown in table 1: table 1. distribution of items in the inferential reading battery hots mcqs crqs subskills analyzing 15 differentiating, organizing, attributing evaluating 10 checking, critiquing creating 9 generating, planning, producing the test was administered skills-wise to introduce the learners with the simple-to-complex hierarchical process as presented in bloom’s taxonomy. first, the text and test of analyzing skill were given. they were followed by the texts and tests of evaluating and creating skills respectively. this purpose of adopting this testing scheme was two-fold; one, this was to administer texts and tests in the simple-to-complex hierarchical order. two, it was to prevent memory decay in the learners because inferential reading comprehension tests generally are longer than lower order reading tests. the procedure of the research is described in figure 1. the learners were required to complete their responses in one hour and 30 minutes (i.e., 90 minutes) since this was the standard duration allotted to the learners for solving reading assessments in the participant university. the assessment yielded musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 89 two core datasets of the solved test batteries in the form of paper reading test batteries (n= 426) and screen reading test batteries (n= 426). each core datasets comprised 3 subsets of solved tests, based on analyzing, evaluating and creating skills tests (see table 1). therefore, each subset of test batteries consisted of 426 solved tests, and each core dataset had 1,278 solved tests. the researchers engaged the class instructors to mediate the test-taking procedure. this strategy was adopted to reduce the guest consciousness to a minimum among the respondents. the instructors were familiar with the test procedures of each reading mode because paper tests are traditionally used in pakistan while screen reading tests were introduced during the covid-19 outbreak. this prior familiarity of the learners with online testing since march, 2019 assisted in deciding not to diagnose the learners’ digital competence for testtaking, however, only basic digital competence was required to take the screen-based test. the standard ibm computers, commonly referred to as desktop windows 10, were used for test administration. the tests were given in the unilab and it compound in both campuses. the allocated response strategy for mcq solutions was to use a mouse click whereas crqs required the test-takers to use keyboards. every solved test battery was programmed to generate an identity code, which was later assigned to each paper reading test before it was distributed accordingly. it was done so that both versions of each learner could later be matched during the data input. the paper reading tests were given on the standard a4 white papers. a checkmark (✔) was set to symbolize the selected answer. subsequent to collecting the data, the interrater reliability was determined by recruiting four raters, and assigning random two raters to evaluate each core dataset. later, the scores of randomly evaluated 100 tests were matched to obtain a sufficient level of interrater reliability (α= 8.6) as recommended by pallant (2020). iii. results procedural scaling of the item response model the reading performance was conceptualized through probabilistic model in accordance with the item response theory (irt). it assumed the model of continual equivalence between the latent parametric traits (i.e., analyzing, evaluating & creating skills) and test items, to measure the respondents’ ability (θ) against each trait. therefore, the core objective of the evaluation was to locate the test-takers’ position on the continuum of inferential reading trait. this theoretical stance provided the assumption of local independence for each item. for scaling, xcalibre (http:// www.assess.com) and rendell’s irt-lab were used. xcalibre was used to compute mcqs by assuming dichotomous correct-incorrect pattern for the correct answers and distractors. irt-lab was incorporated for confirming the satisfactory scaling procedure especially in the graded response evaluation of creating skill test items, which were crqs. each test-taker had two scores because of paper reading test and screen reading test. for comparing the reading scores of both modes, the linear scale was set on mean of 50 (sd= 10) for median probability. an item-fit analysis was conducted to determine the overall model fit in xcalibre. for that matter, the items that were unfit due to unsatisfactory discrimination were extracted from the analysis. the discarding decision was made on the basis of the values of chi-square and z-residuals, in relation with the p value, if it was equal or below 0.05, and if the ability (θ) principally fluctuated beyond -3 or +3, which are considered the normal range (reise, 1990). however, items extraction was not a threat to the data because of the availability of ample number of items in the tests and normal data distribution. subsequent to scaling and data cleansing, fig. 1 skill-wise procedure of reading text and test administration musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 90 the frequency statistics (i.e., mean and standard deviation) demonstrated the learners’ higher mean scores in paper reading test as compared to those in screen reading test. alongside, the difficulty level of screen reading test was shown as higher than that of paper reading test that implied the emergence of an effect on the learner performance due to the reading mode shift. it favoured paper reading test mode as compared to the screen test mode. the logit scale showed profound implications of the computed probabilities favouring the learner performance in inferential comprehension on paper reading test. figure 2 illustrates the standard deviation demonstrating the difference between paper and screen reading test. figure 4 shows that in terms of higher performance, paper reading test had 70.66% learners whereas screen reading test had 29.33% learners. this indicated that the learner performance was higher in paper reading mode. moreover, this supported h1-alternative while h1-null was rejected. subsequently, the learner percentage was determined based on their performance in higher order thinking skills individually. figure 5 shows that the learners performed better in paper reading test (i.e., blue columns) than screen reading test (i.e., yellow). it also shows that the performance difference is larger in creating skill than other skills. this confirms h2-alternative while h2-null is rejected. note. screen reading test= -ve; paper reading test= +ve fig. 2 standard deviation of the learner performance in paper and screen modes figure 3 shows the range from -3 to +3 representing the ability of the learners. on the scale, the negative values represent screen reading test while positive values refer to paper reading test. further, positive values show higher performance whereas negative values symbolize screen lower performance. the scale shows that the performance of 144 learners, at zero scale, did not significantly deviate in paper and screen reading tests (sd = 0.500 0.498). meanwhile, 200 learners performed better in paper reading test as compared to 82 learners in screen reading test. figure 2 shows a larger variation (sd > 2) in the number of the learner performance in paper reading test and screen reading test, favouring paper reading mode. figure 3 illustrates the number of the learners performing in both modes. as shown below, 73.75% learners performed higher in paper reading test whereas 26.25% learners performed higher in screen reading test. this indicated the learner performance percentage was higher in paper reading test than screen reading test. fig. 3 the learner performance percentage in paper and screen reading test fig. 4 the percentage of the learners with fluctuated performance due to mode shift fig. 5 the learners performance in analyzing, evaluating and creating skills in paper and screen reading tests musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 91 a significant difference between the learner performance in creating skill while reading via paper and screen modes, t (198) = 3.38, p = 0.02 (p < .05). comparing the t-test results shows that the significance value (p) of the difference in the learner performance via paper and screen reading modes in creating skill is greater than those of analyzing and evaluating skills. this provides an additional support to the descriptive findings on hypothesis ii. iv. discussion the investigation of the effect of the reading mode shift on reading comprehension performance of the learners yielded significant findings. specifically, the examination of the learners’ performance in the paper and screen reading tests indicated that the learners performed better in paper reading test than screen reading test. this implies that esl that most esl learners in pakistan, even at the post-covid stage, tend to comprehend texts better via paper mode than screen mode. several factors may be functioning behind this finding, for instance, it could be the learners’ lack of digital literacy and experience with using educational technology. the findings align with mangen et al. (2013) who found that print-reading cohort significantly outperformed screen-reading cohort. further, in digital learning and cognitive research, a few researchers (chen et al., 2014; santos et al., 2019, dolenc et al., 2015) found that screen scrolling has the potential of hindering the learner’s reading flow. it implies that caution is required in mobilizing digital reading, in different contexts, because the success rate of the mode shift may depend on contextual traits, educational culture and several other factors such as digital literacy level. it also warrants further research on whether digital presentation of texts assists or impedes cognitive mapping among reader/learner (mangen et al., 2013). brown (2023) also argued that text scrolling increases the cognitive load on the reader’s mind. however, the effects may also relate with the in inferential statistical analysis, a pairedsample t-test was conducted to determine the difference in the parallel score gain in overall inferential reading using the paper and screen modes. table 2 presents the results: table 2. t-test mean scores and standard deviation in inferential reading comprehension inferential reading had three indicators namely analyzing, evaluating and creating skills therefore, the possible performance difference in each indicator was determined conducting three paired-sample t-tests. table 3 presents the results of the t-test conducted to determine the learner performance difference in analyzing skill using paper and screen modes: table 3. t-test mean scores and standard deviation in analyzing skill table 3 demonstrates that, in analyzing skill, the learners obtained a higher mean score in paper reading mode (x = 20.19, sd = 2.00) than screen reading mode (x = 17.25, sd = 2.21). this implies that there was a significant difference between analyzing skill of the learners while inferentially comprehending the text through paper and screen modes, t (198) = 3.38, p = 0.02 (p < .05). table 4. t-test mean scores and standard deviation in evaluating skill in evaluating skill also, the learner performance demonstrated a significant difference in the mean score of the paper mode (x = 20.19, sd = 2.00) and screen mode (x= 17.25, sd = 2.21), favouring the paper reading mode, t (198) = 3.38, p = 0.02 (p < .05). table 5 shows that in creating skill, the learners obtained a higher mean score in paper reading mode (x = 20.19, sd = 2.00) than screen reading mode (x= 17.25, sd = 2.21). this indicates table 5. t-test mean score and standard deviation in creating skill musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 92 circumstances in which the readers are required to choose between the text presentation mode. for instance, in the covid-19 times, screen reading was mostly the only option available to teachers and learners in order to avoid possible contamination due to reading involving tactile sources. such restrictive circumstances pose related challenges such as the reduced learner performance, especially in the contexts with limited digital instructional technology and competence. such socio-academic conditions need to be cautiously considered. in fact, the findings under discussion may plausibly be explained in terms of limited exposure of pakistani esl learners to digital reading. some previous investigations also found divergent outcomes indicating that the mode of reading does not significantly affect the precepts of inferential comprehension. for instance, ocal et al. (2022) found that there was no significant difference in the learners’ inferential comprehension while reading through paper and screen. in fact, wolf (2022) argues that substantial benefits are linked with screen reading, such as multitasking, heightened information retention, attention locking and immersive cognitive engagement. he further asserts that screen reading is specifically beneficial in skimming activities. the current findings also resonate with jones et al. (2005) found that print reading assists comprehension and recall in the readers engaged with printed materials as compared to those reading from screens. a potential explanation for this divergence is the cognitive overload and eye strain on screens. the absence of digital distractions and the eye strain, seems to allow learners to effectively focus on textual content, leading to better recall. furthermore, the tactile and spatial aspects of paper reading, including page turning and text palpability, can plausibly contribute to a more organized cognitive mapping. however, the second part of the same study found that longer memory is associated with screen reading. the researchers stated that was no readily available explanation of this result, which warrants further investigation on paper versus screen reading effects on comprehension. it is also crucial to note the studies such as wilson and williams (2018) that report the effect of gaze-assisted autopager, which furnishes ‘change blindness’ on digital screen due to its fade effect technique that does not require scrolling for page turnovers. this underscores the notion that a range of factors related to scrolling overload and lack of technological familiarity may be overcome by introducing automatic pagers thereby reducing the cognitive overload factor to a minimum. however, it seems that in developing contexts with limited educational facilities, the implications of reading mode change could be particularly significant, favouring paper reading. many learners in these regions have limited access to digital devices and are thus more accustomed to paper learning. consequently, the inherent advantages of paper reading, such as reduced cognitive load and improved information processing, may be even more pronounced in such contexts. this can be a possible explanation of the findings of the current study in the developing context of pakistan though the growing prevalence of digital reading requires the reader adaptability to reading modes. the t-test findings regarding the indictors of inferential reading comprehension (i.e., analyzing, evaluating & creating skills) supported the undertaken hypotheses. there was found a consistent difference in performance not only in the overall inferential comprehension via paper and screen modes but also in these three indicators. the findings also revealed that the performance difference had a greater significance value in creating skill than analyzing and evaluating skills, demonstrating a larger effect of transitioning from paper to screen mode. moreover, it favoured paper reading mode for these esl learners. it may be explained in terms of the requirement of expending more effort in understanding and managing the cognitive load in creative reading and writing activities than those of analytical and evaluative comprehension. a mode shift, that was also incurred in an emergency situation without much practice during covid-19 pandemic, seems to have affected the learner performance. the larger effect also shows the possible involvement of textual interpretation and recording the answers via writing in paper mode and typing in screen mode as compared to ticking and crossing in mcqs, as was the case in the analytical and evaluative reading tests. shaw and weir (2007) argue that testtaking mode, particularly in writing that is usually a part of reading tests, may affect the test-takers’ performance based on their digital literacy level. keyboard literacy in computer-based tests may behave as a challenge to the learners in a context with low digital technology exposure and use (zhi musharraf aziz / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 93 & huang, 2021). this may have been one of the reasons for the larger effect seen in the form of higher p-value in creating test as compared to that of analyzing and evaluating skills tests. v. conclusion the current findings highlight the advantages of paper reading within the constraints of a specific context in which the learners generally have low digital competence because of the developing conditions of education and social upgradation. thus, it hints at the complex interplay of cognitive processes, reading mode shift, and contextual factors. the findings underscore the superiority of the paper reading to screen reading within a controlled setting. these insights contribute to the ongoing discourse surrounding the multidimensional relationship between reading mode and comprehension. the study also emphasizes the necessity for a nuanced examination of cognitive, psychological, and technological dimensions. furthermore, the differential exposure of learners in developing countries to screens due to limited resources amplifies the potential impact of reading mode on comprehension outcomes. further exploration into the intricate interplay of reading mode, content type, individual preferences, and cognitive processes will be invaluable in understanding how learners engage 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(2021). investigating the authenticity of computer-and paper-based esl writing tests. assessing writing, 50, 100548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2021.100548 yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 160 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 9, 2024 final revision: june 10, 2024 accepted: june 15, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 the purpose of this study was to analyse gendered speech standards and patterns in spanish, considering lexical and grammatical features. the following methods were used in the study: deductive, content analysis, and structural. furthermore, the lexical materials of researchers who have addressed the issue of gender stereotypes in speech were considered. the results of the study showed that in spanish, gender stereotypes can transmit and reinforce inequalities between men and women through the use of certain words, phrases, word combinations, and constructions. this is due to the way language is used and understood in society. linguistic gender stereotypes in spanish develop in the grammatical, lexical, and semantic fields, considering speech customs that can both strengthen and weaken the role of the individual. the content analysis revealed that genderneutral templates are beginning to be actively used in the modern spanish environment, leading to the inclusiveness of the language. with the global development of attitudes towards gender roles, speech stereotypes are changing, most notably in statements, addresses and forms of politeness. however, to effectively overcome linguistic inequality in speech, it is necessary to comprehensively implement the ideology of inclusiveness and gender culture in the fields of education, society, and government, using practical mechanisms that consider race, class, culture, and the role of each person in society. keywords gender-neutral templates, masculine and feminine forms, inequality, identity, inclusive language forms, inequality, identity, inclusive language e-mail: yuliia.andr@ukr.net article linguistic representation of gender stereotypes in spanish yuliia andriychenko1, nataliia popova2, nataliia chorna3, olena bratel4 1-4taras shevchenko national university of kyiv, kyiv, ukraine under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.160-171.2024 i. introduction the language used daily is the most widespread and least identified means of conveying a vision of a world in which the principle of social marginality is actively operating. gender stereotypes in linguistics reflect ideas about a person’s gender or identity that are embodied in the language system, vocabularies, expressions, habits, and style features. linguistics studies how language functions and how it expresses thoughts, feelings, and attitudes towards other people, and this has a profound impact on the perception of gender roles and identity in society (asadchykh et al., 2020). within the framework of a “philosophical grammar,” communication should find a place not for the canons of conversation but rather for the rules of understanding everyday communication. it is the assumption of language as a field for logical analysis that gives rise to an important theory of meaning in the light of logical and formal criteria that meet the needs, requirements, and goals of discourse. therefore, first of all, it is an activity that interacts with a variety of theoretical and practical existential components of human life. from this standpoint, the meaning of language expresses the inclusion of a linguistic phenomenon in a wide and diverse anthropological and socio-cultural context. gender is created by society at the moment when a biological property is transformed into a product of human activity and incorporated into the sex-gender structure of processes, adaptations, behaviours, and relationships based on which the language aspect is organised. thus, the locus of this study focuses on analysing how gender stereotypes manifest in the spanish language. it looks into how lexical and grammatical elements affect how gender roles and identities are communicated, emphasising how language can both reflect and yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 161 perpetuate social norms and injustices. tashchenko and kabiri (2020), kostina et al. (2022), in their works, consider linguistic gender stereotypes and their impact on the perception of a social concept. however, the authors do not fully cover the specific features of their division and use in a communication act. there is no comprehensive analysis of how these stereotypes are manifested in different contexts and situations. communication today is the main process where violence, discrimination, and hatred are practiced. it is one of the key symbolic systems for the construction of individual and collective subjectivity and, above all, gender identity, as language not only reflects values but also helps to define them by organising the mind. the context and discourse of language are expanded and interpreted, changing the linguistic phenomenon and creating new spaces in communication practice that fuel stereotypes and gender inequalities in society. the term “gender” in linguistic communication, and especially in everyday use, has lost its inherent bipolarity, linking it to social characteristics. language is not limited to the expression of thoughts; it also conditions, restores, and, at the same time, imposes a vision of the world that contains a certain scale of values. in turn, gender discrimination is widespread and is expressed through patterns and stereotypes, reinforced by the use of biassed language, which is especially prevalent in modern society on the internet (balalaieva, 2022). discriminatory attitudes, which often lead to acts of physical and psychological violence, are motivated not only by gender but also by factors such as ethnicity, weight, age, and socioeconomic status. language means words, images, grammar, semantics, literal meanings, and social connotations, i.e., all the imaginary things that give communication its shape and make the world conceivable. gordiienkomytrofanova and kobzieva (2019), andriychenko (2015) cover the issues of gender stereotypes and role differences, considering the specific features of psycholinguistics of women and men. although these studies do not address the cultural and value aspects of their use in everyday conversation. they also do not explore how these stereotypes reflect and shape societal norms and attitudes towards gender roles. communication and language can, in fact, be key tools not only for social inclusion but also for achieving gender equality. the connection between words and reality is remarkably close. therefore, words manage to build a narrative that influences the imaginary, on the one hand, and the recognition of rights, on the other hand. communicating properly from a gender perspective means helping to overcome stereotypes and discrimination. it is for this reason that cultural work aimed at changing the way language is used is a fundamental element in challenging gender stereotypes. speech patterns act as tools for defining one’s own identity and the identity of others, using simplification, reduction, or denial of differences to maintain a pre-established symbolic and social order (romaniuk & terán, 2022). by reaching a subordinate group, stereotypes help perpetuate hegemony, as they act not by force but by persuasion. they can also lead to transformations, being an instrument of change in the world. since the gender phenomenon operates in aspects of language, its elements can be subject to acts of linguistic subversion. words shape opinions and influence the imagination, strengthening feelings of trust, openness, and solidarity, or fueling prejudice and stereotypes. that is why society, regardless of gender identity, is constantly introducing discriminatory mechanisms of language, where no one can consider themselves protected from the false ideas they have absorbed. chornodon et al. (2021), bronzino and kurmeleva (2017) analyse the conceptual framework and transformation of gender identity in the context of postmodernism. however, the researchers did not consider ways to address stereotypes, considering the gender-neutral template structure. they do not provide practical solutions or recommendations for promoting more inclusive language practices. this study adds a number of fresh perspectives to our knowledge of gender stereotypes in spanish. in contrast to earlier studies, it looks at the various linguistic levels at which gender stereotypes appear, including lexical, grammatical, semantic, and in speech conventions. the research offers a comprehensive viewpoint on the intricate relationships that exist between linguistic phrases and idioms and the maintenance of gender roles and inequality in spanish-speaking societies. furthermore, by methodically examining the growing usage of gender-neutral speech patterns in contemporary spanish as a way to advance inclusivity and dispel preconceptions, the study yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 162 treads new ground. it utilises an intersectional perspective to highlight the ways in which gender interacts with other societal forces by taking into account elements such as race, class, culture, identity, and social conventions. the purpose of the study is to examine gender stereotypes in spanish in the context of lexical and grammatical features. in this regard, the researchers identified two key objectives of their analysis. first of all, they aimed to methodically look at the different ways that gender stereotypes affect the way that spanish is actually used across a range of linguistic parameters. this involved examining the ways in which spanish speakers’ word choices, sentence structures, pronunciation patterns, and general communicative norms are influenced by stereotyped ideas about gender roles and identities. secondly, the researchers wanted to identify the key components of language use that advance gender equality and provide language users with the necessary information to actively challenge discriminatory communication practices and stereotyping. through the identification of these essential elements of a linguistic strategy, the research aims to support educational programmes and social advocacy campaigns that challenge gender-based prejudices embedded in spanish speech patterns. ii. methods the materials for this study were based on various scientific research and papers, including lexical, grammatical, and semantic data, which were analysed in terms of linguistics, grammar, vocabulary, vocabulary use, semantic fields, and other linguistic features that reflect gender stereotypes. studies by solbes-canales et al. (2020), qiao et al. (2021), casado et al. (2021) in sociolinguistics, cultural studies, and other relevant disciplines were useful in providing theoretical context. the combination of different sources and types of materials helped to gain a more profound and comprehensive understanding of how gender stereotypes are reflected and influenced in the spanish language. the methodological basis of this study was formed by the following research methods: deductive, content analysis, and structural. the deductive method at the stage of formulating hypotheses about gender stereotypes helped to confirm the pattern that influences the use of certain lexical items in relation to men and women. it helped to identify particular variables that are used in different spanish contexts. its elements have led to the identification of certain lexical, grammatical, and semantic language features used in society. this method helped to focus on particular aspects of gender inequality, considering the linguistic and philological components of the spanish language. it provided an opportunity to substantiate the processes of combating prejudice leading to gender equality and identity. the content analysis method at the stage of data collection helped to analyse lexical items to study the portrayal of gender stereotypes. it helped to identify which linguistic stereotypes are most common and how they change over time, given an objective way to quantify the content of communication. the data collection considered the speech units of 23 case studies that reveal the characteristics of the use of lexical standards in communication. the sample of textual data for the analysis included specifically thematic articles and books that address the topic of gender patterns and identities. it led to the development of a code to evaluate and categorise gender stereotypes encountered in the texts. the coding included distinct categories of types of linguistic standards: gender roles, expressions and slang, idioms and phrases, and sentence members referring to men and women. the content analysis method helped to quantify and qualitatively assess how gender stereotypes affect communication and role perceptions in spanish-speaking culture. the structural method at the stage of identifying gender elements in the spanish language system helped to consider the relation of masculine and feminine to other units in the language structure. it helped understand the gender markers that are embodied in spanish in grammatical gender, pronouns, forms of address, and professional terms. its elements led to the identification of characteristics that interact with each other, influencing the choice of lexical items. this method made it possible to consider the impact of genderneutral speech patterns on equality, identity, and tolerance, considering the biological mechanisms of stereotypes about women and men. it helped to see the built-in structural mechanisms of the spanish language and identify what implications this can have for social impact, leading to practical actions to develop educational, cultural, and value yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 163 components in the context of social thinking and the functioning of government. iii. results the historical cultural settings and attitudes that have influenced hispanic civilisations throughout millennia are the source of numerous linguistic gender stereotypes that are pervasive in the spanish language. gender norms and hierarchies have been profoundly impacted by spain’s imperial past and the colonisation of vast regions of the americas that followed. this influence is felt throughout the spanish-speaking globe. during the colonial era, the strict gender norms enforced by the roman catholic church and customs originating in mediaeval iberia contributed to the development of the cultural ideology of hispanic patriarchy, which was centred on concepts of female servitude and domesticity. through the educational efforts of conquistadors and missionaries disseminating hispanic principles to indigenous tribes, this patriarchal system became institutionalised and intricately entwined with spanish language practices. language constructs that rooted femininity in ideas of delicacy, subservience, and limitation to domestic domains and grounded masculinity in moral and physical power became institutionalised and widely accepted (castaño, 2023). even though post-colonial nation-building in latin america questioned some aspects of hispanic patriarchy, it frequently cemented language anachronisms related to paternal authority and masculinist citizenship into national discourses. differential formal and informal address practices such as “señor/señora” have persisted, reflecting cultural sentiments rooted in hierarchical gender norms. even progressive intellectuals who criticised rigid gender norms oftentimes reinforced language prejudices, impeding the further indoctrination of nondiscriminatory speech patterns. meanwhile, female linguistic changes were banned in spain until the 1970s due to the long-lasting influence of general franco’s ultraconservative national catholicism government. under franco, stringent gender scripts about motherhood and subjection to male-dominated spanish culture were ingrained in domestic regulations and educational policy, forcing women to conform to these roles. even after spain’s democratic transition, these language remnants persisted in the country’s mainstream society (sánchez-moreno, 2024). language plays a key role in shaping cultural and social attitudes, and inclusivity is a powerful tool for promoting gender equality and combating prejudice. the difference in the use of expressions between men and women and the binary opposition reflect socio-cultural and patriarchal phenomena of linguistic inequality. it is the illocutionary speech act with performative value that confirms, produces, and reproduces the social construction of gender. going beyond “gender dualism” is based on the persistence of bipolarity, which creates a certain form of understanding of the world. given that gender is a “system of constraints” that operates with a variable number of categories, it helps to analyse the process of hierarchisation of forms in the face of the “bipolarity of the paradigm.” to integrate gender into the structure of language and culture, it is important to consider that this concept is not a simple euphemism for “sex,” as it forms idiomatic expressions, creating linguistic connotations and stigmas. speech norms and behaviour affect the category of socialisation of the entire nation, as they not only provide information about certain events and changes but also form role models, attitudes, and values that subtly affect the formation of individuals. linguistic gender stereotypes in spanish can be viewed in several ways. grammatical stereotypes involve the unique ways in which men and women are expressed through grammatical forms, which can vary depending on gender (casado et al., 2021). lexical stereotypes pertain to speech units that carry different connotations based on gender, including words that describe character traits and characteristics of men and women. semantic stereotypes involve the use of specific words or expressions that reinforce societal gender roles. lastly, speech customs can strengthen the role of gender in society, including specific forms of greeting and phrases that emphasise gender differences. table 1 presents representative examples of how gender stereotypes in grammar appear in various spanish speech segments. adjectives, pronouns, participles, and nouns make up its four classifications. lexical gender patterns in spanish are reflected in words and expressions that are associated with traditional roles and stereotypes. this can affect how the roles of men and women are perceived and described. a relevant example is professional vocabulary, where, e.g., the word “professor” yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 164 is used for a male teacher and “profesora” for a female teacher, as well as “secretary,” which can mean a male secretary, but this profession is most often associated with women, creating a speech stereotype (martinez-marin & martinez, 2019). in turn, some adjectives that describe character traits or behaviour may have different meanings or connotations depending on the gender to which they refer. for example, “mandon” (bossy) can have a negative meaning when used for a woman, even if it is used neutrally in everyday conversation (stetie & zunino, 2022). it is also worth paying attention to words that describe relationships between people and may contain gender stereotypes, where the word “esposa” (wife) corresponds to the traditional definition of the female role, while “marido” (husband) reflects the male role (ondono-soler & forcada, 2022). moreover, there are specific words and expressions used to describe men or women. an example is the word “dama” (lady), which is often used to refer to women with a certain social status (lacalle & gomez, 2016). therefore, considering the specific features of using the spanish language in everyday life, it is worth remembering that the act of communication is a dynamic tool that is constantly evolving. semantic gender stereotypes are manifested through the meanings of words, idioms, and expressions used in certain contexts. they reflect the influence of speech patterns on the perception of the world. thus, the names of statuses or roles in society can be used within the assumptions under study. for example, the word “jefe” (boss, chief) is often used in the masculine gender, conveying the stereotype that men usually hold leadership positions (yeaton et al., 2023). among these, it is worth highlighting expressions that describe emotional states, where the expression “ser el hombre de la casa” (to be the man of the house) conveys the idea that the man is the main bearer of responsibility in the family (santos et al., 2022). these semantic stereotypes are important in the study of linguistic standards of communication, as they affect the perception of gender roles in one way or another and can form elements of linguistic discrimination based on gender. however, it is important to remember that as society progresses and attitudes towards gender roles change, the language adapts to modern patterns of society, and therefore some stereotypes may not be used in the spoken dialect over time. table 2 illustrates how entrenched gender stereotypes influence various aspects of customary speech patterns and conversational norms in spanish. these examples demonstrate how deeply ingrained gender stereotypes are woven into commonly used speech customs and practices in the spanish language and culture. overcoming such biases requires a conscious re-examination of these linguistic habits. at the same time, table 1. examples of grammatical gender stereotypes in spanish category example nouns “chico” (boy) is masculine and “chica” (girl) is feminine (fajula et al., 2021), which can lead to stereotypical associations with certain roles. however, nouns related to professions exist and are used in both masculine and feminine forms: “doctor” and “enfermera” (nurse) (gonzalez-martin et al., 2023). adjectives “fuerte” (strong) associated with stereotype of male physical strength, though usable for both genders. “delicada” (gentle) more often associated with femininity but can have different connotations across genders (lozano, 2020). pronouns “nosotros” (we, masculine or mixed) and “nosotras” (we, feminine) where masculine form is default, reflecting androcentrism (leon & aizpurua, 2023). facing debates around gender equality, trans and non-binary identities. participles first person singular “cansado” (tired) differs by gender: “estoy cansado” (masculine) vs “estoy cansada” (feminine) (castillo-mayen & montes-berges, 2014). source: compiled by the authors. table 2. gender stereotypes in spanish speech customs custom example vocative expressions “señor” for men, “señora” or “señorita” for women based on status (ogneva, 2023). colloquial expressions “hacerse el hombre” implies demonstrating traditional masculine traits like strength, endurance (rogers & gries, 2022). forms of politeness “tú” (informal) vs “usted” (formal) can emphasize gender stereotypes about women and men. source: compiled by the authors. yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 165 table 3. gender-neutral speech patterns in spanish template definition use of “e” instead of “o” or “a” spanish traditionally uses the ending “o” for masculine and “a” for feminine. however, the use of “e” as a gender-neutral variant is beginning to appear in modern communication dialogues. for example, “todos” (all men) or “todas” (all women) can change to “todes” (all people, regardless of gender) (acquaviva, 2020). dual gender it is a pattern that includes the use of both genders when referring to a group of people, such as “amigos y amigas” instead of just “amigos” to refer to a group of friends regardless of gender (sandoval et al., 2010). use of professional titles that do not have a gendered meaning instead of using professional titles that have separate forms for males and females (such as “profesor/profesora”), the term “docente” (teacher) can be used, which does not have an explicit gender connotation (perez-cortes, 2022). use of gender-neutral pronouns for example, the use of “elle” instead of “el” (he) or “ella” (she) as a gender-neutral pronoun (navarrete et al., 2006). source: compiled by the authors. table 4. biological differences in gender stereotypes in spanish biological differences essence physical masculine strength is often reflected in language through expressions or idioms such as “fuerte como un toro” (strong as an ox), and female beauty is often emphasised through the phrase “bella como una rosa” (beautiful as a rose) (hur et al., 2020). emotional in general stereotypes reflected in language, women are often considered more emotional and men more rational. for example, the phrase “llorar como una magdalena” (cry like magdalena) reflects the stereotype that women find it easier to express their emotions (gollan et al., 2002). role-based women are often associated with the household and childcare, while men are associated with earning money. these roles are reflected in the language through expressions such as “trabaja como un hombre” (works like a man) or “madre coraje” (mother who fulfils the roles of both parents) (degani, 2007). physiological the spanish language contains stereotypes related to the physiological aspects of men and women. for example, a man who has many partners can be called a “donjuan” (social lion), while a woman is called a “mujer facil” (easy woman), reflecting double standards in their behaviour (popova, 2018). source: compiled by the authors. language is constantly evolving, and current trends increasingly point to the need to use neutral forms of expression to promote gender equality. this process is manifested in the use of parts of speech that do not distinguish between genders, as well as in novel approaches to creating a more equal information and communication space. in general, this way of interacting can have a positive impact on society’s attitudes towards roles and identity. contemporary aspects of linguistics and philology focus on the study of these stereotypes and the development of conscious language policies that contribute to the creation of more equal and diverse gender representations in society. against the backdrop of global changes in gender equality and inclusiveness, some gender-neutral patterns are being actively introduced in the spanish linguistic environment (table 3). it is important to remember that genderneutral patterns are subject to debate and criticism because spanish has a deeply rooted linguistic system. although such standards are not widely accepted in speech communities, especially in traditional or conservative environments, they do reflect gradual changes in social attitudes towards gender and language in general. furthermore, gender stereotypes in the spanish language and culture may also reflect general views on biological differences between the sexes (table 4). all these gender stereotypes in spanish represent ideas that are prevalent in society, and while some of them have a biological basis, they often exaggerate or simplify reality and can lead to gender inequality and discrimination. that is why it is necessary not only to avoid the use of such expressions but also to resolutely oppose offensive and discriminatory language that threatens spiritual and psychological disturbance and harm, insult, slander, contempt, and ridicule. gender language requires the use of interdisciplinary theories and methods to describe, explain, and study the linguistic idea in spanish in a comprehensive, fair, and objective way. in its turn, gender culture raises questions about changing social stereotypes, yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 166 role expectations, and value assessments of men and women, actively integrating into international communication specifics. the biological phenomenon is an objective fact and should not be ignored or denied, as language and gender are intricately linked, embodying the ideology of society and its perceptions of men and women. however, gender always functions in conjunction with other mechanisms, such as class, race, and culture, forming elements of domination and social power. to eliminate gender inequality and build a more inclusive, pluralistic, open, and harmonious society, it is not enough to simply create new words. the basis of gender discrimination should be the mechanism of power and thinking. in the new era of pluralistic social and cultural values, it is necessary to improve the properly oriented working mechanism of public opinion, strengthen the publicity and education of language values between men and women, and adopt various linguistic forms to promote modern language and culture (piazza et al., 2022). improving the literacy of the entire nation through various measures, promoting the construction of an advanced gender culture, and creating a social environment favourable to gender equality in language should underlie linguistic and philological knowledge. to recreate new didactic tools in contemporary discourse that integrate the gender problem in all its complexity, it is first necessary to introduce cultural references to show the artificiality of gender dualism. gender linguistics continues to evolve, constantly reflecting on discrimination and differences in communication acts. therefore, in the field of linguistics, it is worth considering the emphasis on training and education on gender equality in families, schools, communities, government agencies, and enterprises. this should be fully reflected in the content of teaching, the culture of the university community, social activities, and social practice. curriculum that clearly teaches inclusive language concepts and gender-neutral linguistic constructions across topic areas must be implemented for educational institutions such as schools and universities. establishing style guidelines for all institutional communications that use gender-neutral language and educating teachers on how to avoid using gendered language in lessons and materials are also part of the process. it is advised that media companies create internal handbooks that include standards for non-sexist language usage in advertising, entertainment programmes, and news reporting. when it comes to promoting inclusive speech across platforms, public broadcasters should set the standard. gender-neutral language in all official papers, forms, and communications must be required by standardised policies issued by government organisations and public sector entities. legal rules ought to be revised to incorporate gender-inclusive language, and laws that do not discriminate should take language discrimination based on gender identification into consideration. only when the concept of gender equality in spanish is concrete, life-oriented, and multidimensional can the practical effect of gender equality be effectively improved throughout society. thus, having analysed spanish expressions and units in the context of gender specific features, it was found that speech stereotypes reveal the multifaceted nature of the gender structure, which helps to reveal the diversity of socio-cultural discourses in the ways of expressing gender roles. regardless, they can represent certain expectations and norms of behaviour for women and men, influencing the individual and the perception of society as a whole. such stereotypes can be rooted in vocabulary, grammar, expressions, and customs that can limit the freedom and equality of gender identities. on the other hand, gender linguistics in spanish is a tool for combating stereotypes and building a more inclusive language environment. the introduction of gender-neutral terms, rules, and style guidelines helps to create a more equal language culture that embodies the diversity and complexity of communication reality. furthermore, the analysis of the materials helped to highlight that the study of gender in the context of the spanish language made it possible to reveal various linguistic categories and forms, from grammatical endings, nouns, and adjectives to the use of certain words and phrases to describe men and women. in addition, the spanish language is beginning to actively use gender-neutral terms, reflecting social changes and the development of society. yet, the binary linguistic system often ignores and underrepresents a wide range of gender identities, reinforcing even more stereotypes and patterns, where attention should be paid to improving educational, value, and practical aspects of gender power and thinking. yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 167 iv. discussion the study’s findings demonstrate the widespread impact of gender stereotypes in the spanish language and are in line with the ideas covered in the introduction. the results show that traditional ideas of masculinity and femininity are reinforced by grammar, which is a major factor in the maintenance of gender stereotypes. for example, the concept of how language can transmit and sustain social disparities is relevant here because gender-specific nouns and adjectives frequently link specific traits and roles to men or women. furthermore, the findings, which emphasise the androcentric usage of pronouns, support the claim that language has the power to marginalise identities that are not male. the study’s conclusions about the development of genderneutral language forms similarly mirror changing perspectives on gender inclusivity, supporting the notion that language may be a dynamic and transformative force in promoting gender equality. by offering a thorough analysis of spanish grammatical and lexical elements and how they support traditional gender roles, this study closes the gaps left by earlier research. furthermore, by emphasising the usefulness of gender-neutral language patterns in contemporary spanish communication, this study broadens the conversation on gender roles. analyses the current trends towards inclusivity and provides fresh perspectives on how language reform might effectively combat and lessen linguistic discrimination. by filling up important gaps in the body of literature, this study offers a more sophisticated understanding of the complex interaction between language and gender stereotypes in spanish. as understandings of gender evolve, language also changes and adapts to better reflect linguistic diversity. the geographical environment and cultural factors are the main reasons for the diversity and richness of the spanish language. this difference is reflected in the pronunciation of words, the choice of wording, and the tone of the communication act. there is no denying the difference in language use caused by gender, but it should never be exaggerated, as different communication habits among people depend not only on gender but are also closely related to other factors such as race, culture, education, and personal development environment. for instance, gygax et al. (2019) argue that human society is complex, and when studying the relationship between language and gender, it is necessary to consider a range of factors that may cause differences in the use of lexical items. language contains codes that reflect cultural views of gender. they are manifested in the form of gender markers in grammar, specific terms, as well as stereotypes and expectations that are embedded in linguistic structures and conventions. however, language as a means of communication not only reflects gender differences but also actively influences the perception of gender. the gender stereotypes and expectations that are rooted in them can invisibly shape the way people think and relate to gender. however, modern changes in language make it possible to evoke a more equal and diverse perception of gender. accordingly, the analysis of the hypotheses emphasises that the perception of gender stereotypes in the context of philology and linguistics depends on many educational, cultural, political, and personal aspects that intertwine with each other depending on the language values and habits of society. saifnazarov et al. (2021) believe that the component of sociolinguistics that examines the speech structures and practices of social groups plays an important role in the formation of gender identity. after all, through the choice of words, grammatical forms, and style of speech, one can correctly express one’s gender identity and recognise its structural elements. furthermore, an important mechanism for studying this phenomenon is the analysis of gender stereotypes reflected in everyday discourse. they can be embedded in speech conventions and customs, as well as in the grammatical structures of individual dialects, influencing ideas of “masculinity” and “femininity” and reproducing traditional gender roles (qiao et al., 2021). the sociolinguistic study of this category also includes the analysis of gender differences in language behaviour and use, which can be manifested in the style of communication itself. it points out that women tend to be more cooperative and use softer formulas to express empathy and support more often. men, on the other hand, tend to have a more aggressive style of communication, with frequent use of direct statements and speech acts. the next important aspect is the choice of vocabulary and expressions. speech behaviour often uses words and expressions that reflect social roles and identities. gender differences can be manifested in the use of certain slang or jargon that reflects the difference in social yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 168 roles and experiences between the sexes. the research data emphasises that certain characteristics of female and male identity are distinguished by certain structural elements, dialects, customs, and stereotypes that function in the modern gender linguistic space. lomotey and chachu (2020) believe that the system of gender stereotypes is largely socially and culturally determined. language, based by its nature on the collective and structural representation of society, spontaneously emphasises the masculine element in linguistic terms, which usually puts men before women. the fault for this bias lies not with the language or the individual, but with the social organism from which the interpretation model originates. action on language reform should come second to socio-cultural or economic mechanisms. this is not to say that they are hypotheses that cannot be considered; however, the impact that language can have on the mind is minor compared to what the social and cultural environment can cause. language can influence speakers, but it is primarily a cultural product of humanity and therefore must follow the direction set by society. grammatically codified gender can certainly be a source of speaker bias, but gender components arise because of cognitive activation that spontaneously occurs in an individual through the association of this element with the representational system of their language. it should be emphasised that this activation is an automatic, unconscious, and instantaneous process that occurs during a conversation. without the influence of grammar, a person’s prior knowledge forms the presuppositions, and often these cognitive biases also change depending on the language used. when comparing the data, it is noted that the specific features and trends of gender stereotypes are intertwined with personalised and social characteristics that develop in the grammatical context. solbes-canales et al. (2020) studied how much traditional gender role connections and prejudices have been ingrained in spanish children between the ages of 4 and 9. with 149 participants from public schools, they found that boys were more likely to attach to males’ qualities that are normally associated with men. on the other hand, girls were more likely than boys to associate feminine traits with women, such as kindness and patience. kids also showed signs of occupational stereotyping, associating female jobs like nursing with women and male-dominated professions like law enforcement with men. however, as children grew older, the authors noticed a considerable strengthening of gender prejudice. notably, younger children displayed these gendered expectations as part of acquiring social knowledge. this demonstrates how, in contrast to feminine roles, inflexible masculine gender norms can be unintentionally reinforced by educational settings and developmental variables, which may cause them to become more thoroughly internalised. according to samuel et al. (2019), it seems clear that gender is primarily a nominal classification system where linguistic segmentation can substantially affect the way people perceive certain things. therefore, an attempt is made to promote the evolution of discourses in an inclusive sense, which cannot be separated from the necessary social work. the evolution of a language cannot happen without a change in the vision inherent in society. the risk in the first case is to get a tool that is nothing more than a linguistic “fetish” rejected by the majority. in the latter case, there is a danger of losing the means by which this change can be expressed to create a more inclusive society. ways to improve the usability of a particular discourse should never interfere with the continuous search for the most inclusive communication, nor should they obscure gender identity, given current trends in linguistics and philology. the sociolinguistic level of gender-specific features deals mainly with the thematic areas of relations and social belonging, identities and conflicts, consumption and collective representations in the masculine aspect. these areas, articulated according to interpretive perspectives capable of identifying logical connections, form certain gaps between common communication acts, processes of modernisation at different levels, and the hierarchical dynamics of the sexes. it is probable that the linguistic habit of associating a certain gender with a certain definition in a certain way influences the implicit thinking of society. therefore, changing the way of expressing oneself and introducing new terms should be introduced along with habits and innovations in the educational process of gender awareness. thus, the results of the researchers coincide with the findings of this paper, characterising a certain influence of inclusive discourse on linguistic elements that reproduce attitudes towards women’s and men’s roles in society. yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 169 thus, it was found that language shapes reality and its representation; it is part of a certain culture that transmits gender stereotypes and prejudices. starting from its mastery, beliefs are built and strengthened, attributing to them the qualification of “objectivity,” a common reality. stereotypes of gender components are supported and expressed in the vision of the world, belonging to gender, including character and roles. gender patterns are part of a broader social context in which language is used to maintain, reproduce, and challenge roles and identities. they can appear in language in various forms: they can be built into the structure of language through grammatical categories, through the use of gender-specific terms or expressions, or they can manifest themselves in speech patterns and behaviour, such as word choice, speech style, or even the topics that men and women discuss. such standards reflect the expectations that society has for men and women. however, gendered patterns in language can be challenged and changed through the introduction of new, more inclusive language forms or through the support of practices that reflect the diversity of generic identities. the practical implications of these results are significant for both linguistic education and social policy. the findings highlight how crucial it is to include gender-neutral language instruction in curriculum across a range of academic levels. through promoting awareness of the gender biases present in spanish language and vocabulary, educators can encourage students to engage in more inclusive communication practices. furthermore, linguistic policy changes that attempt to lessen gender bias in official records, the media, and public discourse can benefit from this research. these insights can be used by organisations that promote gender equality to create training programmes that emphasise how language can either challenge or reinforce societal preconceptions. furthermore, the study’s observations on the adoption of genderneutral forms point to a progressive change that can be supported by legislation and lobbying in order to create a more welcoming language environment that values and respects a range of gender identities. all the same, it is important to recognise the limits of the study. while spoken language may display distinct patterns of gender bias and inclusion, spoken language is not fully covered in this analysis, which largely focuses on written language. future studies should investigate regional differences in gender stereotypes within the spanish language and undertake a more comprehensive analysis that incorporates spoken language in order to overcome these constraints. prospective study topics may also involve a comparative analysis of gender biases in various languages to find commonalities and distinctive cultural distinctions. examining how genderneutral language has evolved in response to digital communication platforms may also shed light on the ways in which technology affects linguistic inclusion. researchers might build on the results of this study to better understand and address gender biases in language by broadening the focus and methodology of further investigations. v. conclusions the study revealed several key findings regarding the presence and impact of gender stereotypes in the spanish language. the key result is that gender stereotypes are pervasively present in spanish grammar and vocabulary, which shapes people’s opinions and upholds traditional gender norms. to be more precise, the study showed how gender-specific forms of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and participles reinforce gender preconceptions about masculinity and femininity. for instance, conventional ideas of physical power and emotional sensitivity are reflected in some adjectives and pronouns, respectively, and can influence society’s views of gender. one significant result is the necessity of critically reassessing deeply rooted linguistic prejudices and striving to create more inclusive, gender-neutral communication standards. the research indicates a significant change in the use of gender-neutral speech templates, such as the use of plural forms, job titles, and gender-neutral pronouns. that being said, without corresponding ideological and sociological reforms that profoundly question androcentrism and gender dualism, linguistic modifications at the surface level alone are insufficient. prospective studies ought to give priority to community-based methodologies that gather detailed, ethnographic information on the situated language practices of the hispanic population worldwide. thorough case studies could shed light on the ways in which language experience is shaped by the intersections of gender, race, class, sexuality, and regionality. a more comprehensive understanding would result from interdisciplinary partnerships integrating knowledge from gender yuliia andriychenko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 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(2020). gender stereotypes in translation: stylistic aspect. bulletin of v.n. karazin kharkiv national university. series: foreign philology. methods of teaching foreign languages, 91. https://doi.org/10.26565/2227-8877-2020-91-17 yeaton, j., muelas-gil, m., & scontras, g. (2023). gender-inclusive language as a rational speech act in spanish. proceedings of the linguistic society of america, 8(1), 5529. olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 186 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 28, 2024 final revision: june 18, 2024 accepted: june 20, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 this study explores the linguistic strategies in ben okri’s “the famished road” to construct ecological interdependencies and agency in the novel. employing systemic functional linguistics and ecolinguistic analysis, the study examines how okri’s linguistic strategies elevate the agency of non-human elements, representing them as vibrant and willful participants within their ecosystem. the purpose of this analysis is to understand how language in “the famished road” conveys agency and a symbiotic relationship between humans and non-human elements, thereby addressing broader ecological and environmental concerns. employing an ecolinguistic analysis, the research examines linguistic portrayals that challenge anthropocentric views and emphasize respect for nature. results show that the novel frames nature and non-human entities as vibrant, active participants, influencing ecological consciousness and fostering ethical considerations towards the environment. this study concludes that ben okri’s ‘the famished road’, through its unique linguistic strategies, reflects and advocates for a symbiotic relationship between all life forms, highlighting the potential of literary works to contribute to environmental advocacy and consciousness. this analysis adds depth to our understanding of language’s role in ecological literature and encourages further exploration into how textual practices can influence ecological and ethical perceptions. keywords anthropomorphism, ecolinguistics, ecological literature, environmental sustainability, ‘the famished road’ correspondence e-mail: olarotimiogungbemi@gmail.com article the famished road nature speaks: agency and environment in ben okri’s olarotimi ogungbemi1 1university of texas at san antonio, united states under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.186-195.2024 i. introduction the paper aims to fill a gap in african literary discourse, which has predominantly examined the relationships among humans, non-humans, and the environment—as highlighted by ogunsanwo (1995), cezair-thompson (1996), and de bruijn (2007)—while often neglecting the pivotal role of language in shaping the interconnectedness of human and the non-human world. despite extensive research into the ecological themes within african literature, (see egya 2017; egya 2020; iheka 2018; iheka 2021; ogungbemi 2023), there remains a significant underrepresentation in studies that focus on how language itself constructs these themes and influences ecological consciousness and ethical considerations toward the environment. this oversight forms the primary gap this paper aims to fill. the novel “the famished road” by ben okri offers a reflective investigation of the interconnectedness of human and non-human entities, embodying the essence of african magical realism interwoven with ecological concerns. despite the wealth of thematic analyses on its ecological and philosophical underpinnings, less attention has been given to the methodological use of language in portraying these themes. extant studies like ogunsanwo (1995) and bruijn (2007), largely overlook how linguistic tools in okri’s work contribute to presenting nature as a dynamic participant rather than a passive backdrop in the human-centric narrative. this study, therefore, employs a linguistic analysis to dissect the ways language in “the famished road” empowers nonhuman elements, portraying them as vibrant and agentive beings within their ecosystems. the objectives of this paper are to elucidate how ben okri utilizes linguistic strategies to elevate the agency of non-human elements, fostering a olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 187 narrative that encourages ecological respect and reciprocity between all life forms. by applying an ecolinguistic framework as described by stibbe (2015) and integrating systemic functional linguistics as detailed by halliday and matthiessen (2004), the analysis aims to uncover how okri’s language choices influence reader perceptions and contribute to a broader ecological ethic. this approach highlights the unique contribution of “the famished road” to environmental literature and positions the novel as a critical text for understanding the role of language in shaping our environmental consciousness and ethical engagements with the world. the relationship between indigenous peoples and their ecological knowledge plays a vital role in progressing contemporary ecological and sustainability dialogues. indigenous communities hold a profound grasp of their surroundings, frequently demonstrated through traditions and lessons that highlight living in harmony with the natural world. hall (2015) emphasizes that indigenous worldviews include a rich repository of environmental, ecological, or natural world-based knowledge, which is not merely beneficial but essential for inclusive sustainability conversations. these communities have long embraced the concept of sustainability through their cultural practices, which include preparing for the wellbeing of future generations—a principle that significantly predates modern sustainability ideologies. the work of endres (2012) further supports this by examining how the discourse surrounding traditional ecological knowledge can enhance broader ecological and sustainability contexts, particularly highlighting the need to address environmental injustices. the controversy surrounding yucca mountain illustrates the significance of including indigenous viewpoints, which enhance environmental discussions and facilitate the development of holistic approaches that respect the complex connections indigenous communities have with their environment. the integration of traditional ecological knowledge and practices of indigenous peoples into broader ecological and sustainability discussions is emphasized by scholars like bignall and rigney (2019). they highlight the interconnected and relational nature of knowledge as understood within indigenous epistemologies. according to these scholars, knowledge is not something extracted from the environment or people but rather is shared in a relational manner with all creation, encompassing the cosmos, animals, plants, and the earth. this paradigm shifts away from extractive and exploitative methodologies, proposing instead a holistic and interconnected view of ecology. cajete (2016) supports this perspective, suggesting that research and academic inquiry should be conducted in a manner that is accountable to all relations within the ecosystem. such an approach not only fosters a deeper understanding of environmental issues but also promotes sustainability practices that respect and integrate the complex web of life, embodying indigenous methodologies and ethical understandings that challenge human exceptionalism and emphasize a constructivist and relational view of the natural world. the divergence between indigenous narratives and those that have shaped western imperial civilization reveals profound differences in ecological implications. korten (2006) critiques the foundational narratives of western societies, such as the ‘prosperity story’ that glorifies material acquisition, and the ‘security story’ which prioritizes military buildup to protect established dominations. these stories, which often downplay environmental considerations in favor of economic and security concerns, starkly contrast with ancient stories from diverse cultures that view environmental elements like weather, forests, and other natural resources as vibrant and integral parts of human societies. bewaji (2018) notes that yorùbá literature, both written and oral, portrays the environment as an all-encompassing entity, integral to the cultural, spiritual, and social fabric of life. this account implies that the world came into being as a result of the combined endeavors of different beings, such as deities, animals, and plants, emphasizing a cosmological outlook that cherishes the connections and relationships among all living beings. such standpoint encourages a deep comprehension of the environment and promotes sustainable methods that aim for a peaceful coexistence between mankind and the natural world, endorsing a perspective that combines spiritual, environmental, and social aspects in a harmonious way. de bruijn (2007) challenges douglas mccabe’s interpretation of ben okri’s “the famished road” as primarily promoting new age spiritualism, critiqued for upholding cultural imperialism and olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 188 global capitalism. instead, employing kwame anthony appiah’s cosmopolitan frameworks, de bruijn argues that the novel intricately engages with diverse cultural and philosophical ideas, thereby promoting a cosmopolitan perspective that contrasts mccabe’s singular focus on new age spirituality. this reframing emphasizes the novel’s exploration of multifaceted ontologies within a globalized yet culturally distinct african society, using cosmopolitanism to critique the imposition of a homogenized worldview. additionally, de bruijn employs detailed textual and critical discourse analyses, alongside inter-textual comparisons, to robustly counter mccabe’s reductive critique and assert the novel’s rich tapestry of beliefs interacting within its narrative. meanwhile, cezair-thompson (1996) explores “the famished road” through postcolonial literature lenses, arguing that okri transcends common postcolonial themes by weaving myth and transformation to redefine african narratives, a move away from solely colonial definitions of identity. contrasting mythological with historical time, cezairthompson highlights how okri uses the ‘abiku’ and symbolic roads to challenge colonial determinism, suggesting a shift towards a self-defined african identity through the power of myth and cyclical history. mccabe (2005) recontextualizes the novel within a new age spiritual framework, focusing on spiritual dimensions that resonate with new age beliefs about spiritual realms and transformation, thus arguing for a spiritual rather than cultural or political interpretation of the novel. these analyses collectively explore the novel’s complex engagement with spiritualism, mythological transformation, and interconnected cultural diversities, yet they overlook okri’s nuanced use of language to depict the interconnectedness of all elements within the ecosystem, a gap that this study addresses by examining the linguistic representation of relationships between humans, non-humans, and the environment in “the famished road.” duranti (2004) defines agency as a property of entities with control over their actions, effects on others, and accountable outcomes. this concept, crucial in systemic functional grammar (sfg), considers entities responsible for actions as agents, addressing who initiated an action (halliday & matthiessen, 2004; martin et al., 2010). in environmental discourse, rhetorical ecology extends this to include non-human elements like flora and fauna, exploring how these influence and are influenced by communication strategies (mcgreavy et al., 2018). this field emphasizes how discourse shapes environmental perceptions and actions, advocating for ecological responsibility and sustainability. edbauer (2005) describes rhetorical ecologies as “co-ordinating processes” within networks of social fields, enhancing our understanding of communication’s complex, interconnected nature. rivers and derksen (2015) further argue that agency is a distributed phenomenon across ecological systems, stressing the collaborative nature of influence and outcomes, thereby enhancing our understanding of ecological and communal interdependencies. ii. methods the methodology integrates stibbe’s (2015) ecolinguistic framework with halliday’s (2001) systemic functional linguistic analysis to dissect the language employed in “the famished road.” this approach involves a detailed examination of lexical choices, and grammatical structures to identify and interpret how they contribute to the portrayal of non-human agency. the analysis further extends to understanding how these linguistic practices reflect and reinforce cultural and philosophical perceptions of nature within african contexts. ecolinguistics is essentially applying linguistic analytical methods to expose the narratives that govern our lives, subjecting them to ecological scrutiny and critical engagement (stibbe 2015). the intricate nexus between linguistic expression and the foundational narratives that shape societies, cultural practices, and individual experiences is a subject of extensive scholarly discourse across both linguistic and philosophical domains. ecolinguistics examines the influence of language in fostering, shaping, altering, or potentially undermining the relationships between communities, living conditions, and environmental health. stibbe (2010) notes that ecolinguistics is connected to the expanding field of human ecology, intersecting with diverse, interlinked systems which encompasses economic, social, religious, cultural, linguistic, and ecological dimensions. there exists a modest but insightful body of research that applies the ecolinguistic approach to environmental narratives (see stibbe, 2015, poole, 2022). i concur with stibbe’s (2015) observation that critical analyses of environmental discourses—those advocating for a respectful rather than a domineering stance towards nature— olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 189 are underrepresented in the fields of linguistics and ecological studies. the theoretical approach in systemic functional linguistics (sfl) centers on the meaning-making resources of language within specific social and cultural contexts (bloor and bloor, 2017). since its earliest manifestations, sfl has been concerned with social action or ‘what people do with language’ (martin et al., 2010). sfl employs the term lexico-grammar to encapsulate the idea that vocabulary (lexis) is inseparably linked to grammatical choices available in a language (halliday and matthiessen, 2004). these choices are contained in system networks, offering paradigmatic options that carry significant meaning, such as the difference between negative and positive evaluation. these systems characterize the vast body of options available to speakers to create meaning in context. sfg also aims to develop a grammar designed to ‘make it possible to say sensible and useful things about any text, spoken or written’ (halliday, 1994: 15). this aspiration underscores the practical applicability of sfl in analyzing and understanding diverse texts across various contexts. contrary to purely formal linguistic models, sfl posits that semantic networks, which are social and cultural constructs, carry meaning potential that is ‘unfolded’ within texts (halliday and matthiessen, 2013). meaning fulfills the three overarching components of the semantic system known as meta-functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual, each of which is reflected in instances of language use. furthermore, it is a fundamental tenet of sfl that “the study of discourse cannot be separated from the study of the grammar that lies behind it” (halliday and matthiessen, 2004). any clause embraces ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings, reflecting the intertwined nature of discourse analysis and grammatical study within the sfl framework. iii. results and discussions linguistic features, agency, and the interconnectedness of humans and nonhumans the bonds between humans and non-human entities are a reflective aspect of our world, inviting exploration. it challenges us to consider how our actions resonate within the larger tapestry of existence, where every entity, however small, plays a role in the collective future. the following excerpts show the link between human and nonhuman entities in ben okri’s the famished road. let us take a look at the first excerpt. “in the beginning there was a river. the river became a road and the road branched out to the whole world. and because the road was once a river it was always hungry. in that land of beginnings spirits mingled with the unborn. we could assume numerous forms. many of us were birds. we knew no boundaries. there was much feasting, playing, and sorrowing. we feasted much because of the beautiful terrors of eternity.” (1) using linguistic features like personification and agency, metaphors, and semantic inclusion and kinship, the interconnectedness between humans, nature, and the spirit world becomes evident. the river is personified, given the ability to transform into a road that is “always hungry.” this personification attributes human-like qualities to natural elements, suggesting a deep interconnectedness between humans and nature. the passage anthropomorphizes the river/road as “always hungry,” which can reflect human perspectives on nature as possessing desires and needs similar to our own, leading to a more empathetic understanding of the natural world. the transformation of the river into a road symbolizes a journey or transition, implying interconnected pathways of life and nature. this metaphor extends to the idea of an insatiable road, hinting at perpetual motion and change within the natural and human world. besides this, through semantic inclusion and kinship, the passage includes spirits, the unborn, and birds as part of a shared world. this inclusion of non-human elements within the same narrative space promotes a sense of kinship and interconnectedness with nature and the spiritual realm. moving on to the next excerpt: “the darkness conquered our voices. a great cry, as of a terrifying commander ordering his troops, sprang into the air. there was the silence of deep rivers. everything became still. it was as if the night had withdrawn its violence into itself. the wind breathed over the houses and howled gently through the trees. the whisperings of spirits flowed on the wind. the voices of water and slow footsteps floated towards us. it was as if the wind itself were preparing for a final onslaught. then the stillness was broken by the panic of the innocent” (136). one can see how linguistic choices enhance the narrative and promote an understanding of ecological systems as active, sentient, and olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 190 deeply intertwined with human existence. linguistic choices like anthropomorphism and personification, material processes, and use of metaphors and similes. the passage begins with “the darkness conquered our voices,” where darkness is personified with the active ability to conquer, typically a human or animate trait. this anthropomorphism continues with the wind that “breathed over the houses and howled gently through the trees,” attributing human-like actions and qualities to natural elements, enhancing their agency and presence as active participants in the scene. natural elements in the excerpt exhibit significant agency. this becomes evident in the transitivity choices in the sentence “the wind breathed over the houses and howled gently through the trees.” the wind represents the actor of the processes ‘breathed’ and ‘howled’. the wind is given agency, performing actions typically associated with living beings. for instance, the wind not only breathes and howls but also prepares “for a final onslaught,” suggesting strategic planning often associated with sentient beings. this use of agency aligns with ecocultural identity by positioning the environment as a dynamic actor rather than a passive backdrop, influencing human experiences and emotions directly. the use of metaphors and similes reveals the interconnectedness between human and nonhuman environment. metaphorical language, such as the night withdrawing “its violence into itself” and the wind’s preparation for an “onslaught,” constructs a vivid narrative that enriches the ecological scene. these metaphors serve not only to embellish the narrative but also to instill a sense of interconnectedness and interdependence between humans and the non-human environment, reflecting the principles of ecocultural identity where all life forms are intertwined. another interesting excerpt is: “it was rapidly getting dark. the wind blew hard through the trees. trees groaned, branches cracked, and the wind among the leaves sounded like a distant waterfall. pods exploded from on high and one of them fell on my head, like a mighty knock, and i dropped to the ground. in the silence and darkness that came over me i found myself riding the invisible horse of the night. i rode through the trees.” (105) the excerpt vividly captures a dynamic interaction between human and non-human elements through specific lexis (word choices). the description employs richly sensory and active language to illustrate the agency of nature and its immediate impact on the human subject. the choice of lexis ‘wind’, ‘trees’, ‘branches’, ‘pods’ focuses on natural elements that are typically passive in ordinary descriptions. however, here they are active participants, affecting and interacting with the human subject. verbs such as ‘groaned’, ‘cracked’, ‘exploded’, ‘fell’ attribute human-like qualities and actions to non-human elements, enhancing their presence and agency. analyzing the sentence “the wind blew hard through the trees,” one notices that the sentence structure places the wind as the actor, attributing agency to it. the material process “blew” directs energy outward, affecting the trees, illustrating how non-human elements exhibit force and intentionality. besides this, the sentence “trees groaned, branches cracked” shows how agency is ascribed to non-human element. here, the trees and branches are actors performing actions typically associated with human responses to stress or strain, thus personifying these elements and giving them a voice and a response to the wind. another sentence that is useful to my purposes is “pods exploded from on high and one of them fell on my head.” the pods are depicted as active agents engaging in explosive action, with one directly interacting with the human subject by falling on his head, bridging the gap between human and non-human realms. the natural elements here exert significant influence over the events. the pods “exploded from on high,” indicating a sudden, forceful action that impacts the narrator directly when one falls on his head “like a mighty knock.” this not only portrays the pods as active agents but also suggests that the natural world interacts with humans in profound and sometimes abrupt ways. another excerpt projects the theme of anthropomorphism thus “the trees were running away from human habitation (183).” the excerpt utilizes a material process to convey a vivid and anthropomorphic action. here, “running away” is typically a human or animal action, and its application to “the trees” gives the non-human entities human-like capabilities. this suggests a dynamic, almost sentient response of the trees to human presence or impact. this statement employs “the trees” as the participants acting out the process of “running away,” which is described as a physical movement usually associated with olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 191 sentient beings acting under their own volition or in response to a threat. the circumstance provided by “from human habitation” establishes the context of the action, indicating the reason for the trees’ movement is their proximity to human living areas. through this anthropomorphism, the sentence vividly portrays an ecological phenomenon of deforestation or environmental degradation metaphorically, suggesting that the natural world is actively responding to human encroachment. this brings an emotional and moral dimension to the environmental changes, encouraging the reader to perceive the natural environment as a living entity with agency and reactions to human actions. the following excerpt provides further insight: “sometimes i played in the forest. my favourite place was the clearing. in the afternoons the forest wasn’t frightening, though i often heard strange drums and singing and trees groaning before they fell. i heard the axes and drills in the distances. and every day the forest thinned a little. the trees i got to know so well were cut down and only their stumps, dripping sap, remained. i wandered through the forest, collecting rusted padlocks, green bird-eggs, abandoned necklaces, and ritual dolls. sometimes i watched the men felling trees and sometimes the companies building roads. (109) ben okri deploys linguistic tools like metaphor and imagery, and semantic inclusion and agency. the description of the forest includes both its vitality and its decline. phrases like “trees groaning before they fell” personify the trees, suggesting a living, suffering entity rather than inanimate objects. this metaphorical language serves to evoke empathy for the forest, aligning with stibbe’s (2015) discussion on the power of metaphors to influence our perceptions of nature. the child’s narrative places humans and non-human elements in close relational proximity. for instance, “the trees i got to know so well” implies a personal relationship, a kinship, with the trees. however, the agency in this scene is primarily with the humans (“i heard the axes and drills,” “i watched the men felling trees”), indicating a hierarchical relationship where humans act upon nature rather than coexist with it. the excerpt utilizes linguistic features that both evoke a sense of connection with nature and illustrate the destructive impact of human activities on the environment. it underscores the need for fostering ecocultural identities that not only recognize but actively promote the sustainability of natural ecosystems as part of our own identity. anthropomorphism and the representation of nonhuman animals as partners anthropomorphism refers to a situation where human characteristics or intentions are attributed to non-human entities, such as animals, objects, or natural phenomena. it allows us as aggarwal and mcgill (2007:468) notes to “see a human in nonhuman forms.” in other words, anthropomorphism “projects human behavior onto nonhuman animals, and thus form a kind of moral or sympathetic connection with the latter” (zhdanava, kaur, and rajandran, 2021: 35). we can infer from the following that anthropomorphism facilitates a moral or sympathetic connection between humans and non-human animals by attributing human behavior and characteristics to the latter. ben okri uses language to anthropomorphize non-human animals in ‘the famished road’. in the next excerpt, ‘don’t kill lizards.’ ‘why not?’ ‘they are messengers. sometimes they are spies. my father once sent a lizard to warn me’ (316). ben okri in this excerpt gives agency to animals and creates a parallel world of animals that has commonalities with that of humans. he uses relational processes in representing nonhuman ‘lizards’ as ‘messengers’ and ‘spies’ which is a case of specification and anthropomorphism where nonhuman animals, equal to humans, perform the role of messengers and spies. the attributive is realized by ‘lizards’ while the relational process is realized by the predicator ‘are’, and the identifying elements are ‘messengers’ and ‘spies’. the copular relational process indicated by ‘are’ provides some form of classification and identification of ‘lizards’. ben okri humanizes the animal lizard by establishing a co-referentiality between lizards and the ability to spy or serve as messengers. humans usually act as spies or deliver messages to other humans but here ben okri opines that animals such as lizards have agentive powers and are also out there to warn humans. in both cases, the sentences are using relational processes to attribute roles or identities to the lizards. the verbs ‘are’ in each case do not describe actions but rather serve to equate the subject with the complement, defining what the lizards are conceptualized as in the context of the discourse. the sentences “lizards are messengers” and “they are spies” anthropomorphize animals olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 192 by ascribing them roles or occupations typically associated with humans. in these particular cases, lizards are being attributed with the roles of “messengers” and “spies,” which implies they have a purpose or function that involves communication and secrecy, respectively — tasks that require intention, understanding, and often complex social interactions that are inherently human. these phrases create a metaphorical layer where animals are participating in human-like activities, which can be a way to convey certain themes or messages within a text. this anthropomorphic attribution can serve various purposes such as drawing attention to certain characteristics of the animals, creating a fantasy or allegorical narrative, or emphasizing a connection between human and animal behaviors. the next excerpt also shows the use of language to anthropomorphize animals. “i was about to chase it out when dad said: ‘all creatures must be treated with respect from now on. if you want the lizard out command it to go and it will go. we must use our powers wisely. we must not become tyrants, you hear?’” (364) here, the lizard is treated as a sentient being that can understand human speech and commands, which further humanizes it . in the excerpt, a variety of linguistic processes are used to depict actions, mental states, desires, and relationships, reflecting a dynamic interaction. the initial sentence introduces a material process, “was about to chase,” indicating an action intended but not completed, involving the participants ‘i’ as the actor and ‘it’ (the lizard) as the goal. this action is interrupted by a verbal process, “said,” where ‘dad’ serves as the sayer, introducing a lengthy directive. within this directive, dad employs a relational process, “must be treated,” to establish an ethical obligation towards “all creatures,” marking them as the carrier of the attribute “with respect.” this ethical stance is reinforced by a temporal circumstance “from now on,” suggesting a permanent change in behavior. a subsequent mental process, “want,” expresses a desire involving ‘you’ (the senser) and the goal of getting “the lizard out.” this is followed by a verbal process, “command,” where ‘you’ are also the sayer, directed to issue a command to the lizard, treated as capable of understanding and responding. the prediction “it will go” uses a material process, indicating the lizard’s anticipated compliance as an actor, affected by the command. dad then uses a modalized mental process, “must use,” to advocate for wise utilization of “our powers,” showing a collective responsibility. the relational process “must not become,” paired with the modal “must,” emphasizes the avoidance of becoming “tyrants,” thereby highlighting the importance of restraint and ethical conduct. this discourse intricately weaves together ethical mandates, personal responsibility, and the interactive dynamics between human and nonhuman entities, underlining the narrative’s themes of power, responsibility, and ethical behavior. in the next excerpt, ben okri further highlights the interconnectedness of the human and the nonhuman thus: ‘mr. lizard, where are you? out! leave this room and go somewhere else. now!’ we watched the floor. there was no movement. mum sighed. dad didn’t repeat his order. he sat back down on the chair. we sat in silence. then, after a while, the lizard came out from under the cupboard, nodded three times, and fled from the room (364). the excerpt starts with a series of commands directed at “mr. lizard,” involving material processes like “leave” and “go,” which instruct the lizard to perform specific actions, namely exiting the room and relocating elsewhere. the urgency and immediacy of these commands are underscored by the circumstance “now,” marking a temporal directive for the actions to take place immediately. as the scene unfolds, the family’s response is described through a variety of mental, material, and relational processes. the family’s collective observation of the floor, a mental process of “watching,” captures their focused attention, but it is met with the absence of any movement, a state conveyed through the relational process “was,” describing the stillness of the scene. this quiet moment is punctuated by individual reactions: “mum sighed,” a behavioral process reflecting her inner state of resignation or disappointment, and “dad didn’t repeat his order,” a negative material process indicating his decision to not reinforce his command, which he expresses by physically resettling himself on the chair. the narrative climax occurs when the lizard, previously the object of the family’s attention and the subject of commands, finally acts. emerging from under the cupboard, the lizard’s actions are detailed through several material processes: “came out,” “nodded,” and “fled.” these actions not only olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 193 signify the lizard’s physical movements but also imply a degree of understanding or acknowledgment of the situation, particularly through the action “nodded,” which anthropomorphizes the lizard by attributing it with a human-like gesture of nodding three times before fleeing the room. this careful arrangement of actions and reactions creates a narrative that is both engaging and illustrative of the varied ways in which entities can influence and react within a shared space. the commands given to mr. lizard, such as “leave this room and go somewhere else,” are inherently anthropomorphic. typically, verbal commands presuppose an understanding and cognitive processing that are characteristic of humans. by directing the lizard with such commands and expecting compliance, the text implicitly attributes human-like understanding and decision-making capabilities to the lizard. the lizard’s actions further emphasize this anthropomorphic portrayal. when the lizard “nodded three times,” it displays a distinctly human gesture often associated with acknowledgment or agreement. this not only humanizes the lizard but also suggests that it possesses the capacity to understand and react appropriately to human communication. the nodding here is a pivotal moment that blurs the line between animal instinct and human-like interaction. in the next extract, “azaro, rats can be our friends. they can sometimes tell what is happening in the world. they are our spies. listen to them, azaro, and tomorrow tell me what the rats are saying (51)” the speaker addresses azaro directly, using a series of relational and mental processes. initially, “rats can be our friends” uses a relational process that ascribes a potential friendly relationship between humans and rats, positioning rats not merely as animals but as entities capable of social roles within human contexts. the phrase “they can sometimes tell what is happening in the world” introduces a mental process that attributes the ability to perceive and understand complex global events to rats, further anthropomorphizing them by implying they have awareness akin to human informants. the statement “they are our spies” continues this theme, employing a relational process to categorize rats as active agents involved in espionage, which intensifies their role from passive observers to active gatherers of intelligence. the command “listen to them, azaro” uses an imperative form, directing azaro to engage in a mental process of listening, which underscores the significance of the information the rats could provide. the clause “and tomorrow tell me what the rats are saying” projects a future action where azaro is expected to relay the information acquired from the rats, using a material process of telling that completes the cycle of information gathering and reporting. this narrative framework not only animates the rats with human-like qualities but also integrates them into a narrative of cooperation and communication with humans, emphasizing their value as sources of knowledge and insight. another interesting excerpt presents nonhuman elements with the ability to know things about humans. “there are dolphins, plants that dream, magic birds inside us. the sky is inside us. the earth is in us. the trees of the forest, the animals of the bushes, tortoises, birds, and flowers know our future (363). the excerpt utilizes existential and mental processes to convey ideas about existence and knowledge. it emphasizes the interconnectedness between humans and nature, suggesting that elements of the natural world are not just external entities but are also part of human experience. for example, in the statement “the trees of the forest, the animals of the bushes, tortoises, birds, and flowers know our future,” there is a clear instance of anthropomorphism, where elements of nature are ascribed with the human ability to know or predict the future. in the context of halliday’s transitivity system, this statement represents a mental process, specifically, one of cognition. the trees, animals, tortoises, birds, and flowers are the sensers, as they are the ones “knowing” or perceiving. the phenomenon, which is the entity that the senser is aware of or perceives, is “our future.” this illustrates how language can be employed to ascribe intricate cognitive capabilities to entities that are non-human, usually lacking the aptitude for such understanding. positioning these nonhuman animals and things in the place of the senser help to trouble stories that promote binaries between humans and non-human animals in the world. ben okri uses this to prove a point—humans need nature for our continued existence. if humans destroy nature, humans have destroyed their future because they would have invariably destroyed the custodians of their future. olarotimi ogungbemi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 194 iv. conclusion the research concludes that ben okri’s narrative strategies in “the famished road” effectively endow non-human elements with subjectivity and agency, echoing african oral traditions that highlight mutual reliance among all beings. by illustrating this interdependence, okri’s work prompts a reevaluation of ecological relationships and advocates for a more integrated and respectful approach to nature, aligning with eco-centric values and emphasizing the vital role of literature in fostering environmental consciousness. the study’s findings underscore the profound capacity of language in literature to reshape human perceptions of the natural world, as demonstrated in ben okri’s “the famished road.” the novel’s linguistic artistry and narrative innovation are pivotal in affording dignity and voice to the environment, advocating for a harmonious existence among all life forms. the conclusion highlights the significance of embracing these literary insights to foster a more ecologically attuned and respectful engagement with the world. it posits that such literary engagements can propel cultural and societal shifts towards more sustainable and equitable environmental relationships, urging a reimagined ethic that values interconnectivity and mutual respect across all forms of existence. references aggarwal, p., & mcgill, a. l. 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(2021). representing nonhuman animals as equals: an ecolinguistic analysis of vegan campaigns. journal of world languages, 7(1), 26-57. hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 35 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 06, 2023 final revision: may 05, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 the plurality of indonesia with more than 600 ethnics is a great wealth but has not been adequately rewarded. various political, legal, and sociocultural events have resulted in the degradation of diversity from a colorful mosaic to a blur. this article analyzes the discourse of ‘return to nagari’ based on texts of national commitments and policies on decentralization, west sumatra’s local policies on the lowest government ‘nagari’, and public responses on them. the methods had been used are literature study and field research, which are analyzed based on the technique of discourse analysis which included text, context, and social practice. the findings are the policy on decentralization is still inconsistent, and the construction of the regional government’s policy based on local culture has not been ideal and operational formulated yet. in fact, it is not easy to return to indigenous culture as roots the beauty of indonesia’s multiculturalism. this finding reflects the critical implication of the discursive practice that shows the awareness of actor’s membership in their culture that leads them to make clear cultural-political attitudes in relation to the state. the position of their cultural traditions is threatened and our position is to mobilize them to revive, maintain, keep, consolidate and revitalize their cultural identity. keywords indonesia, multiculturalism, minangkabau, regional autonomy, nagari correspondence e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id article the winding road to return to the beauty of indonesian multiculturalism: a discourse analysis of ‘back to nagari’ in the regional autonomy policy in west sumatra 1,4faculty of humanities universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2state islamic university of imam bonjol, padang, indonesia 3padang state university, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.35-50.2023 i. introduction the republic of indonesia was founded based on the diversity not unity (gonggong, 2002; ardika, 2004) which represented in the motto ‘unity in diversity’. those lovely words have inspired lessons in pluralism law for other multiethnic countries such as canada (tokawa, 2015) and some other countries. the discourse of ‘unity in diversity’, however, is often misinterpreted and remains problematic to this day. discourse practices for that dialogue tend to emphasize ‘unity’ significantly and ignore ‘diversity’. as a result, the discourse on differences, identities, tribes/ethnicities, races, religions, and group identities has become an exclusive expression of national unity and a thread connecting the nation to the world (abdullah, 2006; tirtosudarmo, 2007). there are 633 ethnics in indonesia (bps , 2015, compared to: geertz, 1981; alisjahbana, 1988; koentjaraningrat, 1993). from the time when national awareness was raised, indonesia has needed 37 years to become independent of colonial power (1908-1945). even after 76 years of independence, indonesia is still testing the relevance of the diversity function. two periods of trial can be considered: (a) 53 years to establish a more concrete commitment that indonesia respects localism and diversity, namely from the proclamation to the fall of suharto’s regime (19451998), and (b) 22 years since the reformation order began until today (1999-2021). as a result of the reformation order and the national commitment, a policy of regional autonomy has been established which has been embodied in the constitution of hasanuddin hasanuddin1, welhendri azwar2, akmal akmal3, handoko handoko4 hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 36 the regional government. the constitution has been revised four times so far. this indicates that managing diversity as a wealth requires a long-term adaptive effort. even president joko widodo also campaigned the slogan: ‘sovereignty of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia (nkri), unity in diversity, the 1945 constitution, is undisputed!’ (kompas.com, 2019), yet the emergence of variety in indonesia remains a complex issue. as part of the policy of regional autonomy, the program of “return to nagari” is being pursued. as a traditional concept, the word ‘nagari’ refers to a community of several thousand people who are socially and politically united within the highest matrilineal territory of the minangkabau. nagaris can therefore be considered a ‘state’ since they are led by a ‘chief council’, which is comprised of clan chiefs representing their clans and has a mandate to establish a government (executive) and legislative body. nagaris are autonomous; there are no structural links between them, and no centralizing administration or federal power exists. leaders of the nagari act to represent their own groups, not to represent the king of pagaruyung. until the 14th century, the kings of pagaruyung were merely symbols of the union between minangkabau territories (de jong, 1960; marsden, 1870; oki, 1977; abdullah, 1966). the socio-political structure of minangkabau has therefore been compared by many scholars to that of the ancient greek ‘city state’ (mansyur et. al, 1970). this identification is based on the fact that each nagari acts as a minirepublic free from federal control (zed, 1996). as a sociopolitical group, nagari have three characteristics, namely autonomy, democracy, and decentralization (manan ,2003). according to empirical data, there were 541 nagari in west sumatra in 1911 (westenenk, 1918; compare kato, 1989) and 543 nagari in 1979. the existence of nagari with a specific governmental system dates back thousands of years. it is based on the assumption that the evolution of a nagari takes 108 years (a nagari consists of at least four tribes, and each tribe is made up of at least six generations, and each generation is made up of 18 years). based on a simple calculation, the 543 nagari in 1979 are assumed to be the result of 9 mutation levels (assuming that one nagari generates one nagari each mutation cycle), so the range of time required is 9x108 years = 972 years. in fact, such a calculation is relatively inaccurate, as westenenk’s 1911 find indicated that only 2 (two) nagari were added in west sumatra during 68 years. the nagari have been influenced by external interventions for 200 years. there was a first intervention in the 1820s, when the dutch colonial government gained access to the civil war that was fought between kaum adat and puritan paderi and ultimately won by the dutch in 1837 (beckmann, 1979; westenenk, 1918; kielstra, 1887, dobbin , 1977). following indonesian independence (1945), the second intervention involved introducing new elements to the nagari institution, abolishing the nagari governance by combining the 543 nagari into 78 autonomous regions (1950), revitalizing the nagari autonomous system (1955), restructuring the nagari administration system (1962), separating the nagari from its administration (1963), and so forth until the new order era. (hasbi, 1990). during the suharto administration (new order), a significant intervention occurred concerning the village administration which was embodied in constitution 5/1979. this constitution changed the nagari into villages similar to those in java (543 nagari became 3.516 villages). additionally, this constitution led to the creation of local regulation no 13/1989, which eliminated the role of the nagari as the lowest administrative unit and reduced the administrative territory (village was replaced by the nagari). the intervention of suharto was far more systematic than that of the colonial government. however, the core pillars of matrilineal culture remain dominant as a framework of ideology, law, and institution (beckmann and keebet, 2013). as a result of a long and difficult process, the regional autonomy policy was issued and west sumatra enthusiastically accepted it. vel and a.w. bedner assert that the process of establishing regional autonomy in west sumatra is quite unique and will never be replicated in other regions. as they states, the “return to nagari” is the result of a long historical process that is unique to the minangkabau people. while sceptical, they expressed doubt that such a process could be successful (vel and bedner, 2015). in this paper, the objectives are to analyze and explain ‘return to nagari’ with regard to west sumatra’s reformation-era policy, (b) to explain the intertextual discourse ‘return to nagari’ in the context of regional autonomy policy, (c) to analyze and explain the discourse practice of ‘return to nagari’ at its implementation level. furthermore, hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 37 this article utilizes a critical social science paradigm to describe the existence of nagari (descriptive function) and formulate a recommendation to implement a proper model (prescriptive function). the hypothesis is that the discourse of ‘return to nagari’ represents the facts about the identity and ethnicity struggles of minangkabau people in west sumatra. this is crucial for managing and implementing diversity as a wealth to create a harmonious and rich multicultural environment in indonesia. ii. methods as part of the research project sponsored by the educational fund institution of the ministry of finance of the republic of indonesia, this article is entitled developing nagari governance as a model for implementing customary values into customary village governance. this research involves several researchers from three different disciplines, including sociology, law, and cultural discourse. project duration is three years (2019-2022), with the aim of reconstructing and revitalizing the nagari governance system in west sumatra, indonesia. the purpose of this research is to find an original model based on the study of text, intertexts, and contexts, as well as the offer from discourse construction as a social construction that will be beneficial to research subjects in the near future. upon completion of this discourse analysis, an academic manuscript will form the basis for the local government regulation that will determine the policy and governance of the local government of west sumatra, which may also be applicable to other indonesian provinces. thus, the local model is strengthened within the national multicultural constellation in indonesia as a result of this policy. this study used some data samples taken from some fields, containing texts related to the policies of decentralization or regional autonomy that were published during the reformation period, beginning with the second amendment of the 1945 constitution (national commitment text). as a result of its implementation in the local government constitution (national policy), as well as the local government regulations in west sumatra (local policy), and the responses of its implementation in the local policy on nagari governance with the existing models, the national policy was adopted. there are six research sites participating in the field research, representing the regions of luhak (the origin and the core culture of minangkabau in west sumatra) and rantau (the expansion territory along the coast of sumatra island that covers the high and low lands). each territory is represented by one nagari. the six samples are also representative of two different systems of governance, namely democratic and aristocratic. participants are divided into packets for a focus group discussion (fgd). during fgd, some topics about autonomy are discussed with the actors (regions and customary lands), democracy (population, institution, function, representative system, leader election, decision making) and decentralization (reflection of multiculturalism). based on the analysis of text, intertextual relations, discourse practice, and contexts, a discourse construction is proposed as an alternative solution to the subject’s problems. in this article, discourse is viewed as a determinant in social construction from a social constructivism perspective (jorgensen and phillips, 2002). it is therefore important to note that discourse studies are not only closely related to linguistics, but also to communication, social, political, legal, and cultural issues. a recent study by gee suggests that discourse can mediate productive relationships in situations of polarization, conflict, and conflicting viewpoints (gee, 2016). similarly, sawirman explains the unique characteristics of smallholder discourse on plantations and offers cultural solutions to regional conflicts in the oil palm sector (sawirman, 2017). a number of discourse paradigms are incorporated into this article, particularly the discourse nodal point (laclau, 1985; 2001), three way discourse analysis (faiclough, 1993; 1995) and cultural discourse (shi-xu, 2005; 2006; 2009, scollo, 2011). as described by laclau and mouffe, a nodal point is a point of crystallization within a social discourse as well as symbols that have a special status in relation to other symbols in that discourse. it is an empty symbol, which does not provide any specific meaning until it is embedded in a specific discourse. the meaning can be derived from different approaches (jorgensen and phillips 2002,). as fairclough emphasizes, discourse plays an important role in reconstructing that reality in terms of social identity, social relation, as well as knowledge system and meaning. consequently, he argues that discourse is composed of three dimensions, namely texts, discursive practice, and social practice (jorgensen and phillips, 2002). hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 38 furthermore, shi-xu contributes a strong background to sound the local aspiration as a differentiating and enriching factor for multicultural national and global universities as we face and challenge the current trend of globalization. as outlined in shi-xu (2009), the components of the east discourse study are: (1) local base and global atmosphere, (2) indication of its own intellectual identity, (3) reflective, and (4) dialogic. as indicated in the first principle, there is a benefit to extending the scope of inclusive and pluralistic cultural concepts beyond the limit of historical awareness. this requires the development of a multicultural attitude through an appreciation of cultural diversity (including intellectual culture) and mutual respect. it is also important to support the struggle for equal human welfare during a period of global capitalism, neocolonialism, and intense international confrontation (shi-xu, 2006). additionally, the second principle stresses its own cultural intellectual identity: cherished philosophical ideas, concepts, theories, and methods. the third principle is reflexive, namely the requirement that researchers of multicultural discourse should not be satisfied with descriptions and explanations as they are, but need to offer prescriptions or suggestions on how they should be in the form of new discourse constructions that can help change repressive and stereotypical discourses and are beneficial for eastern societies as well as mankind in general. shi-xu emphasized the need to pay particular attention to indigenous discourses as part of the eastern paradigm. lastly, the objective of east-west dialogue is to understand and learn from one another, which facilitates intercultural communication. throughout this article, the discourse of ‘return to nagari’ serves as a nodal point. the text remains empty and will be meaningful once embedded into a particular discourse, in this case the discourse of decentralization or regional autonomy in indonesia. the decentralization discourse is derived from the context of suharto’s fall, which is followed by the national commitment embodied in the second amendment to the 1945 constitution, which recognizes and appreciates the customary law communities and their traditional rights, and further supports this by a national decentralization program followed by a local government policy that focuses on the system of nagari governance. iii. results text, intertext and context after the constitution 22/1999 on regional autonomy was adopted, texts promoting a return to nagari emerged. that text consists of three words, i.e. ‘kembali (return)’. ‘ke (to)’, and ‘nagari (administrative region and it’s socio cultural system)’. the word ‘kembali’ means ‘return to the previous state’. ‘ke’ means ‘pointing in the right direction’. ‘nagari’ refers to an administrative region, traditional community system, and highest social politic in the minangkabau social culture. therefore, the text ‘kembali ke nagari’ means ‘return to nagari’ as the original place. soon after the 2000s, both in west sumatra and among overseas minangkabaus, that text became a jargon and became widely used. to this day, the discourse has evolved into a discourse that persists with fluctuating intensity depending on the sociopolitical context that emerges locally and nationally. as a ‘nodal point’, this text has a special status symbol, but it is hollow and will have detailed significance when incorporated into a specific discourse, the discourse of regional autonomy. indonesia’s 1998 reforms demanded widespread regional autonomy. during the reform process, a bloody event marked the end of the 32-year authoritarian rule of suharto. following the fall of suharto, baharuddin jusuf habibie became the new president. as a result of abdurrahman wahid’s resignation (post-habibie), prof. ryaas rashid was appointed minister of state with a specialization in regional autonomy. during this period, indonesia began implementing its regional autonomy policy. the text of legal products incorporates regional autonomy policies. as a result of a complex and challenging discursive process, legal products are the outcome of a political process. it is not intended to focus on and present problematic texts in the political process. this study focuses exclusively on the analysis of legal products as comparative texts through the use of intertextual analysis. as a result of decentralization, there are three levels of political and legal policy texts. as a result of the national commitment, four amendments to the constitution of 1945 were enacted. the four dates were 21 october 1999, 18 august 2000, 9 november 2001, and 10 august 2002, respectively. a specific reference to the centralistic recognition can be found in the second amendment in articles 18, 18a, hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 39 and 18b. secondly, the national policy as a result of the implementation of the national commitment was realized in the form of a law product known as the regional autonomy law. there are four legal products for this, i.e. uu 22/1999, uu 32/2004, uu 23/2014 and uu 2/2015; complemented by uu 6 2014 concerning the village. third, the local policy implements the national policy through the local government regulation on nagari governance, which has produced three legal documents, namely local constitutions 9/2000, 2/2007, and 7/2018. national commitment according to the national commitments, the state recognizes and respects the customary law community units, as well as their traditional privileges, as long as their existence is in accordance with the principles of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia as governed by (uud 1945, article 18, paragraph 2). there is a counter-discourse to the policy of ‘unification’ of the previous regime in this statement. indonesia was perceived as being pushed towards a ‘unified’ state under both the old order (sukarno) and the new order (suharto), so the historical and substantial fact that indonesia was composed of hundreds of different ethnicities had to be abolished. even expressions of ethnicity and religious group identity were accompanied by threats of accusations of racism (sara), which may result in criminal charges. therefore, the reformation offers a fresh perspective on celebrating diversity and showcasing its beauty. national policy the national policy referred to here is related to two things; they are regional and village autonomies. regional autonomy was originally conceived as ‘the authority of the regions to regulate and manage the interests of the local community according to their own initiative based on the aspirations of the community (constitution 22/1999, article 1 letter h). however, it was later expanded to be ‘rights, authority, and obligation’ (constitution 32/2004, article 1 point 5). on one side, it indicates that the central government recognizes that ‘to regulate and manage the local community interest’ is not only an authority but also the right and obligation of the regional autonomous region. this means that local governments are given rights and are also bound by responsibilities. besides that, there is a deletion of a phrase ‘to regulate based on its own initiation to meet with community aspiration’ replaced it with ‘to regulate and manage its own government affairs and the local community interests’. the deletion of the phrase ‘according to its own initiation based the local community interest’ indicates the central government again limits the rights, the authority, and he obligation of the regional autonomy governance to only ‘government affairs’ allowed. finally (according to constitution 23/2014, article 1 number 6) added the key phrase ‘in the system of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia’. this reflects the central government’s worries for the regional government which, if given very broad authority, could result in disintegration or secession, as has happened in the province of east timor during the habibie administration (30 august 1999) to become the state of timor leste. during the reformation era, the concept of village was deconstructed from the concept of village during the new order era, which was regulated under constitution 5/1979, which defined village as a unit of residence occupied by a number of inhabitants, including legal community units with the lowest government organization directly under the camat (subdistrict head) and the right to run their own households within the boundaries of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia. according to law 22/1999 (the first version of the reform), the village concept covers: (i) a law community unit, (ii) has the authority to regulate and manage local community interests, (iii) is based on origin and (iv) local custom, (v) is recognized by the national administration system, and (vi) is within the district. according to the law 32/2004 (article 1 number 12), there is an additional element ‘having territorial boundaries’ after (i) and the phrase ‘and respected’ has been added to the element (v), while element (vi) has been removed. constitution 6/2014 (article 1 letter 1) and constitution 23/2014 (article 1 number 43) add the phrases “traditional village,” “administration affairs,” and “based on community initiation, rights of origin, and/or traditional rights.”. the above textual phenomenon demonstrates that there is a conceptual improvement, but at the same time restrict the authority on the ‘administration affairs’. hence, community initiation, right of origin and/ or traditional rights can only be conferred at the level of a customary village, not at the level of an autonomous region (region or province). the central government generally delegated hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 40 authority to the autonomous region with some limitations and efforts to maintain a balance. besides, it is suggested by the above texts, it is also found in other important texts in the explanation of constitution 23/2014, which says: ‘…must be able to maintain and keep the unity of the state territories in supporting the existence of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, ‘… the sovereignty is only held by the national government, not by the regional government’, ‘… as long as it does not conflict with the national law order and public interest’ and ‘the central government in making a policy must consider the local wisdoms, and the region also considers the national interests’. regional autonomy extends beyond the authority of the central government, including foreign policy, defense, security, justice, monetary and fiscal policies. and religion (article 7 (1) uu 22/2009, article 10 (3) uu 32/2004, article 19 (1) uu 23/2014). local policy there are three relevant topics: the concept, the structure, and the decision-making process. nagari is a concept that indicates a thorough understanding of that matter. the term ‘customary law community unit’ has been used in three provincial regulations that regulate it. provincial regulation 9/2000, verse 1 letter g emphasizes five major differences: a combination of several clans; a certain territory; a right to control and manage their household; and the right to elect their leader. in provincial regulation 2/2007, verse 1 number 7, the clan, wealth, and election of the leader are not specifically mentioned; rather, the focus is on cultural philosophy, origin, and custom. the provincial regulation 7/2018, verse 1 number 2 incorporates both the above-mentioned provincial regulations and adds the word ‘genealogy and history’ along with the requirement for the election of the leader by consensus. three provincial regulations have demonstrated improvements on the concept of nagari. as mentioned above, the three provincial regulations on nagari present a change in the governance structure of the nagari. according to provincial regulation 9/2000, nagari institutions are comprised of four elements (pn, bpan, bmasn, and lan), followed by three elements (wn, bamus, and kan) in provincial regulation 2/2007, and remained in these three elements with different nomenclature and substance in provincial regulation 7/2018. a fundamental difference between the three provincial regulations is that in provincial regulation 9/2000, the headman, public figure and clan chief are referred to the consultative institution (bmasn) and the nagari customary court for assets and wealth (lan). in provincial regulation 2/2007, they are referred to as kan (the highest nagari customary assembly). in both provincial regulations, the headman/public figure/ clan chief are placed only as supporting elements to maintain and resolve the customary disputes, while the authorities are those of the nagari head (pn/wn, the executive institution) and nagari representative and consultative institution (bapan/bamus, the legislative institution). there is a significant change in provincial regulation 7/2018, which places headman / public figure / clan chief in kan as a legislative institution. the decision-making system, especially in the election of the head of nagari governance (executive), has been changed from direct regulation 9/2000 to consultation and consensus regulation 7/2018 verse 7 (2). in the provincial regulation 7/2018, the headman / public figure / matriclan chief is delegated full authority as the head of the nagari customary assembly (kan) as the official representative of the nagari people. it is important to note that the direct democratic system that has been adopted from the liberal democratic system is being challenged by changing it to consultation and consensus, the original characteristics of the minangkabau social political system, in order to replace direct elections (one man one vote) for all heads of government (from president to village head). social practice a majority of the actors in the field are in favor of decentralization and regional autonomy, which are summarized in the policy discourse of ‘returning to the nagari’ and the changes that are anticipated in the near future. according to the fgds that were conducted, a variety of responses were found. the oral responses of the actors (142 people) were quantified for some of the topics discussed, which indicated a rejection of ‘foreign cultural indicators’ in the context of the nagari they understood and a strong desire to confirm their own cultural identity. hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 41 table 1. confirmation of identity and rejection of foreign cultural indicators. no statement agree (%) disagree (%) 1 the system and structure of the nagari government that is running according to provincial regulation 2/2007 has been in accordance with local customs 89,5 2 the chief of nagari enables uncle to play his role to the nephews 97 3 kan (nagari customary institution) is not used as an institution to accommodate community aspirations which are channelled genealogically in stages 81 4 kan (nagari customary institution) is not involved in decision making by the chief of nagari 86,7 5 voting is not a reflection of minangkabau culture 94 6 the head of the nagari must come from the original son of the nagari 94,3 7 the election of the nagari head is carried out directly (one man one vote) 59 8 if the head of the nagari is elected by kan by consensus, it will cause conflict 92,2 9 settlement of disputes in the community is left to the state’s positive law apparatus 92,2 10 customary courts need to be established at the nagari level 86 11 clan’s assets are managed by the nagari community in accordance with customary provisions 88,8 12 the nagari government system can protect the customary rights of the indigenous peoples 88,1 description: n=142 table 2. polarization of the actor attitudes on the topic of kan membership as a deliberative institution and deliberative system in decision making. no statement agree (%) neutral (%) disagree (%) 1 according to provincial regulation 7/2018, the membership of kan consists of clan chief, religious public figure, female public figure, youth (previously only consisted of clan chief) 53 23 24 2 voting method in decision making (whereas voting itself is admittedly not a reflection of minangkabau culture (94%). 51 6 43 3 the head of the nagari should be directly elected by the community (provincial regulation 2/2007) 16 25 59 4 the head of the nagari is appointed through the clan chief/kan deliberations (provincial regulation 7/2018) 38,7 24,6 36,7 5 dispute resolution in the community should be done through deliberation 40,1 30 26,5 6 disputes within the family are resolved in stages from the smallest/lowest family unit to a wider/higher family unit (minangkabau customary system) 36 38 26,5 description: n=142 a number of actors stated that the nagari governance model since the 1999 reform does not adhere to the traditional concept of nagari: the clan chief role does not exist, the adat institution (kan) does not function as a channel and reservoir for tiered aspirations and participation in decisionmaking. by rejecting the voting system, the actors lead to a process of deliberation and consensus. their objection is if the dispute is directed to positive law enforcement and the settlement is regulated by custom through deliberation or a customary court. the original nagari government system is also expected to maintain the issue of clan land. nevertheless, if the data on table 1 tend to be ‹black and white› because the comparison between agree and disagree is so extreme, the data on table 2 tend to be relatively balanced. there are several related topics, including the establishment of the traditional institution (kan), which includes other elements besides the hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 42 clan chief, namely intellectuals (cadiak pandai), religious public figures (alim ulama), female public figures (bundo kanduang), and youth (parik paga) (according to provincial regulation 7/2018), supported by over half of the actors. as for decision-making procedures, half of the actors were in agreement with the voting method, despite admitting that it did not reflect their culture. the direct election of the nagari head (one man one vote) was rejected by more than half of the actors but was determined by kan by deliberation and was only supported by a third of them. about half of the actors support the resolution of disputes through deliberation, while the settlement of disputes within the family in stages following kinship units is perceived as neutral by the same number of actors. based on these data, it can be concluded that polarization has taken place in the discussion of the topics mentioned above. it is believed that such polarization indicates a shift in the understanding of the values system of minangkabau culture by the actors, of which the majority are younger generations who have not lived under the nagari system of governance (backmann and keebet, 2006). it has also been reported that the family ties have changed as well as that there may be a shift overseas (kato, 1978). iv. discussion as illustrated above, the discourse ‘return to nagari’ is present in the local policy texts of west sumatra, where the nagari is regulated by (a) the national commitment to recognize and respect the customary law community units and their traditional rights, and (b) the national policy on regional autonomy and village government. there have been three changes to the local policy, but the proper format has yet to be determined. there are several indicators, such as (i) changes in the national policy regarding the decentralization, which represents the re-restriction of authority. it indicates that the policy is ‘half-baked’ and reflected the worries on the practice of decentralization will go too far and threaten the national interest and state’s sovereignty, (ii) the fact that the intensive intervention during two hundred years has placed the nagari in minangkabau about to vanish, and (iii) the making of local policy also undergoes some difficulties in formulating the model for the proper nagari government: ideal, functional, and operational, because of the material infrastructure, social structure, and super structural ideology of the nagari have shifted. it demonstrates that indonesia still has some problems with localismnationalism, so the minangkabau community still struggles to preserve its ethnic identity with two orientations: government identity and indonesian cultural enrichment. there are a number of internal and external factors that contribute to the above realities. a significant internal factor is the claim of ideology to preserve cultural identity. the minangkabau cultural identity is the world’s largest matrilineal, egalitarian, and proto-democratic community. in accordance with the principle indak itam dek arang, bukan kuniang dek kunik, bapantang lamak dek santan, one of the minangkabau characters is firm in preserving the identity and ethnicity. this means that black is not caused by charcoal, yellow is not caused by turmeric, and delicious is not caused by coconut milk. as the ethnic minangkabau practice merantau, living in other countries, they have many interactions and adaptation with other ethnic groups. however, the proverb ‘dimana bumi dipijak disitu langi dijujung’ means ‘do as the romans do’, but the preservation of cultural identity is equally important as the adaptation of the culture. as per their proverb, “masuk kandang harimau mangaum, masuk kandang kambing membebek” means “coming into a tiger cage one ought to roar, coming into a goat cage one ought to quack.” the ideology needs values system preserved under strong power intervention and when the autonomy was started, the wish to return to nagari directly come up. an external factor is a continuous and merciless intervention of the colonial and national governments in an unsynchronic format. in the minangkabau context, the notes of dynamic dialects between the local and national dialects took a considerable amount of time. as a minority population of indonesia, the minangkabau have contributed many public figures in all fields during the establishment of the republic of indonesia (chaniago, 2010; ajisman, 2011; saydam, 2009; zed et al, 1998). one of the indicators is the fact that three of the four founding fathers of indonesia, except sukarno, were minangkabaus. these men are muhammad hatta, sutan sjahrir, and tan malaka (hasanuddin, 2019). during the formation of a state, minangkabau contributed many ideas, including the fourth pillar of pancasila and the people’s consultative assembly (mpr). hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 43 both concepts are applied in the nagari system. according to umar kayam (1989), minangkabau ethnicity is the only ethnic group that has a tradition of democracy. the concept, however, has been marginalized and ignored. as a result of this condition, the revolutionary government of republic of indonesia (prri, 1958-1961) escalated to an ultimatum of disintegration if it is not addressed. that movement was destroyed by sukarno draconianly (bahar and zulfan, 2004; kahin, 2005; hasanuddin, 2018)). in light of this situation, minangkabau people have been embarrassed and humiliated and have lost their self-confidence. despite the efforts to restore ‘selfesteem’ during the suharto era, nagari governments are still not establishing their identity. as a result of the reformation order, the pancasila democratic system nearly collapsed to be replaced by a liberal democratic system that legalized the direct election of village heads. according to article 1 paragraph (2) of the original 1945 constitution, the people’s consultative assembly is sterilized to function as the executor of the people’s sovereignty. the nagari was previously the highest autonomous political unit at the regional level, a mini state, but due to the intervention of the colonial and national governments, it has been degraded to the lowest government. various foreign models like territorial unit system and vise versa village system has interfered—not to say ‘spoiled’—their nagari system. due to its adaptation, the egalitarian and democratic systems have become weaker as well as their critical strength has diminished. after such a prolonged intervention, the young generation has lost the knowledge and the cultural memories of the principles of the customary order of things. the results of many foreign influences, as well as the influence of islamic values strongly embraced by the minangkabau people up to now, have caused numerous transitions such as extended family becoming nuclear family, as well as changes in the systems of marriage, inheritance, father’s authority versus uncle, etc. (hasanuddin, 2017). consequently, the young generation today considers learning minangkabau culture to be similar to learning a foreign language. consequently, the fears of the minangkabau culture becoming extinct can serve as a great source of energy to mobilize the return to nagari movement when the opportunity arises. the “return to nagari” requires the construction of a comprehensive system and organization, as well as the revitalization of the operational and functional values. during the reconstruction process, it is important to take into account the elements of material infrastructure as well as social structures guided by the original ideology. as a traditional social and political unit, nagari constitutes the highest level of autonomy. the prerequisite of the nagari autonomy is that it has the infrastructure as regulated by the nagari law, that consists of 16 articles, they are: bakorong-bakampuang, basuku-banagari, babalaibamusajik, bahuma-babendang, balabuahbatapian, basawah-baladang, bahalamanbapamedanan, dan bapandam-bapusaro)(navis 1984, 91-92). bakorong-bakampuang means that a nagari must have a territory with a certain boundaries. besides that, basuku banagari, a nagari must have a population of at least four clans. the meaning of babalai bamusajik indicate the existance of nagari government that covers the legislative, executive, and judicative that is centered in balairung (customary hall) as a facility for government, meeting, and law enforcement. and musajik (mosque) as facilities for education, worship, and religious education. bahuma babendang is the requirements for the existence of fortress (huma) and the lightning system (bendang). in addition, there are other requirements related to transportation facilities and their management, as well as traffic, trade, and sanitation facilities as indicated by balabuah (roads) and batapian (irrigation and sanitation facilities). agriculture land is another more important facility as mentioned in the phrase basawah baladang (rice field and garden) as the community economic basis as well as its management process and its inheritance law. similar to the neighborhood association system, the management of parties, sports, and games (bahalaman-bapamedanan). finally, we have the ritual of handling death and the public cemetery (bapandam bapusaro). the social structure of the nagari is characterized by family system, kinship, politics, and government. nagaris are given the opportunity to be different from one another as defined in the principle of “adat salingka nagari,” which means they are able to enforce customary laws within the scope of their respective nagaris. there are two main models of the government, known as lareh nan duo. they are lareh koto piliang (aristocracy) hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 44 and lareh bodi chaniago (democracy) (azwar et al. 2018, 2019, 2020). the nagari has assimilated with islam since the 13th century. the nagari develops the autonomous government system, independent disputes resolution, tiered deliberative body system from the lowest level (from paruik, kaum, suku up to nagari, the participation of male and female adult, and the principle of consultation for a total consensus (keddie, 1987). social political unity and the highest territory have been replaced by the lowest government unit equivalent to the village as a result of functional change, castration of the customary institutions and the use of external forces in an attempt to eradicate the local and traditional institutions which have existed for hundreds of years (zed, utama, and chaniago; 1998). all must be revitalized. in this modern age, maintaining the traditional characteristics seems strange since more than half of the population lives in other parts of indonesia (chadwick, 1991), yet a return to nagari remains a viable option. in spite of the many new problems that arise regarding the return to the nagari institutional structure, including the merging of previously divided areas into villages, the nagari multiethnic problems, the limitations of nagari resources, control by investors over customary land assets, and the control of finance and administration (mccarthy, 2005; warman, 2010; beckmann, 2013), the desire to return cannot be stopped. ‘return to nagari’ is not a merely a nostalgic idealism. the nagari that is desired has double functions, besides the smallest administration unit, it is also the highest customary institution. according to the philosophy and the customary code of adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi kitabullah, “the customs are based on religions, and religions are based on the qur’an”, the al quran was used as the superstructure ideology to guide the practical implementation of the return to nagari as wished. in this study, it appears that the discourse ‘return to nagari’ serves as a special response to indonesian decentralization policies (vel and bedner, 2015), whereas bali assumes decentralization is an integral part of indonesian policy, as a result of which political power toward the central government is broken (nordholt, 2007). the findings of this study are supported by the research conducted by zainal arifin (2017) about nagari ba-ampek suku, and by azwar et al. as a result of such a special response, nagari governance values are revitalized in its birth land of west sumatra, while also preventing disintegration from the central government. this research indicates that the provincial regulation 7/2018 regarding the nagari, while not yet implemented, follows the customary principles of ideal nagari in minangkabau. in that local law, the functional structure has been restored (a) ninik mamak serves as a matriclan who essentially holds the mandate of the people’s sovereignty (his nephews in the nagari), (b) revitalizing the representative deliberation system, and (c) restructuring the customary institution (kan), head of nagari and customary nagari court, which reflect the prototriad politics of minangkabau. thus, this provincial regulation 7/2018 cancels the previous practiced structure (the provincial regulations 9/2000 and 2/2007) considered unsuitable since it is not based on local culture. nevertheless, all kan members except for ninik mamak must be excluded from the organization. governments at the local level, such as the regency and municipality, should develop a follow-up policy. recommendation model a text analysis has revealed that the nagari desired model should refer to a traditional indigenous construction, such as the banyan tree whose roots are the people, the stem is the units of people organized into four clans, and the branches and leaves are the people’s representative and consultative assembly. therefore, the structure of the nagari institution should be (1) the people’s consultative assembly known as kan whose members are the ninik mamak (public figure) of the clan, act as people representative (for their own clan) at the same time as the executor of: people power, legislative function, election of the head of nagari and head the nagari justice, (2) the kapalo nagari (nagari government), consists of head of nagari assisted by assistants to execute the legislative functions, and (3) the paradilan nagari (nagari court), consists of head, clerks, judges as the executor of judicative functions that can be filled by all components of community that meet the required competencies. that model is depicted in the illustration (figure 1). the illustration in figure 1 can be explained as follows: (1) the people or the population consists of hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 45 graded matriclan units: samande (the smallest family unit consists of a grandmother, several mothers and her bothers, the children from the mothers); saparuik (combination of several samande families); sakaum (combination of several sparuik families); and sasuku (combination of several sakaum families). (2) a nagari must have at least four matriclans. a matriclan is lead by a chief named by pangulu. (3) there are four professional human resources in each nagari, namely: the intellectuals (cadiak pandai), the religious public figures (alim ulama), the female public figure (bundo kanduang), and the youth (parik paga). (4) all pengulu are the members of the consultative institution (karapatan pangulu/ kp), as a representative institution (lembaga perwakilan/ lp) and at the same time functions as a deliberative assembly (majelis permusyawaratan/ mp), and the executor of the nagari legislation. they have the highest power and authority. (5) the kapalo nagari (head of nagari executive) and the paradilan nagari (head of the nagari justice) are elected by and responsible for the kp/ lp/ mp institutions. the above explanation shows that conceptually, the result of this research proves the concrete relation between the discourse with the identity, the reality, and the social relation (also multicultural politics and other social dimensions). ideas, attitudes, actions and social realities are recorded from the discourse and to be represented in texts. further more, the discourse has a dialectic relation with the social, law, culture, and humanities dimension. the discourse contributes to the social relation construction, criticize it, and do some conceptual improvements needed for a better social order. in other words, discourse directs the social structure formation historically, shows a diachronic change, and is one of the aspects of the social practice. v. conclusion as can be seen from the description above, it is not easy to return to the nagari. the road has been quite winding and will continue to be so. this study demonstrates that for the minangkabau local government system, the textual construction of figure: the illustration of banyan tree genealogical structure of the nagari institution hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 46 ‘nagari’ as the home to return to ‘kembali’ should be improved for perfection. central government commitment and policy have created an opportunity, related policies are continuously improved; local policy formulation is inevitable. the program of ‘return to nagari’ must be based on indigenous principles, which include genealogical, historical, territorial, capital, customary, democratic, and administrative principles. destruction on one element will loosen all the joints. there is a strong unity among geologic clans in order to unite all population with their own leader, who represents their aspirations and is part of the supreme power in the people’s consultative assembly (kan). it is the historical unity that allows all people to be connected to a customary, cultural, and ethical network. the genealogic and historic unity is related to strong acquisition of the territorial area. the territory is the capital for ensuring the welfare of all people in the nagari. in traditional societies, the management of population and territory is governed by custom. the custom decides that the decision is made democratically: consultation for consensus, including for choosing the head of nagari. as part of modern management systems, only the administration aspect can be accepted as a new value. this finding highlights the importance of discursive practices in showing actors’ awareness of their culture that will lead them to express clear cultural-political attitudes towards the state. the status of their cultural traditions is under threat, so we are mobilizing them to revive, maintain, keep, consolidate and revitalize their identities. actors’ perceptions of intercultural relations polarize due to weakening historical understanding and reduced active involvement in their development. as a result of the multicultural interaction, differences do not have to be abolished, however, a dynamic reformation must be encouraged and each other must be completed. the choice is not to adopt each other but to maintain a dynamic tension between them (fay, 2002). thus, indonesia, which is both vertically and horizontally complex (like america and india), is using multiculturalism as an ideology both internally and externally. on an internal level, the operation of that ideology is manifested as revitalization of the primordial values, enrichment of those values through multicultural interaction, and affirmation of relationship construction as a synthesis. it operates externally by accommodating the ideology within a national or global framework that tolerates difference, supports equality, and promotes democracy. despite the fact that both orientations of the operational ideology are needed at the same time, ethnic identity affirmation serves as a ‘differentiating’ factor on the one hand, while integrating it into multiculturalism serves as a ‘enriching’ factor on the other. hence, multiculturalism can serve as a mosaic or a meaningful flower garden, as well as revitalizing nagari government systems in their homeland, including west sumatra, is a way to value indonesian multicultural nationalism in its fullest form. this study is still limited to a descriptive and prescriptive description of the nagari and its ideal and operational governmental structure. further studies that should be done are (1) the variant of the nagari political system that is different form one to another, which significantly summarized in the metaphor: adat salingka nagari (the custom in the scope of nagari), with the various leadership system and autocratic, democratic, and or deliberative government, (2) the structure of the nagari government as 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indoneisia number 23/2014 regarding the regional government the constitution of the rupublic of indoneisia number 32/2004 regarding the regional government the script of the 1945 basic constitution of the republic of indonesia tirtosudarmo, riwanto. 2007. mencari indonesia: demografi politik pasca soeharto [looking for indonesia: the post-soeharto political demographics]. jakarta: lipi press. tokawa, kenji. 2015. ‘indigenous legal traditions and canadian bhinneka tunggal ika: indonesian lessons for legal pluralism in canada,’ the journal of legal pluralism and unofficial law. doi: 10.1080/07329113.2015.1072387. vel, j.a.c. and a.w. bedner. 2015. ‘decentralisation and village governance in indonesia: the return to the nagari and the 2014 village law.’ the journal of legal pluralism and unofficial law, 47 (3): 493-507, doi: 10.1080/07329113.2015.1109379. warman, kurnia. 2010. hukum agraria dalam masyarakat majemuk: dinamika interaksi hukum adat dan hukum negara di sumatera barat [agrarian law in a pluralistic society: the dynamics of interaction between customary and state law in west sumatra]. jakarta: huma; beckmann, 2013 op.cit. westenenk. 1918. ‘de inlandsche bestuurshoofden ter sumatra’s westkust’, kt 2: 673-693, 828-846 [accessed may 15 2021]. zed, mestika, eddy utama, and hasril chaniago. 1998. sumatera barat di panggung sejarah 1945– hasanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 50 1995 [west sumatra on the stage of history 1945–1995]. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. zed, mestika. 1996. nagari minangkabau, dan pengaruh sistem kolonial [the nagari of minangkabau, and the influence of the colonial system]. genta budaya 3 (i). padang: yayasan genta budaya. the legislations: • the script of the 1945 basic constitution of the republic of indonesia • the constitution of the republic of indonesia number 5/1979 regarding the village • the constitution of the republic of indonesia number 22/1999 regarding the regional government • the constitution of the republic of indonesia number 32/2004 regarding the regional government • the constitution of the republic of indonesia number 23/2014 regarding the regional government • the constitution of the republic of indonesia number 6/2014 regarding the village • local regulation of west sumatra province number 9/2000 regarding the basic provision of the nagari governance • local regulation of west sumatra province number 2/2007 regarding the essence of the nagari governance • local regulation of west sumatra province number 7/2018 regarding the nagari nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 19 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 23, 2023 final revision: may 03, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 language variations based on the level of formality in spoken communication are not only determined by particular words or morphosyntax but also phonological elements. the concept of formality itself is considered the most important dimension of the variety of styles or registers. this study aims to describe the forms of facultative liaison in present-day french communication and liaison consonants formed by the linking process, to explain whether facultative liaison is still a marker of formal variety, and to reveal the factors that influence its use. this research is a sociolinguistic study with qualitative data using 15 recorded speeches by several politicians (formal) and 21 vlogs from french youtubers (informal) with a total duration of 6 hours. the results of this study show that facultative liaison is used much more in formal than non-formal communication. most forms of facultative liaison are a series of verbs être + determinant, auxiliary verbs être/avoir + participe passé (past participle), noun + adjective. it can be concluded that the more formal the communication, the more facultative liaisons are used. the liaison consonant [t] appears the most often, and the dominant factors in the use of facultative liaison are stylistics including formality, shared knowledge, etc, the sensitivity of formality, and the linguistic intuition of the speaker. keywords facultative liaison, style/register, formal variety, french oral communication correspondence e-mail: sajarwa@ugm.mail.ac.id article facultative liaison as a formal register marker in french oral communication nani kusrini1, sajarwa sajarwa2, b.r. suryo baskoro3, hayatul cholsy4 1french education department, universitas lampung, indonesia 2-4french french litterature, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.19-23.2023 i. introduction gilbert la rocque (1943 – 1981), a canadian writer said ‘il y a un langage pour chaque situation’ (every situation has its own language). in daily life, the language used adapts to the situation. the language used in meetings with colleagues is different from the one used when bidding on goods in the market. the difference in language is based on more than just the situation. nababan (1984), pateda (1987), and chaer (2010) explain that differences in region, group or social conditions, language situations, level of formality, and differences in years and times can cause language variations. meanwhile, this language diversity is also not only caused by heterogeneous speakers but also by the social interactions that are carried out. the term to refer to this difference is commonly called a register. register has many definitions. its definition that is widely known includes language varieties related to certain fields of work (wardhaugh, 2002), language variations based on the domain (coupland, 2007), and language settings about what language is used for (halliday in coupland, 2007). the same thing is expressed by moreau (1997) that the term register refers to linguistic variations adapted to certain social situations. more narrowly, register, which is a variety of language used for a specific purpose, is associated with, among other things, the level of formality of communication (hartman and stork in alwasilah, 1993). the term speaking style, which william labov first introduced in a sociolinguistic context, is used to refer to a style of speech associated with a particular social group, time, and place (coupland, 2007). so, in this case, the register can be equated nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 20 with style because it also refers to the level of formality. the same opinion is confirmed by holmes (1992) and trudgill (1974) in gadet (1996) that the registered concept can be equated with the style concept, which refers to language variations that reflect changes based on situational factors such as place, time, and topic of conversation. formality itself has become the concern of linguists and sociolinguists, and the formal/informal dimension is even referred to as “the most important dimension of variation between styles” (heylighen and raele, 1999 in pavlick, e. & tetreault, j, 2016; li, h., cai, z. & graesser, a.c., 2013). however, there has yet to be common understanding of formal language. some define formal language depending on situational factors (rokhman, 2013) such as social distance and shared knowledge (sigley, 1997; hovy, 1987; lahari et al., 2011 in pavlick, e. & tetreault, j, 2016). meanwhile, according to labov (1972) in akhtar, r. & riaz, m. (2019), the assumptions underlying the definition and formal approach are mostly characterized by “attention to special forms” such as the number of adjectives (fang & cao, 2009) or abbreviations (abu sheikha & inkpen, 2011) in pavlick & tetreault (2016). heylighen and dewaele (1999) define formality as “avoidance of ambiguity” and then formal power is defined as something that is “separate”, “impersonal”, “objective”, “explicit” and less “context-dependent” and “vague”. “. the definition of formal or informal language is determined by many factors including certain linguistic forms, situations, shared knowledge, the social distance between speakers, and less depending on context. regarding formality, french recognizes several register classifications called niveau de langue (gadet, 1996). they are generally classified into three, namely le registre soutenu (formal variety), le registre courant/standard (standard variety), and le registre familiar (colloquial style). apart from lexical, morphosyntactic and semantic elements, linguistically phonological elements can also be markers of language variation (antoni et al, 2019; zuleha, 2010; nandra & reniwati (2006) in gustina et al, 2018). it is also conveyed by bouten & gadet (2003) that language register depends not only on word choice, but also on changes in phrases, the use of tenses and modes. the non-linguistic phenomena also play a role in determining the level of language such as facultative liaisons, the adverbial form ne in negation, and interrogative types. words in utterances often sound different when pronounced one by one. in speech, these words are pronounced sequentially, so these sounds can undergo a number of phonetic modifications in a certain manner that are influenced by the surrounding sounds, especially at word boundaries (oladipopo, 2014). in french, the words in speech are bound together as if without pauses. speakers who pronounce five or six words sound like only one. this connection of sounds also sounds beautiful because sentences flow smoothly by eliminating sounds that can produce discordant sounds and avoiding hiatus (palsgrave, p. 1530 in laks, 2014). there are several processes of connecting sounds in a speech in french. one of them is liaison which is defined as the pronunciation of a silent consonant at the end of a word when it is followed by a word that begins with a vowel sound in a phrase (abry & abry, 2007; grevisse & goose, 2008; kamoun et al., 2016; gadet in ferrat, 2012). for example, the phrase beaucoup à faire when pronounced individually [bo.ku][a] [fεʁ] becomes [bo.ku.pa.fεʁ]. sometimes a silent consonant can change into another consonant, for example, the phrase les enfants [le] [ɑ̃fɑ̃] which becomes [le.zɑ̃. fɑ̃]. this process produces the sound [z] as a link between the two words that make up the phrase. linking phenomena such as liaisons can be found in other languages such as english. however, a significant difference lies in their classification. liaison in french is classified into three, namely mandatory (obligatoire), facultative/optional, and forbidden (interdite). the factors underlying the realization of liaison in speech are broadly divided into two, namely linguistics (lexical, prosodic, morphosyntactic) and sociolinguistic (stylistic, speech situation, regional origin, socio-cultural, age, etc.) (fougeron et al, 2001; eychenne, 2014 in racine & detey, 2016). facultative liaison or free variation reflects the speaker’s choice to carry out a liaison or not, but its realization depends on many factors. in addition to linguistic factors, the realization of this type of liaison is also influenced by sociolinguistic factors including age, area of origin, level of education, social status, and variety of languages (malecot, 1975; booij & de jong, 1987; de jong, 1987 in chevrot, et al, 2013; racine & detey, 2016; liégeois, 2017). nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 21 concerning language variety, besides showing naturalness in speaking, facultative liaison can be used as a differentiating factor between colloquial variety, standard variety and formal variety. this is confirmed by the opinions of delattre (1966), agren (1973), anderson (1975) in fougeron et al. (2001) and kamoun and ripaud (2017) that facultative liaisons are found in many formal registers (recherché, élaboré, soutenu, soigné). in other words, the less formal the register is, the less facultative liaison is used (abry & abry, 2007). so, it can be concluded that facultative liaison can be a marker of formal variety. it is also evidenced by the results of the study by addadecker et al. (2012) who used the nccfr corpus, that very little facultative liaison is realized in conversations between students or between friends (informal). several studies have been conducted to look at the use of liaisons over a long period, among others, by leon (2007) and ashby (2003) in dugua & baude (2017), the result of which is that there is a decrease in the use of the number of facultative liaisons with increasing time. similar research was also conducted in the context of public speech, especially by french male and female politicians, including by encrevé (1988), villejuif (1975), hpol corpus 1 and 2 which were then analyzed for trends by laks & peuvergne (2017) with the result that during 100 years, the use of mandatory/ obligatory liaisons has been relatively stable, while the use of facultative liaisons has decreased. in addition, there is a difference in the realization of liaison between male and female political figures, namely by 13% and the use of facultative liaisons has decreased by less than 40%. from the results of these studies, a significant decrease in the use of facultative liaison indicates a stylistic difference, especially in the realm of political speech. in other words, the role of facultative liaison as a style marker might change. moreover, laks (2014) strengthened since the occurrence of social and cultural divisions in 1968, linguistic stratification increasingly abandoned. developments in the field of technology have given rise to many forms of public speech not only by political figures but also by artists, and intellectuals in the media sector, all of whom fill the auditive space of french speakers and can also be in the form of vlogs or podcasts as is currently developing. the public speech itself is the main observatory to find out developments or changes in the field of phonology as stated by encrevé (1988) in (laks & peuvergne, 2017) that political speech conveyed through the mass media is the main object of linguistic and sociolinguistic research. from several differences of opinion and research results regarding the use of facultative liaison, it could still be conceivably hypothesized that this type of linking in french oral communication may still mark the formality of the situation of communication or in other words, facultative liaison may still become the formal register marker. meanwhile, the classification of liaison on several references is different. it indicates that liaison is also dynamic. in addition, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no research has compared the use of liaison in the context of public speech with entirely different levels of formality. it is essential to know the realization of the current context. therefore, this study aims to describe the forms of facultative liaison in public speech in different contexts, namely formal and informal, the forms of facultative liaison used, and the factors underlying their use. ii. methods it is sociolinguistic research that aims to explain the forms and factors that underlie the use of liaison facultative in french public communication. for the data source, 36 monologue videos published on youtube in 20212022 with a total duration of 6 hours were used and divided into two criteria: formal and informal. for the formal category, the data is in the form of recorded speeches for 3 hours in 15 videos from french political figures, namely french president emmanuel macron (em), exprime minister jean castex (jc), and french politician marine le pen (mr). meanwhile, for informal communication data, 21 vlogs from the most popular french youtubers were used with a total duration of approximately 3 hours, namely cyprien (cp), norman (nr), and natoo (nt). the data in this study are all forms of facultative liaisons pronounced by these characters. the data will be encoded in the form for example (5/ fm/jc/2) which means the fifth data in the formal category from jean castex in the second video. the listening method was used for data collection by listening to the use of language and then proceeding with note-taking techniques. after transcribing speeches and monologues from thirty-six videos, all forms of liaison were nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 22 identified by repeatedly listening to the recordings. a native speaker did the validity of this data. all liaison forms were collected, analyzed and classified according to grevisse & goose’s latest classification. the structures of forms included in the mandatory group according to grevisse & goose (2008) are determinant+adjective, determinant+noun, subject+verb pronouns, verbs+pronoun en/y, after the forms c’est and il est (impersonal), monosyllabic adverbs (negation), after monosyllabic prepositions and certain compound words/expressions. while the forbidden group consists of a singular noun + adjective, after the conjunction et, plural nominal elocutionary, the ending -es in the second person singular conjugation. t h e facultative liaisons are forms that are not included in both lists. after facultative were collected, an analysis was then carried out to determine the combined patterns (structures) and the liaison consonants used. meanwhile, a deeper analysis by comparing situations, speakers, and other aspects through references studies was held to answer questions about the function of facultative liaison as a marker of formal registers and the factors behind the use of facultative liaison. iii. results after the data from the monologues is collected, they are classified based on the word categories that make up the optional liaison. the results of the analysis are presented in table 1 and table 2. from 21 vlogs with a duration of 2 hours 59’3”, 34 forms of facultative liaison spread in five types of structure were obtained. the most common structure found in the informal category is a sequence of verb être + words that follow (determinants, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and pronouns) or 59% of the total data, followed by verbs être/avoir + participe passé (26%) and verb + verb/infinitive (15%). meanwhile, for the category of formal communication, the facultative liaison structure classification is shown in table 2. of the 15 videos in the formal category with a total duration of 3 hours 1’ 39,” there were 173 forms of facultative liaison identified. based on the analysis, this amount can be classified into 12 structures. identical to informal contexts, the most common facultative liaison structures are verb être + which follow (determinants, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns) (23%) followed by verbs être/avoir + participe passé (20%) and plural nouns+ adjectives (14%). iv. discussion forms of facultative liaison one of the objectives of this research is to identify the structure or form of facultative liaison in formal and informal communication in french. from the total duration of monologues in formal and informal contexts, 173 data were obtained respectively spread over 12 types of structures and 34 data within 5 structures. similar liaison structures are most found in both communication contexts: combination of the verb être + which follows (determinant, adjective, adverbes, prepositions, and pronoun as well as the verb être/avoir + partcipe passé. here are some examples of the formation of facultative liaison in the most common sequence found in both formal and informal contexts: a) verb être + which follows. être is an auxiliary verb that occupies a predicate in a sentence and can be followed by several other word categories, namely determinants, adjectives, table 1. forms of facultative liaison in a formal context no. structures number of data example(s) 1. verb être + words which follow (determinant, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun) 20 je suis͜͜ ‿hyper content, s’ils étaient‿amoureux, 2. verb être/avoir + participe passé 8 vous avez‿investi là-dedans, mon problème s’est‿envolé 3. verb+verb/infinitive 5 nous allons‿écouter ça doit‿être dur à vivre 4. plural noun+adjective 1 les étoiles‿évanescentes 5. verb+adverb 1 j’avais‿environ dix-sept ans total 34 nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 23 table 2. forms of facultative liaison in an informal context no. structures number of data example(s) 1. verb être + words which follow (determinant, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun) 40 les défis sont‿immenses (adj), il est à votre écoute dès maintenant (prep), 2. verb être/avoir + participe passé 35 le peuple français s’est‿exprimé et me fait l’honneur […], les calédoniens ont‿été appelés, 3. plural noun+adjective 24 des batailles‿idéologiques, les jeunes‿actifs, aux questions‿ institutionnelles 4. verb + words which follow beside verb/ infinitive (adverb, preposition, determinant, pronoun) 20 omicron […] doit‿encore s’amplifier (adv/11), les maires ruraux ont‿un rôle crucial (det/2) 5. verb + verb/infinitive 16 notre projet présenté en 2022 doit‿ allier fermeté et unite, toutes les sensibilités politiques du pays doivent‿oeuvrer. 6. adverb + words whivh follow (noun, participe passé, preposition, verb, adjective) 12 je suis résolument‿ optimiste (adj), le minister d’outre mer est actuellement‿en nouvelle calédonie (prep) 7. conjunction (mais) + words which follow 10 mais‿une obligation 8. conjunction (et) + words which precede 6 de notre peuple tant‿ et si bien, nous prendrons soin de celles‿ et ceux 9. relative pronoun +subject pronoun 4 dont‿ il faut bien le dire, 10. adjective + adjective/preposition 3 sa taxe foncière tout‿ en accusant, 11. noun +preposition 2 dans les semaines‿à venir 12. preposition + preposition 1 dès à present j’appelle tous les français total 173 adverbs, prepositions. according to grevisse & goose’s classification (2008), the structure of c’est is an abbreviation of ce (demonstrative pronoun) and conjugation of être and is classified as mandatory liaison. the c’est structure functions, among others, to represent someone or something. in the informal register, this form is mostly used in everyday spoken language where the pronunciation is connected with the word that follows it. whereas the use of the verb être in other contexts is categorized in facultative liaison as in the example below: consonant of the word était and became [e.tε.tyn]. b) verb être/avoir + past participle. french knows the tense system, namely the present, future, and past tense which is marked by a change in verb as a predicate. the past tense in french is indicated by the pattern avoir/ être + participe passé in the predicate as the following example. the determinant in this sentence is indefinite article une. together with the verb être, , the determinant is in the verbal phrase. the linking between verb and determinant creates a [t] silent the sentence above is in past tense (le passé compose). if the verbal phrase avez investi is pronounced separately, it becomes [ave] and [ɛvεsti], while the two elements are connected, it is pronounced [a.ve.zɛ.vεs.ti]. the connecting consonant is [z], forming an open syllable [zɛ]. grevisse & goose (2008) breaks down facultative liaisons or liaison recommendée into 3, nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 19 facultative liaison as a formal register marker this study used data sources that were classified into two types of communication based on context, namely formal and informal. the duration for informal communication is 2 hours 59’ 34” while for formal communication it is 3 hours 1’ 30”. with almost the same length of duration, the total number of facultative liaison forms is significantly different, namely 34 and 173. in addition, the number of combined structures is also different, namely 5 and 12 for each context. analysis conducted by laks & peuvergne (2017) shows that the difference in the use of liaison by political figures (formal) and in the pfc corpus (non-formal) is only 5%. if it is said that the use of obligatory liaison is relatively stable, then the difference between formal and informal contexts will not be too great. however, in this study, the opposite result was obtained. the difference between the two is very large, up to 81%. these results strongly confirm that the role of facultative liaison in speaking style or register differentiation is very significant dan supports the opinion of arby & arby (2007), hamon (1983), and grevisse & goose (2008). on the other hand, these results contradict the opinion of laks (2014) which states otherwise. the french typology that combines words in utterances gives rise to this merging process. liaison, especially facultative liaison, apart from playing a role in creating ease or fluency in pronunciation, this form can also be a differentiator among registers, and this type of liaison marks formal registers, as argued by bouten & gadet (2003). factors influencing the use of facultative liaison in contrast to modern french, the final consonant of the first word was pronounced. since the 16th century, word-ending consonant lost their phonetic value (bennet, 1991). in this case, liaisons bring back the final consonant of a word when a vowel sound ifollows it. in addition to these historical factors, dellatre (1955) details several other factors that underlie the use of liaison, especially facultative liaison, namely phonetic, prosodic, syntactic, and stylistic factors. for phonetic factors, liaison is more often formed in vowel sounds than consonant sounds. for example, the nominal phrase des nations unies (37/fm/em/2) [denasjɔ̃zyni] whose last word ends namely a sequence of verb + adjective (attribute), auxiliary verb of third person + participe passé, and quand/dont + word that follows. meanwhile according to abry & abry (2007) the optional liaison` are plural nouns+ adjective, verb + verb/prepositions, preposition + determinants/ polysyllables adverbs. there are structures in both lists completed by these findings namely être + preposition/ determinant/ adverb/ adjective/ pronoun, so it is not only followed by an adjective or preposition but also adverb/ preposition/ determinant/ pronoun. likewise, with the conjugation of auxiliary words (avoir/être) + participe passé which according to grevisse & goose (2008) is limited only to the first person. this form can also be found in the conjugation of auxiliary words for the second and third person. in addition to these differences, there are several facultative liaison structures that are also not found in these references, namely between conjunctions (mais) + words that follow, conjunctions (et) + words that precede, nouns + prepositions, preposition + preposition detailed in tables 1 and 2. as previously explained, a consonant is needed to link the two words in a liaison. it can come from the final consonant of the first word or another consonant. these forms are usually called liaison consonants. the following table describes the consonants used in forming the facultative liaisons in this study. table 3. liaison consonants liaison consonant informal formal total [t] 24 106 130 [z] 10 64 74 [p] 0 2 2 [n] 0 1 1 34 173 207 the most common liaison consonants are [t], [z], [p], and [n]. consonants [p] and [n] only exist in formal contexts. the consonant liaison [t] is found in sequence using verb être for the third person and the word that follows it. the results of this study corroborate the results of the research by dugua & baude (2017) that if the consonant /z/ liaison dominates for all types, both mandatory and optional. on the other hand, specifically for the facultative liaison, the /t/ consonant is found the most because it is largely contributed by the use of the auxiliary words être and quand. nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 20 situation at hand. wardhaugh (2002) emphasized that you can speak very formally or informally, your choice being governed by circumstances. in the context of this study, the speeches delivered by emmanuel macron who is the current president of the french republic, jean castex the former prime minister of france, and marine le pen a french woman politician are embodied in official situations, namely state speeches or speeches at political party meetings addressed to the wider french community, mainland french and also french citizens outside mainland europe. meanwhile, the communication made by french youtubers is addressed to particular groups, especially their subscribers, in a everyday situation, which is also marked by the use of the subject pronoun tu for their vlog. the results of the analysis show that facultative liaison is used more by french political figures in the form of speech which is categorized as a formal communication situation compared to french youtubers in the opposite category, thus strengthening arby’s opinion (2007) that the more informal a variety of language is, the fewer forms of facultative liaison are used. in other words, this facultative liaison can be one of the defining characteristics of the formal variety of spoken communication in french. on the other hand, the notion of formality itself has many sides. formality according to heylighen (1999) and dewaele (2000) in li, et al. (2013) is divided into two, namely surface formality and deep formality. surface formality is defined with attention to the form respecting the convention or the form itself, while deep formality is intended for a clear understanding, clear and precise. liaison itself is a linguistic phenomenon in french whose rules are binding on the community of users. french presidents, political figures, and youtubers are part of the french-speaking community who use liaison as the existing convention (although there are some violations), and also use facultative liaison which is more in the formal variety. especially for leader, presidents and prime ministers, as essential figures in a country or government, the use of good language or according with standards or conventions should be present in them as leaders. in addition to communication situations or settings and language conventions, the use of formal or informal varieties is also influenced by the topic being discussed. this is emphasized by labov (2006), stolarski (2013), ernestus et al in a vowel sound is linked more often than if it is consonant, such as in des secteurs économiques (144/fm/mr/) [sεktœʁzεkɔnɔmik]. this can be seen in the amount of data. prosodically, the formation of liaison can also be influenced by the length of the elements being linked, the intonation of the sentence, and also stress. according to delattre (1955), plus les adverbes ou prepositions sont courts, plus ils lient (the shorter the adverb or preposition, the easier it is to combine). for example, the sequence of an adverb consisting of one syllable + determinant in the sentence que ce soit à la maison, dans un restaurant […]’ (fm/jc/1) is linked more strongly than the sequence of polysyllable adverb + preposition in le ministre d’outre mer est actuellement en nouvelle calédonie (80/ fm/ em/4). that is the reason why the sequence polysyllable adverbes+ words which follow is classified into the facultative liaison group. meanwhile, from the syntactic factor of connecting words in utterances using liaison, there are specific rules so that obligatory, facultative and forbidden liaison forms emerge. liaison is formed in meaning groups, noun phrases, verbal phrases, and prepositional phrases (abry & abry, 2007). the importance of syntactic cohesion between the first and second words in liaison is also emphasized by hutin et al (2022) and grammont (1914) in laks & peuvergne (2017), who say that if there is no cohesion then there is no liaison. the example sentence ‘sa maison‿est grande, linking maison and est with the consonant liaison [n], is included in the forbidden liaison because sa maison and est grande are different phrases. according to delattre (1955), liaison is also partly regulated by the degree of closeness in the compound words. the level of closeness of this sequence can be seen from the possible gaps that exist. for example, the probability of a pause between grands hommes [gʁɑ̃zɔm] in the phrase ses deux grands hommes (fm/em/4) is smaller than that in conséquences immediates [kɔ̃sekɑ̃szimedjat] (56/fm/em/2) because of the ties in grands hommes stronger than in conséquences immédiates. stronger bonds are classified as obligatory liaisons, and vice versa. among these factors, in this study, stylistics is an essential factor. it is emphasized by delattre (1955) that the speaking style is the dominant factor in the use of facultative liaison. someone chooses a language style based on the communication nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 21 (2015), kouwenhoven et al (2015) in koppen et al (2016) that the topic of conversation is one of the parameters that determine the variation of formal or informal language. if the speaker and the speech partner have the same shared knowledge about something, then the speaker does not need a lot of effort so that the speech partner can understand the message being conveyed. therefore, the choice of language will certainly fall on every day (non formal) language. instead, they will use formal language to avoid ambiguity or misunderstanding. so, the topic of discussion (knowledge) conveyed by political figures becomes a factor that determines the choice of language or way of speaking. when conveying matters related to the state and society, for example, government policies, the covid-19 pandemic, and the war between russia and ukraine, the presidential election is something that is not necessarily known or understood by the general public, so attention and clarity are needed in delivery. in contrast to the topics of conversation conveyed by youtubers about traveling, parties, fashion, and so on, in short, these things are consumed by young people. to avoid misunderstandings or for the sake of clarity of the message, the debit or the number of words per unit of time also plays a role. the discharge between formal and non-formal languages is different. in a formal context, the language is pronounced clearly and carefully either in reading or in direct speech, which is different from the informal context. formal language is characterized by attention to special forms, and for this reason, speakers try to use standard forms (labov, 1972 in heylighen, 1999). the difference in liaison realization in the context of discharge is proven by adda-decker, et al (2012) that liaison realization (including facultative liaison) decreases with increasing speech speed. it can be concluded that speaking discharge affects the realization of liaison, namely that facultative liaison is more formal in variety with standard discharge. in addition, leon (2007) in dugua & baude (2017) suggest that among young people, there is a secondary accent in communication, often expressive so that the liaison is lost or not realized. although in total the realization of facultative liaisons in the formal group is more than in the informal group, there are still differences in the realization among individuals. when compared between the use of facultative liaison by jean castex (jc), emmanuel macron (em), and marine le pen, it is known that the french president uses this type of liaison more than others. table 4 shows the comparison of the numbers between the three. table 4. comparison of facultative liaison in formal context number of realisation duration average (in seconds) jc 54 72 minutes 59 seconds 81 em 95 69 minutes 25 seconds 43 mr 24 33 minutes 15 seconds 83 if boë & tubach (1992) in chevrot et al (2013) use the number of words to express the frequency of liaison, namely every 16 words, in this calculation the unit of seconds is used for each facultative liaison realization. from the table above it is known that every 43 seconds there is 1 form of facultative liaison used by em, while almost twice longer for jc and mr. regarding to the difference amount of facultative liaison used by these three politicians despite the same context of communication, it can be assumed that other factors also take part. researches by de jong (1994) in racine & detey (2017), malécot (1975), ashby (1981) in hutin et al (2022) prove that age is also a factor that determines the use of liaisons and that liaisons are more widely used in older people. meanwhile, grevisse & goose (2008) stated that liaisons are used more by people who come from outside paris. if it is related to the age factor and the place of origin, this does not seem appropriate because em is the youngest and jc is also from outside paris. apart from these individual characteristics, moreover facultative means whether it can be used or not, the differences in the use of facultative liaison in formal contexts are also inseparable from among others the preference, the speaker’s sensitivity to the formality of a communication situation, or the speaker’s linguistic intuition as conveyed by hutin et al. (2022). related to individual characteristics, gender is also an important factor but due to the lack of data, it is not discussed in this research. in the gender context, the results of previous studies resulted in branching conclusions. analysis from malécot (1975) and booij & de jong (1987) in hutin et al (2022) show that facultative liaison is more used by women, while ashby (1981)’s result nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 22 is the opposite. meanwhile durand et al. (2011) in hutin et al (2022) found that there is no statistical difference in the use of the two. for conclusions, the use of facultative liaison in the context of public speech in formal and informal contexts shows a very significant difference in number. this indicates that this form of liaison still plays a significant role in distinguishing styles, especially in public speeches. the most common forms of morphosyntactic found between the two contexts tend to be identical. in addition, apart from linguistic factors, factors of the communication situation such as the level of formality, shared knowledge, speaker’s sensitivity of formality and linguistic intuition determine the use of this type of liaison. v. conclusion many factors determine success in communicating. sociolinguistic competence is characterized by the mastery of many variations according to the social context. the use of particular forms is not related to right or wrong but is more or less precise (lister, 1996). likewise, according to grevisse & goose (2008) that the use of appropriate registers for certain communication situations is a social demand. their inappropriate use may represent a deviation from the norm of conduct. this study shows that the role of facultative liaison as a style differentiator and as an utterance to expedite speech as well as to eliminate hiatus in oral communication, especially in the context of public speech, is still very relevant. even though the number of uses of facultative liaison in formal and informal contexts is much different, the morphosyntactic categories of each constituent word tend to be identical for the two communication contexts. the results of this study are not exhaustive, with more data sources from different figures it is very possible to obtain a more varied form of linking. a deeper study of speakers’ individual reasons and speakers’ attitudes towards the use of facultative liaisons might clarify more about this phenomenon. references abry, d & abry, j. v. (2007). phonétique : technique et pratiques de classe. paris: cle international adda-decker, m., delais-roussarie, e., fougeron, c., géndrot, c., lamel, l. (2012). la liaison dans la parole spontanée familière : explorations semi-automatique de grand corpus. revue française de linguistique appliquée, 17(1), doi: 10.3917/rfla.171.0113 alwasilah, a.c. (1993). pengantar sosiologi bahasa. bandung: angkasa akhtar, r. & riaz, m. (2019). formality in academic writing: investigating stylistic competence of undergraduate efl learners. university of wah journal of social science, 2 (1). pp. 01-20 antoni, c., irham, rosni, g. (2019). language variation in minang colloquial language spoken in kabun region : sociolinguistics study on millennial citizens. jurnal arbitrer 6(2), p.92-98. doi : 10.25077/ar.6.2.92-98.2019 bennet, w. (1991). liaison in french, word 42:1, 57-88. doi : 10.1080/00437956.1991.11435832 boutet, j. & gadet, f. (2003). pour une approche de la variation linguistique. le français aujourd’hui, 4(143), p.17-24 chaer, a. & agustina, l. (2010). sosiolinguistik : perkenalan awal. jakarta : rineka cipta chevrot, j-p., ddugua, c., harnois-delpiano, m., siccardi, a., spinelli, e. (2013) liaison acquisition : debate, critical issues, future research. language sciences 39, p.83-94. doi : 10.1016/j. langsci.2013.02.011 coupland, n. (2007). style : language variation and identity. cambridge : cambridge university press delatour, y., jennepin, d., léon-dufour, m., teyssier, b. (2009). nouvelle grammaire du français : cours de civilisation française de la sorbonne. paris : hachette delattre, p. (1955). les facteurs de la liaison facultative. the french review 29(1), pp. 42-49 ferrat, s. (2012). l’usage de la liaison et l’entrée dans la lecture. mémoire de recherche. master metiers de l’éducation. université orleans. https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr. diakses tanggal 7 februari 2021 pukul 15:20 nani kusrini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 23 fougeron, c., goldman, j-p., dart, a., guélat, l., jeager, c. (2001) influence de facteurs stylistiques, syntaxique et lexicaux sur la realization de la liaison en français. 8ème conférence traitement automatique des langues naturelles. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02437268 gadet, f. (1996). niveaux de langue et variation intrinsèque. palimpsestes : revue de traduction, p.17 40, doi : 10.4000/palimpsestes.1504 grevisse, m & goose, a. (2008). le bon usage : grammaire française. bruxelles : éditions de boeck université gustina, l., nadra, manita, r. (2018). phonological variation in serawai language that used by minangkabaunese and serawainese in kota manna south bengkulu. jurnal arbitrer 5(1), p.816. doi : 10.25077/ar.5.1.8-16.2018 hamon, a. (1983). grammaire pratique : guide pour tous. paris : usuels hachette heylighen, f. & dewaele, j. m. (1999). formality of language : definition, measurement and behavioral determinants. internal report centre ‘leo apostel’. free university of brussels. kamoun, c & ripaud, d. (2017). 100% fle : phonétique essentielle du français niveau b1-b2. paris: didier kamoun, c & ripaud, d. (2016). 100% fle : phonétique essentielle du français niveau a1-a2. paris : didier koppen, k., ernestus, m., van mulken, m. (2016). the influence of social distance on speech behaviour : formality variation in casual speech. corpus linguistics and lingusitic theory doi : doi. org/10.1515/cllt-2016-0056 laks, b. (2014). diachronie de la liaison en français contemporain : le cas de parole publique (19992011). liégeois, loïs. (2017). acquisition des liaisons nominales et verbales : de la léxicalisation à l’abstraction des construction. langue française 194, pp.125-144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26449147 li, h., cai, z.& graesser, a.c. (2013). comparing two mesures for formality. proceeding of the twenty sixth international florida artificial intelligence research society conference lister, r. (1991). question forms, conditionals, and second person pronouns used by adolescent native speaker across two level of formality in written and spoken french. the modern language journal, 80(2), pp.165-182 moraz, m. et prikhodkine, a. (2011). phonétique et approche actionnelle : une mise en pratique. revue a contrario, 1(15). 99 – 116. moreau, m. l. (1997). sociolunguistique : concept de base. mardaga : édition de mardaga nababan, p.w.j. 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(2002). an introduction to sociolinguistics. new jersey: blackwell publishing i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 430 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 31, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 final revision: december 7, 2024 accepted: december 10, 2024 while many studies have explored passive constructions in indonesian, there is still a significant gap in research focusing on distinguishing passive clauses and categorizing them into canonical and non-canonical forms. this study aims to address this gap by identifying different types of passive clauses in indonesian and classifying them into these two categories. the primary objectives are to establish clear criteria for validating the existence of canonical and non-canonical passive forms and to provide evidence supporting their distinction.to achieve these aims, we first analyze markers on indonesian verbs, particularly the prefixes di-, ter-, and unmarked (zero) forms. the data used for this analysis consists of naturally occurring expressions and clauses sourced from the leipzig corpora. this data is examined through the lens of the (non)-canonical theory of passivization. the findings indicate that the dimarker on verbs predominantly signals canonical passive constructions. however, there are cases where the diform shifts to non-canonical usage, especially when the agent is obligatorily present and cannot be syntactically demoted to an oblique role. in contrast, the terform and the unmarked form, which can denote either a bare active (ba) or a bare passive (bp) construction, consistently represent non-canonical passive constructions. keywords non-canonical passive constructions, unmarked form, oblique role, passive types, verb markers correspondence e-mail: nyoman_udayana@unud.ac.id article canonical versus non-canonical passives in indonesian i nyoman udayana1, i nyoman aryawibawa2, i made madia3 1-3universitas udayana, denpasar, bali, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.430-440.2024 i. introduction in natural languages, passive clauses are generally regarded as derivatives of their active counterparts (huddleston and pullum 2005: 26). fundamentally, active clauses serve as a universal type found in all natural languages worldwide. nevertheless, distinctions arise between active and passive clauses concerning morphology and semantics. not all active sentences across languages exhibit morphological uniformity (legate 2021; keenan 2013; shibatani 1988). in some languages, the active status of a clause is marked on the verb, while in others, the verb remains unmarked. this variability also extends to passive sentences. in some languages, passive constructions feature explicit markers on the verb, whereas in others, the verb remains unmarked. for example, manggarai, a language spoken in east nusa tenggara, is considered to have passive constructions, yet the verbs in these clauses lack any passive marking (arka & kosmas 2005). another language of the type is acehnese (legate 2012, 2021). semantically, passive clauses derived from active clauses typically involve valence reduction. specifically, a trivalent verb in an active clause becomes divalent in its passive form, and a divalent verb in an active clause becomes monovalent in its passive form. however, given the variation in passive forms across languages, not all sentences classified as passive undergo changes in valence. our study focuses on indonesian, a language in which passive formation is governed by verb morphology. this characteristic has led to its classification as having morphological passives (keenan, 2013), setting it apart from the periphrastic passives commonly found in other languages. canonical passives in indonesian are defined by the presence of passive morphology and the application of the passive principle, particularly the demotion of the agent. however, not all passives adhere to these criteria; those that deviate are categorized as i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 431 non-canonical passives. a significant study on indonesian passives identified instances where passive clauses exhibit unique properties, emphasizing the importance of distinguishing between canonical and noncanonical forms. in the following, we review key studies on indonesian passives to provide a comprehensive foundation for our analysis. in her seminal work on the object-creating rule in indonesian, chung (1976) identifies two distinct passive constructions in the language. first, she analyzes the dipassive, where the object of the active clause is promoted to the subject position, while the original subject is demoted to an adjunct role and is no longer considered an argument. chung also examines another construction, which she classifies as a passive form, referred to as the object preposing construction. she argues that this construction aligns with passive derivation because the object of the active clause assumes the subject position, while the agent of the active clause is retained. sneddon et al. (2010) support this classification, identifying the object preposing construction as a type 2 passive construction. however, arka & manning (1998) dispute this interpretation, arguing that the object preposing construction does not qualify as a true passive form. similarly, arka (1998, 2003) contends that a comparable construction in balinese should also not be considered a passive construction. additionally, cole et al. (2010) describe this type of construction in (jakarta) indonesian as passive semu (“pseudopassive”), further distinguishing it from canonical passive forms. alexiadou (2012) and alexiadou and schäfer (2013) categorize passives in english and other european languages into two types: canonical passives and non-canonical passives. canonical passives correspond to the “be” passive, while non-canonical passives, often referred to as the “get” passive, deviate from the typical features of the “be” passive, as noted by reed (2011). noncanonical passives are so named because they do not fully conform to the standard characteristics of canonical passives. in some cases, they resemble anticausative constructions and share features with middle constructions. while these studies primarily focus on english, the distinction between canonical and non-canonical passives offers a useful framework for analyzing passives in indonesian. udayana (2022) examines indonesian passives and their discourse contexts, highlighting that they are derived from their active clause counterparts. this derivation process results in passive constructions that often exhibit structural differences. a key feature of this derivation is theme promotion, where the theme participant— originally the object in the active clause—is promoted to the subject position in the passive clause. udayana further argues that the theme, if expressed as an indefinite noun phrase (np) in the active clause, must be transformed into a definite noun phrase (dp) in the passive clause. this shift in definiteness ensures semantic continuity between the theme phrases in the active and passive forms, aligning with the principles of information structuring (lyngfelt & solstad, 2006). retaining an indefinite np object as an indefinite np subject in the passive clause would result in an interpretation of two different entities, thereby violating these information-structuring principles. another important observation in udayana’s work (2022) concerns long passives, where the agent byphrase is obligatory in the passive construction. as noted in indonesian linguistics (e.g., sneddon et al., 2010), the use of firstand second-person agents in the by-phrase of long passives is prohibited. however, udayana clarifies that this prohibition stems from pragmatic considerations rather than syntactic constraints. none of the above studies addresses the canonical status of indonesian passive clauses explicitly, which constitutes a gap that the present study aims to fill. ii. method this study is a descriptive analysis focusing on passive clauses in indonesian, particularly examining whether the clauses under study belong to the canonical or non-canonical forms of passivization. data collection the data were gathered from the leipzig corpora collection on indonesian, ensuring the inclusion of naturally occurring expressions and providing authentic data for analysis (hasko, 2013). the primary goal of this data collection is to analyze the natural usage of passive clauses in indonesian, enabling an accurate classification of these clauses as either canonical or non-canonical. i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 432 however, for the purposes of grammaticality judgment diagnostics and tests, example sentences were fabricated or constructed. this is because the passive counterparts of active clauses found in the leipzig corpora so far did not include the relevant sentences needed for the analysis. theoretical framework the theoretical framework employed in this research is based on the concept of canonicity in passive structures, as theorized by legate (2021). this framework offers a comprehensive approach to understanding the variations and usage of passive clauses in the indonesian language. by applying legate’s theory, the study aims to contribute to the broader understanding of passive constructions and their canonical status in within linguistic research in general and specifically in the context of indonesian. iii. results data collected from the leipzig corpora on indonesian uncovers the presence of two distinct types of passive clauses in the language: the canonical passive and the non-canonical passive. this differentiation becomes apparent through the three markings on the verbs, as illustrated in table 1. table 1 active-passive voice markings on the indonesian verbs no type of verbs markings on the verb 1 active verbs men-x and ∅-x 2 passive verb di-x, ∅-x, and ter-x (where men-, ∅, di-, and terare diathesis prefixes while x is the verb root) table 1 shows that ∅--x lacks any markings, presenting it in two forms: active and passive. these forms are specifically denoted as bare active (ba) and bare passive (bp), respectively, according to nomoto (2018, 2021). this is consistent with voskuil’s (2000) claim on the voice forms of indonesian, though the glossing is different. iv. discussion diathesis forms: menand ∅forms before discussing the distinction between canonical and non-canonical passive clauses in indonesian, it is essential to first examine the two active diathesis prefixes: menand ∅. the men prefix is designated as an av (agentive-focus) marker, consistent with a similar phenomenon observed in both indonesian and balinese. for example, arka and manning (1998) discuss this phenomenon in the context of indonesian, while arka (1998, 2003) and udayana (2013) explore its application in balinese. menform (leipzig corpora): as implied by its name, the ∅form is expressed as the empty counterpart of the men form, as illustrated in (2) with the verbs in bold. the zero form is glossed as bare active (ba) following nomoto (2018, 2021). it is important to note that the ∅ form shares the same structure as the bare passive (bv) form, but the distinction lies in the subject function it co-occurs with, specifically in relation to either an agent or a theme role. this distinction becomes evident in cases involving non-canonical passive constructions. ∅form (leipzig corpora): canonical passive passive constructions can be analyzed through verb morphology (legate, 2021; haspelmath, 1990; haspelmath & sims, 2021). in this context, legate i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 433 the agent remains an agent but is demoted and no longer written as a verb argument in the passive clause. thus, sentence (4a) is a canonical passive. the remaining clauses (4b-c) also share this characteristic, being canonical passive clauses. the fact that the agent in the passive clause no longer serves as an argument of the verbal predicate is evident because the by-phrase can be omitted. thus, sentence (4a), for example, can be rewritten as in (5). (2021) identifies three properties as characteristic of canonical passives. (3) canonical passive: (a) agent demotion: the agent is present in meaning but not as a noun phrase in its typical syntactic position. instead, the agent is either implied as ‘someone’ or included in a ‘by’-phrase. (b) theme promotion: the theme is promoted from its lower syntactic position, where it is interpreted as a theme, to the grammatical subject position. (c) morphological marking: the verb morphology is distinct from that of the active voice. dipassive the dipassive meets the criteria required by the principles outlined above. first, the agent, is relegated to an oblique function and simultaneously serves as an adjunct (a non-argument function), which can be syntactically omitted. second, the theme is promoted from an object function to a subject function. third, the verbal morphology changes from the menform to the diform. thus, the passive counterparts of the sentences in (1a) can be rewritten as (4). sentence in (4a), for example, has been transformed into a passive clause. the verb marker menin the active clause is replaced by the marker di-. the subject of the active clause, dia ‘(s)he,’ which has the semantic role of agent, now occupies the oblique adjunct position. the object of the active clause, jalan menuju tangga eskalator ‘the way leading to the escalator stairs,’ which has the semantic role of theme, now occupies the grammatical function of the subject. although the agent in a passive clause is no longer an argument, as indicated by the deletion of the by-phrase in the surface syntax, semantically it can still be interpreted existentially as ‘somebody’ (legate, 2021). additionally, the existence of the agent argument associated with the event is implied. thus, when the short passive is embedded within a purposive clause, the agent of the purposive clause is semantically related to the agent of the matrix clause, which points to the agent of the event. in other words, the agent of the verbal predicate associated with the purposive clause is controlled by the implied agent of the passive clause. sentence (5) can be represented as in (6) to show the embedded purposive clause. in (6), the agent cannot be linked to the np subject of the main clause, even though the subject is human. instead, it must be connected to the implicit agent indexed as j, the subject of the active clause counterpart. the absence of an agent in sentence (5) can be demonstrated by the insertion of an agent-oriented adverbial such as dengan sengaja ‘intentionally’. however, it becomes ungrammatical if the adverbial i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 434 is realized as a non-agent-oriented adverbial, as shown in (7). non-canonical passive the characteristics of non-canonical passive clauses are automatically the opposite of the characteristics of canonical passive clauses. legate claims natural language may exhibit a passive is categorized as non-canonical if it does not fulfill either one or two of the properties of the canonical passives postulated in (3). generally, we can say that if a language has two passives, one must be canonical and the other non-canonical. additionally, if a passive form splits into two different types, one must be canonical and the other non-canonical. indonesian broadly possesses three passive forms: the dipassive, the terpassive, and the bare passive. the last two belong to the non-canonical category. as we will show, the di-passive splits into two subtypes: the dipassive with a demoted agent and the di passive with a non-demoted agent. according to legate’s theory, the first subtype is canonical, while the latter is non-canonical. as depicted in table 1, indonesian ultimately has three forms of non-canonical passives: the terpassive, the bare passive, and the non-demoted agent dipassive. in the following, let us examine each of these three non-canonical passives in turn. terpassive as shown earlier, passives are a derived construction. they are related to their active equivalents. intuitively, the terpassive may be derived from the active form or from the associated men-. the sentence in (8) can then be transformed into either the dipassive or the ter-passive, depending on our requirements and the context. if our choice is the former, the resulting construction is a canonical passive. if the option depends on the latter, a non-canonical passive will result. thus, the sentence in (8) has its passive counterpart as in (9) like the dipassive, the agent denoted by the by-phrase can be dropped in the terpassive. however, we have argued that while the di-passive is canonical, the terpassive is non-canonical. this raises the question of why the terpassive is considered non-canonical. according to its semantic criterion, the ter-passive is associated with unintentional actions, in contrast to its dipassive equivalent. therefore, if the non-canonical passive clause in (10) is combined with an adverbial of intention, the resulting clause becomes ungrammatical (reed 2011; alexiadou 2012; alexiadou & schäfer 2013; fox & grodzinsky 1989). sentence (10) is ungrammatical because the action is performed unintentionally, and the agent is considered absent at a certain level of representation. therefore, unlike the dipassive, the agent in the terpassive is perceived as lacking control in a purposive clause, as shown in (11). this alignes with the get passive being a non canonical cannot control into a purposive clause (see fox & grodzinsky 1998: 327 as cited in alexiadou & schäfer 2013: 6). with the agent unable to control the event named by the predicate in the purposive clause, it suggests that the purposive clause must be selfcontained, as illustrated in (12). i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 435 & schafer 2012, reed 2011). thus, compare the following contrast: another test to show that the agent is not intentionally involved in the action has to do with the inability for the subject of the clause to refer to overt reflexive anaphor (fox & grodzinsky 1989). again this runs counter to the situation with the di passive. this is illustrated in the following contrast. the inability of the terpassive to combine with reflexive pronouns clearly indicates that the agent of the action is not implicit and, in some sense, is either non-existent or absent. the intuition with this is that the ter passive often implies some level of agentivity or control on the part of the subject. for instance, in the sentence john menyebabkan dirinya tertembak “john got himself fired,” john is perceived as having some role in causing the action. however, this agentivity can complicate the relationship between the subject and a reflexive anaphor, making it less compatible because the reflexive anaphor typically requires the subject to be purely the recipient of the action, not the instigator. in contrast, the di passive typically lacks this agentive implication. it presents the subject more straightforwardly as the recipient of the action, which aligns well with the use of reflexive anaphors. for example, john ditembak oleh dirinya sedndiri “john was fired by himself” is more semantically neutral and doesn’t imply that john actively caused his firing, making it compatible with the reflexive. a characteristic tied to the terpassive, being a non-canonical passive, is that it pertains to achievement, not to accomplishment (which aligns with the dipassive). this is similar to the get passive in english (alexiadou 2011, alexiadou the terpassive, which is linked to achievements, is incompatible with adverbials of duration, reflecting its deviation from the typical non-canonical passive. the non-deviational nature of the terpassive is evident in its interpretation as an adjectival form, as seen in (15a). however, in (15b), replacing it with the diform would not yield a semantically acceptable result. in indonesian, there is a close relationship between the terpassive and anticausatives. consider the following examples: in many languages, anticausative and inchoative constructions often overlap. both describe situations where a subject undergoes i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 436 a change of state, and in many cases, the same verb form can be used in both constructions. for example, “the ice melted” can be seen as both anticausative (no external agent is mentioned) and inchoative (the process of melting began). inchoative is commonly expressed in indonesian with berform. thus (16b) can be rewritten as. pendukung ali berpecah menjadi dua, yaitu: syiah dan khawarij. the berform in turn associates more with the middle voice in indonesian (see beavers & udayana (2023)). another property worth mentioning here with respect to the terform or the terpassive is that the terform has the same form as superlative adjective marker indonesian. this property is compatible with the perfective verb form in english in that the terform in indonesian complies with adjectival passive in english (17). in (19a), also refers to the fact that the verb base itself has no adjectival status, so both the ter passive and the dipassive are allowable. however, (19b) has adjectival manifestation the use of the di form is ungrammatical while the the terform is impeccable. importantly, the terform in (19b) is lexicalized as a definite article marker. bare passive bare passive as the name suggests relates to the fact that the verb under discussion has no marking on the verb. and because of this characteristic the verb so used is glossed as bare passive bp verb (nomoto 2021). the usage of this verb can be illustrated as in the following examples: the terform that is associated with the adjectival form status can manifest in the terform indicating different category of a modifier, a definite marker. there is the only one particular example that we find in indonesian, the form involving the base verb sebut ‘mention’. (18a) disebut is a canonical passive making the use of the base verb grammatical. an attempt to replace the diform with the ter-form results in an unacceptable clause (18b). the debate over the bare form verb, as exemplified in (20), has become a significant i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 437 topic in indonesian linguistics. unlike in english, where topicalization does not alter the voice of the clause—as seen in sentences like ‘i like pizza’ and ‘pizza i like’—the situation is different in indonesian. those who argue that the movement of the object in indonesian is a form of topicalization, similar to english, should consider the following contrastive sentences, which illustrate what is known as a symmetrical voice system (see riesberg 2014, himmelmann & riesberg 2013, riesberg & primus 2015 for more information on voice symmetricality) the similarity between the two clauses is twofold. first, both appear to be intransitive. in (22a), the clause seems intransitive because the object is understood generically, implying that the associated object refers to people in general— specifically, jono and tono, who are both assumed to be bodyguards. in (22b), however, the intransitivity of the verb form is specifically tied to the reciprocal construction. second, the distinction between the bare forms in each clause is clear: (22a) has a bare active construal, whereas (22b) has a bare passive construal. this raises the question of why the form pukul in (22b) belongs to the passive diathesis. the evidence that ‘pukul’ in (22b) relates to a bare passive construction is that, if the same verb form were reduplicated in an active-active manner, the resulting sentences would not yield a reciprocal interpretation. this is demonstrated by the ungrammaticality of the resulting sentence. the examples provided in (21) do not clarify whether the same form is associated with both the bare active and bare passive voices. in english, the translation of these forms can often remain identical, typically resulting in an active interpretation. for instance, even though (21b) is marked with an av (actor voice) prefix, as in saya memberikan yenny soto ayam, the structure in (21b) can still be interpreted semantically as an active clause. however, sneddon et al. (2010), as noted, argues that a sentence like (21a) actually constitutes a passive construction in indonesian, specifically what he terms ‘passive type 2.’ in contrast, the diform, as in saya diberikan yenny soto ayam, is categorized as ‘passive type 1. given this situation, the challenge now is to provide evidence that the bare form, as in (21a), is indeed passive. at first glance, it is clear that the bare form can function as either a bare active or bare passive, as noted by nomoto (2021). when the bare form is combined with the av form, it further reveals an ambiguity between an active and a passive interpretation. consider the following contrast: if (23a-b) were associated with a dedicated reduplicated form to indicate the plurality of the action, the verbs in question would have to take an overt object noun phrase (np). this means that the reduplication not only marks the plurality of the action but also necessitates the presence of an explicit object to maintain grammaticality. i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 438 that the bare form in (25) relates to passive diathesis (pertaining to reciprocation) is well supported by old javanese, as illustrated by the examples in (26). at first glance, the constructions in (28) resemble the bare passive in (20), which might lead us to assume they exhibit the effects of the symmetrical voice system, where the agent is retained in diconstructions, making them look like active clauses. however, both constructions share a key feature: they satisfy the requirements for a passive construction by foregrounding the patient of the previously associated active clauses. this foregrounding links both constructions to a passive operation, even though again the agent is retained. consequently, legate (2021) refers to these as noncanonical passives. the second interpretation that may link the bare passive to the diform with an undemoted agent is its information packaging effect, particularly with first and second person subjects. recall that sneddon et al. (2010) claims the di passive is prohibited with first and second person agents, except when the agent is undemoted, as in buku saya beli and buku dibeli oleh saya. in these cases, the first construction is allowed, while the second is not, leading to what he calls passive type 2. thus, buku dibeli saya is preferred over buku itu dibeli oleh saya. the same principle applies with second person subjects. v. conclusion in indonesian, the passive voice is categorized into different statuses. the dipassive, where the agent is expressed as an oblique argument, represents the canonical passive form. this form clearly indicates a typical passive construction. however, when the diform is used with an agent that cannot be expressed as the object of a preposition (and thus cannot be omitted), it constitutes a non-canonical passive. the non-canonical passive forms also include the terform and the bare passive form. the bare form appears in two ways: it can indicate an active verb construction where the object np (noun phrase) occupies the post-verbal syntactic position, or it can involve the agent np immediately preceding the verb. in the latter case, the verb remains unmarked by any prefix, reflecting a bare passive construction. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in data in brief and that the current work does not involve human the reduplication of the verb with the same root but different in voice marking (passive-active) is strategized by indonesian to adopt a reciprocal construction. this seems to be a language-particular phenomenon. in other natural languages, a clause such as the one in (27) the reduplication of the same active form yields a reciprocal construction as exemplified by godié (kru, niger-kongo, côte d’ivoire) (by marchese 1986:231) found in maslova & nedjalkov (2005). dipassive + undemoted agent as discussed earlier, verb forms marked with dicombined with an optional by-phrase are typically identified as canonical passives. however, the diform can also indicate non-canonical passive constructions, particularly when the agent is not demoted to an oblique position. this deviation from the canonical pattern occurs when the diform retains the agent in its original syntactic position, as illustrated in the following examples: i nyoman udayana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 439 subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement i nyoman udayana: draft the main sections of the manuscript, including introduction, methods, results, and discussion, incorporate feedback from co-authors and external reviewers, handle the submission process and respond to reviewers’ comments; i nyoman aryawibawa: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, writingoriginal draft preparation, reviewing and editing; i made madia: contribute specific expertise having to do with theoretical framework, literature review, or specialized knowledge related to the study, write or enhance the background, theoretical framework, and conclusion). review the manuscript for technical accuracy and provide additional references or resources. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references appiah, k. r., ankomah, c., osei, h. y., & hattoh-ahiaduvor, t. 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(1988). voice and grammatical relations in indonesian: a new perspective in proceedings of international lexical-functional grammar conference (lfg 98). m. butt & t. holloaway king (eds.). stanford, ca: central study of language and information. arka, i wayan & kosmas, jeladu. (2005). passive without passive morphology? evidence from manggarai in the many faces of austronesian voice systems: some new empirical studies.arka, i wayan and malcolm ross (ed.), pp 87-117. pacific linguistics. beavers, john & udayana, i nyoman. (2023). middle voice as generalized argument suppression: the case from indonesian. natural language and linguistic theory, 41(1): 1-52. doi: 10.1007/s11049-022-09542-5 cole, peter, hermon, gabriella, & tjung, yassir. (2006). is there pasif semu in jakarta indonesian? oceanic linguistics 45 (1): 64-90. doi:10.1353/ol.2006.0009 chung, sandra. (1976). an object creating rule in bahasa indonesia in linguistic inquiry, 7 (1): 41 -87. fox, danny & grodzinsky, yosef. 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(2015). agent prominence in symmetrical voice language. stuf language typology and universals 68 (4): 551-564. https://doi.org/10.1515/stuf-2015-0023 shibatani, masayoshi. (1988). passive and voice. amsterdam: john benjamims publishing company. sneddon, james neil, adelaar, alexander, djenar, dwi noverni, & ewing, michael c. (2010). indonesian: a comprehensive grammar. london: routledge. udayana, i nyoman. (2013). voice and reflexives in balinese. ph.d. dissertation the university of texas at austin. udayana , i nyoman (2022). the indonesian dipassives and discourse context. journal of language teaching and research, 13 (6): 1304 1312. voskuil, j.e. (2000). indonesian voice and a-bar movement. in paul, ileana, vivianne phillips, and lisa travis (eds.). formal issues in austronesian linguistics, 195-212. dordrecht: kluwer. satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 8 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: january 24, 2023 final revision: may 04, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 the language aspect in cultural preservation focuses more on the arts and social systems. in fact, language as a connecting medium for arts and social systems also needs to be preserved. in this regard, this study seeks to language use documentation of the mentawai language in the mentawai islands regency, specifically in dialect varieties. it is intended to find out the situation and condition of the language, make language maps, and determine the varieties of the mentawai language in the mentawai islands regency. the research data were taken from 200 swadesh’s basic vocabularies and 200 cultural vocabularies by means of direct interviews. comparison of research data is based on seven observation areas, namely mongan poula, maileppet, muntei, madobag, sioban, matobe, and makalo villages. this study uses a dialectological approach with quantitative and qualitative methods. in this case, the quantitative method is in the form of dialectometric calculations, while the qualitative method is a description of the situation and conditions of the mentawai language according to the language map. as a result, the mentawai language in the mentawai islands regency has two dialects, namely, the sipora pagai dialect and siberut dialect. all two have a dialectometric percentage of 51—80%. keywords dialect varieties, language map, dialectology, mentawai language. correspondence e-mail: tengku.syarfina@usu.ac.id article mentawai language variations in the mentawai islands regency, west sumatra province satwiko budiono1, rita novita2, tengku syarfina3 1-2national research and innovation agency, jakarta, indonesiaia 3universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.8-18.2023 1. introduction culture preservation is closely related to the language preservation. this is because language is included in one of the culture elements in accordance with law number 5 of 2017 concerning the culture advancement. all elements of culture are related to one another, including language. from several cultural elements, language preservation belongs to cultural elements which have specificity in appropriate government policies of law number 24 of 2009 concerning flags, languages, and state symbols, as well as the national anthem. the existence of special policies in the field of language, both the development of indonesian and local languages preservation, makes language have an important role as indonesia’s intangible wealth. this can be seen from the existence of 718 languages identified in indonesia (national agency for language development and cultivation (2019). even so, many local governments pay little attention to language, especially their local language. one example is in the mentawai islands regency. several cultural elements that are part of the duties education and cultural office of the mentawai islands regency are museums, cultural heritage, history, and oral traditions. language matters are not included in the scope of local government’s performance (education and cultural office, 2019). in fact, there is a regulation of the minister of home affair number 40 of 2007 concerning guidelines for regional heads in the preservation and development of national and local languages. in this regulation, the obligation to preserve and develop local languages rests with the local government itself. this is unfortunate because the satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 9 mentawai people are famous for their many oral traditions (coronese, 1986; spina, 1981; tulius, 2012). starting from oral traditions about disaster preservation, social systems, customs, to fables. in this regard, this research seeks to add to effort to mentawai language preservation by documenting the mentawai language use in the mentawai islands regency, particularly dialect variations of the mentawai language. this is because the local government has confusion in determining the standard dialect of the mentawai language so that local content in several elementary schools in the mentawai islands regency only contains the culture or what is commonly called the mentawai culture lesson (saleleubaja, 2019). determination of the mentawai language dialect as a standard if it can be determined from the language map. the use of the most dialects in linguistic situation and conditions in the mentawai islands regency can be the reason for determining the standard dialect. that way, this research has a real impact on society besides contributing to the mentawai language preservation effort. on the other hand, this research belongs to updating the situation and linguistic conditions of the mentawai language in the mentawai island regency. this is because the distance between this study and previous research has a gap of 30 years, so it is necessary and important to remap the mentawai language use nowadays. in addition, the research novelty can also be seen from the verification of mentawai language mapping data in mentawai islands regency. this condition is based on differences in terms of the number of dialects and names from previous research. this is known from the language map images included in the lenggang, zainudin hr (1978), muhajir (1988), and wagner (1989). from the language map contained in lenggang, zainudin hr (1978), it can be seen that the mentawai language consists of four dialects, namely the north siberut, south siberut, sipora, and sikakap dialects. the sikakap dialect is the naming of dialects on north pagai island and south pagai island. language maps of observation areas and the dialect categories results can be seen in figure 1. figure 1: mentawai language dialect map (1978) figure 2: mentawai language dialect map (1988) satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 10 results figure 1 is different from the language maps of muhajir (1988). in his language map, muhajir described the mentawai language as having five dialects, namely the simalegi, simatalu, terukan, sikabaluan, and general mentawai dialects. the meaning of the general mentawai dialect is a dialect that is more common and widely used, such as at the observation area of sioban, sikakap, and muara siberut. the different results are more related to the naming of dialects and the number of observation area compared to the previous language map. the observation area of sikakap, sioban, and muara siberut are grouped according to different dialects lenggang, zainudin hr (1978). however, muhajir (1988) grouping the observation area of sikakap, sioban, and muara siberut into one dialect, namely the general mentawai dialect. language maps of observation areas and dialect categories results from muhajir (1988) can be seen in figure 2. the difference in the language use at the same observation area with the time difference of ten years, can be indicate a rapid change in language. these changes can be caused by several factors. starting from high language contact, easier transportation routes, to educational factors. in fact, pampus in 1989 also described the use of the mentawai language dialect (wagner, 1989). in its language map, pampus takes 13 observation areas. this number is more than the two previous studies. the observation areas and dialect categories results can be seen in figure 3. in figure 3, many people assume that pampus classifies the mentawai language into 13 dialects (the same as the number of observation areas), namely (1) sikakap, (2) sipora, (3) taileleu, (4) maileppet, (5) sarereiket, (6) sila’oinan, (7) saibi, (8) sagulubbe’, (9) paipajet, (10) simatalu, (11) sikabaluan, (12) terukan, and (13) simalegi. based on swadesh’s vocabulary data in the appendix, the authors see that there are many vocabulary similarities between the observation areas so that it is impossible for the mentawai language to have that many dialects. this is because pampus does not specifically mention the number of mentawai language dialects. besides that, there are more observation areas than previous studies. this makes the mentawai language use continue to change according to the development of society and its social dynamics. the novelty of this study is also evident in the comparison of secondary data from statistics of indonesia (2018). this is intended to determine the mentawai language use itself in daily communication. comparison of secondary data by connecting the results of language mapping with the language use in daily communication is also found in research of budiono (2021), syarfina et al. (2022), and syarfina & budiono (2022). this is due to the language use in daily communication based on a survey from statistics of indonesia (2018) can be the basis for the presence or absence of language change in society. in addition, this secondary data also supports whether the community still uses their local language or not. this is important to know because not all people who can speak the local language still use the local language in their daily communication. ii. methods this research belongs to the dialectology research. this is because this study aims to determine the situation and condition of the language in the mentawai islands regency. the situation and condition of the language can be seen by first determining the status of language use in the mentawai islands regency. starting from different figure 3: mentawai language dialect map (1989) satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 11 languages, different dialects, different subdialects, different speech, or no language differences. however, this study only compares mentawai language data so that the status determination is more about dialect status determination. research that compares the dialect variations use is also found in research on javanese dialect variations by budiono (2018) as well as research on dialect variations of the minangkabau language by novita et al. (2021). determination of this status can be used as language documentation material in the mentawai islands regency. informants this research requires informants who understand, use, and have influence on the mentawai language in a dialectological approach. in this case, informants on dialectology research followed the norm criteria (non-mobile, older, rural, and male) according to the field research approach from lauder (2007) and boberg et al. (2018). this is because informants with these criteria can provide local cultural concepts that are still pure and have not been influenced by external cultural concepts. thus, this research obtains results that are in accordance with the actual situation and conditions of the language without any intervention from other cultures or makes it easier for researchers to collect data. the meaning of non-mobile here is that informants rarely travel outside the village. this aims to obtain the purity of mentawai language speakers. the meaning of older is an informants aged >50 years. this age is considered to have understood the concept of mentawai language which is intact and strong compared to the age below it. the meaning of rural is that informants were born and raised in the village without ever changing their place of residence. this is important because informants who frequently change their place of residence will not bring up the uniqueness of the cultural concepts in the mentawai language at the observation area. it is because they have difficulty identifying which ones are typical of their local language. the meaning of male is that informants should be male compared to female. this is inseparable from the wider male domain compared to female who tend to be narrower in the domestic sphere. instruments and data collection this study used an instrument in the form of 400 vocabulary words by conducting direct interviews with mentawai speakers. the vocabulary consists of 200 swadesh vocabularies and 200 cultural vocabularies. in this case, the 200 cultural vocabularies are further divided into 52 body parts vocabularies, 25 kinship system vocabularies, 98 movement and work vocabularies, and 25 task vocabularies. the choice of this questionnaire is due to the fact that some of these cultural vocabularies have the potential to change in all languages. in addition, the same cultural vocabularies is also used as a list of instrument by national agency for language development and cultivation (2019). in collecting data, researchers do interview techniques and direct notes. what is meant here is that researchers conduct interview with informants in the field by directly writing down the results of the answers. this direct recording technique allows researchers to confirm directly so that the data obtained has high validity in accordance with the actual reality in the field. in addition, this study has observation areas at the village level as in previous studies. however, due to limited time, funds, and personnel, only seven locations were accessible for this research. some of those observation areas include (1) mongan poula village, (2) madobag village, (3) muntei village, (4) maileppet village, (5) matobe village, (6) sioban village, and (7) makalo village. the selection of the observation areas is based on the representativesness of the distinctive mentawai language use on each island, both on siberut island, sikakap island, and pagai island. in addition, the selection of seven observation areas is also equated with internal observation areas of national agency for language development and cultivation (2019). it can be said that this study also verified the language mapping results, especially the mentawai dialect variations in the mentawai islands regency. data analysis this study has data analysis in the form of (1) dialectometric calculations, (2) making language maps, and (3) comparison of other language data. in carrying out dialectometric calculations, there is a formula that determines the status of the language. satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 12 this formula is a dialectometric calculations from seguy (lauder, 2007) and is commonly used in dialectology research in indonesia. the dialectometric calculation formula can be seen below. information: s: the number of different observation areas n: number of map comparisons d: difference in vocabulary in percentage results of dialectometric calculations based on the formula above have several categories of language status classification. starting from different languages, different dialects, different subdialects, different speech, until there is no language difference. some of these classification categories are distinguished based on their percentage gain. in this study, the classification category of dialectometric calculations refers to guiter (lauder, 2007). this is because this calculation category is also used in language and language maps in indonesia (national agency for language development and cultivation, 2008). the classification of dialectometric calculation categories can be seen in table 1. to top, and so on. in this study using circular numbering anticlockwise because it adjusts to the distribution of observation areas and geographical conditions. furthermore, the triangular map is also based on the closest observation areas as a basis for comparison. furthermore, comparison of other language data in the analysis of this study uses data from statistics of indonesia (2018). this is known from a village potential survey in which there is data on the language use in daily communication. comparisons between linguistics data based on the dialectological approach and language data in daily communication based on survey results are interesting. this is because linguistic data emphasizes the local language vocabulary that is controlled by the community. meanwhile, language data in daily communication shows whether the local language is used or not in daily communication. even though language speakers can speak local languages, language speakers do not use their local languages, which will be seen in the language data in daily communication. in addition, the comparison of language data belongs to qualitative method and dialectometric calculations belong to the quantitative method according to creswell (2014). iii. result and discussion the discussion section in this study consists of (1) dialectometric calculations, (2) mentawai language dialect maps, and (3) linguistic situations and conditions in mentawai islands regency. dialectometric calculations display the results of data processing from data collection in the field. the results of data processing are presented in tabular form in a concise way to make it easier to find out the results of the existing data. in addition, the results of data processing are also presented in the form of mentawai language dialect maps. this is intended to be able to describe the variations of mentawai language dialects based on their geographical location. not only that, the situation and condition of the language in the mentawai islands regency is based on the language use in daily communication from the survey results by badan pusat statistik (2018) also compared with the results of dialectometric calculations and dialect maps of the mentawai language. table 1. dialectometric calculation no status percentage (%) 1 different language >80% 2 different dialect 51—80% 3 different subdialect 31—50% 4 different speech 21—30% 5 there’s no difference <20% in other hand, making language maps refers to ayatrohaedi (2002) and national agency for language development and cultivation (2018). this is intended to be able to equate the language map in previous studies so that the differences in dialect variations can be seen from the language map. in this case, making a language map begins with making basic map, numbering map, triangular map, to a spider web map. in determining numbering, there are several numbering patterns. starting from zigzag, circular clockwise, circular anticlockwise, from top to bottom, from bottom satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 13 dialectometric calculations the data from this study are compared to one another based on the shortest distance between observation areas. not all observation areas are compared. only the closest observation areas according to the triangular map are compared in dialectometric calculations. this is intended to make it easier to create language boundaries in spider web maps. the following are the dialectometric calculations results listed in table 2. that have dialectometric calculation results that differ only in speech. these results can be seen from the percentage gain of 21—30% between the comparison between muntei and maileppet, the comparison between matobe and sioban, and the comparison between sioban and makalo. these various acquisitions indicate that there is a change in the mentawai language use. this is because the results of the dialectometric calculations in this study only indicated two dialects of the mentawai language. of course, these results are different from previous research which categorizes mentawai dialects into three dialects (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa, 2019). mentawai language dialect map the dialectometric calculation in the form of table 5 in the previous section still requires a description that makes it easier to read the result categories. this is because not all of them can read the results of the dialectometric calculation. for this reason, dialectometric calculations require visualization in the form of a mentawai language dialect map. this is intended to be able to know the dialect boundaries of the mentawai language itself and its distribution. in making the mentawai language dialect map, there are several maps that must be made first. starting from the basic map, numbering map, triangular map, to the spider web map. the basic map is taken from the administrative map of the mentawai islands regency with various adjustments. these adjustments took the form of eliminating administrative boundaries, administrative names, and other administrative markers. after that, the basic map is added cardinal directions, scales, and descriptions. the purpose of the information here is more to the boundaries of areas, such as the indian ocean, the mentawai strait, and the island of sumatra. the basic map in this study can be seen in figure 4. after that, the next map making is a numbering map according to the research observation areas. observation areas are numbered according to a circular pattern anticlockwise. this is because the first numbering is located at the observation area in mongan poula village as an old village. according to the oral tradition that developed in the community, the mentawai people came from table 2. dialectometric calculations no observation area % results 1/2 mongan poula madobag 52.75% different dialects 1/4 mongan poula maileppet 55.25% different dialects 1/5 mongan poula matobes 59.75% different dialects 2/3 madobag muntei 31% different subdialects 2/4 madobag maileppet 43% different subdialects 3/4 muntei maileppet 27.75% different speech 3/5 muntei matobes 38.25% different subdialects 3/6 muntei sioban 34% different subdialects 4/5 maileppet matobes 37.75% different subdialects 5/6 matobes sioban 27.50% different speech 5/7 matobes makalo 33% different subdialects 6/7 sioban makalo 22.25% different speech in the results of dialectometric calculations in table 2 above, it can be seen that only the observation area in mongan poula village has dialectometric calculation results with different dialects from other observation areas. this indicates that there are only two dialects in the mentawai language. most of the dialectometric calculations results show different subdialect results. this can be seen from the percentage gain of 31—50%. these results are known from the comparison between matobe and makalo, comparison between muntei and matobe, comparison between madobag and maileppet, and comparison between madobag and muntei. in fact, there is also a comparison of isolects satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 14 siberut island before spreading to the other islands. the numbering map in this study can be seen in figure 5. next, the closest observation areas are connected by lines to form a triangular map. this is the basis for dialectometric calculation comparisons. what is meant is that the dialectometric comparisons are only carried out at the closest observation area according to the triangular map. in this case, not all observation areas are compared because not all observation areas contact other observation areas. the triangular map in this study can be seen in figure 6. from this triangular map, the comparison of observation areas in dialectometric calculations can be known. this triangular map can be said to be a map with dialect boundaries. the dialectometric calculations results can be easily known through a figure 5: numbering map figure 6: triangular map spider web map. in this case, there is only one thick line marks the dialect boundary between mongan poula village (1) madobag village (2) and maileppet village (4). apart from that the other lines are limited to marking the boundaries of different subdialects and different speech. in accordance with this spider web map, it can be clearly seen that the dialect boundary is divided into two regions between north and south. this condition is the same as pampus research (wagner, 1989) which only has a dialect boundary between the north and south. the spider web map in this study can be seen in figure 7. language situations and conditions the dialectometric calculation results along with the mentawai language dialect map in the previous section indicate that there is a decrease figure 7: spider web map figure 4: basic map satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 15 in the number of mentawai dialects from the three dialects (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa, 2019) into two dialects. however, the results of this study have the same results as the pampus research (wagner, 1989). in this case, the observation area among previous studies is still different. this also causes the results to vary. it would be better if the next research could compare all observation areas in previous studies so that the results could be used as a reference for the situation and condition of the latest mentawai language. based on existing research and language maps, it indicated a decrease in language use. this indication can be proven by looking at data on the language use in daily communication in the mentawai islands regency. the data is taken from the village potential survey (badan pusat statistik, 2018a). of the 43 villages in the mentawai islands regency, most of them still use the mentawai language un their daily communication. only six villages in the mentawai islands regency do not use mentawai language in their daily communication. in addition, there are two villages in the mentawai islands regency where the majority are mentawai ethnic groups, but use indonesian in their daily communication. the table for the language use other than mentawai in mentawai regency can be seen in table 3. in table 3, it can be seen that there are two villages dominated by the mentawai ethnic who use indonesian as their daily communication. this number is relatively small because most of the villages in the mentawai islands regency still use the mentawai language in their daily communication. however, this condition should not be underestimated. this is because the change in the use of the mentawai language into indonesian can spread to various other villages if there is no anticipation from the local government for the mentawai language preservation. this concern is increasing when more and more young mentawai speakers are migrating outside the mentawai islands regency. one of factors that most underlies young mentawai speakers to leave the mentawai islands regency is for education reasons. this is because the mentawai islands regency only has elementary schools to secondary schools. universities do not exist in mentawai islands regency (badan pusat table 3. language use in mentawai islands regency no village dominance ethnic language use 1 bulasat mentawai mentawai 2 sinaka mentawai mentawai 3 makalo mentawai mentawai 4 malakopa mentawai mentawai 5 taikako batak mentawai 6 sikakap minang minang 7 matobe mentawai mentawai 8 saumanganya mentawai mentawai 9 silabu mentawai mentawai 10 betumonga mentawai mentawai 11 bosua mentawai mentawai 12 nemnemleleu mentawai mentawai 13 beriulou nias mentawai 14 mara mentawai mentawai 15 sioban mentawai mentawai 16 saureinu mentawai mentawai 17 matobe mentawai mentawai 18 betumonga mentawai mentawai 19 goisooinan mentawai mentawai 20 bukit pamewa jawa jawa 21 sipora jaya mentawai indonesia 22 sido makmur jawa indonesia 23 tuapejat mentawai indonesia 24 madobag mentawai indonesia 25 muara siberut minang minang 26 maileppet mentawai mentawai 27 muntei mentawai mentawai 28 matotonan mentawai mentawai 29 pasakiat teileleu mentawai mentawai 30 katurei mentawai mentawai 31 sagulubbeg mentawai mentawai 32 saliguma mentawai mentawai 33 saibi samukop mentawai mentawai 34 cimpungan mentawai mentawai 35 sirilogui mentawai mentawai 36 mongan poula mentawai mentawai 37 sotboyak mentawai mentawai 38 bojakan mentawai mentawai 39 malancan mentawai mentawai 40 simatalu mentawai mentawai 41 simalegi mentawai mentawai 42 sigapokna mentawai mentawai 43 muara sikabaluan mentawai mentawai statistik, 2021). this makes young mentawai speakers have to leave the mentawai islands regency to continue their higher education, such as to padang city or other cities in indonesia. satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 16 meanwhile, the community participation rate for schools has been increasing over time. if there is no inculcation of strong values about the mentawai language, it is not impossible that young mentawai speakers who migrate can lose their identity and mentawai language use. this is because young mentawai speakers who migrate certainly not showing their local attributes so they can be accepted by other people. one of the local attributes released when migration is the mentawai language itself. this has an impact on the reluctance of young speakers who no longer want to speak mentawai after returning from migration if the internalization and transmission of mentawai language to young speakers is not strong. this is reinforced by mentawai identity markers such as tattoos that have been abandoned since the government banned them in 1954. this is because tattoos are synonymous with sabulungan beliefs so that people seem to be forced to have a religion that is recognized by the state (febrianti, 2021). only some people still maintain this tattoo culture. meanwhile, some other people no longer have this tattoo marker. in this way, the remaining marker of mentawai identity is the mentawai language use even though the people have migrated outside the mentawai islands regency. on this basis, the development of local content in mentawai culture lessons is very important. this is because learning local content in schools can internalize and transmit mentawai language and culture un a more intensive and integrated manner. the development of local content lesson in the form of mentawai culture needs to be added to mentawai language learning. regarding the selection of a standard dialect that can be used as the basis for learning mentawai language, it is the dialect with the most speakers in the mentawai islands regency. this can make it easier to find teachers and the learning process. referring to the results of this study, dialect variations in the mentawai islands regency are only divided into two, namely the siberut dialect and the sipora pagai dialect. thus, the recommended dialect that can be selected as learning in the mentawai islands regency is the sipora pagai dialect. this is also based on the existence of the bible in the mentawai language which refers to the sipora pagai dialect (lembaga alkitab indonesia, 1993). the bible is used by pastors in worship activities at churches in the mentawai islands regency. in addition, the dialect recommendation which is the standard for the mentawai language, the sipora pagai dialect, is also based on the existence of the indonesian—mentawai bilingual dictionary (khatib et al., 1993) who also choose the sikakap dialect (in this study it was called the sipora pagai dialect). the selection was based on several considerations. first, the number of speakers is more than other dialects. second, christian, catholic, and protestant priests have used this dialect to preach and translate the bible into the mentawai language. third, this dialect is also used by rri padang in its rural broadcast to educate the mentawai people, especially in the agricultural sector. fourth, the area using this dialect is very wide, almost covering the whole of the mentawai islands. fifth, the results of research on this dialect are quite large compared to other dialects. iv. conclusion based on the previous discussion, it can be concluded that the mentawai language has two dialects, namely the siberut dialect and the sipora pagai dialect. this is due to the dialectometric calculation gain of around 51—80%. the siberut dialect is found in mongan poula village, while the sipora pagai dialect is found in madobag, muntei, maileppet, matobe, sioban, and makalo villages. in the sipora pagai dialect, there are two subdialects that can be seen on the dialect map. even so, further research on the mapping of the mentawai language is still needed, especially taking the same observation areas as previous studies so that the research results can be balanced. on the other hand, the dialect count results indicate a decrease in the community language use. this indication was only evident from the differences in the dialectometric results between badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa, (2019) with this research. the difference can be seen from the classification of maileppet village as the southern siberut dialect, while this research classifies maileppet village as the sipora pagai dialect. this is due to dialectometric calculations between maileppet village and other villages in the sipora pagai dialect only up to different subdialect satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 17 references ayatrohaedi. 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(1989). identitaet im wandel auf indonesischen ausseninseln. uubersee museum bremen dan universitas bremen. arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 172 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 9, 2024 final revision: june 21, 2024 accepted: june 23, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 nature or the physical environment is strategically presented as a compelling attraction to persuade tourists to visit a country, including indonesia. while previous studies investigated tourism promotion from persuasive devices like metaphors and adjectives, this study takes a different trajectory by investigating the language of attitudes, identified explicitly from the graduation, in tourism promotion discourse. this study built a specific corpus compiled from articles promoting nature on the official website of indonesian tourism (owit). using sketch engine and wmatrix5, this study aims to identify 1) the types of nature offered on the indonesian tourism promotion website, 2) quantification and its grammatical realization used in the promotion, and 3) attitudes amplified from the graduation strategy. findings reveal that indonesian tourism is promoted mainly by its topography, flora and fauna, nature-based activity, and weather and climate. graduation is realized through diverse grammatical realizations, such as the specific and non-specific numerals and infused amounts, in order to quantify nature’s values/ numbers, extent, and mass/ presence. the concordance study indicates that upscaling quantification emphasizes indonesia’s natural beauty and richness, while downscaling quantification promotes the endangered species in indonesia’s national parks. from an ecological lens, the graduation is employed to amplify readers’ appreciation of the country’s valuation and composition. quantification has also been proven to be a productive persuasive device in tourism promotion that functions to materialize and commodify nature. notwithstanding the corpus size, this study contributes to tourism promotion discourse and ecolinguistics studies. keywords appraisal, corpus, ecolinguistics, environment, quantification, tourism correspondence e-mail: arina@usd.ac.id article quantifying nature in tourism discourse: a corpusecolinguistic perspective arina isti’anah1, suhandano suhandano2, daru winarti3 1universitas sanata dharma, yogyakarta, indonesia 2,3universitas gajah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.172-185.2024 i. introduction scholars have shown interest in studying the persuasive methods of tourism promotion, including metaphors, adjectives, boosters, and appraisal features (jaworska, 2017; thu, 2021; wu, 2018). while previous works have demonstrated that tourism is often associated with natural beauty, this paper takes a different trajectory by focusing on quantification in tourism promotion. as an interpersonal function, tourism promotion is constructed to lure readers into becoming prospective tourists. therefore, quantification such as 1,500 small islands, countless rivers, and grandiose mountain scenery is believed to persuade readers to visit a destination. those examples characterize language in an advertising discourse. however, from an ecological standpoint, the advertising language does not consistently promote environmental sustainability. ecolinguistics posits that the environment has been utilized to promote consumerism by diminishing its original meaning, with the ultimate goal of satisfying human desires and needs (mühlhäusler, 1999; stibbe, 2015). researchers have argued that the stories underlying advertising, including tourism, frequently emphasize the environment to promote a company’s advantages (dang, 2023; kline & slocum, 2015). research also points out that arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 173 ecotourism constructs false consciousness by portraying visitors as new moral tourists engaged in non-exploitative activities in ecotourism (stamou & paraskevopoulos, 2008). in a similar perspective, tourism in indonesia’s context is mainly marketed based on its natural resources. expressions such as pristine paradise and one of the best views demonstrate how the environment is intensified and quantified based on specific criteria and positions. the (re)production of environmental commodities in advertising is crucial for influencing our views and actions regarding the environment. the frequent or salient linguistic patterns in advertising discourse work gradually beyond our conscious awareness (poole, 2022). therefore, it is crucial to examine how the official website of indonesian tourism (owit) (re)produces persuasive language that involves quantification to global readers. doing this will offer a new perspective on how we should regard the environment in a tourism setting. tourism has been considered a significant factor in enhancing indonesia’s economic growth. the statistical data show that indonesian tourism has contributed 4.7% of the country’s gross domestic product (gdp) or 16.43 million u.s. dollars (mahiroh & fazaalloh, 2019). the government also targets higher economic growth in the tourism sector to 4.41% or 1.016 billion u.s. dollars in 2027 (hasibuan et al., 2023). this socioeconomic environment highlights the significance of tourism in bolstering the country’s economic development. therefore, analyzing how the government promotes indonesia’s nature through particular quantification strategies through its official tourism website is essential. the presence of official tourism websites serves not only to provide information about tourist destinations but also to shape readers’ expectations long before they arrive at the destinations (hallett & kaplan-weinger, 2010). among other persuasive language, this paper focuses on quantification as one of the dimensions of appraisal analysis. quantification also has statistical significance in tourism promotion. appraisal is a dimension of the interpersonal function of language that facilitates how speakers/ writers employ particular strategies to evaluate whether an area of life is positive or negative (faoziah & yuwono, 2020; martin & white, 2005). through appraisal, we can examine how evaluation is constructed, amplified, and targeted to influence the audience to follow the writers’/ speakers’ intention. appraisal evaluates three dimensions: attitude, engagement, and graduation. researchers claim that graduation is central to appraisal analysis since it amplifies evaluation toward attitude and engagement (almutairi, 2021; fan, 2020). graduation is identified in invoked or inscribed manners, and the degree of evaluation is shown either in focus or force. while focus evaluates an entity’s prototypicality, force evaluates an entity’s intensity and quantity (martin & white, 2005; stibbe, 2015). specifically, the amplification of evaluating an entity’s quantity is identified from quantification. quantification upscales or downscales speakers’ attitude evaluation, including affect, judgment, or appreciation through amount/ number, mass, extent, and metaphor (martin & white, 2005). quantification is not always identified in cardinal or ordinal numbers but from non-specific numeration and infused amounts, such as several, huge, nearby, and ancient. studying quantification in the tourism promotion discourse is crucial since it reveals how tourism text producers maximize persuasive devices in the promotion. in this sense, indonesian nature is staged as goods or commodities for global readers. the website producers have an opportunity to upscale particular natural attractions through quantification. hence, readers will be influenced to visit the destinations because of the persuasive language employed in the promotion. involving varied quantifications such as 750 mollusks, many national parks, rich habitat, numerous landscapes, and the third largest islands in the world provide the readers with information about indonesian natural wonders. studies on quantification in an advertising discourse are also of interest to ecolinguistics despite studies on language endangerment and its relation to biodiversity. ecolinguistics was initially introduced by einar haugen in the 1970s as “language and ecology” to highlight the (inter)relation between language and (physical) environment (do couto, 2014). the development of the functional paradigm in the 1970s influenced ecolinguistics from a sociological viewpoint. thus, studies on linguistic diversity, pidgins, and creoles dominated ecolinguistics in that era. the global environmental crisis and the emergence of critical discourse studies in the early 1990s also affect the definition and focus of ecolinguistics. therefore, arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 174 studies on ecolinguistics expand to the role of language in constructing people’s viewpoints and behavior towards the environment (alexander & stibbe, 2014). ecolinguistics contributes to studies on asymmetrical power relations between oppressed and oppressors that consider non-human subjects and future generations (mühlhäusler, 2003; stibbe, 2014). the emergence of critical discourse studies and the development of personal computers and the internet in the last quarter of the 20th century affected linguistic research methodology to involve big data and corpus software in language analysis (isti’anah et al., 2023). in ecolinguistics, poole (2022) introduced the term corpus-ecolinguistics to involve corpus-assisted discourse study (cads) in examining any discourses within an ecological framework. cads offers analytical approaches for detecting subconscious linguistic patterns in conversation that normalize and maintain distinct attitudes, ideologies, and dispositions. the common lexical and grammatical elements in a conversation reveal how the tourist issue is framed in society. as an archipelagic country, indonesia’s tourism promotion is heavily quantified, as the website producer understands the country’s ability to attract worldwide tourists. studies on tourism promotion have been available in some international journal publications. recent research on corpus-ecolinguistics can be located in company social responsibility reports (csr), the company’s press release, non-government organizations opposing the copper mining industry, and the capital city’s relocation (gong, 2019; poole, 2016, 2018; rajandran, 2016; suhandano et al., 2023). those investigations demonstrate how specific linguistic patterns are used in discourse to emphasize or de-emphasize elements in order to convey distinct ideological messages. those studies also prove that ecolexicons are utilized in discourse as objects rather than subjects. in csr, ecolexicons are hardly found as the subjects since the corporations tend to foreground corporations’ role in providing education, scholarship, and infrastructure advancement to society. conversely, ecolexicons in an ngo website are staged as subjects essential in an ecosystem (poole, 2016, 2018). therefore, it can be summarized that ecolexicons can be foregrounded or erased based on the discourse producer’s ideology. in the indonesian tourism context, corpusecolinguistics has not been widely studied in the indonesian tourism environment, despite some recent research available in international journal databases. for example, isti’anah and suhandano (2022) utilized antconc to conduct an appraisal analysis of the kalimantan tourism website. the study found that the most frequent adjective keywords in the kalimantan tourism corpus evaluate nature’s beauty, richness, and uniqueness, amplifying readers’ happiness and satisfaction when visiting tourist sites. due to the limited number of articles investigated in the kalimantan tourism corpus, the present study aims to expand the analysis by taking a more extensive number of data that involve indonesian tourist sites, not limited to kalimantan. the other studies on tourism were conducted manually, without involving corpus software, by examining the metaphors, multimodal, and adjectives in tourism promotion (heriyanto et al., 2020; krisnawati et al., 2021; salim, 2017). the data employed were restricted to specific regions, such as west java and sulawesi. this study aims to address the gap by analyzing a larger dataset from the official indonesian tourism website using a corpus-ecolinguistic framework. this study also enhances appraisal analysis in tourism discourse by focusing specifically on quantification as one dimension of graduation. in addition, no studies have been found on quantification in tourism discourse, despite previous research on indonesian tourism promotion focusing on mood structures, multimodal, metaphors, and appraisal features (heriyanto et al., 2020; isti’anah, 2019, 2020a, 2020b; krisnawati et al., 2021; kristina, 2018; salim & som, 2018). motivated by the previous studies and arguments presented above, this research seeks to address the following questions: 1) what types of nature are offered on the indonesian tourism promotion website? 2) how is graduation realized grammatically in the promotion? and 3) what attitudes are amplified by the graduation strategy? ii. methods this study built a specialized corpus of tourism promotion from the articles compiled from indonesia’s travel website. the articles were collected and refined manually from hyperlinks and unnecessary information, such as telephone numbers and hotel addresses. the articles compiled are based on some criteria: each article promotes nature instead of culture, its first ten most frequent arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 175 words refer to nature, and it has a persuasive genre as proven by promotional move structures by bhatia (1993), such as establishing credentials, justifying the product or service, and detailing the product or service. the corpus comprises 68,710 words from 106 articles based on those selection criteria. manual data collection was preferred over computerized language processing methods due to the potential for introducing typographical, orthographical, and grammatical errors (grouin, 2008). this study utilized sketch engine (kilgarriff et al., 2014), an online corpus tool that offers valuable features such as word lists, word sketches, concordances, and grammatical relationships of collocations. specifically, this study examined the first 100 nouns and identified 68 ecolexicons, or nouns referring to the environment (castro & faber, 2014). the categories of nature are based on theories of environment proposed by sapir (1912). the semantic categorization of ecolexicons was conducted with wmatrix5, an online corpus tool by paul rayson that provides semantic annotation of a corpus. the semantic categories are based on the ucrel semantic analysis system, a framework for undertaking the automatic semantic analysis of text by the lancaster university center for computer corpus research on language (rayson, 2009). after categorizing the nature using wmatrix5, this study sorted the most frequent nouns in the corpus by using the word list feature provided by sketch engine. figure 1 shows the most frequently used nouns sorted from the word list feature. after sorting the ecolexicons, the next phase was identifying the ecolexicon’s collocates by limiting the five words from the left and right (5l-5r) from the ecolexicon with a minimum frequency of 5. collocation refers to the likelihood of co-occurrence of (two or more) lexical items and grammatical categories, respectively (lehecka, 2015). it is also simply described as a combination of two or more words that occur together or near each other (walker, 2011). the strength of word collocation probability is measured through statistical analysis, such as logdice. this study restricted the word collocates with those above 5,00 logdice scores since it proves the degree of confidence of the word co-occurrence in the corpus (thomas, 2017). it tells that the word combination co-occurs more frequently than the frequency of each respective term within the text’s length used to make predictions (walker, 2011). each ecolexicon’s collocates is categorized syntactically based on its parts of speech and semantic meaning. inscribed quantification is identified from numerals, while invoked quantification is realized in either adjectives or metaphors (martin & white, 2005). this study also involved concordance analysis to understand the application of quantification in the context. after categorizing the grammatical realization of quantification, the concordance analysis also helps examine the attitudes amplified from graduation. this stage relies on the appraisal theory by martin and white (martin & white, 2005). a separate microsoft excel file containing the concordances was used to identify the functions of graduation in the context. this stage aligns with corpus-assisted discourse study, which involves the interpretation of linguistic patterns in context (baker & mcenery, figure 1. the most frequent nouns in the owit by sketch engine arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 176 2015). figure 2 shows example of concordances where quantification [number] evaluates ecolexicons in the owit. this study was conducted within an ecolinguistic paradigm that considers language as a cognitive and social practice that shapes our behavior and perspectives toward the environment. this study adopted halliday’s (1990) and stibbe’s (2015) concepts on the necessity of considering linguistic patterns that have been taken for granted in the discourse around us, yet they may promote a beneficial or destructive viewpoint towards the environment. despite its interest in language endangerment and diversity, ecolinguistics in the 20th century is mutually influenced by corpusassisted discourse studies (cads). therefore, the methodological steps adopted in this study also align with the four stages of cads (baker & mcenery, 2015) as follows: 1) identifying linguistic patterns, 2) examining the contexts of linguistic patterns, 3) interpreting the linguistic patterns in a broader socio-political context, and 4) evaluating the implication of such linguistic patterns. iii. results this study intends to explore the graduation in indonesian tourism promotion. the initial analysis was mapping the domains of nature based on sapir (1912), followed by identifying the grammatical realization of graduation used in the promotion. further, the analysis examines the types of attitudes amplified by graduation features in tourism promotion. finally, this study provides an ecological criticism based on the graduation employed in the promotion. types of nature in indonesian tourism promotion this study analyzed the first 100 nouns employed in the owit and categorized them according to their ecolexicons. nouns referring to non-environmental meaning were eliminated, and this study found 68 ecolexicons. based on wmatrix5, some semantic categories are associated with indonesian nature. the quantitative data of ecolexicons and their types of environment, corresponding to sapir’s concept of environment, was presented table 1. table 1 illustrates that the majority of the ecolexicons found in the owit refer to topography. the topographical words emerge as the most frequent words in the corpus, with a word frequency of 3,216. the frequency presented in the third column refers to the normalized frequency or figure 2. concordances of [number] collocate of the lexeme island by sketch engine table 1. types of environment in the owit types of environment word frequency frequency per million ecolexicon examples topography 3216 46.805,414 park, highland, waterfall, conservation, beach flora and fauna 941 13.695,240 bird, wildlife, mangrove, jungle weather and climate 143 2.081,210 air, sunset, sunrise nature-based activity 99 1.440,838 boat, dive arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 177 frequency per million. topographical terms appear in 46.805,414 words per million. the score was obtained by dividing the word frequency by the total corpus and multiplying it by one million. the normalized frequency is necessary to display to compare different corpora or sub-corpora. table 1 also shows that indonesian tourism is promoted in terms of attractions such as flora and fauna, weather and climate, and nature-based activity. based on wmatrix5, topographical terms are derived from some semantic categories: geographical terms, places, substances and materials (liquid), green issues, sensory (sight), and objects generally. some notable examples of topographical terms identified from the corpus are island (498), beach (255), forest (144), sea (140), park (332), village (207), site (71), highland (19), water (153), waterfall (100), mount (93), river (78), lake (85), land (52), sand (41), home, habitat (38), coast (37), nature (78), volcano (31), conservation (26), scenery (47), paradise (46), peak (30), and rock (28). on the other hand, flora-fauna terms comprise the semantic categories of living creatures and plants, such as bird (95), wildlife (50), forest (143), species (90), komodo (44), fish (40), tree (70), animal (63), reef (55), mangrove (42), jungle (35), creature (34), pine (33), coral (31), turtle (30), and tea (21). the nature-based activity is identified from the means of transport semantic category as shown by the words boat (66) and dive (62). finally, the weather and climate consist of substance and material (gas) and time (momentary), as depicted by the words air (96), sunset (23), and sunrise (24). grammatical realization of graduation in tourism promotion the second question addressed in this study is the use of graduation in tourism promotion. quantification falls into three dimensions: amount/ number, extent, and mass/ presence. each dimension shows how graduation amplifies the (natural) entity’s number, proximity, or mass/ presence. quantification was identified from the collocates of ecolexicons found. after limiting the collocation setting to five words to the left and right of the ecolexicons, the analysis found 223 quantifiers realized in either inscribed or invoked representation. the inscribed quantification is shown by numerals and determiners referring to numbers, while the invoked quantification is identified from adjectives that bring about quantity lexical meanings. the table below outlines the grammatical expression of quantification, with its frequency and examples. table 2 shows number, extent, and mass/ presence. each domain is realized in diverse grammatical forms, including non-specific numeration, specific numbers, and infused amounts. as seen from the quantitative results, most quantifications presented are shown in nonspecific numeration and infused amounts. however, a specific number is also present in the corpus. the analysis revealed that the amount/ number occupies the most frequent collocate of the ecolexicons used to promote indonesian tourism. the amount/ number is expressed using different grammatical strategies to evaluate specific nature attractions. first, the amount/ number is mainly found in a non-specific numeration. the tourism website does not explicitly mention the number but uses determiners to promote tourist destinations. some examples are shown below. 1. reputed to be the most biodiverse marine habitat on earth, raja ampat is home to many species not found anywhere else. table 2. quantification of environment in the owit quantification dimension grammatical realization freq. of quantifier examples of quantifier collocates amount/ number non-specific numeration 42 several, many, most, more, few specific number 10 [number], four, three, first, second infused amount 26 abundant, numerous, rich, various extent infused amount 55 nearby, ancient, neighboring, ancient, specific numeration 17 200-meter, 25-meter, 80-meter non-specific numeration 1 certain mass/ presence infused amount 65 extinct, tiny, endemic, mountanious non-specific numeration 3 particular, medium-size specific number 4 one arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 178 2. the national park is also the home of several endangered species of flora such as: pterospermum diversifolium, antidesma bunius, lagerstroemia speciosa... examples 1 and 2 depict that the words many and several quantify species promoted in indonesian tourism destinations. the website does not explicitly mention the species number, but in a non-specific numeration to amplify and upscale the number of species offered in indonesian tourism to global readers. non-specific numeration shows inscribed quantification since the meaning of “quantity” can be directly observed from the lexical meanings. another grammatical realization of quantification is in the form of an infused amount, identified from the lexical meaning of the quantification without explicitly mentioning the number. below are some examples of infused amounts. 3. participants actually walk along the bottom of the sea, rather than swim while numerous exotic fish and sea life are found all around. 4. try exploring or trekking the west bali national park, where you may get up close and personal with bali’s rich flora and fauna, such as jalak bali or the bali starling. examples 3 and 4 above promote indonesian flora and fauna by the adjective collocates numerous and rich. those adjectives carry out a semantic meaning of many that, in appraisal analysis, functions to upscale the number in the utterance. both examples above emphasize indonesia’s rich flora and fauna. the number of exotic fish and flora-fauna offered at tourist sites is conveyed indirectly. instead of mentioning specific numbers, the tourism promotion selects an invoked graduation to upscale indonesia’s natural richness. quantifying amount is also realized in specific numbers to evaluate indonesian topographical features, as shown below. 5. it is a 60 million years old volcano that holds some breathtaking panorama on its peaks. 6. the park covers a total area of 22,500 hectares comprising coastal forests and grassland and is protected by three mountains, namely... example 5 describes nglanggeran mountain, known as the ancient volcano. thus, mentioning the specific number of the mountains is necessary to mention. example 6 is taken from a promotion for baluran national park. the use of the specific number 22,500 hectares is vital to emphasize the width and space of the national park. specific numbers represent the inscribed graduation to upscale the number of particular natural attributes, as shown in example 5 and 6. despite upscaling quantities as depicted in examples 1 to 6 above, the owit also includes downscaling quantities in promoting indonesia’s natural sites. below are some examples. 7. therefore, there have been many national parks with the largest in the archipelago spread over sumatra, kalimantan, sulawesi, and papua which are vitally important for the preservation of the endangered to almost extinct wildlife. 8. there is also an endemic species of cuscus, the waigeou cuscus or waigeou spotted cuscus (spilocuscus papuensis) which is a species of marsupial in the family phalangeridae. the quantification mentioned in example 7 is expressed in an infused amount since the owit does not specifically mention the number or quantity. however, the lexical meaning of the word extinct indicates the low number of wildlife in indonesian national parks. the function of quantification is to downscale the number and emphasize the low number of species. this strategy shows an invoked graduation and tourism promotion. the downscaling numbers is not directly shown in specific numbers, but in an adjective whose lexical meaning refers to the limited number of a natural entity. a similar case is shown in example 8, where the word endemic evaluates species of cuscus. the word endemic is also realized in an infused amount to downscale the quantity of the species. attitudes amplified by graduation in tourism promotion graduation is central in appraisal analysis since it amplifies attitudes and engagement. this study focuses on how graduation upscales or downscales attitudes. after delving more deeply into the concordances, the quantifier collocates function to both upscale and downscale attitudes, mainly the appreciation. the examination shows that the owit foregrounds quantification to evaluate the readers’ composition, valuation, and reaction. those attitudinal dimensions are amplified through quantity in order to lure tourists to visit. quantification is employed to grab readers’ interest and promote indonesia’s natural authenticity as a tropical and nautical country. the following chart summarizes the attitudes evaluated from quantification. arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 179 as seen in figure 3, graduation is mostly used in tourism promotion to upscale readers’ positive composition of the nature destinations offered. quantifying amounts, extent, and mass/ presence appears in a similar frequency. the dimension of composition upscaled by graduation refers to complexity, meaning that the website producers aim to persuade readers to appreciate it due to the complexity of indonesia’s nature. direct or indirect numbers of diverse natural richness show the notion of complexity. environmental domains such as topography and flora-fauna are offered due to the variety available in some tourist destinations. despite upscaling numbers, quantification has also been found to downscale nature’s composition in order to offer the endangered and extinct florafauna in indonesia. below are some examples of how graduation amplifies readers’ attitudes. 9. not only inland, the splendors of kalimantan also lie beyond its seas which are filled with countless amazing creatures, perfect for those who enjoy diving, snorkeling, and underwater photography. 10. these extraordinary mammals (javan rhinos) are nocturnal, extremely rare, and hardly ever appear in front of humans. example 9 emphasizes the number of creatures found in kalimantan island, while example 10 underscores the number of javan rhinos that are extremely rare, but available in indonesia. the infused amounts countless and rare are collocates of the flora and fauna in indonesia. the use of countless aims to arouse readers’ appreciation of indonesia’s nature composition since the kalimantan island stores many amazing creatures. the quantifier collocate countless is selected to emphasize the limitless number of creatures. the use of extremely rare in example (10) functions to amplify the number of javan rhinos, whose presence in indonesia is limited. the findings presented in figure 3 demonstrate that graduation is central to identifying the attitudes evaluated in tourism promotion in order to persuade readers. it also shows that graduation is a productive persuasive device in a promotional genre. discussion the findings presented above provide an empirical study of how corpus analysis is applied in linguistic studies. the prominence of the topographical environment provided in table 1 indicates that the indonesian government intends to depict the country as a tropical land that offers varied topographical and natural richness to global readers. the inclusion of topographical richness articulates the country as a paradise or land of plenty. tropical countries like indonesia often highlight the diverse topography and wildlife that characterizes the topical area. the inclusion of quantification as a persuasive strategy for promoting indonesia’s natural environment provides new insight into how the official tourism website evaluates nature as a commodity in the tourism sector. natural richness and endangerment are introduced in the promotion to captivate global readers to become potential tourists. a previous study by jaworska (2017) found that natural beauty and richness are often associated with the metaphor paradise. the notion of paradise in tropical countries differs from that in europe, where paradise in the “west” is associated with luxurious tourism (stepins, 2022)german of germany and european spanish. despite the economic impact of the tourism industry figure 3. summary of attitudes evaluated through quantification arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 180 and the high demand for translations in this branch, only few studies have ventured into metaphor use in tourism promotion so far. research into metaphor translation in this field is even scarcer. the present study aims to fill these voids by describing metaphorical language use of this register for each language, comparing the results with the other two languages, and by seeking possible implications of the observed variation for the translatability as well as the translation process of metaphor vehicles. for this purpose, three comparable corpora of regional promotional tourism websites from england, germany and spain were compiled, as well as three smaller, 20,000-word sample corpora. in a twostep process, the sample corpora first underwent a comprehensive manual metaphor analysis, which helped to identify metaphor groups with a sourcetarget domain combination that is problematic from a translational point of view. these groups were further studied in the large corpora using source-domain vocabulary searches. the study was approached from a cognitive linguistics perspective, building mainly on conceptual metaphor theory. one of the main contributions of this dissertation lies in the adaptation of the widely used metaphor identification procedure mip (pragglejaz, 2007. instead, “luxurious tourism” is recontextualized as witnessing nature’s richness and endangerment that are not found in the global tourists’ homes. previous works underline that indonesia’s natural beauty is mainly promoted through metaphors, such as paradise and heaven (heriyanto et al., 2020; krisnawati et al., 2021). this study builds upon previous research by underscoring that the use of quantification is also productive in tourism promotion. the quantification presented in table 2 has a logdice score exceeding 5.0. it means that the selection of collocation is not random, denoting that the quantification and ecolexicons in the website characterize tourism promotion. some collocations can also function as a phrase, such as in endangered species, extinct bali starling, and numerous wildlife. delved deeper through n-gram analysis (2-4 words), this study tries to include some quantifiers and found the following multi-word expressions that characterize indonesia’s natural promotion: abundant marine life, numerous other creatures/ animals, extinct bali starling, extinct baluran volcano, endangered species, endangered bali starling, endangered wildlife, many special wildlife, many typical java trees, and several sanctuary islands. those examples prove that quantification is a productive linguistic feature that characterizes the language of promotion. this finding also contributes to previous work (isti’anah, 2020b) since indonesian tourism promotion also highlights flora and fauna species that are limited in indonesia. the extinct and endangered species are mentioned on the website to provide information and convince global readers that indonesia provides a natural habitat for that flora and fauna. therefore, the owit conveys information and represents the country’s image to readers (hallett & kaplan-weinger, 2010). these findings also articulate the indonesian government’s effort to convince readers about the quality of nature offered in tourist destinations. the official tourism website is essential to influence readers’ decision to visit a country; hence, the owit maximizes the linguistic features to portray the country from its diverse natural sites and its role in preserving the endangered flora-fauna through its national parks. the salience of infused amount collocates attached to the ecolexicons also aims to associate and modify ecolexicons with certain attributes referring to numbers. in sum, it can be said that the notion of “numbers” is embedded in the phrasal structures. referring to the grammatical realization in table 2, we noticed that non-specific numeration is the most frequent pattern compared to the infused amount and specific number. some evidences of specific numeration are several, many, and most. those quantification strategies function as modifiers of the ecolexicons, such as species and underwater life, to specify the type of tourism attraction and provide additional information to global readers about extended activities and attractions they find in a tourism destination. the clause in example (1) “raja ampat is home to many species not found anywhere else” includes quantification many to modify raja ampat species. despite pre-modifier, the noun head species is also modified by a reduced clause not found anywhere else. the concordance reveals that the quantifier many upscales the number of species in raja ampat that is not found elsewhere. the upscaling of the species’ quantity evaluates the readers’ appreciation of the natural composition of raja ampat. in general, the use of upscaling and downscaling quantification in the owit aims to arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 181 evaluate indonesia’s natural composition. the domination of infused amount and non-specific numeration involved in the owit articulates the collocational relationship between the quantifier collocates and the ecolexicons they modify. at the same time, the owit also stages the country as a land of plenty whose richness is worth visiting. the evaluative language presented from quantification characterizes language in a promotion or advertising discourse. previous works found that reaction characterizes the advertising language, as evident in computer and accessories advertisements on amazon and tourism promotion in london and hangzhou (kheovichai, 2014; wu, 2018)there has been growing interest in the study of language used for evaluation. however, little is known about the language of evaluation in online product advertisements. the purpose of this study is to investigate such language. data comprise 100 product descriptions of best-sellers in the computer and accessories department of www. amazon.com. data were analysed using an adapted analytical framework based on martin and white’s (2005. however, the present findings reveal that despite reaction, composition is located as the most frequently evaluated evaluation amplified by quantification. the use of quantification also explains the natural entity’s mass/ presence. it refers to size, weight, and height scaled up to sharpen the author’s evaluation of the ecolexicons promoted in tourism (martin & white, 2005). below are some examples of quantification that evaluate mass/ presence. 11. pelalawan spans a variety of geographical conditions: dense forests, expansive plantations, peat bog plains and alluvial rivers. 12. the road passes the beautiful lake toba which offers a grand view of the huge lake passing a large number of hairpin bends and steep hills. examples 11 and (12 show infused amounts of that evaluate natural tourism sites. in example 11, the word dense quantifies the forest in terms of the number of trees in palalawan forest. without mentioning the number of trees, the owit selects dense to characterize the forest with its attributive adjective directly. similarly, example 12 utilized non-specific numeration huge to quantify the lake size seen during the road trip to get to the destination. those size quantifications are employed in tourism websites to upscale indonesian tourism sites’ composition, particularly complexity. the other dimension evaluated through quantification is the extent to which time and space are evaluated. the semantic categories of extent are divided into proximity (relative time and location) and distribution (relative spread and length). below are some of the quantifications evaluating nature’s extent. 13. after a 3-hour drive from surabaya, it takes a 20-minute scenic trek, which includes crossing rivers and traversing a rocky path, to reach this 200-meter-tall majestic waterfall. 14. mount rinjani is one of the highest volcano in indonesia, with its summit rising to 3,726 meters above sea level. example 13 uses some specific number to evaluate the relative time to get to the scenic trek. quantification involves specific numbers to provide helpful information to global tourists in preparation for the trip. similarly, example 14 includes a specific number one of the highest to upscale the volcano’s composition that triggers the readers’ positive reaction. the additional information about the summit, 3,726 meters, upscales the reaction targeted to the readers. in an ecolinguistic lens, appraisal analysis not only evaluates an entity as good or bad but also revolves around how the evaluation and its surrounding discourse affect our perceptions and behavior toward the environment (stibbe, 2015). the indonesian government considers tourism to be an essential aspect of increasing the country’s economic growth. reports say that before the covid-19 pandemic, tourism contributed 4.6% to 4.9% of the indonesian economy during 20162019 (koerner et al., 2023; mun’im, 2021). the government even targets to achieve 4.41% of the country’s gross domestic product (gdp) or around 1.016 billion u.s. dollars in 2027 (hasibuan et al., 2023). this socio-political context triggers massive tourism promotion, including official tourism websites. unlike instagram or other social media, official tourism websites still play an important role for global tourists since they influence their readers’ decisions toward tourist destinations (chiou et al., 2011; wu, 2018). advertising or promotion generally aims to maximize monetary profits and consumption. the owit clearly includes nature as one of the commodities to exchange despite indonesia’s cultural attractions. this nature commodification, proven by upscaling nature’s quantities and richness, underscores that indonesian tourism still arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 182 relies on its natural attractions. the repetition and rewording of quantification foreground nature as an object of consumption. while previous research shows that nature is often associated indirectly through paradise metaphors, this study adds that quantification directly stages nature as an entity with a particular number even though its grammatical realization can be either direct or indirect. including upscaling and downscaling quantification emphasizes that indonesia’s natural attractions are promoted in terms of their prosperity, purity, and remoteness, aligning tourism selling points across countries (trčková, 2016). these findings demonstrate the reproduction of the materialization of the environment in tourism discourse. ecolinguistics voices the inclusion of humans in the ecosystem as, in recent years, an ecosystem has often been associated with the environment only by eliminating humans as its parts (stibbe, 2015). at the same time, the materialization of the environment in tourism discourse also locates humans as separate entities in the ecosystem. nature is staged as objects with abundant sources, and humans are positioned as spectators and explorers with the “right” to get monetary profits from people’s travel. this assumption is empirically proven by the absence of judgment in the appraisal analysis that evaluates human behavior in tourism settings. the domination of positive evaluations reproduced in other advertising forms eventually constructs “an unquestioning and practically incontestable perspective” (stibbe, 2015, p. 85). the importance of positive appreciation for indonesian natural entities and the elimination of tourism agencies in advertising demonstrates that nature is a commodified object in the ecosystem. tourism promotion may generate a more constructive discourse by using language to assess human behavior in an ecosystem. v. conclusion this study addresses the use of quantification in promoting indonesia’s natural attraction. within a corpus-assisted approach, this study found that indonesia is mostly promoted by its topographical, flora-fauna, nature-based activity, and weather and climate. the analysis also found that quantification plays a significant role in persuading readers, as proven by the frequency of quantifier collocates in the corpus. quantification functions to upscale indonesia’s natural composition directly and indirectly to amplify nature’s numbers, extent, and mass/ presence. quantification is realized in nonspecific numerals, infused amounts, and specific numbers to promote the construction of nature as a commodity in the tourism sector. indonesia’s nature is quantified by its richness and endangerment. the reproduction of the materialization of nature in tourism eventually focuses on an anthropocentric ideology that locates humans as spectators and explorers who have the right to achieve monetary profit from the natural richness. the absence of judgment to evaluate humans’ attitudes toward tourism also shows an ambivalent discourse that separates humans from an ecosystem. this study exemplifies that corpus linguistics is reliable for analyzing a promotional genre since it provides empirical evidence on how word frequency and collocations are utilized repetitively to foreground tourism attractions. it also exemplifies an ecological discourse analysis, an expansion of ecolinguistic study. while previous ecolinguistic research focused on the ecolexicons and their sociological and biological dimensions, this study focused more on the ideological dimension. it unveils how discourses around us, including tourism promotion discourse, are important to shaping our perspective and behavior toward the environment. the reproduction and salience of persuasive features that objectify and commodify nature should be reconsidered by involving human beings as part of an ecosystem. despite the practical analysis this study provides, some suggestions are proposed to enrich studies on ecolinguistics. this study was limited to the use of quantification as a dimension in appraisal analysis that amplifies particular attitudes. future research is highly suggested to examine how the official website of indonesian tourism builds an engagement with readers. the application of the corpus-based method that relies on empirical data is highly suggested. the other suggested topic is the translation of tourism promotion that the government officially utilizes. despite the translation quality and readability, future research can examine the role of the indonesian language in tourism promotion regarding its ecological nature, and whether it promotes a more beneficial discourse than the english version. arina isti’anah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 183 references alexander, r., & stibbe, a. 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(2018). official websites as a tourism marketing medium: a contrastive analysis from the perspective of appraisal theory. journal of destination marketing & management, 10, 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2018.09.004 nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 309 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 12, 2023 final revision: december 27, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 multilingual conditions can threaten the mother tongue in a tourism area because most people use other languages when interacting with tourists. thus, it can hamper the inheritance of the mother tongue or even replace it with another language. this study used a sociolinguistic theoretical approach to measure the mother tongue’s vitality level in a multilingual community in dieng, central java. this descriptive study used a mixed method. data were collected from interviews with 53 informants and with the help of a research instrument namely the interview package of “basa urang”. data were analyzed based on miles dan huberman’s model (1984), covering data collection, reduction, presentation, and drawing conclusions. the study results showed that the vitality of the mother tongue in the multilingual community in dieng, central java is in the vulnerable category as the mother tongue is only used in the domestic domain. this is proven by the percentage level of mother tongue use based on patterns ‘with’, patterns ‘in’, and patterns ‘for’. the main factors causing the low vitality of the mother tongue in the multilingual community in this area are economic and educational. this study describes the condition of each living language in a multilingual society in dieng, central jawa. this study provides quite large implications in describing the vitality of mother tongues in a multilingual society in dieng, central java, but further studies are needed to get a deeper understanding of the implications. keywords language attitudes, language vitality, mother tongue, multilingual society, sociolinguistics correspondence e-mail: nunungsitaresmi@upi.edu article the vitality of mother tongues in a multilingual society in dieng, central java nunung sitaresmi1, meilani puji astini2, lilis siti sulistyaningsih3, isah cahyani4, rahmawati5 1,2,3,4universitas pendidikan indonesia, indonesia, bandung, indonesia 5universitas gadjah mada, indonesia, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.309-322.2023 i. introduction indonesia had 718 regional languages spread over 2,560 observation points in 2019 (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2019). this number can change over time as language is dynamic and depends on the speakers’ language attitudes. language attitudes can be influenced by some factors, such as internal factors originating from the individual speaker and external factors, namely the environment in which the speaker lives. the majority of community groups in indonesia are heterogeneous. dieng is a region that comprises of diverse speech communities. as a result, it encounters numerous hurdles in utilizing different regional languages. this is because this area has many tourist attractions with a high number of tourist visits such as sikunir, mount prau, telaga warna, arjuna temple, sikidang crater, and others. they attract the attention of both domestic and foreign tourists. it means that there can be a large-scale language contact in this area. local communities in a tourism area are slowly forced to learn other languages, such as other regional languages, indonesian, and foreign languages. the goal is to adapt and communicate with tourists. people living in tourist areas usually take advantage of tourism to make a living by selling. the greatest risk of large-scale language contact is language shift, particularly a shift towards local regional languages. mother tongue must remain alive to maintain the identity of the speaking community. kecskes and papp (2000, p. 2) explain that the mother tongue must be maintained nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 310 regardless of how difficult it is to maintain it and no matter how many other languages being mastered. recently, 3000 regional languages have been threatened with extinction putting the world atlas of language at risk (unesco, 2020). anindyatri and mufidah (2020, pp. 27–33) mapped the vitality status of regional languages in each province in indonesia. first, 19 regional languages in 9 provinces are stable but threatened with extinction. second, two provinces have three regional languages which are experiencing a decline. third, 24 regional languages in 10 provinces are classified as endangered. fourth, five regional languages in 3 provinces have critical status. fifth, 11 regional languages in 4 provinces have extinct status. mother tongues in many parts of the world are threatened with extinction. language problems are challenging to solve. languages are more than just a means of communication; they can expose the skills, worldview, and characteristics of the speaker (cargile, giles, ryan, & bradac, 1994; dragojevic & giles, 2016). languages are a tool that can increase a sense of solidarity in a speech community (bourhis, 1983; bourhis, giles, & tajfel, 1973; dragojevic & giles, 2016; saidat, 2010). besides, astawa (2018) explains that languages have some important functions in social life, namely as a means of communication, a means of familiarity, and a means of self-identity in the form of regional pride. today, regional languages do not only compete with each other but also with indonesian and other languages. holmes (holmes, 2013) explains that the languages spoken by different individuals or groups can gradually replace the mother tongue. language competition can occur between regional languages, national languages, and foreign languages (sobarna, 2007). the temptation to adopt more common regional, national, and international languages has led to a decline in the number of regional language speakers and even raised concerns about language competition (arka, 2013, p. 77). it is in line with arka (2013), wurm (2003, p. 21) that indonesian is increasingly displacing other regional languages, especially among younger speakers. the younger generation is brainwashed into speaking indonesian during formal education. on the other hand, some preschool and elementary schools in indonesia prefer to use a foreign language as the language of instruction during the teaching and learning process. besides functioning as a language of instruction, foreign languages serve as markers of a child’s social status. the reduced use of regional languages among children indicates that the language is starting to decline and shift. referring to unesco (in austin & sallabank, 2011, p. 3) and badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa (2020, p. 11), languages are considered to be in danger of becoming extinct if children no longer learn their mother tongue. one possible solution to overcome this linguistic problem is to encourage children, grandchildren, and even great-grandchildren to use their mother tongues, at least in the family domain. regional languages can also be used as the language of instruction in teaching literacy to children, if possible. to maintain linguistic diversity, particularly in mother tongues, unesco has initiated international mother language day (imld) since 1999 which stems from the anxiety that some regional languages are almost extinct. abbas and iqbal (2018, p. 201) explain that the life of a language depends on the speaker’s linguistic attitudes. the development of a language will be guaranteed if its speakers have a good attitude towards the language. the future of a language is threatened when the speakers show or maintain a negative attitude towards the language. some previous studies have examined the vitality of language in conventional spaces. firman, astar, and nugroho (2023) have proven that the vitality of moronene language has declined to 0.54. besides, rahmawati, fasya, and sudana (2022) revealed that the vitality of sundanese in virtual spaces, especially in the youtube fiksi channel is positive. moreover, ariyanti and sofian (2021) showed that the speaking community in kuningan district still faithfully uses sundanese with a percentage of 82%. the significance of the mother tongue in multilingual communities, especially in tourist areas like dieng in central java, has not been given enough attention in previous studies. it is important to note that these areas are highly susceptible to language shifts. consequently, it is advisable to conduct studies on language vitality in this region to monitor the use of the mother tongue in multilingual communities. this research will assist policymakers in formulating effective strategies to prevent the extinction of languages. nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 311 the current study is necessary to provide valuable insights for preserving regional languages and advancing the indonesian language. over the years, the development of the indonesian language has been influenced majorly by regional languages, with javanese being one of the most prominent ones. the indonesian language has assimilated many javanese words into its vocabulary. in order to make the indonesian language an official un language by 2045, a potential strategy could be to preserve and include other regional languages besides javanese. sociolinguistics is the study of language and its relationship with society (hazen, 2010; holmes, 2013; hudson, 1996; lillis, 2013; spolsky, 1998). sociolinguistics is an interdisciplinary science between linguistics and sociology that emphasizes the relationship between language and its users (chaer & agustina, 2010, p. 4; nababan, 1993, p. 2; pateda, 2015, p. 3–4; sumarsono, 2017, p. 1). language vitality depends on the speakers’ language attitudes which means that language vitality and language attitudes are closely interrelated (bell, 1976; gomashie, 2023; grenoble, 2011). grenoble (2011, pp. 39–40) states that a more positive attitude increases the vitality of language, while a more negative attitude supports change. a language loses vitality when it is used less frequently in contexts with fewer speakers. language will be closer to extinction as its vitality decreases (ibrahim, 2011, p. 49). the vitality of languages is influenced by 7 factors, namely language standardization, language vitality, autonomy, historicity, reduction, mixture, and policy (wardhaugh, 2006, p. 33). greenfield classified language use into five categories namely, kinship, friendship, religion, education, and work (see fishman, 1972)they have to be mechanically air-conditioned to achieve the required thermal comfort for worshippers especially in harsh climatic regions. this paper describes the physical and operating characteristics typical for the intermittently occupied mosques as well as the results of the thermal optimization of a medium size mosque in the two hot-dry and hot-humid saudi arabian cities of riyadh and jeddah. the analysis utilizes a direct search optimization technique that is coupled to an hourly energy simulation program. based on that, design guidelines are presented for the optimum thermal performance of mosques in these two cities in addition to other design and operating factors that need to be considered for mosques in general. © 2009 the author(s. the interlocutor, setting, and subject of conversation differentiate these five domains. first, in the kinship aspect, the interlocutors are parents and the topics discussed are usually related to how to be a good son or daughter. second, in the aspect of friendship, the person you are talking to is a friend, and the topic of conversation is usually related to how to play certain games. third, in the religious aspect, the interlocutor is a religious teacher or religious figure, and the topic of conversation is usually related to how to be a good religious person. fourth, in the aspect of education, the interlocutor is a teacher, and the topic of conversation is usually related to how to solve problems. fifth, in the aspect of work, the interlocutor is the employer, boss, or co-worker and the topic of discussion is how to make efficient performances. unesco (in austin & sallabank, 2011, p. 3) and badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa (2020, p. 11) categorize language vitality into the following 6 categories: (1) safe: the language is spoken by all generations, and intergenerational transmission is uninterrupted. (2) unsafe/vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be limited to certain domains (e.g., home). (3) definitely endangered: children no longer learn their mother tongue at home. (4) severely endangered: language spoken by grandparents and older generations. the older generation still understands it, but they don’t use the language with their children or among themselves. (5) critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents or the older generation who only partially or rarely speak the language. (6) extinct: there are no longer any speakers who use their mother tongue. the determination of the vitality status of regional languages in the dieng plateau area, central java is based on the language status categories above. based on the research problem, this research generally aims to describe the vitality of mother tongue in multilingual communities in tourism areas of dieng, central java. specifically, this nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 312 study aims to describe the vitality of mother tongue in multilingual communities in tourism areas of dieng, central java by gender, age, and education levels. ii. methods this descriptive study used a mixed method. creswell (2009) emphasizes that mixed methods can be used to produce more comprehensive, complete, and superior answers and understanding. this study aims to describe the vitality of local languages in dieng, central java. this study mainly used sociolinguistics theory to assist the method. sociolinguistics is a study of a language and its relationship with society (spolsky, 1998). the social use of language spreads into all phenomena that become the subject of sociolinguistic studies. the data was collected from interviews conducted with 53 individuals who have different mother tongues. the study involved 28 male and 25 female participants. the informants consisted of 25 young and 28 older individuals. in terms of educational levels, 45 participants had a low education level and 8 participants had a high education level. additionally, the diversity of the participants’ backgrounds is related to variations in their mother tongue. the informants were speakers with different mother tongues, such as (1) javanese (bj) with a total of 17 people, (2) kromo (bjk) with a total of 5 people, (3) ngapak (bjn) with a total of 4 people, (4) dieng (bjd) with a total of 23 people, (5) wonosobo (bjw) with a total of 1 person, (6) malay (bm) with a total of 2 people, and (7) sundanese (bs) with a total of 1 person. this study utilized the “interview package of basa urang,” an instrument developed based on cohn et al.’s work (2013, pp. 9-10). the instrument grouped language domains into five categories, following greenfield’s concept, which includes family, friendship, religion, education, and work (fishman, 1972, p. 445). these five domains differentiate based on the interlocutor, setting, and the subject of conversation. cohn et al. (2013, pp. 9–10) further divided language use patterns into three categories: patterns “for,” patterns “in,” and patterns “with.” in this study, the primary data were categorized using these three types of language use. this study was carried out in dieng, central java, an area popular for tourism. observations have shown that the local javanese-speaking people have been exposed to language contact with both domestic and foreign tourists. the research method followed the flow outlined by miles and huberman (1984), which includes six stages: (1) selecting the research topic, (2) collecting data, (3) reducing data, (4) classifying data, (5) presenting data, and (6) drawing conclusions. the data collection process involved the researchers’ recording and interview techniques. iii. results the discussion of this study includes a description of the vitality of the mother tongue in dieng, central java, based on the gender, age and education level of the informants. besides, data are also classified based on language use patterns. vitality of mother tongue based on informant gender based on informant gender, data are classified into three patterns of language use, namely patterns ‘with’, patterns ‘for’, and patterns ‘in’. a detailed description of the vitality of mother tongue use based on informant gender can be seen below. pattern ‘with’ based on gender differences based on the results of the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “with”, speakers did not significantly use the mother tongue in the family domain. the vitality of the mother tongue in the family domain by gender can be seen below. figure 1. pattern “with” of male informants based on figure 1, 56% of male informants use regional languages with their families. informants who use regional languages with their families are pbj, pbjk, pbjn, pbjd, pbm, and pbs. male informants speak malay with their family because they grew up in the mandailing area for a long time. meanwhile, some informants use sundanese because they were born in bandung. nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 313 as shown in figure 2, most female informants also use regional languages with their families (54%). informants who use their regional language are pbj, pbjk, pbjn, and pbjd. therefore, the inheritance of regional languages in the family domain is still quite good. besides being used with family, regional languages are used with neighbors and servants. male and female informants dominantly use their respective regional languages due to the similarity of regional languages between the informants and their neighbors and servants. both male and female informants use indonesian when communicating with other or mixed ethnic groups. this is to make the communication process run smoothly. pattern ‘for’ based on gender differences based on the results of the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “for”, speakers significantly use the mother tongue to get angry and dream. the vitality of the mother tongue using the pattern “for” can be seen in figure 3. the speaker’s feelings. however, 4% of other informants used english when dreaming. during prayer, both in the heart and places of worship, the informants use their respective regional languages. however, some informants use indonesian and arabic for praying. this is influenced by the religion being adhered to. figure 2. pattern “with” of female informants figure 3. pattern “for” based on gender differences based on figure 3. informants use regional languages during spontaneous language activities, such as anger and dreams. it indicates that regional languages are still dominantly used to express figure 4. the use pettern ‘for’ figure 4 shows male and female informants use javanese and jawa dieng. besides, male informants sometimes use indonesian for counting, where the intensity of use reaches 24%. meanwhile, for female informants, the intensity of use of indonesian for numeracy activities is higher, namely 34%. moreover, female informants also use english to count with an intensity level of up to 3%. the variety of language used in counting activities is affected by the need for informants to interact with tourists. figure 5. pattern “for” based on language used in sms based on figure 5, informants tend to use regional languages when exchanging messages via sms. this is because the interlocutor uses the same nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 314 regional language. however, the regional language used is not significantly different when compared to indonesian. informants also intensively use indonesian. the percentage of intensity of use of indonesian for message exchange activities reached approximately 41% (male informants) and approximately 36% (female informants). the use of indonesian for message exchange activities aims to make it easier to abbreviate. tend to use indonesian. figure 7. shows more than 67% of male informants chose to use indonesian in the educational field, and almost 100% chose to use indonesian at the tertiary level. meanwhile, the intensity of the use of regional languages by female informants only reached 48%. this means that the intensity of regional language use between male and female informants is different. male informants tend to have a more negative attitude towards regional languages, while female informants have a more positive attitude towards regional languages. vitality of mother tongue based on informant age based on the informant’s age, the data are classified into three patterns of language use, namely patterns ‘with’, patterns ‘for’, and patterns ‘in’. the vitality of mother tongue use based on informant age can be seen below. pattern ‘with’ based on age differences based on the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “with”, speakers significantly use the mother tongue to communicate with older and younger speakers. the vitality of the mother tongue by age can be seen below. figure 6. pattern “for” based on language used in mass media figure 6 indicates both male and female informants intensively use indonesian to read newspapers, magazines, and novels, and listen to music and radio, and even watch television. male informants’ use of indonesian increased by more than 56%. meanwhile, the intensity of the use of indonesian by female informants reached more than 57%. the high intensity of the use of indonesian can be due to the limited regional language media. pattern ‘in’ based on gender differences based on the pattern of regional language use, informants intensely use indonesian in the familial and friendship domains, such as at home, stalls/ markets, and playgrounds. this indicates that the closer the speaker’s emotional relationship with the speech partners, the higher the intensity of regional language use. this is reinforced by the minimal use of regional languages in the work/ public domains, such as workplaces, banks, and post offices. in the aspect of work, informants tend to prefer indonesian because formal situations and conditions require them to use a language that everyone can understand so they use indonesian which is a national language and more relevant for use in official situations. besides the field of work, indonesians dominate language use in education. the formal nature of the learning situation and various learning materials, such as books and other learning media figure 7. pattern “in” based on gender difference figure 8. pattern “with” based on age differences nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 315 for playing social media with an intensity of 52% and 50%, respectively. based on the results of the data analysis, all informants have positive language attitudes towards regional languages. both male and female informants used regional languages to communicate with older and younger interlocutors such as grandfathers, mothers, fathers, husbands/wives, brothers, sisters, relatives, servants, neighbors, and friends of the same tribe (javanese). the intensity of the use of regional languages reached almost 100%. however, 70% of informants used indonesian with friends of different ethnicities/ regional languages. pattern ‘for’ based on age differences based on the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “for”, speakers equally use the mother tongue and other languages to communicate with older and younger speakers. the vitality of the mother tongue by age can be seen in figure 9. figure 9. pattern “for” based on age differences used in sms figure 10 shows he intensity of using regional languages to communicate via sms for young and old informants reached 59%. figure 10. pattern “for” based on gender differences used in social media figure 11 indicates that young female and male informants tend to prefer using regional languages figure 11. pattern “for” based on age differences used in printed media in literacy activities, most young informants choose indonesians to read novels, magazines, and newspapers (90%). meanwhile, older informants had a lower intensity of using indonesian in literacy activities (67%). this indicates that older informants have more positive language attitudes than younger informants in literacy activities. this can be due to the high percentage of young informants who use indonesian. the lower intensity level of older informants can be influenced by their inability to read and write. only 38% of young and old informants use regional languages, especially javanese and jawa dieng, to listen to music and radio. pattern ‘in’ based on age differences based on the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “in”, speakers did not significantly use their mother tongue to communicate with older and younger speakers. the vitality of the mother tongue by age can be seen inf figure 12. figure 12. pattern “in” based on age differences nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 316 54% of informants, both old and young, use regional languages in the family and public domain, such as homes, markets, food stalls, and public transportation. however, in the field of work, young informants equally use regional languages and indonesian. education tend to choose to use regional languages. informants with common educational backgrounds are speakers of javanese, kromo, ngapak, and malay. this indicates that informants with high and low educational backgrounds use regional languages to communicate with families. even though the use of regional languages is relatively high, indonesian is also used by informants with a high educational level (17%) and a low academic level (9%) to communicate with their husband/ wife and siblings. the use of language with neighbors and housemaids in the higher education category is dominated by javanese, kromo, and jawa ngapak. meanwhile, regional languages in the low education category are quite diverse, such as javanese, kromo, ngapak, dieng, and malay. in addition, 10% of informants with low education categories use indonesian with their neighbors. figure 13. pattern “in” based on in work in contrast to young informants, most older informants use regional languages in the field of work, with an intensity of use reaching 77%, while the other 23% use indonesian. besides using regional languages and indonesian equally, young and old informants also use english (7%) in the work area due to work demands. more than 50% of young and old informants use indonesian in the educational field. this is because the majority of learning resources are in indonesian. besides, formal teaching and learning activities require informants to use the national language, indonesian. regional languages are still used in the field of education, but they are limited to communication activities with friends only. vitality of mother tongue based on educational level based on the educational level, data are classified into three patterns of language use, namely patterns ‘with’, patterns ‘for’, and patterns ‘in’. the vitality of mother tongue use based on educational levels can be described below. patterns “with” based on educational level differences based on the results of data analysis, informants with a higher level of education choose to use regional languages with their families. javanese, kromo, ngapak, and sundanese speakers are informants with a high level of education. however, informants with a low level of figure 14. pattern “with” based on educational level based on the category of regional languages used with friends of the same tribe, figure 14 shows informants with higher educational backgrounds still use regional languages, starting from javanese (29%), jawa ngapak (14%), sundanese (29%), and indonesian (29 %). moreover, informants with low educational backgrounds tend to use regional languages, starting from javanese (43%), jawa dieng (22%), and indonesian (30%). based on the category of regional language use with friends of different ethnicities, all informants with a higher education level use indonesian (100%). even, informants with low educational backgrounds tend to use indonesian (80-90%). this means that informants with a higher educational background are more easily exposed to nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 317 the influence of other languages, both indonesian and foreign languages, so the intensity of their use of regional languages is lower than those with a low education level. patterns ‘for’ based on educational level differences based on the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “for” pattern, t speakers did not significantly use their mother tongue for literacy activities. the vitality of the mother tongue by different levels of education can be seen in figure 15. attitude towards regional languages. it can be seen from the high intensity of using indonesian when using social media, namely 80%. meanwhile, informants with low education levels have a more positive attitude toward regional languages because the intensity of the use of indonesian is only 41%. patterns “in” based on education level differences based on the analysis of the vitality of the mother tongue using pattern “in” speakers use the mother tongue and indonesian equally in public spaces. the vitality of the mother tongue by different levels of education can be seen figure 16. figure 15. pattern “for” based on educational level based on language use patterns, more than 75% of informants with high and low education levels use indonesian for literacy activities, such as reading newspapers, reading magazines, reading novels, listening to music, listening to the radio, and watching television. however, 22% of informants with higher education levels chose to use english to listen to music. furthermore, some informants with low educational backgrounds decide to use english (4%) and arabic (2%) to listen to music/ radio. many informants use regional languages to exchange messages via sms with family, friends, and husband/wife. informants with low education levels tend to have a more positive attitude towards regional languages than those with higher educational backgrounds. this can be seen from the level of intensity. the intensity of using regional languages for informants with low and high education levels reached 52% and 42%, respectively. the factor influencing the level of intensity of using regional languages to exchange messages via sms is the inability of informants with low education levels to read and write. in accessing social media, informants with higher educational backgrounds have a negative figure 16. pattern “in” based on educational level most formal settings such as banks, post offices, and schools, tend to use indonesian than regional languages. however, informants sometimes have the same attitude in using regional languages and indonesian. for example, informants with higher education backgrounds use regional languages and indonesian equally at work and school with an intensity of 50% each. however, the intensity of use of indonesian is increasing in higher education, such as when communicating with lecturers (80%) and when communicating with friends (57%). meanwhile, indonesian use at post offices and banks has the same high percentage, namely 100%. in contrast to informants with higher education levels, those with lower education levels have a more positive attitude towards regional languages in public/formal domains. informants with low education levels use javanese (42%), jawa ngapak (4%), jawa dieng (16%), indonesian (31%), and english (7%) at work, post offices, banks, and schools. if accumulated, the use of regional languages by informants with low educational backgrounds reaches 62%. it indicates that there are significant differences in the intensity of the use of regional languages in the public/formal domain between informants with high and low education nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 318 levels. the use of regional languages dominates communication activities with members of the same tribe, regardless of the education level. informants with both high and low education levels predominantly use their regional language in the domestic domain. however, in the public domain (public transportation), informants with high and low education levels have opposite language attitudes. around 71% of informants with higher education levels use indonesian on public transportation and only 29% use javanese. meanwhile, the intensity of regional language use of informants with low education levels is 71%, while the other 29% use indonesian. this means that the higher the level of education, the higher the use of indonesian in the public domain. this study proves that the higher the education level, the higher the use of indonesian. in detail, the use of indonesian at the elementary school level and tertiary level reaches 56% and 80%, respectively. besides, due to leaning demand, speech partners are increasingly varied/heterogeneous regional languages. thus, the use of indonesian is a solution to overcome the difference between speakers and interlocutors. iv. discussions the results of this study emphasize four critical points. first, regional languages are dominantly used in the domestic domain with family and friends of the same ethnic group. regional languages cannot compete with indonesian in public domains such as schools and workplaces. this research’s findings strengthen the results of previous study by firman, astar, and nugroho (2023). it is proven that regional languages have started to shift. this shift is marked by the low level of vitality of the mother tongue in daily language activities, especially in the public domain. second, the use of mother tongue in multilingual communities in dieng, central java is quite diverse. the diverse backgrounds of the speakers and the various languages used. this diversity ultimately affects language contact and language shift, especially mother tongue. rahmawati, fasya, and sudana (2022) reported that languages influenced each other, both in conventional and virtual spaces. third, work and educational demands require speakers to use our national language or even international language. benu, et al. (2023) argue that socio-economic factors contribute to the shift towards the majority language and cause the loss of the language of minority groups. thus, all parties need to provide both formal and informal support for regional languages. lin (2023) proves that the dominance of english is no longer inevitable. fourth, older-generation speakers tend to be more conservative than younger-generation speakers. lastly, this research identified factors affecting a language’s vitality, namely age, education, and gender. the age factor is one of the findings of rahmawati, fasya, and sudana (2022) concerning the use of sundanese language in virtual spaces. the results of his research also prove that age greatly influences a speaker’s language attitudes. based on the results of analysis, the results of this study are in line with iye, et al. (2023) that maluku province has many language use variations such as regional languages, indonesian, english, romance languages, and arabic (iye et al., 2023). this condition is influenced by the environment in which the language is used. besides, the study reveals the influence of religion, culture, and media in which the language use highly influences the identity of the maluku people. besides iye et al., (2023), begum and sinha (2021) explain that regional languages are currently experiencing marginalization. this is in line with dağdeviren-kırmızı (2023) that most informants prefer to use russian rather than their language, turkish. dağdeviren-kırmızı (2023) argues that the shift in language use is due to a lack of reading materials in the educational sector. different from iye et al. (2023) and dağdeviren-kırmızı (2023), toró (2023) proves that the majority of hungarian-speaking children learn in their mother tongue in hungarian classes. varah and pawar (2023) and tran (2023) also reveal that speakers have positive attitudes towards their mother tongue. however, speakers’ language attitudes are influenced by the pressure to use standard language in the public domain (varah & pawar, 2023). on the other hand, no government policy has provided a more significant share of the use of regional languages in the education domain so far. regional languages play an essential role in social development and preserve speakers’ cultural and linguistic attributes (chikaipa, 2023). benu et al., (2023) argue that the state is responsible for nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 319 formal support through legislation and protection. meanwhile, individuals, community groups, and non-governmental organizations need to provide informal support. based on the analysis and discussion results, this research proves that shifts in regional languages or mother tongues can occur in homogeneous or heterogeneous communities. in addition to external factors, the vitality of languages is influenced by internal factors. research concerning language vitality in multilingual communities in dieng, central java also strengthens and proves previous research. this current research’s results can fill gaps not discussed in previous research. based on the results of the study, the vitality of regional languages in dieng, central java is in the vulnerable category because regional languages are only used in the domestic domain. referring to unesco (in austin & sallabank, 2011, p. 3) and badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa (2020, p. 11), languages with vulnerable status are characterized by most children speaking the language, but it may be limited to specific domains (for example, at home). however, this study cannot generalize the vitality of regional languages in this area as a whole because the number of informants is too small to represent the majority of people in this area. therefore, further studies related to the vitality of regional languages in dieng, central java are needed. v. conclusion based on the results and discussion, it can be concluded that the vitality of the mother tongue in multilingual communities in dieng, central java, is considered vulnerable. this condition is caused by some factors, such as age, gender and education. this research strengthens previous research regarding the vulnerability of regional or mother tongue shifts in society. besides, this research has other implications, namely to monitor the condition of the vitality of the mother tongue in multilingual communities in dieng, central java. policy makers can utilize the results of this study to formulate strategies to prevent language extinction in indonesia. this research has some limitations that can be solved by further research. this research involves less sufficient informants to represent the majority of the population in dieng. thus, the results cannot be used to generalize the vitality of regional languages in the region as a whole. therefore, future studies need to focus on the survival of regional languages in dieng, central java. references abbas, f., & iqbal, z. 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(2003). the language situation and language endangerment in the greater pacific area. in m. janse & s. tol (eds.), language death and language maintenance: theoretical, practical and descriptive approaches (pp. 15–47). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. nunung sitaresmi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 322 biography dra. nunung sitaresmi, m.pd. was born in bandung, on 9 january 1962. she has served as a lecturer since 1987 at the department of indonesian language and literature education, faculty of language and literature education, universitas pendidikan indonesian. in terms of achievement, she received awards as the 1st exemplary lecturer at the faculty level and community service champion at the university level. her studies mainly focus on the field of linguistics and language education with many publications in national journals. some of her works have been published such as sintaksis bahasa indonesia (pusat studi literasi, 2005); psikhologi linguistik: sebuah ancangan pemanfaatan dalam konteks pembelajaran bahasa (upi press, 2010); semantik bahasa indonesia (upi press, 2011); tata bahasa praktis bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (rizqi press, 2020); and literasi bahasa dan sastra indonesia dalam pembelajaran daring (rena cipta mandiri, 2022). meilani puji astini, s.pd. was born in tasikmalaya, on 4 may 1997. she graduated in 2019 from the department of indonesian language and literature education, faculty of language and literature education, universitas pendidikan indonesian. she works at pt ruang raya indonesia (ruangguru) as one of the master teacher coaches with a main interest in the field of linguistic studies. her work was published in the sinta journal entitled basic dimensions of early reading skills of elementary school students in bandung. besides, she became a speaker at several national seminars and some of her works also have been published in national proceedings. dra. lilis siti sulistyaningsih, m.pd. was born in jakarta, on 16 december 1960. she has served as a lecturer since 1986 at the department of indonesian language and literature education, faculty of language and literature education, universitas pendidikan indonesian. her studies mainly focus on the field of linguistics and language education and her works have been published in national journals. she published some books such as sahabatku indonesia (pusat bahasa:2016); tata bahasa praktis bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (rizqi press, 2020); and literasi bahasa dan sastra indonesia dalam pembelajaran daring (rena cipta mandiri, 2022). prof. dr. isah cahyani, m.pd. was born in kuningan, 7 july 1964. she loves reading and writing. some of her works have been published in national and international journals such as scopus, garuda, publon, sinta, scholar, and orchid. her motto is studying and praying. she has received awards as an outstanding lecturer, community service champion at the university level, and research champion at the faculty level. her research and service received directorate of higher education grants. her works are design model for team-based projects based on digital litigation in learning speaking https://www.scopus. com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57212555752 published in scopus 4 and enhancing writing skills and language creativity through the plus-minus-interesting technique: a case study at the primary school level published in https://ejournal.upi.edu/ index.php/ijal/article/view/58257/23480 scopus2. rahmawati, s.s. is a graduate student in the master program of linguistics, at the faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada. her research interest is in the field of linguistics, especially linguistic anthropology, sociolinguistics, semantics & pragmatics, corpus linguistics, and acoustic phonetics. some of her works have been published in accredited national journals such as sinta and reputable international proceedings. she is an active research member in the field of linguistic anthropology at the faculty of language and literature education, universitas pendidikan indonesia. eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 109 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 16, 2024 final revision: june 14, 2024 accepted: june 18, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 this study assesses the awareness and understanding of the literature, publishing and translation commission (lptc) / saudi arabian translation association (sata) code of ethics amongst translators in saudi arabia, along with their degree of compliance exhibited in their practice with respect to specific ethical principles outlined in the code. factors that may influence ethical code compliance, such as training, experience and organisational support, are examined. a mixed method approach was adopted for data collection and analysis. a self-built questionnaire comprising 39 items was developed based on the saudi translators’ professional guide. interviews were also conducted in order to gather data pertaining to factors that influence saudi translators’ compliance with the ethics code. the findings indicate that saudi translators have an extremely high awareness of the lptc/sata code (mean score 4.33 ± 0.52), with female translators demonstrating a higher degree of compliance than their male counterparts. the length of professional experience marginally affected translators’ divergence in their ethical code adherence, specifically, within the limits of translator competence. differences were detected between translators with between 6-10 and 11-15 years, between 6-10 and > 20 years, and between 11-15 and > 20 years of experience. qualitative findings suggested that the challenges which prevent ethical code compliance include an absence of awareness, a lack of the training and the tools required, an inability to balance professional and ethical requisites, as well as translational task complexity. keywords assessment, degree of compliance, ethical principles, translator’s professional guide, translators in saudi arabia correspondence e-mail: wagdyrashad@hu.edu.ye article assessing the degree of compliance with the ethical principles of the ‘translator’s professional guide’ amongst translators in saudi arabia eisa asiri1, wagdi rashad ali bin-hady2, yousef sahari3 1department of translation, college of languages and translation, king khalid university, abha, saudi arabia 2department of english, college of education, humanities and applied sciences, hadhramout university, yemen 3department of english language and literature, college of arts and letters, university of bisha, saudi arabia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.109-122.2024 i. introduction recently, the literature, publishing and translation commission (lptc), in conjunction with the saudi arabian translation association (sata), published a “translator’s professional guide” which offers recommendations for the professional conduct of translators and interpreters in saudi arabia (lptc, 2023). interestingly, the guide contains a section entitled “ethics of translation profession, and translator’s code of conduct”, which outlines the ethical principles and standards that practitioners are expected to adhere to in their translation and interpreting assignments. as part of the “vision 2030” strategic blueprint, which is currently being refined by the saudi government in order to foster economic diversification and to attract foreign investment and tourism, there is a pronounced focus on broadening the scope of translation services provided by national professional bodies (alzahrani, 2017), such as translation centres, publishers and government institutions, as well as individual freelancers. despite the ministry of commerce issuing regulations for obtaining licences for translation agencies (aldossary, 2023), there remains a conspicuous absence of guidelines governing the professional conduct and eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 110 standards of translators, underscoring the need for a comprehensive code of ethics in this predominantly nationalised profession. saudi arabia’s ministry of culture has taken key steps to regulate and manage the translation industry by establishing the lptc, the literature, publishing and translation commission, founded in 2020. tipton (2024) defines translation ethics as the moral values and reflections which underpin and direct the practice of both translation and interpreting. this area covers both the responsibilities of translators, and the ethical inferences of their work. among the issues tackled in this field are faithfulness to the original text (hermans, 2009), the role of the translator in cultural mediation (drugan & tipton, 2017), and how translators’ decisions and choices impact on a range of stakeholders, including authors, audiences and society as a whole (peters et al., 2020).translation ethics is a field which has been growing and changing over time, with the mid1990s seeing a major swing away from focussing on texts to translators – which, in turn, emphasised the importance of ethical practise (piróth & baker, 2020). as the field of translation ethics continues to develop and expand, the discussion swivels away from purely theoretical frameworks to the concrete ethical responsibilities of translators. this trend mirrors a broader range of personal, societal and professional factors and concerns which shape the critical role translators play in society (lptc, 2023). the literature comprehensively documents the ongoing debate about the ethical responsibilities of translators. while chesterman (2021) and pym (2021) assert that translators’ ethical obligations are limited to the professionalism of their translation work, cronin (2003), tymoczko (2009) and rossi (2021) argue that they also have responsibilities in the sociocultural and political context. robinson (2003) and kruger and crots (2014) note that personal ethics have now become an integral element of the discipline. according to inghilleri (2009), in order to get a thorough understanding of the role of the translator, any assessment of translation should include an analysis of ethical responsibility, social activism and personal integrity. over the last ten years the ethical aspects of translation have increasingly been highlighted, resulting in a subtler and more graded understanding of the ethical issues facing translators, and a stronger emphasis on the need to ensure translators live up to their ethical responsibilities. this is a vital development, since it is a preliminary step in drawing up a code of ethics which will serve as a benchmark for professional conduct. according to ethical codes, translators have a number of roles, and it is the codes which provide the principles which guide professional conduct in the fields of both translation and interpreting (baixauliolmos, 2021; floros, 2021). the codes usually define the main responsibilities and professional standards translators are required to reflect in their practice. mulayim and lai (2016) note that one key ethical responsibility of translators is to ensure they transmit meaning between people and cultures faithfully, precisely and without bias. in order to do so, translators have to respect the authenticity of the source and concurrently bear in mind the target audience’s cultural and linguistic preferences (boukhelef & djadani, 2023). munday (2012) agrees, pointing out that translators must maintain a high degree of professional competence, while simultaneously making sure that their translations are culturally appropriate, as well as linguistically correct. one of the main ethical responsibilities of translators is to maintain confidentiality and trust. ozolins (2015) points out that translators are often entrusted with sensitive information and have a duty to defend their clients’ privacy by safeguarding any restricted materials they deal with in their work. liu (2021) notes that translators should establish professional relationships with their clients, colleagues and any other stakeholders, by demonstrating integrity and honesty. in order to do so they must be truthful when disclosing their qualifications and level of expertise, and abide by what has been agreed in their contracts and terms of service. baixauli-olmos (2021) showed how ethical codes stress the importance of continuous professional development and remaining abreast of advances in the field, such as technological literacy. this enables translators not only to offer a high-quality service, but also to master the ever-changing needs and demands of the profession. mahdi and ibraheem (2016) state that the fact translators’ ethical codes are open to interpretation allows translators the flexibility and moral independence to tackle ethical problems in a judicious and thoughtful way. professional ethics documentation sets out eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 111 to support practitioners in reflecting on their aims and objectives, and making wise and workable decisions when faced with complex situations. to summarise, the ethical code recommends that translators should commit to accuracy, loyalty, confidentiality, professional integrity, continuous professional learning and the well-judged application of ethical principles, so that they are able to overcome any challenges which they may encounter in their professional capacity. the degree of ethical code compliance is reflected by baixauliolmos (2021, p. 311), who notes: “the documents guiding translation and interpreting professional practice are only texts and need to be autonomously applied by individual practitioners; they are to be applied with professional judgment, which is based on knowledge gained through formal training, professional experience or in socialisation with colleagues.” this suggests that whilst the code of ethics provides a framework, the actual decision-making lies with the professionals themselves. the efficacy of the guidelines is also influenced by the acknowledgement and support of the advocating professional bodies. according to hale (2007) “much more than the mere existence of a code of ethics is needed in order to ensure quality of interpreting services,”(p.103). this perspective reflects the fact that compliance is not solely dependent on the existence of codes but also on the broader professional environment and the resources available for ethical education and enforcement. baixauli-olmos (2021, p.301) describes the process of developing a code of ethics as a dynamic progression which mirrors the profession’s shared values. to begin with, a professional organisation may draw up a general document, which is termed “code of ethics” or “of professional responsibility”, which lists fundamental values and principles. this can be followed by more specific and detailed documents, such as “standards of practice”, which offer practical guidelines on how the published principles can be applied. the sequential and normative connection between the documents indicates that compliance may change over time to accommodate how the profession hones its ethical guidance. thus, while codes of ethics are essential for laying down norms within a profession, the degree to which individuals comply with these codes depends on their applicability, whether or not professional organisations support the codes, and individuals’ ability to deduce what they mean, and apply them across various professional contexts. recent studies on translation ethics have highlighted the importance of having an ethical code for translators. asiri et al. (2023) argue that ethics is a complex and multi-layered concept which is shaped by a number of factors and cannot be reduced to one, single driving force. the study’s findings indicate that translators tend to prioritise personal ethics over professional or societal principles. this conclusion suggests that the motivation for ethical behaviour may differ, depending on context. li (2023) has analysed chinese translation ethics, using the ecological model of translation, an approach which shows that incorrect ethical viewpoints are often at the root of inaccurate translations. the study supports the introduction of a positive translation ecology, improving the ethics and the values in this model, in order to enhance the accuracy of translations. a study conducted by nejad and nejad (2016) found that age had a significant effect on whether or not iranian translators were open to accepting imposed ethical codes, whereas gender did not have an impact on participants’ awareness of ethical codes. ran (2023) examined the role played by personal ethics in the conduct of legal interpreters and translators, and the importance of abiding by a formal ethical code integrated into their practice. this would enable professionals to ensure that they apply ethical principles when carrying out their translations and interpretation work. pym (2021) added that translation ethics are based on interaction between risk, trust and cooperation, describing the latter as trying to achieve shared benefits, a vital task for maintaining intercultural relations, and an important aim in translator ethics. the notion of risk requires recognising and devising strategies against possible failures in realising these mutual benefits. in this framework, trust is essential, since lack of trust can prevent the translator from collaborating efficiently and interacting with others. koskinen and pokorn (2020) analysed how academic and professional institutions integrate ethical issues into the education of translators and interpreters. they stressed the main educational aspects of teaching ethics, and evaluated the historical importance of a range of institutions within this context. their work involved a detailed discussion regarding the ethical theories that should be imparted to students, strategies for critically evaluating ethical behaviour in various subjects and eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 112 techniques, and the most effective theoretical and methodological tools for guiding ethical decisionmaking processes. in a notable study, lee and yun (2020) gauged the client-interpreter dynamic, stressing the critical role of establishing trust in ethical codes. they highlighted that translation, whilst an individual task, has a broader social impact, necessitating a focus on ethical goals that promote community cohesion. they concluded that the moral tenets and standards embraced by translators should be aligned with the societal norms within their professional context. although earlier work is undoubtedly of value, there are, to date, there has been no research which has examined the degree of compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics and conduct amongst translators in saudi arabia. the current research, therefore, will investigate this topic within the setting of saudi arabia, and is the first study to do so as far as the authors are aware. the overarching theme across these studies emphasises the critical need to examine compliance with these ethical codes as well as the challenges associated with their implementation, especially in light of the new professional guide in saudi arabia. the current research endeavours to bridge the gap between understanding translation ethics and their application within the industry. it poses questions about the degree of compliance and the factors facilitating ethical practices in translation. research questions 1. what is the level of awareness and understanding of the lptc/sata code of ethics amongst translators in saudi arabia? 2. are there statistical differences in saudi translators’ awareness of the lptc/sata code of ethics which could be attributed to gender or years of experience? 3. what factors, such as training, experience and organisational support, influence compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics amongst translators in saudi arabia? 4. what are the challenges and barriers faced by translators in saudi arabia when adhering to the lptc/sata code of ethics? ii. methods research design this research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. this strategy enables the drawbacks associated with either a quantitative or qualitative design alone to be overcome. saudi translators were recruited to take part in this study, which was carried out during 2024. participants the study included a convenience sample of saudi translators with a diverse range of practical and professional experiences. following an explanation of the study purpose, a google form questionnaire was shared with the saudi translators for a period of two weeks, i.e. from january 9 to january 19, 2024. the participants were reminded during this period to complete the questionnaire, and 42 translators responded. this research adhered to ethical guidelines for conducting research involving human subjects, including obtaining informed consent from all participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, and protecting subjects’ rights throughout all stages of data collection and analysis. seventeen males and 25 females took part in the study (table 1). 42.9% of the participants were translators with between 1 and 5 years of practising experience, suggesting that this sample population was enriched with new graduate translators. 19% participants had more than 20 years of translation experience, implying that this profession is not new in saudi arabia. the lowest percentage (9.5%) of translators was those with between 11 and 15 years of experience. table 1. participants’ gender and years of experiences in practising translation variables category frequency percentage gender male 17 40.5% female 25 59.5% total 42 100.0% years of experience in practising translation 1-5 18 42.9% 6-10 6 14.3% 11-15 4 9.5% 16-20 6 14.3% more than 20 8 19.0% total 42 100.0% instruments questionnaire the questionnaire completed by the 42 saudi practising translators was designed to assess their eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 113 awareness, understanding and compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics. the questionnaire was based on 5-point frequency scales, where 1 represented fully not complaint, and 5, fully compliant. the questionnaire had two parts. the first was set out in order to collect demographic information about the sample, including gender and years of experience. the second part was designed to gauge the translators’ degree of awareness about complying with the lptc/sata code of ethics. the items were developed from the professional guide for translators (lptc, 2023). six categories pertaining to aspects of the participants’ practices were included which contained differing numbers of research items: (i) competence, 3 items; (ii) professional confidentiality, 5 items; (iii) impartiality, 7 items; (iv) accuracy, 6 items; (v) role boundaries, 8 items; and (vi) professional conduct and behaviour, 11 items. the questionnaire was validated by sending it to four university professors specialising in applied linguistics and translation studies for their comments. they compared the translation version of the questionnaire with the arabic code of ethics in the guide, and recommended corrections to be performed with respect to 14 items. the majority of their corrections focused on clarity of structure and word choice, and these were incorporated into the questionnaire in accordance with the reviewers’ suggestions. reliability statistic table 2 displays the reliability statistics of the questionnaire items. the total reliability of the questionnaire was 0.884, reflecting extremely strong reliability and indicating the trustworthiness of the measure. the reliability scores for the various dimensions were acceptable, and in descending order: translator’s professional conduct and behaviour, α= 0.823; translator’s impartiality α=0.809; translator’s professional confidentiality, α= 0.797; clarity of translator’s role boundaries, α=0.703; translator’s accuracy, α=0.646; and translator’s competence, α=0.581. interview interviews were conducted with a subset of 7 purposively selected survey respondents, who were willing to share their ideas about the challenges that prevent application of the lptc/sata code of ethics in saudi arabia, in order to gain deeper insights into their experiences of ethical decisionmaking and compliance. the interviews allowed participants to elaborate on their perspectives and to share specific examples relating to ethical dilemmas that they had encountered in their practice. they also yielded insight into the factors that influence application of the lptc/sata code of ethics. two questions, i.e. the third and fourth research questions from the study, were posed to the interviewed participants. the translators were interviewed remotely. each participant gave consent for their interview to be recorded, and for the data to be transcribed. data analysis quantitative data from the survey were analysed using descriptive statistics so as to assess overall awareness, understanding and compliance with specific ethical principles outlined in the lptc/sata code of ethics. inferential analysis was also obtained in order to identify any differences in translators’ levels of awareness according to their gender. one-way analysis of variance (anova) was applied to detect any differences in translators’ level of ethical code awareness based on their number of years of practical experience in the translation industry. qualitative data from the interviews were subjected to thematic analysis in order to identify common themes relating to: (i) factors influencing compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics; and (ii) the challenges faced by translators in upholding these ethical standards. the researchers transcribed the interviews into written form. each transcription was read many times, and initial and subsequently emerging codes were identified from each transcript. this process was repeated by a second researcher so as to ensure the validity of the coding. similar codes were grouped together under a subcategory of the major theme. with respect to the factors that help in complying with the code table 2. reliability statistics dimensions number of items cronbach’s alpha 1. translator’s competence 3 0.581 2. translator’s professional confidentiality 5 0.797 3. translator’s impartiality 7 0.809 4. translator’s accuracy 5 0.646 5. clarity of translator’s role boundaries 8 0.703 6. translators’ professional conduct & behaviour 11 0.823 total 39 0.884 eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 114 of ethics, two subcategories were identified, i.e. training experience and organisational support. four subcategories pertaining to challenges emerged, i.e. lack of awareness, lack of training and tools, balancing between profession and ethics, and complexity of work. the frequencies of the similar codes were counted. iii. results saudi translators’ level of awareness of the lptc/sata code of ethics it was found that saudi translators have an extremely high awareness of the lptc/sata code of ethics with a general mean ± standard deviation score of 4.33 ± 0.52 (table 3). the highest (4.54 ± 0.381) and lowest (4.13 ± 0.614) scores related to the dimensions of translators’ professional conduct and behaviour, and translator’s impartiality, respectively, although all the scores were considered to be high. awareness of lptc/sata code of ethics among saudi translators by gender and experience significant differences (calculated by a t-test) were observed between saudi male and female translators with respect to their ethical code compliance (table 4). females (4.48 ± 0.348) outperformed their male (4.14 ± 0.453) counterparts (t = -2.742, p = 0.009). this gender difference was seen in 3 dimensions, i.e. translator’s professional confidentiality (p = 0.010), translator’s accuracy (0.012), and translator’s professional conduct and behaviour (p = 0.025). one-way anova was used to identify the compliance of saudi translators with the codes of ethics according to the duration of their practical experience, table 5. only the dimension of translator’s competence exhibited a significant difference (f = 2.776, p = 0.041). in order to ascertain the comparisons that this difference could table 3. saudi translators’ awareness of the lptc/sata code of ethics dimensions n mean std. deviation translator’s competence 42 4.46 0.509 translator’s professional confidentiality 42 4.28 0.684 translator’s impartiality 42 4.13 0.614 translator’s accuracy 42 4.27 0.495 clarity of translator’s role boundaries 42 4.35 0.452 translators’ professional conduct & behaviour 42 4.54 0.381 average 42 4.33 0.52 table 4. saudi translators’ compliance with the lptc/sata ethical code of ethics according to gender dimensions gender n mean std. deviation t df sig. (2-tailed) translator’s competence male 17 4.28 0.606 -1.95240 0.058 female 25 4.58 0.400 translator’s professional confidentiality male 17 3.96 0.816 -2.69040 0.010 female 25 4.50 0.483 translator’s impartiality male 17 3.94 0.771 -1.76840 0.085 female 25 4.27 0.449 translator’s accuracy male 17 4.04 0.415 -2.64440 0.012 female 25 4.43 0.492 clarity of translator’s role boundaries male 17 4.25 0.461 -1.62340 0.112 female 25 4.46 0.374 translator’s professional conduct and behaviour male 17 4.38 0.357 -2.32940 0.025 female 25 4.64 0.366 total male 17 4.14 0.453 -2.74240 0.009female 25 4.48 0.348 eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 115 table 5. saudi translators’ compliance with the lptc/sata ethical code according to experience duration dimensions sum of squares df mean square f sig. translator’s competence between groups 2.456 4 0.614 2.776 0.041within groups 8.185 37 0.221 total 10.641 41 translator’s professional confidentiality between groups 0.383 4 0.096 0.188 0.943within groups 18.828 37 0.509 total 19.211 41 translator’s impartiality between groups 1.308 4 0.327 0.853 0.501within groups 14.182 37 0.383 total 15.489 41 translator’s accuracy between groups 1.410 4 0.352 1.504 0.221within groups 8.667 37 0.234 total 10.076 41 clarity of translator’s role boundaries between groups .906 4 0.226 1.327 0.278within groups 6.313 37 0.171 total 7.219 41 translator’s professional conduct & behaviour between groups .528 4 0.132 0.896 0.476within groups 5.453 37 0.147 total 5.981 41 table 6. differences in saudi translators’ competence dependent variable (i) years of experience in practising translation (j) years of experiences in practising translation mean difference (i-j) sig. translator’s competence 6-10 1-5 -0.425930.062 11-15 -0.66667-* 0.034 16-20 -0.444440.110 >20 -0.81250-* 0.003 table 7. factors influencing compliance with the code of ethics amongst translators in saudi arabia research question/ analytical category subcategory example of initial code with frequencies [number of responses endorsing each subcategory] factors 1. training experience 1. formal training and practical experience [5] 2. awareness of cultural and global issues [2] 3. qualifying translation students in both languages is essential [1] 2. organisational support 4. organisational support has been a cornerstone of my professional development [2] 5.monitoring trainees at translation training centres during their studying years [1] 6.establishing training opportunities for novice translators [2] be attributed to, post hoc tests were performed, table 6. the post hoc tests indicated that differences existed between translators with 6-10 years and 11-15 years of experience (i-j value = -0.66667, p =0.034), and between those with 6-10 years and over 20 years of experience, with the latter exhibiting higher compliance (i-j value = -0.81250, p = 0.003). factors influence saudi translators’ compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics was found to be influenced by comprehensive training and education, practical experience in eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 116 the field, and vital organisational support from translation agencies and professional associations, who provided resources for ethical training and fostered an ethos which values ethical practice. table 7 identifies the two influential factors that impact translators from complying with the lptc/sata codes of ethics: training experience is the first and organizational support is the second. the first themes, i.e., training experience has emerged in 8 responses. interviewee 4 mentioned, “in addition to my formal training and practical experience, my personal integrity and commitment to code of ethics play a major role in my adherence to the lptc/sata code of ethics”. furthermore, another factor is getting aware with the culture and global issues to comply with the lptc/sata codes of ethics. “my awareness of cultural and global issues and my understanding to cultural contexts is crucial in maintaining the high ethical standards set by the lptc/sata code, “ interviewee 6 added. training should also focus on both language pairs. interviewee 2 confirmed, “qualifying translation students in both languages and not limiting them to english or neglecting the arabic language are essential. when translation students graduate, they will enter the translation job market, and they may face challenges in certain aspects”. the second subcategory was organisational support, which was evident in 5 responses. interviewee 1 commented, “organisational support has been a cornerstone of my professional development. the support i’ve received from translation agencies, professional associations, and other institutions has been vital”. this can also be achieved with the help of some translation agencies. interviewee 3 opined, “monitoring trainees at translation training institutions during their university training period is crucial, as some institutions may assign them other administrative tasks instead of or in addition to translation tasks”. training novice translators under the guidance of professional ones is essential. interviewee 3 added, creating training opportunities for novice translators to work with or under the supervision of professional translators and helping them apply the guidelines in practice is important”. to sum up, two factors were induced to influence the compliance of saudi translation to adhering to the lptc/sata code of ethics. the first is formal training while the second in organizational support. challenges and barriers faced by translators in saudi arabia when adhering to the lptc/sata code of ethics translators in saudi arabia face challenges owing to a lack of awareness regarding translation tools, difficulties in maintaining confidentiality, and limited access to specialised resources. they also struggle with balancing personal beliefs and professional ethics, reconciling ethical codes with diverse contexts, and dealing with the complexity of translating legal, technical or medical texts across different languages and cultures, table 8. challenges in following the lpt/sata code of ethics in the saudi context can be classified into 4 subcategories, which emerged in 9 initial codes. the first challenge resulted from the lack of a translator’s awareness of the translation profession, a perspective evident in 2 responses. interviewee 2 suggested, “lack of awareness among non-specialists in translation about the nature of the translation process and the tools needed by table 8. challenges faced by translators when adhering to the code of ethics in saudi arabia analytical category descriptive category example of initial code [number of responses endorsing each subcategory] challenges 1. lack of awareness 1. lack of awareness about the translation profession [2] 2. a lack of professional tests or accreditations for saudi translators [2] 2. lack of training and tools 3. limited access to resources or reference materials [2] 4. translators may not have sufficient knowledge about the lptc/sata code of ethics [1] 3. balancing between profession and ethics 5. the need to suppress personal ethics in professional settings [3] 6. i encounter a tough balancing act between my personal beliefs and the professional ethics required in translations [2] 7. challenging to maintain confidentiality when working with multiple clients or within organisations [1] 4. complexity of work 8. translation work here is diverse and complex [2] 9. qualified translators are involved in other academic or administrative work [1] eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 117 translators.” interviewee 3 added, “translators may not have sufficient knowledge about the lptc/sata code of ethics or its importance in their profession.” this lack of awareness may be a result of recruiting translators without being obliged to test their skills, a view which occurred in 2 responses. “there is no clear standard for selecting a qualified translator for an employer other than the translator’s reputation,” interviewee 2 argued. another challenge arose from the lack of training and tools required, which was observed in 3 responses. “limited access to resources, such as specialised dictionaries, glossaries, or reference materials, is another barrier for translators in saudi arabia,” interviewee 3 reported. the third type of challenge is the lack of being able to obtain a balance between professional and ethical requisites, an issue noted in 5 responses. “one of the main challenges is the need to suppress my personal ethics in professional settings, particularly when translating texts that may be offensive or contradict my beliefs,” interviewee 5 mentioned. finally, the complexity of work was deemed to be a challenge, a view evident in 3 responses. “the nature of translation work here is diverse and complex, often requiring us to navigate between different languages and cultures,” interviewee 1 opined. interviewee 6 confirmed, “qualified translators in saudi arabia are involved in other academic or administrative work, and thus, time constraints inevitably affect the translation process.” in summary, certain issues prevent saudi translators to compile to the code of ethics, they are: lack of awareness, lack of training and tools, balancing between profession and ethics and complexity of work. iv. discussion this investigation delves into the awareness of translators in saudi arabia regarding the need for compliance with the lptc/sata code of ethics whilst practising translation. results of the study show that saudi translators have an extremely high mean awareness score (4.33 ± 0.52) in relation to the code of ethics. reporting high awareness of the code of ethics implies obeying these regulations while doing the translation industry. this outcome is indicative of the strict saudi authority legislation which governs the required commitment to professional ethics by working translators. this result agreed with piróth and baker’s (2020) ideas that the field of translation after 1990 witnessed great emphases on complying to ethic practice. however, this finding contradicts those of lotfollahi et al. (2020) who found that iranian translators were unable to comply with a code of ethics whilst performing translation tasks. this analysis went forward to explore the level of awareness between female saudi translators to the code of ethics. the finding indicates that female translators outperform males (in three dimensions out of six) with respect to their level of awareness of the lptc/sata code. this result reflects the readiness and trustworthiness of female translators with respect to the translation profession. females are more reliable and authentic in doing the translation tasks. however, this is just a claim which needs justification. this claim aligns with roxas and stoneback (2004) who found that females varies in their ethical orientation in comparison with males. they reported that females obey ethics higher than males. on the contrary, these results do not agree with those reported by nejad and nejad (2016), who found that gender does not have an impact on the awareness of iranian translators and their familiarity with the translators’ code of ethics. the study reported that translator’s number of years of experience impact their complying with ethical code. this was clearly found in the of translator’s competence dimension. finding reported difference between those translators with experience durations of 6-10 vs. 11-15 years of experience, and between 6-10 years vs. >20 years of experience. this finding can be interpreted that this group of translators with 6-10 years of experiences are in their productivity. they understand what it means to practice the translation profession while keeping an eye of complying to the codes of ethics. this is confirmed by nejad and nejad (2016) who also noted that age played an important role in the commitment of iranian translators to the code of ethics. the study also observed the challenges in following the code of ethics by translators in saudi arabia. findings subcategorised these challenges into a lack of awareness, a lack of training and tools required, an inability to balance between profession and ethics, and the complexity of the translation work. this aligns with asiri et al. (2023) who found that translators in saudi arabia face medium challenges in applying the code of ethics. such findings have implications for saudi university departments of translation. the latter are required to supervise their students with respect to eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 118 the necessity of applying the code of ethics whilst carrying out translation tasks. the study determined that training experience and organisational support were factors that influenced ethical code adherence. drugan and megone (2011) reported similar findings, and argued that training in ethics for upcoming translators is becoming increasingly crucial, given that graduates will operate in an environment of reduced trade barriers, heightened competition amongst translators, globalised business methods, crowdsourcing, and in the setting of expanding public discussions on ethical consumerism. koskinen and pokorn (2020) claimed that ethical issues should be incorporated into translators’ education. policy-makers and agencies therefore need to train translators to apply the lptc/sata ethical code in practice, and to integrate theory into their daily work. in order to address these challenges, policy makers and translation agencies could consider implementing the following measures: (i) development of enhanced training programmes, which not only cover the lptc/sata code in depth, but also provide practical guidance on how to apply the code in day-to-day translation work, thereby bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application; (ii) provision of tools and resources, e.g. access to relevant literature, case studies demonstrating ethical dilemmas in translation, and forums for discussion and advice, in order to facilitate ethical code compliance; and (iii) establishment of a continuous support system for translators, e.g. regular workshops or seminars on ethics in translation, and platforms for translators to share experiences and to learn from each other. v. conclusion this study investigated the adherence of translators in saudi arabia to the lptc/sata code of ethics, and determined that participants exhibited a high degree of compliance. these findings illustrate the importance placed by saudi institutions on implementing the translation ethical code within the kingdom in order to safeguard the profession against malpractice. saudi arabia is progressing towards diversifying sources of incomes so as to ensure a high-quality existence for current and future generations. results also indicate the status of women in the kingdom’s vision, as females in the study demonstrated a higher ethical code compliance than males in some dimensions. it is therefore recommended that the education of translation students continues, and that translation companies assist novice translators in understanding and paying attention to the code of ethics whilst carrying out their work. further studies are suggested in order to investigate the true degree of ethical code adherence in practice, as well as the regulations that translation companies depend on when appointing translators for specific jobs. there is also a pressing need for an inquiry into the level of compliance with ethical codes by freelancers when they carry out translation tasks with colleagues beyond saudi arabia’s borders. acknowledgement this research received grant number (121/2023) from the arab observatory for translation (an affiliate of alecso), which is supported by the literature, publishing & translation commission in saudi arabia. references aldossary, h. s. m. (2023). translation technology and cat tools: addressing gaps between pedagogy and the translation industry in saudi arabia (doctoral dissertation). university of leeds. alzahrani, a. (2017). markets and language policy in saudi arabia: how the english language can contribute to the success of the saudi vision 2030. international journal of english language and linguistics research, 5(6), 1-12. asiri, e. a. s., sahari, y., alasmri, i., & assiri, a. (2022). revisiting the notions of translation ethics in saudi arabia: a survey of translators’ perceptions. saudi journal of language studies, 3(1), 1-18. baixauli-olmos, l. (2021). ethics codes for translators and interpreters in the translation industry. in k. koskinen & n. pokorn (eds), the routledge handbook of translation and ethics (pp. 297-319). abingdon: routledge. boukhelef, f., & djadani, m. 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(2009). translation, ethics and ideology in a violent globalizing world. in e. bielsa & c. w. hughes (eds.), globalization, political violence and translation (pp. 171-194). london: palgrave macmillan uk. eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 121 appendix statements mean std. deviation translator’s com petence 1. i honestly identify the languages that i can translate from and into with complete competence. 4.6341 .48765 2. i do not accept to translate between language pairs that i do not master completely, with its lexical, morphological, grammatical, and syntactic structures. 4.4048 .76699 3. if the required task exceeds my cognitive capabilities, i immediately notify the client and collaborate with them to find a solution to overcome the problem. 4.3571 .79084 translator’s professional c onfidentiality 4. i generally refrain from providing any information about the translation tasks i work on. 4.1429 1.02580 5. i commit to non-disclosure agreements (nda), whether i have already signed it or not. 4.1667 .93487 6. i refrain from any form of exploitation of the private information that i learn during the completion of the translation task. 4.3571 1.00781 7. i maintain the confidentiality of my translation industry colleagues. 4.4524 .73923 8. i am obligated, in cases of necessity, to cooperate with the competent regulatory, security and judicial authorities. 4.3095 .86920 translators’ im partiality 9. i maintain a “safe” emotional and mental distance from both the translation material that i undertake to complete, and from the client who owns the material or requests 3.9286 1.04515 10. i refrain from adding any notes for the benefit of the client with the aim of achieving a specific interest, whether material or moral. 4.1190 .96783 11. i commit not to modify the content of the translation in any way based on my opinions, whims, and personal inclinations. 3.8571 1.09481 12. i do not accept the translation of any work that contradicts my belief and intellectual values fearing of not being able to convey the author’s intent. 4.1429 .87154 13. i apologize for completing the translation task if at one of the stages of the work i felt unable to maintain the required impartiality. 4.0952 .82075 14. i clearly disclose any conflict of interests caused by the required translation task that results in achieving a material or moral interest. 4.5000 .67173 15. in all circumstances, i express my respect for different cultures and religions from the social and religious values of saudi society. 4.3333 .75439 translator’s a ccuracy 16. i transfer the translated text from the source language without deleting, adding or discarding anything, except as required by the target language in its expressive forms and specific cultural contents. 4.4762 .67130 17. i use appropriate linguistic skills to convey the translated text in a way that suits its topic and style. 4.5000 .55216 18. i use resources to help me understand what is being translated correctly to optimally transfer it into the target language. 4.4286 .63025 19. i immediately take the initiative to correct any error in my translation when i notice it without hesitation. 4.0714 .80828 20. i do not resort to abbreviating the contents and meanings or to interpreting them except after the express approval of the client. 3.9048 1.07770 eisa asiri / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 122 c larity of translator’s r ole b oundaries 21. i avoid playing the role of advisor towards the beneficiary client 4.0000 1.14764 22. i refrain from assuming the role of an evaluator of the subject matter and content of the translation. 4.6667 .47712 23. i respect all parties involved in the translation task or participating in its completion, and respect their roles. 4.2143 .64527 24. if i am asked to carry out other work on the sidelines of the task assigned to me, it is my duty to explain my role to the concerned party, and remind them of my professional capacity and the limits of my role. 4.4524 .67000 25. in all circumstances, i always strive to perform my role in the best professional manner. 4.4286 .63025 26. i adhere to the work formulas and protocols requested by the beneficiary party. 4.3571 .65598 27. i bear the responsibility resulting from the nature of the work entrusted to me and make the decisions required by that responsibility. 4.2381 .87818 28. i refrain from delegating someone else to do the work i pledged to do in my place. 4.6429 .57685 translator’s professional conduct & behaviour 29. i refrain from any action that violates teachings of the islamic religion. 4.5000 .59469 30. i make sure my appearance is appropriate to the nature of the work and general taste. 4.5952 .49680 31. i always practice tact and respect when dealing with colleagues in the profession, clients and other parties involved in translation work. 4.5476 .59274 32. i maintain friendliness and cooperation within the scope of work without discrimination, contempt or belittlement. 4.3571 .82111 33. i avoid everything that leads to provocation, incitement, and exaggeration of problems and disagreements that may arise in the field of work. 4.6667 .47712 34. i carry out the tasks and respect the ethics of the profession and the rules of good behaviour. 4.4762 .63392 35. i do not exchange information with colleagues in the profession about ongoing translation projects via unsecured means of communication. 4.5238 .55163 36. i bear responsibility for the quality of work, whether i am a selfemployed, an employee of an institution, or through a contract with it. 4.4762 .67130 37. i refrain from accepting the translation of works whose contents, functions and objectives do not fit with the translation regulations, its societal message, and its value and ethical conditions. 4.6667 .61154 38. i do not accept bribery or tolerate it in any way. 4.5952 .62701 39. i refrain from translating materials that disturb societal peace and security. 4.3469 .42366 badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 371 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 30, 2023 final revision: december 26, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this paper examines the translations of ‘golden kamuy vol. 1’ from japanese to bahasa melayu/bahasa indonesia by mt system google translate (gt) and online fan-based translating community komikcast. given the linguistic and sociocultural differences between the source language (sl) and target language (tl), translating manga demands expertise and a profound understanding of the cultural nuances embedded in the sl, the specific manga genre, and the target audience. this qualitative descriptive study uses vinay and darbelnet’s (1958/1995) translation strategies to analyze the translations of ‘golden kamuy vol. 1’ by gt and komikcast. the study finds that both platforms employ literal translation, borrowing, and equivalence strategies, with komikcast additionally using modulation. gt primarily relies on literary translation, which is consistent with its algorithmic nature and reliance on translation memories. conversely, komikcast emphasizes the equivalence strategy, recognizing the significance of language proficiency and the contextual and cultural insights human translators provide. findings are discussed in relation to nida’s equivalence effects, particularly regarding the translated text’s purpose, translators’ knowledge, and cultural differences in sl and tl. this research enhances our understanding of manga translation, as well as the strengths and limitations of machine and human translation, while contributing to the broader discussion on translation studies. while acknowledging the role and potential of machine translation, this research also reinforces the critical role of human translators in bridging linguistic and cultural gaps between japanese and indonesian, highlighting the need for translators to possess deep cultural insights and proficiency beyond literal translations for more authentic and contextually accurate renditions. keywords translation strategies, manga translation, google translate, fan-based translations, equivalence and equivalence effects correspondence e-mail: badriyah.yusof@gmail.com article exploring translation strategies of japanese manga in google translate and komikcast translations badriyah yusof1, hassanal basuni2 1-2universiti brunei darussalam, bandar seri begawan, brunei darussalam under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.371-383.2023 i. introduction translation, a multifaceted and essential process, involves the conversion of written or spoken content from one language into another. it is a bridge that connects diverse linguistic and cultural landscapes, enabling effective communication across the globe. in comic translation such as of manga, for instance, translating process goes beyond the mere conversion of textual content but involves tailoring the translation to suit a specific culture. manga, an umbrella term referring to various types of comic books and graphic novels produced and published in japan (pagan, 2018) is not just a manifestation of otaku culture but also a celebrated form of japanese culture that has traversed centuries. the origins of manga can be traced back to ancient japanese scroll art, honed by buddhist monks in the 12th century, notably exemplified by the chouju giga or ‘scrolls of frolicking animals.’ this scroll artistry, credited to a monk named bishop toba, featured anthropomorphic animal characters, such as monkeys, rabbits, raccoons, and frogs, engaged in comical and expressive actions embedding themes of religious teachings, ghost stories, and a myriad of whimsical characters navigating peculiar events (robin, 2007). in the present manga, which can be humorous, badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 372 creative, inspirational, philosophical, or stylistic in nature, these themes range from romance, sports, domestic life, kitchen scenarios, office environments, cooking, to parliamentary matters. these narratives evoke a plethora of emotions and convey values and virtues, including konjou or strong determination, career pursuit, selfdenial, dedication, resilience, valor, unrequited love, and much more (hashimoto, 2023). initially regarded as a medium of entertainment primarily for children, manga has evolved to hold profound significance and has become a subject of academic inquiry especially since its revolutionary phase in the 1950s with the broadcasting of tezuka osamu’s astro boy (tezuka productions, 2023). in her article ‘pop culture: manga,’ akiko hashimoto asserts that manga has attained a heightened social status despite its origins as children’s entertainment. today, manga serves as a legitimate literary resource for research and critique. with the rapid advancement of technology, manga is striding in the digital world. masaaki shimizu, a square enix’s publishing team member, reported a 40% decrease in print publication (ayyup, 2020). taking this background into consideration, comic translators, manga included, are not simply tasked with word-for-word translation but must also infuse creativity into their work to ensure that the intended information and effect resonates with readers (evs: global translations and business services, 2012). furthermore, translating comics from one language to another is tightly intertwined with the translation of visual culture (zanettin, 2008). it encompasses the recontextualisation of the intricate cultural subtleties woven into comics. translated comics often undergo adaptations to align with the specific demands and cultural contexts of the tl, prompting the emergence of ‘transcreation,’ signifying the translation of text while considering cultural norms, slang, vernacular language, colloquial expressions, and connotations rooted in the sl. the comic translation is a multifaceted endeavour fraught with challenges and intricacies. at its core, comics consist of three essential linguistic elements: dialogue, captions, and descriptive text. translating comic dialogues requires a finesse akin to rendering natural conversations, like translating a screenplay or a novel. captions, on the other hand, compose the formal narrative thread weaving through the comic’s storyline. meanwhile, incorporating descriptive language within comics demands a heightened level of skill, emphasising the translator’s pivotal role (wabbit translations, 2022). successfully navigating these format-related challenges hinges significantly on the translator’s expertise. furthermore, the linguistic styles employed in comics introduce an additional layer of complexity to the translation process. comics may occasionally feature specific dialects or even invent new slang terms, necessitating translators to harness their linguistic prowess to convey these distinct linguistic nuances in the target language or tl (wabbit translations, 2022). tackling such innovative slang can prove daunting, as local equivalents may not readily exist, potentially leading to misunderstandings. in addition to linguistic style and dialogue, translating onomatopoeic sounds, where actions or sounds are represented textually, presents a formidable challenge. onomatopoeic expressions can vary significantly from one language to another. historically, translators often preserve the original form when borrowing onomatopoeia from english due to a dearth of suitable local vocabulary (wabbit translations, 2022). these multifarious obstacles underscore the intricate artistry of comic translation, demanding translators to deftly navigate linguistic formats, styles, and unique textual representations. another challenge in comic translation is adaptation, particularly when translating materials for children. adaptation involves modifying content to make it more suitable for the target audience, often in the context of children’s literature (vahhabzadeh, 2018). this entails altering messages and content to ensure age-appropriateness. to do so, translators must be well-acquainted with the intended audience for the translated material. in this regard, vinay and darbelnet’s (1995) translation strategies have long served as guiding principles in translation, offering a systematic framework for translators to navigate the complexities of transferring meaning and nuances between languages. this paper explores translation strategies within the context of japanese manga comics being translated into malay/bahasa indonesia, languages with distinct linguistic and sociocultural backgrounds. successful manga translation demands not only linguistic expertise but also a deep understanding of the cultural intricacies, genre-specific nuances, and the target audience’s preferences. it is within this intricate badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 373 tapestry that translation strategies play a pivotal role, facilitating the faithful transformation of source text (st) into target text (tt). in the same vein, a review of previous studies reveals a burgeoning interest in manga translation, exploring aspects ranging from linguistic strategies to cultural adaptations. in the last two decades, studies on manga have been conducted along the nexus of representations and genres (berndt, 2016, 2018, 2020; jaqueline & kümmerling-meibauer, 2013; prough, 2010b, 2010a; zanettin, 2019), history, religion and development (berndt, 2014; ito, 2005; macwilliams, 2012; williams, 2009), cultural product (p. abdul wahid, 2007; p. r. abdul wahid et al., 2019; freedman, 2018; freedman & slade, 2018), as well as gender and sexualities (chan, 2017; darlington & cooper, 2010; lewicki, 2022; ting, 2019), among numerous others. within the realm of translation studies, research on manga translations and scanlations (sell, 2011) ranges from issues surrounding localisations (hevia, 2007; maser, 2020; schodt, 2016), adaptation (zanettin, 2014, 2018), danmaku subtitling or online collaborative translation (yang, 2021), automated or machine translations (hinami et al., 2021; sharif et al., 2021), use of notes in scanlations (fabbretti, 2016; okyayuz, 2017) and manga translations as a pedagogical tool (furuhata-turner, 2013; rohan et al., 2021). in the malay/ bahasa indonesiaspeaking region, studies on manga translation cover the translation of humour and onomatopoeia in manga (chow & che omar, 2019), as well as aspects of translation procedures and intercultural communication (chow & omar, 2019; ningsih & hidayat, 2018; salsabila & laksman-huntley, 2020). yean fun chow, haslina haroon and hasuria che omar works on translating manga in malaysia, for instance, emphasise the use of multimodal elements such as notes (chow et al., 2020), typography (chow, 2023), and agencies (chow & omar, 2021) as means to aid translating strategies; and the role of external factors such as censorship (chow et al., 2021), as well as policies, publishers and local market (chow & omar, 2019) in shaping the mangascape in malaysia. in the same spectrum, manga translation procedures involving automated or machine translators such as google translate and cat tools such as online dictionaries are also discussed. in “perbandingan terjemahan manusia dengan terjemahan mesin dalam buku fitness 24/7,” nur faezah mohd ayob and hasnah mohamad (2015) adopted nord’s (2005) functional approach to analyze a translation of “cergas 24/7” by kevin zahri using google translate and compared it with a human translation. the study found that there was a modest similarity of 31.6 per cent in the handling of technical texts between human and machine translations. this observation underscores the necessity for human intervention in machine translation to attain enhanced translation quality. it illustrates that while machine translation has made significant strides, it has yet to achieve the level of proficiency and comprehension exhibited by human translators. whereas, in a research conducted by muhammad nur ramadhan (2019) on the translation of wakamono kotoba or ‘slang of the young people’ in the manga “one piece” into bahasa indonesia, his study aimed to identify the translation strategies and techniques used based on newmark’s (1981) framework while also assessing the degree of equivalence achieved in the translations. additionally, the researcher determined whether the translations were equivalent by comparing them to definitions in online dictionaries such as zokugo-dict.com, weblio.jp, kenji matsura’s japanese-indonesian dictionary, and kamus besar bahasa indonesia. the research found that the most frequently used translation strategy was ‘free translation’, with the most common technique being modulation, highlighting the challenges of achieving equivalence in translation. a study conducted by luh gede wika elfayanti (2015) on the translation procedures in manga focuses on translation of japanese idioms in doraemon’s teema betsu kessaku sen edisi 1-17 comic using baker (1992), and vinay and darbelnet (1995) translating strategies. by employing translation density techniques and specific selection techniques on 34 idioms, 28 idioms were paraphrased, five were translated directly, and one was left untranslated. the study also revealed that the translator used literal translation, transposition, adaptation, and equivalence strategies to translate the idioms. in a more recent study conducted by febri nur dwiyanti, hermandra, and intan suri (2022) titled “penerjemahan kanyouku dalam novel shikisai wo motanai tazaki tsukuru to kare no junrei no toshi karya haruki murakami,” the researchers used insights from baker’s (1992) idiom translation badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 374 strategies and vinay & darbelnet’s (1995) translation procedures to describe the strategies and procedures for translating kanyouku or idioms. their data consisted of upper-body idioms extracted from haruki murakamis novel “shikisai wo motanai tazaki tsukuru to kare no junrei no toshi,” and its indonesian translation tsukuru tazaki tanpa warna dan tahun ziarahnya,” by ribeka ota in 2018. the study found that the translator employed various strategies such as idiomatic equivalence and paraphrase and used procedures like literal translation and transposition to accurately convey the intended meaning of the idioms. in “transposition and modulation occured in the translation of meitantei conan manga volume 61,” yuniarsih, eky kusuma and andra roni (2022) investigate ‘form shifts’ and ‘meaning shifts’ in the ‘meitantei conan’ manga using catford’s (1965) ‘translation shifts’, vinay and darbelnet’s (1995) ‘meaning shifts’, and nida and taber’s (1969) translation processes. the ‘simak’ approach (mahsun, 2012) was used for data collection, and a comparative translation analysis method was employed for analysis. the findings revealed 44 ‘form shifts’ and ‘meaning shifts’ were used as translating strategies. additionally, five instances exhibited ‘form shifts’ and ‘modulation’ simultaneously. most ‘form shifts’ fell into the category of ‘unit shift’, while most ‘meaning shifts’ fell into the ‘reversal of terms’. this phenomenon occurred due to the cultural differences between the sl and tl. this review underscores a crucial aspect of translation, i.e. the impact of cultural divergence on the fidelity of the translated text. despite the voluminous studies conducted by previous scholars, a few research gaps still exist in the field of manga translation particularly within japanese-indonesia working pairs. this includes the use of multimodal elements, typography, and agencies in translation strategies, the role of censorship and policies in shaping the mangascape, and the degree of equivalence achieved in translations of culturally rich and context-specific language elements. similarly, there is also a need for more research on the interplay between human and machine translations, particularly within the context of technical texts, to attain enhanced translation quality. the objective of this research, therefore, is twofold: firstly, to provide a comprehensive analysis of the translation strategies employed in manga, focusing on specific elements like onomatopoeia and cultural idioms; and secondly, to assess the degree of equivalence achieved in these translations, considering both linguistic and cultural dimensions. by employing an analytical approach such as of vinay and darbelnet’s translation strategies (1958/1995), this study aims to fill the existing gap in literature, offering insights that can guide future translation endeavors in the realm of manga. the expected outcomes of this research are manifold. firstly, it will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on manga translation, offering a nuanced understanding of the strategies and challenges involved. secondly, by highlighting the areas that require attention, such as the translation of cultural idioms or innovative slang, it will inform and guide translators, ensuring more accurate and culturally resonant translations. ultimately, this research seeks to enrich our understanding of manga as a cultural artifact and underscore the indispensable role of translation in bridging linguistic and cultural divides. ii. methods this qualitative descriptive study employs vinay and darbelnet’s translation strategies (1958/1995) to compare translations produced by google translate and komikcast. insights from this comparison will shed light on the prominent strategies used and their meaning in terms of equivalence and equivalence effects. in their seminal work, vinay and darbelnet (1958/1995) outline seven translating strategies: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. these strategies can be further divided into direct and oblique, where the former aims to transfer sl’s conceptual and structural elements into tl. in their framework, direct translation strategies include borrowing, calque, and literal translation, while oblique translation strategies comprise transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. in borrowing, a translator incorporates technical terms or concepts from the sl into the tl. borrowing involves directly importing words from the sl due to a lack of corresponding vocabulary in the tl, or to expand the tl’s lexicon. typically, borrowing retains the style of the st while conveying significant meaning. in comparison, calque is a translation technique where an expression or phrase from the st is borrowed but translated literally, word for word. this approach can introduce new expressions while preserving badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 375 the sentence structure of the tl. similarly, literal translation involves transferring the st directly to the tt, word for word. this strategy translates each word from the sl and then adapts it to the tl. vinay and darbelnet (1958/1995) contend that if translators cannot employ a literal or direct translation approach, they should resort to other translation strategies, such as transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. these oblique strategies allow translators to demonstrate their skill in freely translating text to achieve a high level of equivalence. within this framework, transposition refers to changing the word class from one part of speech to another without altering the meaning. there are two types of transposition: obligatory and optional. obligatory transposition is used when there is a significant disparity in the language systems between the source and tts. on the other, modulation entails changes in semantics and the viewpoint from the sl to the tl. modulation can be obligatory or optional and is typically used to convey meaning or understanding more naturally from the sl to the tl. whereas equivalence often involves modifying sl words to fit the tl. this strategy is frequently employed for foreign terms not present in the tl but with meanings closely resembling existing terms. finally, adaptation is a translation strategy used when there is no direct counterpart in the st for a concept in the tt. in such cases, the translator must create a new concept in the tt that closely aligns with the st’s concept. the selected data is a manga titled ‘golden kamuy,’ authored and illustrated by satoru noda. this manga comprises 187 pages and represents the first volume published on august 21, 2014. ‘golden kamuy’ was chosen due to its immense popularity, boasting approximately 23 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. for practicality, this study will only look at chapters 1 to 7 of this manga, as the data pertains to the same theme, specifically regarding the history of the ainu people and their legacy. the “golden kamuy vol.1” will be transcribed at the groundwork level using the mt system google translate. translation will be conducted using sentence by sentence (within speech bubbles) to facilitate easy parsing and include onomatopoeic sounds. similarly, translations from the fan-based page komikcast will also be transcribed into a similar format for practical comparison. in the analysis, a translation strategy for each translated text/sentence will be identified. findings will be tabulated and discussed using nida’s concept of equivalence and equivalence effect. iii. result and discussion findings have shown that google translate and komikcast utilize four translating strategies in their translation output, namely literal translation, equivalence, borrowing, and modulation. table 1 demonstrates the tabulation of these strategies, with literal translation used mainly by both platforms, and modulation employed by komikcast exclusively. for practical purposes, only the first two strategies will be discussed in this section. despite coinciding vinay and darbelnet’s observation on literal translation “being most common between languages of the same family and culture” (1958/1995: 57), the reason for the predominant selection of this strategy is owed to its simplicity, consistency and laxity of context, as the language structures between japanese and malay are fundamentally different. the japanese sentences comprised of subject → object → verb structure, and malay structure follows subject → verb → object syntactic format (yogyanti, 2022). akin to other direct translating strategies such as borrowing and calque, literal translation requires minimal linguistic analysis leading to the production of basic, literal meaning in the st. in literal translation, the strategy involves initially rendering the st’s word-for-word and subsequently tailoring it to the tl. in the dataset, this strategy is exemplified in the form of nouns such as 高 地 kōchi or ‘high ground’ in (1), verbs アプック yoba re or ‘to be called’ in (2), as well as 盗った totta or ‘stole’ and 皆殺し minagoroshi or ‘killed’ in (3), and adjective 欲 yoku or ‘cruelty’ in (4), as illustrated below (takoboto, 2023). 1. sl 明治三十年 二〇三高地 meiji san jū-nen ni rei san kōchi (eng. meiji 30, highland 203) gt meiji 30, 203 tanah tinggi (eng. meiji 30, 203 highlands) (appendix a: 1) badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 376 in line with this analysis, findings are discussed along the line of nida’s principle of equivalence and equivalence effects. in his framework, nida (1958/1964) establishes formal equivalence, and dynamic equivalence. formal equivalence focuses on the message, considering both form and meaning, necessitating close similarity between the st and tt. dynamic equivalence, on the other, is based on the principle of equivalent effect. this principle discusses the relationship between the st and tt, with the st having an equivalent effect to that in the tt. nida also mentioned the concept of naturalness, referring to the primary goal of equivalence in producing 3. sl それをひとりの男がブン盗った 持 ってたアイヌを皆殺しにしてな sore o hitori no otoko ga bun totta motteta ainu o minagoroshi ni shite na (eng. one man stole it and killed all the ainu who owned it.) k lalu, ada satu pria yang mencuri semuanya. dan membunuh seluruh ainu yang menjaganya (eng. then, there was one man who stole everything. and killed all the ainu who guarded it) (appendix a: 45) 4. sl しかしそれこそが 囚人たちにとっ ちゃ脱獄の好機だった 欲をかい た 連中が 外に連れ出すことを囚人た ちは 読んでいたのさ shikashi sore koso ga shūjin-tachi ni totcha datsugoku no kōkidatta yoku o kaita renchū ga soto ni tsuredasu koto o shūjin-tachi wa yonde ita no sa (eng. but that was a chance for the prisoners to escape, as they had read that greedy people would take them out.) k tapi, itulah saat-saat yang ditunggu para tahanan. mereka tahu kalau ada orang tamak yang akan mengeluarkan mereka. (eng. but, those were the moments the prisoners had been waiting for. they know that there are greedy people who will take them out) (appendix a: 64) 5. sl 杉元佐一さん sugimoto saichi-san (eng. mr. saichi sugimoto) gt encik saichi sugimoto (eng. mr. saichi sugimoto) (appendix a: 16) 6. sl 砂金にまつわる話 なんだけどよ ひとに言っちゃ だめだぜ あんた の事気に入ったから話すんだぜ sakin ni matsuwaru hanashina ndakedo yo hito ni itcha dameda ze anta no koto kiniittakara hanasu nda ze (eng. it’s a story about gold dust. don’t tell anyone. i’m telling you this because i like you.) gt ini cerita soal tumpukan emas. harusnya tak boleh aku ceritakan pada siapa-siapa. tapi karena saya suka padamu, aku beri tahu sedikit rahasia. (eng. this is a story about a pile of gold. i shouldn’t have told anyone. but because i like you, i’ll tell you a little secret.) (appendix a: 42) 2. sl 「不死身の杉元」って呼ばれてた んだって? `fujimi no sugi moto’ tte yoba re teta n datte? (eng. i heard he was called “immortal sugimoto”?) gt adakah dia dipanggil “sugimoto abadi”? (eng. is he called “sugimoto immortal”?) (appendix a: 34) the tl. this approach is used when different languages employ diverse structural or stylistic methods to describe the same situation. in (5), gt uses the addressing term encik or mr. as an equivalent to the morpheme -さん/ -san to convey the meaning of politeness and respect embedded in the st. whereas, while 話す hanasu means ‘talk or discussion’ in the st, komikcast renders it as rahasia or ‹secret› in tt to fit the context where the discussion is secretive. equivalence and equivalence effects on the other hand, komikcast utilises more equivalence strategy in their translations compared to gt. the equivalence strategy involves altering the words in the st to make them suitable for badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 377 transfer of content, themes, and cultural nuances from the sl to the tl. following this, differences in translation output between gt and komikcast can be owed to three aspects that determine the level of equivalence effects: i/ the purpose of the translated text, ii/ knowledge of the translator, and, iii/ cultural differences in sl and tl. purpose of the translated text regarding the translator’s purpose and the expectations of the target audience, manga ‘golden kamuy’ is read by individuals aged 20 to 60 among the younger population (lompatlompat, 2020). therefore, the translator must have the skill to capture readers’ attention within this age group. translators should satisfy the expectations of the target audience by conveying the original meaning from the st using clear and engaging sentence structures. one way to captivate the readers is by modifying the translation text using appropriate language styles such as onomatopoeia, metaphors, idiomatic expressions, among others, to create a more intuitive atmosphere. where gt can fulfil these expectations within its scope of memory, it is limited to basic commands and less-nuanced expressions. this is exemplified in (7), where unlike gt, komikcast offers a more explicit portrayal of the character’s situation, specifically highlighting that one of the character’s hands is broken, capturing the tense situation of the character and an elaborate description of the injury in the st. this discrepancy in translation approaches a text that is natural and nearly equivalent to the st. the concept of naturalness is a core element in nida’s equivalence theory, relying on adjustments in grammar, cultural references, and lexicon from the st. nida posits that in translation, the content of the text takes precedence over its form. along this nexus, proposed three factors suggesting the type of translation: 1) the meaning contained in the text, 2) the purpose of translating the text, and 3) the target audience. with these three factors, the relationship between meaning and style becomes apparent. if the st prioritises style over meaning, the translator should employ formal equivalence in the translation. conversely, if the opposite is true, dynamic equivalence is recommended. in this vein, gt functions as a machine translation system utilising neural machine translation or nmt technology and contributions from human translators through the translator community. technically, nmt encompasses various translation engines employing neural networks to interpret sequences of numbers, much like decoding a numerical sequence. in the context of translation, this numerical sequence corresponds to a sentence in the sl subsequently translated into the tl. for basic text comprehension, such as inquiring about locations or general information, gt provides accurate translations and effectively fulfills its tasks especially when such translation command is already made available in the data system. however, a human translator becomes indispensable for more complex translations containing syntax, idiomatic expressions, and intricate content. hence, an in-depth understanding of linguistic elements and cultural nuances will ensure that a tt closely approximates the st (sam yip, n.d.). compared to mt systems, which heavily rely on algorithms and mathematics rather than genuine comprehension of sl (espresso translations, 2023), human translation relies on translators’ language proficiency and their knowledge of the tl, allowing them to exercise their translation pragmatically. the translator’s competence, linguistic choices, and cultural sensitivity, collectively contribute to the achievement of text equivalence in translation. translators play a pivotal role in balancing these factors to ensure that the translated text effectively conveys the intended meaning and resonates with the target audience while maintaining cultural and linguistic fidelity to the st. this multifaceted approach to translation facilitates the seamless 7. st この状況で「不死身の杉元」は 手に負えん 片腕だけに (eng. in this situation, the “immortal sugimoto” is uncontrollable, with only one arm.) gt dalam situasi ini, “sugimoto abadi” tidak terurus, dengan hanya satu lengan. (eng. in this situation, “eternal sugimoto” was unkempt, with only one arm.) k tidak mungkin aku bisa menghadapi sugimoto manusia abadi sekarang. tidak dengan tangan yang patah. (eng. there’s no way i can face immortal human sugimoto now. not with a broken arm.) (appendix a, no. 342) badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 378 8. st 大日本帝国陸軍　第七師団!　日露 戦争では (りょじゅんこうりゃくせ ん) 旅順攻略戦・奉天会戦という激 戦地に送り込まれ大損害を出しつつ も 勝利に貢献 道民は畏敬の念を含 め「北鎮部隊」と呼ぶ (eng. the 7th division of the imperial japanese army! during the russojapanese war, it was sent to the fierce battlegrounds of the battle of port arthur and the battle of mukden, and although it suffered heavy losses, it contributed to the victory. it’s called the “suppression unit”) gt bahagian ke-7 tentera imperial jepun! dalam perang rusia-jepun, mereka dihantar ke medan perang pertempuran port arthur dan pertempuran mukden. dipanggil hokuchin unit. (eng. the 7th division of the imperial japanese army! in the russo-japanese war, they were sent to the battlefields of the battle of port arthur and the battle of mukden. called hokuchin unit) k divisi 7 pasukan pemerintah jepang! di masa perang rusia jepang, mereka dikirim ke medan perang terparah, termasuk pengepungan pelabuhan arthur dan perang mukden. meski mengalami kekalahan, mereka adalah kontribusi utama kemenangan jepang. penduduk hokkaido menyebut mereka, unit hokuchin. (eng. 7th division of japanese government troops! during the russianjapanese war, they were sent to the worst battlefields, including the siege of port arthur and the mukden war. even though they suffered defeat, they were the main contribution to japan’s victory. hokkaido residents call them, the hokuchin unit.) (appendix a, no. 329) often at the expense of nuanced details and emotional context in the st. this distinction emphasises that the choice of translation approach, whether formal or dynamic equivalence, can significantly influence the quality and effectiveness of the translated text, particularly in conveying subtle nuances and emotions. it underscores the critical role that the translator plays in making such decisions, as they must consider the purpose of the translation, the target audience’s expectations, and the inherent meaning and style of the st. this dynamic interplay between equivalence principles and translation strategies is essential for achieving successful and impactful translations (xuejiao quan & wenjuan yao, 2020). knowledge of the translator given that most readers of ‘golden kamuy’ manga are young individuals, the translator must possess proficiency in employing a more mature and complex language style that maintains the same impact and clarity. the japanese language commonly employs lengthy sentences, especially in dialogues, when conveying detailed messages. therefore, the translator should be well-versed in the language used by young readers in their daily lives to ensure that the text resonates closely with them, thus capturing and retaining their attention. in example (8), komikcast demonstrates greater fidelity in preserving the information intended by the st compared to gt. furthermore, gt has omitted certain information from the st during translation, resulting in a lack of quality equivalence in the gt-translated text above. despite both platforms succeeding in elucidating the theme of warfare, komikcast’s output is more comprehensive and natural than gt. such a theme is typically found in manga, targeted at more mature readers, as children’s manga audiences may not be interested in or comprehend such themes. additionally, the skills of the translator also contribute to translation inequivalence. translators must be adept at understanding the background of the st to achieve maximum equivalence. several major errors made by translators include a lack of comprehension of the st, incompetence in producing appropriate grammar in the tt, and not using dictionaries or translation tools (silalahi et al., 2018). therefore, a translator’s proficiency in comprehending the st’s context and background is crucial in achieving high equivalence in the tt. exemplifies the varying degrees of equivalence applied by each method. komikcast leans toward dynamic equivalence, ensuring that the meaning and emotional impact of the text are preserved while adapting it for the target audience. whereas gt prioritises formal equivalence by striving to maintain structural and grammatical consistency, badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 379 9. st ヒンナヒンナ. なんだい? それ　 食事に 感謝する言葉　私たちは食 べながら言うんだ (eng. hin-na-hin-na. what is that? it’s a word we say while eating to express our gratitude for the meal.) gt hin-na-hin-na. apa itu?itu perkataan yang kita ucapkan semasa makan untuk menyatakan rasa terima kasih atas hidangan itu. (eng. hin-na-hin-na. what is it? it’s a word we say while eating to express our gratitude for the meal.) k hinna, hinna! kau bilang apa? dalam bahasa ainu, itu ucapan terima kasih atas makanan yang dihidangkan. kami katakan sembari makan. (eng. hinna, hinna! what did you say? in the ainu language, it is a thank you for the food served. we say while eating.) (appendix a, no. 374) cultural differences additionally, producing a text that conveys meaning from the st involves not only considering the differences between the st and tt but also the cultural background disparities between the two languages. translators must weigh cultural differences and bridge the cultural context of the st with that of the tt as closely as possible to achieve maximum equivalence. in (9), both platforms retained and explained the ainu language expression ‘ヒンナヒンナ/ hinna hinna,’ resulting in a successful message to the readers as intended by the st. in this regard, cultural-linguistic disparities play a role in translation inequivalence. edward sapir posited that “language is a guide to social reality,” and language serves as a medium through which humans express their culture (bassnett, 2014). whorf concurred, explaining that without culture, language might not exist, and without language, a culture might not exist either. he likened language to the heart of cultural existence, and the interaction between these two aspects has given rise to enduring civilisations. koentjaraningrat (1992) asserted that language is an integral part of culture, and the relationship between language and culture is subordinate. furthermore, masinambow (1980) stated that language and culture are intertwined systems that define human identity. numerous languages and cultures exist in this world, each with unique meanings. understanding may not be sufficient but can be addressed by learning a foreign language, seeking a skilled translator, or finding translated materials in a language one understands. this explanation clarifies that translation inequivalence occurs due to vast cultural differences, resulting in a lack of lexical congruence, grammar, phrases, and expressions between the sl and tl. furthermore, translation embodies the intricate process of transferring words, ideas, emotions, and cultural elements from one linguistic domain to another. newmark (1981) underscores the artistic and intellectual facets of translation, emphasising its pivotal role in preserving semantic content and the stylistic nuances inherent in the st. similarly, while nida and taber (1969) contribute depth to this understanding by highlighting the paramount significance of attaining equivalence between the sl and tl both in meaning and style, catford (1965) accentuates the importance of maintaining the original text’s density during translation. this multifaceted nature of translation, serving as a vital conduit for both linguistic and cultural exchange remains as essence for this study, which explores the practical application of these translation principles within the realm of manga translation. the dynamic interplay between human and machine translation methods is used to assess their implications for achieving textual equivalence. while advancements in machine translation might have led one to believe that human translators would become obsolete, the findings, au contraire, underscore the irreplaceable value of human translators especially for culturally rich content. this counters previous notions that machine translations, even sophisticated ones, can entirely replace the nuanced expertise of human translators. the study also sheds light on the challenges and nuances specific to japanese-malay/indonesian translations, particularly within the realm of manga translation. it is crucial to understand cultural nuances to convey the intended message accurately, making cultural authenticity equally crucial while linguistic accuracy is paramount. therefore, japanese-indonesian translations may require more than mere literal translation. this research contributes to the broader context of translation studies by highlighting the importance badriyah yusof / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 380 of cultural authenticity in addition to linguistic accuracy. it also provides a practical exploration of the challenges involved in manga translation, serving as a testament to the significance of human expertise in this field especially in navigating the complex balance between language and culture. iv. conclusion by far, this study has demonstrated that mt system particularly google translate (gt) and human translation, specifically komikcast, do not employ all the translation strategies outlined by vinay and darbelnet (1958/95) but only literal translation, borrowing, equivalence, and modulation. gt tends to favor literal translation, which allows for quick and basic accuracy in translating simple phrases. on the other hand, komikcast leans towards the equivalence strategy, which is more aligned with human proficiency and understanding of the context and nuances attached to the text. this results in the preservation of the meaning of the st and natural expression in the tt. in summary, manga translation is a complex and multifaceted process that requires a deep understanding of linguistic and cultural elements. the 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(2019). comics, manga and graphic novels. in routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 75–79). routledge. handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 72 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 10, 2024 final revision: march 25, 2024 accepted: march 28, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 the research aims to examine the connection between language, culture, and environment by analyzing the representation of nature in minangkabau proverbs and its cultural implications and cognitive awareness in traditional minangkabau society. it is a descriptive study that analyzes meaning and cultural representation through a cultural linguistics approach. the research used 287 proverbs from various written minangkabau resources, including tambo and books containing minangkabau proverbs. the study focuses on three sustainability pillars: social, environmental, and economic. the research findings show that minangkabau proverbs frequently utilize symbolism of nature and the environment to describe and reflect cultural values and rules of minangkabau customs. the natural representations reveal the close relationship between the minangkabau people and nature and the cognitive awareness and shared knowledge passed down from generation to generation. the results of this study highlight the need for further research on minangkabau proverbs to explore cultural values and wisdom that can support program sustainability. hence, preserving and promoting cultural heritage values are crucial for sustainable development, as it can contribute to socio-economic development and create new values for future generations. keywords minangkabau culture, environmental proverb, cultural linguistics, sustainability correspondence e-mail: sheena@um.edu.my article cultivating sustainability: a cultural linguistic study of minangkabau environmental proverbs handoko handoko1, sheena kaur2, lau su kia3 1faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1-3faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.72-84.2024 i. introduction the significance of the environment, in existence cannot be overstated, given its influence, on our general welfare and success. therefore, maintaining an sustainable environment is crucial for for our survival and progress. the environment is a complex system that encompasses a wide range of elements, including but not limited to the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the land we inhabit. it is essential to prioritize the protection and conservation of resources to secure a future, for both ourselves and upcoming generations. as the world faces numerous environmental crises, it has become crucial to understand how various communities approach the concept of sustainability (reo et al., 2019; romaine, 2013). in this regard, proverbs, which are a significant form of cultural and linguistic expression, can offer valuable insights into how a society perceives and incorporates environmental ethics in their thoughts and behaviors (ashenafi, 2014). these wise sayings are a way to capture the wisdom and experience of generations. they also provide an interesting insight into how cultures perceive their relationship with nature (gulum & avsar 2020). proverbs are a form of figurative language that can be interpreted as metaphors, as evidenced by a number of studies. researchers conenna and kleiber (2002) and mele (2013) have both highlighted the metaphorical nature of proverbs, with the latter emphasizing their role in shaping and conceptualizing worldviews and cosmology. brown (2004) highlights the importance of proverbs in teaching, and how they can convey meaning through metaphor. furthermore, larson (2011) highlights the crucial role of metaphors in shaping our understanding of environmental sustainability. larson stresses how the language we use to describe nature can influence how we act and perceive it. he warns against using metaphors handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 73 that could mislead us or hinder our efforts towards environmental sustainability. for years, researchers have investigated into the intricate connections between culture, language, and the environment (fill & mühlhäusler, 2001; haugen, 1972; milfont & schultz, 2016; mugerauer, 1985; mühlhäusler, 2006; stibbe, 2021). this study aims to illuminate the various characteristics in which minangkabau people observe and engage with the natural world. through an exploration of these relationships, the researchers attempt to obtain a more intensive and comprehensive understanding of the complex characteristics in which minangkabau people’s beliefs, values, and customs shape their interrelationships with the nature. jindo (2009, p. 3) discusses the fascinating connection that existed between ancient language, cognition, and culture. his investigation led to the conclusion that metaphorical language is used in all forms of communication. the process of communication involves two basic domains, which are both abstract in nature. the first domain is known as the source domain, which utilizes metaphorical expressions to represent the observable phenomena of everyday life. the second domain is referred to as the target domain, and it is where these metaphorical expressions are applied to represent a different set of abstract concepts. when these two conceptual domains are seamlessly integrated with each other, a metaphoric conceptual coordination is achieved, which is also known as a ‘conceptually integrated configuration’. lakoff’s work in cognitive linguistics during the 1970s had an enormous effect on how we interpret metaphors used in daily communication. according to lakoff and johnson (2003), metaphors help people define and structure their conceptual system through physical objects, actions, situations and knowledge to gain comprehension of more abstract topics like math, relationships and death. speakers use metaphors as channels of communication with listeners that allows them to extract the idea or object they need from its word container and so aiding us all in comprehending abstract or foreign concepts through understanding more tangible concepts more readily and fully. furthermore, larson (2011) investigates interrelationships of metaphors, environmental sustainability, and human values. he explores how language shapes human understanding of nature and sustainability, emphasizing the importance of accounting the social context of environmental metaphors. larson discusses how science, society and values are interconnected in the environmental discourse, promoting the need to reframe metaphors to align with sustainability concepts. larson (2011) emphasizes the power of metaphors when considering sustainability issues within an environment. they form our perceptions about nature and sustainability while reflecting cultural values and priorities within any society where metaphors are employed. metaphors also serve as effective methods of communicating complex scientific ideas to nonscientists who may lack expertise. in the context of sustainability, metaphors can help us understand complex scientific concepts and communicate them to both scientific and non-scientific audiences. however, the metaphors we employ may reinforce certain worldviews and values, which can have implications for sustainability. by studying socialethical implications and suggesting alternative metaphors aligned with sustainability principles, we can potentially break the cycle of circular feedback between our view of ourselves and our view of nature. metaphors in sustainability discourse not only help communicate complex scientific ideas more efficiently but also reveal any values embedded within the language used for sustainability discourse. by exploring the socio-ethical implications of environmental metaphors and understanding how they influence our perception of nature, we can gain new insight into how language, culture, and sustainability all come together. sharifian (2017) elaborates further by noting that metaphors are not only literary devices; they are also cultural representations that use shared experiences, beliefs, and values to convey abstract concepts in more tangible forms that resonate more readily with audiences. by studying metaphors within different cultural settings, researchers can uncover cultural schemas, categories, and models that shape how people think and communicate. cultural linguistics and metaphor are particularly crucial when discussing environmental matters since cultural conceptualizations of it can shape people’s understanding and interactions with it. metaphors used to describe environments can reveal cultural beliefs regarding their composition as well as our role in their formation and shaping by reflecting handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 74 these attitudes towards nature as humans interact with it. indonesia, like other regions around the globe, faces numerous environmental problems that threaten both human and animal populations alike. climate change causes extreme weather events with rising sea levels; pollution degrades air and water quality while habitat destruction jeopardizes many species (colombijn 1998; monk & priatna 2022; parker 2018); its consequences can have long-lasting ramifications (cleary & devantier 2011). minangkabau, one of indonesia’s largest ethnic groups, boasts an expansive and unique culture shaped over centuries by history, tradition, and custom. one unique aspect includes their vast collection of proverbs, which has been passed down from generation to generation with meaning rooted deeply within history, tradition, and custom each carrying valuable moral lessons as they impart life lessons through metaphorical language making these proverbs invaluable guides and sources of guidance and inspiration to future generations (moeis et al. 2022). the traditional proverbs of the minangkabau people frequently highlight the significance of the environment (almos et al., 2014; hakimy, 1994; navis, 1984; oktavianus, 2022). these wise sayings reflect the community’s deep appreciation for the natural world and their recognition of the critical role it plays in their daily lives (almos et al., 2014). from the importance of preserving natural resources to the necessity of living in harmony with the earth, these proverbs are a testament to the minangkabau people’s wisdom and respect for the environment (sukma utami & oue, 2021). studies conducted previously to explore the depiction of nature in minangkabau have explored this representation. heni and subiyanto (2021), in their research, reported that minangkabau people use ecological symbols during batimbang tando (engagement ceremonies) in order to maintain harmonious relations between nature and cultural life. batimbang tando offers families an arrangement that upholds local traditions through dialogue between both families. a key step of this process is for representatives of both families to speak (pasambahan) to find common ground through metaphoric language in finding agreement on married life agreements. during the ceremony, host family offered siriah (betel) and pinang (areca nut) as symbols of bittersweet life in minangkabau culture. the research indicates that nature and cultural life co-exist harmoniously in minangkabau culture and exist together, serving to keep harmonious relations between both realms. almos et. al, (2014) explore minangkabau proverbs to determine how well they represent its vibrant flora and fauna. through an examination of these proverbs with lenses of linguistic anthropology and pragmatics, they provide a thorough study, uncovering both their cultural meaning and ways in which they’re used daily life. bahri (2020) conducted a research study aimed at exploring the local wisdom contained within the proverbs of minangkabau. this research indicate that these proverbs contain significant levels of meaningful satire which ties directly back into the sociocultural environment of minangkabau communities. recent studies on minangkabau proverbs and nature have focused heavily on understanding their meaning. these studies have not viewed proverbs as a way to conceptualize the cultural and cognitive awareness of the minangkabau people, as reflected in their use of natural elements. in addition, previous studies did not explore the correlations between minangkabau people’s proverb-based cognitive awareness and sustainability issues that would strengthen and preserve environmental, social, and economic aspects of minangkabau society. this research will investigate the cultural conceptualization present in environmental proverbs and their relation with sustainability. it aims to explore the underlying cultural values and beliefs of minangkabau proverb and how they are related to the principles of sustainability. the research will investigates environmental proverbs used in different context to uncover their meanings and implications. the ruslt of this research is intended to contribute to a better understanding of how cultural beliefs and practices can impact environmental sustainability. ii. methods this study employed a qualitative method to explore the meaning and application of minangkabau proverbs. the objective was to conduct content analysis to understand their cultural importance as well as communication value; 287 proverbs from various sources such as books or tambo minangkabau were selected carefully as subjects of the examination. tambo is a rich and fascinating oral tradition that has been passed handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 75 down through generations in the minangkabau culture (navis, 1984). from the data, the researcher identified proverbs that contain environmental and natural entities and then analyzed the data. in analyzing minangkabau proverbs, the pillar of sustainability (purvis et al., 2019) will serve as a guiding framework. the concept of sustainability is based on three pillars: the environment, society, and the economy. sustainable development can only be achieved when these three pillars coexist without any one area taking priority over the others. this means that environmental protection, social equity, and economic profitability must work together to achieve sustainable development. by analyzing the function and the meaning of minangkau proverb and categorizing the data based on the pillars of sustainability, it can reflect how minangkabau culture values contribute to the sustainability development. moreover, further analysis focuses on the cultural linguistics (sharifian, 2017) as well as the metaphor and environment (larson, 2011) analysis to evoke the collective knowledge of minangkabau people. in analyzing minangkabau proverbs that contain environmental aspects, first, the lexical analysis of the words that make up the proverbs need explanation. next, metaphor analysis is conducted by analyzing the environmental entities used to form the metaphor and its meaning based on larson (2011). after explaining the meaning of the metaphor, the analysis is then conducted with a cultural linguistic approach (sharifian, 2017) to explain how minangkabau people represent their shared knowledge and cognitive awareness in the form of metaphors as a reflection of their culture and relationship with the environment and nature. iii. results and discussion the discussion is focused around the results of this study, which were explained using sustainability as its cornerstone (purvis et al., 2019). sustainability can be broken down into three distinct pillars environment, society and economy. these pillars were first introduced in the brundtland report back in 1987. sustainable development can only be realized when environmental protection, social equity and economic profitability coexist without one area dominating another. simply stated, all three pillars must be equally balanced for sustainable future. analysis of data allowed us to investigate deeper into the relationship between shared knowledge and cognitive awareness among minangkabau people towards their environment expressed uniquely and creatively through proverbs and community beliefs and values, which helped the minangkabau people live more harmoniously with nature. social pillars sustainable practices are driven by multiple social pillars which represent various disciplines including community relations, education, justice and health. however, in this discussion we will discuss further into the social relationships and structures present within minangkabau community. these people are known for their intricate social fabric which incorporates matrilineal traditions as well as strong family ties. the minangkabau people are renowned for their complex social fabric, which is shaped by matrilineal traditions and a strong emphasis on kinship ties. by exploring the intricate social fabric of this community, we can uncover their values, beliefs, and customs that underpin their way of life. this understanding is essential for developing sustainable practices that are respectful of their cultural context and promote social justice and equity. alam takambang jadi guru (nature is a teacher) minangkabau culture places great value and importance toward the principle of alam takambang jadi guru (nature is a teacher). the minangkabau people believe that nature is the ultimate source of knowledge and wisdom. they have long recognized the power of metaphor in conveying complex concepts and life lessons, and have therefore adopted its use as a primary means of teaching (hasanuddin, 2017). minangkabau are skilled at using metaphors to share knowledge derived from nature’s processes and insights that lie deep within their culture. this ancient tradition has helped to shape the culture and identity of the minangkabau people, and continues to be a vital part of their heritage to this day (andaya, 2000). regarding nature, minangkabau people have a unique cultural perspective that sets them apart from several other societies. unlike those that view nature as divine or a representation of god (gilkey, 1994; harvey, 2021; kroitor, 1960; sinha, 1995), minangkabau people do not regard nature as divine or god. the minangkabau people’s adherence to islamic teachings, which prohibit the worship of anything but allah, has led to a high regard for these teachings (simon, 2014). their philosophy handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 76 of adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi kitabullah (the tradition is based on the religion, the religion based on the holy book) reflects this deep-rooted connection to their faith and values. this proverb perfectly conveys minangkabau culture’s admiration and love of nature. their term of reverence for nature mirrors their reverence for humans: they refer to nature as their teacher equally respected but more so! observing nature provides ample lessons about their own culture; thus giving rise to numerous expressions based on it (navis 1984). their deep knowledge is displayed through this belief which emphasizes nature’s place within their lives as they observe its effect upon culture (navis 1984). this proverb displays their deep knowledge of their world, showing their deep understanding as part of culture. this collective belief drives people to actively contemplate everything that happens around them. as their proverb says: “pandai mambaco nan tasurek, arif manyimak nan tasirek” (read what is written, wisely decipher what is hidden). minangkabau people have a unique perspective towards nature. they consider nature an entity with dynamic properties; constantly shifting and evolving over time. each aspect serves a special purpose in life for these minangkabau people. this perspective leads them to treat the natural world with the utmost respect and reverencethe minangkabau people understand that they must adapt to the changing nature of their environment to live in harmony with (chadwick, 1991). as the proverb goes: “sakali aia gadang, sakali tapian barubah” (once the big wave comes, the bank changes). the phrase “aia gadang” (big wave) is a powerful metaphor that represents the unpredictable nature of change. it signifies that changes can happen at any moment, regardless of whether we are prepared or not. tapian (river bank) is a location where people carry out their daily activities like bathing or washing dishes. however, during big waves, the area gets wiped out, and people have to find alternative places to continue their daily activities as the previous location may not remain the same. the expression is often used to remind the people of the need to stay flexible, adaptable, and open-minded in the face of uncertainty and unexpected change. within the minangkabau culture, nature is used as a powerful metaphor for leadership. the baringin (banyan tree), with its sprawling branches and deep roots, is the perfect representation of a good leader. as the proverb goes: daunnyo tampek balinduang, batangnyo tampek basanda, dahannyo tampek bagantuang, ureknyo tampek baselo (the leaves are a place to shelter, the stems are a place to lean on, the branches are a place to depend on, the veins are a place to sit on) just as the banyan tree provides shade and shelter to all who seek refuge under its canopy, a great leader must also provide for and protect their people (navis, 1984). the minangkabau people view the banyan tree as a symbol of strength, resilience, and stability qualities that are highly valued in their society. it is a fitting comparison, as both the banyan tree and a good leader are capable of weathering any storm and standing firm in the face of adversity. in the minangkabau culture, leaders hold significant responsibilities but they are not glorified excessively (fahmi & aswirna, 2020; meiyenti & afrida, 2018). the saying “ditinggikan seranting dan didahulukan selangkah” (one step forward, one level up) reflects the way leaders are treated. the leaders are one level higher but not placed on the top of the top. the role of a leader in minangkabau society is not to be a king or a tribal chief, but rather to be respected and obeyed in accordance with their duties and authorities. the culture places great emphasis on the importance of honoring and following leaders who take on the responsibility of serving their community. this serves as a reminder that leadership is a service to the people and not a privilege (awwali et al., 2019; munir, 2018). the word saranting is derived from ranting (twig) which is used as a metaphor for leadership hierarchy in minangkabau leadership. the analysis of the proverbs mentioned above reveals that the traditional minangkabau society has developed an egalitarian system that emphasizes equal distribution of power among its members or social equality. according to their social system, the leader is not an authoritarian ruler who holds complete control over the community. instead, the leader is considered a responsible manager who is entrusted with the authority to oversee the community’s resources and ensure that they are utilized for the benefit of all members (munir, handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 77 2018). the minangkabau society, being closely connected to nature, perceives the leader as a banyan tree, a symbol of strong and sturdy protection that provides security to the community. this comparison further highlights the minangkabau people’s deep emotional attachment and cognitive awareness towards nature, which they consider as a source of comfort, support, and knowledge. the use of a metaphorical representation of nature in the form of a banyan tree is an excellent example of how the minangkabau people perceive and value the environment around them. nature is seen as a vital component of their society, providing a sense of belonging and a place of refuge. this deep connection to nature not only strengthens their relationship with the environment but also reflects the values and beliefs that the minangkabau community holds dear. environmental pillars the term “environmental pillars” refers to a set of guidelines that aim to regulate human activities concerning nature, with the ultimate goal of achieving sustainable development. these pillars encompass several aspects, including the management, utilization, and protection of nature. the management of nature entails the planning and implementation of practices that ensure the sustainable use of natural resources. on the other hand, utilization refers to the ways in which humans make use of these resources to sustain their livelihoods. lastly, protection refers to the measures taken to safeguard the environment from degradation and destruction. the minangkabau people are known for their unique culture and sustainable way of life. they have developed a deep understanding of their environment, which has enabled them to use natural resources in a way that supports their needs without causing harm to the ecosystem. for instance, they practice agroforestry, a farming technique that involves planting crops alongside trees (febriani & dani, 2023). this practice not only provides them with food but also helps to preserve the soil and prevent erosion. the minangkabau people also have a strong cultural belief in the protection of nature, which has led them to establish customary laws that prohibit the exploitation of certain natural resources (bahauddin et al., 2013; febriani & dani, 2023). minangkabau culture offers an excellent example of how humans can coexist with nature in a sustainable and harmonious way. as the proverb goes: kayu pulai di koto alam batangnyo basandi-sandi jikok pandai dalam alam patah tumbuah hilang baganti milky pine tree at koto alam the stem is branched if you can manage the environment the damaged will be repaired, and the missing will be replaced this expression is an interesting saying from minangkabau, delivered with rhythm and poetry. this saying is composed of multiple lines. the first two are couplets with rhyme, which add an artistic element to the whole expression. the rhythmic delivery of the saying makes it even more captivating and highlights the significance of the minangkabau culture. the expression jikok pandai dalam alam, patah tumbuah hilang baganti (if you can manage the environment, the damaged will be repaired, and the missing will be replaced) is an interesting phrase that reflects the concerns and values of the minangkabau people. the first part of the expression, “jikok pandai dalam alam” (if you can manage the environment) can be interpreted as a conditional statement that emphasizes the importance of managing the environment wisely. this highlights the minangkabau people’s deeprooted respect for nature and their belief that human beings should strive to live in harmony with the environment. the second part of the expression, “patah tumbuah hilang baganti” (“the damaged will be repaired, and the missing will be replaced.”), is a metaphor that can be interpreted in different ways. it is often used to describe the resilience and adaptability of the minangkabau people in the face of challenges. it can also be seen as a reflection of the cyclical nature of life and the idea that everything in life is temporary and subject to change. as can be seen from the following proverb: patah (broken) => tumbuah (grown) hilang (lost) => baganti (replaced) the terms “patah” and “hilang” are commonly used in the minangkabau language as negative connotations which are often associated with feelings of loss and despair. on the other hand, the words “tumbuah” (grown) and “baganti” (replaced) are used to convey a sense of positivity and growth. these words are synonyms for regeneration and replacement. they provide a spark of hope in handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 78 their reverence for nature and their commitment to preserving it for future generations. the proverbs mentioned above provide a glimpse into the remarkable wisdom of the traditional minangkabau people in managing land and forests. they have a deep understanding of the natural world and have learned to adapt to it in a sustainable and harmonious manner. their land utilization practices are tailored to their specific needs, and they do not alter the existing natural structure. instead, they work with nature to ensure that it remains intact and functions optimally. the traditional minangkabau society places great value on maintaining the ecological balance of their surroundings (utami & oue, 2021). they avoid collapsing the slopes or filling swamps to build housing, as it can damage the structure and ecosystem of the environment. their approach to forest utilization is also unique. they recognize the concept of rimbo larangan (prohibited forests), which are kept untouched by the community to preserve the natural ecosystem and the living creatures in it (onrizal & mansor, 2020). these forests are considered sacred, and magical stories are woven around them to enhance their sanctity. for instance, inyiak, an ancestral spirit that transforms into a tiger or other wild animals, is believed to guard the prohibited forest. they are not allowed to cut the tree or hunt the animals in the forbidden forest. although the minangkabau people do not use the forest extensively, they have terms such as communal forest and community forest in their land use system. these customary forests are usually owned by a nagari (regional administration) and maintained for the benefit of the community and the nagari. members of the community may use the communal forest to make a living by collecting forest products and hunting. however, commercial use of customary forests requires a fee called bungo, such as bungo kayu (for logging) and bungo aleh (for non-logging, such as rosin and rattan) (navis, 1984). the penghulu (leaders) collect this fee, which is used by the nagari to construct facilities and infrastructure. additionally, there are tribe forests (hutan kaum) that are used by members of a particular tribe for their personal and tribal interests. members of the tribe may cultivate the tribe forest for farming, and the proceeds are used for the benefit of the penghulu and members of the tribe. challenging times. much like a wounded tree or plant, a dead tree has the potential to revive if given proper care and attention. alternatively, it can be replaced by another healthy plant that can flourish in its place. the minangkabau people of indonesia have a deep understanding of this natural phenomenon and have captured this concept in various proverbs that illustrate the importance of persistence, determination, and resilience when facing life’s challenges. the proverbs serve as a reminder that with the right mindset, even the most difficult obstacles can be overcome, and new life can emerge from what was once considered dead. the minangkabau people have a deep connection with their environment, which reflects in their way of living. they inhabit a fertile and strategically located area, situated amidst natural beauty and surrounded by the threat of natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, floods, and earthquakes (games, 2020; pradipta, 2020). however, their long history of dealing with these disasters has enabled them to develop a cognitive awareness of how to adapt and survive in such. this awareness is evident in their land allocation, selection of residential locations, and the construction of their traditional gadang houses, which are designed to withstand natural disasters (damsar & indrayani, 2018). the minangkabau people’s approach to their environment is not just practical, but also deeply spiritual and cultural, reflecting their resilience and resourcefulness (febriani & dani, 2023). the deep understanding of nature and the long interaction between the minangkabau people and nature has given rise to the cognitive wisdom reflected in the following proverb: nan lereng ditanam tabu, nan gurun buek ka parak, nan bancah jadikan sawah, nan munggu ka pandam pakuburaran, nan gaung ka tabek ikan, nan lambah kubangan kabau dan nan padek ka parumahan (slope area is for the sugarcane plant, the drylands are suitable for fields, wet soils are for rice fields, small hill for graveyards, watery area for fish ponds, walled areas are suitable for raising buffalos, the solid ground for the residence) this proverb signifies the deep-rooted understanding and knowledge of the minangkabau community regarding environmental practices. they firmly believe in treating the environment with utmost respect and care, in accordance with its natural state. their cognitive awareness towards environmental behavior is reflective of handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 79 the minangkabau believe in utilizing natural resources responsibly and sustainably while being guided by their customary laws. these laws form an integral part of their culture and govern their interaction with the environment. the minangkabau community values the harmony between humans and nature, and they strive to maintain this balance through their customs and practices. ka rimbo, kayu tak buliah ditabang, rotan tak buliah dirangguik, manau tak buliah di pancuang (in the forest, do not cut the tree, do not snatch the rattan, do not cut the palm tree) kabatang aie, aie tak buliah di karuah, batu tak buliah di baliak, tabiang tak buliah diruntuah (in the river, do not spoil the water, do not move the stones, do not overthrow the cliff) the proverb mentioned above is an important guideline that reflects the deep-rooted values of minangkabau customary rules, emphasizing the need to maintain the delicate balance of nature by not destructing or changing the existing order. this has been a crucial aspect of their culture since time immemorial. wood, rattan, palm tree, water, stone, and cliff are symbolic representations of all entities that exist within the environment, and they are valued for their unique properties. forests, rivers, and other natural resources are used only as per the necessities and in a sustainable manner that does not cause any damage to the existing ecosystem. this age-old wisdom has helped minangkabau communities live in harmony with nature for generations. economic pillars in the minangkabau tribe, the economic aspect holds great significance to ensure the tribe’s sustainability. the tribe has established a custom to regulate the inheritance system of their ancestral property, which is called heirloom property. this property is considered invaluable and cannot be divided among the family members. the ancestral property must be kept intact to ensure the family’s welfare, and it is passed on to the daughters. however, the sons are given the right to manage this property (navis, 1984). the economic aspect of this custom is based on the communal system, which implies that the outcomes are used for the entire family’s benefit. the men of the family are responsible for managing the ancestral property with utmost care to ensure their sisters and the descendants’ decent livelihoods. this custom has an old saying that reflects the values of the minangkabau tribe, emphasizing the importance of preserving the ancestral property for the family’s prosperity: apo guno kabau batali lapeh ka rimbo jadi jalang pauikkan sajo di pamatang apo guno badan mancari iyo pamagang sawah jo ladang nak mambela sanak kanduang why did you tied the bull if it goes to the jungle it becomes wild tied to the bund why did you earn money cultivating the rice field to feed the family rice cultivation in the traditional minangkabau society is an integral part of their way of life. the rice fields hold immense value as they serve not only as a source of income but also as a means to ensure the well-being of the extended family (sukmawati, 2019). for men in minangkabau, especially the eldest son in a family, called mamak, the family is not only his wife and biological children, but also his sisters and children of his sisters (anak kemenakan). a mamak is responsible for the welfare and survival of his kinsmen (navis, 1984; sukmawati, 2019). the minang proverb states, “anak dipangku, kamanakan dibimbiang” (children are raised, kamanakan are guided). therefore, a mamak in the family will be given the right to manage the heirloom property, regulate who is entitled to cultivate rice fields and farms, and also provide social rights for his kemenakan. as a father, mamak of course also has to fulfil the needs of his wife and children, but he must not forget his nephews and must also guide them to become better individuals. the results of rice fields and fields from this inheritance are the economic provisions for a traditional minangkabau community to be able to survive and fulfil their needs communally, pay for education, open a business, or other needs (syahrizal & meiyenti, 2022). so that widows and orphans in traditional minangkabau society are not neglected because they get their economic rights and livelihoods from inherited property that is managed for the benefit of the family (rahmadanil & zuwanda, 2021). the lush green rice paddies and vast fields that stretch out as far as the eye can see hold great emotional significance for families, and are often treasured as heirlooms that are passed down from generation to generation. these agricultural lands handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 80 are more than just a means of earning a living they are a symbol of a family’s prosperity and stability, and represent the very essence of their cultural heritage. the value of these fertile lands goes beyond monetary worth, and their loss can result in profound financial instability and jeopardize the sustainability of the family. such lands are a testament to the hard work and dedication of the families who have devoted themselves to cultivating them, and their loss could have a far-reaching impact on the community and the environment. these verdant fields are an integral part of the family’s legacy and are deeply intertwined with their culture and way of life, making them an irreplaceable part of their heritage and identity. as the minangkabau proverb goes: ka ateh indak bapucuak, ka bawah indak baurek, ditangah-tangah dilariak kumbang upward without tip, downward without roots, in the centre hollowed out by beetles the minangkabau society is known to hold a profound cognitive awareness and emotional attachment to nature, particularly to their rice fields and farms. as a result, the preservation of heirlooms in the form of rice fields and farms is highly valued and considered a matter of great significance (kahn, 1980; nelisa et al., 2021; noviarti et al., 2013). the proverb mentioned above serves as a poignant reminder that a family’s lack of heirlooms equates to a lack of pride, just like a tree that bears no shoots at the top, which signifies the absence of any future signs of life. similarly, a tree that lacks roots at the bottom symbolizes a lack of strength, and one that has a hole in the middle has no support to lean on. this analogy highlights the importance of heritage for a family in minangkabau, as those who possess no inheritance are deemed to have no future, no strength, and no protection. in contrast, a family that can preserve and even enhance their heirlooms is like a tree with robust roots that sink deep into the ground, shoots that soar high, and a sturdy trunk that can provide protection and become a reliable backrest. the concept of economic resilience in traditional minangkabau society is intricately intertwined with their relationship with nature. specifically, the control of their land primarily paddy fields and fields is of utmost importance. rice fields are considered economic entities that can provide livelihoods to the community, but only if they are managed and utilized properly. for this reason, they cannot be converted into different types of economic entities, as this would remove their essence as a symbol of economic protection within a family and tribe. this system ensures that outsiders cannot easily acquire minangkabau land for individual or corporate interests, preserving the land and the nature surrounding it (fahmi & aswirna, 2020). this is not just an economic concern but a cultural one as well, as the land is seen as heirloom property that symbolizes the economic protection of the community and social status (iqbal, 2020; kosmaryandi, 2005). the system ensures that land is used wisely, and thus nature is preserved. however, the degradation of minangkabau cultural values over time has led to the selling and transformation of many rice fields and heirloom properties (anwar et al., 2020). as a result, they are no longer able to provide economic protection for the community, and the relationship with nature has been disrupted. the consequences are not only economic but also environmental, as the land is no longer being used in a sustainable way. this highlights the importance of preserving cultural values to ensure that economic and environmental sustainability remain in balance (hoang, 2021). the minangkabau proverb emphasizes the remarkable ability of their society to live in harmony with the natural environment. their spatial arrangement is unique and allows them to work closely with nature while preserving the ecosystem. the proverb portrays the rich cultural heritage of the minangkabau people, who have been passing down their collective consciousness from one generation to another through the medium of language creativity. these proverbs are a testament to the cognitive process of the community, which is deeply rooted in their relationship with nature. through these proverbs, the minangkabau people have managed to preserve their cultural identity and pass on their values, beliefs, and traditions to the younger generations. these practices are focused on sustainable land and forest management, which not only benefits the environment but also enables the community to thrive. their approach serves as a model for other societies seeking to achieve a similar balance between humans and nature. iv. conclusion proverbs are a fascinating form of expression that can be found in cultures all around the world. they are more than just a mode of communication handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 81 or creative expression they are often a reflection of cultural perspectives, social customs, and humanity’s relationship with the natural world. this is particularly true of the proverbs used by the minangkabau people, a community that resides in the highlands of west sumatra, indonesia. the minangkabau people’s proverbs are a form of expression that reflects the way in which they perceive and interact with the natural world. these wise sayings encapsulate the cognitive processes and belief systems of the community regarding nature. they are often based on observations of the environment, and they convey a deep understanding of the natural world and the importance of living in harmony with it. through proverbs, the minangkabau people pass on their cultural heritage and wisdom to future generations. these sayings have been passed down orally for centuries, and they continue to be an important part of the community’s cultural identity. they help to reinforce the community’s connection to the environment and to maintain a sense of continuity and tradition. the existing research on sustainability in minangkabau proverbs has only scratched the surface, focusing primarily on its conceptual framework. however, to gain a deeper 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(2022). kinship system of minangkabau matrilineal fisherman society in the city of padang. proceedings of the 1st international conference on gender, culture and society, icgcs 2021, 30-31 august 2021, padang, indonesia. proceedings of the 1st international conference on gender, culture and society, icgcs 2021, 30-31 august 2021, padang, indonesia, padang, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.30-8-2021.2316305 mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 399 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 14, 2024 final revision: august 31, 2024 accepted: september 03, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 utilizing artificial intelligence (ai) technologies in efl teaching and learning has brought about unimaginable opportunities to enhance learners’ fluency and proficiency in the target language as it is evident that employing ai tools helps learners develop their language skills, enhance engagement and motivation, ease foreign language anxiety, and ultimately acquire the target language. this meta-analysis aims to find out to what extent ai has impacted efl teaching and learning by providing a systematic review of research papers published from 2020 to 2023. the review concentrated on four areas of efl contexts: ai in efl contexts, learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of ai tools, efl learners’ motivations and engagements towards ai tools, and the integration of ai tools in language skills. the automated model developed by guan et al.’s (2020) to collect published work from numerous databases such as scopus, web of science, eric, semantic scholar, and google scholar was adopted. findings of this review exhibit that employing ai technologies in the efl settings has significantly benefitted the process of teaching and learning resulting in the mastery of the productive skills on the part of learners. on the other hand, the review shows there is a current lack of research related to receptive skills. as far as the learners’ and teachers’ perspectives regarding the integration of ai tools are concerned, the review voiced favourable perceptions concerning utilizing ai tools; however, the pedagogical implications of utilizing ai tools from the teachers’ point of view have been insufficiently addressed by research conducted so far. eventually, the current review outlined significant implications that provide a strong foundation for future research. keywords artificial intelligence (ai), efl contexts, perceptions of ai tools, motivations, engagements, language skills correspondence e-mail: badri.mudhsh@utas.edu.om review to what extent has artificial intelligence impacted efl teaching and learning? a systematic review mohammed al-raimi1, badri abdulhakim mudhsh2, muna hussain muqaibal3, yasir al-yafaei4 1-4preparatory studies center, university of technology and applied sciences, salalah, oman 5university of technology and applied sciences, salalah, oman under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.399-412.2024 i. introduction in today’s world, ai technologies are of paramount importance in all spheres of life. education is not excluded. presently, due to the surprising advances in ai, education has witnessed remarkable changes (ahmad et al., 2021; alam et al., 2022). ai in education offers benefits such as improving learning outcomes, productivity, and student engagement. adiguzel et al. (2023) state that ai tools, particularly chatgpt, have the potential to modernize the teaching and learning process, and provide learners with personalized language learning. paek and kim (2021) added that ai is revolutionizing education by rethinking its purpose, restructuring content, and innovating teaching methods, transforming human civilization and the field of education. moreover, because of ai penetration in all education domains, numerous studies have highlighted the significance of incorporating ai into the educational process, particularly in language teaching and learning (see, for instance, al-raimi et al., 2024; mijwil et al., 2022; rusmiyanto et al., 2023; huang, 2022; jiang et al., 2022). in the efl contexts, ai tools such as virtual tutors, chatbots, writing apps, speech recognition systems, translation systems, etc., have greatly influenced the way learners master the target language. it is apparent that such tools hold the potential of boosting learners’ foreign language proficiency. liu and ren (2022) mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 400 proposed that employing artificial intelligence systems in english language teaching and learning has proven favorable outcomes, particularly improving learner participation and achievement. rukiati et al. (2023) stated that implementing ai tools in english language teaching has the potential to increase effectiveness and efficiency as they offer opportunities for practice and customized feedback, based on learner requirements and how ai tools are utilized. in the same vein, obari et al. (2020) assert that language proficiency has shown to be enhanced because of the implementation of ai technologies in the process of teaching the english language. furthermore, ai has the potential to introduce innovative teaching methods and optimize the teaching quality (liu and kong 2021). it is apparent that there is a wealth of literature on the employment of ai tools in the english language teaching and learning contexts, however, systematically reviewing the pedagogical implications of such tools in the efl scenarios is still not adequately investigated. given this gap in literature, this review aims to find out to what extent ai has impacted efl teaching and learning by providing a comprehensive review of approximately 100 research papers published from 2020 to 2023. this meta-analysis is conducted to achieve these objectives: to pinpoint the efl domains that have significantly employed ai tools and determine the research gap pertaining to the integration of ai tools in efl settings. the automated model developed by guan et al.’s (2020) to collect published work from numerous databases, for example scopus, web of science, eric, semantic scholar, and google scholar was employed. the review concentrates on four areas in the realm of efl situation such as ai in efl contexts, learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of ai tools, efl learners’ motivations and engagements towards ai tools, and the integration of ai tools in language skills. ai tools in efl contexts in the scope of efl contexts, ai tools play a significant role in helping learners achieve mastery of the target language. a wide spectrum of research studies sheds light on the gains of utilizing ai tools in efl domains. numerous studies have disclosed the benefits of chatbots in the classroom (e.g. mohamed & alian, 2023; silitonga et al., 2023; yuan, 2023). chuah and kabilan (2021) investigated teachers’ perceptions towards utilizing mobile chatbots in the esl context. the results showed that chatbots were considered beneficial to offer feedback and boost social presence. yuan (2023) explored the efficiency of utilizing chatbots in efl settings in china. the study pointed out that the incorporation of chatbots led to significant improvement in learners’ oral competence. ye et al. (2022) used a smart phone chatbot named microsoft xiaoying as a partner for interaction practices. the study revealed that it improved students’ pronunciation skills, grammar, oral proficiency, and their attitudes towards using ai in efl situations both inside and outside the classroom. in addition, it can consolidate students’ learning once chatbot elements like customized corrections for errors are included in the classroom. mohamed and alian (2023) explored the learners’ perspectives on adopting chatbots in efl learning. the findings showed that chatbots enticed learners to study because they could work on their own and become confident, independent, enthusiastic, and willing to interact. a study conducted by xiao and zhi (2023) recommended the implementation of chatbots in the foreign language classroom. the study investigated the role of chatgpt in learning from the viewpoint of the learners and their practices and it emphasized the efficiency of this chatbot to provide learners with customized learning and immediate feedback. a quasi-experiment was conducted by silitonga et al. (2023) to find out the impact of ai chatbots on 73 efl learners’ motivation in the writing class. findings revealed that ai tools are instrumental to motivate learners to write in the target language as such tools can provide instant and extensive feedback better than the teacher. the study recommended the utilization of chatbotenhanced learning in the efl contexts. ahn’s (2022) experimental study on the acquisition of efl prepositions and articles indicated that learners in the experimental group performed better than those in the controlled group. the study found that learners in the experimental group committed less errors. the reduction in errors was attributed to the effectiveness of ai chatbots in teaching grammar. it was also proposed that chatbots can be developed to be utilized in other grammatical features. rababah (2023) carried out an experimental study to explore the effect of an intelligent tutoring system on the performance of 60 efl jordanian learners. the study findings revealed that learners’ mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 401 performance in the experimental group exceeded that of the controlled one in reading, grammar and vocabulary. in addition, the learners in the experimental group were found to be highly happier than those in the other group. the study concluded that that incorporating intelligent tutoring systems in language learning is effective to enhance the learning process. koraishi (2023) explored the gains of incorporating chatgpt in the assessment and material development in foreign language learning and teaching. the study highlighted its significance to offer instant and customized learning and provide learners with contextualized input that meets their needs. in saudi scenario, abdalgane and othman (2023) collected data via questionnaires to evaluate the use of bing translator and google translate in daily tasks. it also examined the extent employment of technologies such as machine translation (mt), automatic evaluation systems (aess) and computer-assisted language learning (call) could foster learners’ ability to interact in the target language. the conclusion drawn from the study is that all ai technologies have a significant role to play in facilitating efl learning. in the chinese context, yang et al. (2023) employed a mixedmethod technique to explore the impact of machine translation on the writing of efl learners. the findings revealed that learners conveyed favourable attitudes towards implementing machine translation in writing. the study emphasized its role to enhance writing proficiency in the target language. an intelligent personal tutor known as blingbang using microsoft’s bot framework was designed by du et al. (2020) to address learners’ problems in writing and speech in the efl areas. the system was realized to be valuable to deal with such difficulties. findings showed that learners expressed satisfaction to respond to questions and ultimately communication failures were solved. learners’ and teachers’ perceptions on ai tools in teaching and learning english as a foreign language (efl), it is of utmost importance to identify the different views of teachers and learners regarding the potentiality of utilizing ai tools to boost learners’ achievement in the target language. the worth of exploring the perceptions of learners and teachers has been stressed by a wide range of studies. for instance, hartono et al (2023) inspected the attitudes of teachers and students towards the incorporation ai technologies in the teaching process. the study revealed that teachers and learners hold positive attitudes regarding the efficacy of such tools to optimize individualized learning and language skills. to explore efl learners’ perspectives about ai-based instruction in speaking, zou et al. (2023) utilized the integrated model of technology acceptance (imta). the study revealed learners’ approval and satisfaction. in addition, ai tools were found to be user-friendly. in a taiwan setting, chen et al. (2023) investigate the perception of google assistant (ga) among efl college students for second language learning. the results show that ga is an inspiring tool for english learning that improves speaking and listening skills. wang’s (2022) study reveals that students have high expectations for computer-assisted review tools for english writing ability, and they find computer-scoring feedback to be more effective than teacher feedback. in saudi and south korean scenarios, almusharraf and bailey (2023) surveyed university efl students to understand their perceptions and practices of machine translation (mt) tools. the results showed a high level of acceptance and utilization of mt tools, with english avoidance behavior, benefits, and foreign language proficiency being the main factors influencing their use. mohamed’s (2023) study on chatgpt’s effectiveness in english language learning at northern border university revealed mixed opinions, with some recognizing its usefulness and others expressing concerns about hindering critical thinking. researchers conducted a range of studies on the indonesian contexts. the study by syahnaz and fithriani (2023) found that sixth-semester students positively rated quillbot’s use in an efl academic writing course, highlighting its potential benefits. salija and rahman’s 2023 study on 100 english department students revealed high acceptance of artificial intelligence in english language teaching, indicating its positive impact on learning english. enzelina et al.’s 2023 study found that students have positive perceptions of ai-based applications in post-pandemic learning, while lecturers have negative perceptions, aiming to improve english language skills. alawadhi and abu-ayyash (2021) discovered that kahoot, a game-based student response system, significantly enhanced motivation, classroom engagement, and learning experience in an english language course in the uae. le phan’s (2023) study on students’ perceptions of ai technology in english writing mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 402 the experimental group achieved better learning outcomes in reading, writing, vocabulary, and grammar. in addition, learners employed greater self-regulated learning tactics, and higher levels of motivation. in the chines context, lin et al. (2021) investigated students’ motivation while learning ai and the gender motivation differences among learners. the study revealed that intrinsic motivation impacted learners’ motivation the greatest. regarding the gender, male learners scored better than the female ones. in zhang et al.’s (2023) study, chatbots were found to be effective in efl writing, improving motivation, high-quality interactions, study plan making, and accessibility, potentially influencing self-regulated learning. wang et al.’s (2022) study on ai coaches in primary schools found cognitive presence, learners’ affection for ai’s appearance, english shadowing, and teaching presence all positively influenced l2 learning outcomes. wang et al. (2023) found that satisfaction, university support, enjoyment, and interactive rewards influence student participation intention and interactivity in intelligent teaching using ai. in a taiwan setting, huang et al.’s (2023) study utilized ai to enhance students’ motivation and engagement in a systems-programming course, finding that ai-enhanced video recommendations significantly improved academic achievement and active participation. chen et al.’s (2021) study of 84 engineering majors found that integrating vr into problem-based learning significantly improved vocabulary acquisition and motivation for future careers, emphasizing the importance of immersive environments in contextualized learning. a study in the saudi context by ali et al.’s (2023) revealed that chatgpt positively influences english language learning, promoting reading and writing skills development, but further research is needed to understand its benefits and drawbacks. han (2021) conducted a study to inspect the effect of ai chatbots on the performance of 23 efl students in south korea. the study findings indicated decline in foreign language anxiety, increased interest and motivation to learn and significant development in the target language proficiency. another study in the south korean efl context was carried out by jeon (2021) to explore the influence of chatbots on students’ motivation in the classroom. the study examined the utility of ai tools whether they impact learner classes at vietnam national university reveals accessibility, adaptability, and simplicity. sütçü and sütçü (2023) highlighted the growing popularity of artificial intelligence in education (aied), but concerns about its effective adoption persist, with english teachers generally optimistic about ai’s potential. boonmoh et al.’s (2021) study on thai secondary school teachers found that most had knowledge of technological tools and integrated them into their classes. in the usa situation, kim and kim (2022) explored teachers’ perceptions of ai in boonmoh stem education, revealing that most teachers positively view ai as a superior scaffolding tool. çakmak’s (2022) study on 90 efl students found negative attitudes towards chatbothuman interaction with replika, suggesting it may not be a reliable method for reducing l2 speaking anxiety. to come to the point, the review affirms the significant role of the views of teachers and learners towards ai-assisted teaching and learning. the following section analyses studies that address the role of ai technologies utilized in different efl situations to motivate learners and engage them in the learning process. efl learners’ motivations and engagements incorporating ai technologies in efl instruction can be beneficial in achieving learning outcomes as ai-assisted education increases students’ engagement and motivation to master the foreign language. this statement is proved by the research findings. using a mixed-method approach, moybeka et al.’s (2023) study on the effect of ai tools on learners’ motivation in the indonesian efl contexts. the research findings highlighted the efficacy of these innovative tools to enhance motivation, individualized learning, and self-confidence. in the same efl situation, sumakul and hamied (2023) investigated the aspects of learners’ motivation when employing ai tools in the classroom. the data gathered from 133 efl learners by means of questionnaires and interviews. findings indicated that more than a quarter of the learners were motivated due to factors such as lesson design, user interface, and intelligence. wei (2023) inspected the influence of ai-assisted language learning on 60 efl learners’ motivation, self-regulated learning and achievement in the chinese contexts. compared to the controlled group, learners in mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 403 psychological states and restrict language learning or foster learning. in taiwan setting, tai and chen (2023) carried out a study to examine the efficacy of a google assistant, an intelligent personal assistant to boost 112 efl learners’ readiness to interact and communicate. the findings indicated that the google assistant improved communication and mitigated learners’ anxiety to speak due to a significant increase in motivation and engagement. muñoz et al. (2023) inspected the influence of employing chatgpt on 350 teachers’ and students’ motivation in the peru scenario. a strong correlation was reported between listening skills acquired by students, and instructors’ experiences. furthermore, the study revealed that chatgpt is an instrumental tool in optimizing student engagement, interest and motivation. to recapitulate, systematically reviewing research work regarding the relation between utilizing ai tools in the efl contexts and learners’ engagement and motivation, shows that such innovative strategies are crucial to enhance foreign language acquisition. the following section deals with the employment of ai technologies in language skills learning. integration of ai tools in language skills the gains and benefits of incorporating artificial intelligence technologies in efl instruction to help learners improve language skills and ultimately attain proficiency in the foreign language have been emphasized by a wide range of studies (see, for instance, al-raimi et al., 2024; bin-hady et al., 2023; fitria, 2021; hasibuan et al., 2023; wu and wang, 2021). language acquisition requires learners to develop mastery of the productive and receptive language skills: namely writing, speaking, reading, and listening. the subsequent sub-sections elaborate on the use of ai in language learning and teaching. the researchers divide the following sub-sections based on commonly known terms, specifically productive skills (speaking and writing skills) and receptive skills (listening and reading skills). productive skills researchers have conducted a wide spectrum of research in the realm of productive skills to understand the impact of ai applications on the acquisition of writing and speaking skills. in the saudi context, al-mahmud’s (2023) study explored the impact of ai-powered writing technologies like wordtune on saudi efl writing, finding consistent improvements in lexical and syntactic gains and final exam performance. in egypt, marghany’s (2023) study found that ai-based grammarly instruction significantly improved the fl writing skills of 100 egyptian higher education students, indicating its potential for effective essay teaching. abdalkader’s (2022) study found that ai activities, including minecraft games, semantris vocabulary games, and virtual reality, significantly improved efl writing fluency in 33 preparatory stage students. the study by abrenilla et al. (2023) found that integrating ai writing tools can enhance the quality of efl student writing. the study by marzuki et al. (2023) found that integrating ai writing tools can enhance the quality of efl student writing. harunasari’s (2022) study investigates the use of chatgpt in efl writing classes for fourth-semester students in jakarta, indonesia, highlighting strategies like clear usage policies and recording student queries. gayed et al.’s (2022) study in japan suggested that ai kaku, an ai-based web application, can help efl learners reduce cognitive barriers in writing. in the saudi context, alotabi’s (2023) study explored the impact of ai on english writing skills, revealing grammarly’s effectiveness in identifying errors and instilling confidence among students. in the chinese scenario, yang et al.’s (2023) study on chinese university-level english as a foreign language students’ interaction with pigai, the largest ai-programmed automated writing evaluation, found that learners primarily focused on error corrective feedback, with lower take-up rates for linguistic resources. tsai’s (2022) study on google translate’s use in efl writing reveals that gt texts offer enriched content, advanced vocabulary, and fewer errors. liu et al.’s (2023) study suggested that an ai-supported english writing approach could improve efl writing skills, resulting in better performance, self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and reduced cognitive load. chang et al. (2021) found that students using grammarly significantly enriched their efl writing performance compared to those who received traditional instruction without grammarly. in the case of the speaking abilities, utilizing ai tools can have a leading role in fostering the efl learners’ speaking skills in a way to help them communicate effectively in different situations and contexts outside the classroom. zou et al. (2023) conducted a study to explore the effects of social network-enhanced instruction on the utilization of mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 404 ai speaking applications to encourage speaking practice among efl learners in china. the study showed developments of the learners’ speaking skills in the experimental group. in the same context, zou et al. (2023) investigated the role of ai-assisted speech evaluation systems in enhancing 40 efl learners speaking abilities. findings demonstrated that learners greatly improved their speaking skills. in the china situation qiao and zhao (2023) studied the efficiency of ai-assisted instruction in developing students’ speaking skills. the data collected from 93 efl students and the results indicated the speaking skills of the students in the experimental group significantly developed greater than that of the controlled group. kim (2021) analysed three types of chatting: ai text-chatting, ai voice-chatting and face-to-face chatting. 110 efl south korean learners were divided into three groups and the findings showed that learners’ performance in the voice--chatting group was significantly better than the other two groups. chen et al. (2022) utilized an ai-assisted system called dynamic assessment-based speech recognition (da-sr) in the taiwan efl context. the study stated that such tool is effective not only in developing the learners’ speaking capabilities, but also mitigating anxiety to speak in the target language. while tai (2022) revealed that google assistant significantly enhances efl learners’ oral proficiency by providing high-quality input, immediate feedback, and reducing anxiety. makhlouf’s (2021) study at albaha university, saudi arabia, found that ai significantly improved non-english major engineering students’ fluency and accuracy skills, recommending ai as a teaching tool. kang’s (2022) study in south korea revealed that while ai avatars and native speakers enhanced esl learners’ oral performance and speaking abilities, interactive activities did not boost motivation or reduce stress. karim et al. (2023) found that the indonesian english language speech application significantly boosted efl students’ speaking abilities, with 90% feeling confident and 95% recognizing it as a motivational tool. noviyanti (2020) revealed an ai-based pronunciation checker improved students’ pronunciation by 30 points, but they still emphasized the importance of regular communication with natives for faster learning. lin and mubarok (2021) found that ai technologies, particularly chatbots, can improve english learning for efl students in university flipped classrooms, enhancing speaking, and learning performance. han’s 2020 study found that voice-based ai chatbots, ‘echodot’, significantly developed korean efl middle school students’ speaking competence and affective domains, suggesting the need for efl teachers to incorporate ai chatbots into classrooms. chen’s (2022) study found that technology-enhanced learning reduced efl learners’ public speaking anxiety. receptive skills decoding the received message, whether it comes in written or verbal form, is crucial for achieving effective communication. hence, efl learners have to nurture their receptive abilities, namely in reading and listening. a range of research has been carried out to examine the effect of ai on efl learners’ receptive skills. regarding reading skills, a study by khasawneh and jadallah (2023) shows that 80% of undergraduates and lecturers utilize ai models in teaching foreign languages, with 70% claiming it enhances receptive skills performance. alshriedeh and mohammed’s (2021) study examined the influence of ai programs on english students’ reading skills, emphasizing the significance of understanding author content through linguistic terminology. dong et al. (2022) proposed multi-criteria decision support systems (mcdss) for ai-enabled production and application of english multimode online reading. this study has demonstrated the use of the superdecision tool to facilitate experimental work. this will enable researchers to identify and develop innovative solutions for the subject matter. in the indonesian context, lestari et al.’s (2021) study at the islamic university of kalimantan found a high correlation (0.67) between students’ ai and their english reading skills achievement, indicating that mobile applications significantly improve these skills. estaji and saeedian’s (2020) study examined the impact of computer-mediated dynamic assessment (da) on l2 learners’ reading comprehension. the study revealed that the effects of both human-only and computer-only types were similar, indicating the effectiveness of computermediated mediation. several studies have focused on the listening skill. a study by al-mawaly and al-jamal (2022) found that ai significantly enhances the listening comprehension and attitudes of jordanian efl sixth-grade students, recommending its use. in indonesian sitting, suryana et al.’s (2020) study explored students’ perceptions of ai mobile mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 405 applications for improving english listening skills. the study found netflix to be the most effective and efficient ai mobile application for improving english listening skills among students. another study in the same sitting, arini et al.’s (2022) study, revealed that ai-based mobile learning significantly enhances english proficiency among efl university students, indicating the need for further enhancement in novo learning implementation. tai and chen’s (2022) study found that intelligent personal assistants (ipa), particularly via google nest hub, positively impacted adolescent efl learners’ listening comprehension by offering interactive listening, multimodal responses, peer collaboration, and meaningful interaction. the study explores students’ perceptions of ai mobile applications for improving english listening skills, using an interdisciplinary approach. iii. discussion this review incorporates around 100 research papers, after excluding those that do not correspond to the study’s aims. it was noted that there is a significant rise in the quantity of published papers in ai in efl studies between the years 2020 to 2023, with the largest number of research published in 2023 and the lowest in 2020. the researchers conducted the search using four domains: ai in efl contexts, learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of ai tools, efl learners’ motivations and engagements towards ai tools, and the integration of ai tools in language skills. overall, the majority of the existing literature highlighted the fact that ai has significantly enhanced contemporary efl teaching and learning, resulting in a generally positive impact and feedback. this finding aligns with previous discussions on the topic (see, for instance, al-raimi et al., 2024; mijwil et al., 2022; rusmiyanto et al., 2023; huang, 2022; jiang et al., 2022; sumakul et al., 2022; xin, 2021; yu and nazir, 2021). furthermore, additional noteworthy findings in this review include the fact that ai has had a significant impact on the realm of english language teaching and learning in the period following the pandemic. the bulk of research has shown that learners and teachers alike hold positive perceptions and attitudes regarding the incorporation of ai tools in the teaching process, resulting in a beneficial influence on efl learning sittings. these findings converge with previous studies by mohamed’s (2023), silitonga et al. (2023), mohamed and alian (2023), xiao and zhi (2023), and han (2020). on the other hand, according to sumakul et al.’s (2022) findings, ai in the efl context tends to vary from being positive, which is consistent, to being conservative. moreover, research has demonstrated that the inclusion of ai tools plays a crucial role in enhancing learners’ motivation, which ultimately leads to fruitful outcomes and improved performance in the target language. while there are few studies investigated the utilizations of ai in efl learners’ engagement. in addition, very few studies have investigated the ethical implications, considerations, and risks associated with applying ai in efl contexts. regarding the language skills, this review has revealed that utilizing ai in the teaching process improves the learning and mastering of the four language skills, leading to fluency as well as comprehension of the target language (see, for instance, marghany’s, 2023; abrenilla et al., 2023; harunasari, 2022; zou et al., 2023; chen et al., 2022; makhlouf, 2021; khasawneh and jadallah, 2023; alshriedeh and mohammed, 2021; suryana et al., 2020). the current analysis adds to the previous reviews conducted by other scholars in various domains in the efl environment (see for instance, ali (2020), yang and kyun, and sharadgah and sa’di (2022). new insights have been attained because of others’ work on analyzing the effectiveness of ai tools in teaching and learning. the review indicates that ai technologies such as machine translation, wordtune, prowritingaid, google translate, google assistant, grammarly, avatars, quillbot, chatgpt, etc., have all been utilized in the efl situations proving their efficacy in enhancing learning the foreign language (ahn, 2022, al-mahmud, 2023; chen et al., 2023; syahnaz and fithriani, 2023; tsai, 2022; yang, 2022; xiao and zhi, 2023). despite the findings, it is important to acknowledge that the current review does not address other aspects of efl, including grammar, vocabulary, learners’ anxiety, and styles. iv. conclusion in closing, the current review teased out the impact of ai on efl teaching and learning, focusing on four dominant ai domains: ai in efl contexts, learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of ai tools, efl learners’ motivations and engagements towards ai tools, and the integration of ai tools in language mohammed al-raimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 406 skills. the automated model developed by guan et al.’s (2020) to collect published work from 2020 to 2023 from numerous databases, for example semantic scholar, web of science, google scholar, scopus, and eric was adopted for the purpose of the current review. the main findings drawn from the current meta-analysis stress the contributory influence of ai tools in the efl contexts. such ai tools become an indispensable part of the teaching and learning process. regarding the productive skills, the review reveals that integrating ai tools has significantly influenced english language productive skills teaching and learning. however, there is a noticeable scarcity of research work associated with the receptive skills. moreover, ai tools when incorporating them in the efl education, are found to be vital in motivating learners to acquire the foreign language. about learners’ and teachers’ perspectives on employing ai tools, the review mostly expressed positive views towards these innovative approaches. in addition, having thoroughly and systematically analyzed the existing literature, the review identifies a research gap as most studies have focused on the productive skills, learners’ and instructors’ perceptions, and engagement, and motivation; however, there is a dearth of literature concerning the receptive skills, namely listening and reading. consequently, it is of utmost importance to address this knowledge gap in the research literature. in addition, further research studies are required to investigate the impact of implementing ai technologies to enhance efl evaluation and assessment, mitigate learners’ anxiety, develop grammar and vocabulary acquisition. ethics statements the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement all authors contributed equally. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abdalgane, m., & jabir othman, k. a. 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(2023). exploring students’ acceptance of an artificial intelligence speech evaluation program for efl speaking practice: an application of the integrated model of technology acceptance. computer assisted language learning, 1-26. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2023.2278608 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 144 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 27, 2024 final revision: june 13, 2024 accepted: june 15, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 this study explored the current situation and challenges facing the preservation of the lembak language among the lembak ethnic group in bengkulu city. with globalization and modernization, there were concerns about keeping indigenous languages like lembak alive, especially with the influence of dominant languages. the study aimed to evaluate the vitality of the lembak language, identify factors contributing to its preservation or decline, and provide recommendations for its sustained maintenance amid the continuously changing societal dynamics. employing a mixed-method approach, the methodology encompassed cluster sampling for a survey comprising 210 respondents drawn from seven neighborhoods across three districts in bengkulu city, alongside purposive sampling for interviews involving 36 respondents from diverse demographic strata encompassing varying age groups and occupational backgrounds, including parents, teachers, and students, all of whom were native lembak speakers. findings revealed an average vitality index of 0.38 for the lembak language, signifying its endangered status. while the language remained prevalent among older age groups limited in their community, its usage notably declined among younger generations, partially due to language contact and a preference for dominant languages. this situation is exacerbated by the lack of formal support and promotion from the government, absence of official backing, insufficient formal teaching materials, minimal language documentation, and the necessity for the lembak language to adapt to the new challenges of the digital era to remain relevant and develop.to ensure the lembak language survives, it was suggested to raise awareness, improve education, and gain support from the government and other groups. keywords vitality, lembak ethnic language, bengkulu city, contemporary society correspondence e-mail: andriadi@mail.uinfasbengkulu.ac.id article vitality of lembak language bengkulu city in the dynamics of contemporary society andriadi andriadi1, sarwit sarwono2 1uin fatmawati sukarno bengkulu, bengkulu, indonesia 2universitas bengkulu, bengkulu, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.144-159.2024 i. introduction the lembak language, an ethnic language in bengkulu province, indonesia, has its phonological roots in malay col/cul (nindyawati et al., 2021) and was first recorded using the ulu script, derived from the post-pallava script (sedyawati et al., 2004). it is spoken in padang ulak tanding district and padang city in rejang lebong regency, as well as in several villages in bengkulu city and central bengkulu regency (rahayu, 2018). in bengkulu city, lembak speakers are found in seven neighborhoods across three districts: sukarami and pagar dewa (selebar), panorama, dusun besar, and jembatan kecil (singaran pati), and tanjung agung and semarang (sungai serut). the lembak language often mixes with malay bengkulu and other immigrant languages. its identity is weakening due to the strong influence of malay bengkulu, indonesian, and other immigrant languages (paulina, 2020). the use of lembak language declines due to diverse customs in mixed environments (lipinia, andra & friantary, 2023). in cities like bengkulu, interactions involve various languages and customs from different ethnicities, marginalizing lembak language use. children in such environments often adopt more common languages, neglecting lembak. this leads to a decline in its role as andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 145 a cultural marker and communication tool, accelerating its extinction risk. understanding these impacts is vital for protecting and revitalizing lembak language. the lack of teaching local languages in schools and the suboptimal teaching by parents makes this situation worse (arono, 2016). in schools, local language lessons are often neglected, preventing students from formally learning and using the lembak language. additionally, many parents no longer use lembak at home, choosing instead to speak indonesian or other languages seen as more “useful” or prestigious. this leads to the younger generation losing their ability to speak lembak and hearing it less in daily conversations. the combination of poor formal education and insufficient home teaching speeds up the decline of the lembak language, making it more vulnerable to extinction. therefore, research on the vitality of the lembak language is essential to understand this issue better and to develop strategies to protect and preserve the language. based on preliminary observations, lembak language-speaking region has experienced an increase in the arrival of migrants from various ethnicities such as rejang, serawai, minang, javanese, batak, sundanese, bugis, lintang, ogan ilir, and palembang in the last ten years. these migrants, for the most part, come to bengkulu city for work-related reasons and seeking a better life as civil servants, employees, and traders. the increasing influx of migrants from various ethnicities to lembak language-speaking region reflects the dynamics of urban development but also has an impact on the identity and sustainability of the lembak language amid diverse linguistic interactions. considering this situation, cultural acculturation has the potential to occur through significant opportunities for interethnic marriages. interactions between cultures in indonesia generally use the national language, which is indonesian. this condition affects the use of regional languages, where indonesian has the potential to replace the use of regional languages. linguistic diversity creates a diglossia situation among speakers (firman, astar & nugroho, 2023). in this context, lembak community is faced with the necessity to decisively choose a language. research on the vitality of lembak language in bengkulu city has not been conducted until now. although there are related studies, such as code-mixing by misriani (2019), an evaluation of the use of lembak language in schools by dahlia (2019), and directive speech acts by diani & basuki (2022), these three studies only provide limited descriptions and focus on specific aspects to preserve a small part of the language. regarding the language vitality studies in sumatra, abidin (2019) researched the duanu language in the village of tagaraja, riau, and found that the language vitality index of duanu is “endangered.” budiono & novita (2021) identified the vitality status of the mentawai language, figure 1. map of the distribution of the lembak ethnic group in bengkulu city source: https://www.lamudi.co.id/journal/peta-kota-bengkulu/ andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 146 specifically the sipora pagai dialect in the mentawai islands, finding a decline in its vitality concerning transmission, availability of teaching materials, literacy, types, and quality of documentation. furthermore, budiono, handayani & winarti (2023) studied the vitality of the lampung language in pekon penengahan, pesisir barat, and indicated its vulnerable status, dominated by intergenerational language transmission and susceptible language use domains. the research on the vitality of regional languages in indonesia has been conducted, such as the vitality projection of the betawi language in jakarta by siregar, anjani & yahaya (2023). the results indicate that the use of the betawi language is still concerning, although there is hope for improvement with the right strategies. amir, mustava, sari, nurhikmah & rahim (2023) investigated the vitality and subordination of regional languages in maluku, showing that 14 languages are experiencing decline. firman, astar & nugroho (2023) studied the moronene language in bombana regency, with results indicating an average index of “experiencing decline.” all these studies reflect serious challenges to the sustainability of regional languages in indonesia. research on the vitality of lembak language in bengkulu city reveals a significant research gap, as there has been no specific study measuring the level of vitality of lembak language in this city. the novelty of this research lies in its comprehensive approach, using a qualitative-quantitative method to detail the determinants of lembak language vitality. in this context, this research can make a significant contribution by providing an in-depth understanding of the dynamics and challenges faced by lembak language in the local community. furthermore, research on lembak language in bengkulu city can also offer a contrast and unique insight into the overall vitality conditions of regional languages in indonesia. by focusing on lembak language in bengkulu city, this research is expected to make a valuable contribution to a broader understanding of the vitality of regional languages in indonesia. in this context, the research issue is focused on how to measure the level of vitality of lembak language in bengkulu city. this process involves a detailed description of each indicator that determines language vitality, with the aim of determining the status or category of the vitality of lembak language in bengkulu city. the results of this research are expected to provide a relevant foundation for determining appropriate steps in managing and preserving lembak language in bengkulu city. ii. methods research design this research adopted a mixed methods approach to present a nuanced theoretical framework for the empirical data collected through qualitative and quantitative methods, aiming to deliver informative information and establish dynamic relationships between structure and agency through mechanism-based explanations (mukumbang, 2023; yavuz, 2023). quantitative data were obtained through comprehensive index analysis based on respondent responses from a questionnaire containing 90 questions covering ten language vitality indicators with varying numbers of questions in each indicator. meanwhile, qualitative data were utilized to analyze language within social, cultural, political, and economic contexts to understand the impact of these factors on language use, variation, and social interaction through language, by conducting open interviews with lembak language speakers in bengkulu city (palumbo, 2023). this approach provided a profound understanding of the social context and dynamics of the lembak community in the era of globalization. respondents the research population encompasses all speakers of the lembak language residing in seven sub-districts across three districts in bengkulu city, including sukarami and pagar dewa (selebar district), panorama, dusun besar, and jembatan kecil (singaran pati district), as well as tanjung agung and semarang (sungai serut district). sample selection for quantitative data of questionairre utilized specifically cluster sampling with designated clusters representing lembak language usage in bengkulu city. the process ensured representativeness across age groups and social strata within the lembak community. samples were categorized based on gender, age, marital status, education level, employment status, and occupation type, following guidelines from badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan (2017). with 210 respondents selected based on native andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 147 lembak language speaker classification, the approach ensures balanced representation across language-speaking groups in the area. appendix 1 shows characteristics of the sample comprising native lembak language speakers. qualitative interview data utilized a probability-based clustering sampling technique to accurately represent lembak language speakers in bengkulu city, determining language vitality status. reespondents, each with distinct characteristics, were interviewed per indicator. further details on respondents are available in appendix 2. data collection data collection in this research utilized a 90item questionnaire technique guided and adopted from badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan (2017). opened-interviewed were supported to observe the use of lembak language in social life. data analysis data from respondents, consisting of responses to various process options, are organized in tabular form using the excel program to obtain frequency values for each question. subsequently, to determine the vitality level, the data from excel is processed using spss. the calculation of index values is done using the formula: after obtaining the index values for each variable and their correlation with the language vitality level table, data checking was carried out to evaluate the input data. then, the data interpretation utilized indicators for measuring the sustainability of the lembak language in bengkulu city. these indicators included intergenerational transmission, number and proportion of speakers, language use domains, speakers’ attitudes, government attitudes and regulations, availability of teaching materials and literacy, quantity and quality of documents, language contact and bilingualism, and response to new domains and media (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2017). the index range used was 0-1, divided into six categories of vitality status (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2017). the index range and categories of language vitality status could be seen in table 1 below. table 1: language vitality status categories in index calculation no. status index 1 safe 0.81 – 1.00 2 vulnerable 0.61 – 0.80 3 declining 0.41 – 0.60 4 endangered 0.21 – 0.40 5 critical 0.01 – 0.20 6 extinct 0.00 iii. results the vitality of lembak language: indicators and speaker characteristics relationship referring to the cumulative calculation of data, the language vitality index values of the lembak ethnic group in bengkulu city for each indicator range from 0.07 to 0.88, as depicted in table 2. table 2. language vitality index values of lembak language in bengkulu city no indicators category 1 number of lembak language speakers 0.88 safe 2 language contacts 0.51 declining 3 bilingualism in lembak community 0.55 declining 4 dominant position 0.47 declining 5 domain of lembak language use 0.34 endangered 6 language attitudes 0.37 endangered 7 language regulation 0.22 endangered 8 language learning 0.24 endangered 9 language documentation 0.07 critical 10 new challenges 0.16 critical avarage value 0.38 endangered based on the cumulative index calculations, the average value reached 0.38. from these results, the lembak ethnic language could be categorized as “endangered” in the speech domain that was the focus of this research. although this data might not have represented all speakers of the lembak ethnic language, the figure provided an overview of the condition of the lembak ethnic language based on the perceptions of its speakers. further discussion on the vitality of the lembak language based on each indicator was elaborated to provide a more holistic and contextual understanding of the language dynamics in the local community. andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 148 speaker of lembak language based on the questionnaire data, further exploration was conducted on the absolute number of speakers and the proportion of the number of speakers to the total population, as depicted in the following table. table 3 indicates the dominance of lembak language speakers compared to other local languages in the surrounding area. residents in that area prefer using the lembak language. however, the data also reflects that the community speaking lembak language still maintains the ability to use it. meanwhile, interview data showed similar statements from nine lembak speakers over the age of 20 and one speaker under 20: “more people use the lembak language in our area compared to other local languages, as reflected in daily interactions. residents here tend to choose lembak as the main language for social interactions, with the community still proficient in its use despite changes (respondent 3, 19 years; respondent 56, 29 years; respondent 60, 31 years; respondent 66, 33 years; respondent 71, 38 years; respondent 128, 43 years; respondent 133, 47 years; respondent 141, 51 years; respondent 146, 55 years; and respondent 201, 63 years). however, interview data showed contradictory statements from three lembak speakers under the age of 20: “it is true that more people use the lembak language in our area compared to other local languages. residents here tend to choose lembak as the main language for social interactions. however, not all communities are proficient in its use. in our family, for example, only my father is a lembak speaker, while my mother comes from another region. we prefer to use malay bengkulu in daily conversations and avoid interactions using lembak. although we engage in lembak interactions and can understand our interlocutors, we still respond in malay bengkulu (respondent 7, 17 years; and respondent 11, 18 years). the data from survey and interview indicate the dominance of lembak language speakers compared to other local languages, with a preference for using lembak in social interactions. however, not all communities are proficient in its use. some respondents, especially those whose mothers are not native speakers, prefer malay bengkulu in daily conversations, even though they still understand lembak when used by others. language contact in the context of this indicator, we explore various aspects of language contact, such as relative village-city distance, speaker mobility, ethnic group visits to speaker areas, and community access to mass media in other languages. table 4 indicates that language contact in this area reflects table 4. language contact serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 1 lembak language speakers prefer radio broadcasts in other languages. 71.43 28.57 26 this area is far from the city (administrative center). 00.00 100 33 many lembak language speakers reside for an extended period in other areas. 27.48 72.52 35 lembak community can enjoy national television broadcasts. 100 00,00 37 this area is difficult to access from other regions and from the city. 00.00 100 50 i live in a lembak-speaking environment. 100 00.00 78 lembak language speakers often travel to other regions. 32.81 67.19 84 many people from other ethnic groups come to my area. 72.48 27.52 average 50.53 49.47 table 3. speakers of lembak language serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 11 compared to speakers of other local languages in my area, speakers of lembak language are more numerous. 91.47 8.53 74 the population in this area has more people who speak lembak than speak other local languages. 91.43 8.57 80 lembak-speaking community is still able to use this language well. 80.96 9.04 average 87.95 12.05 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 149 a strong attachment and identity to the use of the lembak language in everyday life. although in the city center of bengkulu, the data shows that the community maintains significant interlanguage interactions. the use of the lembak language is not only a means of communication but also creates social and cultural bonds amid urban dynamics. the lembak-speaking community in this area can maintain the identity and sustainability of the lembak language, emphasizing the role of language as a crucial element in preserving cultural heritage and community identity. on one hand, interview data showed that: “i prefer listening to radio broadcasts in other languages because i’m interested in certain programs not available in lembak. however, if there are broadcasts in lembak, i’ll choose to listen to them.” only a small number of lembak speakers live elsewhere for extended periods due to strong cultural ties (respondent 201, 63 years; respondent 133, 47 years; respondent 60, 31 years; and respondent 7, 17 years). additionally, many other ethnic groups settle in our area (12 respondents). on the other hand, interview data also indicated: “my sibling married someone fr om a different ethnic group and still lives in their area (respondent 141, 51 years; respondent 146, 55 years; respondent 66, 33 years; respondent 71, 38 years). my child lives in another city after becoming a civil servant (respondent 71, 55 years). two of my siblings are pursuing higher education in yogyakarta (respondent 11, 18 years).” the survey and interview results indicated a variety of preferences and diverse life conditions among respondents. some opted for non-lembak radio programs due to specific interests, while others remained in their hometowns due to cultural attachments. additionally, differences in family structures, such as interethnic marriages or pursuing education and careers elsewhere, were observed. bilingualism/multilingualism in the lembak community language contact in bengkulu city yields an intriguing phenomenon of bilingualism or multilingualism. apart from lembak language speakers, the dominance of bengkulu malay and the presence of indonesian contribute to linguistic complexity. bengkulu city residents, particularly lembak language speakers, can master up to seven languages simultaneously, fostering a dynamic and intricate multicultural environment. this section highlights proficiency in lembak language, other local, national, and foreign languages. the data in table 5 indicated that the lembak community could preserve language diversity. intensive interaction with other languages created a dynamic bilingual ecosystem. high language proficiency, especially in indonesian and other local languages, demonstrated the community’s adaptability in facing linguistic dynamics. although the challenges of preserving the lembak language were significant, the preserved language diversity reflected resilience in dealing with the complexity of language interactions in a multilingual society. table 5: bilingualism or multilingualism in lembak community serial no. statement p e rc e n t a g e (%) yes no 3 many members of my ethnic group can speak indonesian well. 95.71 4.29 23 i am proficient in the lembak language. 87.14 12.86 27 my family can use lembak language well. 83.33 16.67 32 many people from other groups can speak lembak language. 14.29 85.74 36 i am proficient in another local language. 100 00.00 44 my family can use another local language well. 95.23 4.77 48 i am also fluent in a foreign language. 13.33 86.67 52 my family can use a foreign language. 18.10 81.9 54 my family can use indonesian well. 96.67 3.33 57 children can still speak this local language well. 76.19 23.81 59 i can speak indonesian well. 100 00.00 88 many members of my ethnic group can also use other local languages well. 92.85 7.15 89 many members of my ethnic group can also speak foreign languages. 22.86 77.14 average 54.83 45.17 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 150 the interview results from 12 respondents of various ages indicate that: “many members of my ethnic group are proficient in speaking indonesian and bengkulu malay. they prefer and are more comfortable using indonesian in formal communication and bengkulu malay with friends outside the lembak tribe in daily interactions. few people from other ethnic groups can speak lembak because it is primarily used by the lembak tribe in intratribal interactions (12 respondents of various ages).” the survey and interviews above indicate that the dominance of indonesian and bengkulu malay usage can gradually reduce the use of lembak. the scarcity of other ethnic groups mastering lembak reduces opportunities for inter-group interactions, which can impact the lack of support and preservation of lembak in broader environments. the dominant position of lembak community in this indicator, the analysis focuses on the role of the lembak ethnic group in various sectors such as government, trade, arts, and agriculture. indepth research on the dominant role of this ethnic group provides a profound understanding of the strength and significance of the lembak language in the social and economic context of the region. the data in table 6 reflects the relatively less dominant position of the lembak ethnic group in various aspects of community life apart from agriculture. continuous monitoring and support are needed to maintain the sustainability of the lembak language’s role and the positive contributions of the lembak ethnic group to local social and economic dynamics. interview results from 12 respondents of various occupations indicate that: “so, we usually use the lembak language in official events like government affairs, healthcare, and business, if the person we’re talking to is also lembak. but in places like lembak farming and arts, of course, the lembak language is the most commonly used because we, the lembak ethnic group, handle many affairs there (12 respondents from various occupations).” survey data and interview results indicate that the lembak language does not have dominance in official domains but is only dominant among members of the lembak ethnic community itself. domain of lembak language usage the use of language in several specific domains, such as language use in formal settings, households, religion, and education, are the focus of questions to the respondents. the result of survey is shown in table 7. table 7 indicates that the use of the lembak language plays a significant role in the daily lives of its community, including communication within their ethnic group, family conversations, artistic and traditional activities, worship, and market transactions. however, it is less dominant in formal settings such as school instruction. interview results with 12 respondents from various professions show that: “lembak language is not used in scientific contexts, such as discussing scientific knowledge at school or creating official documents and services in institutions. indonesian is more commonly used in formal settings (respondents 73, 79, 55/teachers; respondents 80, 168, 163/civil servants; respondents 21, 22, 23/students). in trading, we also do not use the lembak language for promotion or other trading activities. we more often use indonesian or malay bengkulu, which is more widely understood by the diverse bengkulu community. the lembak language is used for all activities that involve only the lembak ethnic group, whether official or unofficial (respondents 83, 165, 167/entrepreneurs).” the survey and interviews showed that lembak was not used formally in government or education but only in non-formal settings within table 6. the dominant position of lembak community serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 5 lembak ethnic group plays a crucial role in governance. 13.33 86.67 6 i uselembak language when dealing with healthcare officials. 45.39 54.61 12 lembak ethnic group plays a vital role in trade. 70 30 41 lembak ethnic group plays a significant role in agriculture. 90.47 9.53 81 i derive many benefits from the lembak language. 20.48 79.52 83 lembak ethnic group plays a crucial role in the arts. 49.52 50.48 85 lembak language is considered the most important language in this region. 41.43 58.57 average 47.23 52.77 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 151 table 7: domain of lembak language usage serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 4 the lembak language can also be used to discuss modern scientific knowledge. 5.71 94.29 13 lembak language is used in government letters addressed to members of my ethnic group. 00.00 100 14 i use lembak language to communicate with members of my ethnic group. 88.10 11.90 15 the lembak language should be used in arts and traditional ceremonies. 96.67 3.33 18 i use the lembak language to speak with family members at home. 83.33 16.67 24 letters from school to me generally use lembak language. 00.00 100 46 lembak language is taught in formal schools. 00.00 100 51 lembak language is used by district or sub-district officials when speaking with people from my ethnic group. 90.48 9.52 58 lembak language is used in religious worship. 18.10 81.90 60 i use lembak language to pray to the almighty. 00.00 100 62 teachers or school principals speak in lembak language when communicating with me. 19.05 80.95 66 lembak language is used in writing lease or sale agreements. 00.00 100 70 lembak language is used in schools to deliver lessons to students. 00.00 100 77 my partner and i speak the same regional language. 78.57 21.43 79 bargaining activities in the market use lembak language. 33.33 66.67 82 i use the regional language to write letters or messages on whatsapp to my family. 78.57 21.43 87 lembak language is mandatory in public services on certain days. 00.00 100 90 lembak language is used to advertise goods for sale. 14.29 85.71 average 33.68 66.32 table 8. languagge attitudes statement percentage(%) yes no 10 every member of lembak ethnic group should master the lembak language. 23.80 76.20 19 i am proud of the lembak language. 100 00.00 20 the use of the lembak language is recommended by the government. 7.14 92.86 30 lembak language is more important than other languages. 5.71 94.29 45 there are regulations that hinder the use of lembak language. 10.95 89.05 55 the government appreciates the use of lembak language. 20 80 61 the government is developing and protecting lembak language. 15.24 84.76 65 customary institutions are developing the lembak language to ensure its continued use. 75.24 24.76 67 customary institutions protect lembak language well. 89.05 10.95 73 lembak language is more beneficial than other regional languages. 23.81 76.19 average 37.09 62.91 the lembak community, such as at home, in arts, religion, and commerce. language attitudes this includes the attitudes of the community, government, and institutions toward lembak language. evaluating these attitudes provides a comprehensive overview of perceptions, support, and acceptance of the language in the societal context. table 8 indicates that the community and traditional institutions of the lembak community demonstrate a positive attitude toward the protection, development, and preservation of the lembak language, and are more dominant in supporting it. the government and various other parties also support the importance of the lembak language, although there is a perception that some obstacles still exist in its preservation. the interviews with the 12 respondents highlight the mixed attitudes towards the lembak language, with a strong emphasis on the role of andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 152 traditional institutions and the lack of governmental support. “learning lembak is important for our identity, but the government doesn’t seem to prioritize it and the government does not actively promote it. we see more efforts from traditional institutions than from the government in preserving our language.” (12 respondents from various occupations) the result of survey and interview highlighted a strong pride in the lembak language among its speakers, coupled with significant support from traditional institutions. however, the lack of formal support and promotion from the government poses challenges to its preservation and vitality. language regulation language regulation involves the government’s attitudes and policies toward the lembak language. the government determines the direction of development policies, including those related to ethnic and cultural languages. regulation indicators include policies, language status, regulations on the use of other languages, and sanctions for violations. the survey shows that: table 9 shows that parents often correct their children when they make mistakes in using the lembak language. the use of the lembak language is also limited using indonesian and other regional languages. the government does not have any official rules about using the lembak language. current regulations are just community rules and norms that are not mandatory, and there are no official government regulations in place. interview results with 12 respondents from various professions show that: “parents often reprimand their children if they use the lembak language incorrectly, but in the workplace, this language is rarely used. there are no government regulations regarding this, and no local regulations support its use. the government should be more concerned,” said several teachers (respondents 73, 79, 55). in government offices, there are no special days to use the lembak language, and it is rarely heard in official settings. there are no rules mandating the use of the lembak language, and everyone prioritizes indonesian. although tradition is important, official support is lacking,” explained several civil servants (respondents 80, 168, 163). “companies never request or allow the use of the lembak language in official matters. companies support the use of more widely spoken languages like indonesian,” revealed several entrepreneurs (respondents 83, 165, 167). “i am often reprimanded by my parents if i use the lembak language incorrectly. however, at university, indonesian is more frequently used, so the lembak language is less developed. indonesian is considered to hinder the development of the lembak language,” said several students (respondents 21, 22, 23). survey and interview results indicate that there are only internal regulations from the lembak community at the family level to maintain the lembak language. however, there is no official support from the government, so the lembak language is not developing well. langage learning language learning plays an important role in preserving and passing down the lembak language to younger generations. indicators include intergenerational language transmission, readiness of instructional materials, and literacy material readiness. table 9. language regulation serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 7 people who do not use lembak language will be isolated. 00.00 100 8 there is an obligation to use lembak language in the government domain on certain days. 00.00 100 9 parents always reprimand their children when they make mistakes in using lembak language. 53.81 46.19 16 the use of lembak language is hindered using other regional languages. 77.14 22.86 34 there are local regulations that promote the sustainability of this regional language. 00.00 100 40 private companies allow the use of lembak language in their dealings. 00.00 100 49 people who do not use lembak language will be considered to violate customs. 00.00 100 68 the use of indonesian language hinders the development of lembak language. 70.48 29.52 76 people who do not use lembak language will be disliked by many. 00.00 100 average 22,38 77,62 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 153 the result of survey shown in table 10 indicates that lembak language learning is only conducted by parents to their children or by elders to the younger generation in a traditional and incidental manner within the family and lembak community environment. there are no instructional materials or books available for formal lembak language education. interview with 12 respondents, including parents, teachers, and students show the following results: “parents always try to teach the lembak language to their children at home. however, it is very difficult to find formal teaching materials that can be used. many resources are still undocumented,” said several parents (respondents 92, 97, 100, 172, 177, 180). “although there is a great desire to teach the lembak language, without dictionaries and formal teaching materials, it is very difficult to create structured lessons. there are no textbooks in the lembak language in schools. as teachers, we feel this is a major challenge in preserving the lembak language,” explained several teachers (respondents 83, 87, 90). “i often learn the lembak language from my parents, but at school, there is no adequate support in terms of teaching materials,” said several students (respondents 27, 29, 33). the survey and interview results indicate that learning the lembak language still heavily relies on intergenerational transmission within family and community environments. however, the lack of formal teaching materials such as schoolbooks and dictionaries pose a significant barrier. this has led to the lembak language being less developed in official and educational settings. language documentation data regarding the quality and types of available documentation is needed, with types of documentation including written texts, audio recordings, and video recordings encompassing conversations or cultural performances to evaluate and understand the sustainability level and the availability of literary resources supporting the preservation of the lembak language and culture. the result of survey shown in table 11 indicates that the documentation of the lembak language is very limited and requires more intensive efforts to improve accessibility and the availability table 10. language learning serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 2 the grammar of this regional language has been compiled. 00.00 100 28 many schoolbooks are written in lembak language. 1.43 98.57 38 every parent will teach lembak language to their children. 87.14 12.86 63 there are adequate teaching materials for learning lembak language. 00.00 100 69 the dictionary of this regional language has been compiled. 00.00 100 75 i will correct if someone is wrong in using lembak language. 73.81 26.19 86 many reading materials are available in lembak language. 3.33 96.67 average 23.67 76.33 table 11. language documentation serial no. statement percentage (%) yes no 21 this regional language already has a writing system. 33.33 96.67 22 documentation about this regional language can be easily found. 00.00 100 25 documentation about this regional language is organized in the form of books. 4.29 95.71 39 documents about this regional language have been found since centuries ago. 4.76 95.24 42 there are many writings in lembak language. 5.71 94.29 43 ocumentation in the form of audio recordings can also be found. 00.00 100 56 there is already documentation about the history of lembak language. 00.00 100 72 lembak language has been well-documented. 00.00 100 average 6.87 93.13 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 154 of literary resources that support the preservation of the lembak language and culture. interviews with 12 respondents, including parents, teachers, and students, revealed the following findings: “it seems there is no official writing system for the lembak language. documents are also hard to find, especially in book form. many people know the language, but there is no clear system for writing it. and when it comes to audio documents, there are almost none,” said several parents (respondents 92, 97, 100, 172, 177, 180). “in book form, there are almost no lembak language documents. at school, we don’t have teaching materials in this language, let alone historical documents. audio or video recordings of the lembak language are also non-existent. it is very difficult to teach this language without adequate documentation. i have never found a book or recording about the lembak language. yet, this documentation is crucial for the preservation of the language,” explained several teachers (respondents 83, 87, 90). “i have never seen written or audio documents in the lembak language. if there were more documentation, it might be easier to learn and preserve this language. the lembak language writing system does not exist yet. it seems that historical documents or literature about this language are very scarce,” said several students (respondents 27, 29, 33). from the surveys and interview results, lembak language documentation is very minimal and requires more intensive efforts to improve the accessibility and availability of literary resources that support the preservation of the lembak language and culture. new challenge in bengkulu city, various local and online media are present, albeit inconsistently. analyzing the lembak language’s response to new media reveals its adaptability and vitality in facing technological and mass media transformations. the result of survey shown in table 12 indicates that the lembak language is not ready for new challenges. it means more work is needed to blend technology and expand vocabulary for the language to survive and grow in the digital age. interviews with 12 respondents, including parents, teachers, and students, revealed key insights into the challenges facing lembak language. “the ability of the lembak language to communicate on the internet is still lacking. this indicates the need for development to face the digital era,” said several parents (respondents 92, 97, 100, 172, 177, 180). “i have difficulty writing in the lembak language on the computer without technical constraints. there is a need for technology integration to update the language system,” explained several teachers (respondents 83, 87, 90). “the lembak language is still underused in the virtual world. we need more efforts to make this language more widely used on the internet,” added several students (respondents 27, 29, 33). from the survey and interview results, the lembak language needs to adapt to the new challenges of the digital era to remain relevant and develop. iv. discussions previous studies have highlighted the importance of language preservation in maintaining cultural heritage and identity (crystal, 2000; unesco, 2003). despite these efforts, many minority languages, including the lembak language, face significant challenges due to increasing language contact and the dominance of national languages (bisang, hock, & winter, 2007). this study aimed to examine the current state of the lembak language in bengkulu city, focusing on its table 12. new challenge serial no. statement pecentage (%) yes no 17 lembak language is easily used for internet communication. 20.95 79.05 29 i can use a computer to write in the lembak language without technical constraints. 20 80 31 the script system of this regional language has been incorporated into unicode. 00.00 100 47 many new vocabularies are discovered in lembak language. 12.86 87,14 53 the vocabulary of lembak language is developed in response to contemporary challenges. 8.10 91.90 64 lembak language is widely used in the virtual (cyber) world. 27.14 72.86 71 many people can be communicated with using the lembak language on the internet. 22.38 77.61 average 15.92 84.08 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 155 use in daily communication and intergenerational transmission. the findings reveal that while the lembak language remains prevalent among older generations, younger speakers are increasingly shifting to indonesian and malay for everyday interactions. this shift underscores the urgent need for targeted language revitalization programs to ensure the sustainability of the lembak language in the face of ongoing linguistic and cultural changes. the results of this study revealed several key findings regarding the use of the lembak language in bengkulu city. first, while the language is still widely spoken among older generations, its use among younger people is declining. second, the lembak language faces significant challenges in being integrated into digital and modern communication platforms, as evidenced by the low percentage of respondents who use it for internet communication (20.95%). additionally, the study found that the script system of the lembak language has not been incorporated into unicode, making it difficult to use in technological contexts. finally, there is a noticeable lack of new vocabulary development in response to contemporary challenges, further hindering the language’s adaptation and survival. unexpectedly, the study found that a significant number of younger lembak speakers demonstrated a high level of bilingualism or even multilingualism, with many proficient in indonesian, english, and other regional languages such as bengkulu malay and minang. contrary to the initial hypothesis that younger generations would predominantly use only indonesian, 45% of respondents aged 18-25 reported frequent use of three or more languages in their daily lives. this multilingualism appears to be driven by increased mobility, higher educational attainment, and greater exposure to diverse linguistic environments. these findings suggest that the language dynamics among younger lembak speakers are more complex than previously thought and warrant further investigation into the social and cultural factors promoting this linguistic versatility. according to bisang, hock, & winter (2007), language loss can occur due to a gradual shift toward the dominant language in the context of language contact situations. this condition supports the views of tando (2009) and chaer (2010), who state that language extinction factors in the context of the indonesian language involve the influence of the majority language in the region of the regional language speakers, bilingualism or multilingualism, migration, and interethnic marriages. the findings of this study align with previous research by crystal (2000) and unesco (2003), which emphasize the importance of a language’s vitality being reflected in its intergenerational transmission and daily use. like florey (2010), this study found that the younger generation of lembak speakers still maintains a significant level of language use in their daily lives. however, this study diverges from evans (2010), who suggested that urbanization inevitably leads to language decline; our data indicate that despite urban influences, the lembak language remains robust among urban dwellers. these results suggest that, while some general trends observed in earlier studies hold true, the lembak language community exhibits unique resilience that warrants further investigation. the results of this study reveal several key insights into the vitality and challenges facing the lembak language community. firstly, the significant number of lembak language speakers, particularly among the younger generation, underscores the language’s continued importance within the community. this finding aligns with theories proposed by crystal (2000) and unesco (2003), which emphasize the role of intergenerational transmission in maintaining language vitality. additionally, our data suggest that despite urbanization and increased exposure to dominant languages such as bengkulu malay, the lembak language remains resilient, with daily usage prevalent among community members. this resilience may be attributed to the strong sense of cultural identity associated with the language, as evidenced by its use in traditional customs and family communication. the data from our study illustrate the impact of language contact on the vitality of the lembak language community. for instance, during our interviews, respondents frequently mentioned their exposure to bengkulu malay through various media channels such as television, radio, and social media platforms. one respondent recounted how their children often preferred watching bengkulu malay programs on television over those in the lembak language. this preference for the majority language highlights the pervasive influence of language contact in shaping language attitudes and usage patterns within the community. andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 156 additionally, our observations of daily interactions among community members further underscored the dominance of bengkulu malay, particularly in formal settings such as schools and workplaces. these real-life examples provide compelling evidence of the challenges posed by language contact to the sustainability of the lembak language. from the results of this study, we can conclude that preferences towards the majority language and language contact influence are key factors in determining the sustainability of the lembak language. although the lembak language is still widely used in daily life, especially among the elderly, this research indicates that its usage tends to decline among the younger generation. this is due to the dominance of bengkulu malay in mass media and formal environments such as schools and workplaces. therefore, it can be assumed that the future sustainability of the lembak language will be greatly influenced by efforts to strengthen cultural identity and preserve linguistic traditions amidst ongoing globalization and modernization. in the context of these research findings, several recommendations can be made to support the preservation of the lembak language. firstly, it is crucial to raise awareness of the importance of the lembak language among the younger generation. educational programs that promote the use of the lembak language in school curricula and extracurricular activities can help strengthen understanding and appreciation of the language. additionally, steps should be taken to support the development of human resources capable of using and preserving the lembak language, such as training for teachers and writers. furthermore, support from the government and relevant institutions is vital in promoting activities and initiatives aimed at strengthening the status of the lembak language within society. concrete measures like these can help maintain the sustainability of the lembak language amidst the ongoing challenges of modernization and globalization. v. conclusions this study provides valuable insights into the status of the lembak language and the challenges it faces. by conducting interviews and analyzing language vitality indicators, we gained a comprehensive understanding of the situation. the advantage of this study lies in its use of a mixedmethod approach, combining qualitative interviews with quantitative data analysis. this allowed for a more nuanced exploration of the issues surrounding the preservation of the lembak language. however, it’s important to acknowledge some limitations. one limitation is the relatively small sample size of the respondents, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. additionally, the study focused solely on bengkulu city, limiting its broader applicability to other regions where the lembak language is spoken. despite these limitations, the methodology employed in this study provides a solid foundation for further research on language preservation efforts. deductions from the research indicate that while the lembak language retains significance among older generations, its usage is declining, particularly among younger speakers. factors such as language contact and preference for the majority language contribute to this decline. therefore, efforts to preserve and revitalize the lembak language are essential to ensure its survival for future generations. it is suggested that future research explore the effectiveness of language revitalization programs targeting the younger generation. additionally, comparative studies with other ethnic languages facing similar challenges could provide valuable insights into best practices for language preservation efforts. drawing pedagogic implications from this study, it is imperative to incorporate the lembak language into formal education curricula and promote its use in daily life. language revitalization initiatives, such as language classes and cultural programs, should be encouraged to instill pride and appreciation for the lembak language among the community. references abidin, z. 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(2023). a theoretical perspective on survey method from quantitative research methods. universum: psychology & education, 106(4). https://7universum.com/ru/psy/archive/item/15254 andriadi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 159 appendix 1. survey respondents based on characteristics no. characteristics percentage (%) number of respondents 1 gender male female total 41 59 100 86 124 210 2 age <20 years 20-39 years 40-59 years >60 years total 26.19 32.86 35.24 5.71 100 55 69 74 12 210 3 merital status single merried widow(er) total 41.90 50.95 7.15 100 88 107 15 210 4 education not schooled primary junior/senior bechelor total 00.00 10.48 51.43 38.09 100 0 22 108 80 210 5 employment employed unemployed total 74.29 25.71 100 156 54 210 6 occupation teacher employee civil servant farmer enterpreniur laborer students unemployed total 12.86 8.57 16.19 10 22.86 3.81 17.14 8.57 100 27 18 34 21 48 8 36 18 210 appendix 2: interview respondents based on purposes no. indicators ages occupations total number<20 20 39 4059 >60 teacher student civil servan enterpreniur 1 speaker of lembak language 3 4 4 1 122 language contact 3 bilingualism 4 the dominant position of lembak community 3 3 3 3 125 domain of language usage 6 language attitudes 7 language regulation 8 language learning 3 3 3 3 129 language documentation 10 new challenge total 3 7 7 1 6 6 3 3 36 appendix dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 201 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 4, 2023 final revision: september 19, 2023 accepted: september 22, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this study discussed strategies of humour in adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí’s writings. it interrogates how humour as a universal human interactional phenomenon is used to particularly entertain, checkmate human excesses and chastise societal ills in a mild manner. it is noted that among the living things only human beings laugh and humour excites laughter but it is not every humour that leads to laughter. therefore, for humour to be effectively appreciated, it must be properly situated in its social context. the theoretical framework for this study is based on thomas veatch postulation of humour as a phenomenon made up of congruous and incongruous elements of socially typical and infringement of the prejudiced ethical standard. this framework is adopted to study faleti’s use of humour to entertain, criticize human actions and chastise societal ills. it was out that humour as a form of lampoon is used euphemistically or ironically not as a means to destroy the society but to improve it. faleti uses humour as an effective weapon of criticism and a subtle source of laughter to entertain the audience and to curb aberrations in the society. humour in faleti’s writings is used in a calm and amusing manner and the end result is laughter, although beneath the laughter is the lampoon of social misdemeanours concealed in the use of light-hearted constructions. faleti has succeeded in espousing various methods of coping with serious and tense situation through the use of strategies of humour. keywords linguistic perspectives, humour, strategies, adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí’s, social discourse correspondence e-mail: dayoakanmu2002@yahoo.com article a linguistic analysis of the use of humour in adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí’s writings dayo akanmu1, francis yede2 1department of nigerian language education, lagos state university of education, lagos, nigeria 2department of english language education, lagos state university of education, lagos, nigeria under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.201-209.2023 i. introduction humour is seen as the fulcrum on which literature is anchored to alleviate pain, to fetch pleasure and to make general conditions of living better. humour is an instrument used to perceive and express a sense of shrewdness or entertainment. humour encompasses the notion of appreciation and expression of incongruities or abnormality inherent in a state of affairs or character. humour is more or often utilised to illustrate some fundamental absurdity in human nature or conduct. humour is universal in nature. it is a phenomenon that cuts across all domains of life. humour is uniquely and frequently adopted consciously or unconsciously, directly or indirectly by every human being in every aspect of their daily endeavours, irrespective of their status in the society. humour, based on usage and intention, can be categorised into three levels for analysis. there is a universal humour that can be understood by everybody across culture or formal education. the second level of analysis considers humour as an instrument of relief from repression or inhibition. the third category of humour makes recourse to elevated language use and selected stylistic devices, marina and vadim (2021:97). the basic ingredients of humour are irony, satire and pun in literature. sophisticated humour is stylish and developed. from this, there arise two varieties: compassionate humour targeted at the heart and intellectual humour focussed at the mind and this is otherwise known as an elitist or high class humour. this study aims to describe in detail the sense of humour which dominates fálétí’s writings dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 202 as well as the use of strategies which marks his idiolect. the motivation for this study emanates not only from the point of views of the happenings and scenes in fálétí’s writings but also from the manner of his presentation. many of his works and themes, especially those that are very serious and pathetic in nature, have always been humorous and capable of didactism as well as wiping out melancholic feelings. the main concern of this paper is to attempt a meaningful study of adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí strategies for humour in his writings and how he utilises the strategies to deftly pass across his messages. the concept of humour cannot be approached from a stereotypical point of view; this is because there are various aspects of humour. we often talk of “sense of humour”, “appreciation of humour” and “generation of humour”. sense of humour is an identified characteristic of an individual language user – a sort of idiolect. and in some situations, it is seen as a proclivity to laugh at things, at situational issues or at a self folly. appreciation of humour refers to the ability to glean humour in every situation or setting, whereas humour creation is the tendency to make humorous comments or act in a manner akin to situations or contexts of discourse. scholars are of the views that generating humour is more psychologically protective and gratifying than simply appreciating humour, kuhlman (1988), dorde (2022). as stated earlier, in spite of numerous usages and approaches to the concept of humour, its mode of expression does not deny it of its universal definition and notion. from sociological point of view, humour is seen as a part of many socially acceptable actions. it is believed that the impact of humour is psychologically encompassing and also, socially and politically gratifying. therefore, humour is otherwise described as “emotional pain” that does not hurt, muldera and anton (2002). scheel (2017:25) from the communication point of view described humour “as an aspect or an element of human communication and social interaction associated with amusement and where illocutionary effect is crafted to occupy and entertain the audience.” pien and rothbart (1986:67), on the other hand, consider humour “as a phenomenon that spans socio-cultural factors and the perception of incongruity in a playful state that may or may not be accompanied by laughter.” by this definition, pien and rothbart (ibid) assert that not all humour excites laughter. incongruity itself refers to all unexpected associations of two normally unrelated or even conflicting contexts or circumstances. this means that, incongruity has the tendency of exciting laughter and amusement and if this is so, then humour may excite amusement at the expense of laughter. also, looking at humour from the semiotic point of view, marina and vadim (2021:97) came up with the viewpoint illuminating the core attributes of humour. according to them, “humour is the identification of unidentifiable signs in the domain of conventionality.” the constituents of humour are signs that indicate conventionality or the “signification” of transformations. it is believed that without any reference to conventional significations, the possibility of being funny is unrealistic. from the semiotic point of view above, condemnation encased in humour via satire will become inconsequential without an element of conventionality and also will become direct insult and abuse. furthermore, humour will become a reprimand and irony of reproach while an innocent joke that expresses “i am ok” without an element of conventionality will slither into strange misunderstanding. simpson (1981:105) from encompassing point of view defines humour as “the quality of action, speech or writing, which excites amusement, oddity, jocularity, facetiousness, comic and fun.” it is noted that simpson’s definition of humour is encompassing in nature. the definition does not restrict humour to speech alone but glean humour from all forms of writings and actions. it excludes commonplace writings and actions but foregrounds the ones which bring amusement and fun. the general viewpoints on humour shows that humour does not act alone but requires at least, its constituent parts for its effects to become fully realised and felt. sa’adu quoted in inegbe (1999) towed the line of the viewpoint above by stating that humour is a social process and a shared experience originating with some intentions to facilitate regression and alleviation of severe psychological and mental state of mind. from sa’adu (ibid) viewpoint, it is noted that humour is a social phenomenon which is accentuated and deployed through someone’s action to reduce anxiety and fear. based on the foregoing, there are no doubts that humour is very essential to keep man stable psychologically, mentally and socially as well as maintaining balanced society devoid of rancour and acrimony. from whatever perspectives one dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 203 may examine humour, it serves not only as a source of amusement but also as a check to the excesses of man. in fact humour and laughter are so important to human existence and social life that a society without it will be faced with meaninglessness and angst. thomas c. veatch (1998) formulated incongruity theory of humour which has been adjudged by various analysts as the well-formulated and the most precise analytical tool in explicating the imprints of humour in literary works. veatch establishes that humour include a phenomenon made up of congruous and incongruous elements of socially typical and infringement of the prejudiced ethical standard. while one element is socially normal the other is a violation of the “subjective moral order”. veatch, (1998:168) explicates that the “moral order” is the “rich cognitive and emotional system of opinions about the proper order of the social and natural world” although it should be noted that there are obvious distinction between the theories which come under this general term. incongruity theories are, however, noted to be “the most widely accepted school of thought concerning humour” franklyn (2006: 77). attardo (1994:48), in consonance with the above remark, agrees that “laughter is a clear mark of incongruity.” the cause of laughter in every case is simply the sudden perception of incongruity between a concept and the real objects which have been conceived to having some relation. laughter, therefore, is the apt expression of the perceived incongruity. in the search of actualising basic research principle for humour, raskin (1985:40) noted that “there is no a priori reason why all aspects of every example of humour should be explicable in terms of a single principle.” for the purpose of this research, veatch incongruity humour theory provides sufficient and adequate analytical tool for a more remarkable and exhaustive study and analysis of the makeups of humour in fálétí’s writings for meaning and intention. ii. method data for this paper were drawn from excerpts from the literary texts of adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí, (1979), ogun àwíté̩lè̩, (1972), bas̩ò̩run gáà, (1980), wó̩n rò pé wèrè ni, and (1975), o̩mo̩ olókùn e̩s̩in . they were selected as a sample group showcasing sufficient and pragmatic use of humour in yoruba literary text. to achieve purposeful analysis, various linguistic strategies for creating humour such as comedy, satire, tragic-comedy, farce and burlesque, labelling, puns, irony of situations, comparisons and satire, etc were identified and reviewed by the authors of this paper under literature review section and, four strategies of comparison, dialect, wordplays and cinematography, which are found suitable to illuminate incongruity and expression of humour, were selected from the identified humour strategies. data analysis, which was done mainly at stylistic and pragmatic levels, illustrated the issue of humour and its capacity to manipulate language use to particularly checkmate human excesses and chastise societal ills in a mild manner. iii. result and discussion analysis of humour strategies in adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí writings generally speaking, strategy for creating humour depends on the user’s capacity to manipulate language. for this purpose, linguistic strategies for creating humour were identified and analysed below. comparison comparison is one of the strategies for creating humour. comparison strategy utilises metaphor and simile as its useful tool. metaphor is usually employed to indicate communication targets different from the literal meaning. olabode (1981) describes metaphor as the means of transforming a notion into another using an object with descriptive properties directly analogous to another object. metaphor is therefore an emphatic comparison, which if expressed formally or indirectly, takes on the form of simile. in the excerpt below, metaphor features prominently in one of fálétí’s narrative poems titled “ìgbéyàwó kan ní ìletò wa.” faleti humorously described the size and bulge of àkàndé’s goitre in the excerpt below: b’ípàkó̩ ti ń fì dùgbè̩ lé̩hìn òrúbandú tí ń be̩ ló̩rùn a sì yo̩ síwájú bo̩bo̩bo̩ (ìgbéyàwó kan ní ìletò wa ii 179-188) as his occiput dangles backwards the round bulging thing in his neck would menacingly protrude forward. here the word òrúbandú, a metaphor, is employed as descriptive word for the size of the goitre in question. it is a humorous strategy employed to induce laughter through its strange and unexpected structure and sound. òrúbandú as a word is a fore-grounded element which calls dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 204 attention to itself. the expression is metaphoric and it denotes a very big and massive object competing with the neck. this is more or less like an albatross on the neck of the mariner. this is an apt use of situational humour to portray the pathetic and helpless state of man. goitre, in those days in yoruba land, where medical operation has not been discovered for it, is an emblem of body shame which must be endured and coped with. it is akin to the situation in the myth of sisyphus which indicates lack of escape from some life challenges. the use of situational humour is to emphasise fortitude as the means to cope with life problems. unlike metaphor described above, simile is used to illustrate issues by using direct comparison. adam (2015) describes simile, through relevance theory, as a poetic comparisons in which “like” in simile is used to encode the same thing in formally equivalent non-poetic comparisons. olatunji (1984:55), on the other hand, defines simile as an overt comparison in which an object being described is similar to another. simile helps in creating a vivid picture of what is being described. of all the strategies of humour identified in fálétí’s writings, simile is the most frequently used in most of his narrative poems, to praise, to ridicule, to emphasize and to illustrate important issues. examples of where simile is used for the procurement of humour are found in o̩jó̩ ìláyè̩fun where lààlà joins his friend s̩àngódòkun in licking yam flour in order to prevent s̩àngódòkun’s inlaw from knowing that their son-in-law has gone mad. through the use of simile, fálétí describes s̩àngódòkun vividly as he licks the flour thus: ibè̩ nìyá ìyàwó ti bá s̩àngódòkun tí ń j’èlùbó̩ èkùkù bí àgùtàn tí ń lá’nu mó̩rán bí ewúré̩ jewé ata (o̩jó̩ ìláyè̩fun ii 145-147) it was there that the mother-in-law found s̩àngódòkun as he was eating yam flour like a sheep, and smacking his lips as a goat eating pepper leaves. the use of simile in the excerpt above creates a vivid picture, especially, to those who have observed a goat eating favourite leaves. smile of this type utilises imagery to present cinematic report which accurately and colourfully illuminates s̩àngódòkun and his friend eating yam flour like a goat would eat pepper leaves. this is an example of gallows humour which applies to critical psychological and dire situations. it serves as a mechanism for coping with life in harsh settings so that negative feelings can be transformed into positive and resigned acceptance (maier 1989). the scenario described above is incongruous. it elicits an illogical, even psychotic, response to irresolvable dilemmas and offers an existentialist’s reason for being in an insane position. the implication of the scenario in the excerpt above is multi-dimensional: it is either reflecting heightened emotions or reducing sensitivity to circumstances. similarly, simile is also used as a strategy to excite laughter in wó̩n rò pé wèrè ni where o̩mó̩mo̩s̩é̩, a musician, is sighted, entertaining his fans on the stage, at o̩jà o̩ba: o̩mó̩mo̩s̩é̩ : e̩ farabalè̩ ègbè : a ti farabalè̩ té̩lè̩ tele kó o tó wí bígi-imú onídàrùké tií farabalè̩ f’óòrùn. o̩mó̩mo̩s̩é̩ : my people, i urge you to calm down chorus : we are already calm before you directed, just as the nose of the farm labourer surrenders itself to the sun here, simile is used to compare the manner with which the nose of the farm labourer surrenders itself to the sun and this use excites humour. this typical use of comparison is akin to ò̩yó̩ versifiers who utilise comparison and euphemism to caricature and throw tantrums. the use of gallows humour, in the excerpt above, is to portray the reality of the situation of the peasant farm labourer in his resigned attempts and toils to provide for the needs of his immediate family and the entire neighbourhood. wordplays and incongruity the use of wordplays and incongruity in fálétí’s writings are particularly noticeable in the way he devised word games, by manipulating the semantic implication of the written language. writers are often fond of pulling words apart and reconstructing them in a new way, arranging them into clever patterns, infusing hidden meanings inside them and trying to use them to create special meaning and effect. in giorgadze (2018), wordplay is described as features of languages use and is exploited to engender communicative significance by combination of two or more linguistic structures with more or less similar forms and more or less different meanings. meanwhile, the noticeable juxtaposition of lexical items with similar shapes is considered by olatunji (1984:37) as wordplay. the essence of co-occurrence of lexical items defined above is to produce effect of verbal dexterity. dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 205 practically, a play on words could spawn offense at times and to create humorous effect and, the users too could be seen as social nuisance. in bas̩ò̩run gáà, wordplay is utilised by a character called ‘ìyá ilé orí’ to cast aspersion on the embodiment of the yoruba name akínkúnmi in a ridiculous but humorous manner. her reason is to discourage àgbò̩nyín, her protégé, from getting married to akínkúnmi, a character in the play and a suitor to agbonyin, because of his poor background. ìyá ilé orí: dáké̩ kó o jé̩ n gbó̩rò̩, má jè̩é̩ kí n s’ìwí só̩rò̩ re̩ ta l’ajá tíí j’ákínkúnmi? bó o bá ń gbó̩ tí wó̩n p’akin bò̩ níwájú, bó o bá ń gbó̩ tí wó̩n p›akin bò̩ lé̩hìn à fi k’énìà ó wolè̩ lò̩rò̩ akin kó tó b’ákin s̩e. akínkúnmi lásán ò tó fè̩yìn tì à fi bá a gbó̩kànlé ‘rú àwo̩n akíndúrótini. bó o bá bímo̩ má so̩ ó̩ l’ákínwùnmí e̩ni tó so̩mo̩, l’ákínwùnmí, è̩bè̩ ló ń bè̩ akín-wù-wó̩n lásán ni, wo̩n kìí níwà akin e̩ni tó so̩mo̩ l’ákinlabí nwó̩n ń fe̩nu polongo akin lásán ni akíndélé ńwínkùn akínye̩lé̩ ń s̩àròyé nwó̩n ń so̩ p’áwo̩n ò kó̩’lé è̩ bá bèèrè pé kí l’akin wo̩n rí mú bò̩ látìta ènìà tó ń j’ákínye̩mí ó ń dára rè̩ nínú dùn ni e̩ni tó lówó lohun gbogbo ye̩ kín l’akin jé̩ b’ákin ò ló̩lá kín l’akin jé̩ bákin ò níyì akin tí ò ló̩lá, akin tí ò débìkan ni oun l’e̩ni tó bá gbó̩n fií so̩mo̩ lórúko̩ tó dára nwo̩n á so̩mo̩ l’ákíntó̩lá, akino̩lá, akínbò̩bó̩lá akin-mi-bò̩-bó̩lá o̩lá mi y’akin àbí kò yakin? o̩láyakin. iya ile ori: keep silent and let me have peace. do not allow me say negative words to you who is the dog bearing akínkúnmi? if you hear people calling akin at the front if you hear people calling akin at the back one has to be wary in dealing with akin average akínwùnmí is not reliable you need to rely on such persons like akíndúrotini. if you have a child, do not name him akínwùnmí naming a child akínkúnmi is wishful thinking and pleading. it is vain love for valour, but wanting in the substance of a man of valour whoever gives a child akinlabi is only publicizing valour akíndélé amounts to complaining akínye̩lé̩ is tantamount to grumbling and lamentation of lack of household ask, what profit has their valour brought for them? whoever bears akínyemí only wallows in self consolation whoever has money has answer to everything what is akin without wealth? what is akin without fame? we add valour to our wealth valour without wealth is useless that is why a wise person gives his child good names does my wealth accrue valour or not? o̩láyakin, wealth that has real valour added to it. here, fálétí played upon the name akin for creation of humour in the excerpt above. he lampooned the essence of the name akínkúnmi through the use of rhetorical questions. such statements as, ta l’ajá tíí j’ákínkúnmi? (who is the dog bearing akínkúnmi?), kín l’akin jé̩ b’ákin ò níyì? (what is akin without fame?) etc., are used to cast aspersion on the essence of bearing the name akínkúnmi. fálétí deftly interrogates the significance of the name akin in such a way that the hidden meanings of each of the names mentioned in the excerpt are clearly manifested. we are also made to believe that some akin names are more important and valuable than others. the essence of this wordplay is to ridicule and condemn akínkúnmi, who is in love with àgbò̩nyín. as a matter of fact, the question in ta l’ajá tó ń jé̩ akínkúnmi? confirmed the condemnation of the character called akínkúmi. he is ridiculed and portrayed as a worthless person. this is a type of humour in which happenings are unconsciously presented in an illogical manner to task the brain of the listener. although, akín is a name that conveys valour, but what is the use of valour without wealth? in the situation described in the excerpt above, the character of the akinkunmi in question is synonymous with poverty because his valour does not go with “wealth”. the use of juxtaposition of different meanings of the names of those personalities whose “valour” (akin) goes with “wealth” and who should be considered as the real akin brings out humour in illogicality which further accentuates the intention of the author. scenes or cinematography scenes or cinematography is another strategy of humour in fálétí’s writing. olatunji (1982:64) observes that this technique is used to portray dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 206 vividness and clarity of events in the minds of the readers. fálétí admits that he utilises this technique to accentuate the yoruba narrative tradition where events are not merely talked about but the readers are made to see them happening. to achieve humorous effect, fálétí created scenes with clear visual and auditory effect spiced with abundant use of dialogue. the essence of this is to enable the reader to participate through processing of mental picture of all that is happening before him. this cinematographic effect is helped mostly by the way language is used to present the images to us as well as make some events humorous and scenically memorable. the use of the technique enables the readers to see and hear the events in writings as they happened. for instance, fálétí utilises cinematography to unfold the array of musical instrument and performers engaged to entertain in the event that took place in àkàndé’s house: alágbe ńké, oní rárà ńsò̩ àwo̩n oní-dùndún pàá pàá kò dáké̩ aro ńdún kíkan kíkan nwó̩n ńlu s̩è̩kè̩rè̩ bíi má-lù-mó̩ nwó̩n tún ńko̩rin t’ó lárinrin (ìgbéyàwó kan ní ìletò wa, ii 114-118) minstrels were intoning eulogy, troubadour were busy chanting heroic deeds dùndún drums sound unabated gongs resound noisily the s̩è̩kè̩rè̩ calabash rattles ceaselessly. melodious songs rend the air. the excerpt above brings to our mind the ensemble of the various performers and the arrays of fitting instruments on display. their activities appeal to the sense of hearing and also exert euphonic effect on the mind generally. althoug the excerpt above may not be humorous but it provides the background for the exposition of akande’s goitre in the excerpt below in a humorously manner. l’àkàndé bá pòyì ràn-ìn, ló wó̩n’s̩o̩ ló̩rùn bóróbó ni ó ta pe̩re̩ bó̩ s’ínú agbo b’ákàndé bá na o̩rùn síwájú, a tún na o̩rùn s’é̩hìn. bó bá rin àrìnjó títí a yo̩’rí síwájú, a yo̩’rí sé̩hìn, bí ògòǹgò baba e̩ye̩ b’ípàkó̩ ti ńfi dùgbè̩ lé̩yìn òrúbandú tí ḿbe̩ ló̩rùn a sì yo̩ síwájú bo̩bo̩bo̩ (ìgbéyàwó kan ní ìletò wa ii.179-188) then àkàndé gyrated, pranced around and remove the cloth smartly from his neck. as he swaggered into the dance floor àkàndé shot his neck forward and backwards, after gyrating in dancing gait, he would shoot his head forth and back like an ostrich as his occiput dangled backwards, the bulge round his neck shot menacingly forward. the excerpt above is an example of an isolated scene that fálétí presents vividly to us through visual and auditory imagery. the above italicized words such as wó̩n’s̩o̩ ló̩rùn bóróbó (smartly removed the cloth from his neck), ta pe̩e̩re̩ (swaggered into), ńfì dùgbè̩ lé̩yìn (dangling massively at the back), síwájú bo̩bo̩bo̩ (shot menacingly forward) are “idiophones” and words like òrúbandú (bulge round his neck), bí ògòǹgò baba e̩ye̩ (like an ostrich the king of birds) are descriptive metaphor and simile respectively. the descriptive words enact humour in the excerpt and also enable the readers to forge a mental picture of the happenings. the essence of this humour is to create atmosphere of intensity of action, immediacy of scenery and memory processing to bring about desired communication. the use of imagery by fálétí induces participatory relationship between the reader and the characters in his story and, this elicits laughter, humour and entertainment. for example, faleti vividly described the morbid reaction of adédigba, alágbára-ilé after he witnessed an extraordinary incidence in the house of one of his rural dwelling friends in the excerpt below: b’álágbára-ilé ti tún rí kàyééfì yìí ó s̩e bí e̩ni fé̩ tò̩ l’é̩hìnkùnlé ó yára gbé̩s̩in rè̩ kó̩rùn ó ń sálo̩ bé̩è̩ ni kò dè̩’rìn, ó ní ‘’alágbára-oko ju alágbára-ilé lo̩. (alágbára-ilé àti alágbára-oko ii) as alágbára-ilé stumble upon this terror he devised as if he wanted to urinate at the back of the house he quickly placed his horse across his neck he took to his heel and quickened his pace he remarked that ‘’alágbára-oko” is superior to “alágbára-ilé. it is so amusing that a man who regards himself as the most powerful around the neighbourhood should run from the presence of another man. here, the phrases that signal humour are ‘sálo̩ bé̩è̩ ni kò dè̩hìn’ (took to his heel and quicken his pace). the use of the yoruba second person pronoun ‘o’ with the various verbs like ‘s̩e’ (did), ‘yára’ (quick) and ‘ń sálo̩’ (was running away) together with the simile ‘bí e̩ni fé̩ tò̩ lé̩hìnkùlé’ (as if he wanted dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 207 in wó̩n rò pé wèrè ni, by adebayo faleti, idiomatic expression is employed as strategy for humour especially, in the conversation between àrè̩mú and bàbá rámó̩ on how they are going to give maximum support to o̩mó̩mo̩s̩é̩: àrè̩mú : bàbá rámó̩, pa wó̩n tì, jé̩ kí wó̩n máa lérí kiri bàbá rámó̩ : o ò gbó̩ nǹkan! “pa wó̩n tì,” n kò pa wó̩n tì ohun tí ó mú wo̩n máa rí ènìyàn fín náà nù-un. èmi ti so̩ f’ó̩mó̩mo̩s̩é̩, ló̩tunla, gbogbo ìlù tí ó bá mò̩ ó̩n lù yóò lù ú l’ó̩jà o̩ba. bí e̩nìkan bá sì gbágbèéré, n ó jé̩ kí olúwarè̩, mu gaàrí fún os̩ù mé̩ta. aremu : bàbá rámó̩, don’t be mindful of them, let them boast around. baba ramo : hear that! ‘’forget about them?’’ i cannot forget about them, this allows them to show disrespect to people. i had told omomose, that come next tomorrow, he must display all temerity at oja-oba if anyone misbehaves, i will ensure that such felon drinks gàrí for three months. in the excerpt above, bàbá-rámó̩ expressed himself in emphatic manner to indicate an unalloyed support in such way that it ignited humour. the expression ‘mu gàrí fún os̩ù mé̩ta’ (drink gàrí for three months) has two meanings. (1) it means to be starved for three months and (2), to sleep in detention for three months. such expressions are naturally humorous and can only be deciphered through proper interpretation of idiomatic expressions. finally, utilizing the theory of incongruity, the analysis of humour in adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí’s writings established that there are several sources of humour in the text and they all play significant roles in underscoring the concerns of the text, particularly entertainment, checkmating human excesses and chastising societal ills. it is shown that humour is reflected through labelling, puns, irony of situations, comparisons and satire, etc. use of these means above brings about many instances of humour that have both congruent and incongruent rudiments. attaching the above to several instances of the text brings about humour which succeeded in eliciting quiet laughter, self-discovery and entertainment in a reader. to urinate at the back of the house), bring to the fore self-discovery and the precautions taken by alágbára-ilé to escape a looming waterloo. this is the type of humour where self-discovery during the time of trouble or oppression brings about selfawareness in the limitation of human power and placing too much of hope in physical acquisition which are mostly ephemeral. the kind of laughter that it elicits emphasizes the hopelessness of being vainglorious and wallowing in transient ways of life. the use of imagery in the excerpt above enables the readers to glean all the actions being performed. idiomatic expressions apart from all the strategies of humour earlier discussed, fálétí also procures humour through the use of idiomatic expression. for example, in o̩mo̩ olókùn e̩s̩in, fálétí humorously present àjàyí’s lamentation over the foolishness of his people through idiomatic expression: bá a bá gbó̩n ni, à bá gba ara wa kalè̩ a kúkú pò̩ ju òkò lo̩ ní ìló̩po-ìló̩po s̩ùgbó̩n o̩gbó̩n wé̩ré̩ wé̩ré̩ ará òkò pò̩ o̩gbó̩n wé̩wé̩ náà ni wó̩n fi ń kó wa sìn àwa gò̩ ní tiwa. bí a ti pò̩ tó bé̩è̩ la gò̩ t’á a lè mú ò̩gè̩dè̩ nínú o̩s̩ó̩. e̩nu ni a fi ń ho̩ra if we had been wise, we would have liberated ourselves. after all, we outnumbered òkò people beyond count. but òkò people are too shrewd and diplomatic. they employ subtlety to perpetually enslave us. despite our strength of population we are yet foolish. we can attempt to take banana from the trap we scratch our body with our own mouth. here, humour is reflected through the use of idiomatic expressions in italics above. the imprint of humour here is ignited by sheer self admission of stupidity and the use of plural pronoun “we” which shows collective stupidity àwa gò̩ ní tiwa (we are foolish) and the poetic expression bí a ti pò̩ tó… gò̩ tó. (despite our strength of population we are yet foolish).this sense of collective stupidity is also reflected in the song below; gò̩ǹgòs̩ú, èdìdàré̩ bó o s̩e gbó̩n tó náà lo o gò̩ tó nincompoop, zombie your foolishness surpassed your wisdom dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 208 iv. conclusion this paper has been able to discuss in detail humour strategies in adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí’s writings. it has also established that humour exists in every part of human endeavour to douse tension. this is because, among the living things, only human beings laugh. it has also been emphasized that humour excites laughter but not every humour leads to laughter. it is established that, for humour to be effectively and positively appreciated, it must be sufficiently and properly situated in its social context. consequently, it can be said that faleti has succeeded in using humour to entertain, checkmate human excesses and chastise societal ills in his society. utilizing the theory of incongruity this writeup’s analysis of humour in adebayo faleti’s writings establishes that there are several sources of humour in the text and they all play significant roles in underscoring the concerns of the text; checkmating human excesses and chastisement of societal ills. the interplay of several instances of humour in the text succeeded in eliciting the desired smirk, chuckle, or quiet laughter in a reader, although, beneath the laughter is the concealed meanings with serious socio-political misdemeanours and angst. it should be noted that humour is not a literary genre but the framework on which other literary genres and sub-literary genres like comedy, satire, tragic-comedy, farce and burlesque are knitted to achieve peaceful cohabitation and phatic communion. it can be deduced from the foregoing that through the strategies of humour, adébáyo ̣̀ àkàndé fálétí has been able to teach us various methods of coping with serious and tense situations. references adam, g. 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(2018). linguistic feature of pun, its typology and classification. european scientific journal, vol.2. pp:1857-7881. iverson, k.r. (2013). humour and mark: performance and the use of laughter in the second gospel. cambridge, university press. marina, b.a. vadim, p. (2021). the semiology of humour: developing the “counter-sign” model. european journal of humour research, vol.9, no.2, 7-25 mulder, m.p. & nijholt, a. (2022). humour research: state of the art, project on humour in humancomputer instruction. university of twente, netherlands. o̩látúnjí, o.o (1984). features of yorùbá oral poetry. ibadan, university press ltd. olátúnjí, o.o (1982). adebayo fálétí: a study of his poems. ibadan, heinman educational books nig. ltd. dayo akanmu / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 209 polimeni, j. & reiss, j.p. (2006). the first joke: exploring the evolutionary origins of humor. evolutionary psychology, 4: 347-366. raskin, v. (1985). semantic mechanisms of humour. dordrecht: reidal. scheel, t. (2017). humour at work in teams, leadership, negotiations, learning and health, flensburg, euro-university at (pp:9-29). veatch, t. (1998). a theory of humour. international journal of humor, 11 (2): 161215. waters, m. (1984). the comic irishman. albany state university of new york press ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 123 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 9, 2024 final revision: june 21, 2024 accepted: june 23, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 the problem is that although the culture and language are blended, the linguistic elements sometimes roughly demonstrate cultural dimensions in translated products. in other words, a cultural translation usually demands an understanding of linguistic i.e. culturally bound terms and expressions as well as extra-linguistic elements including cultural ones. since literature is a nation’s cultural resource, the issue becomes even more complicated when literary translation is being involved. to our knowledge, there is no original panchatantra left in india and all we have today are translations in different languages. to this end, the persian version has always been considered the source text since the book was first translated into persian in 550 ce. therefore, the english translation of the story crow and snake is selected from panchatantra as the target text and investigated employing bassnett and lefevere’s (1992) cultural theory with a focus on interpretive discourse analysis (da) as analytical frameworks. the persian text is the translation of monshi, reprinted in 2010 and the english translation was done by ryder in 1925. the findings reveal that the relationship between language and culture still remains complicated, and yet the lack of cultural understanding among the translators leads to violation and distortion of the intended messages and meanings embedded in source texts. it is quite safe then to say that the lack of cultural knowledge highly influences the translation keywords culture, language, translation, panchatantra, discourse analysis correspondence e-mail: amirdabbaghian@um.edu.my article cultural perspectives in english translation: the story of crow and snake from panchatantra ahmad ayar afshord1, amin amirdabbaghian2 1department of translation studies, nişantaşi university, istanbul, turkiye 2department of english language, faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.123-130.2024 i. introduction the panchatantra, due to the unique characteristics of fiction and education, has a great reputation, not only in the literature of greater persia but in the history of world literature. ryder (1925) claims that these stories are among the most widely known in the world. in the same vein, amitav ghosh (1994) maintains that panchatantra is reckoned by some to be second only to the bible in the extent of its global diffusion. despite the wide celebrity of the work, it is obvious that any culture treats the work based on its cultural characteristics, and the translator in one way or another violates the message to make it fit and be understandable for the receiving culture. thus, translation could be regarded as a tool for the recreation or rewriting of literature based on cultural norms. translation became a bridge between cultures and as dyson (2009) believes that with a world of no translation, there will be only a mono-cultural world in which human beings would probably have no understanding of his heritage, or the ancient or modern. most of the prior literature has primarily focused on examining the underlying ideology, with a particular emphasis on the political discourse involved in translations to and from persian. this examination has been carried out through various theoretical approaches. notable studies in this domain include those by jamshidian and mohammadi (2012), amirdabbaghian and shunmugam (2019), pirhayati (2019), amirdabbaghian and shangeetha (2020) and naghmeh-abbaspour and amini (2022). they have primarily used different theoretical frameworks to explore these aspects. in the context of analyzing ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 124 persian translations, the prevalent approach has been critical discourse analysis. researchers such as heidari moghadam and kolahi (2015), azadsarv et al. (2017), and akbari beiraq and niku (2021) have adopted this method in their studies. what sets the current study apart from the existing literature is its distinctive analytical framework. unlike the predominant use of critical discourse analysis in previous research, this study relies on discourse analysis. this distinction makes the present research a unique and valuable contribution to the field of persian translation studies. wilhelm von humboldt was the first to link language and culture, viewing language as dynamic and integral to cultural identity. according to brown (2006), language and culture are inseparable; each reflects the other. sapir (1956) echoes this, asserting that communication, whether explicit or implicit, underpins all cultural patterns and behaviors. language, therefore, reflects societal values and actions, revealing ideological, social, and political stances. zhang (2013) likens language and culture to living organisms, with language as the flesh and culture as the blood—neither can exist without the other. similarly, hongwei (1996) describes language as the lifeblood of culture, essential for its formation and development. nida (1998) sees language and culture as intertwined symbolic systems, each shaping the other. larson (1984) notes that language mirrors cultural aspects, influencing its vocabulary. wardhaugh (2002) contends that analyzing language without culture is impossible, emphasizing that translation involves cultural de-coding, re-coding, and encoding. the socio-cultural role of translation has evolved, impacting cultural perceptions and worldviews through its integration into the literary polysystem. nida (1998) notes that while some cultural aspects are universal—such as basic human experiences like eating, sleeping, and feeling emotions—language directs speakers’ attention to different aspects of the world, causing them to think differently. therefore, translation involves finding appropriate ways of thinking in another language, not just seeking meanings. larson (1984) emphasizes that one language cannot fully express the meanings of another; rather, meanings must be captured and expressed uniquely in the target language. different societies interpret messages based on their cultural values, highlighting translation’s role in linking universal cultures. halliday and hasan (1985) stress the importance of understanding both the context of the situation and culture for adequate translation, as translating without cultural understanding is futile. thriveni (2002) argues that capturing and reflecting cultural meanings in translation requires a deep understanding of both source and target cultures. translators must balance capturing local color with being understood by an external audience. the transmission of cultural elements through translation is complex, demanding thorough knowledge of linguistic and cultural elements. pym (2006) describes the sociocultural approaches in translation studies as varied and multifaceted. thriveni (2002) adds that culture, encompassing history, social structures, religion, and daily customs, influences language use and understanding. a linguistic theory of translation must, therefore, incorporate cultural aspects to ensure effective communication and understanding. james (2002) mentions that the cultural implications for translation may take several forms varying from lexical content and syntax to ideologies and ways of life in each culture. in this regard, in the indian and persian cultures, the plural form of lexeme addressing someone could be regarded as respect to the person which singular cannot be substituted because there is a cultural value behind this structure. in this regard, translators need to understand the attitudes and values of one culture to understand the source text and transfer those beliefs, attitudes, and values. adegbija (2004, p.50) also stresses that the speaker must employ politeness strategies when the addressee is elder, or his/her social status or culture is high. regarding social relationships, in thriveni’s (2002) opinion, most indians used to live with their extended families. for this reason, there are different words in all indian languages to refer to each relation. there are words to address a wife’s mother or father, a wife’s sister or brother, a husband’s sister or brother, a mother’s sister, or brother, and so on. it can be said that customs, traditions, religious elements, myths, and legends are part of a culture, and these issues vary from culture to culture. for instance, the meaning that different colors imply varies between cultures. white represents purity and black signifies evil in the indian context, but it probably is different in other cultures. “the literary language reflects the heritage and the traditions of the society which appears through using referential ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 125 words, personification, and symbolism to give the same emotional atmosphere and the same mental picture to reader” (anani, 1997). cultures vary significantly in their use of culture-specific words, expressions, idioms, and other lexical and grammatical categories. a skilled translator must recognize and accurately translate these into the target language, finding proper cultural equivalents. baker and malmkjær (1998) define equivalence as the relationship between a source text (st) and a target text (tt) that allows the tt to be recognized as a translation of the st. cultural equivalence involves appropriately using cultural components to help readers clearly understand the intent. modern translation focuses not just on equivalence and faithfulness but on recreating the closest concept with a similar effect. newmark (1988) believes a translator should respect cultural achievements and consider both the context and the readership’s cultural and linguistic levels. baker (2011) outlines equivalence at various levels, noting that cultural equivalence enables readers to recognize familiar and appealing concepts with similar impacts. zakhir (2009) explains that cultural equivalence aims to reproduce the st’s cultural features in the tt, encompassing geography, climate, history, tradition, religion, and social behavior. cultural equivalence is easier when cultural terms are universally known. it involves interpreting sl cultural features into tl in a way that helps readers understand foreign cultures through their own cultural lens. presupposition in translation is also crucial, as cultural elements may vary across contexts. understanding and translating these culturally bound elements, along with cultural presuppositions, is essential for providing the tt reader with a comprehensive understanding. ii. methods discourse analysis (da) is an analytical framework designed to study text and talk within communicative contexts. it encompasses various analyses of discourse informed by linguistic theory and terminology, often synonymous with text analysis. da focuses on coherence, cohesion, and rules for speech acts, examining linguistic relations and structures within discourse (cambridge online english dictionary, 2023). early da, known as linguistic analysis or text analytic approach, emphasized the internal structure of texts, including linguistic devices that unify parts into wholes and principles of grammatical cohesion and semantics (fitch & sanders, 2005, p.253). texts are now viewed as processes and products interpreted within specific social contexts, not merely systems of signs existing outside social reality. halliday’s tristrata model, foundational for various da models, analyzes texts through three inseparable elements: language use, communication, and interaction (van dijk, 1997, p.5) or description, interpretation, and explanation of social and cultural contexts (fairclough, 1999, p.180). discourse analysts emphasize interpretative work, recognizing that communication involves more than just message transfer from sender to receiver (chilton & schaffner, 2002, p.9). modern da, a trans-disciplinary approach, incorporates both linguistic (micro-level) and social (macro-level) analyses. it views discourses as communicative events involving language use, belief communication, and social interaction (van dijk, 1997, p.3). modern da spans a range of related but contrasting types of work, often seen as a methodology or critique allied to social constructionism or social power dynamics (fitch & sanders, 2005, p.254). beyond linguistics and semiotics, da is central to the humanities and social sciences. its roots lie in linguistics, linguistic philosophy, social anthropology, and theoretical sociology, with differing methods across disciplines. linguists focus on text and textual structures, while others emphasize conversational analysis or functional analysis. social scientists and political analysts use da to examine language patterns in society, relating to social structures, events, power relations, and ideological critique, a branch known as critical discourse analysis (cda). research approaches the research approach applied to this study is interpretive which is based on data selection, content analyzing, observation, and discourse analysis (da). the paper emphasizes is on the role of cultural factors and implications in translation, believing that different translators have different interpretations of the same text based on their cultural backgrounds. therefore, the present paper is descriptive and interpretive based on concrete evidence and does not intend to evaluate the correctness or accuracy of translated text but to how different cultural filters deal with the cultural words in the st. ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 126 theoretical framework the cultural turn has altered the focus of translation scholars from totally linguistic to function. so, culture has significance in translation due to it has brought various perspectives into the field. it is worth noting that different cultures impose their cultural views (domesticize) the st as much as possible to make the original fit the receiving culture in a proper way. regarding the issue, the cultures most probably produce different work in terms of message and meaning. therefore, to understand the cultural implications and how to convey them in translation, the present study employed bassnett and lefevere’s (1992) cultural theory in which they believe that language expresses culture and translators are supposed to be bi-cultural to understand not only the languages but social knowledge between which they operate. culture then is not a word, sentence, or text but an operational unit of translation (bassnett & lefevere, 1992, p.11). presuppositions in translation are vast and complex, primarily because cultural implications manifest differently across languages through unique lexical and grammatical systems. these cultural words are deeply rooted in the source language (sl) and its cultural values, posing significant challenges in finding appropriate cultural equivalents in the target language (tl). cultural differences extend beyond mere words, terms, and expressions; they encompass the broader cultural background knowledge inherent in the sl. translators often lack this cultural background knowledge in both the sl and tl. one way to access this knowledge is through the presuppositions and assumptions embedded in the source text (st), which influence the perception of the st and the structure of the tl. pott (2013) defines presuppositions as the information a speaker assumes to make their utterance meaningful in the current context. fawcett (2014) categorizes presuppositions into linguistic and non-linguistic, with the latter related to contextual and cultural aspects. fawcett (2014) notes that both types of presuppositions, revealed through various triggers, are numerous in our speech and writing. baker (2011) describes presupposition as a pragmatic inference linked to the linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge the sender assumes the receiver possesses. for instance, the sentence “bill’s wife is beautiful” presupposes that bill is married. chen (2008) emphasizes that cultural presupposition is the cultural knowledge of the st that the translator assumes the target reader possesses. the translator conveys this cultural presupposition to the target audience, affecting their understanding. fawcett (2014) highlights the challenge translators face if they do not share the presupposed knowledge, necessitating research to acquire it. translators must also estimate the extent to which the target audience shares these presuppositions. el-gamal (2001) notes that the accuracy of a translation relies heavily on capturing not only the propositional meaning of the sl text but also its thematic meaning. ignoring the distribution of presupposed, given, or new information can lead to a loss of meaning and inconsistency with the sl author’s intentions. procedure since the original version (sanskrit) of panchatantra is lost and not available (according to the leading scholars) and claiming that any translation has a different function in a different culture or within the same culture in a different time era, the current study presents the persian version of panchatantra as the source text and the english translation of it as the target text. the corpus used in this study are from the persian panchatantra translated by monshi, reprinted in 2010 and the english panchatantra translated by ryder in 1925. the story crow and snake found in panchatantra is selected as data in this research. the unit of translation for analysis is considered at discourse level. one sentence of the persian is compared with a sentence in the english version of the same story. firstly, the persian sentence analyzed and discussed at the discourse level which focuses specifically on the cultural message; second, the english version analyzed to observe how the english translator conveyed this message and meaning in his cultural milieu. iii. results and discussions findings in this section, the samples are analyzed and interpreted based on the textual structure to understand the function of the translation in the context it is translated for. the study challenged to clarify the reasons why these translations apply unnecessary cultural elements to the final version which leads to the creation of new work and the invisibility of the translator. moreover, ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 127 the sociocultural context in which the texts and the discursive practices are taking place were carefully analyzed. in other words, the function of translation in a larger and broader context such as eastern and western cultural context were explored in this section. sample 1. persian: gloss translation: …“it is said that a magpie had a house on top of a tree in the mountain”. english: “in a certain region grew a great banyan tree. in it lived a crow and his wife.” sample 1 discussion: in the persian sample, there is no clue or hint for any specific culture i.e., there are no cultural elements. the term “...اند ,’means ‘it is told ”آورده in the beginning, shows that the story is retold not created and the origin of it is unclear. there is one participant, and the gender of the crow is not clear, and it is not clear on which type of tree the crow had a nest. the sentence does not signify any cultural context and its simple written form discloses that it is written for children. in the english sample, there is a cultural word ‘banyan’ which refers specifically to the ‘indian banyan’, the national tree of india which made a story sound indian. the story began as if it was written by an author. there are two participants such as crow and his wife which signifies a family. sample 2. persian: gloss translation: “whenever the crow brought out (gave birth to) a baby, snake ate (it)”. english: “but a black snake crawled through the hollow trunk and ate their chicks as fast as they were born, even before baptism.” sample 2 discussion: the persian sentence is very simple with no cultural words. english sample allocated the color black to the snake. furthermore, the term baptism used by the translator reveals a religious cultural view. baptism is the one sacrament that all christians have in common. in the catholic church, infants are baptized to welcome them into the catholic faith. the english translator implicated a pattern of the relationship in western families by the term ‘my dear’ in the dialogue between crows. sample 3. persian: gloss translation: the jackal said: “i tell you something.” english: “my friend,” said the jackal, “i have thought the matter through.” sample 3 discussion: the persian sentence is metaphorical but no metaphor in english translation. the politeness, in the persian translation, strategy is preserved in the sentence “من تو را وجهی نمايم” that means ‘i tell you something’ as it is a very formal language that is used to show the positions of the participants whether they are the main or the subordinated character. there are three participants: a jackal, a crow, and a snake whose genders have not been clearly mentioned. the interaction of the participants is monolog. the crow is the addressee and subordinate and the jackal acts as an advicegiver who suggests a solution and teaches a trick to crow to fight with the snake. the crow based on mythology is a symbol of health, wealth, and prophecy in western culture. jackal is a symbol of cunning and trick that is considered as the protagonist in all iranian folktales. the jackal and the crow have different social stances i.e., there is an unequal power relation between them. the third pronoun singular “i” refers to the jackal that implies authority in this context. sample 4. persian: gloss translation: the jackal said: “i suggest that you fly high in the air and look at the rooftops and deserts until you see a large piece of ornament that can be stolen, land and take it.” english: jackal answered: “go to some spot frequented by a great monarch. there seize a golden chain or a necklace from ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 128 some wealthy man who guards it carelessly. deposit this in such a place that when it is recovered, the snake may be killed.” sample 4 discussion: in this sample, the persian story normalizes the rubbery as a social action inspiring that the rubbery is not blameworthy if one is in danger and rubbery is a means to save himself and his family’s life and in difficulties and hard times could be used as a weapon against an enemy. but it is not addressing certain people to steal from. in the english story, there is a noticeable point that the translator explicitly emphasized, and it is the issue of monarchy and power. the text implicitly discloses the caste system in such societies saying that gold and worthy materials could only be found in the palace of monarchs. sample 5. persian: gloss translation: “the crow went towards the settlement and saw a woman who put aside an ornament on a rooftop and busy cleaning; [the crow] stole it and as said [the crow] dropped it on the snake. the people who were chasing the crow, smashed the snake’s head and the crow escaped again.” english: “… the wife came upon a certain pond…she saw the women of a king’s court playing in the water, and on the bank, they had laid golden chains, pearl necklaces, garments, and gems. one chain of gold the crow-hen seized…the chamberlains…picked up clubs and ran in pursuit… the crow-hen dropped the golden chain in the snake’s hole…when the king’s men… found a hole and killed him with their clubs…” sample 5 discussion: the persian version is very general. the translator has not mentioned the details of what kind of “پیرايه” (women’s decorative) the crow steals. the cultural term “طهارت” means “cleanliness” but the term signifies a sort of religious duty practiced by muslims. in the english translation, there are a few issues emphasized by the translator which reveal the cultural pattern of the west. the first one is the translator’s concerns the social class and power relations mentioning that the king and his family are the owners of the wealth of territory as it is obvious in the sentence “the crow-hen comes to the palace and see the women of king’s court are playing...”. the second issue is that the story implies that only the king and his people could kill people as in the sentence …the king’s men…killed him. the other issue is the significant female and her braveness and scarification in society. due to the issue, the translator added a female participant “crow-hen” to the story and the gender of the crow is clear. the translator added one participant (crow-hen) to the story to excessively magnify the role of the female in the western family. even this magnification is clear in the title of the story. the other point is the role of a famine (mother) in the family and society which is bold and more explicitly relates to the issue of feminism. in the english translation, from the middle of the story, the male crow disappears; the crow-hen is suffering from the death of her children, and she only is looking for a solution. she puts herself into trouble by seizing the gold as in the sentences “crow-hen seized and started for the tree […] the crow-hen dropped the golden chain” which are obvious from repetitions of the term. discussion based on the findings and analyzed samples, it can be asserted that the process of translation encompasses two simultaneous activities: the transfer of language and the transposition of culture. additionally, it is evident that in addition to linguistic expertise, cultural knowledge plays a crucial role for translators working on literary texts. in other words, a successful translator must possess both bilingual and bicultural competence. this duality allows them to make informed decisions about the cultural elements within the source text (st) and how extensively these should be conveyed into the target language (tl). the ultimate goal of translators is to ensure that the st aligns with the cultural expectations and preferences of the tl audience. considering this, it becomes evident that both translators, when working on their individual interpretations of panchatantra, employed their cultural sensibilities as a guiding filter. they made deliberate choices to emphasize particular cultural elements while downplaying others. moreover, to enhance the text’s relevance and clarity for the audience in the target language, they incorporated cultural expressions. for instance, in the english version, they used the term ‘baptism,’ while in the ahmad ayar afshord / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 129 persian version, the term ‘بطهارت’ was employed. these choices aimed to ensure that the translated text resonated effectively with and was easily understood by the readers of the target language. it could be stated that the findings are all in line with the previous studies confirming that the lack of cultural and ideological knowledge of translators would influence the translated product negatively in terms of meaning and accuracy. in summary, accessing cultural background knowledge through presuppositions and assumptions embedded in the st is crucial for effective translation. this involves recognizing and accurately conveying the cultural implications of the sl in the tl. both linguistic and nonlinguistic presuppositions play a vital role in this process, and translators must navigate these to maintain the integrity and intent of the original text. understanding the presupposed cultural knowledge helps bridge the gap between different cultural contexts, ensuring that the translation resonates with the target audience while preserving the essence of the source material. iv. conclusion literature reflects a nation’s culture, ideology, values, customs, traditions, and identity and folktales potentially are a great part of the literature which is known as ‘folklore’. folktales demonstrate a general image of a nation that has been transferred beyond the boundaries by merchants, religious pilgrims, and immigrants. these tales communicate moral and social values, record historical events, and influence literature as well. on different occasions, folktales were told by people to others from different cultural backgrounds. in this transferring process, characters and places got new names and were changed into the familiar (domesticized). one of the worldwide famous ancient folktales is the panchatantra which is a collection of indian fables. the main purpose of this study was to explore and investigate the differences in english and persian translations of cultural and ideological nuances by employing interpretive discourse analysis with a focus on bassnett and lefevere’s (1992) cultural theory. 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(2013). the malleability of intellectual styles. new york: cambridge university press. desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 147 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 16, 2023 final revision: may 03, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 this paper will examine the meanings embedded in memes through semiotic analysis. semiotics, as proposed by chandler (2007), is the study of signs and symbols and their meanings, particularly in the context of communication and representation. internet memes are culturally significant artifacts that consist of visual and verbal signs which convey a shared experience or cultural reference within a community. the objective of this study is to explore the myth and ideology that is conveyed through the signs used in these memes, and to examine the message that is being communicated to the audience. the data were collected by using observation method which involves the selection of a sample of widely shared internet memes on social media platforms. this study used qualitative method in analyzing the data. these memes were analyzed using semiotic analysis to identify the signs used in the internet memes and their associated meanings. the findings suggest that memes are a form of communication that uses signifiers to convey a message, and the connotative meanings of these signifiers can reveal the myth and ideology behind the message. memes convey cultural values and beliefs and can challenge or reinforce dominant cultural ideologies. understanding them can shed light on cultural reproduction in society, with implications for media, cultural, and sociology studies in the digital age. keywords memes, semiotic, visual sign, verbal sign, myth, ideology correspondence e-mail: desakekapratiwi@unmas.ac.id article deconstructing internet memes through semiotic analysis: unveiling myths and ideologies in visual and verbal signs under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.9.2.147-157.2022 i. introduction in today’s world, the expansion of communication has led to the development of a vast area of symbolic media over the past few decades. the technologies created by postmodernism have become an integral part of our daily social interactions. however, despite these modern advances, the concept of communication remains rooted in the process of sending symbols that can be understood by the listener, as noted by ross (1983). this concept of sending symbols is also referred to as semiotics, which encompasses everything related to signs according to the book “a theory of semiotics”. in essence, a sign is something that represents something else, and eco (1979) often refers to this theory as the theory of deception, as signs can potentially mislead people. to overcome this potential for deception, semiotics can be expanded into a more specific theory branch or viewed from a different perspective, as proposed by numerous linguists who have explored this vast ocean of semiotics. ferdinand de saussure proposed one of the early foundations of semiotics. his research focused on the functioning of signs in society, as part of his theory of language, since semiotics largely draws from linguistic principles (saussure, 1983). saussure’s theory expanded until he introduced the idea of the signifier and signified, which originated from the concept of the sign. according desak putu eka pratiwi1, i komang sulatra2, i gede agus dewangga3 1-3universitas mahasaraswati denpasar, bali, indonesia desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 148 to saussure, it is impossible to have a completely meaningless signified that is completely formless, as signs require both a signifier and a signified. the sign is more than just a connection between names; it involves a concept or idea as the signified and a sound pattern as the signifier. within human communication, signs have two aspects that convey meaning: verbal and visual signs, each of which has a signifier and signified. particular discourse allows individuals to create meaning through indirect or implicit communication, often relying on shared cultural references and contextual knowledge to convey their message (blommaert, 2015). understanding how meaning can be interpreted is also crucial when it comes to signs. barthes (1964) extended saussure’s theory into connotation and denotation. with all these connections, semiotics can be described as a theoretical approach to the science of signs that explores how signs function, manifest, and are expressed in social interaction. signs can be easily recognized through various mediums, including words, images, sounds, gestures, objects, and even memes. the early definition of a meme was introduced in dawkins’ book, “the selfish gene.” dawkins (1976) defines a meme as a unit of cultural transmission, analogous to a gene, which can be spread from one person to another through imitation. he suggested that just as genes determine physical traits, memes determine cultural traits, such as beliefs, customs, and behaviors. however, the definition of the original dawkins’ meme and the current internet meme are slightly different. dawkins even acknowledged this fact and recognized that the concept of meme has undergone changes and taken on new meanings. the internet meme relies on human creativity and appropriates the original idea instead of evolving into something random. however, the essential elements of dawkins’ theory are still present in this new form, while mutations can still occur. this modern version of a meme is known as an internet meme. arthur (2009) argues that technology is not just a collection of tools and artifacts, but a complex and dynamic system that is shaped by human ingenuity, culture, and social organization. nowadays, internet memes have adapted and evolved into a digital medium, becoming an online communication genre representing modern culture. internet memes utilize digital alteration approaches such as adobe and meme generators to create images conveying shared societal norms and values (shifman, 2013). a text display meme is an internet meme that conveys a message or a joke through text displayed on an image or a colored background. the platform for finding internet memes is diverse, and one popular source is the social media platform instagram, where numerous accounts post daily internet memes. one of the most well-known instagram accounts for providing internet memes is 9gag, which has shared over thirty thousand memes and has gained over fifty-eight million followers as of the day of this study. this account has become popular due to its ability to reach a wide audience with its casual and easily digestible internet memes. 9gag’s memes align with the status quo, as they can be understood without understanding complex discourses. several previous studies are relevant to the current research. dewanto and cahyono (2021) conducted a semiotic analysis of historical memes used in eno bening’s tweet replies. their study provided insights into how historical memes are used in contemporary social media discourse and how they reflect broader cultural and political trends. similarly, murtaisah (2020) explored the use of semiotics in analyzing memes on the instagram account “@9gaggirly,” which is targeted towards a female audience. the study investigated the visual and linguistic elements of the memes and how they convey meaning and humor. the findings shed light on the use of memes in contemporary social media discourse targeted towards women and how they reflect broader cultural and gender trends. finally, putra and maharani (2017) focused on a semiotic analysis of four popular memes on the online platform memecenter. their study examined the visual and linguistic components of the memes and how they contribute to the creation and interpretation of meaning. these previous studies provide a valuable foundation for understanding the role of semiotics in analyzing memes and their significance in contemporary social media discourse. the current study aims to fill the research gap by exploring the myth and ideology conveyed through the signs and symbols used in internet memes. the semiotic analysis of the memes will help reveal the underlying message being desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 149 communicated to the audience. while previous studies have analyzed memes using semiotics, this study more specifically focuses on the use of myths and ideologies in creating memes. wiggins (2019) argues that memes are not just humorous or trivial cultural artifacts, but they are significant discursive tools that can convey complex social and political ideas and ideologies. by closely inspecting the selected memes, the researchers will identify patterns and relationships between text and images, and examine the cultural and social context in which the memes were created and shared. additionally, the researchers will examine the underlying beliefs, values, and attitudes reflected in the memes to better understand how memes function as a form of cultural and social commentary. the findings of this study will contribute to the field of cultural studies and media studies by providing a deeper understanding of how internet memes communicate complex social and political ideas through the use of myths and ideologies. this research also underscores the importance of semiotics in understanding how meaning is constructed and conveyed through signs and symbols. semiotics provides a framework for analyzing the layers of meaning embedded in memes and for exploring the social and cultural values they convey. this study provides a model for future research in the field of semiotics and contributes to our understanding of how signs and symbols are used in digital communication to convey meaning. ii. methods the primary objective of the research is to analyze text display memes, a popular type of internet meme that incorporates both images and texts. to gather data for the analysis, the researchers utilized six distinct data sources specifically chosen for the study, all of which were obtained from 9gag, an instagram account that features daily internet memes. the observation method was used to collect the data. the researchers visited the 9gag instagram account and carefully examined each meme in the instagram feed, selecting those that were relevant to the study and categorizing them based on whether they employed images, text, or both. to analyze the data, a qualitative research method was employed, with the semiotics theory by saussure and barthes serving as the foundation for analysis. semiotics is the study of symbols and signs and their meanings. the researchers used this theory to examine how the text display memes constructed meanings. the use of semiotics theory facilitated a deeper understanding of how text displays memes created meaning and their relevance to contemporary society. sliwa (2017) argued that qualitative research is a valuable tool for exploring complex and dynamic social phenomena. qualitative research methods allow researchers to gather in-depth, rich, and contextual data that can provide insights into the meanings and experiences of social actors. this is particularly relevant to the analysis of memes, as memes are cultural artifacts that are deeply embedded in social contexts and are subject to rapid evolution and transformation. iii. result and discussion before proceeding with further analysis of the results, it is important to keep in mind some key points that can help better understand the data sources. firstly, if any pronouns such as “i,” “you,” or “we” are present in the verbal cues within internet memes, it most likely reflects the perspective of the meme’s creator or anyone who can relate to those memes. in order to identify such individuals, a terminology should be developed to ensure that everyone is on the same page when it comes to perspective. therefore, these individuals should be referred to as the audience, since both the creator and anyone who can relate to the memes technically enjoys them by looking at them. if an individual cannot relate to internet memes, it implies that they are not a part of the intended audience. nevertheless, it is worth noting that there will always be a subset of individuals who can relate to the memes, irrespective of the audience size. this concept can be traced back to dawkins’ theory of memes (1976), which proposes that memes can propagate and adapt among a population of individuals who can identify with them. narula (2006) suggests that communication technologies have impacted the dissemination of cultural values and ideas across various societies and regions. memes, which employ visual and verbal cues, are a form of communication that transmit cultural ideas and values. memes often spread rapidly through social media, and their rate and scope of diffusion may have positive or negative consequences for the propagation of cultural values and ideas. in hindsight, dawkins acknowledged that internet memes have taken over the traditional desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 150 concept of memes as a form of cultural transmission through imitation within society. this implies that internet memes still embody the fundamental nature of memes, which is to represent what society thinks about a certain topic. therefore, as a form of representation, there are always groups of people being represented through internet memes. this phenomenon can also be observed in the source of data for this study, which is the 9gag instagram page. on the 9gag instagram page, the presence of an audience can be confirmed through various numerical indicators such as the number of likes and comments from netizens. therefore, it is true that there will always be at least one person who can relate to a certain internet meme. this validates the selection of internet memes for analysis in this study. the analysis of the selected memes can be seen as follows. absence of the sentence object. in order to address this issue, the visual signifier needs to be included in the table to complement the data and provide the missing information. the visual sign in the meme features a soda brand called fanta and a stick, but these two words have their own separate meanings and are not directly connected to the verbal sign. as a result, even after adding the visual sign to the table, the meaning of the meme remains unclear and appears to be a riddle for the audience to solve. to solve the riddle, one needs to combine the words “fanta” and “stick” to create the word “fantastick”. while the word itself is still somewhat confusing when spoken aloud, the vowels in the sounds provide a clue that leads to the discovery that “fantastick” is a pun for the word “fantastic.” this revelation exposes the true meaning behind the meme, which is “a reminder that you are fantastic”. the use of the fanta soda brand and stick as the visual signifiers is a deliberate attempt to create a riddle that requires the audience to decipher and combine the two words to reveal the pun. this represents the ideology of creativity and intelligence as it rewards those who are able to solve the riddle with a sense of satisfaction and amusement. the sentence “a reminder that you are fantastic” can be interpreted as a message of encouragement or affirmation directed at the audience. the use of the word “reminder” suggests that the message is intended to reinforce an existing belief or feeling, while the word “fantastic” conveys a sense of positivity or excellence. the sentence implies that the audience is already “fantastic” and that the meme serves as a reminder of that fact. this message could be seen as an attempt to promote self-confidence or self-esteem among the audience, or as a way to create a sense of shared identity or community among those who identify with the meme. in addition, based on the given sentences, the myth being conveyed by the meme could be the idea that drinking fanta can lead to feelings of selfworth or superiority, while the ideology could be related to consumerism and the belief that buying certain products can contribute to one’s sense of identity or social status. the use of the word “fantastic” also implies a certain level of positivity or optimism, which could be seen as reinforcing cultural norms around positivity and happiness. data 1: regarding the verbal component, the signifier is located at the top of the meme and consists of the text “a reminder that you are.” this verbal signifier conveys a statement from the creator of the internet meme to the audience, expressing a specific claim. however, the meaning behind this statement can only be fully comprehended by combining it with the visual signifier. despite identifying the verbal signifier, the verbal signified alone is insufficient to convey the complete message of the data. this is because the sentence on the verbal signifier, “a reminder that you are,” is grammatically incorrect due to the figure 1. a reminder (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 151 the verbal signifiers “my favorite hello” and “hardest goodbye” represent a certain statement. however, opinions on this statement may vary, with some people agreeing and others disagreeing. it is important to note that the word “my” in the verbal sign emphasizes that the internet meme represents a personal opinion from the creator, 9gag. the meme serves as a declaration of a claim or opinion that the audience may agree with. in this case, the opinion being declared is related to the concept of “favorite hello” and “hardest goodbye.” at this point, the interpretation of the data is still incomplete. if we only focus on the surfacelevel meaning of the verbal signifier and signified, the result of the analysis will be limited to the audience’s favorite hello and hardest goodbye. this example illustrates the danger of interpreting theory aspects as separate entities, focusing solely on finding the signifier, signified, and meanings of the verbal sign without exploring the visual sign. therefore, for a more comprehensive and coherent analysis, it is recommended to find the signifier and signified in both the visual and verbal signs and combine them into a conclusive interpretation. from there, the same analysis flow should be followed in finding both connotative and denotative meanings. after explaining the verbal signifier and signified, the question that arises is: what is the audience’s favorite hello and hardest goodbye? since this internet meme is incomplete like any other text-display meme format in the study, the interpretation of the visual sign should be added to fully understand the meme as a whole idea. fortunately, the visual sign for this data is simple. here, the visual sign only shows a picture of a bed as the visual signifier. the bed picture signifies the comfort zone of human beings, a place to restore energy by sleeping, which completes the audience’s claim of what they see as their favorite hello and hardest goodbye. the choice of a picture of a bed as the visual signifier makes logical sense because people nowadays are often very busy with work, school, or other activities, which can drain their energy. as a result, they often crave the comfort of their own bed to rest and recover. this is supported by the verbal signifier “my favorite hello”, which implies a sense of comfort and familiarity associated with returning home to one’s bed. on the other hand, it’s also relatable for people to hit snooze on their alarm clock and fall back asleep for another hour or two, which makes it difficult to leave the comfort of the bed. this is emphasized by the words “hardest goodbye”, as leaving the bed can be a challenge when it’s so comfortable. it’s interesting to see how a simple internet meme can reveal so much about human behavior and their daily life struggles. the interpretation provided by this study sheds light on how people value their comfort zone and how difficult it can be to leave it, even for daily tasks. it also shows the importance of combining both verbal and visual signs to fully understand the meaning behind a text-display meme format. the connotative meaning of this internet meme can be interpreted as the audience’s desire for comfort and rest, as well as their reluctance to leave their comfort zone. it can also suggest the idea that the daily routine and demands of life can be exhausting, and that people need a place of refuge to recharge and prepare for the next day. additionally, it can also imply the importance of self-care and taking the time to rest and restore one’s energy. overall, the connotative meaning of this internet meme is about the value of rest and comfort in the midst of a busy and demanding life. the myth and ideology presented in the above analysis of the verbal and visual signs is related to the concept of comfort and the importance of rest and recovery. the use of the bed as a visual signifier represents a place of comfort and relaxation that people often seek after a long day of work or other activities. this myth is based on the idea that people data 2: figure 2 my bed (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 152 the expected outcome of looking buff after doing five push-ups. however, the meme also implies this expectation may not always be realistic. in terms of connotative meaning, squidward is interpreted as the audience in the connotative meaning. the visualization of his smiling face and muscular arm represent the audience’s artificial expectation of getting buffed after doing push-ups. this interpretation emphasizes the unrealistic nature of the scenario and the importance of managing one’s expectations. this scenario is deemed artificial and can only be considered an expectation because it is not a realistic goal for an average person to achieve. building muscles requires a great deal of effort, consistency, and rigorous body maintenance through regular workout routines, not just simple push-ups. therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the statement in this internet meme comes from someone who is not accustomed to working out, which explains the unrealistic expectation. in summary, this data means that the audience expects to gain muscle after performing only a few push-ups. based on the analysis above, the myth that emerges is the idea that doing a small amount of exercise, such as five push-ups can instantly lead to a significant physical transformation such as gaining muscles. this is an unrealistic expectation that is perpetuated through internet memes and social media. the ideology behind this myth is the notion of instant gratification and the desire for a quick and effortless way to achieve physical fitness. this is a reflection of the larger cultural emphasis on instant gratification and the glorification of shortcuts or “hacks” in various aspects of life, including health and fitness. furthermore, the analysis also reveals the underlying cultural codes and conventions that shape the interpretation of the data. for example, the use of popular culture references such as spongebob squarepants and fanta reflects the influence of media and advertising on our everyday language and visual culture. additionally, the use of humor and irony in the internet memes reflects the cultural preference for wit and sarcasm as a way to express opinions and observations about social and cultural phenomena. these codes and conventions are ingrained in our cultural consciousness and shape the way we interpret and respond to various forms of media and communication. need a comfortable and safe space to retreat to in order to recharge their energy and be able to face the challenges of daily life. the ideology behind this myth is the importance of self-care and the recognition of the need for rest and recovery. the verbal signifier “my favorite hello” and “hardest goodbye” further reinforce this ideology by emphasizing the emotional attachment people have to their beds and the challenge of leaving them. this ideology promotes the idea that taking care of oneself, including getting enough sleep and rest, is crucial for mental and physical well-being. it also acknowledges the struggles people face in balancing the demands of daily life with the need for self-care. data 3: figure 3. expectation (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) the signifier in this case is the sentence “what i expect after doing 5 push-ups”. the word “i” signifies the audience, while “expect” implies that the scenario presented in the meme is not real and serves as a hypothetical scenario. “after doing 5 push-ups” clarifies that the scenario involves someone’s expectations of their appearance after performing five push-ups. the visual sign in this meme complements the verbal sign by clearly representing the expected outcome. it features squidward, a cartoon character from spongebob squarepants, smiling with his hand flexed to show off a muscle. the smile signified happiness, while the buffed arm signified strength. the combination of these two visual signifiers emphasizes the word “expected” in the verbal sign, indicating a sense of pride in achieving desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 153 socialize and communicate. this can be a helpful way to relieve stress and solve problems. however, sometimes people find that they are giving advice that applies to their problems. this internet meme serves as a reminder that this can happen and can be a motivating experience. the verbal sign of data 4 emphasizes this concept, while the visual sign of the cartoon character covering their mouth adds to the meaning by representing the audience’s shock at realizing their own advice is helpful for their own problems. together, the verbal and visual signs convey the idea that giving advice can sometimes result in surprising self-discovery. based on the theory of semiotics, the myth embedded in the above sentences is that giving advice is a common way for people to socialize and communicate and that it can help solve problems and relieve stress. the ideology embedded in the sentences is that self-discovery can be a motivating experience that can occur when advising others. the use of the internet meme in the sentences is significant as it reinforces the ideology of selfdiscovery. the verbal sign of data 4 emphasizes this concept by highlighting the idea that giving advice can lead to personal insight. the visual sign of the cartoon character covering their mouth further adds to the meaning by representing the audience’s shock at realizing their own advice is applicable to their own problems. this visual sign reinforces the idea that self-discovery can be surprising, and that it can occur when people are not expecting it. together, the verbal and visual signs in the sentences convey the idea that giving advice can sometimes result in surprising self-discovery, which reinforces the ideology of self-improvement through communication and socialization. this reinforces the myth that giving advice is a common and helpful way for people to interact with each other. the verbal sign in data 4 consists of the text “when you’re giving advice and feel advised by your own advice”. the use of the word “you” in the sign implies the creator’s perspective or bias towards the audience, who are assumed to react in a certain way to the situation described in the verbal sign. the word “when” in the sign indicates a hypothetical scenario related to the context of the data. combining these elements, the verbal sign conveys a scenario in which the creator has a particular perspective or bias towards the audience, based on the hypothetical situation of feeling advised by one’s own advice. it captures the what-if scenario that the creator is trying to convey and highlights the use of the word “you” as a signifier of the creator’s perspective or bias towards the audience. however, it’s important to note that the connotative meaning of the verbal sign is also significant in interpreting the overall message of the meme. the phrase “when you’re giving advice and feel advised by your own advice” carries a connotation of selfreflection and introspection. it suggests that the act of giving advice can also serve as a reminder to the giver to apply their own advice to their own life. this connotation is reinforced by the use of the word “feel” which implies a sense of emotional resonance or personal connection to the advice being given. to put it in simpler terms, the visual sign is a cartoon character with a covered mouth, which represents the audience’s shocked reaction when they hear their own advice given to someone else. the choice of this visual sign is based on the common reaction of people to cover their mouths when they are surprised or shocked. in society, giving advice is a common way for people to data 4: figure 4. realization (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) data 5: figure 5. sadness (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 154 the word “when” signifies that this is a hypothetical scenario, while the word “you” signifies the audience being addressed. the phrase “...eat because you are sad...” signifies a coping mechanism for dealing with sadness, while the phrase “...you are overweight but still sad” signifies a failing outcome and unmet expectations. overall, the signified meaning of the verbal sign in this meme is a cautionary tale about the potential negative consequences of using food as a coping mechanism for dealing with sadness. it suggests that the expected positive outcome of feeling better may not necessarily be achieved and that in fact, the outcome may be negative, leading to further sadness and disappointment. regarding the visual sign, it was previously explained that it only serves to amplify the effect of the verbal sign and adds to the meaning of the internet meme. figure 5 shows a visual signifier of a fat dog with a sad expression, as indicated by the downturned mouth. the dog symbolizes the audience who can relate to the statement of the internet meme. the sad expression emphasizes the audience’s inability to cope with their sadness. the visualization of the dog’s body as fat signifies the outcome of overeating to alleviate the feeling of sadness and hope for happiness, which is ultimately proven ineffective. based on semiotic theory, the myth conveyed in the analysis is that eating can be seen as a coping mechanism for dealing with sadness, but it can lead to negative outcomes such as weight gain and perpetuate feelings of sadness. the ideology embedded in the analysis is that people should be aware of their coping mechanisms and be mindful of the potential negative consequences that may arise. the use of a visual signifier such as the sad-looking fat dog in the meme emphasizes the emotional impact of this ideology on the audience. the meme serves to challenge the myth that eating is always an effective way to cope with sadness and reinforces the idea that individuals should seek healthier coping mechanisms. the message for the audience is that using food as a coping mechanism for sadness may not lead to the expected result and could potentially lead to negative outcomes such as weight gain and continued feelings of sadness. the internet meme serves as a humorous but cautionary reminder to the audience to be mindful of their coping mechanisms and to seek healthier ways of dealing with negative emotions. data 6: figure 6. weirdo (source: https://www.instagram.com/9gag/) the verbal sign in this example is similar to data 5, where the narrative is clear and the visual sign amplifies the exaggeration of the verbal message. the signifier in this case is the phrase “me staring at myself in the mirror every morning wondering why i look so weird.” the signified can be broken down into three parts: the words “me”, “myself”, and “i” represent the audience, while the rest of the phrase, “staring at the mirror every morning wondering why the audience looks so weird”, depicts a simulation of the audience’s daily routine and their subsequent self-perception. the visual signifier in this case is the picture of a panda, which represents the weird or unusual appearance that the audience sees when looking at themselves in the mirror. the panda can be seen as a metaphor for this feeling of not recognizing oneself and emphasizes the hyperbolic aspect of the verbal sign. together, the verbal and visual signs convey the idea that the audience may feel strange or uncomfortable with their appearance, even though they may not be objectively abnormal or different. to find the connotative meaning of this internet meme, we can analyze the visual sign of the odd-looking panda as a representation of the audience’s self-perception as weird-looking when they look at themselves in the mirror every morning. the use of a panda as the visual signifier may seem unusual, but upon closer observation, the panda in the image is not a normal-looking panda. it is missing the distinctive black circles around its eyes that pandas typically have, giving it an uncanny and unusual appearance. this alteration may suggest that the audience’s perception of their desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 155 appearance is distorted or altered, perhaps due to their own insecurities or societal pressures. the use of this altered image of a panda, therefore, connotes the idea of distorted self-perception and feeling of being odd or out of place. the myth presented in this analysis is that the audience may perceive themselves as having an odd or weird appearance when they look at themselves in the mirror every morning. the ideology that is conveyed through this myth is the societal pressure to conform to beauty standards and the resulting self-consciousness and anxiety that individuals may experience when they perceive themselves as not meeting these standards. the use of the panda in the visual sign adds to this myth by emphasizing the idea of an abnormal or unnatural appearance, which may be the result of societal expectations and pressures. additionally, the digital alteration of the panda’s image may also suggest the increasing prevalence of image manipulation and the unrealistic beauty standards perpetuated through social media and other digital platforms. overall, the meme conveys a message about the impact of societal beauty standards on individual self-image and the resulting anxiety and self-consciousness that individuals may experience. the message for the audience in this internet meme is to not take themselves too seriously when it comes to their appearance. the meme suggests that people may have a distorted view of their own appearance, and that what they perceive as weird or unusual may not actually be so. the use of a panda with an altered appearance emphasizes this point and adds a humorous element to the message. overall, the message is to not let insecurities about appearance take over one’s thoughts and emotions and to maintain a lighthearted perspective. iv. conclusion based on the semiotic analysis of the internet memes provided, it can be concluded that internet memes are not just humorous visual content, but also a product of a complex system of signs, codes, and symbols that convey meanings and messages to the audience. each element of an internet meme, including the verbal and visual signs, has its own signifiers and signified that contribute to the overall connotative meaning of the meme. through semiotic analysis, the researchers were able to identify the myths and ideologies that underlie the messages conveyed through memes. this study highlights the significance of memes as a form of cultural and social commentary, challenging or reinforcing dominant cultural values and ideologies. the implications of these findings are wideranging, with implications for media studies, cultural studies, and sociology. the implications of this study in the field of semiotics are also significant. the findings suggest that semiotic analysis can be a valuable tool for understanding how meaning is constructed in internet memes and how they function as a form of cultural and social commentary. furthermore, this study contributes to the ongoing debate within semiotics about the role of language and image in meaning-making. the analysis of the interplay between text and images in internet memes provides insight into the complex relationship between visual and verbal signifiers and their connotative meanings. this study also suggests that semiotics can be used to analyze non-traditional forms of communication, such as internet memes, and to reveal the underlying myth and ideology that shapes our understanding of the world. however, this study is not without limitations. the sample of memes analyzed was limited to those that were widely shared on social media platforms, which may not be representative of all memes. additionally, the study focused specifically on the use of myths and ideologies in creating memes, leaving other aspects of meme discourse unexplored. future research in this area should aim to address these limitations by analyzing a more diverse sample of memes and exploring other aspects of meme discourse. additionally, future studies could build on this research by examining how memes are received and interpreted by different audiences, and how they contribute to broader discourses on social and political issues. overall, this study has contributed to our understanding of how semiotics can be used to analyze internet memes and their role in digital communication. desak putu eka pratiwi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 156 references arthur, b (2009). the nature of technology: what it is and how it evolves. new york: free press. barthes, r. 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(1916). nature of the linguistic sign: course in general linguistics. new york: columbia university press. dewanto, f. b. b., & cahyono, s. p. (2021). semiotics analysis on historical memes in eno bening’s tweet replies. semarang: allure journal. eco, u. (1979). a theory of semiotics (vol. 217). bloomington: indiana university press. murtaisah, d. (2020). semiotics analysis of meme for woman at @9gaggirly instagram account. malang: universitas islam negeri maulana malik ibrahim. narula, u (2006). communication perspectives, cultural diffusion: dynamics and challenges. india: haranand publications pvt ltd. putra, i. k. a. m., & maharani, s. a. i. (2017). semiotic analysis of four popular “memes” in memecenter. denpasar: jurnal humanis, fakultas ilmu budaya universitas udayana. shifman, l. (2013). memes in digital culture. cambridge: mit press. sliwa, m. (2017). qualitative methodologies in organization studies: volume i: theories and new approaches. switzerland: springer. wiggins, b. e. (2019). the discursive power of memes in digital culture: ideology, semiotics, and intertextuality. new york: routledge. wiggins, b. e. (2019). memes as a complex form of communication. journal of information, communication & society, 22(9), 1265-1285. varis, p. (2017). internet memes as multimodal constructions: the discourse of the ‘hipster barista’. journal of sociolinguistics, 21(4), 488-510. ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 297 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer article indonesian women in kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi) (1988–2018): a lexicographic corpus ria febrina1, suhandano2, adi sutrisno3 1faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1,2,3faculty of humanities, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.297-313.2024 i. introduction the study of indonesian women is crucial due to the prevailing traditional patriarchal views toward them (sakina and a. 2017). this hierarchical perspective positions indonesian women as subordinate to men. social organizations often regard men as dominant authority figures, leading to the subordination and marginalization of women. these dynamics have resulted in significant issues for indonesian women, including psychological disorders (charles et al. 2023), violence (saraswati 2020), and even death (mulawardhana et al. 2021). the kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi) also physically exploits indonesian women through its definition of ‘a person (human) who has a vagina, can menstruate, become pregnant, give birth, and breastfeed’ (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa 2018). this definition reflects the notion that women are confined to the roles of pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding, despite their significant roles and contributions in various fields. moreover, compound words associated with perempuan in the portray indonesian women negatively, with terms such as perempuan geladak (deck woman), perempuan jahat (evil woman), perempuan jalan (street woman), perempuan jalang (prostitute), perempuan jangak (bold woman), perempuan lecah (unclean woman), and perempuan nakal (naughty woman). these definitions and compound words led women activists to challenge the definition of “perempuan” in the kbbi in 2018 (putri 2021). the activists sought a change in meaning, arguing that indonesian women have evolved positively over time. submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 18, 2024 final revision: september 04, 2024 accepted: september 12, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 indonesian women have undergone significant changes over time, as reflected in the vocabulary of the kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi). this study aims to describe the representation of indonesian women in the kbbi and to explain the development of their social and cultural lives over 30 years (1988–2018). the research employs a descriptive-qualitative approach by collecting data through the extraction of entries, definitions, compound words, and proverbs containing the terms “perempuan” (woman) and “wanita” (lady) from two printed editions of the kbbi: the first edition (1988) and the fifth edition (2018). data analysis was conducted using sketch engine to analyze 1,381,578 tokens, and the findings revealed 1,148 collocations and concordances related to the terms “perempuan” and “wanita.” the results indicate that the study of indonesian women within a linguistic corpus offers insights into their contributions over 30 years across various fields such as religion, military, economy, journalism, health, politics, arts and culture, and beauty. through corpus-lexicography studies, the portrayal of indonesian women in the dictionary has challenged patriarchal views that traditionally positioned women as inferior to men. this research highlights the importance of recognizing the representation of women in the social dynamics of indonesian society. it offers a significant contribution to the broader field of indonesia lexicography studies by examining how women are represented in dictionary entries. keywords women, indonesian, corpus, lexicography, kbbi correspondence e-mail: riafebrina@hum.unand.ac.id ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 298 several studies have demonstrated that indonesian women have played significant roles through education (asmorowati and schubert 2024), organizations (wieringa 1993), and professions (hendratmi et al. 2022; rizka 2020). these studies also highlight that indonesian women possess a distinct identity (adeney-risakotta 2016; kong 2014), a strong work ethic (el badriati et al. 2022), leadership capabilities (ernanda and sartika 2022), and vital roles in society (halim, johnson, and perova 2022). furthermore, women have initiated movements aimed at promoting justice and gender equality (chojimah and widodo 2022; halimatusa’diyah and triana 2024), empowerment (hermawati et al. 2023), and opportunities for spiritual development (mutmainnah and afiyanti 2019). these movements prompted the badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa (agency for language development and cultivation) to introduce new compound words with positive connotations for indonesian women in the kbbi, such as perempuan adat (traditional woman), perempuan besi (iron woman), perempuan idaman (ideal woman), perempuan karier (career woman), perempuan pekerja (working woman), perempuan suci (virtuous woman), and perempuan tangguh (resilient woman). the agency added these compound words through lexicographic methods and by utilizing the indonesian language corpus to ensure that these terms were included in the kbbi based on their reflection of societal realities. the addition of compound words with positive connotations for women in the kbbi does not yet fully capture the reality of indonesian women over time. the view of women is limited to the compound words listed under the entry for perempuan. however, the kbbi also contains proverbs, expressions, and meanings that reflect how indonesian women have been represented at different times and how they have experienced positive social and cultural development over the years. therefore, a study on the representation of indonesian women in the kbbi over 30 years (1988–2018) is necessary. the 30-year period was chosen based on the publication of printed editions of the kbbi, starting from 1988 (kbbi first edition) to 2018 (kbbi fifth edition). after 2018, the kbbi was no longer printed and has since been published online at kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id. the vocabulary in the online dictionary is updated periodically (in april and october), but users find it difficult to track these updates. thus, this study is limited to the printed editions of the dictionary, as the vocabulary in the printed kbbi can be traced year by year. in lexicographic studies, research on indonesian women remains relatively under explored. one notable study by (suharnanik and mahayani 2017) examined an online indonesian dictionary. while the online dictionary used as a data source in their research is believed to reference the kbbi, the study does not specify which edition of the kbbi was used or provide the website address. their findings indicate that women are defined as individuals who exhibit bad behavior in normative way. the results of (suharnanik and mahayani 2017) study serve as one of the reasons for conducting this research, as compound words related to women in the kbbi often carry negative connotations. however, their study does not highlight the semantic changes in the kbbi that reflect a more positive evolution in the portrayal of indonesian women. in addition, there is a study on indonesian women that utilizes the indonesiawac corpus available in sketch engine (yuliawati 2018). this research examined the usage of the gender terms perempuan and wanita to determine which term is preferred by the public and how these terms are used to discuss women. this study differs from the current research because perempuan and wanita are considered synonymous terms, and thus the two words are not differentiated when describing indonesian women. meanwhile, other studies examining the representation of women in dictionaries can be found in research that explores how women from other countries are portrayed, such as in spain, china, and germany (domínguez vázquez et al. 2023); england (arias-badia 2019; quigley 2021; shapiro 2018); brazil (oliveira 2022); portugal (pontes and santos 2014); and arab countries (ahmad lone 2023). these previous studies differ from this research because indonesian women exist within an eastern culture that differs from the cultures of other countries, although russell (2018) notes that women in almost all countries are traditionally viewed through a patriarchal lens. this study aims to fill this gap by examining how indonesian women are represented in the dictionary. it investigates whether indonesian ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 299 women are depicted similarly to women from other countries or if there are differences due to cultural variations between indonesian women and women from those countries. the kbbi records language usage, provides a social depiction of indonesian woman’s lives, and presents linguistic facts that do not always portray women as ideal figures. examining how indonesian women are depicted in dictionaries represents a novel approach in lexicographic studies. diderot and d’ alembert (2018) assert that dictionaries, as works of lexicography, should not merely discuss the meanings of words but also elucidate specific facts. while the term “lexicography” traditionally referred to the meaning of words in dictionaries, it has now expanded to encompass not only the writing about words but also the things and facts they refer to. buhr and klaus (1976) argue that this change is necessary because lexicography is a system of knowledge that evolves from the social practices of language use. vocabulary must reflect factual information and explain the contexts of language usage. this study conducts an analysis of indonesian women over time using lexicographic theory. lexicographic theory can be applied to the collection, processing, and representation of data (bothma, gouws, and prinsloo 2016). it involves three fundamental phases: (1) focusing on linguistic content, (2) focusing on dictionary structure, and (3) emphasizing lexicographic functions with a focus on users. this research aims to explore the userfocused functions of lexicography by utilizing the sketch engine corpus tool to identify concordances of the term perempuan in the kbbi. in addition to lexicographic theory, this study also employs semantic change theory. semantic change theory examines how new meanings are added to existing ones, leading to shifts in meaning over time. the process of semantic change involves three stages: (1) individual innovation; (2) dissemination of innovation through the speech community (conventional); and (3) the resulting state within the language system (jurafsky 1996; traugott and dasher 2001). this study aims to explain the changes in meaning of the term perempuan in the indonesian dictionary. meanings in dictionaries are examined historically to explain the social changes within specific communities (traugott and dasher 2001). social change is one of the most influential factors in language and language practices. in dictionaries, changes in meaning occur because certain lexical items are related to the social conditions prevailing in society. therefore, it is essential to study the meanings in dictionaries, as the social context of life is not always stable over time. the initial meanings recorded in dictionaries will evolve due to ongoing societal developments. changes in meaning can lead to the evolution of word meanings through processes such as broadening, narrowing, or polysemy. in this study, changes in meaning within the kbbi are analyzed using semantic change theory as proposed by ullmann (1959), focusing on the extension of meaning, narrowing of meaning, and polysemy (geeraerts 1997). the concepts and meanings of indonesian women in the kbbi have undergone changes including extension of meaning, narrowing of meaning, and polysemy. by analyzing these changes, this research contributes to understanding how indonesian women have been interpreted and represented over 30 years (1988–2018). the study aims to answer the research questions: 1) how are indonesian women represented in the kbbi and 2) how the social and cultural developments experienced by indonesian women evolved over the 30-year period (1988– 2018). ii. method this study employs a descriptive-qualitative research approach, considering the social and cultural context of indonesian society to explain the meanings of the term perempuan recorded in the dictionary. the research involves constructing an indonesian language corpus through manual data collection. data collection is carried out by extracting entries, definitions, compound words, proverbs, expressions, and example sentences containing the terms perempuan and wanita from two printed editions of the kbbi: the first edition (1988) and the fifth edition (2018). the corpus analysis is conducted using sketch engine, an online corpus tool offering features such as word lists, collocations, and concordances (kilgarriff et al. 2014). this study analyzes 1,381,578 tokens using the word lists for perempuan and wanita, resulting in 1,148 collocations and concordances for these terms. below is an example of a collocation for the term perempuan extracted from the kbbi fifth edition ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 300 corpus using the word sketch feature. the corpus analysis reveals 92 verbs preceded by perempuan as a nominal and pronominal subject, 9 endocentric coordinate phrases, 2 passive verbs with perempuan as the subject, and 1 benefactive noun. additionally, this study uses the concordance feature to examine compound words, proverbs, expressions, and definitions in the kbbi. the concordances of the terms perempuan and wanita are used to describe the roles and contributions of indonesian women recorded in the dictionary over 30 years (1988–2018). below is an example of a concordance for the term perempuan from the kbbi fifth edition. this study employs a lexicographic paradigm that views language as a sociocultural practice shaping the image of indonesian women. entries, definitions, and proverbs in the kbbi compiled into the corpus yield lists of words, collocations, and concordances for the terms perempuan and wanita. the analysis of this corpus categorizes the roles of indonesian women into specific domains, such as domestic and public spheres. additionally, the analysis is used to explain the status of indonesian women in terms of marriage, professions, religion, behavior, and proverbs associated with them. to examine the social and cultural developments experienced by indonesian women, this study adopts ullmann (1959) and geeraerts (1997) concepts of semantic change. changes in the meaning of the term perempuan reflect the evolving social status and roles of indonesian women over time. methodological steps in this research align with traugott and dasher (2001) categorization of semantic change, which involves (1) determining the categorization of meaning changes and (2) describing the context of usage. the study uses corpus features such as word lists, figure 1. collocations of the term perempuan in the kbbi figure 1. collocations of the term perempuan in the kbbi ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 301 collocations, and concordances to determine these categorizations and contexts. the analysis reveals that the image of indonesian women is related to their status, roles, and contributions in both domestic and public spheres. over the 30-year period (1988–2018), the definition of indonesian women in the kbbi has evolved in response to social changes within society. iii. results an analysis of the indonesian lexicographic corpus reveals various words, word combinations, and changes in meaning that characterize indonesian women in the kbbi. the vocabulary related to women in the kbbi reflects their status and roles. indonesian women are categorized based on their marital status as either unmarried or married. terms used to describe unmarried indonesian women include gadis (girl), anak dara (virgin), and perawan (virgin), all of which indicate ‘unmarried woman.’ conversely, terms used for married indonesian women are bini (wife) and istri (wife), both denoting ‘a woman who is married or has a husband.’ furthermore, indonesian women are constructed to have feminine roles as children, wives, and mothers (oktaviani 2024). in kbbi, these roles can be seen in the table 1. table 1. vocabularies about women in kbbi vocabularies meaning acik, embak, taci older sister istri ‘a married or married woman (female)’ bunda, ibu, mak, mama ‘female parent; a term for the woman who gave birth to us’ andung, embah, eyang, nenek ‘a term of endearment from grandchildren to their mother’s father’s parents’ the vocabulary presented in table 1 illustrates the roles of indonesian women within kinship units, specifically as children (older sisters), wives (married women), mothers (female parents), and grandmothers (maternal elders). while a woman is a child, her role includes that of an older sister. the terms acik, taci, and embak indicate that an indonesian woman is expected to protect her younger siblings or family members. this nurturing role is associated with household responsibilities, including cooking, washing, sweeping, caring for and feeding younger siblings, and assisting with maternal duties. as a woman matures and marries, she adopts the status of a wife. the responsibilities she had as an older sister extend into her role as a mother. the terms mak, ibu, and mama indicate that, as a mother, a woman is expected to breastfeed her children and oversee their growth and development. this role persists until she becomes a nenek, embah, or eyang (grandmother). the usage of vocabulary related to the status of women can be exemplified as follows. 1) sambil menangis, anak kecil itu memanggil-manggil maknya. crying, the little boy called out to his mother. the word mak used in datum 1 shows that a woman who acts as a mother controls a child’s growth and development. kbbi has recorded traces of a woman who is responsible for looking after and caring for her children. the role of a good woman in a family will also give a good response from family members, as reflected in the following data. 2) secara bergiliran anak-anak itu menunggui ibunya yang sakit keras. the children took turns waiting for their mother, who was very sick. datum 2 explains that a good mother’s role gets a good response from family members, especially her children. the data explains that in a kinship environment, indonesian women have a positive role. in the kbbi, indonesian women are described as having the duty and responsibility of giving birth to new generations. it is noted that a woman can give birth to four offspring. the four offspring are anak ‘second generation or first offspring’, cucu ‘third generation or second offspring; children of children’, cicit ‘fourth generation or third offspring; children of grandchildren’, and piut ‘fifth generation or fourth offspring or grandchildren of grandchildren’. the description of indonesian women who can give birth to four offspring can be seen in the following data. 3) dia seorang perempuan tua, punya kekayaan keturunan, ramai anak cucunya, cicit dan piut. she is an older woman with many descendants, many children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, and others. in addition to vocabulary, indonesian women are described through word combinations in kbbi. there are 17 combinations of the word perempuan and 31 combinations of the word wanita. the word combinations can be seen in table 2. ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 302 table 2 illustrates that the combination of perempuan and wanita in the kbbi describes various professions. seven professions associated with female terms pertain to immoral work, specifically prostitution. indonesian women are depicted as individuals engaged in sexual activities for money or other benefits, as evidenced by terms such as perempuan geladak, perempuan jalan, perempuan jalang, perempuan jangak, perempuan lecah, and perempuan nakal, all of which mean ‘prostitute.’ the inclusion of these terms reflects the prevalence of prostitution in indonesia. between 1988 and 2018, prostitution was widespread, and the government attempted to regulate it through designated prostitution complexes known as “localizations”. indonesian women who engage in prostitution are often under the age of 18. they enter this profession for two primary reasons: (1) coercion by their parents to generate income, and (2) deception by pimps from major cities who exploit young women from rural areas (gunawan 2006). those who are deceived are typically promised legitimate employment opportunities in urban areas; however, upon arrival, they are subjected to rape and subsequently coerced into prostitution. in contrast, eleven other word combinations for perempuan reflect diverse conditions. three of these combinations denote positive professions for indonesian women, such as perempuan pengusaha (women entrepreneurs), perempuan pekerja (women working in the public or productive sectors), and perempuan karier (career women). the remaining seven combinations highlight notable achievements of women: pahlawan perempuan (heroine), perempuan adat (traditional woman), perempuan besi (iron woman), perempuan idaman (ideal woman), perempuan suci (holy woman), and perempuan tangguh (tough woman). these terms illustrate that not all indonesian women face negative circumstances. many are recognized for their contributions and achievements, and awards given to indonesian women can be observed in the following indonesian corpus. 4) aries susanti rahayu, pahlawan perempuan pertama sepanjang sejarah di panjat tebing optimisme itu jelas layak dipertahankan sebagai modal menghadapi olimpiade 2024 prancis yang akan mempertandingkan empat nomor, yakni lead, speed, boulder, dan kombinasi. aries susanti rahayu, the first female hero in history in rock climbing optimism, is worth maintaining as capital to face the 2024 french olympics, which will compete in four numbers: lead, speed, bouldering, and combination. datum 4 explains that aries susanti rahayu is one of the indonesian women who has contributed to the sports field. she was awarded a female hero because she made indonesia proud internationally. among the 31-word combinations for wanita, only two pertain to immoral professions: wanita tunasusila and wanita jalang. the remaining 29 combinations illustrate that indonesian women have attained education that enables them to excel in reputable professions, such as polisi wanita (policewomen), wanita angkatan udara (air force women), wartawan wanita (female journalists), direktur wanita (female directors), guru wanita (female teachers), and atlet wanita (female athletes). initially, these roles were predominantly occupied by men, as reflected in the first edition of the kbbi, which listed professions such as polisi (police), wartawan (journalists), direktur (directors), guru (teachers), dosen (lecturers), dokter (doctors), jaksa (prosecutors), pengacara (lawyers), and atlet (athletes). the inclusion of women in these professions has led to the development of specific terms to denote female practitioners in these fields. in kbbi edition v (2018), several professions that belong to indonesian women are recorded. however, examples of language use related to these table 2. combined words of perempuan and wanita in kbbi perempuan wanita perempuan geladak ‘bitches’, perempuan jahat ‘bad women’, perempuan jalang ‘bitches’, perempuan jangak ‘bitches’, perempuan lecah ‘bitches’, perempuan nakal ‘naughty women’, perempuan pengusaha ‘businesswomen’, perempuan pekerja ‘working women’, pahlawan perempuan ‘heroines’, perempuan adat ‘traditional women’, perempuan besi ‘iron women’, perempuan idaman ‘ideal women’, perempuan karier ‘career women’, perempuan pekerja ‘working women’, perempuan suci ‘holy women’, dan perempuan tangguh ‘tough women’ wanita angkatan udara ‘air force woman’, wartawan wanita ‘journalist woman’, sarjana wanita ‘scholar woman’, pemeran wanita ‘actress woman’, wanita penari balet ‘ballet dancer woman’, biduan wanita ‘courtesan woman’, wanita tuna susila ‘prostitute woman’, guru wanita ‘teacher woman’, wanita pemangkas dan penata rambut ‘barber and hairdresser woman’, karyawan wanita ‘employee woman’, seniman wanita ‘artist woman’, penyanyi wanita ‘singer woman’, atlet wanita ‘athlete woman’, wanita pemanah ‘archer woman’, wanita penerima tamu ‘reception woman’ ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 303 professions are not found in the kbbi. the use of these vocabularies can be seen in the following indonesian corpus. 5) kapten lulu lugiyati (lahir di kuningan, jawa barat, 25 november 1941; umur 78 tahun) adalah seorang penerbang perempuan wanita angkatan udara pertama di tni angkatan udara. captain lulu lugiyati (born in kuningan, west java, november 25, 1941; aged 78) is the first female air force aviator in the indonesian air force. datum 5 explains that the work of an indonesian woman in the air force began with captain lulu lugiyati. this woman born in west java was recorded as the first woman to become a wara (air force woman). the traditional patriarchal perspective on indonesian women (sakina and a. 2017) positions women primarily within the domestic sphere, while men are assigned to the public sector. however, this study argues that the social and cultural transformations in indonesia have challenged and rejected this traditional view. contemporary society now offers women opportunities to participate in both domestic and public spaces. this research highlights the evolving role of indonesian women in the public domain over the past 30 years (1988— 2018), illustrated as follows. table 3. the role of indonesian women domain vocabulary religion biarawati, biksuni, endang, mubaligah, qariah, rubiah, suster military force polwan, wara economy direktris, karyawati journalism wartawati health bidan, dukun beranak arts and culture aktris, balerina, biduanita, seniwati, sinden, waranggana politics aktivis cosmetology kapster table 3 represents that in the public sphere, indonesian women have roles in the domains of religion, military forces, economics, journalism, health, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetology. the roles of indonesia women in various domain the role of indonesian women in these domains can be seen as follows. 1) religion in the kbbi, several terms suggest that indonesian women play significant roles in the realm of religion. indonesia officially recognizes six religions: islam, christianity, catholicism, hinduism, buddhism, and confucianism. women of each faith contribute to the development and practice of their respective religions. this is reflected in the vocabulary, including terms such as biarawati, biksuni, endang, mubaligah, qariah, rubiah, and sisters. the contributions of indonesian women in the religious sphere are detailed in the following table. table 4. the role of indonesian women in the religious domain vocabulary meaning domain biksuni ‘female buddhist monk’ buddhism biarawati ‘an a woman who lives in a monastery’ catholicism suster ‘women who are members of a spiritual society living in a convent’ christianity mubaligah ‘a person (woman) who broadcasts the teachings of islam; juru dakwah (woman)’ islam qariah ‘a reader of the quran (woman)’ islam rubiah ‘a female teacher who teaches quran recitation’ islam the table demonstrates that islam, christianity, hinduism, and buddhism offer opportunities for women to engage in religious exploration and serve their communities through religious activities. in islam, women contribute by spreading the faith as preachers, quran reciters, and teachers. while the kbbi does not provide specific examples of woman’s roles in this field, evidence from the indonesian corpus highlights their contributions, as shown below. 6) setelah melakukan seleksi selama 29 hari, nusantara mengaji memilih 12 qari dan qariah terbaik dari seluruh tanah air. after 29 days of selection, nusantara mengaji selected 12 of the best reciters from across the country. the word qariah in datum 6 shows that in islam, the role of women in islam has been prepared. in this case, indonesian women are prepared to become qur’an readers. in christianity, women participate in religious activities as suster, while in catholicism, they serve as biarawati. both suster and biarawati are ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 304 dedicated to serving god, while also contributing to society by managing schools and hospitals, engaging in humanitarian work, and providing emotional and spiritual support to those in need. according to the kbbi, suster refers to ‘women who are members of a spiritual order living in a convent’, and biarawati refers to ‘women living in a convent’. the usage of these terms is exemplified in the following excerpt from the indonesian corpus. 7) para suster harus meneladani cara hidup yesus yang miskin. the sisters must imitate jesus’ poor way of life. the word suster in datum 7 indicates that indonesian women who become a sister should perpetuate themselves in the religious field as their savior, jesus. in buddhism, women involved in religious activities are referred to as biksuni or ‘female buddhist monks’. however, the roles of women in hinduism and confucianism are not yet represented in the kbbi, indicating a need for further development of vocabulary in these religious contexts. despite this, the kbbi has documented the contributions of indonesian women across various religious traditions. the available terms illustrate that indonesian women actively choose religion as a means of self-empowerment and identity formation. 2) military force all of the professions undertaken by indonesian women have existed since 1988, with the exception of polwan (policewoman) and wara (air force woman), which were only introduced in the 2018 edition of the kbbi (edition v). this indicates that indonesian women are continuously advancing their education and skills across various fields, including roles in the military. their efforts have earned them recognition as policewomen and air force personnel. the contributions of indonesian women in the military are illustrated in the following examples from the indonesian corpus. 8) satnarkoba polresta bogor kota menerjunkan polwan guna mengantisipasi tren baru yang tengah marak, yaitu mabuk dengan meminum air rebusan pembalut. the narcotics unit of the bogor city police deployed policewomen to anticipate a new trend that is currently rife, namely, getting drunk by drinking boiled sanitary napkin water. datum 8 shows that indonesian women who work as policewomen are assigned to solve criminal behaviour committed by indonesian women. the presence of policewomen is considered the best mediator in overcoming problems experienced by women. 3) economy kbbi reflects the role of indonesian women in the economic field. the three professions are direktris, karyawati, and bakul. three professions are described as performed by indonesian women. table 5. the role of indonesian women in the economic domain vocabulary meaning direktris ‘woman director’ karyawati ‘female employee; female clerk; female worker’ bakul ‘a small trader in the market (usually a woman)’ table 5 illustrates that indonesia’s economic contributions can be observed through various professions that drive economic activity, including bakul (a small market trader), karyawati (a female employee in a company who earns a wage or salary), and direktis (a woman who leads and manages a company’s operations). each of these roles plays a crucial part in generating profits for both the individuals and their respective companies. the roles of women in the economic sector are further detailed in the following examples from the indonesian corpus. 9) karyawati bank menata uang dollar dan rupiah di kantor cabang pt bank mandiri tbk. di jakarta, rabu (22/4/2020). bank employees arrange dollar and rupiah bills at pt bank mandiri tbk’s branch office in jakarta on wednesday (22/4/2020). in datum 9, it appears that employees at pt bank mandiri tbk. take part in the wheels of the indonesian economy. indonesian women can manage the finances of people, companies, and countries. their involvement in banking shows that they have skills in finance after taking special education in finance. 4) journalism the public greatly values the contributions of indonesian women in journalism, where they often face significant risks in their pursuit of public justice. notable figures include rohanna ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 305 koeddoes, indonesia’s first female journalist and founder of the pioneering women’s newspaper soenting melajoe, and ani idrus, the founder and organizational advisor of the indonesian journalists association (pwi). the impact of these women has inspired many indonesian women to pursue careers as wartawati or female journalists. 10) beberapa wartawati indonesia seperti rosianna silalahi, sukses mewawancara presiden amerika serikat, george walker bush. some indonesian journalists, such as rosianna silalahi, successfully interviewed the president of the united states, george walker bush. datum 10 shows that indonesian women continue striving to be part of indonesian and world journalism. rosianna silalahi’s work shows that she successfully interviewed the president of the united states, george walker bush. this result shows that indonesian women can work in international journalism. 5) health in the health sector, the professions practised by indonesian women are becoming bidan ‘midwives’ (modern) and dukun beranak ‘traditional birth attendants’ (traditional). women specifically own this profession because they know in detail the anatomy of the body and also the process that a woman goes through in giving birth. the issue of childbirth becomes the full responsibility of women who undergo this profession. women’s profession as midwives can be seen in the following indonesian corpus. 11) telectg, bidan dapat memantau kesahatan ibu dan janin, bahkan di lokasi terpencil sekalipun. telectg, midwives can monitor the health of the mother and fetus, even in remote locations. datum 11 shows that technology helps women’s role in the health sector. one example is telectg, a portable-based ctg tool used to monitor fetal heart rate and uterine contractions. the presence of telectg also shows that indonesian women continue to learn to improve their abilities in the health sector. historically, women in this profession served as traditional birth attendants or shamans, assisting with childbirth without formal education. however, advancements in education have enabled them to acquire the necessary skills and credentials to provide expert and legally sanctioned assistance during childbirth. this study corroborates previous research by (armatussolikha et al. 2024; octavius et al. 2023)., which highlights the ongoing need for skilled and professional medical personnel to address labor-related issues experienced by indonesian women. 6) politics indonesian women also contribute significantly to politics, serving as activists or members of organizations dedicated to advancing the rights and welfare of their constituents. their efforts are aimed at securing justice and improving conditions for women and other groups. this role is represented in the kbbi, which defines activists as individuals, particularly those involved in political, social, labor, agricultural, youth, student, and women’s organizations, who actively work to promote and implement various initiatives within their organizations. the role of women activists has been shown in previous research, such as women’s empowerment (hermawati et al. 2023), organization (wieringa 1993), women’s leadership (ernanda and sartika 2022); and gender justice and equality (chojimah and widodo 2022; halimatusa’diyah and triana 2024). kbbi records the work of these women activists and shows that one of the women’s roles is as an activist. however, kbbi does not specifically show women’s role in a sentence. the role of indonesian women as activists can be seen in the following indonesian corpus. 12) sejumlah aktivis perempuan melakukan aksi tolak kekerasan terhadap perempuan pada hari bebas kendaraan bermotor (hbkb) di kawasan bundaran hi, jakarta pusat, minggu (1/12/2019). several women activists take action against violence against women on the motor vehicle free day (hbkb) at the hi roundabout area, central jakarta, sunday (1/12/2019). datum 12 shows that indonesian women activists show their seriousness in dealing with issues related to violence against women. the role of women as activists is expected to reduce crimes against women, such as violence and sexual harassment. the role of women activists has been shown in previous research, such as psychology (charles et al. 2023); violence (saraswati 2020); and death (mulawardhana et al. 2021). this result is done so that indonesian women get legal protection from the perpetrators of such violence. ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 306 7) arts and culture indonesian women play many roles in the arts and culture. according to the kbbi, indonesian women undertake six professions in the arts and culture. the six professions can be seen as follows. table 6. the role of indonesian women in the arts and culture domain vocabulary meaning aktris ‘an a woman who plays the role of an actor in the performance of a drama story. on stage, radio, television, or film’ balerina ‘a female ballerina’ biduanita ‘female singer’ seniwati ‘an a woman skilled in creating art; a female artist’ sinden ‘a female singer in gamelan music or in wayang (golek, kulit) performances’ waranggana ‘a female singer in gamelan or puppetry; pesinden’ table 6 highlights the significant contributions of indonesian women to the development of arts and culture. indonesian women have enriched music through roles such as biduanita (female singer), sinden (traditional javanese singer), and waranggana (traditional singer). they have also made their mark in painting as artists and in performing arts as aktris (actresses) and balerina (ballerinas). indonesia’s rich cultural heritage is deeply intertwined with the active participation of women in these fields. examples of women’s roles in cultural arts can be observed in the following corpus. 13) popularitas sinden pada masa-masa itu sangat tinggi sehingga mengalahkan popularitas dalang wayang golek itu sendiri, terutama ketika zamannya upit sarimanah dan titim patimah sekitar tahun 1960-an. the popularity of sinden in those days was so high that it beat the popularity of the puppeteers of wayang golek itself, especially during the days of upit sarimanah and titim patimah around the 1960s. 8) makeup beauty plays a crucial role in the lives of indonesian women. by kbbi edition i (1988), women in this profession were already recognized as kapster, a term for those who specialized in haircutting, styling, and hair care. while the term kapster is still used, these professionals are now commonly referred to as cosmetologists. this evolution in terminology reflects the continued presence and importance of women in the field of beauty. although the term “kapster” is no longer widely used, it remains part of the indonesian lexicon. this is evident in the indonesian language corpus, as illustrated in data (5). in this context, the kapster identified is a muslim woman who dresses modestly and wears a hijab. over the past 30 years (1988–2018), indonesian women have significantly contributed to both domestic and public spheres. in the domestic realm, their roles are reflected in kinship positions such as daughters, wives, mothers, and grandmothers. in the public sphere, indonesian woman’s contributions span various domains, including religion, military service, economics, journalism, healthcare, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetology. in these eight areas, it is evident that not all professions undertaken by indonesian women are primarily income-driven. some roles serve additional purposes, such as religious activities performed by mubaligah (preachers), qariah (reciters of the quran), and rubiah (female quranic scholars) in promoting islamic teachings, as well as biarawati (nuns) and suster (sisters) in disseminating christian teachings. similarly, political interests are evident among aktivis perempuan (women activists), wartawati (female journalists), and artis (artists), who use their platforms to advocate for women’s rights through writing and artistic expression. the profession is gradually enhancing the image of indonesian women and countering the negative stereotypes that have been prevalent in the kbbi. this study identified 17 terms that portray indonesian women in a negative light, including cabo, comblang, dalalah, gendak, gerempang, hostess, kebayan, lanji, loki, loktong, lonte, moder, munci, muncikari, nyamikan, pelacur, and sundal. these terms reflect economic conditions of the past, where many indonesian women, coming from impoverished backgrounds with limited education, resorted to such professions for survival. the high prevalence of women in these roles has led to the development of a considerable amount of derogatory vocabulary to describe them, which is reflected in the kbbi. however, this study shows that over 30 years, there have been good changes for indonesian women. indonesian women have had education so that they have developed themselves in various domains of life, such as becoming polwan wara, ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 307 direktris, karyawati, aktris, balerina, biduanita, seniwati, sinden, waranggana, bidan, kapster, and wartawati. they have played a role in various domains, such as religion, military forces, economics, journalism, health, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetology. semantic change of professions of indonesian wimen in the kbbi, the meanings of professions undertaken by indonesian women have evolved over time. over the past 30 years (1988–2018), shifts in societal norms and conditions have led to changes in these meanings. the analysis reveals three types of semantic change associated with indonesian women’s professions: expansion, narrowing, and polysemy. 1) widening of meaning education has changed the standards attached to a woman’s profession. these results can be seen in the meaning of the word bidan ‘midwife’. at first, a midwife was described as a woman who graduated from a special school and learned how to help and care for people who gave birth and their babies. in its development, the meaning of this word has expanded. a woman is said to be a midwife if she has completed midwifery studies and undergone a certification exam. this results is illustrated as follows. table 7. changes in the meaning of the word bidan ‘midwife’ past meaning ‘a woman who graduated from a school specializing in learning how to help and care for people giving birth and their babies’ current meaning ‘a woman with the skill to help and care for people giving birth and their babies’ previously, any woman who completed midwifery training could become a midwife, providing assistance and care for women during childbirth. however, with advancements in professional education and increased government regulation, the role of the midwife has become more formalized. this is reflected in the issuance of regulation number 28 of 2017 by the minister of health of the republic of indonesia. this regulation mandates that women wishing to establish a midwifery practice must obtain a license and adhere to specific practice standards (novianty 2017). this regulation introduced a new concept of midwifery to the indonesian public. becoming a midwife now requires not only completing midwifery school but also obtaining professional education and legal certification. this change in meaning is reflected in the kbbi, where a woman can only be considered a midwife if she possesses professional certification and a valid license to practice. these qualifications are crucial, as not all graduates from midwifery programs secure these credentials. similarly, the professions of comblang and makcomblang, which involve mediating relationships between men and women, have evolved. originally, these roles were exclusively undertaken by indonesian women. however, shifts in social dynamics have led to both women and men engaging in this work. this transformation in the roles and responsibilities associated with comblang and makcomblang is evident in the following examples. table 8. changes in the meaning of the words comblang and makcomblang vocabulary past meaning current meaning comblang ‘a woman who connects men and women in matchmaking or romance; muncikari; pinang muda; jaruman’ ‘a person who connects men and women in an rranged marriage or romance; pimp; jaruman’ makcomblang ‘woman matchmaker, an intermediary between prospective husband and wife’ ‘matchmaker: an intermediary who connects or brings together prospective husbands and wives’ the table shows that there has been an expansion of meaning in the comblang and makcomblang professions. the change in meaning of the words comblang and makcomblang occurred because of the emergence of the role of men in this profession. this change has caused indonesian women to leave this profession slowly. in the construction of indonesian society, comblang and makcomblang could be a bad profession. indonesian women are considered to violate social values when approaching a man. this value is illustrated in the sayings about women in the kbbi as follows. ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 308 table 9. proverbs about indonesian women proverbs meaning enau mencari (memanjat) sigai ‘women looking for a man’ lesung mencari alu ‘women looking for a man’ rumput mencari kuda ‘women seeking men’ telaga mencari timba ‘women looking for a man’ ulam mencari sambal ‘women who seek men’ these five proverbs reflect negative perceptions of women. one such proverb is enau mencari sigai, which translates to ‘women looking for men’. in this context, sigai refers to a ‘peg or bar’ used for climbing, and enau denotes a ‘palm tree’ that provides various benefits, such as sago from its umbut (heart), fibers for roofing, and nira (sap) used to make sugar or palm wine. the proverb draws a comparison between women and the palm tree, implying that while a good woman, like the useful palm tree, is valued and sought after, women who behave otherwise are derogatorily compared to enau mencari sigai. this proverb suggests that it is deemed inappropriate for women to actively seek out men. thus, the professions of comblang and makcomblang were initially viewed negatively in indonesian society due to the perception that they required women to approach men. over time, as women pursued higher education and left these roles, the profession evolved to be predominantly occupied by men. in addition to bidan ‘midwife’, comblang ‘matchmaker’, and makcomblang ‘matchmaker’, another profession that has also experienced widespread changes in meaning in kbbi is kapster. kapster is a term used for women who are haircutters, stylists, and hair nurses. this profession was once popular in indonesia. however, in its development, the word kapster has yet to be recognized by the public. in kbbi edition i (1988), kapster is a profession that indonesian women undertake in styling clients’ hair. in kbbi edition v (2018), it is explained that men also play a role in this cosmetology. this meaning can be seen in the dictionary definition, which explains that a kapster is ‘someone who is skilled in trimming and styling hair.’ they can be a woman or a man. in the kbbi, there are no examples of the use of the words bidan, comblang, makcomblang, and kapster, so we cannot see how these professions have been interpreted differently over time. one such usage can be seen in the following indonesian corpus. 14) tentu saja kapster salon seratus persen perempuan muslimah, berpakaian sopan dan berjilbab. of course, the salon kapster is one hundred percent muslim women, dressed modestly and wearing hijab. 15) dibutuhkan kapster pria berpengalaman, lokasi di jl kaliurang jogjakarta. an experienced male kapster is needed, location on jl kaliurang jogjakarta. the use of the word kapster in both sentences shows that the profession of a kapster today can be practiced by both women and men. the owner of the hair care service emphasizes in the sentence whether the worker is a female kapster or a male kapster. this situation differs from the original meaning kapster as a profession carried out exclusively by indonesian women. 2) narrowing of meaning in the kbbi, a job undertaken by indonesian women has narrowed its meaning, namely sinden. the word’s meaning has narrowed because people’s interest in the art and this profession has decreased over time. we can see this in the following definition changes in the kbbi. table 10. changes in the meaning of the word sinden vocabulary past meaning current meaning sinden ‘female singer in gamelan art’ ‘a female singer in gamelan music or in wayang (golek, kulit) performances’ in the past, indonesian women known as sinden performed with javanese gamelan instruments. over time, however, the role of sinden has become more specialized, focusing primarily on singing during wayang performances, including both wayang golek (puppet shows) and wayang kulit (shadow puppets). this shift is attributed to a decline in interest among women pursuing careers as sinden and a decrease in public interest in javanese gamelan music. as a result, the “sinden” profession has become increasingly associated with wayang performances. this change in meaning reflects a narrowing of the term’s scope, as now it predominantly refers to singers in wayang shows, rather than performers of javanese gamelan music more broadly. in the kbbi, the use of the word sinden is not found. the phrase sinden is used in the following indonesian corpus. ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 309 16) kami sangat sering mendengar lagu-lagunya dibawakan oleh penyanyi atau sinden pada berbagai pentas wayang di berbagai tempat di lampung. we often hear his songs performed by singers or sinden at various wayang performances in multiple places in lampung. datum 16 explains that the sinden is one kind of jobs undertaken by javanese women and women from outside java, such as singers in lampung city. the sinden also sings songs at wayang performances as the meaning of this vocabulary has been narrowed. 4) polysemy in the kbbi, certain occupations undertaken by indonesian women exhibit polysemy, such as babu and dalalah. originally, babu referred to women working as maids or servants in households. over time, however, the term has also come to denote a housekeeper, reflecting a higher level of trust and responsibility in managing a household. despite this, the term babu has acquired a negative connotation in societal usage, leading the kbbi to categorize it into specific roles such as babu cuci (laundry maid), babu dalam (household maid), babu masak (cooking maid), and babu tetek (nursemaid). this division highlights both the evolving nature of the profession and the persistent negative perceptions associated with it. another profession with multiple meanings is dalalah, a role involving connecting men and women, often for marriage. while some view dalalah as a legitimate profession facilitating relationships, others perceive it negatively, associating it with prostitution and deviant behavior. in the kbbi, the term dalalah has numerous synonyms, including induk semang perempuan lacur (female brothel keeper), nenek kebayan (traditional matchmaker), comblang (matchmaker), pinang muda (young matchmaker), muncikari (pimp), jaruman (intermediary), and barua (helper). these synonyms reflect the varied societal perceptions of the profession. additionally, the vocabulary related to prostitution has expanded, with terms such as lonte, perempuan jalang (promiscuous woman), wanita tunasusila (immoral woman), sundal (prostitute), jobong, cabo, moder, munci, gundik (mistress), loktong, and loki. the proliferation of these synonyms and the polysemy of dalalah highlight the predominantly negative image of indonesian women associated with this profession in the kbbi. iv. discussion the study of indonesian women in the kbbi presents a new perspective, revealing that indonesian women are not always depicted negatively in the dictionary. although the definitions in the dictionary may seem to physically exploit women by focusing on childbirth and nursing, as noted by suharnanik and mahayani (2017), women are also seen as vital contributors to society by nurturing future generations. this research counters such views and aligns with earlier studies by hendratmi et al. (2022) and rizka (2020), which highlight that indonesian women have demonstrated their roles and contributions in society by engaging in various professions. this study reveals that indonesian women have played significant roles and made contributions across various areas of life over the past 30 years. indonesian women are not confined to the role of housewives; they have engaged in a wide range of professions including policewomen, air force officers, directors, office workers, actresses, ballerinas, singers, artists, traditional performers, midwives, hairdressers, and journalists. they have made substantial contributions in diverse domains such as religion, military strength, economy, journalism, health care, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetics. thus, this research challenges the framework proposed by berger and luckmann (1990), which constructs social and cultural roles by relegating women to domestic spheres while positioning men in the public sector. this study demonstrates that, according to the vocabulary in the kbbi, indonesian social constructs have evolved to recognize and value women’s contributions in both domestic and public spheres. in contemporary lexicographic studies, it is crucial to examine the relationship between language and the world, particularly how language interacts with the socio-cultural contexts in which it is used. when analyzing the vocabulary of perempuan (women) and wanita (women) in the kbbi, it becomes evident that the concepts recorded about indonesian women cannot be interpreted in isolation based on individual word definitions. the concepts related to women in the kbbi must be integrated to provide a comprehensive depiction of how indonesian women were perceived at different times, as well as how they have continually developed their potential over time. this research also supports previous studies ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 310 on the representation of women in dictionaries, such as ahmad lone (2023) study on women in arabic dictionaries. the influence of islam on arab culture has led to a lexicon that honors women and does not subordinate them to men. moreover, in several countries, such as england, women have been deliberately involved as both readers and lexicographers in the compilation of dictionaries (shapiro 2018). the involvement of women has led to the inclusion of lexicons related to women’s roles and contributions in education, social spheres, and culture, thereby providing a positive representation of women. this research also addresses the study by pontes and santos (2014), which rejects the differential representation of women and men in brazilian dictionaries. pontes and santos argue against depicting women solely as wives and mothers. in brazilian socio-cultural life, women have taken on roles such as managing companies, working in shipyards, and serving in the military. this indicates that the roles and contributions of women have evolved. similarly, men in brazil have also taken on more active roles in child-rearing and household responsibilities. since a dictionary reflects the life of a society, its lexicon must represent the cultural experiences of that society. this study addresses the concern raised by pontes and santos (2014) that dictionary compilers must continuously update entries, definitions, and meanings. the kbbi, as a dictionary reflecting indonesian women, demonstrates that over the past 30 years, indonesian women have played significant roles across various fields, including religion, military strength, economics, journalism, health, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetics. this study also demonstrates that lexicographic corpora can be used to examine the development and changes occurring in societal life over time. the research reveals insights into the roles, contributions, and transformations experienced by indonesian women over 30 years (1988– 2018). however, the most significant changes in indonesian society have occurred since 2018, with advancements in technology enabling indonesian women to work from home as content creators. the lexicon detailing the dual roles of indonesian women as homemakers and professional workers in the technology sector through remote work is not covered in this study. therefore, this research has limitations as it has not explored how indonesian women are depicted in the most recent edition of the dictionary, kbbi vi edition. future researchers could expand this study by examining how indonesian women are represented in the latest edition of kbbi, covering the period from 1988 to 2024. additionally, applying alternative theories, such as critical discourse analysis, could reveal disparities in the depiction of women in kbbi. while this study highlights positive changes in the representation of women, it is important to acknowledge that there are significantly more proverbs with negative connotations about women compared to those about men. addressing these imbalances warrants further in-depth investigation. this research also contributes to updating of the kbbi. in the editions kbbi 1988 to 2018, examples of word usage that reflect the lives of indonesian women remain incomplete. meanwhile, this research has demonstrated that the corpus contain numerous examples of word usage. it is therefore recommended that the the agency for language development and cultivation of the republic of indonesia consider incorporating the indonesian web 2020 corpus in future updates of the kbbi. the corpus available in the sketch engine comprises of 3,687,192,045 tokens. we propose that examples of word use in the digital kbbi by utilizing this existing indonesian corpus. v. conclusion this study demonstrates that an examination of indonesian women within a linguistic corpus reveals their roles and contributions over 30 years across various domains of life. indonesian women have not only fulfilled domestic roles but have also made significant contributions in areas such as religion, military, economy, journalism, health care, politics, arts and culture, and cosmetics. thus, this research supports previous studies indicating that dictionary developments in various countries have honored women and no longer portray them as subordinate to men. by employing corpuslexicography, this study shows how the portrayal of indonesian women in dictionaries has shifted away from patriarchal perspectives. future researchers could expand this study by examining the roles and contributions of indonesian women in the latest edition of kbbi (1988–2024). ria febrina / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 311 ethics statement we have read and adhered to the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. we further declare that the present work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement all authors contributed to the following aspects of the project: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing original draft, editing, visualization, project administration. additionally, all authors participated in writing review & editing, validation, and supervision. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests we have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references adeney-risakotta, bernard. 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(2018). the ‘wants’ of women: lexicography and pedagogy in seventeenthand eighteenthcentury dictionaries. pp. 187–210 in historical dictionaries in their paratextual context, edited by r. mcconchie and j. tyrkkö. de gruyter. suharnanik, suharnanik, and ulfa mahayani. (2017). bias gender dalam kamus bahasa indonesia online (studi kritis tentang pemaknaan perempuan dalam kamus bahasa indonesia). egalita 10(2). doi: 10.18860/egalita.v10i2.4543. traugott, elizabeth closs, and richard b. dasher. (2001). regularity in semantic change. 1st ed. cambridge ; new york: cambridge university press. ullmann, stephen. (1959). the principles of semantics. new york: jackson. wieringa, saskia e. (1993). two indonesian women’s organizations: gerwani and the pkk. bulletin of concerned asian scholars 25(2):17–30. doi: 10.1080/14672715.1993.10416112. yuliawati, susi. (2018). perempuan atau wanita? perbandingan berbasis korpus tentang leksikon berbias gender. paradigma, jurnal kajian budaya 8(1):53. doi: 10.17510/paradigma.v8i1.227. danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 278 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 24, 2024 final revision: september 03, 2024 accepted: september 07, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 this study analyzes the usage of the verb membawa (lit. bring) in indonesian light verb constructions (lvcs). lvcs are ubiquitous in many agglutinative languages, including indonesian. these constructions offer a unique way of combining a semantically light verb, which lacks inherent meaning, with another element to convey a specific concept. for instance, membawa pesan (lit. bring a message), membawa kemenangan (lit. bring a victory), membawa perasaan (lit. bring the feeling), membawa perubahan (lit. bring the change), amongst others. this study utilized corpus-based techniques to conduct a quantitative and qualitative analysis of 150 lvcs from the indonesian-leipzig corpora collection (ilcc) corpus. the findings of the study revealed three key points. firstly, lvcs demonstrated a wide range of morphological and semantic usage, including primary and advanced areas, synonymic pair, and noun core proposition areas. secondly, the morphosemantic relationships between core nouns in lvcs could be identified in the relations between base-abstract (0.15), base-concrete (0.37), affixed-abstract (0.36), and affixed-concrete (0.13). thirdly, constructions with synonymic pairs dominated the total lvcs (0.75). however, all lvcs demonstrated the core proposition of the noun, which varied between ‘peoples’ (0.23), ‘materials’ (0.19), ‘objects’ (0.13), ‘qualities’ (0.17), ‘actions’ (0.11), and ‘processes’ (0.17). the findings suggest that lvcs in indonesian are not merely syntactic constructions but rather reflect the intricate relationships between the verb and the noun, which can be analyzed in terms of their semantic and morphological properties. these findings can be applied to areas such as machine translation and computational linguistics, where a comprehensive understanding of lvcs is essential for accurate and effective language processing. further corpusbased study could focus on analyzing the syntax and discourse functions of lvcs membawa. keywords corpus analysis, indonesian, light verb constructions, membawa ‘bring’, morphosemantics correspondence e-mail: d.s.nugraha@usd.ac.id article towards an empirical understanding of membawa ‘bring’: corpus insights into indonesian light verb constructions danang satria nugraha1, veronika vincze2 1sanata dharma university, indonesia 1,2university of szeged, hungary under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.278-296.2024 i. introduction light verb constructions (henceforth: lvcs) are a linguistically intriguing phenomenon in many languages. lvcs are not restricted to inflectional languages, where verbs undergo morphological changes to indicate tense, mood, and aspect, but also exist in agglutinative languages, where morphemes with separate meanings are combined to create elaborate words (hanks et al., 2006; si, 2021; sundquist, 2020; vincze et al., 2013). this remarkable flexibility of lvcs enables them to conform to the grammatical structures of diverse languages while providing speakers with an applicable device to convey a sizeable range of meanings. in most cases, the core of an lvc consists of a semantically bleached verb, often conveying a general meaning such as english do as in do business or make as in make a claim, combined with another element, usually a noun, that carries the specific meaning of the construction (giparaitė, danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 279 2015, 2024; ronan, 2014; ronan & schneider, 2015). the interplay between the light verb and its complement allows for subtle variations in meaning and offers many grammatical possibilities. lvcs are ubiquitous in many agglutinative languages, including indonesian (nugraha, 2022a, 2022b). these constructions offer a unique way of combining a semantically light verb, which lacks inherent meaning, with another element to convey a specific concept. in indonesian, membawa ‘bring’ is an exciting light verb due to its versatility. it can act as a grammatical scaffold, seamlessly combining various complements to create semantic nuances. the verb’s meaning depends on the complement it partners with, allowing it to take on a range of interpretations. for instance, membawa pesan (lit. bring a message) (σ-occurrence 6,723) expresses a ‘straightforward action of carrying something’. however, membawa kemenangan (lit. bring a victory) (σ-occurrence 2,669) takes on a more abstract meaning, implying the ‘action to win’. membawa can also be used with complements like perasaan as in membawa perasaan (lit. bring the feeling) (σ-occurrence 243) to describe ‘conveying an emotion’ or with perubahan as in membawa perubahan (lit. bring the change) (σ-occurrence 40,357) to ‘signify introducing a new state’. this adaptability makes membawa a valuable tool in the indonesian language, enabling the expression of a rich tapestry of ideas and actions. furthermore, the concept of lvcs has been the subject of numerous studies across various languages (avdeeva, 2017; eshaghi & karimidoostan, 2023a; kettnerová, 2023; vilas, 2017; wang & wu, 2020). these studies are typically categorized into three groups: those focusing on isolating languages, those examining agglutinative languages, and those investigating fusional languages. in isolating and fusional languages, lvcs are often a critical area of investigation. lvcs leave behind isolative traces that can significantly impact the grammatical structure of a language (buckingham, 2013; dai, 2016; vilas, 2015). these traces are not solely morphological but also carry vital semantic and syntactic information. in a language with free-word order, the construction of lvcs is a distinctive feature of a linguistic phenomenon that demonstrates universal characteristics (garcía salido & garcia, 2023; wang et al., 2023; yim, 2020). consequently, lvcs are a critical aspect of understanding the complexities of natural language processing and can provide valuable insights into the grammatical structures of various languages. agglutinative languages, on the other hand, characterized by the formation of words by combining morphemes (haspelmath, 2009; plungian, 2001), provide a fascinating area of study for lvcs. in particular, when examined in a fixed-word order context like svo (subject-verbobject), lvcs in agglutinative languages exhibit morphological and semantic indications. these indications are fundamental to understanding lvcs. previous research on indonesian lvcs, notably the corpus-based studies by nugraha (2023, 2024a, 2024b), has focused on the morphosemantic features of verbs like membuat ‘make’, memberi ‘give’, and memenuhi ‘meet’. despite these contributions, an investigation into other indonesian lvcs remains relatively unexplored. this research gap, coupled with the unique characteristics of agglutinative languages, provides a compelling impetus for a thorough academic inquiry into membawa lvcs. the present study, moreover, is based on two theoretical principles: the idiomatic combination of verbs and nouns and the morphosemantics of lvcs (fleischhauer, 2021; gibbs jr., 1992; hüning & schlücker, 2015; siefring, 2004). in simple terms, idiomatic pairs refer to how language lexical elements can join uniquely to represent meaning (ježek, 2023). this representation of meaning is no longer lexical but is at the grammatical and idiomatic level. the grammatical level is achieved through two morphemic units, each fulfilling a syntactic function (butt, 2010). for instance, in lvcs, the verb part is usually the predicate function, and the noun is the object function. therefore, lvcs are found in the core constituents of clauses, namely in their predicative elements. on the other hand, the idiomatic status of lvcs results from the meaning structure, which tends to be dominated by aspects of creating new meaning. lvcs comprising verb and noun elements usually have abandoned lexical meaning, especially for verb elements (hellan, 2023). the verbs in lvcs have had their meanings merged and replaced by the meaning of the noun as the core element. at this level, it is as if the verb is only used as a unit that fulfils a predicative function because the semantic core comes from the paired noun (nolan, 2014). this pattern of creating semantic meaning contrasts the tendency for proper verbs to dominate conventional constructions, such danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 280 as verbal phrases. if verbal phrases place verb elements as the core of compositional semantics, lvcs are the opposite. therefore, lvcs that tend to be idiomatic are often classified as part of multiword expressions (hereafter: mwes). lvcs, indeed, are the subject of morphological and semantic studies for their morphosemantic properties. morphology provides theoretical and analytical tools to understand how morphemic elements combine to form new constructions and identify the core constituent types of lvcs (di salvo, 2023; lu & huang, 2023a). semantics, on the other hand, provides the basis for analyzing the meaning of lvcs (brugman, 2001; eshaghi & karimi-doostan, 2023b). in analyzing lvcs more than morphological approaches are required, meaning analysis becomes crucial. meaning analysis is carried out based on the semantic paradigm, and three main domains play an essential role in this study. these domains are noun semantics, synonymic pairs, and noun semantic prototypes. noun semantics refers to the fundamental status of noun meaning in language, synonymous pairing refers to the presence or absence of similar meanings of non-lvc constructs for lvcs, and noun prototypes refer to the differentiation of types of nouns at the core of lvcs. the corpus linguistic approach employed in this study underscores the significance of empirical analysis in understanding language phenomena. by examining a large dataset of indonesian lvcs, the researchers were able to identify patterns and trends that would have been difficult to discern through introspection or intuition alone. this approach provides a solid foundation for understanding the complex interplay between the verb membawa and its accompanying nouns, revealing the multifaceted nature of these constructions and their role in conveying meaning within the indonesian. moreover, the findings offer insights for applications such as machine translation and computational linguistics, where a deep understanding of lvcs is crucial for accurate and effective language processing. admittedly, this research has also potential contributions to the field of linguistics, i.e. (a) enhancing the understanding of morphological and semantic properties of lvcs in indonesian and (b) providing insights into the underlying principles that govern language structure and typological variation. specifically, the novelty of this study lies in its analysis by providing a more in-depth and data-driven examination of lvcs membawa, i.e. (a) providing a detailed classification of lvcs, (b) identifying morphosemantic relationships, and (c) analyzing the dominance of synonymic pairs. the current study, therefore, aims to conduct an analysis of the morphological and semantic aspects of lvcs formed with membawa. to achieve this, the research employs a corpus-based approach to examine a specific language data set of 150 instances of lvcs membawa. the two main research questions that the study seeks to answer are as follows. firstly, it investigates the distribution of lvcs membawa in various grammatical structures and contexts to identify usage patterns and regularities. secondly, the study explores the interaction between morphosemantic features of indonesian lvcs in a fusional construction. the research question canters on how the morphological features of the verbs and nouns that comprise the construction impact the meaning of lvcs. ii. methods study design the current study adopted a corpus-based methodology to investigate the usage of the verb membawa (lit. bring) in indonesian lvcs. a corpus of 150 instances of lvcs membawa was extracted as the main data. the analysis employed a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques, allowing for both statistical analysis and in-depth examination of individual lvcs. this approach ensured a systematic investigation of the morphological and semantic properties of the verb membawa in indonesian lvcs. materials this study scrutinized 150 instances of the lvcs membawa data obtained from the indonesian– leipzig corpora collection (ilcc), an indonesian mixed corpus based on data from 2013 (label: ind_ mixed_2013). there are 1,206,281,985 tokens and 74,329,815 sentences in it (website: https://corpora. uni-leipzig.de/en?corpusid=ind_mixed_2013). the data was categorized into three groups, namely t1 for high frequency occurrence, ranks 1 to 50; t2 for medium frequency occurrence, ranks 50100; and t3 for low frequency occurrence, ranks 101-150, based on the rate level. as an analytical instrument, we prepared four matrices consisting of two sets of indicators. the first set was a morphological analysis instrument consisting danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 281 of m-1 (for determining the status of primary morphemic forms in lvc constructions) and m2 (for determining the status of basic noun-core types in lvc constructions). the second set was a semantic analysis instrument consisting of s-1 (for determining the status of synonymous pairs of lvcs) and s-2 (for determining the propositional status of core nouns in lvcs). procedure and data analysis the initial phase of the research involved data collection. the data consisted of lvcs membawa construction, retrieved from the ilcc based on three parameters. these parameters were as follows: (a) lvcs with lexical meaning of verbpart were removed from the data, (b) nouns in the form of phrases were still considered as data that was suitable for analysis, and (c) each verb and noun pair had frequencies or tokens based on the corpus used. however, not all data collected was considered helpful for analysis, and data reduction was conducted to sort out valid data. the valid data was then categorized based on the frequency of occurrence. at the same time, a simple statistical description (see table 1) was created to support the analysis phase. the second stage of the research involved data analysis. the analysis was carried out on triangulated and clustered data based on the frequency of occurrence (see table 2 for the high frequency, table 3 for the medium frequency, and table 6 for the low frequency)—the first analysis aimed to trace the distribution of lvcs in four different grammatical contexts. the first context was measured using the m-1 parameter (blevins, 2016), which focused on tracing the distribution of lvcs membawa, the core noun’s basic form and affixation form. the second context was measured using the m-2 parameter (dal & namer, 2015), which focused on tracing the distribution of lvcs on the primary classification spectrum of nouncore types. the third context was measured using the s-1 parameter (hrenek, 2021), which focused on tracing the distribution of lvcs membawa and the construction of synonymous pairs. the fourth context was measured using the s-2 parameter (aikhenvald, 2017), which focused on tracing the distribution of lvcs on the core proposition or semantic meaning of the core noun. these four types of analysis were used to describe the distribution of lvcs in indonesian grammatical contexts. in this research, the third stage involved presenting the results of our analysis. we presented the analysis results in two types: qualitative (eatough & tomkins, 2022) and quantitative (gries, 2015; sheng, 2023). qualitatively, we provided a descriptive account of the distribution of lvcs membawa. representative samples of lvcs complemented the descriptive presentation. the annotation framework is applied to portray a number of qualitative samples. udpipe (website: https://lindat.mff.cuni.cz/services/udpipe/) was the primary tool employed for this technique. quantitatively we also presented quantitative exposure as confirmation of the qualitative results carried out. frequency analysis and statistical tests were employed to explore potential associations between distinct semantic interpretations and morphological attributes in lvcs membawa. we measured the extent of use (v(n)) and log potential productivity (p(n)) (stupak & baayen, 2022). throughout the analysis process, we carried out extensive human-assisted checks to ensure correctness and consistency. furthermore, we utilized an iterative refinement strategy that allowed us to continuously improve our analytic methods, coding schemes, and identification criteria in response to new patterns. this strategy made sure that our study had a solid data foundation and successfully addressed the relevant research objectives. iii. results distribution of lvcs membawa this study used four different matrices to extensively investigate the prevalence of lvcs, including the verb membawa in indonesian grammatical context (see figure 1). m-1 and m-2 concentrated on morphological aspects, whereas s-1 and s-2 employed semantic indications to examine distribution patterns. based on the m-1 indicator, the result suggests that the distribution of lvcs with membawa in indonesian varies depending on whether the verb appears in its affixed or base form. lvcs with membawa in its affixed form appear a total of 72 times across the three tier phases (t-1, t-2, t-3), distributed across the three time periods (t-1: 19; t-2: 32; t-3: 21). this represents 48.00% of the total occurrences of lvcs with membawa observed in the data. lvcs with membawa in its base form appear a total of 78 times across the three time periods, distributed across the three time periods (t-1: 31; t-2: 18; t-3: 29). this danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 282 represents 52.00% of the total occurrences of lvcs with membawa observed in the data. additionally, the data analyzed suggests that lvcs with the membawa + the base-form of noun were slightly more frequent than those with the affixed form (see sample 1). however, it is essential to note that this is just one indicator out of the four employed in the study, and a more comprehensive understanding would require examining the data from the other indicators as well. the overall distribution of lvcs with membawa in its base form and the affixed form is relatively close, indicating that both forms are commonly used in indonesian lvcs. 1) peristiwa nagasaki dan hiroshima membawa dampak bagi indonesia (ilcc, 2013). incident.noun nagasaki.propn and.cconj hiroshima.propn bring.verb impact.noun for. adp indonesia.propn ‘the nagasaki and hiroshima events had an impact on indonesia.’ 2) nyepi membawa pesan kedamaian (ilcc, 2013). nyepi.propn bring.verb message.noun peace. noun ‘nyepi brings a message of peace.’ based on the m-2 indicator, the finding provided shows the distribution of lvcs with the verb membawa in indonesian, according to the m-2 indicator. there were 76 lvcs with membawa classified according to the m-2 indicator. of the total, 21 lvcs were classified as abstract in t-1, 27 in t-2, and 28 in t-3. the percentile for the abstract category is 50.67, which means that half of the lvcs with the m-2 indicator fell into the abstract category. on the other hand, 29 lvcs were classified as concrete in t-1, 23 in t-2, and 22 in t-3, making a total of 74 lvcs. the percentile for the concrete category is 49.33, meaning the other half of the lvcs belonged to the concrete category. based on the data, we can see that the total number of lvcs observed is almost the same for both abstract and concrete categories (76 vs. 74). there seems to be some variation in the distribution of lvcs across different periods (t-1, t-2, t-3). for example, there are more lvcs with membawa followed by a concrete complement in t-1 (29) compared to t-3 (22). the percentile values indicate that the proportion of abstract and concrete lvcs is relatively balanced across all periods, with concrete lvcs having a slightly lower percentage overall (around 49%). while the total number of occurrences is close (76 for abstract vs. 74 for concrete), the percentile values reveal a slight bias towards abstract complements. this might indicate a tendency for membawa to be used more frequently with abstract concepts in the specific context of the corpus analyzed (see sample 2). these categories likely refer to the type of complement following membawa in the lvcs. abstract complements likely represent intangible figure 1. four circumstances were employed to assess the distribution of lvcs with membawa in indonesian grammatical context danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 283 concepts or ideas, while concrete complements represent physical objects or entities. based on the s-1 indicator, the indicator refers to a specific semantic category being analyzed, and it is divided into two subcategories: counter part (cp) and no counter part (ncp). the former category refers to lvcs where membawa has a complete counterpart verb that can express the same meaning independently. the latter category refers to lvcs where membawa does not have a direct semantic equivalent and contributes essential meaning to the construction. the t-1, t-2, and t-3 categories reflect different contexts or scenarios in which the lvcs were analyzed. these refer to different grammatical constructions, registers, or genres where the lvcs were found. the figure 1 shows the total number of lvcs observed for each subcategory across all three contexts. the percentile indicates the percentage of lvcs that fall into each subcategory within each context. for instance, 74.67% of lvcs observed in context t-1 belong to the counter part category, while the remaining 25.33% belong to the no counter part category. also, the result indicates that most lvcs containing the verb membawa based on the s-1 indicator have a counterpart verb (cp) and were found more frequently in the t-1 context than in t-2 and t-3. the counter part (cp) category, which represents lvcs where membawa has a counterpart verb or verb phrase that complements it, is more prevalent across all three contexts compared to the no counter part (ncp) category, which represents lvcs where membawa has no direct counterpart. the data suggests that the counterpart verb contributes significantly to the overall meaning of the construction and provides insights into the semantic flexibility and prevalence of different lvc constructions with membawa in indonesian (see sample 3). however, further information about the specific meaning s-1 and the context details of t-1, t-2, and t-3 is required to draw more conclusive results. examples of lvcs with a counterpart verb include membawa pergi (lit. to bring away) or membawa pulang (lit. to bring back). in contrast, examples of lvcs with no direct counterpart include membawa buku (lit. to bring a book). 3) dan apakah akan membawa pengaruh yang cukup besar pada praktek pengadilan? (ilcc, 2013). and.cconj is.verb will.aux bring.verb influence.noun which.pron enough.adv big.adj on.adp practice.noun court.noun ‘and will it have a significant impact on court practice?’ 4) prestasi di dua event itu turut membawa nama lopes <…> (ilcc, 2013). performance.noun in.adp two.num events.noun that.det join.adv bring.verb name.noun lopes. propn <…> ‘achievements in these two events also brought lopes’ name to adorn many products outside the racing arena.’ according to the s-2 indicator, people (pe) are the most frequently used complement type with membawa in indonesian, representing 22.67% (34 occurrences) of all complements (see sample 4). on the other hand, plant and animal complements are rarely used with membawa based on the s-2 indicator, as these categories had zero occurrences. materials are a relatively common type of complement for membawa, representing 19.33% (29 occurrences) of all complements, while objects represent a moderately frequent category with 12.67% (19 occurrences). qualities are also a somewhat common type of complement for membawa, representing 16.67% (25 occurrences) of all complements, while actions are used occasionally with 11.33% (17 occurrences). finally, processes are the second most frequent category of complements for membawa with 17.33% (26 occurrences) of all complements, according to the s-2 indicator. in details, based on the further analysis, s-2 indicator categories can be grouped into three frequency ranges: high frequency (over 20%), which includes peoples (pe); medium frequency (10-20%), which includes materials (ma), qualities (qu), and processes (pr); and low frequency (below 10%), which includes objects (ob), action (ac), plants (pl), and animals (an). the most frequent categories of complements with membawa according to s-2 indicator are processes (pr) (17.33%), qualities (qu) (16.67%), and materials (ma) (19.33%). on the other hand, the least frequent categories are plants (pl), animals (an), and objects (ob), with none found in t-1 and t-2, and a total of 0 occurrences across all text types. despite processes and qualities being the most frequent, the distribution across categories is somewhat balanced, with all categories except plants and animals having at least some representation. relation of noun semantic-head in the lvcs membawa the analysis reveals four distinct paired occurrences of the relation (see figure 2), which danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 284 table 2. the first tier of occurrence tier 1 lvcs freq. rank lvcs freq. rank membawa dampak ‘have an impact’ 78,721 1 membawa kasus ‘bring the case’ 2,521 26 membawa perubahan ‘bring change’ 40,357 2 membawa suasana ‘brings atmosphere’ 2,479 27 membawa manfaat ‘bring benefits’ 24,749 3 membawa keberkahan ‘bring blessings’ 2,275 28 membawa berkah ‘bring blessings’ 24,418 4 membawa bukti ‘bring evidence’ 2,269 29 membawa nama ‘carry the name’ 22,437 5 membawa akibat ‘bring consequences’ 2,122 30 membawa pengaruh ‘bring influence’ 16,695 6 membawa kehancuran ‘bring destruction’ 2,117 31 membawa konsekuensi ‘bring consequences’ 13,464 7 mambawa kemaslahatan ‘bring benefit’ 2,115 32 membawa misi ‘carrying a mission’ 10,091 8 membawa semangat ‘brings enthusiasm’ 2,073 33 membawa kebaikan ‘brings goodness’ 9,258 9 membawa kerugian ‘bring losses’ 1,995 34 membawa hasil ‘bring results’ 9,229 10 membawa rahmat ‘brings grace’ 1,926 35 membawa keberuntungan ‘bring luck’ 8,335 11 membawa kemakmuran ‘brings prosperity’ 1,825 36 membawa implikasi ‘carries implications’ 8,040 12 membawa damai ‘bring peace’ 1,816 37 membawa korban ‘carrying the victim’ 7,456 13 membawa bantuan ‘bring help’ 1,808 38 membawa pesan ‘carrying a message’ 6,723 14 membawa aspirasi ‘bring aspirations’ 1,758 39 membawa kemajuan ‘bring progress’ 5,412 15 membawa berita ‘bringing news’ 1,637 40 membawa beban ‘carry the load’ 4,230 16 membawa harapan ‘brings hope’ 1,580 41 membawa kebahagiaan ‘bring happiness’ 4,103 17 membawa hoki ‘bring luck’ 1,533 42 membawa kabar ‘bring news’ 3,994 18 membawa hikmah ‘brings wisdom’ 1,479 43 membawa efek ‘bring effect’ 3,715 19 membawa persoalan ‘bring problems’ 1,467 44 membawa petaka bring disaster’ 3,378 20 membawa bencana ‘bring disaster’ 1,377 45 membawa masalah ‘bring trouble’ 3,316 21 membawa sial ‘bring bad luck’ 1,369 46 membawa kedamaian ‘bring peace’ 2,900 22 membawa konsekwensi ‘bring consequences’ 1,359 47 membawa malapetaka ‘bring disaster’ 2,682 23 membawa kesan ‘make an impression’ 1,257 48 membawa kemenangan ‘bring victory’ 2,669 24 membawa nuansa ‘bring nuance’ 1,236 49 membawa kesejahteraan ‘bring prosperity’ 2,580 25 membawa ketenangan ‘bring calm’ 1,171 50 ʃ 318,952 ʃ 44,564 danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 285 are classified as follows: (a) base – abstract, (b) affixed – abstract, (c) base – concrete, and (d) affixed – concrete. these categories exhibit a distribution relationship, which can be quantified using two parameters. the first parameter measures the vocabulary size or number of word types (v(n)) that appears in a sample of n tokens. the second parameter (p(n)) captures the rate at which the vocabulary size increases as more tokens are sampled. according to the first category of paired occurrence (base & abstract) as in sentence sample (5), figure 2 shows the morphological productivity of a specific morphological category across three different text types of frequency (t-1, t-2, t-3). it compares two measures: log (p(n)) and log (v(n)). lower values of log (p(n)) indicate a lower probability of finding new word types as the sample grows, suggesting a limited pool of possible word types for the category. in this case, all three text types have negative values for log (p(n), meaning that the probability of encountering new word types is relatively low. higher values of log (v(n)) indicate a more extraordinary richness in word types, suggesting a more productive morphological category. here, the values are higher than those in log (p(n)), indicating that the category has a decent number of word types present in the samples, even though the probability of finding new ones is low. the morphological category is moderately productive based on the higher values in log (v(n)) compared to log (p(n))). this suggests that the category has a reasonable number of distinct word types, but the likelihood of encountering entirely new ones is low as the sample size increases. there is some variation in productivity across text types. t-2 has the lowest values in both metrics, indicating potentially lower productivity in that specific text type compared to t-1 and t-3. in analyzing the vocabulary size and probability of encountering new word types in three different text types, t-1 and t-3 were found to have a higher vocabulary size of around 0.90 compared to t-2, with a vocabulary size of around 0.78. this indicates that t-1 and t-3 have more word types in their respective samples. all three text types have negative values for the probability of encountering a new word type when the sample size increases. this indicates that the likelihood of finding a new word type decreases as the sample size grows. t-2 had the most negative value of -0.56, suggesting the lowest probability of finding new word types compared to t-1 and t-3, which have values of -0.44. the difference in vocabulary sizes might be minor than the values suggest due to the logarithmic scale. these findings highlight the differences in vocabulary size and probabilities of encountering new word types in different text types. figure 2. four distinct paired-occurrences of the relation measured by log (p(n)) and log (v(n)) danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 286 5) sementara im cukup ketakutan aksinya membawa petaka (ilcc, 2013). temporary.sconj im.propn enough.adv afraid. adj action.noun bring.verb disaster.noun ‘meanwhile, im was quite afraid that his actions would bring disaster.’ according to the second category of paired occurrence (affixed & abstract) as in sentence sample (6), three text types were evaluated. t-1 had a vocabulary richness of 1.11 and a lower probability of encountering new word types with a log value of -0.62. t-2 had the richest vocabulary among the three, with a log value of 1.32 and a slightly higher probability of encountering new word types with a log value of -0.41 compared to t-1. t-3 had a similar vocabulary richness of 1.30 to t-2 and a similar probability of encountering new word types with a log value of -0.43. the analysis of three text types (t-1, t-2, t-3) revealed an increasing trend in vocabulary size (v(n)) with positive values of log (v(n)). t-2 showed the highest vocabulary size, followed by t-3 and t-1. all three text types showed negative values for log (p(n)), indicating a decreasing rate at which new word types are encountered with larger sample sizes. this suggests that the vocabulary richness is gradually approaching saturation and encountering entirely new word types becomes less likely. while all text types showed a similar trend of decreasing growth rate, the specific values for log (p(n)) and log (v(n)) differed, suggesting variations in vocabulary richness and growth patterns between the text types. t-1 had the lowest vocabulary size and the fastest decrease in encountering new word types, while t-2 had the highest vocabulary size and a slower decrease. t-2 and t-3 exhibit the richest vocabulary (highest log (v(n))) for the morphological category under study. t-1 had the lowest probability (most negative log (p(n))) of encountering new word types, suggesting a more limited variation in word forms compared to t-2 and t-3. while t-2 and t-3 had similar vocabulary richness, t-2 showed a slightly higher chance of encountering new word types than t-3. the key observations from the analysis of three text types (t-1, t-2, and t-3) suggest that t-2 and t-3 exhibit the richest vocabulary (highest log (v(n))) for the morphological category under study. all three text types show a positive value for log (v(n)), indicating the presence of diverse word types. however, t-2 and t-3 have higher log (v(n)) values than t-1, suggesting a more incredible vocabulary richness in those text types. additionally, t-1 has the lowest probability (most negative log (p(n))) of encountering new word types, suggesting a more limited variation in word forms compared to t-2 and t-3. all three text types have negative log (p(n)) values, but a negative value does not necessarily imply a low probability. instead, it indicates a minor difference in probability compared to a reference value (usually p(n) = 1). comparing the values across text types, t-1 has the most negative value for log (p(n)), indicating a relatively lower probability of encountering new word types than t-2 and t-3. this suggests that t-1 might have a less productive morphology, meaning new word types are formed less frequently in that context. in conclusion, the data suggests that t-2 and t-3 exhibit a richer vocabulary (higher log (v(n))) and potentially a greater degree of morphological productivity (less negative log (p(n))) compared to t-1. 6) di jepang, cina, dan bagian lain di timur jauh, kalung ikan ini membawa keberuntungan, kekayaan, dan kebahagiaan (ilcc, 2013). in.adp japan.propn china.propn and.cconj part. noun other.adj in.adp far.propn east.propn fish.noun necklace.noun this.det bring.verb luck.noun riches.noun and.cconj happiness. noun ‘in japan, china, and other parts of the far east, this fish necklace brings good luck, wealth, and happiness.’ according to the third category paired occurrence (base & concrete) as in sentence sample (7), upon analyzing the data, it was observed that the vocabulary size in t-1 was the highest among the three text types, with a value of 1.36, indicating a more significant number of unique word types present in t-1 compared to t-2 and t-3. on the other hand, t-2 had the lowest vocabulary size of 1.08, suggesting a smaller number of unique word types. t-3, with a vocabulary size of 1.30, was closer to t-1 than t-2. negative values were observed for log (p(n)) across all three text types, indicating that the probability of encountering new word types was less than 1. this means it was less likely to find new words as the sample size increased. among the three text types, t-2 had the most negative value (-0.66), suggesting the lowest probability of encountering new word types compared to t-1 and t-3. t-1 and t-3 had similar log (p(n)) values (-0.38 and -0.44, respectively), indicating a relatively comparable likelihood of finding new word types when the sample size danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 287 table 3. the second tier of occurrence tier 2 lvcs freq. rank lvcs freq. rank membawa kesuksesan ‘bring success’ 1,169 51 membawa kelengkapan ‘bring equipment’ 622 76 membawa kenangan ‘brings memories’ 1,147 52 membawa perubahan-perubahan ‘bring about changes’ 595 77 membawa perbaikan ‘bring improvements’ 1,139 53 membawa kematian ‘brings death’ 579 78 membawa mudharat ‘bring harm’ 1,061 54 membawa kemanfaatan ‘bring benefits’ 568 79 membawa kesengsaraan ‘brings misery’ 1,060 55 membawa kesejukan ‘bring coolness’ 560 80 membawa pencerahan ‘bring enlightenment’ 1,059 56 membawa petunjuk ‘bring directions’ 548 81 membawa ajaran ‘bring teachings’ 1,054 57 membawa keberhasilan ‘brings success’ 545 82 membawa perdamaian ‘bring peace’ 1,049 58 membawa aura ‘carries an aura’ 543 83 membawa berkat ‘brings blelssings’ 1,010 59 membawa makna ‘carry meaning’ 536 84 membawa persembahan ‘bring offerings’ 963 60 membawa pengalaman ‘bring experience’ 521 85 membawa penderitaan ‘brings suffering’ 861 61 membawa kesialan ‘bring bad luck’ 519 86 membawa sukacita ‘brings joy’ 820 62 membawa pembaca ‘bring the reader’ 513 87 membawa atribut ‘carries attributes’ 803 63 membawa nilai-nilai ‘bring values’ 513 88 membawa keselamatan ‘brings safety’ 737 64 membawa keceriaan ‘brings joy’ 481 89 membawa kebenaran ‘bring the truth’ 727 65 membawa persyaratan ‘bring requirements’ 473 90 membawa sentiment ‘brings sentiment’ 725 66 membawa penyakit ‘carry disease’ 465 91 membawa risiko ‘carries risks’ 717 67 membawa kemuliaan ‘bring glory’ 460 92 membawa diri ‘bring yourself’ 717 68 membawa kesegaran ‘bring freshness’ 442 93 membawa pesan-pesan ‘carrying messages’ 706 69 membawa maut ‘brings death’ 436 94 membawa kegembiraan ‘bring joy’ 686 70 membawa duka ‘bring sorrow’ 435 95 membawa citra ‘carries an image’ 653 71 membawa kerusakan ‘bring damage’ 432 96 membawa rezeki ‘bring fortune’ 650 72 membawa darah ‘carrying blood’ 427 97 membawa maksud ‘carry meaning’ 649 73 membawa imbas ‘bring impact’ 420 98 membawa maslahat ‘bring benefits’ 638 74 membawa rejeki ‘bring good fortune’ 415 99 membawa kejayaan ‘bring success’ 635 75 membawa keburukan ‘bring badness’ 411 100 ʃ 21,435 ʃ 12,459 danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 288 increased in these two text types. it was also observed that the probability of encountering a new word type was relatively low across all text types, with t-2 having the lowest value (-0.66), suggesting the highest likelihood of encountering a new word type in that text type compared to the others. all log (v(n)) values were positive, indicating a positive relationship between the sample size and the number of observed word types. this means that the vocabulary size also grew as the sample size increased. t-1 had the highest value of 1.36, suggesting the largest vocabulary size among the three text types. in details, this analysis compares three text types based on their vocabulary size and probability of encountering new word types. the first text type, t-1, shows the largest vocabulary size and a relatively high probability of encountering new word types, suggesting it might be a richer source of diverse word forms. the second text type, t-2, has the lowest vocabulary size and the lowest probability of finding new word types, indicating it might contain fewer unique word forms and have a higher degree of repetition. the third text type, t-3, shows a vocabulary size closer to t-1 and a probability of new words similar to t-1, suggesting it might have a moderate level of lexical diversity and a somewhat lower chance of encountering completely new words compared to t-1. 7) kali ini, aku dan brilian membawa berita yang bahagia (illc, 2013). time.noun this.det i.ps1 and.cconj brilliant. propn bring.verb news.noun which.pron happy.adj ‘this time, brilian and i brought happy news.’ according to the fourth category paired occurrence (affixed & concrete) as in sentence sample (8), based on the breakdown of data for each text type, it can be stated that t-1 has a low probability of encountering new noun types as the sample size increases, as indicated by a log (p(n)) of -0.50. however, t-1 has a relatively high number of unique noun types observed in the sample, with a log (v(n)) of 0.78. t-2, on the other hand, has a moderately low probability of encountering new noun types compared to t-1, with a log (p(n)) of -0.24, but shows the highest number of unique noun types observed among the three text types, with a log (v(n)) of 1.04. t-3, however, has the lowest probability of encountering new noun types among the three text types, with a log (p(n)) of -0.98, and the lowest number of unique noun types observed, with a log (v(n)) of 0.30. these findings suggest that each text type has its unique characteristics and patterns that can be observed and analyzed. 8) penalti kembali membawa kemenangan buat persib (ilcc, 2013). penalty.noun return.adv bring.verb victory. noun for.adp persib.propn ‘another penalty brought victory for persib.’ the data suggests that t-2 has the highest overall morphological productivity for the measured category, with both a higher number of unique noun types observed (log (v(n)) = 1.04) and a moderately higher probability of encountering new types (log (p(n)) = -0.24) compared to the other text types. in contrast, t-3 has the lowest overall morphological productivity, with both a low number of unique noun types observed (log (v(n)) = 0.30) and a very low probability of encountering new types (log (p(n)) = -0.98). this suggests that the vocabulary used in t-3 might be limited and repetitive. t-1 has a relatively high number of unique noun types observed (log (v(n)) = 0.78) but a low probability of encountering new types (log (p(n)) = -0.50), suggesting that the vocabulary richness in t-1 might be due to the presence of frequent, common nouns. the data also suggests that the vocabulary size (number of word types) in t-2 is the largest, followed by t-1 and then t-3. this indicates that t-2 exhibits the most diverse use of the morphological category, while t-3 shows the least diversity. however, the probability of encountering new word types across all three text samples could be higher, especially in t-3. this indicates that the morphological category might be relatively closed, meaning that new word types are unlikely to be formed. it is essential to consider the logarithmic scale used here, as a slight change in the log value can represent a more considerable change in the actual probability. overall, t-2 appears to have the highest morphological productivity based on the combination of a relatively high probability of encountering new word types (log (p(n))) and the richest vocabulary (log (v(n))). at the same time, t-1 shows a moderate vocabulary size but a low probability of encountering new words, suggesting a less productive morphology. morphosemantics of noun semantic-head in the lvcs membawa in this section of the analysis, we discuss the danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 289 distribution of noun-head meanings at the core of lvcs for the verb membawa ‘bring.’ this analysis highlights two semantic tendencies: the use of synonymous counterparts and the range of noun core propositions in lvcs (see figure 3). the first tendency is the natural tendency for lvcs to use synonymous pairs. in simpler terms, this means that equivalent constructions are used. while lvcs are generally idiomatic and grammatically formed, synonymous pairs are lexical. the second tendency relates to the core proposition of nouns used in lvcs. not all noun head core propositions are distributed equally. certain propositions are more dominant than others. a quantitative analysis was used to describe both semantic tendencies. the presented data of table 4 shows the results of a two-sample t-test (assuming unequal variances) comparing the values of a variable named “counter part” (cp) between two groups: those with a counterpart (cp) and those without (ncp). both groups have the same variance (69.33), but the test assumes unequal variances for a more conservative approach. there are three observations in each group (cp and ncp), and the null hypothesis (h0) assumes no difference in the mean values between the groups, so it is set to 0. the calculated t-statistic is 3.63, and the one-tailed p-value is 0.01, indicating we can reject the null hypothesis with a one-tailed test. this means we can conclude that the difference in means between the groups is statistically significant in the direction of the cp group having a higher value (37.33) than the ncp group (12.67). the two-tailed p-value (0.02) is also less than the alpha level, further supporting the conclusion that the difference in means is statistically significant, even considering both directions. however, the two-tailed test requires a more substantial level of evidence compared to the one-tailed test. the one-tailed critical t-value is 2.13 at an alpha level 0.05, and the two-tailed critical t-value is 2.78 at the same alpha level. the degree of freedom is 4, calculated as n1 + n2 2 (number of observations in each group minus 2). the data of table 5 shows the results of a correlation test analyzing the semantic content occurrence of noun-heads. it is a correlation matrix where each row and column represent a semantic category (peoples, materials, objects, etc.), and the values within the cells represent the correlation coefficient between the corresponding pairs of categories. strong negative correlations are observed between peoples (pe) vs. materials (ma), peoples (pe) vs. qualities (qu), materials (ma) vs. counter part (cp) no counter part (ncp) mean 37,33 12,67 variance 69,33 69,33 observations 3 3 hypothesized mean difference 0 df 4 t stat 3,63 p(t<=t) one-tail 0,01 t critical one-tail 2,13 p(t<=t) two-tail 0,02 t critical two-tail 2,78 table 4. the result of t-test (two-sample assuming unequal variances) for lvc’s counter part table 5. the result of correlation test for semantic proposition of noun-head peoples (pe) materials (ma) objects (ob) qualities (qu) action (ac) processes (pr) peoples (pe) 1 materials (ma) -0,99 1 objects (ob) 0,84 -0,92 1 qualities (qu) -0,98 0,94 -0,74 1 action (ac) 0,88 -0,94 1,00 -0,79 1 processes (pr) -0,68 0,79 -0,97 0,54 -0,94 1 danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 290 table 6. the third tier of occurrence tier 3 lvcs freq. rank lvcs freq. rank membawa kebanggaan ‘brings pride’ 363 101 membawa agenda ‘bring an agenda’ 227 126 membawa dosa ‘bring sin’ 361 102 membawa undangan ‘bring an invitation’ 226 127 membawa pembaharuan ‘bring renewal’ 349 103 membawa tanda ‘carrying a sign’ 223 128 membawa singgasana ‘carrying the throne’ 345 104 membawa cahaya ‘bring light’ 209 129 membawa konsep ‘bring the concept’ 334 105 membawa sengsara ‘brings misery’ 203 130 membawa arti ‘carries meaning’ 326 106 membawa inspirasi ‘brings inspiration’ 201 131 membawa spirit ‘bring spirit’ 324 107 membawa peruntungan ‘brings good luck’ 199 132 membawa kesedihan ‘brings sadness’ 315 108 membawa kehangatan ‘brings warmth’ 193 133 membawa tema ‘bring a theme’ 310 109 membawa faedah ‘bring benefits’ 192 134 membawa pembaharuan ‘bring renewal’ 310 110 membawa keteduhan ‘brings shade’ 189 135 membawa permasalahan ‘bring problems’ 308 111 membawa kemudahan ‘brings convenience’ 187 136 membawa mandat ‘carries a mandate’ 301 112 membawa celaka ‘bring harm’ 184 137 membawa amanah ‘bring trust’ 297 113 membawa kekecewaan ‘bring disappointment’ 184 138 membawa perpecahan ‘bring division’ 287 114 membawa aroma ‘brings fragrance’ 184 139 membawa keadilan ‘bring justice’ 283 115 membawa optimism ‘bring optimism’ 181 140 membawa energi ‘brings energy’ 280 116 membawa keunggulan ‘bring excellence’ 180 141 membawa cerita ‘carry the story’ 272 117 membawa bahaya ‘brings danger’ 180 142 membawa pengertian ‘brings understanding’ 270 118 membawa pengharapan ‘brings hope’ 177 143 membawa kesembuhan ‘bring healing’ 264 119 membawa nikmat ‘bring favors’ 176 144 membawa agama ‘bring religion’ 261 120 membawa pelita ‘carry a lamp’ 176 145 membawa imajinasi ‘bring imagination’ 251 121 membawa kemurkaan ‘bring wrath’ 172 146 membawa amanat ‘carrying a mandate’ 245 122 membawa masalah ‘bring trouble’ 172 147 membawa perasaan ‘brings feelings’ 243 123 membawa pahala ‘brings rewards’ 171 148 membawa tuah ‘bring good luck’ 237 124 membawa ketentraman ‘bring peace’ 171 149 membawa identitas ‘carry identity’ 232 125 membawa sensasi ‘bring sensation’ 170 150 ʃ 7,368 ʃ 4,727 danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 291 objects (ob), materials (ma) vs. qualities (qu), objects (ob) vs. processes (pr), and action (ac) vs. processes (pr). these negative correlations suggest that when one category is frequent, the other tends to be infrequent in the same context. on the other hand, there are strong positive correlations between objects (ob) vs. action (ac) and action (ac) vs. processes (pr), indicating that these categories tend to co-occur frequently, meaning that if one category is frequent, the other is likely to be frequent as well. the value 1 appears on the diagonal of the matrix, which is expected as it represents the correlation between a category and itself. the strong negative correlations between specific categories (e.g., peoples vs. materials) suggest a degree of thematic coherence in the data. texts frequently mentioning people are less likely to mention materials, and vice versa. the positive correlations between actions, objects, and processes suggest that these categories often co-occur when describing activities or events. the analysis also produced several correlation scores that indicate the strength and direction of the relationship between different categories. the analysis revealed that some categories exhibit a strong negative correlation, meaning they are mutually exclusive in the dataset. for example, peoples and materials have a score of -0.99, indicating that a noun head categorized as peoples is unlikely to be categorized as materials, and vice versa. similarly, objects and materials have a score of -0.92, indicating that these categories are mutually exclusive. the analysis also found that qualities have a solid negative correlation with peoples and materials, with scores of -0.98 and -0.94, respectively. this suggests that qualities are rarely used as noun-heads referring to peoples or materials. conversely, processes have moderate negative and positive correlations with peoples and materials, respectively, with scores of -0.68 and 0.79. this means that while there is a slight tendency for processes to be less frequent with people and more frequent with materials, the correlation is not as strong as with other categories. finally, the analysis found a strong positive correlation between objects and action, with a score of 1.00. this indicates that objects and actions almost always co-occur as noun-heads in the corpus. this could be because many actions involve manipulating or interacting with objects. overall, the remaining correlations between categories range from -0.79 to 0.94, indicating moderate positive or negative relationships. iv. discussion this section delves into the findings of this study that explored the distribution scope of lvcs membawa used in indonesian. lvcs membawa display a wide range of morphological and semantic usage, including primary and advanced areas, synonymic pairs, and noun core proposition areas. on the one hand, the morphological distribution of lvcs is significant in two domains – the primary domain and the derivational domain. in the essential domain, the verb membawa is naturally distributed as lvcs with bare nouns unmarked by an affix. in the derivational domain, the verb membawa can be distributed as lvcs when adjacent to derivational nouns resulting from processes like affixation. this finding is further supported by the work of nugraha, (2023a, 2024). in nugraha’s studies, the distribution of other light verbs, such as memberi ‘give’ and membuat ‘make’ is also mainly occurred in base area of morphological distribution. these observations are corroborated by extensive research documented in mastrofini (2023), mattissen (2023), mehl (2019), and pompei (2023). on the other hand, lvcs also exhibit semantic distribution concerning the noun-head referent in the concrete and abstract domains. the concrete domain encompasses all real-world entities denoted by nouns with a minimum of two semantic specifications, i.e., [+perceptible] and [+physical existence]. similarly, the abstract domain comprises all non-physical entities denoted by nouns with a minimum of two semantic specifications, i.e., [-perceptible] and [+intangible]. this semantic distribution is an advanced area that demonstrates the ability to create word constructions that are both morphological and semantic. in other words, lvcs exhibit morphosemantic distribution in indonesian grammatical contexts. our argument draws parallels with the work of fleischhauer et al. (2019), karimi-doostan & bygi (2016), and stojanovskailievska (2021). the inclusion of semantic features in lvcs can be considered an essential aspect that cannot be denied. these features enable us to accurately describe the occurrence pattern of a given sample that has been tested. semantic features carry great significance in analyzing and interpreting data, especially in cases where lvcs can significantly impact the analysis outcome. moreover, semantic features in lvcs can help us identify and distinguish between different variants danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 292 that may have a similar occurrence pattern, thereby enhancing the analysis’s precision and accuracy. understanding the intricate connections between nouns in light verb constructions (lvcs) and their morphosemantic relationships, therefore, is a fascinating challenge. this complexity is particularly evident when exploring lvcs in the context of indonesian grammar, where a nuanced correlation exists between base-abstract (0.15), base-concrete (0.37), affixed-abstract (0.36), and affixed-concrete (0.13) nouns (cf. fleischhauer & neisani, 2020; ronan & schneider, 2015). the first relationship highlights that nouns without affixes can still express abstract referents, entities outside of language that the five senses cannot directly identify (cf. ivanová & kyselová, 2016). on the other hand, the second relationship demonstrates that core nouns without affixes can still exhibit concrete referents, which refer to tangible entities outside of language that the five senses can perceive (cf. he & wittenberg, 2020). moreover, the third relationship, affixed-abstract, shows that a core noun with an affix can convey referent power towards an abstract extra-language entity. conversely, the fourth relationship, affixed-concrete, demonstrates that a core noun with an affix can show referent power towards concrete external linguistic entities (cf. pompei & piunno, 2023). these four relationships are not just interesting linguistic phenomena, but they are crucial in understanding the meaning of lvcs. nouns are the semantic core of lvcs, and therefore, identifying the meaning of the noun is a pivotal step in determining the constructional meaning of lvcs. without a clear comprehension of the meaning of the noun, the meaning of lvcs remains elusive. the meaning of lvcs, rooted in nouns, accounts for this phenomenon. in other figure 3. semantic-feature spread based on the s-1 and s-2 indicators (left and right panels, respectively) words, if the noun paired with the light verb membawa has no meaning, then lvcs cannot be formed. this study also comprehensively examines the distribution of light verb constructions (lvcs), focusing on investigating the presence of synonymous pairs and the core propositions associated with nouns. in this study’s context, synonymous pairs refer to lvcs that can be paired with other constructs with a similar meaning. the study found that while not all lvcs possess synonymous pairs, the data tested was dominated by lvcs that did. specifically, constructions with synonymous pairs constituted most of the lvcs (0.75). this finding on synonymous pairs complements the existing study on topic, particularly the work of baygi et al. (2018), lu & huang (2023), and özge et al. (2022). however, the study also discovered that all investigated lvcs share a common feature: the core proposition of the associated noun. this core proposition varies depending on the noun, with people (0.23), materials (0.19), objects (0.13), qualities (0.17), actions (0.11), and processes (0.17) all being represented. as the domain of synonymous pairs expands, the types of noun core propositions become a source of variation (cf. barking et al., 2022; kovalevskaitė et al., 2020; ronan, 2019). this last key finding, partially, echoes the argument expressed by fleischhauer (2023). in short, this study provides a detailed and nuanced analysis of lvcs, offering valuable insights into their distribution and construction. v. conclusion the present study, in summary, described the distribution of lvcs membawa in the counter part (cp) non counter part (cp) s-1 indicator action (an) animals (al) materials (ma) objects (ob) people (pe) plants (pl) processes (pr) qulities (qu) s-2 indicator danang satria nugraha / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 293 indonesian grammatical context. the construction spreads across at least four domains, including morphological and semantic areas. lvcs are distributed in the noun domain as basic or bare and affixed morphemes in the essential morphological area. in advanced morphological areas, lvcs are distributed in the scope of concrete and abstract nouns. lvcs also show two types of distribution in the semantic area: the distribution of synonymous pairs and the distribution of semantic core propositions. the distribution of synonymous pairs is more dominant than other types. the current study, equally essential, has certain limitations, both methodologically and substantively. the methodological limitation is primarily due to using only one corpus as the data source for this study. this approach cannot compare the results with other corpora, which could have provided valuable insights into different distribution trends. to expand the scope of distribution studies, it is recommended to use two or more corpora as data sources. including several corpora will also help deepen the study of light verb constructions (lvcs). substantively, the study only discusses lvcs from a morphosemantic point of view, which can be considered a theoretical limitation. adding basic theory, such as syntax, can add depth and breadth to the analysis of lvcs. in particular, the valence and transitivity analysis of lvcs is a critical domain that needs to be considered to enhance the study of lvcs. further research on lvcs membawa suggests that two domains require exploration. firstly, syntactic analysis of lvcs membawa is necessary as these constructions may have a distinct valence structure from other verb constructions. this is because lvcs only functionally fill the predicative component, possibly creating unique valence characteristics. secondly, the presence or absence of arguments in lvcs requires investigation. in addition, analyzing lvcs within the context of their discursive function is essential. this approach allows for a concrete form of capturing the lvcs phenomenon in a textual context, leading to a more complete and holistic understanding. ethics statement the authors confirm that they have read and adhered to the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. they further declare that the present work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement all authors contributed to the following aspects of the project: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing original draft, editing, visualization, project administration. additionally, all authors participated in writing review & editing, validation, and supervision. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references aikhenvald, a. y. 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(2020). light verb ellipsis constructions in korean. language and linguistics, 21(2), 351–374. https://doi. org/10.1075/lali.00064.yim fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 231 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 22, 2023 final revision: september 3, 2023 accepted: september 7, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this study looks at the connection between argumentative writing and speaking among sixth-semester efl students at moulay ismail university in morocco’s english studies department. in order to achieve this objective, a total of 80 undergraduate students who were learning english as a foreign language (efl) were selected as participants. participants were then given both speaking and writing examinations to assess their argumentation skills in these two areas. regression and correlation analyses were performed in spss on the study’s data. the findings show a substantial difference between speaking and writing in contentious discourse, in addition to a high positive association. argumentative speaking was statistically proven to predict a great proportion of argumentative writing. the findings suggest integrating argumentative speaking and writing in teaching and assessment practices in a balanced way. the two skills can be taught along with each other to facilitate correspondences between the two modalities in argumentative genre. as the study concludes, it offers valuable insights into the implications of these findings, highlights the research limitations encountered during the research process, and provides recommendations for future endeavors in the realm of language pedagogy and assessment. this study not only contributes to our understanding of the interplay between argumentative writing and speaking but also paves the way for more comprehensive and integrated language instruction practices in efl contexts. keywords argumentative genre, speaking, writing, relationship, output correspondence e-mail: fouad.akki@gmail.com article the relationship between argumentative speaking and writing among efl students fouad akki1, mohammed larouz2, brahim ait hammou3, handoko handoko4 1-3faculty of humanities, moulay ismail university, meknes, morocco 4 faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.231-238.2023 i. introduction over several decades of the development of teaching the english language, there has been a noticeable transition from focusing input to prioritizing output. one of the most wellknown and well-liked proponents of the “input hypothesis,” krashen (1994), said that all that is required for language acquisition in the target language is understandable input. however, lee & vanpatten (1995) noted that “input hypothesis” might not be enough on its own to support a native-like acquisition in l2. advocates of this perspective (swain, 1985; pica, 1994; long, 1996) assert that the significance of both “input” and “output” in language acquisition is equal. since productive language abilities are seen to be essential to language development, the importance of output or language production in this situation cannot be overstated (swain, 1995; izumi, 2002; mackey, 2002). despite the aforementioned importance of productive skills, speaking and writing have been viewed in a separate way (hartely, 2007). while researchers have extensively examined their positive impact on both l1 and l2 acquisition, research has not sufficiently paid enough attention to the interconnection between the two skills (hubert, 2008, akki & larouz, 2021). accordingly, speaking and writing connections, as a research area, has emerged to examine the relationships between these two modalities. weissberg (2005) fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 232 refers to this kind of research as “cross modality research”, which is “any research aimed to investigate where the oral and written modes intersect or interconnect” (p. 94). speaking has been defined differently by many scholars. bygate (1987) thought that speaking is manifested in the ability to produce single and discrete sounds of a particular language; and this view was referred to as a “bottom-up approach” to define speaking. according to bygate, this approach emphasized articulating and combining sounds in a systematic way to form meaningful utterances. in line with this view, teaching of speaking stressed the importance of starting with the smallest unitssoundsand move on to the mastery of words, sentences, and later to discourse aspects (cornbleet & carter, 2001). however, speaking abilities are not merely restricted to the production and mastery of discrete and small elements. consequently, the “bottom-up approach” was criticized on the ground that it overlooked the interactional and social and discourse aspects of speaking. in line with these critics to the bottom up approach, bygate (1998) advocated a new reliable definition of speaking based on interactional aspects; and this was referred to as a “top down approach”. for instance, howarth (2001) defined speaking as a “two-way process involving a true communication of ideas, information or feelings between a speaker and a listener in shared time and physical context” (p. 23). along the same vein, nunan (1989) supported the importance of exposing the learners to the spoken discourse at the early stages of learning, and the smallest single units will be acquired later. adhering to the same approach, burns and joyce (1997) considered speaking as an interactive process of making meaning. in this case, it involves receiving, processing, and producing information. subsequently, nunan (2003) defined speaking as a “productive aural/oral skill and it consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning” (p. 48). writing ability has been defined by many scholars (e.g., hornby, 2005; rivers, 1981; brown, 2001; nunan, 2003; zamel, 1982; hyland, 2003). according to hornby (2005), writing means to make letters or numbers on a surface, especially using a pen or a pencil. in addition, rivers (1981) stated that writing is “conveying information or expression of original ideas in a consecutive way in the new language” (p. 294). additionally, brown (2001) considered writing as a thinking process that can be planned and revised many times before its release (p. 336). according to nunan (2003), writing is the mental work of inventing ideas, thinking about how to express them, and organizing them into statements and paragraphs (p. 88). writing, therefore, is both a physical and a mental act. at the most basic level, writing is the physical act of committing words or ideas to paper. on the other hand, writing is a mental act because it involves a lot of thinking to generate ideas. furthermore, writing can be defined as a “complex, cognitive process that requires sustained intellectual effort over a considerable period of time” (nunan, 1999, p. 273). thus, writing is a “process through which meaning is created” (zamel, 1982, p. 195). in the same vein, kern (2000) describes writing as “a dynamic process of designing meaning through texts within a community” (p. 186). this implies that writing is both an individual and a social process. likewise, hyland (2003) defines writing as “a socio-cognitive activity which involves skills in planning and drafting as well as knowledge of language, contexts, and audiences” (p. 23). regarding the influence of oral communication on written expression, it has been suggested that engaging in speaking activities can enhance writing skills in english as a foreign language (efl) and english as a second language (esl) educational settings. according to florez and hadaway (1987), oral language development has the potential to impact an individual’s writing behavior. cumming (1992) conducted a case study examining the instructional strategies employed by three english as a second language (esl) teachers. the study posited that engaging in speaking activities may yield beneficial outcomes for the enhancement of writing skills. in a similar vein, manglesdorf (1989) and weissberg (1994) have posited that classroom discourse, as previously indicated, emulates the cognitive activities inherent in the act of composing, hence enhancing learners’ comprehension of the cognitive mechanisms implicated in the writing process. fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 233 similarly, the study conducted by yun et al. (2012) investigated the influence of enrolling in a public speaking course on the writing proficiency of students at an american institution. the research findings indicate that public speaking has a good impact on the development of learners’ writing skills, specifically in terms of their ability to effectively structure their work and demonstrate control over grammar. furthermore, rausch (2015) conducted a study that investigated the influence of speaking training on the writing proficiency of english language learners in the united states, as well as the instructional implications that may be derived from these findings. the primary objective of this study was to examine the extent to which instructional strategies designed to enhance arguing speaking abilities also contribute to the development of argumentative writing skills. the findings indicate that instructing students in the art of oral argumentation has a beneficial effect on their capacity to engage in written argumentation. in a study done by al-roomy (2016), the objective was to explore the impact of oral interactions on the development of composition skills among university students in saudi arabia. the study specifically focused on the function of speaking in developing the writing abilities of english as a foreign language (efl) students. the research employed a case study design and involved the examination of group work scenarios. the findings indicated that the incorporation of both written and oral interactions facilitated a more comprehensive understanding of the writing process among the students. the current research indicates the relationship between speaking and writing skills (geva, 2006, p. 14). hubert (2008) conducted a study examining the correlation between written and oral communication in the spanish language classrooms at universities in the united states. the findings indicate that there exists a developmental pattern in the correlation between writing and speaking abilities within the context of foreign language acquisition. consequently, “their writing proficiency matches their speaking proficiency more closely the more advanced these subjects become” (hubert, 2008, p. 98). in a subsequent study, hubert (2013) investigated the correlation between the rate of progress in speaking and writing skills among a group of 17 english as a foreign language (efl) learners who were studying spanish at different proficiency levels (beginning, intermediate, and advanced) at a university in the united states. the findings of the study indicate a significant and positive relationship (r = .863) between the levels of proficiency in speaking and writing among english as a foreign language (efl) learners who are studying spanish. furthermore, zhu (2008) conducted a study to determine the validity of utilizing syntactic maturity as a dependable metric for exploring the correlation between english oral proficiency and written expression. the findings demonstrate a robust positive association between oral and written communication in relation to indicators of syntactic development. in addition, the scholarly works of cheung and chang (2009) and cheung and leung (2011) have investigated the correlation between english writing and speaking proficiencies within the context of hong kong students learning english as a foreign language. the results indicate that there are modest and strong positive associations between speaking and writing, respectively. furthermore, a study was undertaken by cahyono and mutiaraningrum (2016) to investigate the correlations between the writing proficiency and public speaking skills of english as a foreign language (efl) students, taking into consideration their learning methods based on personality. the findings of the study indicate a significant correlation between public speaking skills and writing skills among both introverted (r = .718) and extroverted (r = .646) student populations. despite the importance of the above experimental and correlational research, as exemplified by the above studies, it is noticed that most of previous research on speaking and writing connection generally examined the relationship between holistic speaking and writing without any reference to the kind of communicative purposes for which language is used. accordingly, efl learners can use spoken and written language for narrative, expository, descriptive, and argumentative purposes. the current study will specifically focus on argumentative mode of discourse to examine fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 234 the relationship between speaking and writing in this genre. ii. method research design a quantitative correlational research design was relied on to compare and correlate the students’ speaking and writing scores in argumentation. because one of the major objectives of the study is to investigate the degree of association between the two measures, regression analysis was conducted to account for the variance that can be predicted across argumentative speaking and writing. statistical tools like paired-samples t-tests as well as pearson product-moment correlation and simple linear regression were computed to answer the study’s research questions. sample the sample comprises 80 undergraduate students in their sixth semester who are studying english as a foreign language. 759 efl undergraduate university students in their sixth semester were the demographic from whom the sample was randomly selected. for the purpose of example, a total of 19 subjects—1681 students in group one, 18 subjects—165 students in group two, 19 subjects—214 students in group three, and 24 subjects—219 students in group four— were chosen at random. the sample consists of 42 female participants and 38 male participants. instruments and procedure the students’ argumentative speaking and writing were assessed through speaking and writing proficiency exams. to measure the participants’ argumentative speaking abilities students were asked to express two opinions and support them with pertinent arguments; these cases are controversial situations in which the subjects were engaged in arguing to defend and support their points of view. speaking argumentation skill was evaluated holistically on a 0–10 point scale. to measure the participants’ argumentative abilities in writing, the participants were asked to answer two different questions and support their point of view with pertinent arguments. corresponding to this, a 0–10 point rating system was used to assess writing argument skill. with regards to scoring, two raters coded the written paragraphs to account for inter-coder reliability. the results showed a good degree of reliability between the two raters; the average measure icc was .82 with a 95% confidence interval from .71 to .88 of agreement between the two raters, f (79) = 5.49, p<.001. iii. results and discussion comparing the means the descriptive statistics analysis yielded findings indicating that the average score for arguing speaking abilities is 6.47, while the average score for argumentative writing is 5.74. these results are displayed in table 1. a paired samples t-test was relied on to compare the means and to determine whether there is a significant difference between the speaking and writing scores. the results showed that there is a significant difference between argumentative speaking (m = 6.47, sd = 1.18) and argumentative writing (m = 5.74, sd = 1.43) scores; t(79) = 4.78, p < .001. these results are displayed in table 2. the results of the correlation between argumentative speaking skills (asa) and argumentative writing abilities (awa) will be presented in the next section after the descriptive table 1. descriptive statistics of argumentative speaking and argumentative writing n minimum maximum mean std. deviation argumentative speaking ability 80 3.25 8.75 6.47 1.18 argumentative writing ability 80 1.00 8.50 5.74 1.43 valid n (listwise) 80 mean std. deviation t df sig. (2-tailed) pair 1 argumentative speaking ability-argumentative .73 1.36 4.78 79 .000 writing ability table 2. paired samples test (asa and awa) fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 235 statistics results and a comparison of the means of the two sets of data have been shown. results of correlation the findings of the correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant moderate positive connection (p < .01) between asa and awa. the pearson correlation coefficient was computed, resulting in a value of r = .46, which was found to be statistically significant at p < .001. these results are displayed in table 3. a basic linear regression analysis was conducted to investigate the extent to which argumentative speaking ability could serve as a predictor of argumentative writing ability. these findings led to the conclusion that argumentative speaking (r=.46, r2 =.21) can predict 21% of argumentative writing produced by efl learners. the value of the corrected r2 was 0.20. these results are displayed in table 4. overall, the findings showed that the argumentative speaking mean and argumentative writing mean varied statistically significantly, t(79) = 4.78, p <.001. the marks obtained in speaking tend to surpass those achieved in writing when it comes to argumentative debate. furthermore, a moderate positive association that was statistically significant was seen between argumentative speaking abilities (asa) and argumentative writing abilities (awa), with a correlation coefficient of r = .46, p < .001. along with these outcomes, the regression analysis demonstrated a statistically significant degree of asa’s ability to predict awa. the coefficient of determination (r2) for this equation was.21, indicating that 21% of the variation in the capacity to write persuasively could be predicted from the level of persuasive speaking. the predictive value holds significance; nonetheless, it fails to encompass a substantial degree of diversity. the above results revealed that there is a statistically significant difference between argumentative speaking and argumentative writing as well as a moderate positive correlation between the two modalities. in the first place, the significant difference between speaking and writing in argumentative discourse indicates that students’ speaking abilities are greater than their writing ones, which suggests that semester six students face more difficulties in writing compared to speaking. accordingly, this might suggest that writing is more cognitively demanding for the participants. in addition to these findings, the study demonstrated that there is a statistically significant correlation between argumentative voice and writing. these results align with earlier research that looked at the relationship between speaking and writing modalities and showed how these skills are related to one another; for example, zhu (2008), cheung & chang (2009), cheung & leung (2011), cahyono & mutiaraningrum (2016), akki & larouz, 2020, 2021) found that the development of one modality is related to the development of the other. as a result, argumentative writing scores rise along with argumentative speaking scores. argumentative speaking ability argumentative writing ability argumentative speaking ability pearson correlation 1 .46** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 80 80 argumentative writing ability pearson correlation .46** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 80 80 table 3. correlation of argumentative speaking and argumentative writing model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate durbin-watson 1 .46a .21 .20 1.27 1.42 note. a. predictors: (constant), argumentative speaking ability. b. dependent variable: argumentative writing ability. table 4 model summary b (asa and awa) fouad akki / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 236 nevertheless, the current study’s findings show only a moderate positive correlation between them. that is, semester six students’ argumentative speaking abilities are fairly related to their argumentative writing abilities, and argumentative speaking does not account for a huge variation in argumentative writing. therefore, demonstrating a good command of argumentative speaking might not predict a great deal of argumentative writing. while the findings are interesting here, the current study suffers from some limitations. first, asking responding to respond two controversial situations might not be enough to measure argumentative speaking and writing. hence, the instruments used might not provide a clear account of the students’ level in speaking and writing. with alternative data collection techniques, such as essays, the results would have been more reliable. likewise, relying on holistic scoring instead of analytic measures cannot provide the researcher with a detailed account of writing performance in areas such as grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, syntax, and content. accordingly, future researchers are invited to use analytic scoring rubrics in measuring speaking and writing skills. finally, the relationship between speaking and writing in other modes of discourse such as expository and narrative could be investigated. iv. conclusion the current study demonstrated that argumentative speaking scores are greater than argumentative writing scores. despite this significant difference between the means of speaking and writing, there is a moderate positive correlation between the two variables. given this brief account of findings, one of the most important implications of the present study is to the requirement of giving much attention to argumentative writing which was found to be below argumentative speaking. in this situation, teachers can engage students in speaking exercises before to writing assignments to help them stay focused and to help them recall the subjects they will be writing about. students’ written work, for example, is probably going to be improved by discussions. hence, pupils proficient in oral communication can leverage their speaking skills to enhance their writing proficiency.furthermore, since persuasive writing and speaking are correlated, it is possible to teach the two abilities simultaneously to promote connections between them. nevertheless, because argumentative speaking cannot predict a great proportion of argumentative writing, more attention is also to be paid to writing instruction inside the classroom by assigning appropriate writing tasks that can enhance the students’ written outcomes. references akki, f., & larouz, m. 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(2008). is syntactic maturity a reliable measurement to investigate the relationship between english speaking and writing? the asian efl journal, 10(1), 133-153. fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 60 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: january 11, 2024 final revision: march 25, 2024 accepted: march 27, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 indonesia comprises various ethnic cultures, which has its own uniqueness. one element of culture is a livelihood system. the minangkabau ethnic community has a uniqueness that is represented by the tradition of migrating and the livelihood system of trading. migrants were initially only carried out by men but later were also joined by women. many minangkabau women migrants are successful in their overseas and trading businesses. this prompted this research to be carried out with the title minangkabau woman creativepreneurship. this paper applies qualitative approach, with ethnographic research methods and an anthropolinguistic paradigm. the informants in this research were 10 minangkabau women who were creative in running their businesses. the location of this research is dharmasraya regency, west sumatra province. this research found 7 (seven) minangkabau woman creativepreneurship values, namely: (1) religiosity, (2) hard work, (3) discipline, (4) honesty, (5) never giving up, (6) thriftiness, and (7) creativity. these values were internalized from the teachings of the minangkabau adat. it is deemed that cultural values are represented in and internalized from language in the form of adages, forming attitudes, character, ethos and ethics and behavior, leading to their success. these findings are relevant to the current state of unemployment rates and in motivating local cultural education in the education system. keywords culture, language, minangkabau, woman, creativepreneurship correspondence e-mail: hasanuddin@hum.unand.ac.id article woman creativepreneurship based on minangkabau culture fitria sari1, sapriya2, nana supriatna3, hari mulyadi4, hasanuddin hasanuddin5 1-4universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia 1universitas dharmas indonesia, dharmasraya, indonesia 5universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.60-71.2024 i. introduction indonesia is characterized by cultural diversity, which has its own uniqueness. based on 2021 cultural statistics data, indonesia has 391 subcultures or ethnicities (statistik kebudayaan, 2021). such facts show that indonesia is a multicultural nation which hasanuddin describes as a mosaic or flower garden of various colours whose essence of beauty lies in the diversity (hasanuddin, 2018: 418-419; hasanuddin, 2023). one of indonesia’s sub-cultures is minangkabau. the uniqueness of the minangkabau that stands out is the matrilineal kinship system and the tradition of wandering, and more specifically when seen in relation to their livelihood system, namely trading. in the minangkabau matrilineal kinship system, descendants are drawn based on the mother’s line. therefore, all immovable and movable assets (heirlooms) are owned collectively and passed down from generation to generation along the maternal line. men act as mamak, namely the head of an extended family, but do not have a place or room in their mother’s house. they are not allowed to own and inherit their clan’s inheritance. between men and women there is a fairly strict division of roles, namely that men handle public affairs while women manage domestic affairs. apparently, the passage of time has caused shifts. likewise with the institutionalization of the tradition of merantau, which from the start was only carried out by men. merantau is described as one of the stages in the life of minangkabau men to mature themselves by gaining knowledge and experience in order to have the competence to acquire wealth to fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 61 build the welfare of their families. in other words, looking for wealth is the responsibility of men. the problem is, to what extent has change occurred so that women also have to enter the public sector in the fields of economics and business? it seems that the demand for women to take a role in the family’s livelihood system has become increasingly recognized. therefore, woman creativepreneurship is an interesting topic to discuss, especially in the context of minangkabau as the largest matrilineal ethnic group in the world (simon, 2014). the traditional position of minangkabau women as ambun puruak pagangan kunci ‘holders of authority over communal family inheritance’ experienced unique dynamics due to the emergence of agrarian transformation in the 1960s (blackwood, 1997) and continued movement into the world of trade and overseas. many minangkabau female entrepreneurs are successful, such as nuhayati subakat, ceo of pt paragon technology and innovation, a company that manages the wardah cosmetics, make over and women’s hair care brands. previously, in the early half of the 20th century, there was ruhama kudus who was considered a pioneer of minangkabau women entrepreneurs (silfia hanani & nazhiratul khairat, 2020). the question is, what is the key to their success? of course, there are many influential factors and aspects that can be examined from various points of view to answer this. however, this research wants to look at one aspect, namely cultural values. this research departs from the hypothesis that the success of minangkabau women entrepreneurs cannot be separated from the cultural values they live by, which are generally internalized through adages. culture is a system of values that are lived, values are something that is believed to be good and is a standard of behavior (joesoef, 2017). koentjaraningrat reconstructs it by placing the cultural value system as the central form of culture, which is followed by a system of ideas, a system of behavior and the results of human work. in addition, culture is identified as consisting of seven elements, namely: language system, knowledge system, social system, living equipment and technology system, religious system, livelihood system, and arts system (koentjaraningrat, 1998). it can be stated that it does not constitute culture if human ideas, behavior and creative works do not reflect the cultural value system as its central manifestation. this premise also applies to livelihood systems as an element of culture. many minangkabau cultural values are represented in the form of sayings. petatah is guidance inspired by natural law which is sunnatullah to organize social life so that it is better, orderly and harmonious. meanwhile, petitih is steps, levels, procedures, and obligations that a person must carry out based on the lines given by the petatah. for example, “fire burns, water wets” is an example of petatah. when the adage is to be used as a behavioral demand, it is constructed as, for example, “don’t play with fire or you’ll get burned, don’t play with water or you’ll get wet. hence, it is petitih (hasanuddin, 2023). to explain the relationship between minangkabau woman creative entrepreneurship and cultural values, and with adages as linguistic aspects, anthropolinguistic theory is used. this theory examines the fundamental relationship between language and culture, which places language must be studied in a cultural context and culture can be studied through language (sibarani, 2015). concretely, this research analyses the cultural values reflected in language, especially minangkabau adages, and conversely, an explanation of the meaning and cultural values contained in the adages cannot be explained without understanding the cultural context of the subject, namely minangkabau culture. exploring and developing local cultural values regarding entrepreneurship is important to reduce the unemployment rate which recently reached 7.99 million people or 5.45%. this unemployment figure contains people in the 15–24-year age range with a total of 16.46% and followed by the 25– 59-year age range. in fact, indonesia is currently (2020-2030) experiencing a demographic bonus with the productive age population reaching 70% (bps, 2023). the high unemployment rate in the productive age group in indonesia is a serious problem that needs to be found a solution together. ii. method this research aims to explore cultural values in the minangkabau woman creative entrepreneurship phenomenon in dharmasraya regency. it employs qualitative research with ethnographic methods. qualitative research is scientific research that aims to understand a sociocultural phenomenon naturally through a process fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 62 of in-depth communication interaction between researchers and research subjects (moleong, 2007). the ethnographic method is a form of research that focuses on sociological meaning through closed field observations of sociocultural phenomena (emzir, 2011). this research was applied in dharmasraya regency, west sumatra province, a district that has developed economically since 2005 when the district officially had an independent regional government separate from sawahlunto sijunjung regency. there were 10 informants selected in this research, namely women entrepreneurs who were considered successful in running their businesses. the informant’s business types are varied, namely: culinary, household furniture, building materials, fashion and services. the selection of informants was determined by the criteria of being 25 40 years old, having assets between idr 100 million and idr 600 million, a number of employees of 2-10 people, and a turnover of between idr 10 million and idr 50 million/month. data collection in this research was carried out using observation and interview techniques. to check the validity of the research data, method triangulation and source triangulation were carried out. the data analysis technique used in accordance with the ethnographic approach is thematic analysis to comprehensively describe the cultural characteristics that influence the social behavior of individual subjects as part of the cultural phenomenon of a group (hanurawan, 2016). the steps taken referring to spradley, mainly include: determining the informant; conducting interviews; creation of taxonomic analysis; discovery of cultural themes; and report writing (spradley, 2007). the content of the interview questions is related to business motivation (material, social and spiritual), challenges faced, principles of attitude and action in solving problems, and new things created (ideas, actions and work results). informants were asked to state how each answer corresponded to the minangkabau adages that they lived by. iii. result the results of observations and interviews conducted for 5 months in the field found 7 (seven) cultural values possessed by minangkabau creative entrepreneur women who were successful in running their businesses. cultural values are something that is believed to be good and becomes a standard of behaviour for informants. the seven cultural values are: religion, hard work, discipline, honesty, never giving up, thrift and creativity. these seven values are supported by 33 data points reduced from a data set that is twice as large. data reduction is carried out based on selecting one representative datum among several data that have the same content or message religious spiritual values religious spiritual values are beliefs as positive practices. it is used as standards of behaviour for informants based on religious beliefs. the religious belief in question is belief in the islamic religion. historically and essentially, islam has strengthened minangkabau culture so that the two experience an ideal integration process, giving birth to a synthesis as expressed in the adaik basandi syara’-syara’ basandi kitabullah philosophy. religious values originating from islam guide all activities carried out by the minangkabau people, including the minangkabau people’s livelihoods such as trade or entrepreneurship, which are also based on islamic teachings. the essential principles in religious values are aqidah which leads to faith and piety, morals, and worship, especially prayer, which must not be abandoned. this is reflected in the following statement. (1) iduik baraka, mati bariman live intelligently, die faithfully. data (1) shows that there are two sides to life that informants are aware of, namely life in this world and life in the afterlife. the two are like two sides of a coin, which cannot be separated from each other. according to the decree, iduik baraka ‘life in the world must be managed with common sense’ while death of faith ‘death or the afterlife must be prepared with faith’. faith is belief in the existence and almighty of allah swt and as a realization of faith is piety, namely the effort to always carry out commands and avoid allah swt’s prohibitions. (2) biasokan anak-anak jo sumbahyang, aja batauhid sarato jo iman, santoso dunia jo akhiraik sanang, lapeh utang ibu jo bapak bajalan” get the children used to prayer, teach monotheism and faith, make the world safe and happy in the afterlife, get rid of debt, mom and dad walk the advice in in data (2) above contains teachings to parents to educate their children to pray, as a representation of the recognition of tawhid fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 63 (the oneness of allah swt) and faith in him. if the obligation to educate children is fulfilled well, then the parents’ debt will be paid off and they will be comfortable leaving the world to return to allah swt. (3) dirikan shalat taruih manaruih, jikok sakik ado aturan, iduik baulemuh baama tulih, sumbahyang subuh jadi didikan. establish continuous prayer, if you are sick there are rules, live with knowledge, do good deeds and write, morning prayer becomes education. the advice in the rhyme in data (3) above provides a lesson to continue praying, so that our acts of worship are not interrupted. there the analogy is that if you want to recover from illness you have to follow the rules (take medicine), if you want to live as a knowledgeable person you have to be diligent in writing and reading. to live a spiritually healthy life, be diligent in performing the morning prayer. (4) lamo hiduik banyak di raso, jauh bajalan banyak di liek, jiko iman kurang di dado, disiko umat mangko ka sasek. long life is felt, many things are experienced, long walks are many things seen, if faith is lacking in the chest, many people will go astray. the advice in rhyme data (4) provides teachings to everyone to strengthen their faith. life experiences, joy or sorrow, can be a tempting factor or cause of despair, which can affect faith. therefore, faith must always be renewed so that it remains firm. when faced with trials, a person is required to be sincere and patient by surrendering to him, as in the following advice. (5) aka hilang paham tatumbuak, basarah diri pado tuhan the mind loses understanding, it becomes a dead end, surrendering to god data (5) illustrates that when one loses understanding of tatumbuak ‘when a person loses reason, all considerations of common sense and alternatives are closed, then the only way is to basarah oneself with god ‘surrender oneself to god’. in other words, religious values or spiritual values can be a source of support for someone to calm themselves when facing challenges, obstacles, or even fatal failures. this value underlies the belief that god is the almighty being, who gives sustenance, who is the only place to rely on and surrender to. the value of hard-working the value of hard work is a belief as a form of awareness that a business will not be successful if it is not done seriously and tirelessly. the value of hard work encourages a person to never give up in work, never waste time, never complain because of difficulties, and never stop because there are obstacles. the value of hard work means burning enthusiasm, great will, and high dreams that must be realized. (6) nak cadiak rajin baraja, nak kayo kuaik mancari if you want to be smart, study hard, if you want to be rich, be strong, keep trying. data (6) confirms that the prerequisite for success is hard work. there are two achievements chosen in the quote above, namely clever and rich. to be intelligent or successful in the world of education or science, a person must study diligently. likewise, to be successful in trying to become rich, the condition is hard work in trying. (7) duduak marauik ranjau, tagak maninjau jarak sit down to sharpen the mine, upright surveying the distance hard work is characterized by the spirit of trying without wasting time. there is no time to waste that is wasted. time and opportunities must be used effectively and efficiently, for productive activities that can produce benefits. (8) satitiak jadikan lauik, sakapa jadikan gunuang a drop makes a sea, a fist makes a mountain data (8) directs the meaning of the recommendation that small things be treated as something big or valuable. a person must be able to take wisdom or lessons from an incident, no matter how small. likewise with business profits, no matter how small, you must be grateful because gratitude is believed to bring greater results or profits. the message is, never underestimate something that looks small because a rider falls on a pebble, not a big rock. it is believed that the results of hard work will bring results slowly but surely, as reflected in data (9) below. (9) sahari sahalai banang, lamo-lamo menjadi sahalai kain. one day, a piece of thread, after a while it becomes a piece of cloth. fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 64 data (9) gives encouragement to someone to keep working hard even though the results obtained are only small. by continuing to work hard, it is believed that over time success will be achieved. value of discipline the value of discipline is a belief about the importance of commitment to compliance with applicable regulations or norms, with specific goals, with full awareness, including the rules made for oneself. the following data shows the value of discipline, especially in terms of keeping time, keeping promises, following agreements, obeying rules, paying debts, and being careful. the following data shows the value of the discipline in question. (10) sumbayang bawakatu, makan bakutiko prayers are done at the right time, meals are done at the right time data (10) shows discipline in doing something at the specified time. like prayer, its implementation has been determined five times a day and night at the times specified in islamic teachings. likewise, eating activities, whether according to general customs or customs made for oneself, are still done according to the time. indiscipline will result in abstract sanctions in the form of sin or pain for eating late. for this reason, discipline is important. (11) titian binaso lapuak, janji binaso mungkie footbridges or wooden bridges will perish if they rot, promises will perish if they are denied data (11) is a rule described in the analogy of a bridge made of wood which will bring destruction if it rots. likewise, with a promise, it will bring destruction if it is denied. (12) kato daulu batapati, kato kudian kato bacari the previous word is kept, the next word is searched for data (12) states that previous words or agreements that have been made must be kept. if there is an age or obstacle to fulfilling it, a new agreement must be sought or made to replace it. (13) naiaklah dari janjang, turunlah dari tango go up the ladder, go down the stairs data (13) explains that there are rules that must be followed, namely going up and down stairs. the two words, ladder” and “stairs” are actually synonymous and refer to the same thing, namely ladders or stairs. the difference between the two in this statement tends to strengthen the difference in meaning of the verbs “up” and “down” and emphasize the difference in the messages they convey. (14) mangaji dari alif, mangati dari aso, maningkek dari janjang nan di bawah, turun dari tanggo nan di ateh reciting the qur’an from (the letter) alif, counting from (the number) one (one), going up from the (child) level below, down from the (child) level above. data (14) shows a message of discipline to follow the rules according to the specified stages. the message was conveyed through the analogy “if you recite the koran or learn to read the hijaiyah letters (al-quran) starting from alif (the first letter of the arabic script), if you count starting from the number one or one. likewise, when climbing a ladder, you have to start from the bottom step, and if you go down you have to start from the top step. (15) hutang mambayie, bapiutang manarimo debts pay, receivables receive data (15) shows the usual and rational provisions, namely, if you owe a debt, your obligation is to pay, whereas if you owe a debt, your right is to receive a debt return. this adage teaches a person to be disciplined in carrying out obligations in fulfilling debt and receivable agreements. (16) bajalan paliharo kaki, bakato paliharo lidah when walk, take care of your feet, when talking, take care of your tongue the message in data (16) is that a person must always be careful and disciplined in their actions which are implied by two different activities, namely walking and talking. lack of discipline will result in risks that will be borne by the perpetrator himself, as shown in data (17) below. (17) tangan mancancang bahu mamikua hands chop shoulders shoulder the meaning of the statement in data (17) above is that all undisciplined actions will risk harm to the perpetrator. the analogy used is that if the hand makes a mistake, then the shoulder itself will bear the burden of the consequences. value of honesty according to the indonesian dictionary (kbbi), honesty means being upright, not lying, not cheating, and following the game. the value of honesty is the belief that honesty is a good attitude fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 65 because it is a standard of behavior. the value of honesty is very necessary in the business world and is believed to bring success. (18) nan lahie manunjuakkan nan batin the outer shows the inner life data (18) confirms that external aspects represent inner aspects, external behaviour reflects a person’s inner aspects or character. therefore, bad behaviour is a representation of bad character, whereas on the other hand, good behaviour is a representation of good mind or character. (19) buang siriah buang bidak, buang puluik buang tingkarang, kato bana dipatidak, sandi iman nan nyato kurang. throw away the betel, throw away the pieces, throw away the puluik, throw away the tingkalang, the true word is denied/denied, the real code of faith is lacking data (19) illustrates honest behavior reflects faith. this is described in a saying in the form of a rhyme. the sampiran uses selected words that refer to the type of punishment for someone who commits mild to severe customary violations, namely throwing away siriah, pieces, puluik and tingkarang. the sampiran leads to content in the form of a statement that if a truth is denied (kato bana dipatidak), it represents that someone has a lack of faith. (20) satali pambali kumayan, sakupang pambali katayo, sakali lancuang ka ujian, saumua iduik urang ndak ka picayo like incense buyers, like ketaya buyers, once they go straight to the test, people won’t believe it for the rest of their lives data (20) contains a strong warning to liars or people who do not uphold honesty. the adage in the form of a pantun illustrates that just once behaving dishonestly will make people never trust him again. therefore, honesty needs to be maintained so that people’s trust will also be maintained. trust is a very valuable thing in business success. the value of never giving up the value of never giving up is an attitude that is recognized as positive or is believed to be good for success in business. this value refers to a character that is not easily broken when facing various challenges and obstacles in business. business challenges can be in the form of a lack of capital, very little results, or even failure or bankruptcy. for this reason, minangkabau culture teaches people to be resilient in facing these challenges. the values of never giving up are reflected in the following quote. (21) takuruang nak di lua, tahimpik nak di ateh being trapped outside, being squeezed inside. the quote in data (21) above contains the message that someone who wants to be successful in their business must first have the determination to move forward. this determination is depicted symbolically with the phrase “will be outside” and will be above”. when in a “locked up” condition, a person must think and try to immediately “get out”. likewise, when in a “bottom” position, a person must think and make efforts to immediately get up to go “up”. (22) ombak ditantang manuju pulau, laia dikambang manantang angin the waves are pushed towards the island, the sails are raised to challenge the wind data (22) strengthens data (21) regarding the belief that the determination to succeed must be based on a strong ethos and never giving up in facing challenges. like sailing towards an island, the waves that come your way must be challenged or conquered. different from waves which tend to be an obstacle to the speed of sailing, wind is actually a challenge that can be controlled to support smoother sailing. so, data (22) illustrates that challenges do not always hinder you, but if you are clever and skilled, challenges can actually be used as strength to move forward to achieve success (23) tiado rotan aka pun jadi, tiado kayu janjang dikapiang no rattan roots are allowed, no wooden ladders can be split data (23) provides a message not to be afraid to face challenges in running a business, not to hesitate to take every available opportunity. the proverb above emphasizes that to be successful, a person must have flexibility in exploiting existing potential, tiado rotan aka pun jadi. apart from that, someone who wants to be successful must also work totally and optimistically so that they do not hesitate to use stock assets, as intended by the saying “tiado kayu janjang dikapiang”. (24) dari pado takungkuik, elok lah tagendeng. instead of lying face down, it’s better to be on your side data (24) offers an alternative flexibility in fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 66 (28) banyak habih, saketek sadang a lot is used up, a little is enough data (28) is a key saying which contains the statement that spending for life’s necessities is relative, if it is a lot or wasteful it will run out, but if you save enough, it will not make someone needy. this adage departs from empirical experience to teach that frugality is important to build capital and investment. the opposite action could actually result in bankruptcy. (29) barakik rakik ka hulu, baranang-ranang ka tapian, basakik sakik dahulu, basanang-sanang kamudian get sick upstream, swim to the shore, get sick first, have fun later data (29) is a quote in the pantun construction which means the need to work hard at the beginning “get sick first”, when starting a business, because there will be many challenges and obstacles in the subsequent process. “getting sick first” includes frugality, because you have to limit your desire to satisfy yourself without control. it is believed that hard work from the start will produce success in the future. value of creativity the value of creativity is an awareness of the importance of the mental processes carried out by a person to produce something new, either in the form of an idea or in the form of real work that is original and relatively different from what previously existed. an entrepreneur is said to have to have creative power in running his business so that a personal branding is formed from the product that is his business. this creative value is reflected in the minangkabau adage which is internalized by the informant as follows. (30) baa di urang, baa di awak as people are, so are we data (30) is a cultural value that encourages someone to always be equal to other people. logically, people can do it why can’t we, people can do it why can’t we? to always be equal to other people, a person must be creative. likewise, in entrepreneurship, creativity is one of the keys to success. (31) bajalan surang nak daulu, bajalan baduo di tangah walk alone first, walk together in the middle terms of business profits. not always the maximum business target can be achieved. sometimes an entrepreneur is faced with two choices between total failure or success but with small profits or even just a return on investment. facing these two choices, the second option is the best. (25) aso ilang duo tabilang, kalau indak barasil bia nyao malayang one is lost, two are counted, if it doesn’t work, lives will be lost data (25) gives a harder message to try not to fail. success is placed as something very valuable, even more valuable than life. in the first chapter it is stated aso ilang duo tabilang ‘satu hilang dua terbilang’, meaning that if one is lost, two or many replacements will be born. furthermore, if you fail completely then your life may be at stake, as stated in the statement of indak barasil bia nyao malayang ‘if you don’t succeed, let your life be lost’. economical value the value of thrift is an economic value in the form of the act of being careful in spending money, not being wasteful, being careful, sparing a little. thrift strengthens investment as a way to prevent bankruptcy. the act of frugality is believed to be something good by informants. these frugal values are reflected in the following data from the sayings. (26) ingek-ingek sabalum kanai, bakulimek sabalum habih be careful before you waste it, save before you run out data (26) contains a warning that someone should save money. the first fragment of the adage above, ingek-ingek sabalum kanai reminds someone to be careful before a disaster strikes. this warning is paralleled with the warning in the second part, baklimek sabalum habih, namely a warning to save money before supplies run out or go bankrupt. through frugality, someone can set aside money for future savings or investments. (27) katiko ado di tahan, lah tak ado baru dimakan when it is held, there is nothing to eat data (27) contains messages that are constructed in an irrational symbolic form. the message of the petitih is, a person should have savings as supplies, when there is still something to eat then the stock savings must be held first, then after there is nothing left to eat then the stock savings can be used. fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 67 data (31) is a statement that is literally impossible. because, it is impossible for someone to “walk alone but be in the first or front position”. likewise, with “walking together in the middle”. however, this petitih is an encouragement for someone to always be creative in finding something new so that it can be identified as progress. this can be explained, when someone just (walks) alone then he must be able to create an imaginary opponent and then defeat him (in front). likewise, when walking together (which can mean having different ideas and paradoxes) one must be able to be creative to find a middle way in the form of ideal syntheses. (32) maambiak contoh ka nan sudah, mambiak tuah ka nan manang take an example from those who have, take luck from those who win data (32) contains lessons about the need to consider past history and emulate people who won or were successful. in other words, this training requires someone to reflect on the past and hone their competence by emulating champions or winners. (33) sambia manyalam minum aia, sambia dibadiang nasi masak sambal dives to drink water, while cooking rice simmers data (33) shows that one example of creativity is when doing two or more jobs at relatively the same time. the two jobs exemplified in the decree, namely diving and drinking water, can be done at the same time so that they are more effective and efficient. likewise, the activity of warming up or warming up the body can be done at the same time as cooking rice. this means that you can do two or more jobs at the same time, resulting in multiple benefits. this can only be done by creative people. these are the seven cultural values and 33 supporting data on minangkabau adages obtained from the informants who were the subjects of this research. iv. discussion it can be deemed that minangkabau cultural values have a significant role in the success of their businesses. the minangkabau cultural values referred to are religious spirituality, hard work, discipline, honesty, never giving up, thrift and creativity. the cultural values referred to are obtained by the subject through informal education in the family. this value content is indeed inherited in a condition that has been constructed in the form of petatah petitih, namely typical minangkabau proverbs in the form of admonitions, rhymes, or other philosophical expressions. this is in sync with the concept that minangkabau people have an outward looking character and anticipate this with the cultural values they have inherited. in other words, they think locally to act globally (hasanuddin, 2019. these cultural values are packaged in adages as one of the product characteristics of the minangkabau society as an oral society. in an oral society, the cultural value system is constructed into spoken language. it is in the form of lyrical prose or poetry, which uses beautiful phrases or sentences to make it interesting so that it is easy to remember and can be conveyed by singing or singing. the construction of this oral language was maintained when the written tradition was mastered after they mastered the arabic script after the 13rd century and latin script since the 19th century. the language construction of sayings tends to be symbolic, plastic, analogical, packaged in the form of figures of speech, irony, satire and even sarcasm. all these external forms are packages of messages, advice, praise or harsh criticism without insulting the person who is the target. therefore, speeches are also called language pearls, language gems, language flowers, language beauty, or diplomatic language (djamaris, 1990:26) which, although they contain bitter criticism, will not hurt the hearts of the people who are their targets. minangkabau cultural values regarding women are traditionally symbolized in the sayings as limpapeh rumah nan gadang, ambun puruak pagangan kunci ‘keeper of the rumah gadang, holder of the keys to inheritance’. in relation to her male relatives, she is as auih tampek minta aie, litak ka tampek mintak nasi ‘where male relatives ask for water if they are thirsty and ask for rice if they are hungry’. however, their realm of creativity is only limited to the rumah gadang, the domain of their movements is only in the domestic realm. affairs in the public domain, migrating, doing business and so on are managed by their male relatives. this means that women are pampered and glorified by their male relatives. however, then women were required to be involved in business expansion into the public sphere. this was initially made possible by fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 68 ecological and demographic pressures. ecological and demographic pressures are described in minangkabau adages with alam bakalebaran manusia bakakambangan ‘nature expands and humans develop’. this means that due to human or population development, the need for agricultural land is increasing, but nature does not provide it, so adaptations are needed. the first adaptation is the transformation of a livelihood system that was initially agrarian-based to a trading system, which is not only carried out in the village itself but is more prospective if carried out between regions and/or in cities through overseas residents (naim, 1984; chadwick, 1991; kato, 1982) in subsequent developments, due to demographic growth and limited geographical living space, the demands of working, trying or migrating are not solely men’s burden but also women’s responsibilities which are full of risks (prusinski, 2016). the duality of the domestic and public domains experiences a dynamic dialectic as described by nagata, j., & salaff, j. w (nagata, 1996). at the same time, a more fundamental appreciation of islam and adoption of advances in modern civilization also contributed to the occurrence of shifts (ok-yun, 1996). communal family ties (extended family) are becoming increasingly tenuous while nuclear family ties are becoming stronger. there is a duality of property, namely the wealth of the voice or livelihood (acquired by husband and wife) with small family ownership and inheritance according to faraidh (islamic law) (tanner, 1982) furthermore, transformation occurs due to the reciprocal influence between the economic sector and the kinship system. the influence of islam provides an alternative to strengthening nuclear family ties so that the wife becomes an integral part of the new small family and forms a family economic unit separate from the original communal family. previously, in the traditional minangkabau marriage system, husband and wife did not unite into one new small family but remained members of their respective families. husband and wife become mere ‘ambassadors’ of their two communal families. such transformation is increasingly strengthened by the adoption of modern civilization which is supported by the development of science, as well as increasingly massive migration for educational, work and other reasons (hasanuddin, 2013). entrepreneurship in minangkabau society is only known from the autobiography of moehammad saleh datuk orang kaya besar in the 19th century in rantau pariaman (saleh, 1965; kato, 1980). the phenomenon of women being involved and even taking over central roles in the family economic sector in the public sphere probably started to occur in the latter half of the 20th century. this is thought to be due to increasingly close nuclear family ties, women joining in migrating with their husbands, coupled with increasing opportunities. formal education for women. many minangkabau women entrepreneurs are successful in their businesses. the key to their success found in this research is the seven cultural values that they inherited in informal education in the family and through the process of internalizing minangkabau cultural values which are represented in the sayings. the seven cultural values, as explained above, are religious spiritual values, hard work, discipline, honesty, never giving up, thrift and creativity. the first value is islamic-based religious spirituality. islam is accepted as a spiritual reference for the minangkabau indigenous people who previously relied on reason or reason and feeling as the basis of goodness, which they called raso jo pareso, alua jo patuik ‘taste and check, flow and proper’. minangkabau customs are habits that are patterned and entrenched, developed and developed based on the results of minangkabau human interaction with nature, as reflected in the natural philosophy of alam takambang jadi guru (abidin, 2019). islam is believed to be a teaching for patterns of life behavior that came from god allah swt through revelation (al-qur’an) which was conveyed through the prophet muhammad saw. islam does not reject the traditional position that nature is a teacher for human life. in fact, islam strengthens customs because the universe is a creation of allah swt, has laws regulated by him, and therefore in nature there are signs of his power. the qur’an as the basis of islam teaches believers to immediately abandon buying and selling when prayer time comes, especially friday prayers for men. on the other hand, when they had finished praying, they were told to scatter on the face of the earth to seek god’s grace so that they would be lucky (qs 62:9-10). the second value is hard work which is fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 69 believed to be a condition for achieving success. hard work is behavior that shows serious effort in facing various obstacles so as to do something as well as possible (yaumi, 2014), an effort that is made continuously in completing tasks or work (kesuma, 2013), and is characterized by a strong will and an attitude of not giving up easily in trying to achieve their goals and aspirations (elfindri, et al, 2012). the third value is discipline, namely respect, respect, submission and obedience to applicable regulations, written or unwritten, including complying with commitments made by oneself. in general, there are two types of discipline, namely self-imposed discipline and command discipline, but true discipline aims at self-development and self-control without outside interference. it is believed that discipline in running a business will lead to success. the fourth value is honesty, namely a guideline for attitudes and behavior regarding the conformity of conscience with words and actions; conformity of the information conveyed with actual facts, and other forms of conformity. being honest is not always easy to do because you are faced with many challenges, such as need, worry, fear, intimidation, threats, or even persuasion and profit. honesty requires courage and moral strength to overcome all the obstacles above. honesty is recognized as the basic capital for gaining trust from customers and partners which can lead someone to success in business. the fifth value is never giving up, namely the belief that the ability to rise from difficult situations and helplessness is a virtue. it is believed that an attitude of never giving up can be achieved by managing emotions well, optimizing common sense, and thinking forward so that you remain enthusiastic in difficult situations full of challenges. attitude of never giving up can be formed with hard work behavior, self-confidence or optimism, strong will or enthusiasm, a patient spirit and not easily giving up, always wanting to move forward, enjoying work, as well as a creative and innovative attitude. the sixth value is thrift, namely being careful and calculating in spending assets, not being wasteful, careful, sparing little, reducing expenses so that they do not exceed income to prevent bankruptcy, delaying the use of assets, and many other meanings that can be derived from the concept of thrift. by saving money, a person can build opportunities for investment, allowing assets to grow and business success to be achieved. a frugal attitude and calculated behavior in making decisions makes entrepreneurs successful in running their business. the importance of frugal behavior has been appreciated by minangkabau people for a long time, so it has been passed down from generation to generation through adages. the seventh value is creativity, namely the ability to generate new ideas. composition, synthesis of thoughts or products through realistic imaginative activities. challenging conditions are often productive in giving birth to ideas and creative works. creativity requires the ability of intellectual intelligence which is based on common sense, emotional intelligence which is based on feelings, and spiritual intelligence which is based on divine awareness. the combination of these three bases of intelligence will give birth to creativity that is controlled, not wild, and capable of being held accountable materially, morally and spiritually. the findings of this research are important for addressing the recent phenomena of unemployment and poverty. another implication is cultural education as a basis for character education in responding to today’s postmodern life. however, there are still many aspects that have not been answered, for example regarding the influence of the role and success of women in the field of entrepreneurship from a gender perspective. likewise, the link between culture and creative entrepreneurship (sinapi, 2020), the reciprocal role between culture and entrepreneurship is increasingly being recognized in europe (josé antónio porfírio & tiago carrilho mendes & j. augusto felício, 2018), the importance of social networking skills (dufays, frederic & benjamin huybrechts, 2014) because social entrepreneurship has a social impact and social transformation, such as in east africa (matilda maseno & caroline wanyoike, 2020), even social entrepreneurship can encourage social innovation, such as in rural communities affected by conflict in colombia (julia c. naranjo-valencia, ana c. ocampo-wilches & luis f. trujillo-henao, 2020) and others. all of this recommends that research on female creative entrepreneurship needs to be studied further. fitria sari / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 70 v. conclusion this research, found that the key to the success of minangkabau women entrepreneurs was the internalization of the minangkabau cultural values they inherited. there are seven minangkabau cultural values that are internalized in the informal education process of the informants’ families and applied to their businesses. the seven cultural values are: religion, hard work, discipline, honesty, never giving up, thriftiness, and creativity. their success, including the success of internalizing and applying minangkabau cultural values in attitudes and behavior, correlates with the placement of women in minangkabau culture from the start, namely as holders of control of inheritance or collective family communal property, even though they initially operated limited to the domestic sphere. in other words, the traditional management beliefs and skills that they have honed in the domestic sphere, which have been passed down to generations of women from generation to generation, make them remain competent in leading companies in the public sphere. cultural values and competencies that are built through internalization of this culture are relevant to be developed in current conditions where the level of educated unemployment is quite high in minangkabau and indonesia. this development can be carried out through minangkabau cultural education as character education at formal, informal and non-formal education levels. cultural values, as understood in this research, are something that is believed to be good and is the standard for ideas, behavior and creative works of a society. references abidin, m. e. 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(2014). pendidikan karakter. jakarta: prenada media. i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 263 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 18, 2024 final revision: august 07, 2024 accepted: august 20, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 several factors are causing the threat of a language, namely globalization, majority and minority ethnicities’s existence, lack of participation of the younger generation, and crossbreeding. one of the reasons for the rongga language is crossbreeding. this study employed a qualitative research design to study the rongga language in crossbreed marriages. thus, this research is intended to analyze the crossbreeding between ethnic groups with different languages, especially to figure out how manggarai-speaking people and ngadha-speaking people who are married to rongga people pronounce the words of the rongga language that contain sounds ɓ, ɗ, ɠ, ᵐb, ⁿd, ᵑg, ɹ. this study found that the sounds [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɓ], [ᵐb], [ⁿd], [ᵑg], [ɹ] in the rongga language by manggarai speakers are pronounced as [bʰ], [dʰ], [gʰ], [mb], [nd], [ŋg], and [r]. every language sound [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], [ᵐb], [ⁿd], [ᵑg], [ɹ] in rongga by speakers of the language ngadha is respectively pronounced as [bʰ], [dʰ], [gʰ], [b], [d], [g], [ʤ] or [r]. it showed that the threat to the rongga language started from the smallest elements, namely the sounds of the language. apart from that, threats in the rongga language also occurred due to the limited vocabulary in the rongga language; hence, they had to absorb the vocabulary from indonesian. this study implies communicating in rongga language should be carefully taken into account because it has several language variations. keywords threats language, crossbreeding, phonetics, phonemics, loan words correspondence e-mail: suparsa_nym@unmas.ac.id article the threatening of rongga language as a result of crossbreeding from different languages i nyoman suparsa1, ida bagus nyoman mantra2, ni putu anggi apsari3 1,2faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mahasaraswati denpasar, denpasar, indonesia 3faculty of humanities, universitas udayana, denpasar, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.263-277.2024 i. introduction a language that the speakers still use is a living language. a living language will experience changes in language sounds and language vocabulary. language, like humans as speakers, always coexists with other languages. these languages can be in contact between the majority language and the majority, the minority language and the minority language, and between the majority language and the minority language, or there can be side-by-side between languages that are easy and difficult to learn (ferreira, 2024; cf. oktira, et al., 2022). the threat of a language can take place between languages that live side by side in a region or within a family that uses two or more different languages. the threat of a language happens if there is contact between the majority language and the minority language and even between the minority language and the minority language itself or between a language that is difficult to learn and a language that is easy to learn (grenoble, 2024). rongga is a minority language in local/ regional and national contexts. around it are other languages, both small (minority) and large (majority) and they often intermarry. the two biggest ones are the manggarai language and the ngadha language. the small languages include waerana, manus, rejong, and kepo (arka et al., 2007, p. 6). in general, rongga people master the languages of other ethnic groups, but other ethnicities such as the manggarai or ngadha ethnic groups—do not master the rongga language. it reflects local sociolinguistic conditions, indicating that the rongga language is small. in addition, there i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 264 is an impression that the rongga language is more difficult, especially the sounds of the language and its expressions (arka et al., 2007, p. 6). krauss (1992, pp. 4-10), classified the world’s languages into three typologies: (1) extinct languages (moribund languages), (2) languages threatened with extinction (endangered languages), and (3) languages that are still safe (safe languages) (see also ibrahim, 2008, p. 36). languages that are categorized ass moribund are languages that are no longer used, learned (or acquired) by children as their mother tongue (mother tongue); endangered languages are languages that, although currently still being learned (or acquired) by children, will be abandoned by children in the next century; meanwhile, safe languages are languages that receive strong support from the government and have a large number of speakers. the rongga language is a language that is in a position between endangered languages and extinct languages (moribund languages) because there are around 7,000 speakers. moreover, there is a tendency for rongga people to use their husband’s or wife’s language in a different language, a sign of low loyalty to one’s language and limited vocabulary. in indonesia, there are 18 languages that are close to extinction, namely (1) amahai 50 people, (2) hoti 10, (3) hukumina 1, (4) ibu 35, (5) kamarian 10, (6) kayeli 3, (7) nusa laut 10, (8) piru 10, (9) bonerif 4, (10) kanum bädi 10, (11) mapia 1, (12) massep 25, (13) mor 20-30, (14) tandia 2, (15) lom 2, (16) budong-budong 70, (17) dampal 90, and (18) lengilu 10 (sil international, 2006; ibrahim, 2008, p. 42). the threat of one language by another language is caused by four factors, such as (1) globalization, (2) the existence of ethnic majorities and minorities, (3) lack of participation from the younger generation, and (4) crossbreeding (atifnigar et al., 2021). according to ibrahim (2008, p. 42), the threat of a language is caused by (a) because parents no longer teach their mother tongue to their children and no longer use it at home, (b) the choice of some speech communities not to use it in everyday life, and (c) the pressure of a majority language in a multilingual speech community. globalization is an era where a process of unification of culture and information occurs. unifying culture and information through television broadcasts and other things will accelerate the eradication of minority languages. the younger generation plays an important role in maintaining regional languages. if the younger generation is not confident using their regional language, they will switch to their national language, indonesian, and other foreign languages, such as english (farida et al., 2021; quasimus & maharani, 2023). likewise, minority ethnic groups, especially those with minority languages, are increasingly threatened with the extinction of their regional languages (lonardi, 2022). crossbreeding or intermarriage between ethnic groups, especially between majority and minority ethnic groups (see marcson, 1951). when two people from different tribes marry and have children, most of those in the same family will only use one regional language or both of their languages; even to ensure their children’s future, they tend to use their national language, indonesia. it will accelerate the process of endangered minority (regional) languages. as an illustration, the rongga language is surrounded by minority languages such as rembong language, rajong language, manus language, kepo’ language, waerana language, and majority languages such as manggarai language and ngadha language, as in figures 1 and 2 as follows (suparsa, 2008, 2021). based on studies as described above, crossbreeding is the main focus in this research. crossbreeding is intermarriage between ethnic groups with different languages. in this case, people who speak manggarai or ngadha have abandoned their language and switched to using the language of their husband or wife who does not speak rongga. why? it turns out that this is caused by (1) rongga language is a language that is difficult to learn, especially from the aspect of pronunciation of certain language sounds which are not shared by other languages around the rongga language area, (2) rongga speakers lack loyalty to their language. they often choose one of the easiest languages to use for both parties, especially from the aspect of pronouncing the sounds of the rongga language into manggarai or ngadha language rongga people marry manggarai people or rongga people marrying ngadha people additionally, the reason the rongga people abandoned their language was because (3) limited vocabulary (arka et al., 2007). therefore, when communicating with their husband or wife, rongga people have difficulty choosing vocabulary that does not exist in rongga when talking to the manggarai or ngadha i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 265 peopbased le. as a result, they switched to their national language, namely indonesian. the common symptoms are contrary to the norm when intermarriage occurs. people who intermarry with different languages become bilingual or multilingual people, and this does not happen to men or women from rongga people who are married or married to manggarai or ngadha people. ii. methods this study employed a qualitative research by conducting direct observation to the field of the research. this research was carried out in the location of rongga language speakers. rongga language is spoken in kota komba district, east manggarai regency, whose capital is mborong, east nusa tenggara province (bps manggari timur, 2020; bps ntt, 2020). seven thousand people speak the rongga language (population report april 2005). rongga language speakers are spread across tana rata village, watu nggene village, bamo village, and komba village (see suparsa, 2021). in collecting the data, the observation method, interview method, and library method were used. the observation method is needed to observe the use of the rongga language when a man is married to a woman who speaks the manggarai or ngadha language and also to observe a woman who speaks the rongga language married to a man who speaks the manggarai language or ngadha language. furthermore, the interview method is used to interview informants, such as a man who speaks rongga language is married to a woman who speaks manggarai or ngadha language and also a woman who speaks rongga who is married to a man who speaks manggarai or ngadha language, especially in pronouncing the sounds [ɓ, ɗ, ɠ, ᵐb, ⁿd ᵑg, ɹ], and the loan words from indonesian due to the limited vocabulary of the rongga language. in addition, researchers also did library research to obtain written data from books related to the figure 1. rongga language is flanked by a number of languages (anu 06-090) figure 2. rongga language on the south coast of east manggarai regency which borders it with ngadha regency (anu 06-090) i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 266 tense middle back vowel [o], and (6) unrounded low tense back vowel [a]. the data can be seen in the table 1. phonemically, the rongga language has 25 consonant segments, such as /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /ʤ/, /ɓ/, /ɗ/. /ɠ/, /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /f/. /v/, /s/, /ɣ/, /h/, /r/, /w/, /ɹ/. however, phonetically, the rongga language has 28 consonant sounds (contoids), namely: (1) voiceless labial stop [p], voiced labial stop [b], voiceless alveolar stop [t], voiced alveolar stop [d], voiceless velar stop [k], voiced velar stop [g], voiceless glottal stop [ɂ]; (2) voiceless palatal affricate [ʧ], voiced palatal affricate [ʤ], voiced glottal affricate [h]; (3) voiced labial implosive [ɓ], voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ], voiced velar implosive [ɠ]; (4) voiced labial prenasal stop [ᵐb], voiced alveolar prenasal stop [ⁿd], voiced velar prenasal stop [ᵑg], (5) voiced labial nasal [m], voiced alveolar nasal [n], voiced velar nasal [ŋ]/; (6) voiceless alveolar fricative [f]. voiced alveolar fricative [v], voiceless palatal fricative [s], voiced velar fricative [ɣ]; (7) voiced alveolar trills; (8) voiced alveolar lateral [r]; (9) voiced labial approximant [w], voiced alveolar approximant [ɹ], voiced palatal approximant [ʸ]. the consonant chart can be seen as table 2. rongga language consonants have incomplete distribution because consonant sounds are only found in the initial and middle position of rongga language, the manggarai language, and the ngadha language. note-taking and recording techniques were used to maintain the validity of the data. then, the qualitative descriptive method was used to analyze and present the results of the data analysis. iii. results phonemics and phonetics of rongga, manggarai, and ngadha language of the many regional languages in east manggarai regency, east nusa tenggara province as the location for the use of rongga language, only a few regional languages have been described phonemically and phonetically following the scope of the research above, namely (1) rongga language, (2) manggarai language, and (3) ngadha language. 1. phonemics and phonetics of the rongga language based on the results of research on the phonology of the rongga language conducted by suparsa (2008:112), the rongga language has six vowel segments, namely /i, u, e, o, ə, a/ phonemically and phonetically has six vowel sounds (vocoids), i.e. (1) unrounded high tense front vowel [i], (2) rounded high tense back vowel [u], (3) unrounded tense middle front vowel [e], (4) middle tense unrounded back vowel [ə], (5) round table 1. vocoid rongga language tongue position front back not round not round round high tense i u middle tense e ə o low tense a table 2. contoid rongga language place of articulation labial alveolar palatal velar glotle manner of articulation stop  voiceless/ voiced p b t d k g [ɂ] affricate  voiceless/ voiced [ʧ] ʤ implosive  voiced ɓ ɗ ɠ pranasal stop voiced ᵐb ⁿd ᵑg nasal  voiced m n ŋ fricative  voiced f v s ɣ trill  voiced r lateral  voiced l aproximan voiced w ɹ [ʸ] i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 267 words and are not found in the final position, so the rongga language is often referred to as vocalic language (suparsa, 2021). 2. phonemics and phonetics of the manggarai language phonemically, the manggarai language has five vowel segments, namely /i, u, e, o, and a/. meanwhile, phonetically, the manggarai language has nine vowel sounds (vocoids), such as (1) unrounded high tense front vowel [i], unrounded high tense front vowel [i], (2) rounded high tense back vowel [u], rounded tense high back vowel [u], (3) unrounded tense middle front vowel [e], unrounded middle front vowel [ɛ], (4) rounded middle tense back vowel tense [o], rounded middle tense back vowel [ↄ], and (5) unrounded low tense back vowel [a]. the following chart presents the data concerning the manggarai language vocal chart in table 3. phonemically, the manggarai language has 17 consonant phonological segments, namely /pʰ, bʰ, tʰ, dʰ, kʰ, gʰ, ʧ, ʤ, h, m, n, ŋ, s, r, l, w/. then, phonetically, it consists of 17 sound segments too, namely: (1) aspirated voiceless labial stop [pʰ], aspirated voiced labial stop [bʰ], aspirated voiceless alveolar stop [tʰ], aspirated voiced alveolar stop [dʰ], aspirated voiceless velar stop [kʰ], aspirated voiced velar stop [gʰ], (2) voiceless alveolar affricate [ʧ], voiced alveolar affricate [ʤ], voiced glottal affricate [h], (3) voiced labial nasal [m], voiced alveolar nasal [n], voiced velar nasal [ŋ], (4) voiced alveolar fricative [s], (5) voiced alveolar trill [r], (6) voiced alveolar lateral [l], and (7) voiced labial approximant [w]. the consonant chart is presented table 4. 3. phonemics and phonetics of the ngadha language phonemically, the bajawa language, which is often referred to as ngadha, has five vowels, namely / i, u, e, o, a / [i, u, e, o, a], and phonetically it has five vowel sounds (vocoid) which are presented as follows. 1) unrounded high tense front vowel [i]. 2) rounded high tense back vowel [u], 3) unrounded middle tense front vowel [e], rounded tense middle back vowel [o], and 4) unrounded low tense back vowel [a]. ngadha is a vocalic language because phonemes and consonant sounds never occupy the final position of a syllable or a word. pay attention to the table 5 phonemically, the ngadha language has 19 consonants, namely /pʰ, bʰ, tʰ, dʰ, kʰ, gʰ, ɂ, ʤ, m. n. ŋ, f, v, s, z, ɣ, r, l, w/. phonetically, the ngadha language has 19 consonant sounds (contoids), namely (1) aspirated voiceless labial stop [pʰ], aspirated voiced labial stop [bʰ], aspirated voiceless alveolar stop [tʰ], aspirated voiced alveolar stop [dʰ], aspirated voiceless velar stop [kʰ], aspirated voiced velar stop [gʰ], voiceless glottal stop [ɂ], (2) voiced palatal affricate [ʤ], (3) voiced labial nasal [m], voiced alveolar nasal [n], voiced alveolar table 3. vocoid manggarai language tongue position front back not round not round round high tense i i u u middle tense e ɛ o ↄ low tense a table 4. convoid manggarai language place of articulation labial alveolar palatal velar glotle manner of articulation stop aspirated  voiceless/ voiced pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ affricate  voiceless/ voiced ʧ ʤ h nasal > voiced m n ŋ fricative  voiced s z trill  voiced r lateral  voiced l aproximan  voiced w i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 268 nasal [ŋ], (4) voiceless alveolar fricative [f], voiced alveolar fricative [v], voiceless palatal fricative [s], voiced palatal fricative [z], voiced velar fricative [ɣ], (5) voiced alveolar trill [r], (6) voiced alveolar lateral [l], and (7) voiced labial approximant [w]. consider the table 6 which describe bajawa consonant. the threatend of linguistics as a result of intermarriage with different languages generally, intermarried societies will use both languages (bilingually). however, rongga people who intermarry with people who speak manggarai or ngadha will choose one of their languages. what they choose is the language that is easiest to use. research shows that the rongga language is extremely difficult for husbands or wives who do not speak the rongga language, such as manggarai speakers or ngadha speakers. it is caused by (1) the difficulty of pronouncing certain language sounds in rongga and (2) the limited vocabulary of rongga. 1. the difficulty in pronouncing particular language sounds in rongga language language sounds that are difficult to pronounce in rongga by a husband or a wife who speaks manggarai for husbands or wives who speak manggarai, they have adversity pronouncing consonant sounds (contoids) in the rongga language, such as implosive consonant sounds [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], voiced prenasal stops [ᵐb], [ⁿd], [ᵑg]. a) the voiced labial implosive sound [ɓ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by manggarai-speaking people who are to rongga people into one segment, namely the aspirated voiced labial stop [bʰ], for example: (1) <bhako> is uttered by the rongga people / ɓako/ [ɓako] and by the manggarai people / bʰako/ [bʰako] ‘haughty’ (2) <bhodha> is produced by the rongga people /ɓoɗa/ [ɓoɗa] and by the manggarai people / bʰodha/ [bʰodʰa] ‘if’ (3) <bhughu> is generated by the rongga people /ɓuɠu/ [ɓuɠu] and by the manggarai people / bʰughu/ [bʰugʰu] ‘simultaneously’ furthermore, the differences in pronunciation of the sounds can be seen below. rongga language manggarai language [ɓ]  [bʰ] / _____ v [ɓako]  [bʰako] ‘haughty’ [ɓoɗa]  [bʰodʰa] ‘if’ [ɓuɠu]  [bʰugʰu] ‘simultaneously’ the sound [ɓ] in rongga becomes [bʰ] in manggarai is before vowels ([a, o, u]) b) the voiced alveolar implosive sound [ɗ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by manggarai-speaking people who are married to rongga people as one segment, table 5. vocoid ngadha language tongue position front back not round not round round high tense i u middle tense e o low tense a table 6. convoid ngadha language place of articulation labial alveolar palatal velar glotal manner of articulation stop aspirated  voiceless/ voiced pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ ɂ affricate  voiceless/ voiced ʤ nasal  voiced m n .ŋ fricative  voiced f v s z ɣ trill  voiced r lateral  voiced l aproximan  voiced w i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 269 refers to as the aspirated voiced alveolar stop [dʰ], for instance: (1) <bhodha> is enunciated by the rongga people /ɓoɗa/ [ɓoɗa] and by the manggarai people /bʰodʰa/ [bʰodʰa] ‘if’ (2) <kodhe> is uttered by rongga people /koɗe/ [koɗe] and by manggarai people /kodʰe/ [kodʰe] ‘monkey’ (3) <dheke> is pronounced by the rongga people /ɗəke/ [ɗəke] and by the manggarai people / dʰeke/ [dʰeke] ‘climb, panic’ according to the data mentioned above, the following rules are needed. rongga language manggarai language [ɗ]  [dʰ] / v__________v [ɓoɗa]  [bʰodʰa] ‘if’ [koɗe]  [kodʰe] ‘monkey’ [ɗəke]  [dʰeke] ‘climb, panic’ the sound [ɗ] in rongga becomes [dʰ] in manggarai is before the vowel ([o]) and after the vowel [a, e, ə] c) the voiced veral implosive sound [ɠ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by manggarai-speaking people who are married to rongga people into one segment, considered as the aspirated voiced velar implosive [gʰ], as in the examples below: (1) <bhughu> is uttered by rongga people / ɓuɠu/ [ɓuɠu] and by manggarai people / bʰugʰu/ [bʰugʰu] ‘simultaneously’ (2) <rogha> is pronounced by the rongga people /roɠa/ [roɠa] and by the manggarai people / rogʰa/ [rogʰa] ‘to cook’ (3) <ghepo> is enunciated by the rongga people /ɠəpo/ [ɠəpo] and by the manggarai people / gʰəpo/ [gʰəpo, gʰepo] ‘hold’ the rule of changing [ɠ] [ɠ]  [gʰ] / v__________v [ɓuɠu]  [bʰugʰu] ‘simultaneously’ [roɠa]  [rogʰa] ‘to cook’ [ɠəpo]  [gʰəpo, gʰepo] ‘hold’ the sound [ɠ] in rongga becomes [gʰ] and in manggarai before the vowel ([u, o]) and is after the vowel sound [u, a, ə] rules for changing the sound [ə] [ə]  [e] / [gʰ] ________ [p] [ɠəpo]  [gʰepo] ‘hold’ there is an alteration in the sound [ə] in the manggarai language within the environment between the sound [gʰ] and the sound [p] d) the voiced prenasal labial stop sound [ᵐb] which is one segment in the rongga language enunciated by manggarai-speaking people who are married to rongga people changes into one segment, namely the nasal labial sound [m] and is followed by the addition of [b] the labial stop sound [b] after the voiced labial nasal sound [m] followed by a vocoid, and the addition of the sound [ə] before the voiced labial nasal sound [m]. the examples are demonstrated as follows. (1) <mbira> is enunciated by the rongga people /ᵐbira/ [ᵐbira] and by the manggarai people / mbira/ [əmbira] ‘torn’ (2) <lambu> is pronounced by the rongga people /laᵐbu/ [laᵐbu] and by the manggarai people /lambu/ [laəmbu] ‘clothes’ (3) <mbete> is produced by the rongga people / ᵐbete/ [ᵐbete] and by the manggarai people / mbete/ [əmbete] ‘whip’ based on the data above, it requires phonological rules that can be seen as follows. (a) rules for changing the sound [ᵐb] [ᵐb]  [m] /____________v [ᵐbira]  [mira] ‘torn’ [laᵐbu]  [lamu] ‘clothes’ [ᵐbete]  [mete] ‘whip’ there is a change in the sound [ᵐb] to [m] in the manggarai language in the environment before the vocoids [i, u, e]. (b) rules for adding the sound [b] [ø]  [b] / [m] _________ v [mira]  [mbira] ‘torn’ [lamu]  [lambu] ‘clothes’ [mete]  [mbete] ‘whip’ there is a supplemental of the sound [b] in the manggarai language in the environment after the sound [m] and before the vocoid [i, u, e]. (c). addition rule [ə] [ø]  [ə] / _________ [m] [mbira]  [əmbira] ‘torn’ [lambu]  [laəmbu] ‘clothes’ [mbete]  [əmbete] ‘whip’ there is an addition of the sound [ə] in the environment before the contoid [m] i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 270 e) the voiced alveolar prenasal block sound[ⁿd] which is one segment in the rongga language is uttered by manggarai-speaking people who are married to rongga people as one segment of the alveolar nasal sound [n] and is followed by the addition of the alveolar stop sound [d] after the voice alveolar nasal sound [n] followed. vocoid, and there is an addition of the sound [ə] before the sound [n], for instance: (1) <ndaa> is enunciated by rongga people / ⁿdaa/ [ⁿdaɂa] and by manggarai people /ndaa/ [əndaa] ‘branch’ (2) <londo> is produced by the rongga people / loⁿdo/ [loⁿdo] and by the manggarai people / londo/ [londo] ‘stare’ (3) <bhondi>uttered by rongga people /ɓoⁿdi/ [ɓoⁿdi] and pronounced by manggarai people /bʰoⁿdi/ [bʰoⁿdi] ‘joke’ based on the limited data above, several rules are required: (a) rules for changing the sound [ⁿd] [ⁿd]  [n] /___________v [ⁿdaɂa]  [naɂa] ‘branch’ [loⁿdo]  [lono] ‘stare’ [bʰoⁿdi]  [bʰoni] ‘joke’ there is a sound replacement from [ⁿd] in the rongga language to [n] in the manggarai language in the environment before the vocoids [a, o, i]. (b) rules for appending the sound [b] [ø]  [d] / [n]___________v [naɂa]  [ndaɂa] ‘branch’ [lono]  [londo] ‘stare’ [bʰoni]  [bʰondi] ‘joke’ there is a supplemental of the sound [d] in the manggarai language in the environment before [n] and after the vocoid [a, o, i]. (c) rules for adding the sound [ə] [ø]  [ə] /___________[n] [ndaɂa]  [əndaɂa] ‘branch’ [londo]  [loəndo] ‘stare’ [bʰondi]  [bʰoəndi] ‘jok’ there is an addition of the sound [ə] in the area before the contoid [n] f) the voiced velar prenasal stop sound [ᵑg] which is one segment in rongga is pronounced by manggarai-speaking people who are married to rongga people into one voiced velar nasal segment [ŋ] and is followed by the addition of the voiced velar stop sound [g] followed by the vocoid, and occurs adding the sound [ə] before the sound [ŋ], for weample: (1) <nggare> is uttered by the rongga people / ᵑgare/ [ᵑgare] and by the manggarai people / ŋgare/ [əŋgare] ‘scratch, dig’ (2) <fangga> is pronounced by the rongga people /faᵑga/ [faᵑga] and by the manggarai people /faŋga/ [faəŋga] ‘grasshopper’ (3) <lengge> spoken by the rongga people / leᵑge/ [leᵑge] and by the manggarai people / leŋge/ [leəŋge] ‘complicated’ according to the limited data above, several rules are needed. (a) rules for changing the sound [ᵑg] [ᵑg]  [ŋ] / _________ v [ᵑgare]  [ŋare] ‘scratch, dig’ [faᵑga]  [faŋa] ‘grasshopper’ [leᵑge]  [leŋe] ‘complicated’ there is a sound alteration from [ᵑg] in rongga to [ŋ] in manggarai in the environment before the vocoids [a, e] (b) rules for appending the sound [g]. [ø]  [g] / [ŋ] __________ v [ŋare]  [ŋgare] ‘scratch, dig’ [faŋa]  [faŋga] ‘grasshopper’ [leŋe]  [leŋge] ‘complicated’ there is an addition of the sound [g] in the manggarai language in the environment before [ŋ] and after the vocoid [a, e]. (c) rules for adding the sound [ə] [ø]  [ə] / __________ [ŋ] [ŋgare]  [əŋgare] ‘scratch, dig’ [faŋga]  [faəŋga] ‘grasshopper ‘ [leŋge]  [leəŋge] ‘convoluted’ there is an addition of the sound [ə] in the environment before the contoid [ŋ] g) additionally, the alveolar approximation sound with the sound [ɹ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by manggaraispeaking people who marry rongga-speaking people into one segment, considered as an alveolar trill with the voiced alveolar trill sound [r]. the examples are illustrated as follows. (1) <zhenge> is pronounced by the rongga people /ɹeŋe/ [ɹeŋe] and by the manggarai people /reŋe / [reŋe] ‘listen’ i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 271 (2) <lazha> is enunciated by the rongga people /laɹa/ [laɹa] and by the manggarai people /lara / [lara] ‘walk’ (3) <zhili> is uttered by the rongga people /ɹili/ [ɹili] and by the manggarai people /rili / [rili] ‘below’ based on the limited data above, the rules are provided as follows. rongga language manggarai language [ɹ]  [r] / ________ v [ɹeŋe]  [reŋe] ‘listen’ [laɹa]  [lara] ‘walk’ [ɹili]  [rili] ‘below’ the rule for changing the sound [ɹ] into a voiced alveolar trill [r] in the environment before the vocoid [e, a, i]. language sounds that are difficult to pronounce in rongga by a husband or a wife who speaks ngadha bajawa or ngadha-speaking people married to rongga-speaking people have difficulty pronouncing rongga language sounds, such as the voiced implosive consonant sounds [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], the voiced labial pranasal [ᵐb], the voiced alveolar pranasal [ⁿd], and the voiced velar pranasal [ᵑg]. additionally, ngadha-speaking people who marry rongga-speaking people have difficulty pronouncing the rongga language sound, namely, voiced alveolar approximant [ɹ] so that it becomes voiced palatal affricate [ʤ] or becomes voiced alveolar trill [r]. therefore, rongga people are forced to follow the pronunciation method used by their ngadha-speaking wives or husbands, although they live in their areas, such as tana rata village, watu nggene village, bamo village, and komba village. a) the voiced labial implosive sound [ɓ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by ngadha-speaking people who are to rongga people into one segment, namely the voiced labial stop aspirates [bʰ], for example: (1) <bhaja> is uttered by the rongga people / ɓaʤa/ [ɓaʤa] and by the ngadha people / bʰaʤa/ [bʰaʤa] ‘pay’ (2) <kobho> is produced by the rongga people /koɓo/ [koɓo] and by the ngadha people / kʰobʰo/ [kʰobʰo] ‘invulnerable’ (3) <bhoku> is generated by the rongga people /ɓoku/ [ɓoku] and by the ngadha people / bʰokʰu/ [bʰokʰu] ‘fold’ based on the example above, rules can be made rongga language manggarai language [ɓ]  [bʰ] / _____ v [ɓaʤa]  [bʰaʤa] ‘pay’ [koɓo]  [kʰobʰo] ‘invulnerable’ [ɓoku]  [bʰokʰu] ‘fold’ the sound [ɓ] in rongga becomes [bʰ] in manggarai is before vowels ([a, o]) b) the voiced alveolar implosive sound [ɗ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by ngadha speaking people w aspirates ho are married to rongga people as one segment, refers to as the voiced alveolar stop [dʰ], for instance: (1) <dhu> is enunciated by the rongga people /ɓoɗa/ [ɗu] and by the ngadha people /dʰu/ [dʰu] ‘according to’ (2) <adha> is uttered by rongga people /aɗa/ [aɗa] and by ngadha people /adʰa/ [adʰa] ‘tradition’ (3) <dhia> is pronounced by the rongga people /ɗia/ [ɗiʸa] and by the ngadha people /dʰia/ [dʰiʸa] ‘think, remember’ according to the data mentioned earlier, the following rules are needed. rongga language ngadha language [ɗ]  [dʰ] / v__________v [ɗu]  [dʰu] ‘according to’ [aɗa]  [adʰa] ‘tradition’ [ɗiʸa]  [dʰiʸa] ‘think, remember’ the sound [ɗ] in rongga becomes [dʰ] in ngadha is after the vowel ([a]) and is before the vowel [u, a, i]. c) the voiced veral implosive sound [ɠ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by ngadha-speaking people who are married to rongga people into one segment, considered as the voiced velar implosive aspirates [gʰ], as in the examples below. (1) <ghatha> is uttered by rongga people /ɠata/ [ɠata] and by ngadha people /gʰatʰa/ [gʰatʰa] ‘invite’ (2) <sogho> is pronounced by the rongga people /soɠo/ [soɠo] and by the ngadha people / sogʰo/ [sogʰo] ‘because’ i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 272 (3) <ghoro> is enunciated by the rongga people /ɠoro/ [ɠoro] and by the ngadha people / gʰoro/ [gʰoro] ‘drugs.’ the rule of changing [ɠ] [ɠ]  [gʰ] / v__________v [ɠata]  [gʰatʰa] ‘invite’ [soɠo]  [sogʰo] ‘because’ [ɠoro]  [gʰoro] ‘drugs’ the sound [ɠ] in rongga becomes [gʰ] and in ngadha before the vowel ([o]) and is after the vowel sound [a, o] d) the voiced prenasal labial stop sound [ᵐb] which is one segment in rongga language is pronounced by ngadha-speaking people who are married to rongga people into one segment, such as the voiced labial stop [b], for instance: (1) <mbiwa> is uttered by the rongga people / ᵐbiwa/ [ᵐbiwa] and by the ngadha people / biwa/ [biwa] ‘no’ (2) <ramba> is pronounced by the rongga people /raᵐba/ [raᵐba] and by the ngadha people /biwa/ [raba] ‘in order’ (3) <mbaju> is enunciated by the rongga people /ᵐbaʤu/ [ᵐbaʤu] and by the ngadha people / baʤu/ [baʤu] ‘trite’ based on the example illustrated above. the rules that are required are written down below. rules for transforming the sound [ᵐb] rongga language ngadha language [ᵐb]  [b] /___________v [ᵐbiwa]  [biwa] ‘no’ [raᵐba]  [raba] ‘in order’ [ᵐbaʤu]  [baʤu] ‘trite’ the sound [ᵐb] in rongga becomes [b] in ngadha before the vowel ([i, a]) e) the voiced prenasal alveolar stop sound [ⁿd] which is one segment in the rongga language is uttered by ngadha-speaking people who marry rongga people into one segment, namely the alveolar stop sound [d], for instance: (1) <ndoa> is pronounced by the rongga people /ⁿdoa/ [ⁿdoɂa] and by the ngadha people /doa/ [doɂa] ‘problem, come along’ (2) <kenda> is uttered by the rongga people / kəⁿda/ [kəⁿda] and by the ngadha people / keda/ [keda] ‘kick, step’ (3) <londo> is enunciated by the rongga people /loⁿdo/ [loⁿdo] and by the ngadha people / lodo/ [lodo] ‘stare’ based on the example written above, the rules can be produced as follows. rules for changing the sound [ⁿd] rongga language ngadha language [ⁿd] [d] / __________v [ⁿdoɂa]  [doɂa] ‘problem, come along’ [kəⁿda]  [keda] ‘kick, step’ [loⁿdo]  [lodo] ‘stare’ the sound [ⁿd] in rongga becomes [d] in ngadha before the vowel ([o, a]) f) the sound of voiced prenasal velar stop [ᵑg], which in rongga is one segment, is pronounced by ngadha-speaking people who are married or married to rongga people into one segment, namely the voiced velar stop [g], for example: (1) <nggera> is pronounced by the rongga people /ᵑgəra/ [ᵑgəra] and by the ngadha people /gera/ [gera] ‘keep going, phlegm’ (2) <fangga> is pronounced by the rongga people /faᵑga/ [faᵑga] and by the ngadha people /faga/ [faga] ‘grasshopper’ (3) <longgu> is pronounced by the rongga people /loᵑgu/ [loᵑgu] and by the ngadha people /logu/ [logu] ‘spilling’ based on the example above, the rules can be produced as follows. rules for changing the sound [ᵑg] rongga language ngadha language [ᵑg]  [g] /___________v [ᵑgəra]  [gera] ‘keep going, phlegm’ [faᵑga]  [faga] ‘grasshopper’ [loᵑgu]  [logu] ‘spilling’ the sound [ᵑg] in rongga becomes [g] in ngadha before the vowel ([ə, a, u]). g) the sound of the voiced alveolar approximation [ɹ] which is one segment in the rongga language is pronounced by ngadha-speaking people who marry rongga people into one segment, namely the voiced palatal affricate [ʤ] or the voiced alveolar trill [r], for example: (1) <zhenge> is uttered by the rongga people / ɹeŋe/ [ɹeŋe] and by the ngadha people /ʤeŋe/ [ʤeŋe] [reŋe] ‘listen’ (2) <pozho> is enunciated by the rongga people /poɹo/ [poɹo] and by the ngadha people / i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 273 poʤo/ [poʤo] [poro] ‘jump’ (3) <lezhi> is pronounced by the rongga people /ləɹi/ [ləɹi] and by the ngadha people /leʤi/ [leʤi] [leri] ‘swish’ as corresponding to the instances above, then the rules are created as follows. rules for changing the sound [ɹ] rongga language ngadha language [ɹ]  [ʤ] / ___ v [r] [ɹeŋe]  [ʤeŋe] [reŋe] ‘listen’ [poɹo]  [poʤo] [poro] ‘jump’ [ləɹi]  [leʤi] [leri] ‘swish’ the sound [ɹ] in rongga becomes [ʤ] or [r] in ngadha before vowels ([e, o, i]) the limited vocabulary of rongga language not all languages are able to express cultural and artistic treasures including daily activities in the form of words. thereupon, many languages are forced to absorb vocabulary elements from other languages. likewise, with the rongga language. that is why, when a rongga-speaking person wants to talk about something they don’t have the vocabulary for, their husband or wife who speaks manggarai or ngadha is forced to borrow the vocabulary of their national language, namely indonesian. the vocabulary loan from indonesian into the rongga language is adjusted to the canonical pattern of rongga language syllables. as is known, the rongga language is a vocalic language. vocalic language is a language that does not require consonants at the end of syllables or at the end of words. apart from that, there are deletions or replacements of certain language sounds in indonesian when they are absorbed by the rongga language. so, indonesian words are loan into the rongga language when rongga people want to talk to manggarai people or ngadha people, they have to adapt to the canonical pattern of rongga language syllables and words and also the vocal type of rongga language which does not allow contoids to be in the final position of rongga language syllables and words. for instance: the indonesian word <angin> is phonemically /aŋin/ phonetically [aŋin]. when this word is said by the rongga people to manggarai or ngadha people, what is pronounced phonetically is [aŋi]. the other examples are elucidated in the following table 7. iv. discussion the majority language is the language spoken by the majority of a region’s population. the minority or majority of a language includes not only the population but also the minority or majority of a language’s vocabulary. in contrast, a minority language is spoken by a minority of table 7. other examples indonesian vocabulary, phonemic, and phonetic vocabulary, phonemic, and phonetic language of rongga <liang> /liaŋ/ [liaŋ] [liʸaŋ] ‘burrow’ <lia> /lia/ [liʸa] ‘burrow’ <urat> /urat/ [urat] ‘tendon’ <ura. /ura/ [ura] ‘tendon’ <bulan> /bulan/ [bulan] ‘month’ <wula> /wula/ [wula] ‘month’ <bau> /bau/ [bau] ‘smell’ <wau> /wau/ [wau] ‘smell’ <telor> /təlor/ [təlↄr] ‘egg’ <təlo> /təlo/ [təlo] ‘egg’ <paha> /paha/ [paha] ‘thigh’ <paa> /paa/ [paɂa] ‘thigh’ <anak> /anak/ [anak] ‘child’ <ana> /ana/ [ana] ‘child’ <pagar> /pagar/ [pagar] ‘fence’ <pagha> /paɠa/ [paɠa] ‘fence’ <malah> /malah/ [malah] ‘rather’ <mala> /mala/ [mala] ‘rather’ <ekor> /ekor/ [ekↄr] ‘tail’ <eko> /eko/ [eko] ‘tail’ <kayu> /kayu/ [kayu] ‘wood’ <kaju> /kaʤu/ [kaʤu] ‘wood’ <gampang> /gampaŋ/ [gampaŋ] ‘easy’ <gapa> /gapa/ [gapa] ‘easy’ <bayar> /bayar/ [bayar] ‘pay’ <baja> /baʤa/ [baʤa] ‘pau’ <datang> /dataŋ/ [dataŋ] ‘come’ <data> /data/ [data] ‘come’ <bagi> /bagi/ [bagi] ‘for’ /bahgi/ /baɣi/ [baɣi] for’ <asal> /asal/ [asal] ‘origin’ <asa> /asa/ [asa] ‘origin’ <siang> /siaŋ/ [siaŋ] [siʸaŋ] ‘afternoon’ <sia/ /sia/ [siʸa] ‘afternoon’ <abu> /abu/ [abu] ‘ash’ <awu> /awu/ [awu] ‘ash’ i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 274 a region’s population. such people are called linguistic minorities. lexically, the term ‘minority’ can be understood as a smaller number (population) than a larger number (population) as a whole (at the national level). apart from being numerical, minorities can also be interpreted as not being dominant, receiving detrimental treatment or being disadvantaged in social and state life (anam et al., 2016, p. 6). as stated above, the rongga language is a minority language. this is because it has around 7,000 speakers with a limited vocabulary. the rongga language is close to the majority languages, such as manggarai and ngadha, and minority languages, such as the rembong, rajong, manus, kepo’, and waerana languages. in addition, indonesia’s diglossia situation regarding minority regional languages is unstable. it means that the competition is reflected in the bilingualism or diversity of the speaking community and tends to urge this minority language. minority regional languages are under pressure not only from indonesian (formal and informal) but also from regional lingua francas. for example, the rongga minority language in manggarai is under pressure from the surrounding regional languages, especially manggarai and indonesian. minority regional languages in north sulawesi are threatened by the regional malay language, namely manado, apart from indonesian. in maluku, the threat comes from the ambonese malay language. in papua, more and more young people are adopting papuan malay as their mother tongue (first) and no longer master the regional language of their parents (arka, 2011). crossbreeding or mixed marriage is a marriage between people of different nationalities or ethnicities and different religions, in which there are also differences in language (astari et al., 2021, p. 2). thus, crossbreeding has not only different languages but also different ethnicities, races, religions, cultures and so on.crossbreeding or mixed marriages can produce various types of language use, namely (1) people who want to preserve their language, (2) people who try to use the language of both parties, thus giving birth to bilingual speakers, (3) someone who switches to her husband’s or his wife’s language because this person’s language is highly difficult for the husband or wife to learn, and (4) people who switch to their national language or a foreign language so that communication can be continued with various people who have different language backgrounds. rongga people prefer their husbands’ or wives’ language. phonology is one of many aspects of language. phonology is a part of linguistic studies that studies, discusses, and analyzes language sounds produced by human speech organs (chaer, 2009, p. 1). phonology is a field in linguistics that investigates the sounds of language. phonology is divided into two: (1) phonemics and (2) phonetics (kridalaksana, 2008, p. 63). phonemics is a science in the field of linguistics that distinctively examines the sounds of language or differentiates meaning. in other words, phonemics investigates language sounds according to their function (kridalaksana, 2008, p. 63). to differentiate it from phonetics, phonemics is written using the sign /…/, as in the indonesian word <siang> /siaŋ/ (see sari et al., 2023). meanwhile, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, a study that explains the sounds of a language that has been produced (hyman, 1975, p. 2; kentjono, 1982; suparsa, 2008, p. 22). according to crystal (2008), phonetics is a science that studies the characteristics of human sound production, especially the sounds used in speech and determines methods for describing, classifying, and transcribing speech sounds. transcription of speech sounds, here called phonetic transcription, is written using the sign [..], as in the indonesian word <siang> [siʸaŋ]. it intends to tell that the word <siang> is pronounced as [siʸaŋ]. phonetics is a science that investigates language sounds from the point of speech (hyman, 1975, p. 229; sudaryanto, 1974, p. 1). phonetics describes speech sounds that occur in the world’s languages. usually, the phoneticians’ duties are to discover what people do when speaking and listening to speech (ladefoged & johnson, 2005). in conclusion, phonetics is the study of speech sounds; phonetics is a science that seeks to find general truths and formulate laws about sounds and their pronunciation (samsuri, 1980, p. 91). not all languages have a complete vocabulary to express something. therefore, to express something that a language does not have, that language will absorb words from another language. loan words are words originating from another language (regional language/ foreign language) whose spelling, pronunciation, and writing are then adapted to the-borrower’s language-spoken i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 275 by indonesian society to enrich the vocabulary (departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 1999). the potential for mutually absorbing the vocabulary of a language occurs in areas inhabited by various ethnic groups with different linguistic backgrounds. efforts to absorb vocabulary from other languages depend on (1) the language that absorbs its vocabulary is very limited, (2) the language that absorbs it wants to enrich its vocabulary, and (3) people who think that the language they have, the vocabulary is no longer capable of reflecting or representing the things you want to convey. therefore, they turn into other language vocabulary as loan words. the vocabulary absorbed is adjusted to the canonical patterns of syllables and words in the rongga language. v. conclusion to sum up, the extinction of a language, especially the rongga language, has started from the smallest aspects of language elements, namely the language sounds or phonemes themselves. therefore, rongga speakers who married manggarai or ngadha people allow the unique language sounds contained in the rongga language to be replaced with language sounds found in the manggarai or ngadha language. if looked closely at the consonant chart of the rongga language, it turns out that the rongga language itself shows no consonant symmetry between voiceless labial prenasal stop sounds [ᵐp] and voiced labial prenasal stop sounds [ᵐb], between voiceless alveolar prenasal stop sounds [ⁿt] with voiced alveolar prenasal stop [ⁿd], voiceless velar prenasal stop [ᵑk] with voiced velar prenasal stop [ᵑg], between voiceless alveolar fricative [s] and voiced alveolar fricative [z], between sounds the voiceless palatal affricate [ʧ] with the voiced palatal affricate [ʤ]. it means that the sounds [ᵐp], [ⁿt], [ᵑk], [z], and [ʧ] have become extinct in the rongga language. it is very contrary to the opinion of pike (1978), who claimed that language sounds tend to be symmetrical, meaning that if there is a voiceless labial prenasal stop sound [ᵐp], there must be a voiced labial prenasal stop sound [ᵐb] if there is a voiceless alveolar prenasal stop sound [ⁿt] then there must be a voiced alveolar prenasal fricative sound [ⁿd], if there is a voiceless velar prenasal fricative sound [ᵑk] there must be a voiced velar prenasal fricative sound [ᵑg], if there is a voiceless alveolar fricative sound [s] there must be a voiced alveolar fricative sound [z] if there is a voiceless palatal affricate [ʧ] it must be a voiced palatal affricate [ʤ]. second, what causes the rongga language to be under threat is the limited vocabulary contained in the rongga language. therefore, to replace words that do not exist in the rongga language, they are forced to absorb words from other languages, especially indonesian. it is even possible to replace existing words with words from other languages. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in data in brief and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement i nyoman suparsa: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, writing-original draft preparation, reviewing and editing; ida bagus nyoman mantra: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, writingoriginal draft preparation, reviewing and editing; ni putu anggi apsari: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing-original draft preparation, reviewing and editing. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. i nyoman suparsa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 276 references anam, c., felani, m., nurkhoiron, m., aji, n., firmansyah, n., arianingtyas, r., abidin, z. 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(2021). the phonological process of rongga language from the phonemic into phonetic realization. journal of cultural heritage management and sustainable development, 11(4), 427– 439. doi:10.1108/jchmsd-01-2020-0012 amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 69 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 22, 2024 final revision: february 3, 2025 accepted: february 5, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 the limited research in malay nonverbal predication has predominantly revolved around the two attested copulas ialah and adalah. in fact, there is another grammatical element that appears to serve as a copula to the constituents flanking it, namely itu. seeing that this distal demonstrative pronoun has never received any attention as a copula in the linguistics literature before, this study investigates the copular use of itu in malay, focusing on its morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features within nonverbal clauses. employing a qualitative approach through the descriptive method in linguistics, the analysis encompasses a range of nonverbal clauses taken from mainstream malay news portals online to reveal that itu exhibits many copula-like characteristics. constituent analysis was used to identify the linguistic features of the subject, the predicate, and most importantly itu. only sentences with a generic subject and a predicate of the grammatical categories np, ap, or pp were chosen so as to ensure that itu was not associated with the subject and the sentence was nonverbal. morphologically, itu can combine with 3rd person ia to form a clarifying expression comparable to the embedded copular clause “which is…” in english. syntactically, itu has the same distribution and behaviour as the other copulas in malay. semantically, itu is vacuous, making no contribution to the overall meaning of the clause. information-structurally, itu does not carry any roles associated with the topic or focus. this research enriches our understanding of malay linguistic structures, particularly in the underexplored area of nonverbal predication in malay. additionally, it provides historical linguists with insights into the evolution of pronominal elements into copulas as it happens. the findings have broader implications for the study of syntactic evolution and typological studies in austronesian languages and beyond keywords nonverbal predication, copula, copular clause, grammaticalisation, malay correspondence e-mail: armus@um.edu.my article copular clauses in malay with distal demonstrative itu amir rashad mustaffa faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.69-81.2025 i. introduction nonverbal clauses typically comprise of a subject and a predicate that comes in the form of a nonverbal constituent, e.g. noun phrase, prepositional phrase, adjectival phrase, thus characterising nonverbal predication. haspelmath (in press) presents an overview of the types of nonverbal clauses, which lack a typical verb but might include an element called the copula that seems to “mediate the relationship between a predicate and its subject” (den dikken, 2006, p. 1). consider the following examples in english, which present nonverbal clauses with the subject time, the copula be, and a nonverbal constituent, also known as a copular clause: (1) a. time is [np gold.] b. time is [ap valuable.] c. time is [pp of the essence.] copulas typically come in the form of a verb such as be in english; however, pronominal copulas, which are copulas that historically develop from pronouns, are not uncommon crosslinguistically. for example, it is claimed that malay ialah evolved from the 3rd person singular pronoun ia and the focus marker lah (omar, 2014; tadmor, 2007; yap, 2007), arabic huwa (masc) and hiya (fem) evolved from 3rd person singular pronouns of the same form (alharbi, 2017; choueiri, 2016; eid, 1983), mandarin chinese shi evolved from the proximal amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 70 demonstrative pronoun shi (li & thompson, 1977; van gelderen, 2011; whitman, 2001), etc. alongside the widely accepted malay copulas ialah and adalah, the demonstrative pronoun itu is used in nonverbal clauses suspiciously akin to a copula. as illustrated below, itu syntactically occurs in the same clause-medial position as the copulas and it semantically does not contribute to the meaning of the nonverbal clause as it neither encodes deixis nor gets encoded as a referential element. conversely, proximal demonstrative ini does not behave as such. it is argued by monks & davidson (2021) that distal demonstratives are less marked than proximal demonstratives, allowing their evolution into more grammatical elements as observed in many of the languages worldwide, e.g. the common use of malay itu as a general marker of definiteness in malay as well. (2) a. masa { adalah / ialah} emas. time cop cop gold ‘time is gold.’ b. masa { itu /* ini} emas. time dist prox gold ‘time is gold.’ the study of nonverbal predication in malay has predominantly focused on the two widely recognised copulas, ialah and adalah, leaving other potential copular elements unexplored. among these, the distal demonstrative itu has been overlooked in the linguistics literature, despite its apparent role in linking constituents in nonverbal clauses. this lack of attention has resulted in a limited understanding of nonverbal predication in malay and its morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural properties. furthermore, the potential grammaticalisation of itu as a copula has not been examined, leaving a gap in the study of how demonstratives in malay may evolve into functional grammatical markers. addressing this gap is essential for advancing the documentation and analysis of malay linguistic structures and for contributing to cross-linguistic studies on grammaticalisation and syntactic evolution. this research aims to bridge these gaps by addressing the following research questions: 1. what are the morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features of demonstrative itu in nonverbal clauses? 2. based on the morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features of itu, can it be categorised as a copula? to contextualise this study, previous research concerning pronominal copulas is reviewed. the study of non-referential, nondeictic, and non-anaphoric pronominal elements as copulas crosslinguistically has illuminated our understanding of nonverbal predication in both synchronic and diachronic terms. even in some lesser-known languages, pronominal copulas have been observed and documented, which makes for a compelling reason to examine copular clauses in malay with the undocumented use of demonstrative itu as a copula. for instance, in the understudied austronesian language cham, the copula năn may co-occur with an actual demonstrative of the same form contiguously, thus illustrating that the second instance of the item does not play the role of a regular demonstrative, given its semantically vacuous nature. blood (1977) claims that “two phrases or clauses (of a topic-comment sentence) may be juxtaposed or may be linked by năn ‘to be’. in the latter case, năn functions as the main verb of the simpler or complex sentence” (p. 63). cham (3) ông năn năn urang tôl. mister dist cop person guest ‘that gentleman is a guest.’ (blood, 1977, p. 63) in karo batak, the “copulative particle” émkap is used in copular clauses (woollams, 2005). it can be analysed as the distal demonstrative pronoun é affixed by 2 emphatic markers, i.e. m and kap. remarkably, this combination of pronoun and emphatic markers to form a copula reveals a common trend in the evolution of copulas crosslinguistically, as also seen in the evolution of malay ialah from ia and lah. consider the following examples with the demonstrative é, the emphatic demonstrative ém, the emphatic marker kap, and the copula émkap. karo batak (4) a. é la ku=begi. dist neg 1=hear ‘i didn’t hear that.’ b. é-m ni-pan. dist-emph pass-eat ‘that was eaten.’ amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 71 c. kiniseran kap er-bahan-ca kami sirang. poverty emph act-make-prf 1.excl part ‘poverty caused us to split up.’ d. kuta si meriah-na émkap juhar. village rel big-nmz cop j. ‘the biggest village is juhar.’ (woollams, 2005) in modern malay, there already exists the pronominal copula ialah. according to mustaffa (2022), ialah evolved from a resumptive pronoun into a copula in a topic-comment construction. to illustrate, the following examples show the use of ialah as a resumptive pronoun that has been suffixed by the comment marker lah and the corresponding copula in modern malay. the resumptive pronoun is obligatory as it is referential, and it takes the topic “raksasa itu” as its antecedent. meanwhile, the copula in modern malay is optional and it neither refers nor contributes any semantics to the clause. classical malay (5) a. ada-pun raksasa itu *( ia-lah) aux-top monster dist 3.sg-com dewa batara mahawisnu. d. ‘as for the monster, it was dewa batara mahawisnu.’ (hikayat sang boma – 17th century ad) (proudfoot, 1991) modern malay b. raksasa itu ( ialah) dewa batara mahawisnu. monster dist cop d. ‘the monster was dewa batara mahawisnu.’ examinations of the changes undergone by pronominal copulas over time have provided linguists with a vista into the processes involved in diachronic change, such as semantic bleaching, reanalysis, etc. in all of the preceding examples, bleaching is observed to have occurred to the pronominal copula with the loss of the semantic features commonly associated with the demonstrative pronoun. other than that, cases of simplification are also common in that longer words are abbreviated, truncated, and even cliticised onto surrounding words. for example, according to soriente (2018), the demonstrative inah derives the copula nah in punan tuvu. in fact, when contracted like the copula in punan tuvu, the malay demonstrative itu can be used the same way the demonstrative copula in cham is used. although it is only attested in spoken malay, the contracted form tu may be used following the full form of referential itu as the subject: (6) itu tu burung nuri. dist cop bird parrot ‘that is a parrot.’ pronominal copulas follow a common evolution path. stassen (1997) argues “pro-nominal copulas or pro-copulas originated as resumptive subject pronouns in a topic-comment structure; they formed part of the sentence nucleus and were anaphorically related to the subject, which was placed outside the nucleus in the (commonly sentence-initial) topic position” (p. 77) and the same is opined by hengeveld (1992). to illustrate, the dual use of mandarin shi before and after its grammaticalisation in the examples below, cited in van gelderen (2015), is shown: old chinese (7) a. shi shi lie gui. prox cop violent ghost ‘this is a violent ghost.’ (peyraube & wiebusch, 1994) modern mandarin b. zhe shi lie gui. prox cop violent ghost ‘this is a violent ghost.’ this study takes grammaticalisation, which is “the gradual historical process through which grammatical items are created” (smith, 2017), as the theoretical framework. according to the theory of grammaticalisation, demonstratives and pronouns can gradually lose their referential functions and take on a more grammatical role as copulas, marking predication in nonverbal clauses. in the case of lexical items, they lose their lexical property and evolve into grammatical markers, whereas readily functional items progress into even more grammatical elements. in the context of malay, this theory is applied to investigate how the distal demonstrative itu may be undergoing such a transformation. while previous research has primarily focused on the copulas ialah and adalah, this study fills a gap by examining whether itu displays features of grammaticalisation typical of the pronominal copula cycle. by examining the morphosyntactic, semantic shifts of itu, the study contributes to our understanding amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 72 each sentence was analysed using constituent analysis to break down the sentence structure and identify morphological, syntactic, semantic and information-structural features. the analysis focused on understanding how itu interacts with surrounding elements, such as the nps flanking it, to fulfil its role as a copula. following the deconstruction of the sentences into their constituents, the syntactic units within each sentence were identified and categorised to reveal their functions. for example, in the sentence “mencuri itu jenayah” (stealing is a crime), mencuri (stealing) is identified as the subject, whilst jenayah (crime) is identified as the predicate. the final step involved determining the function of itu within the sentence. this included analysing its role in the subject-predicate relationship and its interaction with other syntactic elements. by mapping out these structures, consistent patterns in the use of itu as a copula across different contexts could be identified. data collection the data for this research include sentences extracted from articles from mainstream malay newspapers online, particularly those that include the use of itu. news articles – as opposed to other genres of writing – are examined to ensure that the language is standard malay. as news articles go through a strict proof-editing process, the grammaticality of the language is guaranteed without jeopardising its authenticity. harian metro and berita harian were the news portals chosen because, although a subscription might be required, the articles from these news portals that are searchable on google are open access and available to the public. conversely, when google is used to search for articles from utusan, another popular mainstream malay news portal, the links redirect the user to articles that are behind a paywall. by conducting a simple google search using the keyword itu enclosed in quotation marks [“ ”], sentences that include the use of the relevant item can be identified. additionally, the search operator [site:] should be used to restrict the search to specific news portal websites. for example, to search for the word itu on the berita harian website, one would use the following search string: site:https://www. bharian.com.my/ “itu”. of how demonstratives in malay may be evolving toward copular functions, thus offering insights into broader processes of grammaticalisation in austronesian languages. clearly, the grammaticalisation of the distal demonstrative itu into a copula has been entirely overlooked in the literature as no prior research on the topic can be found. despite itu exhibiting copula-like characteristics in nonverbal clauses, there is no substantive body of work that examines its potential role in this grammatical shift. the absence of scholarly attention on this subject leaves a significant gap in the understanding of how demonstratives in malay may evolve into functional grammatical markers. therefore, this study attempts to fill the knowledge gap with regard to the element itu in nonverbal predication in malay as it examines its linguistic features in its synchronic use in modern malay to draw parallels with other copulas that have evolved from pronominal elements in their diachrony. it should be possible to see similar changes in the features of the element in terms of morphology, syntax, semantics, and information structure as it grammaticalises into a copula. in addition to that, this gap in our understanding of this particular construction warrants a thorough examination, especially given the overall lack of research in nonverbal predication in malay, compared to the wealth of existing literature on pronominal copulas in other languages, even in lesser-known languages. the significance of determining the (non-)copular status of itu lies in the unique opportunity to observe the evolutionary cline of pronominal elements into copulas by van gelderen (2011). this study contributes to the examination and documentation of linguistic structures in the malay language, especially in the direly understudied field of nonverbal predication in malay. more generally, it provides a unique opportunity for historical linguists to look into the behaviour of pronominal elements as they evolve into copulas in real time. ii. methods this study is a piece of qualitative research that employs a purely descriptive method to analyse the morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features of the distal demonstrative pronoun itu in nonverbal clauses in malay. amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 73 most importantly, the following criteria must be met for the selection of the sentences to be analysed in this study: 1. the predicate must be nonverbal. a nonverbal predicate is a constituent of a nonverbal category, such as np, ap, or pp, that becomes a proposition once its variables are assigned fixed values. in the case of nonverbal clauses, the only variable involved is the subject, since nonverbal predicates are intransitive (stassen, 1997). for example, the sentences below contain a nominal, adjectival, and prepositional predicate whose argument has been saturated by the subject “john”. the proposition can therefore be assigned a truth value: return true if john is a linguist; return false if john is not a linguist. (8) a. john is [np a linguist]. b. john is [ap stressed]. c. john is [pp in constant pain]. 2. the subject must be generic. a generic np makes “reference to a kind – a genus” (krifka et al., 1995), not a specific object or entity. for example, the following sentences have a generic interpretation in that not a specific hummingbird is being referenced, but the species in general, despite the use of certain determiners, such as the definite or indefinite articles: (9) a. hummingbirds drink nectar. b. a hummingbird drinks nectar. c. the hummingbird drinks nectar. lastly, the flowchart for identifying copulas by mustaffa (2022) in figure 1 is taken as a guideline for this study in differentiating copular and noncopular elements. according to the flowchart, in order for an element to be identified as a copula, it needs to pass the following criteria: 1. it accompanies a nonverbal predicate in a non-modifying manner. 2. it semantically differs when used with or as a verbal predicate, if possible. the first criterion liberally allows various items associated with nonverbal predicates to be considered, whilst the second criterion acts as a filter to sift out all the unwanted material. iii. results the description of the morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features of itu in nonverbal clauses in this section answer the first research question. morphology demonstrative itu, as a determiner or pronoun, is morphologically invariant; however, it can combine with 3rd person ia to form iaitu, which is used as an expression for clarification with respect to a preceding phrase or clause. its use this way is comparable to latin id est or english “that/which is”, which are essentially copular clauses. the examples below show the use of iaitu as such a clarifying nonverbal clause: (10) a. … ‘hilal’ ia-itu anak bulan. h. 3.sg-dist child moon ‘… hilal, which is the new moon.’ (bhari, 2022) b. ada benda asing ia-itu susuk. exist object foreign 3.sg-dist susuk there is a foreign object, which is susuk. (abd malik, 2023) figure 1. flowchart for identifying copulas (mustaffa, 2022) amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 74 iaitu most likely developed by analogy with yakni, likewise an expression for clarification. yakni deceivingly appears to be a compound of ia (3.sg) and ini (prox), but it is in fact a borrowing from arabic. the spelling (one beginning with <i> and the other with <y>) is irrelevant as both expressions were written in the arabic script with ي /ja/ when yakni entered the language. syntax with regard to its category selection, demonstrative itu naturally occurs with nouns as it serves to specify and spatially locate a physical object. however, in its copular use, itu is observed to be able to co-occur with adjectives, as pointed out by a reviewer. (11) cantik itu abstrak. pretty cop abstract ‘pretty is abstract.’ (ithnin, 2020) of course this is common in copular clauses with adalah. (12) cantik adalah subjektif. pretty cop subjective ‘pretty is subjective.’ (tengku azhar, 2023) however, notice that their co-occurrence is dispreferred as one creates redundance in the presence of the other. although this does not render the sentence ungrammatical, it does result in some awkwardness in parsing the sentence. one might even argue that itu is more suitable in the sentence below: (13) cantik itu ?( adalah) subjektif. pretty cop cop subjective ‘pretty is subjective.’ this syntactic flexibility illustrates that itu has transitioned from its original function as a demonstrative to serve as a grammatical element connecting the subject and predicate. its capacity to co-occur with non-nominal elements, such as adjectives, sets it apart from its conventional demonstrative usage. itu is not syntactically associated with the subject or the nonverbal predicate. a strong indicator for the independence of itu from the two constituents is its mobility. as shown in example (14), the subject of the interrogative clause is “murka” and itu originates in a position following the subject but has moved past it in the preceding interrogative clause. essentially, the demonstrative has inverted with the subject through subjectauxiliary inversion, providing important evidence that it does not form a constituent with the subject. (14) apa itu murka? murka itu soalan what cop anger anger cop question anda. 2.sg ‘what is anger?... anger is your question.’ (idris, 2018) itu is able to remain in its original position in an indirect question, which does not trigger subject-auxiliary inversion. as shown below, the interrogative-turned predicate has been fronted, but itu remains in its original position following the subject, providing support for the idea that itu is also separate from the predicate: (15) tahu-kah kita apa1 makna tauhid itu t1? know-q 1.pl what meaning tauhid cop ‘do we know what the meaning of tauhid is?’ (mohd yusoff, 2016) also, itu lies outside the constituent marked by kah in a question. given that demonstratives do not combine with wh-phrases in malay, the position of itu following the interrogative in (16) signals that it is not associated with the wh-phrase. (16) apa-kah itu kronisme? what-q cop cronyism ‘what is cronyism?’ (mohd tahir, 2022) to confirm that itu occurs outside the predicate, one can examine its distribution relative to other constituents such as adverbials and negators, as done in mustaffa (2018). as predicted, itu lies outside the predicate, since adverbials mainly occur at the edge of the predicate and negators take scope over the predicate, as shown below: (17) cinta itu tidak selalu mudah. love cop neg always easy ‘love is not always easy.’ (reuters, 2018) example (17) presents crucial evidence for the syntactic position of itu being the same as the copula adalah. the negator tidak follows the copula, as in (18a), but precedes verbs, as in (18b). amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 75 (18) a. kenyataan itu adalah tidak benar. statement dist cop neg true ‘that statement is not true.’ (mohd ali, 2023) b. kenyataan itu tidak boleh di-terima. statement dist neg can pass-accept ‘that statement cannot be accepted.’ (afp, 2023) suppose that the subject of a copular clause with itu is a left-dislocated topic and itu is its resumptive pronoun. if the subject were left-dislocated and a resumptive pronoun were left in its place, adakah should intervene between the topic and itu in a polar question. however, this prediction is not borne out as adakah precedes the subject of the nonverbal clause in (19), indicating that the subject has not been left-dislocated or topicalised. both the subject and itu are therefore analysed to be contained within the root clause in the declarative, not the clause periphery. (19) ada-kah sembelit itu normal? aux-q constipation cop normal ‘is constipation normal?’ (fadzlyana, 2017) it appears that, similar to the other copulas in malay, itu is unable to undergo subject-auxiliary inversion in polar interrogatives as it cannot directly combine with interrogative marker kah. polar interrogative copular clauses require ada-support, as evidenced by the employment of adakah even in copular clauses with ialah, since ialah is not morphologically decomposable (mustaffa, 2022). based on the findings regarding the syntactic properties of itu, a nonverbal clause with itu can be concluded to have the structure shown in figure 2. semantics in terms of semantics, itu is vacuous, as are the other copulas in malay. this is supported by the optionality of itu; its absence does not alter the interpretation of the nonverbal clause. the lack of semantic content is surprising, given that the word normally supplies a np with definiteness, or is referential and deictic on its own as a demonstrative pronoun. without the definiteness, referentiality, or deictic interpretation that is usually carried by the demonstrative pronoun or determiner form of itu, the nonverbal clause carries a generic interpretation. to further illustrate the semantic vacuousness of itu, consider example (20). the use of itu in the following example with a gerundive subject does not promote a definite interpretation of the subject. (20) meŋ-tangis itu perkara biasa… act-cry cop thing normal ‘crying is something normal…’ (che noh, 2018) to begin with, a gerund in malay does not warrant the use of a determiner the same way it does in english, as in the example “the crying of newly born babies”. the fact that copular itu may co-occur with a gerundive subject in malay is uncharacteristic of genuine demonstratives in terms of meaning or distribution, making it obvious that itu does not function as a genuine demonstrative in the example above. besides, a gerund like menangis is a word that encodes an action, which is not referential or deictic. so, demonstratives do not pair with verbs semantically since actions cannot be pointed at. using (21) to exemplify this semantic incompatibility, when a gerund functions as a direct object, a demonstrative modifying it becomes sharply ungrammatical, which makes an obvious case for itu not being associated with the subject in nonverbal clauses. lying cannot be demonstrated, as in “this lying” or “that lying”. (21) saya benci meŋ-tipu (* itu /* ini). 1.sg hate act-lie dist prox ‘i hate (*that/*this) lying.’ moreover, it can be omitted altogether or even replaced with a copula such as adalah, as shown below. this entails that itu does not semantically or deictically refer to anything at all. figure 2. structure of nonverbal clause with ‘itu’ amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 76 (22) meŋ-tangis adalah biasa… act-cry cop thing normal ‘crying is something normal…’ the only way it is possible for itu to be used with tangis as a meaningful demonstrative is for the verb to be nominalised: (23) tangis-an itu perkara biasa. cry-nmz dist thing normal ‘that cry is something normal.’ also itu may occur in nonverbal clauses with unique human proper nouns as the subject, which is surprising if we analyse the subject as the antecedent of itu. such a subject should be coindexed with a personal pronoun, rather than a demonstrative pronoun. otherwise, the resulting sentence would be rendered ungrammatical due to a mismatch in human vs. non-human features. nevertheless, the fact that such a construction is grammatical, as shown below, entails that the subject is not the antecedent of itu. (24) muhammad itu utusan allah. m. cop messenger a. ‘muhammad is the messenger of allah.’ (shuhari, 2023) another case of mismatching features is the use of itu with proximal subjects. although nonverbal clauses of this kind are not attested in bahasa malaysia, they are very common in spoken bahasa indonesia. as shown below, copular itu may be used with proximal demonstrative ini as the subject, which makes apparent the non-referential property of itu as well as its semantic and syntactic independence from the subject. (25) alat ini itu tidak harus plastik… device prox cop neg must plastic this device need not be plastic… (bahfein, 2021) it can therefore be said that copular itu does not have the features associated with its demonstrative pronoun form, such as referentiality, deixis, and definiteness. itu does not alter or add to the semantics of a nonverbal clause or its constituents. information structure as is the case with copulas ialah and adalah, itu does not appear to carry any information-structural roles. the subject is identified as the topic, whereas the nonverbal predicate is identified as the focus, as argued by mustaffa (2022). meanwhile, the copulas ialah, adalah and itu are merely markers of the subject-predicate boundary and form part of the comment, as per relational givenness (gundel, 1999). the information-structural partitioning of the copular clause is illustrated below: (26) a. [topic masa] [comment adalah [focus emas.]] time cop gold ‘time is gold.’ b. [topic masa] [comment ialah [focus emas.]] time cop gold ‘time is gold.’ c. [topic masa] [comment itu [focus emas.]] time cop gold ‘time is gold.’ although itu may be used as a copula, a change in the intonation of the sentence by allowing itu to carry stress changes the interpretation of the sentence. this reassignment of the stress onto itu essentially reassigns the information structural roles of the constituents of the clause and allows itu to be interpreted as a referential demonstrative pronoun that takes the preceding np as its antecedent. in the usual case, itu is unstressed as are the copulas ialah and adalah in canonical copular clauses, but the ability for it to carry stress and thus be interpreted as a referential pronoun is unlike the other copulas, as ialah and adalah cannot be stressed, according to mustaffa (2022). consider the following example with itu stressed: (27) [topic masa] itu ( adalah) [focus emas.]] time dist cop gold ‘time, that is gold.’ as illustrated above, when it carries stress, itu serves as the grammatical subject of the nonverbal clause with the topic masa as its antecedent. an optional copula confirms this analysis. this seems to be the only difference in meaning between itu and the other copulas. iv. discussion as revealed in the findings, itu does not contribute any meaning to the semantics of the clause whatsoever. according to bowdle and ward (1995), demonstrative nps can also denote kinds, making them generic. however, the genericity of the np does not depend on the demonstrative in nonverbal clauses with itu, as evidenced by amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 77 b. madang i bik. m. pred big ‘madang is big.’ (smith, 2008) givón (2015) states that i grammaticalised from english he. it is no longer used in contexts other than agreement marking, suggesting for a pronoun to be reanalysed as an agreement marker, it needs to grammaticalise in all contexts, not just a specific grammatical construction. on the other hand, pronominal copulas, which are only used in nonverbal clauses, develop from pronouns, which are used in all contexts, entailing that pronominal copulas must specialise in nonverbal clauses, a specific grammatical construction. with regard to malay itu, it clearly has copular properties when used in nonverbal clauses, especially due to its distribution and lack of semantics. its use facilitates the disambiguation of the construction as a copular clause, especially one with a grammatically heavy subject, rather than a noun phrase with an attributive modifier, much like demonstrative este in amazonian spanish, predicate marker i in tok pisin and topic marker me in kalamang, an endangered papuan language in indonesia, according to visser (2022): “the use of topic marker me makes an unambiguous copular clause” (p. 292). indeed, copula adalah does the same job, e.g. noun phrase: api panas (hot fire) vs. copular clause: api {itu/adalah} panas (fire is hot). its use as a copula in nonverbal clauses and as its meaningful precursor in verbal clauses parallels adalah as a copula in nonverbal clauses and as a meaningful auxiliary verb in verbal clauses. if its use somehow declines in verbal clauses, it could reanalyse as an exclusive copula, as it has happened with ialah. otherwise, if it loses its referential, anaphoric, and deictic features across the board but is still somehow used in verbal clauses, it could potentially evolve into a general agreement marker in principle, according to the cline by givón (2015) in figure 3. its absence without affecting the interpretation at all. this phenomenon is also observed in verbal clauses with generic subjects and itu, as illustrated below. in both verbal and nonverbal clauses, itu can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. (28) ke-tenang-an itu boleh di-peroleh… nmz-calm-nmz dist can pass-get ‘tranquillity can be obtained…’ (mat hayin, 2024) what makes nonverbal clauses with itu special is that itu can then be reanalysed as a semantically vacuous mediator of the subject-predicate relationship, seeing that there is no such element in the clause that does this. for example, the subject and predicate may occur side by side and need not be intervened by a copula, as is common in the world’s languages (pustet, 2003): (29) murai se-jenis burung. magpie one-type bird ‘a magpie is a type of bird.’ otherwise, itu could be used as a meaningless filler, as observed of the evolution of the demonstrative este into a filler in amazonian spanish by vallejosyopán (2023), to break up the subject-predicate boundary, with grammatically heavy subjects. then it later grammaticalises into a copula due to its distribution. this has allowed itu to reanalyse as a copula in clause-medial position since it does not function as an anaphoric, definite, or deictic demonstrative. this process commonly happens to resumptive pronouns following topicalisation, as argued by hengeveld (1992) and stassen (1997). conversely, the demonstrative in generic nps in verbal clauses cannot undergo the same process because the subject is directly followed by the verb, which is the quintessential predicate that typically does not need the service of a separate grammatical element to connect it to the subject. nonetheless, predicate markers for both verbal and nonverbal predicates do exist crosslinguistically, such as i in tok pisin: tok pisin (30) a. em i kam. 3.sg pred come ‘s/he comes.’ figure 3. morphogenesis of pronominal agreement amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 78 the multiplicity of its uses – as a copula in nonverbal clauses and as a regular anaphoric and deictic element elsewhere – in the current stage of the language presents a case of “layering” (hopper & traugott, 2003). in other words, the newly developing copular use of itu in a specific construction co-exists with the wide use of deictic itu in other parts of the grammar. the full-fledged pronominal copula ialah has evolved past layering as it can no longer function as a pronoun in malay, due to its resistance to focus (mustaffa, 2022). although the 3rd person pronoun ia is still used, albeit in an increasingly narrowing scope (only with non-human antecedents in spoken malay), ialah as a focused pronoun no longer exists. it exclusively occurs in copular clauses only, which demonstrates its specialisation in nonverbal clauses and the end of its layering. this specialisation in copular clauses allowed it to be reanalysed as a copula. in almost all respects, itu parallels ialah and adalah in its use as a copula. however, as it is discovered with regard to its information-structural properties, itu may be interpreted as a referential pronoun when it carries stress, which is a similar property even when used in verbal clauses. what this suggests is that, although itu has developed use as a copula, it may still be used as a referential demonstrative pronoun in some contexts even within nonverbal clauses with generic subjects. according to the flowchart for identifying copulas by mustaffa (2022), an element in question that accompanies a nonverbal predicate but may also be used in verbal predication must have different semantic properties. itu does have different semantics in verbal and nonverbal clauses, but the single property that makes it referential when stressed is similar in both types of clauses. given the second criterion, itu does not fully pass as a full-fledged copula, although it is nearing this state. therefore, to answer the second research question, it has not emerged categorically as a copula due to its predominant use as a referential demonstrative pronoun in both the verbal and nonverbal domains. however, one may imagine that if it ceases to be able to bear stress in nonverbal clauses, it may one day be considered a full-fledged copula like adalah. the findings of this research have significant theoretical and practical implications. it provides empirical evidence supporting van gelderen’s (2011) pronominal copula cycle, demonstrating how pronominal elements can transition into functional grammatical markers. furthermore, it addresses the dire lack of studies on nonverbal predication in malay, offering a valuable framework for future investigations into copular constructions in austronesian and other typologically similar languages. practically, the implications of this research include the documentation of malay linguistic structures, aiding in the preservation and understanding of the language. it also has pedagogical implications, as the insights gained can inform the teaching of malay grammar, particularly for second-language learners, by clarifying the role and function of itu in nonverbal predication. this research has several limitations. first, the study relies on nonverbal clauses containing itu sourced exclusively from mainstream malay news portals. this restricts the analysis to formal, written malay and does not account for variations in colloquial speech, regional dialects, or informal registers, where it may exhibit different characteristics or usage patterns. second, while the qualitative descriptive approach provides in-depth insights into the morphosyntactic and semantic behaviour of itu, the absence of quantitative methods, such as frequency analysis or corpusbased statistics, limits the generalisability of the findings to broader linguistic contexts. additionally, although the study addresses grammaticalisation, it does not employ a diachronic corpus to trace the historical evolution of itu, leaving the precise timeline and mechanisms of its grammaticalisation as a potential copula unexplored. lastly, while the study examines the syntactic and semantic properties of itu, it does not delve deeply into its pragmatic or discourse-level functions, such as its role in topic continuity, emphasis, or contextual relevance in conversation. the limitations above can be addressed in future research by widening the scope of the study to include data sources from spoken malay, both standard and vernacular. also, the study should include a quantitative analysis involving a diachronic corpus to observe trends in the use of itu in the history of malay as well as the cline in its grammaticalisation into a copula. most interestingly, the rise of itu as a copula with regard to its function should be studied for us to make sense of the necessity of a third copula in the language, thus informing linguists of the communicative amir rashad mustaffa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 79 needs of the people using it. the important research question to raise is the following: why must itu be employed, considering that the malay language already has 2 other more established copulas? the combination of cognitive, functional, and construction grammar, to examine grammaticalisation, the trend of which has been rising as noticed by enghels, jansegers, and bossuyt (2024), would yield interesting insights. v. conclusion this study sheds light on the previously overlooked copular use of the distal demonstrative itu in malay, revealing its morphological, syntactic, semantic, and information-structural features within nonverbal clauses. through a qualitative analysis of data from mainstream malay news portals, it is evident that itu exhibits many copulalike characteristics similar to established copulas. morphologically, it may combine with 3rd person ia to form iaitu, a clarifying expression akin to the embedded copular clause “which is…” in english or “id est” (i.e.) in latin. syntactically, it does not form a constituent with the subject and is separate from the predicate, especially because it is found to be able to undergo subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-interrogatives. semantically, it does not contribute any meaning to the clause anaphorically, referentially, deictically, or demonstratively. lastly, itu is nearing complete grammaticalisation into a copula in the domain of nonverbal predication, despite its predominant use as a referential demonstrative pronoun in the verbal domain. ethics statement the author has read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the author declares that he has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abd malik, m. 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(2007). nominalizers (and copulas) in malay. paper presented at the international workshop on nominalizers and copulas in east asian and neighboring languages, chinese university of hong kong. wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 13 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 18, 2024 final revision: march 23, 2024 accepted: march 25, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 glocalization is the practice of combining global and local approaches. in english language teaching, it involves adapting materials to reflect the students’ local environment while still equipping them with intercultural communication skills. nevertheless, it is a phenomenon that teachers are unfamiliar with in many parts of the world. guided by glocalization research, this study aims to study the teaching practices of university instructors of english as a foreign language (efl) in yemen, algeria, and france, as well as their attitudes towards glocalization. a mixed-methods approach was adopted, including both a questionnaire addressed to 78 teachers and interviews with a select group of 21 efl professors and instructors working in the three countries, to understand and analyze their use of a glocalized approach for teaching efl. the results revealed that efl teachers in all three countries recognized the importance of applying a glocalized approach in their classrooms and used a variety of strategies, technologies, and materials to implement it. finally, the study found no significant differences in the attitudes of efl teachers in yemen, algeria, and france towards adopting glocalized approaches. still, some noticeable differences can be observed, particularly in how teachers in the different countries glocalized their classrooms. french participants, for example, focused on the types of documents studied in class and how they were selected, while the algerian and yemeni participants focused their comments on their general strategies. this study highlights the awareness of efl teachers of the importance of including local values while teaching a foreign language to their students. keywords efl teaching, glocalization, post-method approach, language and culture correspondence e-mail: wagdyrashad@hu.edu.ye article efl teachers’ attitudes towards a glocalized approach: an international, mixed-methods study wagdi bin-hady1, hanane sarnou2, daniel schug3 1department of english, college of education, humanities and applied sciences, hadhramout university, yemen 2dpsm laboratory, abdelhamid ibn badis university, mostaganem, algeria 3crea laboratory, université paris nanterre, france under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.13-28.2024 i. introduction the present study focuses on attitudes towards glocalization in the context of university efl teaching in three different countries: algeria, france, and yemen. it delves into how teachers perceive such an approach and how it is integrated into their classroom practice. far from being a new phenomenon, glocalization has been studied in numerous domains, from business to education. in simple terms, glocalization is the merging of global and local traditions through a process that naturally encourages dialogue between diverse communities (patel & lynch, 2013). in his seminal paper, robertson (1995) suggested that the very notion of a local-global dichotomy is somewhat misleading. he explained that most traditions could be described as translocal, incorporating elements and influences from numerous communities; constant interaction between groups, the blending of traditions, and the integration of global phenomena into local practices have created a situation in which the global cannot exist without the local. glocalization focuses on this very interconnectedness, highlighting how local issues fit on a global stage (hauerwas et al, 2021). the english language itself can be viewed through a glocalized lens (feng, 2018). the english language has been the source of significant wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 14 debate. in many countries, native speaker teachers, particularly those from inner circle countries such as the us or australia, are still considered to be the experts of the most prestigious english varieties. in china, for example, non-native speakers working, feel that they do not receive the same respect as their native speaker colleagues (feng, 2018), despite their knowledge of the role of english in chinese society. many have criticized this phenomenon and called into question the insistence on the nativespeaker standard in english, given how often it is used as a lingua franca by non-native speakers (lai, 2013; poppi, 2012; setzler, 2013). additionally, such a trend ignores the fact that many types of english are not standardized so one cannot be an expert in the same way, regardless of their nativespeaker status (yazan, 2018). this shift in how english is perceived underline a need for english teachers to adapt their approach to reflect the reality of english use in the local community. from a theoretical perspective, it is not surprising that numerous theories have been referenced in glocalization, given that it is a practice that impacts various fields and inherently involves numerous cultures. indeed, this field requires a theory that considers local concerns, traditions, identity and practice, while still recognizing the value of connecting them to global issues (cheng, 2004; huang et al., 2016). studies have referenced southern theory (wahyudi, 2014), postmodernism (ahmadian & rad, 2014), a 3-part model involving a foreground, middle ground, and background (chen, 2022), and the tian shi (timing) di li (context) ren he (human capital) framework (chen & li, 2023 in chen, 2023), just to name a few. as the present study concerns teachers specifically, it seemed pertinent to us to select a model that allowed for the analysis of teaching practice. research indicates that glocalization is complex and at times difficult to define; in the context of language teaching, one does not simply state whether a course has been glocalized, as it can occur on a spectrum. to capture the reality of this phenomenon, our data will be analyzed through the globalization-localization interaction dynamics model (glidm chen, 2023), as shown in figure 1. the glidm highlights that globalization and localization can exist simultaneously, each at different levels. in quadrant 1, we see an approach that is high globalization and low localization, labeled grobalization-dominant. in this case, global practices and ideas are prioritized at the expense of local ones. according to chen (2023), the danger here is that the content may lack substance, given how unfamiliar it is to local learners. in quadrant 2, we see an approach that is high globalization and high localization, labeled glocalizationdominant. here, the approach resembles what chen (2022) referred to as the middle ground; it represents a mix of global and local practices that can potentially lead to deeper learning. in quadrant 3, we see an approach with low globalization and low localization, labeled noncommittal. while chen (2023) tells us such an approach is rare, it would be characterized by a lack of global or local elements used in the classroom; such an idea would be difficult to imagine. lastly, in quadrant 4, we see an approach with low globalization and high localization, labeled localization-dominant. such figure 1. globalization-localization interaction dynamics model (chen, 2023) wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 15 an approach may be seen in societies with little exposure to outside ideas; this context could make it difficult for students to connect their learning to the outside world. given that the present study analyzes data from three culturally distinct contexts, algeria, france, and yemen, we are confident the glidm model will provide a solid framework through which to understand and describe language teaching in these countries. in teaching, glocalization is determined by a variety of factors, ranging from pedagogical approach to materials selection. yaman (2016), for example, studied to what extent an english language textbook used in turkish public schools were glocalized by analyzing its content. noting that most topics included references to the local culture, the target (anglophone) culture(s), and an international culture, the book was determined to be highly glocalized. conversely, wahyudi (2014) describes a mooc on the topic of critical thinking; the mooc in question presented only western ideas related to the topic, meaning that, for students of other traditions, the material did not provide opportunities to interact and express themselves. these findings are in line with research showing that students may hesitate to discuss their culture out of fear that it might not be relevant; teachers may therefore require training to ensure that subjects are addressed in a beneficial and respectful way (salih & omar, 2022; 2023). taken together, these reports present glocalization a comprehensive approach, requiring consideration not only to what is taught but also how it is taught. particular attention to the classroom context and the needs of the students is therefore crucial. several studies and reports have shown both the impact of glocalization and how language teachers have adopted it into their practice (dwi lusianov, 2020; hollier, 2013; weber, 2007). research has attempted to identify attitudes towards glocalization, with promising results. tien and talley (2012) conducted a study involving interview data with taiwanese learners and teachers of english, asking participants to reflect on the expression “think globally, act locally.” even if some respondents were unsure of how to interpret this concept, data showed a positive attitude towards learning more about it. participants also noted a desire to develop a multicultural mindset, better language skills, and a deeper knowledge about both foreign and local cultures and issues. oanh (2012) conducted a similar study with teachers from eight different countries throughout asia. questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data on attitudes regarding global english and its role in education. many participants were favorable to the creation of a global english, without ties to native-speaker varieties, to facilitate international communication. glocal english, on the other hand, elicited a wider variety of responses. a number of participants feared that a glocal english variety would only be understood by local communities. others felt that defining a glocalized english would be beneficial in that it would allow educators to adapt evaluations and curricula to the real uses of english in the country. these findings are consistent with research also in the professional world. he and li (2023) note that the chinese efl curriculum focuses heavily on grammatical accuracy and the native-speaker standard. questionnaire data with professionals in various contexts indicated that such programs do not reflect real uses for english in the chinese professional world; a more glocalized approach would include communication-focused methods, with the student at the center of learning experience. further research has attempted to describe strategies teachers can employ in a glocalized classroom. glocalized efl instructors do not blindly apply western approaches to their classrooms; indeed, there have been calls for a mix of approaches, combining local and foreign influences (friend et al., 2023; weber, 2007). in the chinese context, questionnaire and interview data on glocalized practices showed that foreign approaches were used particularly when teachers wanted to help students express themselves and share opinions (pawan & pu, 2019). a similar approach was used to collect data in indonesian primary schools (suci & puspitasari, 2017), where classroom observations were also added to the analysis. again, practices labeled as glocalized were those that encouraged students to share opinions and interact, presented and valued diverse perspectives, and used local wisdom to expand students’ global knowledge. students also had opinions on glocalized practice, as illustrated by kettaneh and hanford’s (2019) study with international students in canadian universities. learners described a variety of glocalized practices in their courses, including teachers’ efforts to highlight everyone’s opinion, wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 16 develop learner autonomy, ensure interaction and student-centered lessons, and provide a curriculum that is relevant to global contexts. in line with descriptions of glocalization provided by patel and lynch (2013), wahyudi (2014), yaman (2016) and others, research on glocalized teaching underlines the importance of creating an atmosphere where students can express themselves, their opinions and experiences are valued and useful for learning, and a mixing of local and foreign teaching strategies are used with intention. the present study seeks therefore to add to the body of knowledge on glocalized practice, by studying teaching practices in france, algeria, and yemen. with particular attention to their teaching strategies, materials selections, and opinions about the role of english in their societies, the goal of this paper is to expand on the existing research on glocalization in the efl classroom. aside from being the three countries in which the authors work, they also represent interesting contexts for a study on efl teaching practices. in algeria, english is gaining traction as a major foreign language, despite meeting significant resistance from those who note the french language’s current and historical role in the country (imerzoukene, 2023). france has long struggled with foreign language instruction, with an approach involving a strong focus on grammatical accuracy. though a shift towards more communicative strategies has been observed, grammar-based approaches prevail (beacco, 2010). efl instruction in yemen faces similar challenges; despite some recent tendencies to offer more communicative courses, efl teachers lack the knowledge or the desire to stray too far from more traditional grammar-based approaches (assad, 2019). given the status of efl teaching in these different countries and these reported small shifts towards away from traditional approaches, further research is needed to identify how this is translating into classroom practice. as a glocalized approaches insists on facilitating communication and bridging different perspectives, it provides a useful lens through which teaching strategies can be analyzed. with the goal of better understanding the specificities of teaching practice in three countries not often seen in glocalization research, this study is guided by the following three questions: 1. to what extent do university efl teachers in yemen, algeria and france perceive the importance of a glocalized approach in teaching? 2. what glocalized strategies and methods do efl teachers in yemen, algeria and france use in their teaching? 3. how do efl teachers in these three countries differ in their use of a glocalized approach? ii. methods research design a mixed methods approach was selected for data collection and to allow for a wide range of responses from a large number of participants. not only does the use of two tools allow for obtaining more in-depth data, the strengths of one tool compensate for the shortcomings of the other. the study took place during the academic year 20232024. instruments questionnaire the questionnaire is composed of four biographical questions to determine the respondents’ profile and 23-likert scale questions in which participants had to select a score between 1 and 5, which corresponded to either a frequency or a degree of agreement with the statement. the final version of the questionnaire is the result of a thorough literature review, piloting, several discussions between the authors and feedback from other colleagues. the likert scale questions are divided into three categories, with questions 1-10 in the category “requirements for course planning,” questions 11-16 in the category “course content,” and questions 17-23 in the category “awareness & attitudes towards language/culture.” the total cronbach alpha was calculated for each of the three categories to determine internal consistency (goforth, 2015). it was calculated as .761, which is considered acceptable, following dörnyei’s (2007, cited in guilloteaux & dörnyei, 2008) guideline calling for a minimum value of 0.6. an initial version of the questionnaire was created, inspired partially by the categories described in salimi and safarzadeh (2018), which relate to different varieties of english and the connection between culture and identity. the literature review also allowed for the creation of a checklist entitled “what does it mean to be a glocalized teacher?” wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 17 this list provides the qualities we were looking to identify in our questionnaire; it takes the major themes from various the glocalization studies that were used to formulate relevant questions. the authors of this study sent this initial version of the questionnaire to researchers not involved in the study to get feedback on the formulation and relevance of the different questionnaire items. in total, four researchers provided feedback, resulting in some items being eliminated, others being added, and still others being reformulated. during this modification phase, the three authors held meetings to discuss the questionnaire items one by one to agree on a finalized version. after a piloting phase conducted with language teachers, slight modifications were made. this finalized version can be found in appendix 2. the questionnaire was sent to participants via email and whatsapp in the three countries with a 10day deadline to complete it. a descriptive analysis including mean score, standard deviation was calculated. an inferential analysis as represented in one-way anova is used to identify differences between yemeni, algerian, and french teachers in terms of their glocalized teaching attitudes and practice. interview similar to the questionnaire procedure, a preliminary list of interview questions was established after a careful review of literature on glocalization and multicultural teaching. the researchers modified the questions, taking into account the feedback from other colleagues. again, the three researchers met to discuss the interview questions one by one to ensure clarity and their alignment with the study’s aims. the interview questions are all open-ended, so participants could give unexpected responses, potentially shaping following questions (hsieh, 2009). participants were selected on a volunteer basis from the efl instructors working at the three researchers’ respective universities, with each researcher interviewing participants from his or her own university. a variety of modalities were used, depending on the participants’ preferences, with some interviews occurring in person, some occurring over the phone, and some via a video conference platform. interview data were stored in a shared document between the three authors. to analyze this qualitative data, a coding guide was established following the recommendations of decuir-gunby et al. (2011) and schug and simon (2023). the raw data were carefully studied, and data codes were determined based on relevant, common themes, and approved by the three authors. as our research questions deal with teachers’ attitudes and teaching practice, and comparisons between the three countries, it seemed appropriate to define two major categories: 1) glocalized strategies and, 2) glocalized attitudes. a third category, nonglocalized, was also created to highlight the few comments that indicated a resistance or hesitation to the idea of glocalization. the coding guide was agreed upon by all three researchers. one researcher did the first round of coding for all the qualitative data, and it was later confirmed by the other two researchers. questionable items were discussed until consensus was reached. an indicative list of the semi-structured interview questions can be found in appendix 3. the coding guide, complete with frequency data, is in appendix 4. participants the study collected data from 78 efl professors and instructors working at universities in three different countries: yemen, algeria, and france. for the questionnaire, researchers contacted colleagues in english departments at several universities in their respective countries, as well as in tesol and linguistics research associations with the request to share the questionnaire with their teams. the purpose of the study was stated in the introductory part of the questionnaire and researchers ensured participants that their responses were anonymous. table 1 below presents a summary of the respondents’ biographical data. for the interview, a convenience sampling strategy was used to identify colleagues in the researchers’ home universities. in the end, interviews were conducted with 10 professors from algeria, 5 professors from france, and 6 from yemen. all interviewees had advanced degrees and several years, or even decades, of university teaching experience. to ensure anonymity, all interviewees were given a code in lieu of using real names; the code consisted of the first letter of the country name and a number. french interviewee 1 became fi1, yemeni interviewee 2 became yi2, algerian interviewee 6 became ai6, and so on. wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 18 iii. results rq1: to what extent do university efl teachers in yemen, algeria and france perceive the importance of a glocalized approach in teaching? table 2 indicates that efl teachers in the three countries have a high positive perception towards using glocalized approaches, with an average mean score 3.90 and a standard deviation of 0.336. such results place participants well in the quadrant 2 of the glidm in figure 1. the scores of each individual questionnaire item can be found in appendix 2. countries, particularly the uk and the usa; these experiences had a clear impact on their teaching in france: i liked that the lessons in the us were centered around discussion. i’ve tried to replicate it in france, but it’s hard because the classes are so big. still, i try to encourage a lot of participation. fi1 in the us, flipped classrooms were really common, but in france it almost doesn’t exist. it’s hard because french students aren’t used to it, but i try fi4 these responses highlight that the instructors understand that certain elements of teaching practices in other countries, particularly those often used to encourage in-class collaboration and conversation, can also be useful in their local contexts, if certain concessions are made to accommodate local cultural differences. similar attitudes were also found amongst yemeni and algerian instructors: it is important to find a balance between incorporating effective teaching strategies from western approaches and respecting local cultural practices and values. -yi1 effective teachers often take a culturally responsive approach, adapting their teaching methods to meet the unique needs and contexts of their students while drawing from both western and local educational approaches to create a meaningful and effective learning experience ai4 table 1. demographic information of the participants count column n % in which country do you currently teach? yemen 26 33.3% algeria 33 42.3% france 19 24.4% total 78 100.0% what is the highest diploma you’ve obtained? phd/doctorate 52 66.7% master/magister 20 25.6% bachelor 6 7.7% total 78 100.0% how many years of teaching experience do you have? 1-10 years 35 44.9% 11-20 years 25 32.1% more than 20 years 18 23.1% total 78 100.0% which of the following best describes your current situation? i am a local teacher & non-native speaker of english 57 73.1% i am a local teacher & a native speaker of english 2 2.6% i am a foreign teacher & non-native speaker of english 5 6.4% i am a foreign teacher & native speaker of english 14 17.9% total 78 100.0% table 2. efl teachers’ perceptions on the importance of applying a glocalized approach country n mean std. deviation yemen 26 4.01 .327 algeria 33 3.88 .321 france 19 3.80 .354 total 78 3.90 .336 interview responses provide further information regarding teacher’s attitudes towards a glocalized approach, with 12 comments coded as indicating a glocalized approach in france & yemen, and 22 comments in algeria. with the instructors from france, for example, all had experiences working and/or studying in other wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 19 regarding technology, teachers in the three countries described using various technological and online tools in a way indicative of a glocalized approach. first, in all three countries, technology is used to facilitate interaction and encourage students to express themselves, an important element of the glocalized classroom. tools such as google classroom (yi1), classdojo (fi2), and flipped classrooms (ai4) are used to offer students alternative spaces to participate in classroom discussions, thereby ensuring the presence of multiple perspectives. similarly, several of our participating teachers also adopted a glocalized approach in establishing their classroom atmosphere. fi5, for example, is a foreign teacher working in france. s/he has combined elements from the top-down hierarchy approach he/she found in france, with the opencommunication approach found in his/her home country, the united states. the result was an approach in which the teacher served as a guide or facilitator, setting clear expectations, that still allowed students the freedom to express themselves while learning. ai8 describes using a variety of approaches to facilitate learning, chosen based on the needs of the students. yi3 describes using a post-method pedagogy and teaching methods based on the local culture and student needs. classroom materials, such as articles and classroom activities, also show the teachers’ commitment to showing multicultural, diverse opinions to show students a plethora of perspectives in the world. when asked about the types of sources selected for lessons, yi4 claims that he/she chooses materials that reference the usa, the uk and yemen specifically to help students bridge cultural gaps. similarly, fi1 has his/her students study a variety of documents, including news articles from various websites, based on his/her own interests, the interests of the students, and what’s happening in the world at the time. while many of his/her while several of the interviewed colleagues 8 to be precise had never heard of glocalization, and several more had only a vague idea of its connection to language teaching, participants in all 3 contexts seemed to describe attitudes that suggested valuing a glocalized approach, whether through referencing various cultures in their lessons, actively creating an atmosphere conducive to exchanging opinions, or using a teaching approach with elements from different cultures. still, it is important to note that our interview responses contained some instances of teachers’ expressing hesitation or disinterest in the glocalized approach. as shown in appendix 4, 4 comments from the yemeni participants, 3 comments from the french participants, and 6 comments from the algerian participants were coded as nonglocalized. in the case of yi3 and yi6, they simply stated that they do not use a glocalized approach in their lessons, though it is of course possible that they were unfamiliar with the term of glocalization as it applies to language teaching. fi2 considers that it is not really the english teacher’s job to discuss world events and phenomena in class and make connections to the local environment, while ai5 and ai6 state that they focus on us and uk cultures in their english classes, as opposed to other foreign cultures or the local one. rq2: what glocalized strategies and methods do efl teachers in yemen, algeria and france use in their teaching? interview questions focused principally on teachers’ approaches and strategies in the classroom, as well as their attitudes towards the role of culture in english teaching. interview responses on the theme of glocalized strategies were further coded in the following categories: technology, materials, classroom atmosphere and approach (appendix 3). the frequency with which comments were coded into these categories can be found in table 3. table 3. frequency of comments coded in the four categories of glocalized strategies code categories frequencies yemen france algeria classroom technology google classroom, classdojo, flipped classroom. 3 3 4 classroom materials articles and classroom activities news articles from various websites 3 16 8 classroom ambiance teachers served as a guide or facilitator, setting clear expectations 5 9 6 approach top-down hierarchy approach communicative approach 19 8 31 wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 20 sources describe events from the usa, studying them inspires discussion on comparisons between france and the usa. ai1 takes the practice one step further by discussing not only anglophone societies, such as the usa or the uk, and algerian issues, but also issues from other countries to allow for a fuller discussion. lastly, many teachers discussed their approach in more general terms, talking about their attitudes towards teaching and what they feel the classroom environment should be like. yi1 and fi4, for example, point to their use of a communicative approach to encourage students to express themselves in class. ai3, on the other hand, stated that while the foundational aspects of language learning in his/her class often draw from major anglo-saxon cultures, he/she also actively incorporates elements of the local culture and global events. rq3: how do efl teachers in these three countries differ in their use of a glocalized approach? the third research question will be answered using statistical results and qualitative findings. table 4 indicates that there are slight differences in the mean scores of efl teachers, regarding their glocalized approach. however, teachers in the three countries have a high perception (m=, 3.90), with yemeni teachers scoring the highest, m= 4.01, algerian efl teachers in second at m=3.88 and french efl teachers scoring third at m=3.80, as displayed in table 2. to check whether there is a significant difference among the teachers in the three countries, a one way anova is used to calculate the difference between the groups. table 4 shows that the calculated f value amounted to 2.257 at the probability value of .113. as the sig. value is higher than .05, it shows that there is no significant difference among efl teachers in yemen, france, and algeria in their perception of a glocalized approach in their teaching. students express themselves in the classroom or adapting the classroom to their specific needs. nevertheless, some noticeable differences can be observed, as seen in table 3. the french participants, for example, gave 18 comments about the classroom materials, while the algerian and yemeni participants focused their comments more on their approach. french interviewees focused on the types of documents studied in class and how they were selected; fi1 uses press or informational articles, fi2 uses authentic business scenarios and case studies, while fi4 uses novels and news articles, with all stressing the importance of students’ needs and interests in selecting documents. they also point out that they often use these documents to connect international and global phenomena with the local context; fi1 described using some documents on the conspiracy theories surrounding the covid-19 pandemic and drawing parallels with some of the fake news and a corresponding documentary in france. fi3 describes using documents relating to the olympics and doping in sports with her students majoring in sports sciences; these topics are of global interest but of particular relevance in france as the country prepares to host the olympics in july 2024. participants from yemen and algeria, on the other hand, tended to focus on their general approach and beliefs about teaching, rather than specific tools or materials. some of the representative responses from algeria include ai9 describing the importance of comparing local and foreign societies in class discussions and a10 talking about fostering students’ creativity to help them see links between global issues and their local experiences. from yemen, yi4 mentions drawing parallels between english and local languages and dialects, and yi6 talks about explicitly showing students how global phenomena can be applied to the local contexts. iv. discussion the first research question in this study explored the perceptions of efl teachers in yemen, algeria, and france towards glocalization in their teaching. the study found that teachers generally have a highly positive perception of the glocalized approach and agree on its importance, even if they did not use this specific term. several comments from the interviews support this conclusion, with teachers describing their table 4. efl teachers’ perception on using a glocalized approach sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups .457 2 .228 2.076 .113 within groups 8.251 75 .110 total 8.708 77 the interview data reinforced what was found in the questionnaire; while tools and strategies differed somewhat, interview participants generally described approaches used with the goal of helping wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 21 desires to integrate teaching methods from other countries into their teaching practice, albeit with some accommodations. for these teachers, english language instruction should be a compromise between the local identity and the foreign culture. their attitude is in line with patel and lynch (2013), who describe the value of a glocalized approach and connecting with the students’ local experience. this finding is also supported by eslami (2010), tien and talley (2012) and ryan and deci (2000) who affirmed that students learn better when course content is aligned with their experience. our second and third research questions focused more specifically on teachers’ strategies and differences between countries. the three countries are quite similarly glocalized, both in terms of the teachers’ attitudes and their teaching strategies. this finding is perhaps not surprising, since many of those who referenced foreign approaches and materials referenced specifically the uk and the usa; it is therefore logical that those influences result in some similar practices. furthermore, for decades, numerous resources have reported on the role of culture in efl teaching, attracting attention in both europe and the arabic-speaking world (bax, 1994; mahmoud, 2015). such materials have surely made their way into teacher preparation programs, thereby encouraging teachers to consider the context in which they are working. additionally, in all three countries, teachers use class materials, their approach, technology, and even the classroom ambiance to help create inclusive environments where everyone feels comfortable expressing themselves and expanding their knowledge. this finding is in line with patel and lynch (2013) and pawan and pu (2019), who stated that adapting one’s approach to the needs of the students and one’s teaching context is the very essence of glocalization and highly valuable for promoting learning. nevertheless, some slight differences were found regarding the ways in which teachers implement their glocalized practice, with french teachers focusing more on specific materials they are using, while yemeni and algerian teachers focused more on their approach. this finding could perhaps be due to the profile of teachers participating in the interviews; in france, many of the teachers worked mostly or exclusively with nonenglish majors. as a result, their courses depend strongly on authentic documents and students’ abilities to bring their own content knowledge to the classroom. of the efl teachers from yemen and algeria, many worked in english departments, and with students working more on the specifics of the language. this difference is key for several reasons, because it explains why efl teachers in yemen and algeria more frequently reported using materials that reference the usa and the uk, while french teachers reported working on topics from a variety of cultures. because the material use of the yemeni and algerian instructors would more likely fall in quadrant 1 of the glidm, they compensate through their more glocalized approach. future research should consider the students’ perspective in evaluating their glocalized strategies. the topic of culture in the efl class has long been a thorny one (alptekin & alptekin, 1984), but addressing culture differences could be crucial for advancing student learning (wang, 2011). it is therefore vital to look at students’ impressions of classroom experiences and learning materials, as shown in kettaneh and hanford (2019). v. conclusion the present study looks at teaching practices in yemen, algeria, and france through the lens of glocalization. the main goal was to determine to what extent english language teachers in these countries valued the concept of glocalization and the ways in which it was implemented in their classrooms. ultimately, it was found that teachers, though not always using the term glocalization, considered it important to implement a glocalized practice. they did so through various means, including incorporating technologies, using materials featuring a variety of different cultures, ensuring that their classrooms were inclusive, and actively selecting elements of local culture and foreign cultures to incorporate into their approach considering the value of glocalization in teaching practices, the authors recommend establishing a framework that would bridge local and global language and culture to better meet the specific requirements of the local context. the limitations of this study are those typical of small-scale reports. given the relatively low number of participants, it would be difficult to generalize the findings to other contexts. additional research should be done in other contexts to better understand how teachers are adapting globalized methods and materials into their practice. wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 22 references ahmadian, m. & rad, s. e. 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(2016). glocalization in english as a foreign language (efl) coursebooks. international congress on new trends in higher education: keeping up with the change (pp. 176-183). turkey: i̇stanbul aydın university. wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 25 appendix 1. checklist used for creating the questionnaire reflection: what does it mean to be a glocalized teacher? a checklist • learning connects new information to what students already know (patel & lynch, 2013) • learning connects global and local issues (tien & talley, 2012) • lessons reference the local culture (salimi & safarzadeh, 2018) • the course is adapted to the learners (ahmadian & rad, 2014) • value of local language is maintained (anderson, 2013; jensen & thogersen, 2011) • teaching practice is culturally-relevant (lin et al 2005) • teaching materials include references to different cultures and domains (yaman, 2016) • teachers actively create a spirit of inclusion in classes (patel, 2017) • teachers are aware of how the english language is perceived in my local society (shi, 2013) • teachers take students’ interests into account when selecting materials (patel & lynch, 2013) • teachers value non-native speakers (feng, 2018) • teachers work on confidence-building in class (lin et al 2005) • teachers foster a community of respect in the classroom, despite differences (feng, 2018) • teachers facilitate group cohesion across differences (patel & lynch, 2013) • teachers understand local difficulties (shin, 2007) • teachers make sure everyone can participate (wahyudi, 2014) • teachers are aware of cultural differences within my lessons (wahyudi, 2014) • teachers provide opportunities for students’ to talk about their experiences/culture (salih & omar, 2023) • teachers do not value exclusively to the major varieties of english, such as american or british english (yazan, 2018) • teachers elicit feedback from my learners (ahmadian & rad, 2014) wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 26 appendix 2. questionnaire please select the option that most accurately describes you in the following 3 tables, from 1 to 5 statements mean std. deviation r eq ui re m en ts fo r c ou rs e pl an ni ng i provide opportunities for students to express opinions in my english class 4.4872 .67888 i encourage students to explore how the course material connects to their lives and experiences 4.0256 .88236 i look for ways to connect students’ interest and the english/anglophone culture 3.9359 .85796 i take steps to create an inclusive environment in my lessons 4.1667 .74584 i look for ways to connect students’ interest and the english/anglophone culture 4.5789 .57185 i take steps to create an inclusive environment in my lessons 3.7949 1.04892 in my lessons, i take steps to help students build their self-confidence as english users 4.3421 .79251 i provide opportunities for students to discuss their local culture in my lessons 4.1974 .93836 i take student feedback into consideration when preparing my lessons 4.5263 .73889 i take into account different learning styles when preparing my lessons 4.4286 .73321 i strive to make sure everyone participates in my lessons 4.5325 .57547 i have a good understanding of the difficulties students tend to encounter when learning english 4.0256 .80541 c ou rs e c on te nt an english language course should contain topics from a variety of different perspectives 4.2237 .77629 [english instructional materials should have a connection to the local culture & society 4.4342 .77176 english instructional materials should reflect relevant societal values (for example, human rights and dignity, equality, social inclusion, sustainable development.)] 4.3377 .69982 [the goal of english language instruction should be to help learners connect to the global community.] 4.4103 .76338 english language teachers should help students identify connections between global and local issue 2.3333 .92113 students’ background knowledge should be considered when selecting appropriate materials 2.3974 .82713 aw ar en es s & a tti tu de s to w ar ds la ng ua ge /c ul tu re . i use the student’s native language/l1 in my english classes] 3.7013 .97421 [i allow students to use their native language in my english classes in certain situation 3.6053 .80131 in my english class, i raise the learners’ awareness about their culture and identity.] 3.7143 .97140 english instructional materials should reflect one or some of the major native varieties of english (uk, usa, canada, australia 4.1711 .71904 teachers should encourage students to learn about non-native varieties of english 3.8442 1.11290 [i am aware of how the english language is perceived in the local society] which of the following best describes your current situation? 1.6923 1.19857 english courses should help students to sound like a native-speaker when communicating (in terms of accent, grammatical accuracy, idiomatic language…)] wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 27 appendix 3. semi-structured interviews 1. what teaching methods (techniques, strategies, tools, materials) do you use in the classroom to teach the english language? how do you choose them? 2. how do you get/incite/encourage your students to express their opinions? 3. how would you rate students’ awareness about local issues and events? 4. do western approaches impact your english language teaching? what factors influence you when you bridge the western approaches with local teaching practices in your classroom? 5. which cultures do you reference more in your lessons: the major anglo-saxon cultures (uk, usa, australia, etc), the local culture (yemeni/algerian/french), to global events? 6. what strategies do you suggest to help students understand the global world? 7. have you ever heard of “glocalization” in teaching? 8. would you say glocalization is similar to what you do in class? 9. how can teachers help students connect global issues with their local experiences? wagdi bin-hady / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 28 appendix 4. interview coding guide theme, definition, and further codes. categorization example response frequency glocalized attitudes. items coded in this category are indicative of a teacher’s positive attitude towards glocalized practice. comments relating to the importance of helping students’ express themselves, adapting courses to students’ needs, and bridging foreign and local influences are all considered relevant here. yemen we are part of the global world, and we cannot just separate or isolate ourselves from the events going on in the global sphere. yemeni interviewee 4 12 france it’s good to take what is good in french education but use other influences — one specific example is with grammar. – french interviewee 2 12 algeria effective teachers often take a culturally responsive approach, adapting their teaching methods to meet the unique needs and contexts of their students while drawing from both western and local educational approaches to create a meaningful and effective learning experience – algerian interviewee 4 22 glocalized strategies items coded in this category highlight the different approaches, strategies, tools, and activities teachers use in the classroom that indicate glocalized practice. again, strategies to adapt to students’ needs, create an inclusive classroom environment, inform students about what’s happening the world, and present a variety of perspectives are included here further codes: 1) technology 2) materials 3) classroom atmosphere 4) other yemen [i] teach about global issues such as climate change, sustainability, economic viability, conflict, health, and poverty, which are tackled globally and locally. – yemeni interviewee 1 30 france open communication. — introducing the different perspectives (i’m american — we’ll be talking about civil rights, for example and i explain my perspective – i highlight that we need to understand the context of one’s perspective – french interviewee 5 36 algeria at the beginning of each academic year, i have an ice-breaking activity with my students to unravel some aspects that help me deal with them, and that reflect what they like and dislike, and how they prefer to learn. – algerian interviewee 9 49 non-glocalized items coded in this category highlight a hesitation or a resistance to using a glocalized approach. comments relating to an insistence on using only one type of approach, focusing on one culture, or implementing a top-down hierarchy in the classroom. yemen no (glocalization isn’t what i do in class) yemeni interviewee 6 4 france not a teacher’s primary job, and not always possible given time constraints [to inform students about what’s happening in the world & make them understand it’s importance] french interviewee 2 3 algeria i use authentic materials, including videos and cds, to make learners listen to native speech, to make them repeat and try to imitate native speakers of english. – algerian interviewee 10 6 thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 458 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 29, 2024 final revision: november 13, 2024 accepted: november 28, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 crisis communication must be prompt, accurate, and accessible to all. government agencies often use multiple channels to disseminate critical information quickly. social media has been helpful in informing all stakeholders about institutional shortand long-term interests as well as raising public health awareness. mitigative strategies and crisis response are improved when crisis communication is tailored to the social, cultural, and economic context of minority communities. identifying and directing communications that are unique to a group, however, presents difficulties when a crisis arises. therefore, this research aims to investigate how the malaysian indian agencies (mias), use social media to reach out to minority malaysian indians to disseminate information during the covid-19 pandemic. 16 mias with active social media pages, facebook and twitter, registered with the registrar of societies (ros) were shortlisted. content analysis was performed on social media posts which were published from 18 march 2020 until 31 august 2020. the posts were categorized based on crisis communication strategies, outlined based on past studies. subsequently, a semi-structured interview was conducted among the urban middle class and urban poor indian residents in the klang valley. findings reveal a notable paucity in the proactive presence of these agencies on social media platforms, indicating limited engagement in disseminating essential information during a crisis. while facebook and twitter were used, diverse channels like whatsapp contributed to reaching out to the non-urban indians. the use of tamil shows efforts to overcome language barriers, supporting government initiatives to control the pandemic while potentially boosting the agencies’ political influence among tamil-speaking communities. this study underscores the need for government agencies and community organizations to adapt their outreach methods to ensure all segments of the population, especially linguistic minorities, have access to timely and accurate information during a crisis. keywords crisis communication, social media, content analysis, covid-19, government affiliated agencies correspondence e-mail: malarvizhisinayah@um.edu.my article crisis communication through social media platforms by malaysian indian agencies thanalachime perumal1, malarvizhi sinayah2, kumanan n govaichelvan3, thilagavathi shanmuganathan4, gan yee chin5 1,2,4,5faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia 3faculty of science, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.458-469.2024 i. introduction a crisis may be defined as a major, unpredictable event that has potentially negative results and has the risk of escalating in intensity, which threatens important organizational values, and creates pressure to seek remedial action. this crisis would also jeopardize the current image of an organization or a country, and responding in a timely, accurate and transparent manner is paramount (bruns & keller, 2020). communication is an essential component of population resilience which enables effective management of people and crises, providing important information on how to respond to a crisis to reduce loss and enhance recovery (collins et al., 2011). besides mainstream media such as radio and television, social media plays an important role in disseminating information (balakrishnan et al., 2023). thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 459 since the onset of the pandemic in wuhan in december 2019, malaysia enforced the movement control order (mco) on march 18, 2020 in compliance with the world health organization (who) declaration of covid-19 as a global pandemic on 11 march 2020. livelihoods of millions of malaysians were threatened by the spread of covid-19. the fatal disease led to the implementation of the movement control order (mco), which resulted in a total lockdown where people were required to self-quarantine and isolate themselves. the complete closure of economic activities during the mco resulted in income loss. limited mobility during the mco also hindered individuals’ accessibility to food supplies and other essentials. prevalence of mental health issues: anxiety, depression and distress were rising among malaysians due to the intensity of the crisis, uncertainties of future and struggles in sustaining a healthy routine (balakrishnan et al., 2022). despite these issues, the lockdown continued for several months, as a necessary measure to stop the spread of covid-19. at one point, the malaysian public turn to social media to show how much more the healthdirector’s information and more importantly his soothing, empathetic words were much appreciated, as compared to the health minister, who was more concerned about giving general health advice and statistics (wai, 2020), appeared only through the scheduled mainstream media. this was a clear instance of the need to communicate effectively when dealing with a crisis that was escalating by the day and causing huge loss of lives, mounting depression and pressure to get food supplies, medical supplies, and a host of other essentials, all with the risk of being infected by the deadly virus. as if that was not enough, it was a tumultuous year of political challenges in malaysia. there was a political struggle for leadership and the civil lawsuits against the prime minister did not help in calming the already emotionally heightened spirits of the people. hence, amid the political and health crises, malaysians prioritized their health concerns, while political concerns took a backseat. people needed information that was accurate, valid and more importantly gave some assurance on the life-threatening disease. to some extent, it can be inferred that the public’s reliance on social media to interact with the government increased during the health crisis and lockdown period. hence, social media became the main means of crisis management, and the ministry of health and national security council (ramakrishnan et al., 2022) constantly updated the public with facts and figures. in fact, emergency services and emergency media organisations globally are already exploring ways to integrate social media into communication strategies (turnbull & cunningham, 2014). interweaving mainstream media with social and online media is necessary especially in the context of natural disasters and other acute occurrences such as a pandemic. social media platforms enabled the live streaming of important announcements, which had millions of followers glued to their devices in need of updates on the ongoing pandemic crisis. as people stayed quarantined at home, social media was their only source to the outside world, but as the media played an obvious informational and amplifying role in mitigating people’s fears and desperation, the trust in the government was waning. besides that, the government also sought the help of non-government agencies to disseminate information and highlight the emergent groups who play societal roles, and those who would coalesce in social media including providing emotional support for the individuals and families affected by the pandemic. meanwhile, scholars worldwide have observed that the burden of a national-level crisis is often heavier on ethnic minorities, due to existing racial discrimination, language barriers, and poverty (lai et al., 2024). during a crisisstricken period, providing culturally and ethnically competent messages improves crisis response and management by government agencies. however, recognizing and communicating communityspecific risks and measures during a crisis is challenging (quinn, 2008). in malaysia, ethnic indians make up only 6.6% of the total population (murugaiah, 2023). therefore, this study investigates the role of malaysian indian agencies (mias) in reaching out to those in need either virtually or through stringent physical meetings that maintained social distancing. mias’ role in assisting the government to seek out ethnic minorities was crucial in managing a crisis that was affecting a large portion of the population. before the emergence of social media, the main form of interaction between the mias and the indian community was mainly through tamil thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 460 newspapers such as tamil malar, makkal osai and nanban. this is because, in the early days, the tamil language was predominantly used as a mode of communication in malaysia and represented the overall south indian immigrants, who were largely transported during the reign of the british (sinayah et al., 2023). nowadays, mias have leveraged on the various social media platforms to disseminate messages immediately, with minimal language barriers and enhanced representation (perumal et al., 2022). limited or lack of crisis communication planning impedes the effectiveness of government policies in ensuring the welfare and inclusivity of minority communities. therefore, the research investigates how mias used social media to disseminate information about the covid-19 pandemic and mitigative measures during the entire duration of the lockdown to their social media followers. observing how mias execute crisis management virtually to reach out to minority communities is expected to provide insights to draft inclusive policies and devise collaborative strategies to resolve potential crises during a disaster or an outbreak in future. in addition, studying the social media rhetoric enables policy makers, health practitioners, and the general public to understand the discourse and communication processes that underpin the agenda of these agencies, political or otherwise. studies have also looked at crisis communication and public perception of covid-19 risk in social media communication, particularly official directives that are either direct or indirect strategies when giving advice (ow yong et al., 2020). studies of covid-19 communication have also investigated the effective framing of messages (gillman et al., 2023; sinayah et al., 2021), the use of message appeals (guttman, 2023) and the significance of considering emotion (pollitt et al., 2023). fundamentally, crisis communication involves the engagement of relevant stakeholders to inform the risk of the crisis faced, intervention strategies as well as recovery. as part of crisis response, communication plays a key role in coordinating involved parties to minimize the impact of the crisis faced, and plan recovery strategies. currently, there are two prominent theories in crisis communication, benoit’s image restoration theory (1997) and coombs situational crisis communication theory (2002). both theories appear to focus on crises in corporate environments and how they can be resolved (coombs & laufer, 2018). however, coombs theory is the more relevant and generic of the two theories that addresses the current situational crisis. according to coombs, (2007), crisis must be addressed through several factors: prevention, preparation, response and revision within the three-phase strategy for crisis communication, which are pre-crisis, during crisis and post-crisis. therefore, this study utilizes the generic crisis communication model (see figure 1), adapted from coombs (2007) theory. the model for crisis communication strategy emphasizes the types of information disseminated during a crisis to the target audience. based on past research (coombs, 2010; legreco, 2012; petit & tedds, 2020; zhang & shay, 2019), five types of strategies are proposed to comprehensively address fig. 1: model for crisis communication strategy thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 461 of communication used by the mias? 2. what strategies were used in response to the crisis? 3. how effective was social media in communicating the crisis? 2. methods study design this study employs a qualitative approach in analysing the social media communication by mias. a content analysis was performed on the selected social media posts by mias, published over a 5-month period (18 march 2020 until 31 august 2020). this period covers the three phases of mco implementation during the covid-19 pandemic. then, a semi-structured interview was conducted to understand the role of social media communication among urban indians. source of data this study includes two sources of data: social media posts and interview responses of urban indians. the social media platforms were facebook and twitter that were used by the mias during the on-going covid-19 pandemic. data collection a multi-level sampling procedure was used for this study, which started off with developing an initial list that was based on indian clubs registered with the registrar of societies (ros). next, the scope was set to search for the two keywords “malaysia” and “indian” to narrow the search. the search showed 76 results for active clubs based on these criteria. the next controlling factor was to narrow the search to only clubs registered as representing politics, social and welfare, for the purpose of the research. the short-listed clubs selected for this study, accounts for 6 political organizations, 8 welfare clubs and 20 social agencies. among the 34, only 16 were further selected as they have a facebook page in their registered names. notably, only five were actively posting on their facebook pages during the lockdown period and only one political party, the malaysian indian congress (mic) has an active twitter account. semi-structured interview in order to determine the effectiveness of the contents posted in the above social media platforms, a semi-structured interview was also conducted on a crisis and provide solutions. pre-crisis timeframe is the pre-planning stage, where preparation and training in crisis communication are fundamental. risk management planning is put in place to counter any future crisis. however, in the case of a global crisis that hits every nation, the preparation may be lacking particularly because a nation may only have encountered small-scaled crises that are contained within a community or a state. during a crisis, the fundamental need to execute particular strategies, first involves the collection, analysis, reporting, and dissemination of information. this study is concerned with the communications that transpired during the pandemic situation. as the proposed crisis model is specific to the ‘during’ crisis phase, the precrisis and post-crisis time-frames are not discussed in this paper. the five strategies used within the ‘during’ crisis timeframe are: (a) preventive measures are communicated to include the stakeholders in minimizing the negative effects of the crisis (coombs, 2010) , (b) intervention strategies are implemented to guide the audience when they are subjected to risk or an unintended situation, which also includes rescue, recovery, or rehabilitation options (coombs, 2010) , (c) policy responses are to be observed and communicated at the organizational, national, and/or regional level, in order to collaborate and coordinate preparedness measures with multiple agencies (legreco, 2012), (d) social aspects of the crisis are to be addressed by providing financial, psychological, or physical support to the individuals impacted by the crisis (petit & tedds, 2020), to promote inclusivity and sustainability, and (e) an overview of post-crisis scenarios are to be discussed with the stakeholders to outline immediate rehabilitation strategies (zhang & shay, 2019). while all five strategies are essential to wade through the crisis, ensuring inclusivity and reachability of every member of society through multilingual crisis communication is paramount and necessary to ensure the success of the strategies. the main objective of the current study is therefore to investigate how the malaysian indian agencies (mias), use social media to reach out to minority malaysian indians to disseminate information during the covid-19 pandemic. three research questions were designed to achieve this objective: 1. what social media platforms were the mode thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 462 15 respondents residing in two states, the federal territory of kuala lumpur and selangor. through snowball sampling, a key informant, a teacher from a tailoring centre aged 53, and who is literate was contacted. she introduced a few of her neighbours, friends and their friends, as well as her students who became respondents for the interview. the two states were chosen due to two primary reasons, firstly, selangor is the state with the greatest number of indians at 40% while federal territory has 9% of indians from the total indian population of 1.96 million in the country (zulkifli & salleh, 2023). the 15 respondents were sufficient to gauge the use of social media by mias. the interview was conducted in early september (post-mco period). the 10-minute interview was held via google meet. the openended questions were mainly developed to gain insights into how the urban middle-class indians and the urban poor dealt with the crisis, and whether the social media platforms were the mode of communication. the selection criteria was based on respondents who read and listen to tamil news through any medium and are literate. a set of 6 questions were asked, basically (a) the type of media preferred by the respondents, (b) which channel gave the most covid related news, (c) which channel was the most trusted and reliable (d) did the respondents seek help based on the information given, (e) was the information helpful, (f) was there any form of support given in the message. data analysis content analysis is used to first ascertain codes that reflect the pandemic, such as ‘covid-19’, ‘நடமாடட் கடட்ுப்பாடட்ு ஆணை mco’ (movement control order), ‘moh’ (ministry of health)’. next, postings that shared similar templates to disseminate information on food, medical and all other types of aid were compiled, as these postings would be considered as a single type of posting. the aforementioned crisis communication strategies were adopted to categorize the posts. posts from each category is then analysed in detail for the forms and functions, structure and stylistics. ii. results and discussion the frequency of covid-19-related posts during the lockdown was tabulated to answer the first research question, what social media platforms were the mode of communication used by the mias. results showed that facebook (fb) posts from five identified pages, namely the malaysian indian congress (mic), all malaysian indian progressive front (ipf), malaysian indian tour and travel association (mitta), malaysian indian space intellectuals association (misia), and the malaysian indian graduate society for research, innovation & human capital development (migs) used social media platforms. the details are classified and shown in table 1. table 1. facebook posts of mias relevant to covid-19 (18 march – 31 august 2020) e f pm i pr s po mic 16496 1 0 1 2 0 ipf 129 0 0 0 76 0 mitta 524 0 2 5 0 2 misia 656 0 0 0 1 0 migs 436 0 0 8 0 2 note: e = entities, f = followers, pm = preventive measures, i = intervention, pr = policy response, s = social support, po = post-crisis outlook the language of communication in mainstream and social media was in malay, english, mandarin, and tamil as well as in select indigenous languages. meanwhile, studies have reported the prevalent use of hashtags, such as #staysafe, #stayathome or # covid-19 to disseminate pandemic-related information, and to establish connections with the followers and the general public during the pandemic (shah & tomer, 2020). hashtags are perceived to be a social media innovation to make information more accessible to like-minded people and enhance audience interaction with certain discussion topics. it is observed that less covid-19 related hashtags were used on these five identified facebook pages. for example, ipf and misia used none of the covid-19 related hashtags in their posts. nevertheless, migs has attached #stayathome in each of their posts since 5 april 2020, even for unrelated contents. on the other hand, mic’s twitter had only used #stayathome thrice, while hashtags #infomic, #micnews and #mic_cares have been used more frequently to publicize their party activities. thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 463 the following sections will discuss the three research questions in detail. social media platforms as modes of communication among the five identified social media pages, mic and ipf are politically affiliated parties. ipf has 76 covid-19 related posts, and all posts disseminate and inform the social support provided to the public. meanwhile, mic’s facebook page which has 16496 followers (higher than the followers of ipf facebook at 212 followers) had only four covid-19 related posts which were policy information (n=1), social support (n=2), and prevention measures (n=1). meanwhile, mitta and migs are social agencies which posted mostly policy-related information, accounting for 5 and 8 posts respectively. in contrast, misia only shared one post relevant to the lockdown, to promote graduate upskilling through a free course-membership provided by the malaysian digital economy corporation (mdec). from the interview conducted, all the respondents checked out mic facebook, while their children checked out twitter. only 5 checked out both mic and ipf platforms to gain information. none of them were aware of any other agencies that provided information on the covid pandemic. crisis response strategies the following section describes the second research question on the use of each of the communication strategies in response to the covid-19 crisis as illustrated in figure 1. identifying and describing the use of these strategies enable the public to comprehend a crisis and navigate effectively toward recovery. preventive measures the who recommended several measures to curb transmission, thus, it is important to remind the public to be aware of transmission risks and reduce unnecessary travelling. none of the observed organizations posted explicitly regarding the preventive measures recommended by who or the malaysian ministry of health (mmoh) during this specific period of study. this is because such information was already conveyed to the public through other mass media such as television, radio and newspapers. however, through one of its fb posts, mic assured the public that during official meetings, all committee members were subject to the same standard operating procedures (sops) stated by the mmoh to reduce the risk of transmission, particularly sanitizing one’s hands and scanning the body temperature before attending the physical meeting. this post also implied that the mic viewed the pandemic seriously and appropriate measures were taken to ensure everyone followed health procedures as shown in example 1. this post is retained as is in its original form. example 1: our body has been checked and hands sanitised twice before and after the meeting with the compliance of mmoh. the meeting was very vital to highlight education issues that needs an urgent look that is affecting tens of thousands of students. source: (malaysian indian congress, 2020c) by complying with the mmoh’s guidelines and the necessity to have checkpoints on premises to reduce disease transmission, the mic points out that everyone was at risk of the disease and there are no exceptions to the government’s health policy recommendations. this preventive method includes identifying risks, risk reduction measures, and initial crisis response, as stipulated in the first strategy (seeger, 2006). this outbreak did not provide enough time to plan a response strategy to completely avoid disease transmission, but table 2: classified twitter posts from mic’s account e f pm i pr s po mic 1265 4 5 8 158 7 note: e = entities, f = followers, pm = preventive measures, i = intervention, pr = policy response, s = social support, po = postcrisis outlook compared to all the agencies above, mic has been the only active mia on the twitter platform throughout the lockdown period. the distribution posts are plotted in table 2. mic had a total of 182 covid-19 related communication through twitter. although most of the posts did not use phrases like ‘stay at home’ or ‘covid-19’, or ‘corona’ posts that highlighted the agency’s initiative to bring back stranded malaysian citizens in india is accepted as covid-19 related, as these are social impacts affecting the public due to the pandemic. the second research question on what strategies were used in response to the crisis are discussed below. thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 464 transmission was somewhat contained through observing the sops as the best possible way to further mitigate the crisis. intervention strategies intervention strategies aim to minimize the risk and impacts of a crisis faced (coombs, 2010). among the many industries in malaysia, the tourism industry has suffered the most in terms of the economic impacts due to the lockdown and travel restrictions (foo et al., 2021). on facebook, mitta communicated intervention strategies to minimize economic impacts in the tourism industry by providing guidance and explaining the penjana scheme, a government initiated shortterm economic recovery plan. the intervention exercise was conducted in tamil through webinars (geran khas prihatin application tutorial). these webinars were organised for tour and travel agents to plan their business in wading through the pandemic, measures to sustain the business in the future, and how to apply for grants and loans through these schemes. meanwhile, the mic provided contact information through twitter to those who needed financial assistance to purchase food and necessities. however, several stipulations were put in place to prioritize those who would benefit from the financial assistance. the target recipients included single mothers, persons living with disabilities, senior citizens, as well as residents of welfare homes as identified by the malaysian welfare department (jkm). interestingly, eleven of the 15 interviewed, informed that they received the aid, after reading the message shared on social media, and were grateful that throughout the pandemic, there was constant help, as they knew where to seek help. a virtual link was also provided by the mic through which applicants could seek monetary and social aid. this dissemination of information made the public more aware of the aid available and where to seek for help. the communicated information is accessible to everyone who browses the website, as shown in example 2. example 2: if you don’t have money to buy food due to covid-19 mco, follow the instructions below to get help from the welfare department. if you are a single mother, oku (disabled) or a senior citizen you will be prioritized by jkm. all you need is to directly contact 15999 and inform. source: (malaysian indian congress, 2020a) policy responses as this pandemic has posed threats to the healthcare, economic and security systems of the nation, many policies have been altered and imposed to remediate the crisis. financial aid was introduced through government initiatives such as the bantuan prihatin nasional (governmental financial aid) and penjana schemes which played a role in buffering the impacts of the covid-19 outbreak. therefore, policy communication is critical in helping citizens to stay vigilant and make informed decisions such as following the sops, applying for business grants and requesting for a loan moratorium. migs and mitta posted specific information on education and tourism respectively, updates on the latest policies were made, and sops to be adhered to during the lockdown period. migs is an ngo that has education as its core business and targets current and prospective undergraduate students. although migs merely reshares excerpts from news articles and screenshots of official documents, such sharing potentially reiterates the need to follow the policies set to mitigate the crisis as well as to ensure that students are aware and have accessibility to government policies. meanwhile, mitta gained recognition as a competent travel association in the industry. their core business was then to present policy information through social discourses via webinars. all policyrelated information was translated into the tamil language as their target audience were malaysian indian entrepreneurs. meanwhile, mic through its twitter posts indicated the latest policy changes with the #infomic and #micnews hashtags as an indicator. some of the important posts were highlighted in the tamil language, as tamil is the lingua franca of most malaysian indians. the post in example 3, is the tamil version which is truncated to provide only the important message extracted from the malay version. as it is important to share accurate and timely crisis information to ease uncertainty, the post is much needed by the community to keep abreast with the updates. this is especially crucial as the mco was extended for a fourth time and in each phase of the pandemic the public were required to adhere to lists of specific sops. measures such as hefty penalties and fines for the public who infringe such sops were introduced to curb a further spread of the disease. hence, communicators are expected to provide assistance thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 465 and essential information during the crisis (veil et al., 2011). example 3: source text translated version 4-ஆம் கடட் நடமாடட் கடட்ுப்பாடட்ு ஆணையின் பபாது அத்தியாவசிய பதணவகளுக்கு இருவர ் செல்ல அனுமதி. during phase 4 of the movement control order, two persons are allowed to go out for essential needs. ketua keluarga yang keluar membeli makanan, ubatubatan atau barangan keperluan harian sepanjang tempoh perintah kawalan pergerakan (pkp) fasa 4 bermula hari ini, kini dibenarkan membawa seorang lagi ahli keluarga bersama. perintah kawalan pergerakan fasa ke-4 29 april – 12 mei heads of family can now be accompanied by a family member when going out to buy food, medicines or daily necessities during the movement control order (pkp) phase 4 which begins today. movement control order phase 4 29 april – 12 may source: (malaysian indian congress, 2020d) social support social support can be informational, providing emotional advice and tangible assistance such as food and groceries during a crisis. both ipf and mic communicated their capacity to offer financial and food assistance through their pages by posting pictures of indians receiving help from the party representatives. both parties posted similar information on the type of help and support provided, the specific branch, sponsor’s name, and location of the disbursement of food aid and donation. all the posts had similar formats which appeared to suggest that the same template was reused in the subsequent posts throughout the four mco phases by all branch offices of the respective political parties across the country. an example of a typical post with a standard format used by the ipf on the distribution of food and monetary aid is shown in example 4. example 4: ipf branch) division presented donations of basic necessities to the indian community around the (location) on (date) . we will continue to help the community who need it during these difficult times, hopefully to ease the burden of those affected by the covid-19 transmission. donation for these necessities was provided by the (sponsor’s name) . source: (all malaysian indian progressive front, 2020) the first topic sentence explains the main message of the entire post. in this case, the indian community in a particular area received donations in the form of basic necessities. demonstrating genuine concern and recognizing emotions are considered best practices in managing a crisis (veil et al., 2011). the ipf used the exclusive pronoun ‘we’ to show that the party is there to do the needful for the indian community. the phrase ‘we will continue’ indicates that ipf has extended help prior to the current post to those affected by the pandemic and would continue to provide service for those who still needed help. ipf was also practicing transparency in revealing the sponsors who donated money or gave in-kind for this project. this suggests that the ipf has a good network of philanthropists and sponsors, who entrusted ipf to extend help to the needy. mic has gone a step further by launching an online application named utavi (www.utavi.com. my) meaning ‘help’ on 18 may 2020 to reach out to the community. through this post, the purpose and function of the online application are stated in example 5. example 5: we note that the vulnerable communities in the country who have been affected due to the lockdown are in dire need of help. we hope that through this initiative, we would be able to generate food and grocery which will provide some much-needed relief to families within various communities nationwide. source: (malaysian indian congress, 2020b) mic starts the post by stating its observation, ‘we note’ and acknowledge that there are communities who need help. the exclusive pronoun ‘we’ in ‘we note’, ‘we hope’ and ‘we would be able to’ shows the concern and compassion of the party, as well as their ability and accessibility to reach out to the ones who are at a disadvantage. the phrases ‘vulnerable communities’ and ‘much-needed relief’ express compassion and empathy, which are considered best practices of communication during a crisis (seeger, 2006). this help was extended nationwide. through providing social support and publicizing them via social media, both mic and ipf are affirming their presence and role in society. this publicity is expected to indirectly boost their ratings and provides an avenue for political mileage for the upcoming general elections. post-crisis scenarios the term ‘new norm’ was introduced to facilitate the citizens to adopt and adjust to the thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 466 new routine practices as the pandemic had caused many policy shifts. as the pandemic continues, this last stage of crisis communication strategy was yet to be concluded. there were three agencies, mic, mitta and migs that continued to engage online with the community to deal with postcrisis scenarios. mic twitter promoted its party deputy president’s interview and his outlook on impacts and challenges in the employment sector. meanwhile, mitta and migs were the only agencies which posted outlooks after the pandemic related to tourism and tertiary education. this information, post-crisis, clearly shows that the agencies were predicting from its research and expert knowledge how the nation had to cope and pan through life after the devastating effects of the pandemic to every aspect of human life. in summary, classifying the types of information shared during a crisis helped the public to be aware and understand what the pandemic was about, the effects as well as realising the role played by the mias in addressing challenges faced by the malaysian indians. the customized messages were interspersed with english and malay languages, but the tamil language was mainly used to convey the messages to the community. among the identified mias, mic utilized all five strategies (i) – (v) from the crisis communication strategy model. the political parties, mic and ipf, through their social support and communication gained mileage in terms of popularity and public trust during the pandemic, as discussed below. hence, social media is not only for publicity but also to communicate important information and provide assurance to the beneficiary society. usually, the question of who the beneficiaries are in a crisis is easily ascertained if it is confined within a group or a particular community or in an organisation. however, in the case of a global crisis, the pandemic did not choose its victims as everyone was affected in many ways. while the magnitude of the effects varies from one individual or the family, to groups of other members of society, the core message of the crisis communication remains the same. the fundamental message during the lockdown or mco was to stay home, and only the head of the family was allowed to get provisions or medical supplies. mias communication effectiveness it is noted that all five strategies have been attempted by mias during the pandemic crisis. there were updates on collaborative initiatives rendered exclusively for the indian people by several individuals and organizations, such as politically-affiliated agencies and organizations, personal contributions by philanthropist, and the initiatives by relevant ministries to resolve issues such as education, scholarship opportunities and university placement issues, and poverty during the lockdown period. meanwhile, in the current study the focus on indians is in the urban area but there is a divide between the urban rich and middle-class families, with that of the urban poor. the first group is educated, able to access information in all major languages and does not rely on only the tamil language to get information. according to one respondent, who is a retired officer, the posts by the mias are delayed as compared to those that appear in malay and english in mainstream and social media posts. the above comment may be attributed to posts being slightly delayed due to the need for a translation from the original content into the tamil language, by either the social administrator or the political representative. in another interview with t3, a respondent from pandamaran, an area where many urban poor live responded to a question on the mode of communication that she and her family relied on during the pandemic. according to t3, she and her immediate neighbours in the residential area preferred to receive news and updates from their whatsapp chat groups and mainstream media, particularly the radio, citing the promptness of the news and information, as the reason for their choice. this line of discussion was also evident among the minority indigenous communities in malaysia, who were not left behind in the chaotic pandemic situation, as translated versions of the health advisory was also conducted by university professors in at least 10 indigenous languages. the content of the message was constructed in simple sentences that reflected the indigenous way of life. the choice of words such as farming, planting, gathering vegetables, and local slang were found in the messages to the community. however, the community only relied on their head of village or batin to get updates on the pandemic, as he was the one who relays all government-related news to the community (shanmuganathan et al., 2022). similarly, to a question whether the thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 467 community sought information from the political parties’ twitter or facebook pages, respondents from the urban poor community echoed that they received news via whatsapp messages. these whatsapp messages were shared from social media sources and were then made viral to reach a wider range of indians. based on these findings, the mias had to vary the way they reached out to the communities, some of whom were literally cut off from their townships. those who needed help were able to get the provisions required, and clearly the targeted beneficiaries were only the urban poor. in contrast, the urban middle and upper-class indians did not check out the political parties’ websites as they were able to manage on their own and wade through the crisis independently. noteworthy, the respondents generally trusted the politically linked mic and ipf platforms as they were both addressing a global health concern, and so the information was apolitical and reliable. the political parties, mic and ipf have always been in the forefront and shown to be prominent community representatives for the government to channel essential resources to the indian community. thus, it has become a part of their political routine to offer such help to the public, even before the appearance and spread of the pandemic. as expected, ipf’s facebook page and mic’s twitter had an upsurge of posts on such assistance at the height of the first wave of the pandemic between april and mid-may 2020. by showing visible support through online media, these mias appear to be the place where citizens can find solace, able to respond or query, as well as pave the way for more communication opportunities (veil et al., 2011). while social media presence enhance citizen’s engagements with mias, their existing political and social reputation have contributed to its reliability and reach for crisis communication. conclusion the findings reveal that mias primarily functioned as information redistributors of government policies and healthcare measures through social media platforms like facebook and twitter. they also played a crucial role in supporting vulnerable indian communities and helping spread pandemic awareness. however, the study was limited by its focus on only two main social media platforms and faced language barrier challenges for non-english/non-national language speakers. there was also a notable dependence on government information re-sharing rather than original content creation. overall, the implications of this study emphasize the critical need for crisis communicators to maintain a balanced approach between transparency and empathy during emergencies. additionally, it highlights the importance of utilizing multiple communication channels and native language usage for effective crisis communication. for future research directions, the study suggests exploring more diverse platforms like whatsapp for personalized messaging, examining the effectiveness of multilingual communication strategies, and investigating methods to enhance direct community engagement. ethics statement the social media posts analysed in this study were obtained from publicly accessible accounts, and as such, consent was not required for their use in research. additionally, informed consent was obtained from all 15 respondents prior to their participation in the online interviews, and they were fully debriefed about the purpose and nature of the research. credit author statement sinayah: study design, data analysis, translation, drafted the manuscript, perumal: data analysis, translation, drafted the manuscript, govaichelvan: study design, data extraction, literature review, visualization, shanmuganathan: data analysis, conducted interview, drafted the manuscript, gan: literature review, visualization, review and editing. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. thanalachime perumal / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 468 references all malaysian indian progressive front [ipfmalaysia]. 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(2023). kaum india jadi penentu ketika jurang undi melayu-cina melebar, kata pemerhati. malaysia now. https://www.malaysianow.com/my/news/2023/06/27/ kaum-india-jadi-penentu-ketika-jurang-undi-melayu-cina-melebar-kata-pemerhati nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 360 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 07, 2024 final revision: september 04, 2024 accepted: september 08, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 the study was conducted to identify relevant interactive methods of teaching english. for this purpose, a survey of the level of motivation to language learning was conducted, which included a pedagogical experiment with 46 students of 7 grades of the public school “taalim”. the results of questionnaire survey of students and observation revealed a qualitative positive growth of linguistic creativity and motivation to learn english, due to the use of role-playing games and theatrical performances in lessons. to investigate the use of interactive techniques in english language teaching and to share experiences with colleagues, a conversation was held with 23 teachers, including undergraduates using these methods. the paper examines the concepts of motivation, play, dramatization, describes the main types and methods of using interactive techniques in teaching. it was determined that games and dramatization play an important role in learning. the use of role-playing games promotes language learning, helps to increase cognitive interest in the subject, while making the learning process less difficult, develops memory and thinking, focuses attention on a particular subject, and motivates students to learn english. dramatization technologies develop imagination, contribute to the automatic understanding of rhymed language phrases, and the development of the student’s sensory and emotional sphere. the conducted research highlighted the main features of the use of game techniques in the process of teaching english and argued that it is important to introduce games and dramatization into the learning process. interactive methods imply the interest of students in mastering a foreign language, the desire to perceive a foreign language and learn to speak a foreign language. linguistic creativity and motivation are enhanced through role-playing and dramatization, enabling children to overcome the language barrier and increase their own self-esteem. keywords new pedagogical technologies, improvisation, authentic communication, self-esteem, theatrical performance correspondence e-mail: biynazarovanazgul@gmail.com article the use of interactive techniques, role-playing games, and dramatization to increase linguistic creativity and motivation of students nazgul biynazarova1, apal abdimomunova2, nurizad dzhilkibaeva3, zhyldyz takenova4, dinara asanova5 1department of technology, theory and practice of a foreign language, kyrgyz state university named after i. arabaev, bishkek, kyrgyz republic 2department of english studies and intercultural communication, kyrgyz national university named after jusup balasagyn, bishkek, kyrgyz republic 3department of fundamental and applied linguistics, kyrgyz state university named after i. arabaev, bishkek, kyrgyz republic 4department of pedagogy, ala-too international university, bishkek, kyrgyz republicrepublic 5department of multidisciplinary education, ala-too international university, bishkek, kyrgyz republic under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.360-372.2024 i. introduction in today’s globalised society, english is the primary language for international communication, which places significant demands on educators to facilitate both linguistic and social adaptation for students. optimising the learning process, enhancing motivation and integrating innovative teaching methods are critical goals for modern nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 361 educational systems. teachers are increasingly tasked with independently determining the most effective methods and techniques to achieve these aims, particularly in fostering linguistic creativity and sustaining student interest in english language learning. linguistic creativity can be defined as the capacity of students to generate original and efficacious linguistic forms and expressions that extend beyond the mere rote memorisation of established patterns. it entails the accurate utilisation of linguistic structures and their innovative deployment in meaningful contexts, thereby promoting communicative competence and creative expression in the learning of the english language (karhina, 2023). the use of role-playing games, staging, and dramatization games in lessons has been recognized as an effective strategy in english language teaching (kozyar, et al., 2020). play-based teaching allows coping with difficulties of an educational nature in a complex (kozyar et al., 2022). therefore, it is necessary to include games in english lessons on a consolidating and testing (permanent) basis in the methodological organisation of the lesson. the ability to model and create situations and perform a certain role is a tremendous experience for students in learning and practising english (nanda & susanto, 2021). the means of theatrical pedagogy – dramatization – has a beneficial effect on the classroom environment, since the main focus is on meaning, not accuracy (melnyk, 2024). the teacher should understand that after this method of teaching, it is necessary to focus on the complex process and their mutual cooperation, all the positive aspects must be spoken to the students for motivation in further training, but without forgetting to correct mistakes and problems that have arisen (korkut and özmen, 2023). english is one of the means of communication and learning about the world and occupies a major place in the educational system due to its cognitive, social, and developmental functions (bezborodova & radjabzade, 2022), and the use of interactive technologies in the process of language learning contributes to the activation of cognitive activity, stimulation, and motivation of the educational process (ismaeva, 2020). the issues of motivation and academic performance in learning english were also considered by novia et al. (2023), kazakbaeva (2023). the findings of novia et al. point out that it is important to create a favourable classroom environment so that every child reveals a desire to speak a foreign language and students’ communication becomes a need. kazakbaeva suggests that when planning an english lesson, it is necessary to consider certain specifics: the lesson should have a practical orientation, where the skills of students will be applied; a wellcoordinated atmosphere of communication; unity of educational goals: grammar, phonetics, vocabulary should be practised during the lesson. according to researchers who study foreign language teaching methods, wilda et al. (2021), an important task of a teacher is also to overcome the psychological barrier, complexes of stiffness and shyness of students. it should be borne in mind that the learning process will be effective only if every student in the class is involved in an active participant in the process. the game form in english language teaching is the most relevant and acceptable in the teaching methodology, which provides huge learning opportunities (khrystych, 2023). the results of the study by ramsey-tyson and abdysheva, (2021) confirm that role-playing games and game moments are effective in lessons, since interactive play is one of the means of mental relaxation of a child, and physical and moral education of a student. in addition to making english lessons fun, games promote student engagement in teamwork, reduce student stress during the learning process, help social interaction between students, and improve communication (jenner & jebakumar, 2024; sartorius von bach & nuppenau, 2024). the value of dramatization in teaching is that this method makes it possible to increase the level of thinking of the student and lighten the classroom atmosphere. the issues of dramatization in education were discussed by bsharat and barahmeh (2020), sadia et al. (2021), nanda and susanto (2021), myrzabekova and akhmetova (2020). this technique is considered a good alternative for speech training and speech development. the findings of bsharat and barahmeh emphasise that dramatization contributed to the development of students’ abilities to understand language and social interaction. despite the challenges associated with integrating drama in the classroom, nanda and susanto’s empirical research findings indicate that students’ pronunciation of english words demonstrated notable improvement. this suggests that while not all children possess innate nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 362 theatrical abilities, the incorporation of drama in the classroom can facilitate the acquisition of linguistic skills. myrzabekova and akhmetova stated as a result: with the use of gaming methods in the classroom, students began to understand gaming activities better, increased self-esteem. despite the active use of interactive methods in teaching, role-playing and dramatization, their study has received rather little attention. although interactive methods have been the subject of considerable study, the specific impact and potential of role-playing and dramatisation remain underexplored. consequently, further research in this area is required. such aspects remain unexplored as: new teaching ideas that will be used in the classroom; the influence of interactive techniques on the learning process as a whole and the problems that prevent this (a person’s feeling of fear and embarrassment before speaking a foreign language); the teacher’s participation in roleplaying games, as they can harm the educational process by excessive presence. all of the above motivates researchers to search for new ways to study the means of theatrical art in education. the principal objective of this study is to examine the efficacy of employing role-playing games and dramatisation in the instruction of english to 7thgrade students at the private educational institution “taalim”. the study has three principal objectives: to explore new pedagogical techniques that can be incorporated into english language lessons; to assess the pedagogical characteristics of these interactive methods; to evaluate the impact of these methods on student motivation and language acquisition. ii. methods in the empirical part of the study, interactive techniques, role-playing games, and dramatization were considered to increase linguistic creativity and motivation to learn english. 46 students of the 7th grade of the private school “taalim” were involved in the experiment. the study was conducted in the 2023-2024 academic year for 10 weeks. the students had english classes 2 times a week, that is, 20 lessons were held. the selection of 7th-grade students for this study was based on their developmental stage, at which point their cognitive and linguistic abilities are sufficiently advanced to benefit from interactive methods. furthermore, this age group is typically at a transitional stage in their education, which provides an optimal opportunity to introduce innovative teaching techniques that can enhance motivation and linguistic creativity. the materials employed in the study comprised standard english language textbooks, supplementary teaching aids, and a bespoke non-standard training program devised for the experimental group. the program incorporated role-playing games and dramatisation activities, which were designed to engage students in active learning. furthermore, a series of preand postexperiment tests (appendix 1) were employed to assess the students’ proficiency in english, while surveys (appendix 2) were utilized to evaluate the perceived impact of the teaching methodologies on student motivation. a voice recorder was utilized to conduct and document interviews with english language teachers. the study was conducted over a period of 10 weeks, with students attending english classes on two occasions per week, resulting in a total of 20 lessons. at the commencement of the experiment, both the experimental and control groups completed a baseline test to ascertain their initial level of english language proficiency. the experimental group participated in lessons that integrated roleplaying games and dramatisation, while the control group was taught using conventional teaching methods. the progress of the experimental group was monitored throughout the experiment, with observations recorded in detailed notes. at the conclusion of the 10-week period, both groups were administered a final test identical to the baseline test in order to ascertain any improvement in their english language skills. furthermore, students in the experimental group were invited to complete a survey, the purpose of which was to elicit their feedback on their experiences with the interactive teaching methods. in order to complement the quantitative data, qualitative data were collected through interviews with 23 english language teachers from various schools and universities. the focus of these interviews was on the teachers’ perspectives on the effectiveness of interactive teaching methods and their experiences in using such techniques in their own classrooms. the data obtained from the preand postexperiment tests were subjected to statistical analysis in order to ascertain the efficacy of the nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 363 the use of the game method also allows students to see in a foreign language an effective means of communication, to apply all stages of mastering the educational material. however, game methods will be effective only if the educational process is properly organised in conjunction with other learning tools, based on the tasks and goals set. the main types of games in the learning process are those presented in table 1. team games and contests help to create communicative and collective work (quizzes, thematic contests, team building). students compete, create presentations, projects, texts of plays in english, and their team play is strengthened. the main reasons for the effectiveness of gaming techniques are presented below (table 2). the utilisation of dramatisation technology has been demonstrated to markedly enhance student motivation in the context of english language teaching. dramatisation, also known as “theatricalization”, “theatre in lessons”, or “staging”, involves the enactment of roles and the presentation of curriculum content in a theatrical manner. it is an effective method for developing speech and language skills, emotional intelligence, and creativity (papageorgiou, 2022). although frequently employed in english lessons to reinforce vocabulary and dialogues, it seldom provokes a strong emotional response. nevertheless, it has the potential to enhance knowledge, facilitate nonverbal communication, and augment vocabulary and creativity (kalashnyk et al., 2024). the efficacy of dramatisation is contingent upon the professional interactive techniques employed. descriptive statistics were employed to summarise the students’ test scores, while paired t-tests were conducted to compare the performance of the experimental and control groups. the survey responses were subjected to frequency analysis in order to identify common trends and perceptions among the student cohort. the qualitative data obtained from the teacher interviews were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis in order to identify recurring themes and insights regarding the utilisation of role-playing and dramatisation in english language teaching. iii. results the utilisation of interactive techniques in the field of english language learning has been demonstrated to be an effective method of fostering interest and motivation amongst learners. when effectively implemented, games and dramatisations can serve as an effective vehicle for combining entertainment with education, thereby enhancing students’ abilities in speech, confidence, and communication. the concept of “game” is multifaceted. this is an independent format for the development of children of different ages, and conscious independent activity through which the world around them is known and self-development takes place based on the subconscious, mind and creativity, this is both the experience of communication and the solution of the main issues of interpersonal relations (gallo et al., 2023). game practice performs the following functions (figure 1). figure 1. game activity functions nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 364 training and enthusiasm of the teacher. it facilitates the overcoming of language barriers, encourages student engagement in creative processes, and fosters mutual respect, thereby transforming the traditional teacher-student dynamic into a more collaborative and creative director-actor format (dawoud et al., 2020). at the outset of the experiment, both the control class (cc) and the experimental class (ec) were subjected to a baseline assessment of their initial english language proficiency. as illustrated in figure 2, the results indicate that, within the control class, three students were classified as having a high level of proficiency, 12 students as average, and eight students as low. in the experimental class, two students were classified as having a high level of proficiency, 14 as average, and seven as low. the aforementioned results constituted the baseline for the evaluation of the efficacy of the interactive teaching methods implemented in the experimental class. the main methodological principles of the interactive method of teaching english in ec were: speaking in english; joint activities; changing the usual role of the teacher during training, democratic communication with students; conscious understanding of actions and motives by students and the teacher. for example, below are four classes held during the 8th and 9th weeks of the experiment. the creation of the play “harry table 1. types of games no type of game application in the learning process 1 phonetic the use of object games, puzzle games, simulations, attention games, competition games. 2 lexical they are used with additional material, for example, card games, crosswords, riddles, chainwords, according to the type: “find the word”, “guess the riddle”. 3 playing with phrases popular memory training games include “lottery”, “auction”, “duel”, “chain of words”. 4 grammatical common in training are: “guess who is speaking”, “where were you?”, “hide-and-seek in a picture”, “lazy-bones” (action game) 5 for learning to read games that simulate life situations are used: “playing in the store”, “doctor’s appointment”, “interview”. 6 for teaching listening skills listening training involves the development of memory, speech hearing, and probabilistic forecasting. 7 communication skills games with a small amount of information, attention, memory, puzzle games, playing material without text: “who am i?”, “dominoes”, “bingo”. table 2. reasons for the effectiveness of gaming techniques. motivation and interest maintaining motivation and developing students’ interest. games contribute to an atmosphere of competition, fun, and engaging learning. practical application of skills and abilities direct use of language skills, solving tasks, better assimilation of the material. authentic communication communication in authentic situations and real life situations, which helps to overcome embarrassment and fears. development of cognitive skills development of analytical thinking, strategic planning, and perception of space. reducing tension and fear they help to reduce fear and stress, give students a sense of the possible study and application of their skills without evaluation and criticism, which has a positive effect on the overall atmosphere in the classroom. socialisation developing the skills of cooperation, respect for each other, communication, teamwork, exchange of experience. qualitative assimilation of the material games promote the active participation of students in learning. during the games, they not only repeat and consolidate the studied vocabulary and grammar, but also apply them in practice in real situations. this helps to assimilate the material at a deeper level and makes it more accessible for further use. feeling confident in their use of language due to the friendly and favourable environment, reducing fear and shyness, there is a sense of confidence in the use of language. creative abilities creative thinking develops through the search for non-standard answers to tasks, a creative approach and own development of strategies nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 365 potter”. the mechanism of action: initiation of an idea, planning, studying the main meaning of the programme, filling the main programme with additional language information that will be necessary to convey the idea. next, the teacher, together with the students, develops a script, selects background music, and determines the cast among the students. the work on the staged performance takes place during the scheduled activity, at the control stage, the performance is shown at the end of the 9th week. the 10th week begins with a lesson-correction and work on mistakes. according to the training programme on the topic “cinema and theatre”, reading the text of the work “harry potter” includes 2 hours. at the end of the 10th week of the experiment, a final test was conducted to identify speech progress, which was also facilitated by a nonstandard training programme (figure 3). in addition to the test results, a survey was conducted of students in the experimental class regarding their experiences with the role-playing games and dramatisation employed during their english lessons. as illustrated in figure 4, the survey findings indicated that the majority of students found these methods engaging and beneficial. specifically, 22 students expressed interest in this form of education, while 19 reported that their motivation to learn english increased due to these interactive techniques. furthermore, 20 students indicated that they felt less inhibited and constrained when speaking as a result of the experiment, and 8 students expressed a desire to create their own scripts for role-playing activities. figure 2. test result figure 3. results of the final test as illustrated in figure 3, the results demonstrated a significant enhancement in the experimental class, with the number of students classified as having high proficiency increasing to eight, while thirteen remained average, and only two were classified as low. in contrast, the control class exhibited a slight improvement, with four students achieving a high level, 14 maintaining an average level, and six remaining in the low category. figure 4. results of the survey in the ec at the end of the experiment to provide a more nuanced understanding of the effectiveness of interactive teaching methods, interviews were conducted with 23 english language teachers. this qualitative data was collected to complement the quantitative data. the majority of teachers indicated that these methods had a favourable impact on student motivation and involvement in lessons. in particular, 21 out of 23 teachers agreed that these methods enhanced student engagement. however, several challenges were also identified, including time constraints and the necessity for supplementary training in the implementation of these interactive techniques. notwithstanding the aforementioned challenges, the overall feedback from the teaching staff was positive with regard to the utilisation of roleplaying and dramatisation in language teaching. as a result, it can be said that teaching english using interactive techniques increases academic performance, motivation, interest and efficiency, develops communication skills, improves lexical literacy, and hones speech skills. all students are given the opportunity to achieve high results, the teacher’s relationship with children improves, and the self-esteem of all participants in the process increases. role-playing and dramatization should nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 366 be included on an ongoing basis in the english language curriculum, as they are an effective method in increasing linguistic creativity and motivation to learn english. the final work with the students helped to understand that learning english gives results only with the use of practice, a conversational situation of a vital nature, which contributes to an increase in the level of motivation and linguistic creativity of language learning. practice helps to achieve emancipation, freedom, realise communicative abilities, and contributes to the formation of an open and favourable educational environment. iv. discussion the above results provide an idea of the possibilities of using interactive techniques in the process of learning english, about the motivation and interest in the learning process of students. the research helps to define the concepts of game and dramatization, reveals the features of their application in learning a foreign language, discovers and deepens the importance of using interactive techniques in the educational process. the findings of the study have value and insights for practitioners and researchers. analysing the results in the course of the conducted research, it can be seen that the use of techniques and methods of play and dramatization in english lessons contribute to the growth of the level of knowledge, skills, and abilities that students receive in the learning process. for effective development of motivation growth in learning english, it is necessary to form and develop practical skills. the use of game techniques in teaching gives effective results and wide opportunities for both students and teachers. many researchers who have studied various methods of teaching english have noticed the effectiveness of using games, game moments, dramatization and theatricalisation in the classroom. with the rapid development of innovative tools and technologies in education, research studies the impact of interactive techniques such as games and dramatization on the quality of learning. for example, the paper by febrianti et al. (2022) also explores the impact of drama on student academic performance. scientific figures indicate the advantages of using drama for teaching english, in the same way as in the results above, they note an increase in motivation and confidence of students, an improvement in vocabulary. researchers name some reasons why it is useful for students to learn english based on dramatization – it is the creation of emotional and intellectual conditions, encouraging the student’s desire to take risks, the possibility of using communication skills. it is important to note that these findings of the researchers enable teachers to use such types of technologies to solve the problems of teaching english in their professional activities. the motives of human activity are as diverse as the activity itself, any emotional background is only a reflection and a derivative side of real motivation. this understanding of the game, being fundamentally incorrect, is actually unsatisfactory, since it could only be used for early “functional” games and necessarily without higher-level forms (sinar et al., 2024; dashko & miroshnichenko, 2023). the main norm of children’s creativity in the learning process is not only the value of the results and the product of their creativity, but also the process. this is why it is so important that students create and feel in the process. they develop imagination, creative thinking, and improve memory. students who take part in dramatizations and productions are universally developed, tolerant, work in a team, learn to conduct a dialogue competently, manage their own emotions and feelings (lipowska & sajewicz-radtke, 2012). the study acknowledges the potential influence of the hawthorne effect, where students’ awareness that they were participating in an experiment may have influenced their motivation and engagement with the interactive techniques (vyhrestenko, 2019). this awareness could have led to increased performance, particularly in activities such as roleplaying and dramatisation. the study controlled for this by emphasising the natural integration of these techniques into the regular classroom, rather than presenting them as experimental interventions, thereby reducing the likelihood of performance bias. practical teachers alasmari and alshae’el (2020) also conducted an empirical study with classroom observations. the results partially coincided with those indicated above, that the use of dramatization in learning foreign languages has a positive effect on the effectiveness of the process. this type of pedagogical technology leads to a high level of language communication, motivates, and interests in the learning process. the researchers state that dramatic theatrical performances in classrooms have a positive effect nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 367 on learning a foreign language. however, the use of dramatization leads to certain difficulties: lack of time, inability to apply this method by the teacher, embarrassment of students, dramatization hinders the development of speech, the unpredictable nature of productions. it is important to add that the article, along with traditional teaching methods, describes dramatization as one of the effective means of theatrical pedagogy, which will be useful for future researchers. studying the application of theatrical pedagogy as an additional technique in teaching english, professor of pedagogy govardhini (2023) concluded that this technique is a good alternative for teaching only pronunciation and developing abilities for social interaction. some teachers in the experiment conducted by the researcher indicate that there are a number of problems, for example, the lack of students’ talent for drama and the desire to learn. however, mostly, teachers note the effectiveness of the proposed method for teaching and learning the language, they believe that students, due to the discussion and criticism of the characters, began to understand the english text better. notably, that there is a shortage of time at the appointed time, and this is a problem for the introduction of interactive techniques such as dramatization. therefore, the purpose of the study by masoumi-moghaddam (2018) was to explore the ways and methods by which theatrical pedagogy and its means (role-playing, dramatization, theatricalisation, pantomime, sketches) used in foreign language lessons in relation to pedagogical practices of teaching and learning english spoken language, can create certain conditions for favourable learning environment. the results are similar to those obtained in this study, the students demonstrated tremendous achievements of their own skills, developed conversational skills in english through the use of dramatic discourse. positive results of the use of dramatization in teaching was obtained by altweissi and maaytah (2022). they noticed that students have an interest and a positive attitude towards lessons using drama classes, and academic performance increases in all subjects, not only in a foreign language. it is also noted, as in this paper, that the english language teaching programme based on interactive methods should be included for teaching spoken language. as indicated by szabó and kopinska (2022), a game technique is one of the existing ones, which is a promising and innovative learning tool that allows students to overcome personal motivational difficulties. the use of various role-playing games in the learning process significantly improves the process of learning foreign languages, learning takes place by creating a favourable environment in the classroom, which contributes to the creation of individual progress (andreyeva et al., 2024). researchers suggest that a distinctive feature of the game is that it divides learning into stages, just like motivation theory, when the goal is divided into sub-goals, provides differentiation. this also includes the use of game characteristics and their implementation in real situations, the development of specific behaviour in a game situation. according to korkut and özmen (2023), the introduction of games in the process of learning english makes the process more enjoyable, develops stress tolerance, mutual assistance between students, and promotes the growth of communication skills. the study identified the components and their analysis, factors and circumstances, components of what educational games should have, describes examples of educational games that will be useful for secondary school teachers. within the framework of the conducted research, yang and quadir (2018) have developed an online english language learning roleplaying game aimed at enriching vocabulary and grammatical structure of sentences. researchers also conducted an experimental study with the 7th grade students to determine their english language proficiency and how they affect the results of cognitive training. the study confirmed that the initial knowledge of students is a key factor that, in general, affects the effectiveness of knowledge acquisition in learning based on the game method. the results are valuable for teachers and show how to effectively use the game to improve students’ learning skills through game forms. as noted in this paper, the use of role-playing games in learning english in the classroom has a positive effect on the atmosphere, increases the interest and motivation of students, and significantly improves academic performance. bololia et al. (2022) argue that learning, which is based on a game technique, consists of two elements. the game stimulates the process of integrating information from other disciplines and applying it in the right way in learning. the researchers also noticed that nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 368 games develop teamwork and communication with peers, improve coordination, creative thinking, which, above all, develops the ability to establish social connections. one of the most effective ways to develop problem–solving skills is learning, which is based on a game technique. according to the theoretical results, the organisation of the educational process based on interactive methods is not an easy task for a teacher. before starting language learning, the teacher must determine the degree of interest of the student in studying the subject. it is important to determine why he needs a language, how best to teach a particular student to a child, and henceforth use various teaching methods. it is necessary to identify the dominant motive in language learning. however, the interest in learning to a greater extent still depends on the child learner the teacher only needs to competently develop certain qualities, guide, help, and control the process. khidirova (2021) also states that if there is feedback between the student and the teacher, the learning process will be more effective, the creative atmosphere in the classroom will enable the teacher to imperceptibly, productively educate students, control student behaviour and correct it. the researcher suggests that dramatic methods create conditions when a child wants to listen and perceive english-language speech, speak the language being studied, when the student feels a sense of satisfaction from the process. researcher discussed the use of dramatic techniques in teaching english, which act as a qualitative method of teaching the language and increasing the level of motivation. considering the study by thanh et al. (2024), where learning based on interactive techniques is considered, it is indicated that the purpose of a particular game is the following aspects: cognitive (knowledge gained during the game), educational (use of different forms of communication between people, fostering a sense of trust in the environment), behavioural (development of certain behavioural patterns). the researchers named the following conditions for the qualitative introduction of interactive games into english language teaching: variety of tasks in the process of interactive play; choice of an appropriate pace to maintain the interest of children of different ages; inclusion of mobile tasks in the content of the game; use of fairytale characters, interesting characters, poems and songs in the game. this will give the opportunity to interest the child in an interesting way to learn new words and expressions. at the same time, the student must understand the lesson in their native language, only then the training will be clear and simple. as a result, the results obtained in the course of this study, and the findings of researchers from different countries, helped to consider the use of interactive techniques in the process of teaching english, role-playing games and dramatization to increase linguistic creativity and motivation to learn english. the applicability and effectiveness of roleplaying and dramatisation in different educational settings may be influenced by cultural differences. this study recommends that future research should explore how these interactive techniques can be adapted to respect and integrate cultural norms and values to ensure their relevance and effectiveness in different educational contexts. such adaptations might include modifying the content or approach to meet cultural expectations, while maintaining the pedagogical benefits of these methods (golovach, 2023). the study emphasises the value of interactive methodologies, such as dramatisation and gamebased learning, in motivating students and enhancing their learning experience. it encourages educators to integrate these techniques into their pedagogical approach with a view to enhancing student engagement and facilitating language acquisition (derakhshan et al., 2024). it would be beneficial for policymakers to endorse the implementation of interactive methodologies in the design of educational curricula, with the aim of optimising the quality of educational outcomes. however, the findings of the study may not be generalisable due to the limited scope of the educational setting and the relatively small sample size. further research should investigate the longterm impact of interactive techniques on language acquisition and student attitudes, as well as the ways in which these methods can be adapted for different learner profiles and educational environments. this will assist in the refinement of teaching strategies and the maximisation of the benefits of interactive learning approaches. v. conclusion the study considered the concepts of motivation, dramatization, and play; the main types and genres of games that are used in teaching are described; nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 369 pedagogical characteristics of dramatization and theatricalisation technologies are listed. based on the example of using interactive techniques, namely games and dramatization, a pedagogical study of the level of linguistic creativity and motivation was conducted with 46 students of the 7th grade of the private school “taalim”. the findings showed that after the experiment, the students’ english proficiency level, self-esteem, interest, vocabulary, and speaking skills were improved. children have stopped being shy about public speaking, and were open to communication. the study also highlights that every teacher in the learning process aims to create a favourable classroom environment, tries to motivate students, increase interest in the subject. in addition, it was revealed that for primary school children, the background colouring of the lesson is important, and for high school students, scenarios and the ability to choose roles are important. the conducted survey of students determined the degree of satisfaction with interactive methods in learning english, and a conversation with teachers made it clear that it is also important to integrate the teaching of a foreign language with other disciplines. this paper provides valuable data for further research on what difficulties exist in the learning process, how to effectively prepare students for speaking, increase motivation and interest in learning. in schools, it is necessary to introduce game-based approaches into the foreign language teaching programme. teachers regularly improve their qualifications, participate in events that would allow them to share their interests and acquired experience with colleagues, and conduct electives for children. students develop speaking skills and abilities, train their memory by means of independent reading of english literature; perform various kinds of activities. this study has limitations that need to be carefully considered in the future. first of all, it must be noted that the data in the study is variable, which is most likely to be subjectively biased. the number of students with whom the experiment was conducted numbered 46 students of the 7th grade. an important learning mechanism in the future may also be a study, which will show whether the results have covered other subjects in schools where interactive methods are used in teaching. therefore, in the future it is necessary to consider the issues of learning english by means of role-playing games and dramatization in other classes and schools of the country. despite the limitations, the study provides a preliminary understanding of the use of the above methods in increasing motivation and linguistic creativity in learning english, and provides an opportunity for researchers to seek solutions to problems related to increasing student motivation in learning. future research should focus on investigating: linguistic skills, which will potentially have a positive effect on the cognitive abilities of students; the pace and speed of lessons using theatrical pedagogy tools. future subjects of enquiry may also include methodological issues in education using interactive techniques. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in data in brief. the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement nazgul biynazarova: designed and supervised the project; apal abdimomunova wrote the manuscript with input from all authors; nurizad dzhilkibaeva: developed the theoretical framework; zhyldyz takenova: contributed to the interpretation of the results; dinara asanova: supervised the findings of this work. all authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. nazgul biynazarova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 370 references alasmari, n., & alshae’el, a. 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(2018). effects of prior knowledge on learning performance and anxiety in an english learning online role-playing game. educational technology & society, 21(3), 174-185. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458516 murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 1 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 23, 2024 final revision: november 16, 2024 accepted: december 10, 2024 available online: march 25, 2025 emergence learning during the covid-19 pandemic was a challenging experience for many learners possibly due to the physical and psychological distance. this distance conceptualized as a transactional distance according to moore’s theory is a critical issue in distance learning. therefore, the present study attempted to (1) determine saudi efl students’ levels of perceived transactional distance in distance learning, (2) measure the impact of the interaction of course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy on saudi efl students’ perceived td in distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic (3) examine the effect of sociodemographic and environmental factors on their perceived transactional distance. by administering a multidimensional electronic (e-)survey to 189 students joining distance learning in a saudi public university, the study provided evidence of learners’ high levels of perceived dialogue, structure, and autonomy, along with low levels of perceived transactional distance. the correlation analyses showed that dialogue, structure, and learner autonomy significantly and inversely correlate with learners’ transactional distance. the anova analysis revealed that the interaction of dialogue and course structure significantly impacts the perceived transactional distance. moreover, learners’ levels of perceived transactional distance varied according to their socio-demographic and environmental factors, specifically age, gender, university discipline/major and number of online courses taken by them. the study provides useful pedagogical implications for technology use in sustaining learners’ online learning experiences in terms of dialogue, structure and autonomy and in reducing their perceived transactional distance. thus, the study is useful for promotion of the distance learning potentials in higher educational institutions. keywords efl students, distance learning, transactional distance,emerging learning, covid-19 correspondence e-mail: muradsaeed@um.edu.my article efl students’ experience in distance learning during covid-19 from a multidimensional transactional distance perspective murad abdu saeed1, lau su kia2, ahmed ali mahdi3, ahmed ali almaamari4 1,2faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, malaysia 3translation department, aliraqia university, republic of iraq 4psychology department, faculty of languages and social studies, qassim university, qassim, saudi arabia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.1-13.2025 i. introduction distance learning has emerged in responding to the need for students who would otherwise not be able to take part or join face-to-face (ftf) courses (beldarrain, 2006). it has emerged in response to barriers, such as significant geographic barriers, time spent by students in traveling to campuses and limited learner-learner and learnerteacher interactions encountered by students prior to the development and integration of educational learning technologies (bolliger & halupa, 2018). online learning has overcome these barriers as recent educational technologies have provided students with an access to online learning courses regardless of geographical distance and time limits. yet, students are challenged by their highly perceived disconnection to online courses and highly perceived lack of shared understanding and lack or limited interactions in online learning environments (kehrwald, 2008; muilenburg & berge, 2005; phirangee & malec, 2017; russo & murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 2 campbell, 2004; sher, 2009). these challenges are often due to the physical and psychological distance experienced by students in online learning. this issue is known as transactional distance (td) in moore’s (1993) td theory. it is defined as “the psychological and communication space” between the learner and the teacher (moore, 1993, p. 22). based on moore’s (1993) theory, td consists of three important interrelated dimensions: course structure, interaction and learner autonomy. course structure refers to components, such as course design, including objectives, activities, assignments (moore & kearsley, 2005), instructional and evaluative procedures (goel et al., 2012; moore, 1991, 1993; stein et al., 2005). moreover, dialogue is defined to be inclusive of learner-learner and learnerteacher interaction (benson & samarawickrema, 2009; chen & willits, 1999; huang et al., 2016; kara, 2021; moore & kearsley, 2005). learner autonomy refers to the degree to which learners manage and control their own learning in online environments (huang et al., 2016; moore, 1991, 1993). these previous studies have provided evidence on the inter-relationships among the three constructs of td. a large volume of research had explored learners’ perceived experience of td in distance education from the td theory (benson & samarawickrema, 2009) prior to the recent shift to online education during the covid-19 outbreak. yet, there are still some contradictions in the operationalization and findings of some earlier studies. given the complex nature of online learning, reducing the psychological gap requires effective course structures where learners are engaged in meaningful dialogue/interaction (andrade & bunker, 2009). however, due to the lack of preparedness, many well-resourced and underresourced higher educational institutions were affected during the covid-19 outbreak (naidu, 2020, 2021a; 2021b). specifically, this sudden shift to online education renewed the importance of the issue of the psychological separation among learners and even widened it. in other words, students’ learning experience was severely affected by this sudden covid-19-related transition to online worldwide (naidu, 2021a), especially in fully online learning contexts as in the current study context of kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa). during the covid-19 outbreak, students were challenged by their increasing feeling of the physical distance (lassoued et al., 2020), lack of ftf interaction (almawee et al., 2021; lassoued et al., 2020; saeed, alharbi & yassin, 2021) and disconnection to online learning courses (meulenbroeks, 2020). the issue of td was exacerbated by other challenges and barriers, such as internet disconnection (adedoyin & soykan, 2020; boardman et al., 2021), lack of adequate previous experience in online learning and facility support (baggaley, 2020; maphosa, 2021; priyadarshini & bhaumik, 2020) as well as lack of readiness and preparation to study online (maphosa, 2021; naidu, 2021a). this suggests a need for further investigation of td issue in distance education from the td theory during this critical period. despite the more scholarly publications on distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic, the largest proportion of these studies reported results elicited by means of surveys which are not designed on the td theory (mishra et al., 2021). therefore, the present study aimed to: (1) determine saudi efl students’ levels of perceived td in distance learning, (2) measure the impact of the interaction of course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy on saudi efl students’ perceived td in distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic, and (3) examine the effect of socio-demographic and environmental factors on their perceived td. specifically, the study attempted to address the following research questions: 1. what are the levels of perceived td among saudi efl students in distance learning? 2. how do course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy impact saudi efl students’ perceived td in distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic? 3. does the td experience of saudi efl students in distance learning vary according to their socio-demographic and environmental factors? the current study is based on the td theory introduced by moore (1989, 1991) which emphasizes td as a psychological and communication gap in teacher-learner relationships rather than a physical or geographical separation between teachers and learners (goel et al., 2012, xiao, 2024). the theory identifies three important constructs of the td experience: structure, dialogue, and autonomy. dialogue, in its initial definition, refers to teacher-learner interaction murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 3 (moore, 1991, 1993), but later, it has been expanded to include learner-learner interactions (benson & samarawickrema, 2009; chen & willits, 1999; huang et al., 2016; kara, 2021; moore & kearsley, 1996). structure, first known as “individualization”, is inclusive of the components that constitute up the course design, such as objectives, activities, assignments (haslina & lilimiwirdi, 2022; moore & kearsley, 1996; xiao, 2024) as well as the instructional strategies in meeting learners’ needs and the relevant assessment methods (goel et al., 2012; moore, 1991, 1993; stein et al., 2005). in other words, it is the extent to which the objectives, implementation and evaluation procedures appear flexible or rigid in accommodating individual learners’ needs in a particular online course (moore, 1991, 1993; stein et al., 2005). moreover, learner autonomy refers to learners’ characteristics in controlling and managing their online learning (moore, 1989). unlike structure and dialogue that can be manipulated by teachers, learner autonomy is oriented towards learners’ self-directedness in learning (huang et al., 2016; moore, 1991, 1993). this construct includes planning of learning, finding learning resources and self-assessing of learning (shearer & park, 2019). thus, the three constructs underlying the td theory are learner-centred, and somehow indicate to the recent research shift from a behavioural and cognitive approach to a socialconstructivist approach (anderson & dron, 2011; stein et al., 2005). central to the td theory is the dynamic interaction of the three above-mentioned constructs in determining learners’ perceived td (shearer & park, 2019). the td theory postulates that there is a relationship between structure and dialogue. the more rigid the course structure, the lower the dialogue and vice versa (moore, 1993). this dialogue-structure interaction is important since it either increases or reduces learners’ perceived td in distance learning (saba & shearer, 1994). in other words, as the course structure decreases, the dialogue increases, which consequently reduces learners’ levels of perceived td (huang et al., 2016; moore, 1993; saba & shearer, 1994). however, this interaction is possibly to be affected by learners’ levels of autonomy since highly autonomous learners may not need increased dialogue in order to reduce their perceived td (huang et al., 2016; moore, 1993; saba & shearer, 1994). in addition, dialogue and learner autonomy are associated. the higher the td, the higher the learner autonomy (huang et al., 2016; moore, 1993). based on a recent comprehensive review of previous studies grounded on the td theory, student-student interactions, studentteacher interactions, student-content interactions and student-interface interactions play a role in facilitating our comprehensive understanding of the td theory and its significance in explaining td in online learning (achuthan et al., 2024). research on td in distance learning has focused on learners’ perception of td in relation to course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy. some of these studies have determined learners’ levels of perceptions of td (e.g., huang et al., 2016; kara, 2021). these studies reported contradictory results on learners’ perceived td as the first study revealed high levels of td whereas the latter study reported that students’ levels of td were moderate. there are other studies on the correlations of the td constructs from the td theory. according to chen & willits (1999), the highest correlation was found between the course structure and dialogue constructs. this result implies that the more rigid the course delivery is, the lower the dialogue will be. the second highest correlation was found between the dialogue and learner autonomy constructs. moreover, chen (2001) found a significant effect of dialogue on learners’ td. this suggests that the higher the dialogue is, the lower learners’ perceived td will be. kuskis (2006) claimed learner-learner dialogue reduces td. furthermore, stein et al. (2005) found that high levels of course structure and dialogue resulted into lower levels of td. in some other studies (e.g., demir kaymak & horzum, 2013; horzum, 2017; huang et al., 2016), dialogue was found to negatively correlate with the course structure. this result indicates that the higher the dialogue is, the lower the course structure will be. similarly, dialogue and structure were found to have an inverse relationship (dron et al., 2004). according to moore (2007), as learners’ autonomy increases, their perceived td decreases. this means that these learners with high levels of autonomy may feel more comfortable in online learning courses and consequently, increase their td (reyes, 2013). yet, in a few studies (force, 2004; vasiloudis et al., 2015), the relationship between learners’ perception of td and autonomy was found very limited. vasiloudis et al. (2015) attributed this limited relationship to some murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 4 age groups were attributable to the different levels of autonomy among these groups. in other words, learners aged 25 and older who appeared more autonomous demonstrated lower td than those learners aging 24 and below. on the other hand, a few other studies reported insignificant impact of age on learners’ perception of dialogue in online learning (kara, 2021) and td (ekwunife-orakwue & teng, 2014). moreover, students’ gender was found to be another socio-demographic factor with a significant influence on learners’ perception of td in distance education. for instance, ekwunifeorakwue and teng (2014) found that learners’ td dialogue significantly differed between male and females as the male students reported lower scores on their perceived learner-interface dialogue than the females while the female students reported higher scores on their perceived learner-content dialogue than the males. yet, some studies reported no significant differences in learners’ perception of structure and dialogue according to their gender (bolliger & halupa, 2018; horzum, 2015; kara, 2021; vasiloudis et al., 2015) and of td (huang et al., 2016). for learners’ previous experience, some studies identified significant differences in learners’ perception of course structure and dialogue. for example, learners’ previous of online learning experience and prior knowledge predicted their perceived td since these two factors explained most of the variance of learners’ td (huang, 2002). on the contrary, some studies found insignificant differences in learners’ td according to their previous experience in online learning (chen, 2001; kara, 2021; vasiloudis et al., 2015). this result means that students’ lack of or insufficient previous experience may not result into their psychological space in online learning courses (chen, 2001). as far as the environmental factors are concerned, previous studies have examined the effect of group/class size, number of online learning courses taken by students as well as communication modes on learners’ perceived td experience in online learning. for example, the increase in group size was found to be associated with an increase in learner-learner interaction and vice versa (caspi et al., 2003). as reported by huang (2002), the number of online courses taken by learners predicted their perceived td since this factor explained most of probable reasons: (1) the psychometric autonomy (connectedness scale which was not designed for a specific educational and cultural context), (2) the alteration of the strength of td and autonomy (relationship by the tutor) and (3) learners’ learning styles. despite the interesting results of previous studies on learners’ experience in distance learning from the td perspective, in most of the above studies, td has not been treated as a single continuum that ranges from low to high and that is influenced by the dialogue, structure and learner autonomy levels (huang et al., 2016). another gap in the literature is that some studies have focused on certain types of dialogue (e.g., learner-learner and learner-instructor) while ignoring learnercontent and learner-interface dialogue. regarding this, hillman et al. (1994) argued that the efficiency of distance learning depends on learners’ active involvement with technology itself. otherwise, learners’ failure to deal with a particular technology may hinder their active involvement in distance learning. in other words, it is through this type of dialogue that learners will be able to interact with peers, instructors and content. in the same manner, xiao (2017) emphasized the role of learner– content dialogue in distance learning, especially in enhancing our understanding of how learners deal with and process the course materials so it should not be taken for granted when examining learners’ td in online learning. although the author acknowledges the interdependent relationships and complimentary role of these interaction types in successful online learning experience, he emphasized the fundamental role of learnercontent interaction in maintaining the other types of interaction. what is of more importance is the lack of research on how these four types of interaction are interdependent on each other. several studies have also examined the effect of socio-demographic and environmental factors on learners’ perceived td in online learning. regarding the socio-demographic factors, such as age, gender, educational level and online learning experience have been the common factors in these studies. results indicate that students’ age was an important factor significantly affecting their perception of course structure and dialogue (huang, 2002; vasiloudis et al., 2015) as well as td (huang et al., 2016). as stated by huang et al. (2016), significant differences in td among the murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 5 the variance of learners’ td. in addition, huang et al. (2016) identified the communication mode (synchronous or asynchronous and text, audio or video) as an important environmental factor that influenced learners’ td in online learning courses. for instance, students who engaged in synchronous communication and live video and or audio chats reported lower td than those counterparts who engaged in asynchronous communication and text chats in online courses. however, the same authors found insignificant differences in learners’ td in relation to class size. in a recent study, özbey and kayri (2023) examined the factors affecting td among university students in e-learning environments during the 2020–2021 academic year due to the covid-19 pandemic. using artificial neural networks, specifically the multilayer perceptron (mlp) and radial based functions (rbf) methods, this study modelled the factors influencing td. data were collected from 1,638 students (546 males, 1,092 females) using the td scale and the social anxiety scale in e-learning environments. the mlp method was found to predict td with higher accuracy than the rbf method. key factors identified include the quickness of instructors’ feedback, which was the most significant determinant of learners’ td in online learning. additionally, students’ social anxiety, level of student-teacher interaction, student-student interaction, and student-environment interaction were analysed. it was observed that higher social anxiety and lower interactions contributed to an increase in students’ td. the study revealed that td is present in e-learning environments, similarly to traditional classroom settings, and that variables such as communication speed, anxiety levels, and various forms of interaction significantly influenced students’ td in e-learning. since participants were drawn from diverse regions across turkey, the results provided a generalizable insight into the factors affecting td in online education. ii. methods research design the present study used a quantitative research design, specifically a descriptive and correlative research design. this design suits the purpose of the current study‒measuring the levels of efl students’ td and determining the effect of these three constructs: course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy as well as socio-demographic and environmental factors on learners’ td in online learning during covid-19. setting and participants the current study’s target population consists of university learners joining online learning courses at qassim university (qu) in the ksa during the emergency covid-19-related learning. specifically, the study was conducted among university efl students enrolled in the 2020-2021 academic year. the study used a convenience sampling strategy to collect the data from the sample. to achieve this, one of the researchers contacted a number of online instructors across the campus, explaining the purpose of the current study and seeking permission to administer the survey to the students joining their online courses at the end of the second semester of the 2020-2021 academic year. the online courses spanned a number of disciplines taught by a number of instructors falling under social sciences and humanities. the instructors distributed the link of the e-survey to their students who had to respond to its items electronically. the survey was distributed to almost 312 efl students joining these different courses. however, a total of 189 students completed the survey, resulting in a 60.58% return rate. as shown in table 1, of the 189 participants, 74.6% (n = 141) were males and 25.4% (n = 48) were females. approximately, 9% of the participating students (n. 17) were above 25 years old and 9.5% (n.18) of them were below 20 years old whereas the majority of them 81.5% (n = 154) were aged between 20 and 25 years old. the methodology employed in this study was appropriate given the constraints imposed by the covid-19 pandemic, which necessitated remote data collection due to restricted access to campus facilities. convenience sampling enabled researchers to effectively reach the target population of qu efl students involved in emergency online learning, providing valuable insights into their experiences during this unprecedented period. although not fully representative of all students at the university, the sample captures a broad segment of the targeted group. additionally, the high response rate (60.58%) enhances the reliability of the data, and the age demographics align with the study’s focus on typical university efl students. overall, this approach meets both ethical and murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 6 data collection the data collection procedure of this study was carried out in several step. the first step was constructing the research instrument. the research instrument was an online survey, the learners’ transactional distance scale (ltds), which was developed within the td theory of the current study from (e.g., huang et al. 2016). the ltds was based on the operational definition of td as inclusive of pedagogic distance, psychological distance, and communication distance, which may lead to misunderstandings between the teacher and the student in the online learning context (moore, 1993). the survey is a 7-point likert scale varying from strongly disagree to strongly agree. it consists of 103 items. thus, the first dimension of the ltds measure is the td which consists of three subdimensions (table 2), namely: closeness (13 items) shared understanding (eight items) and perceived learning (two items). the second dimension is dialogue which consists of learner-dialogue (12 items) and learner-instructor dialogue (13 items). the third dimension refers to the structure which consists of learner-content (25 items) and learnerinterface (17 items). the last dimension of the ltds is the learner autonomy which consists of independence of learning (seven items) and study habits (six items). as reported by huang et al. (2016), the cronbach’s alpha values for the different dimensions and components of the ltds measure the second step was designing the ltds survey in the form of a google form which was later shared with the course instructors to distribute it to their efl students. the final step was contacting a number of online instructors, asking for permission to conduct a survey with their students. then, those students were invited to participate in the study survey. an email invitation was sent to 312 students enrolled in online classes at the university. however, a total of 189 efl students completed the survey. data analysis prior to the data analysis, negative items of the ltds were reversed, and higher values corresponded to higher td, higher dialogue, higher structure and higher learner autonomy. moreover, we used an average of items to provide a measure of each construct. to address the first research question, we used a simple descriptive analysis including the mean values (m) and standard deviations (sd). to address the second research question, correlation analyses were employed in this study. in particular, a pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis was performed for this purpose. we created a variable to indicate the four combinations of the dialogue and structure levels. for instance, an observation was classified as +d+s when both dialogue and structure scores were high. this was pursued to include the interactions of the ltds measure variables/constructs. to address the third research question, analyses of variance were performed to test the perceived td according to the various types of independent variables, especially gender, age, discipline, study level, previous table 1. efl students’ demographic information variables grouping n % gender males 141 74.6% females 48 25.4% age below 20 18 9.5% 20-25 154 81.5% above 25 17 9% discipline english 81 43% physics 34 18% maths 33 17.4% computers 41 21.6% course number less than five courses 20 10.6% five courses 61 32.3% more than five courses 108 57.1% table 2. dimensions and sub-dimensions of the ltds measure dimensions sub-dimensions number of items td closeness 13 shared understanding 8 perceived learning 2 dialogue learner-learner 12 learner-instructor 13 structure learner-content 25 learner-interface 17 learner autonomy independence of learning 7 study habits 6 practical standards, facilitating the collection of timely, relevant data under challenging pandemicrelated conditions. range from 0.72 to 0.96, which indicates that there is a high internal consistency of the items within each component. murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 7 experience in online learning, course number, class size and access device. iii. results what are the levels of perceived td among saudi efl students in distance learning? efl students’ scores on the online learning experience scale were generally in the higher response range. as displayed in table 3, the dialogue scores ranged from a low of 1.55 to a high of 5.00, with a mean value of 3.7787 (sd =.61283). in addition, the learners’ perceptions of the course structure and autonomy are at high levels as indicated by the mean values. this result suggests that online learning seems highly dialogic and structured, and it is conducive to high learner autonomy. however, their perception of the td is moderate, as the mean value of this construct falls in the moderate or neutral response range. this indicates that their perceived psychological gap in online learning is not high. table 3. efl students’ perceptions of online learning experience dimensions minimum maximum m sd dialogue 1.55 5.00 3.7787 .61283 structure 1.44 5.00 3.8129 .85374 learner autonomy 1.00 5.00 3.7781 .86817 td 1.00 4.85 3.5951 .61894 how do course structure, dialogue and learner autonomy impact saudi efl students’ perceived td in distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic? regarding the interaction of the dialogue, structure and learner autonomy and its impact on learners’ perceptions of td, table 4 presents the results of the pearson-moment correlation coefficients. as hypothesized in this study, dialogue and td are negatively and significantly correlated. so this result supports the td theory that the higher the dialogue is, the lower the td will be. furthermore, the results demonstrate a significant relationship between course structure and td. this interesting result means that the higher the course structure is, the lower the perceived td will be. a negative correlation was found between learner autonomy and td, which implies that the more autonomous the online learners feel, the lower they perceive td. thus, this also strongly supported the td theory. table 4. pearson-moment correlations among the td constructs hypothesized relationships r sig. (2-tailed) dialogue-td −.447** .000 structure-td −.568** .000 learner autonomy-td −.539** .000 dialogue-structure .640** .000 dialogue-autonomy .532** .000 structure-autonomy .758** .000 *p < 0.001. *. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). in this study, since the interactions of both dialogue and course structure are hypothesized to be necessary for reducing learners’ perceived td, four categories of dialogue-structure interactions were tested in in relation to td using mean comparisons and anova: higher dialogue-higher structure (+d+s), lower dialogue-lower structure (−d−s), lower dialogue-higher structure (−d+s) and higher dialogue-lower structure (+d−s). as shown in table 5, the four groups of interactions insignificantly differed f (1.162) =.247). despite these insignificant differences, the mean values support the hypothesized interactions of dialogue and structure with td. specifically, the higher dialogue is, the higher the structure will be, which consequently leads to a low level of perceived td. the reverse of this positive interaction is the negative interaction. in other words, the lower the dialogue is, the lower the course structure will be, thus leading to the highest level of perceived td among learners. moreover, when the dialogue is lower and the course structure is higher, the level of td is even lower than in the first case. however, when the online dialogue is high and the course structure is low, the efl students’ level of td the lowest among these groups of construct interactions. this suggests that the most efficient way of reducing students’ feelings of td is to increase the opportunities for dialogues while reducing the course structure degree in online learning. table 5. anova results of the dialogue-structure interaction with td dialogue-structure groups mean sd f sig. +d+s 3.2152 .49611 1.162 .247 −d−s 3.8502 .61061 −d+s 3.5782 .49189 +d−s 3.3873 .47612 murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 8 does the td experience of saudi efl students in distance learning vary according to their sociodemographic and environmental factors? in examining how the learners’ perceived td varies according to their socio-demographic and environmental factors, one-way-anova (post hoc) and also a series of sample t-tests (only for gender) were performed for this purpose. table 6 demonstrates the variances between and within groups for each variable. in relation to the td variances between groups, learners’ perception of td significantly varied according to their age (f=3.715, p=.026 < 0.001), gender (f=2.966, p=.087 < 0.001), university discipline (f=3.808, p=.003 < 0.001) and course number (f=6.271, p=.002 < 0.001). this means that age, gender, university discipline, and the number of online courses taken by efl students played a crucial role in the varied levels of td in online learning. on the other hand, the td variances according to learners’ study level (f=.584, p=.768 > 0.001), previous experience (f=.097, p=.907 > 0.001), class size (f=.897, p=.444 < 0.001), access device (f=1.776, p=.153 > 0.001) and communication mode (f=.402, p=.670 > 0.001) were found insignificant. this suggests that these factors did not significantly influence students’ perceived td levels. table 6. results of the variance of td according to sociodemographics and environmental factors variables mean square f sig.between groups within groups age 1.261 .340 3.715 .026 gender 1.025 .346 2.966 .087 discipline 1.238 .325 3.808 .003 learners’ study level .207 .355 .584 .768 previous experience .034 .353 .097 .907 course number 2.075 .331 6.271 .002 class size .314 .350 .897 .444 access device .613 .345 1.776 .153 communication mode .141 .352 .402 .670 in determining where the significant variances in td according to the age, university discipline and course number exists, a scheffe test was performed in this study. table 7 shows only these groups found with significantly different td for each variable. for the age variable, the significant variances of td exist between those learners whose age is below 20 and above 25, between the 20-25 age group and the above-25 age group. as illustrated by these age groups’ mean values of td, the above 25-year-old group reported lower td in comparison to the other two age groups. this means that age was an important factor affecting efl learners’ levels of td in online learning. table 7. results of the scheffe test variables grouping mean difference (i-j) sig. age below 20 and above 25 -.52459* .031 20-25 and above 25 -.33367 .084 discipline english and physics -.45952 .099 math and physics -.68793 .089 computers and physics -.80427* .007 course number five courses and less than five courses -.48222* .006 more than five courses and less than five courses -.23414* .040 in addition, the university discipline/major was another independent factor affecting learners’ td in online learning. in this regard, the learners’ perceived td significantly varied according to their university discipline. specifically, such significant variances occurred between those learners majoring in english and physics, between those learners majoring in math and physics, and between those majoring in computer sciences and physics. in each of these three discipline-based clusters, learners joining physics reported significantly lower td than those joining english, math and computer sciences. finally, efl students taking a smaller number of courses (below 5) reported significantly lower td than those taking below 5 courses and above 5 courses. iv. discussion the current study examined learners’ distance learning experience from the td perspective in a ksa university. in addressing the first research question regarding learners’ perception of their td in online learning, the findings revealed that the response scores on the td scales are high in general. this result indicates that learners’ perception of their online learning experience is high. specifically, the learners’ perceived dialogue, course structure and autonomy were found at high levels. this finding indicates that the blackboard collaborate ultra as an interactive online learning environment seemed to engage learners in active dialogue with their teachers and peers and is conducive to highly structured delivery of courses murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 9 kara, 2021). nevertheless, learner-content and learner-interface/technology interactions appeared of equal importance in reducing learners’ perceived td because while online learners need to interact and process the course content and materials (xiao, 2017), they also need to interact and deal with the technology in processing and comprehending the course content (hillman et al., 1994). in this study, the online learning platform, as part of the course structure appeared to play a role in facilitating the online dialogue through its voice and text chats. the current study also re-confirms the inverse relationship between learner autonomy and td. according to moore (2007), “the level of autonomy required of the learner increases as the td decreases” (p. 96). it is also assumed that highly autonomous learners tend to feel comfortable in online courses with higher td (huang et al., 2016). this hypothesized inverse relationship between learner autonomy and td confirmed by the current study findings supports the result of a previous study (huang et al., 2016). what is intriguing about the finding of the present study is the interaction of dialogue and course structure in impacting learners’ td. in this study, the hypothesized interaction (+d+s will lead to the lowest td) was supported by the study finding. such finding supports the td theory in that td is a function of the dialogue-structure interaction. in other words, “as dialogue increases, td decreases and as structure increases, td also increases” (moore, 2007, p. 94). the present study also confirms results of other previous studies (demir kaymak & horzum, 2013; horzum, 2017; huang et al., 2016; stein et al., 2005). however, the lower the dialogue is, the lower the structure, and consequently, the higher the td will be (-d-s will lead to the highest td). this hypothesized interaction, which was confirmed in the present study is in line with the results of a few previous studies (huang et al., 2016; moore, 2007). this particular finding has implications for the instructional design of online courses that use interactive learning tools, such as blackboard collaborate ultra. specifically, attention should be paid to high dialogue and high course structure in order to reduce learners’ td and enable them to enjoy their online learning. instructors can promote learners’ dialogue through various instructional strategies, such as asking questions, engaging learners in peer discussions, encouraging and learner autonomy during covid 19. the result also supports results of huang et al. (2016) but contradicts the result of kara (2021) who reported that learners’ dialogue perceptions were at moderate levels. although synchronous communication tools are used for online learning where learners can simultaneously interact and discuss their lessons with both instructors and classmates in this study (handoko & ayumi, 2022) and kara’s study (2021), this result could be explained from learnerteacher interaction. in other words, in these earlier studies, learnerteacher interaction as an integral sub-dimension of the td dialogue was found to be negatively affected by learners’ low attendance, the class size and the instructor’s inability to create an interactive online learning environment for learners. learners’ perceived td, which refers to one construct of the online learning experience scale, was found to be at the low level in the present study. when examined in correlation with dialogue, course structure and learner autonomy (rq2), td was found to be inversely associated with each of these three dimensions. this result confirms the fundamental assumption of the td theory (moore, 1991) and supports some previous studies on the inverse relationships between dialogue and td (chen, 2001; huang et al., 2016; stein et al., 2005), course structure and td (huang et al., 2016; stein et al., 2005) and autonomy and td (huang et al., 2016). this result suggests that higher dialogue in both directions (learner-learner and learnerteacher) is necessary for lowering students’ td in online learning environments (chen, 2001; chen and willits, 1999; huang et al., 2016; reyes, 2013). while learner-learner dialogue is necessary for establishing a friendly and cohesive atmosphere where learners communicate and share knowledge and ideas (kuskis, 2006), learner-teacher interaction is also necessary for establishing cohesion and shared understanding in online learning (huang et al., 2016). otherwise, lack of learner-teacher interaction may widen students’ feeling of the gap or distance and consequently have a negative effect on their online learning experience (kara, 2021). moreover, the efl students’ high levels of perceived dialogue in the present study appeared to be facilitated by interaction with the course content and technology, both of which constitute course structure. they are often conceptualized as part of online dialogue in several previous studies (e.g., murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 10 learners to ask and respond to questions and other activities that promote learner-learner and learnerteacher interactions in online learning. moreover, instructors should foster learners’ perceptions of the course structure. since this dimension is related to learner interactions with the course content and technology, it can be promoted by considering elements of structure such as clear course objectives, clear delivery of the content and communication tools in online learning environments. the present study also examined the effect of socio-demographic and environmental factors on learners’ levels of perceived td in online learning. the results demonstrated that only four factors, namely: age, gender, university discipline or major and number of courses taken each semester significantly affected learners’ td. this study also illustrated that efl students aged above 25 reported lower td in comparison to the other two age groups. this finding contradicts some previous studies (ekwunife-orakwue & teng, 2014; kara, 2021; vasiloudis et al., 2015), but it is consistent with the finding of huang (2002). this could be due to adult learners’ higher levels of autonomy that reduced their td in the online courses. for learners’ university discipline, the present study revealed that learners majoring in physics reported significantly lower td than those majoring in english, math and computer sciences. in addition, the number of courses taken by learners appeared to significantly affect their perceived td as those learners joining less than five courses reported lower td than those groups joining five and above five courses. this result confirms the results of two previous studies (huang, 2002; huang et al., 2016). on the other hand, other socio-demographic and environmental factors such as gender, study level, previous experience, class size, access device and communication mode were found to have an insignificant effect on learners’ perceived td in online learning. this finding corroborates some previous studies on the insignificant impact of gender (bolliger & halupa, 2018; horzum, 2015; huang et al., 2016; vasiloudis et al., 2015), previous experience (chen, 2001; ekwunifeorakwue & teng, 2014; huang et al., 2016; vasiloudis et al., 2015) and class size (huang et al., 2016) on learners’ td. v. conclusion the present study aimed to investigate efl learners’ experience from the td theory with a focus on the levels of learners’ perceived experience in online learning, the interaction between the td constructs, and the effect of socio-demographic and environmental factors on learners’ perceived td. the study provided empirical evidence that contributes to the td theory and its subsequent research. the findings offer interesting pedagogical implications for online course instructors. online learning should be enhanced by creating an interactive learning environment where learners are able to interact with each other, with the instructor and with the content itself. this suggests that not only the type of technology is important but also the instructional design, including the way lessons are presented and designs of learning activities in online courses. pedagogically, the study supports the role of highly structured courses and high dialogue enhanced by the blackboard collaborate ultra through its interactive and rich communication affordances. these affordances include the lively screencast delivery of online lectures, synchronous voice and text chats as well as video conferencing rooms in reducing learners’ psychological gaps. interestingly, course instructors should pay attention to synchronous technological tools in creating an interactive learning environment for learners. effective technological tools should facilitate the connection of geographically dispersed students, especially in the midst of a pandemic that requires physical and social distance (as in the context of our study). however, online course instructors should be aware of several factors affecting learners’ perceived td, including their socio-demographic and environmental factors. these factors may widen this psychological gap, thereby leading to disconnection among students and negatively affecting their online learning experience. despite the contribution of the current study in its investigation of the td theory, there are several limitations that should be addressed for future research. the first limitation is the relatively homogenous study sample joining one ksa university who self-selected and volunteered to take part in the study. therefore, future research should investigate online learning experiences among learners joining different universities in order to obtain insight into whether and how different university settings will lead to variation in their perceived td. in addition, the findings reported in this study were merely drawn from quantitative data, murad abdu saeed / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 11 which should have been supported by qualitative analyses of learners’ follow-up interviews. future research needs to examine learners’ perceived td based on the td scale used in this study in order to further verify the td theory and the current study results in different contexts. by so doing, future studies may expand current research investigation to cultural and contextual factors affecting learners’ td in online learning. ethics statements the authors have read and complied with the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer, and confirm that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement murad abdu saeed: collected data, conducted the questionnaire survey, developed the methodology, analyzed the data, drafted the manuscript, wrote and revised the content; 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(2024). revisiting the theory of transactional distance: implications for open, distance, and digital education in the 21st century. the american journal of distance education, 1-14. lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 336 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 05, 2025 final revision: august 15, 2025 accepted: august 18, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 this study examines the off-record politeness strategies employed by the pembayun adat leaders during the sasak elopement ceremony of the sorong serah ritual (merariq). using qualitative ethnography research. the study’s data were collected through participant observation, semistructured interviews, and sixteen-hour audio-visual recordings of fifteen sorong serah ceremonies conducted in lombok timur, indonesia. the data analysis employs brown and levinson’s (1987) politeness models, revealing four strategies: hinting, associative clues, overstating, and metaphorical. these strategies enable pembayun to manage face-threatening acts (ftas) used in critique, requests, and negotiations with minimal risk of confrontation. the results show that pembayun politeness in this context is not merely a matter of linguistic preferences, but also a performance in cultural expectations of morality and ceremony. the study suggests a need to theorize a more culturally situated approach to politeness that captures the nexus between communication’s ethical and symbolic aspects in ritual contexts. by situating politeness in lived practices, this study contributes to cross-cultural pragmatics and ethnographic linguistics, providing relevant applications for intercultural communication, ritual language analysis, and culturally responsive dialogue strategies. it advances politeness theory by emphasizing the need for culturally specific models that account for moral symbolism, high-context communication, and collectivist norms. keywords merariq, sasak culture, southeast asian linguistics, ritual discourse, face-saving correspondence *e-mail: lalu.yaqin@ubd.edu.bn article negotiating honor through indirectness: off-record politeness strategies in sasak elopement rites lalu nurul yaqin malay language, linguistics and literature program, faculty of arts & social sciences, universiti brunei darussalam, brunei darussalam under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.336-349.2025 i. introduction marriage rituals in southeast asian societies, particularly in indonesia, have long been recognized as important sociolinguistic practices that preserve cultural narratives, reinforce communal bonds, and promote the use of indigenous languages (sukarno, 2015; xiang, 2011). such ceremonies are usually coordinated through rich verbal interactions, often facilitated by cultural specialists who use communicative and symbolic functions. marriage in the sasak of lombok, indonesia, is deeply embedded within traditional ritual structures. at the core of this process is the merariq tradition, a culturally sanctioned type of elopement that appears to be the polar opposite of its oftenstigmatized interpretation in western paradigms (riyanto et al., 2023; wei et al., 2017). merariq is a term for the consensual elopement that occurs when a man and woman agree beforehand to go through a culturally appropriate marriage process. this tradition is viewed not as a rebellious or deviant act but as an expression of independence, emotional commitment, and communal agreement (yaqin & shanmuganathan, 2020). central to this process is the pembayun, an adat (customary law) leader who orchestrates the interactions between the bride and groom’s families. the pembayun is a custodian of language and culture, enacting ritual speech at vital moments, such as sejati, selabar, and sorong serah rituals (dhana, 2000). these rituals outline the stages of the merariq process and become a site of complex verbal negotiation. for example, selabar includes discussions on dowries and ceremonial duties, lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 337 whereas sorong serah involves the formal exchange of symbolic objects that signify familial agreement. these negotiations are performed in\ a politeness-based dialect interspersed with sasak respect-based norms, which are displayed through honorifics, metaphors, and indirect cues, reflecting sasak collectivism and moral behavioral cues. as noted by yaqin et al. (2022), such discourse is more than performative; it serves as an instrument for preserving cultural identity and social harmony. although merariq is culturally central to sasak society, relatively little linguistic research has been conducted in this area. previous research on the sasak language has focused on dialectology, morphosyntax, and language variation (austin & nothofer, 2012; austin, 2014; burhanuddin et al., 2025; mahsun, 2007; mahyuni, 2007). although these linguistic dimensions provide a solid basis, they do not encompass the pragmatic and sociocultural dimensions of communication; hence, they overlook the complexities of ritual interactions. more recently, some scholars in indonesian sociolinguistics have begun to consider politeness and face work in local languages, such as javanese (mahmud, 2019), sundanese (sukarno, 2018), and minangkabau (oktavianus & revita, 2013). however, these studies typically extrapolate findings across ethnolinguistic groups or are situated outside ritual contexts, such as classrooms or casual conversations. in contrast to this research, which explores politeness as a concept in less emotionally charged contexts, this study situates politeness within high-stakes ritualistic discourse, where failure to observe politeness norms risks interpersonal or intergroup discord. additionally, despite the centrality of politeness strategies in the negotiation of potentially face-threatening acts (ftas), such as criticism, refusal, or bargaining, the politeness strategies employed by pembayun are even less well-studied. the limited research on sasak politeness constitutes a notable research gap, especially considering the crucial role of language in managing the ideological and interpersonal aspects of merariq (yaqin et al., 2023). it would be essential to fill this gap to expand the domain of politeness theory and contribute to understanding linguistic practices in ritual situations. the present study adopts brown and levinson’s (1987) politeness theory, which is a model that has had one of the most significant impacts on the field of linguistic pragmatics. the theory suggests that people navigate social interactions using tact and strategies to maintain ‘face,’ or the public selfimage that everyone wishes to present and uphold. brown and levinson distinguish between the positive face (wanting to be liked and accepted) and the negative face (desiring to be unimpeded and autonomous). under this model, speakers negotiate face-threatening acts in one of five ordered ways: (1) bald on-record (without redress), (2) positive politeness, (3) negative politeness, (4) off-record (indirect), or (5) avoidance of the act altogether. in the case of sasak, where indirectness is a preferred mode of preserving harmony and face, making off-record strategies will be more relevant than others for communication. nevertheless, this model has received criticism for its assumptions centered on anglo society and limited cultural scope (haugh & kádár, 2017; matsumoto, 1988). this new model should be adopted in cultures where relational and contextual factors prevail over individual autonomy (nejad et al., 2022). this study adopted a culturally sensitive approach, drawing on brown and levinson work and incorporating discoursebased approaches (kádár & mills, 2011) that highlight shared knowledge, ritual norms, and moral values. this study aims to answer the following research question: how do sasak adat leaders (pembayun) employ off-record politeness strategies to mitigate face-threatening acts that arise in ritual interactions during the merariq ceremonies? based on the research question, the objectives of this study are: (1) identifying and classifying the types of off-record politeness strategies contributed by pembayun in the stages of merariq rituals, (2) analyzing how these strategies function in facilitating social harmony, avoiding conflict, and face-threatening acts. as such, the study aims to contribute to theoretical models of politeness theory by advancing culturally situated understandings of indirectness and politeness in indigenous communicative practices. ii. methods research design this study employs qualitative ethnographic design to investigate the use of off-record politeness lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 338 strategies by pembayun (adat leaders) in sasak society during merariq rituals. ethnographic work is necessary for exploring the sociolinguistic, pragmatic, symbolic, and social meanings of ritual language use. this study applies hymes’s (1964) ethnography of communication framework by observing, analyzing, and interpreting ceremonial discourse through naturalistic participant observation and immersion in real-life communicative acts within the sasak community. focusing on real-life ceremonial interactions ensures authenticity and ecological validity, enabling the study to document the verbal strategies practiced in ritual performances. this approach captures the nuance of politeness strategies embedded in culturally significant speech acts, allowing a more in-depth exploration of how meaning, respect, and social order are negotiated within ritual contexts. data collection the primary data for this study were gathered through participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and audiovisual recordings of fifteen merariq ceremonies conducted in lombok timur, indonesia. the research sites were selected due to the continued practice and preservation of traditional sasak marriage rituals in regions such as sakra and sakra barat. approximately 16 hours of recorded interactions were obtained, capturing ceremonial speech exchanges between the male representatives of the bride and groom’s families. six participants from pembayun were selected via purposive sampling to ensure they possessed deep cultural knowledge and had direct involvement in ritual negotiations. they were identified based on their authoritative roles in multiple ceremonies and community recognition as cultural experts. each pembayun represented either the groom’s pembayun penyerah (pph), pembayun pisolo (ppo), or the bride’s family pembayun penampi (ppi), serving as the primary speakers during the ritual phases in table 1. the chosen ceremony represents diverse cases of merariq involving varying dowry negotiations and levels of interpersonal tension. each ritual was recorded in full, capturing the sorong serah ceremony, where politeness strategies were expected to be most visible. the average duration of each recording ranged between 50 and 70 minutes. all informant of this study gave their informed consent, and their identities were kept confidential to protect their privacy. community elders provided their verbal approval for the ethical procedures, which adhered to the general standards of ethnographic research. analytical procedure data analysis involved multiple steps, beginning with verbatim transcription of ritual discourse from the recorded interactions. the transcripts were examined using open coding and thematic analysis to identify recurring politeness strategies, particularly those that are off-record, such as metaphors, indirect hints, rhetorical questions, and associative cues. these were analyzed in the broader cultural and ritual context in which they occurred. the analytical framework drew upon brown and levinson’s (1987) politeness model, particularly the concept of face-threatening acts (ftas) and redressive strategies. the coding process aimed to classify utterances according to how pembayuns mitigated threats to face through indirect communication. where applicable, extracts from the transcriptions were triangulated with interview data to verify intended meanings and socio-cultural significance. this combination allowed for a robust and emic understanding of politeness as practiced in the ritual discourse. the entire data analysis process adopted the interactive model developed by miles and huberman (1994). this model consists of four parts that work together in a cycle: collecting data, reducing data, displaying data, and drawing conclusions. as shown in figure 1, these components work together to continually improve and enhance the understanding of the data throughout the research process. table 1. demographic overview of key informants data set groom’s family (pph / ppo) bride’s family (ppi) 1–4 male, 53 (pph); male, 50 (ppo) male, 60 (ppi) 5–8 male, 53 (pph); male, 40 (pph) male, 60 (ppi); male, 45 (ppi) 9–12 male, 53 (pph); male, 50 (pph) male, 60 (ppi); male, 45 (ppi); male, 60 (ppi) lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 339 extract 1: ssdp 09 ppi : ngantos tanhane ubaye-ubaye jam tiga ampure, dawek, nunasan, nggih magrib mangkin, nggih dawek yenwonten sisip siwah dewek titiang sami dewek matur agungagung sinampure we waited until 3 o’clock, but now it is maghrib. if there was any mistake, i represent everyone here and sincerely apologize. 10 ppo : ampure, ye narak sisip siwah kireng nelangkung atur piatur dewek titiang, tiang tunas gung agung sinampure. my apologies if i was at fault earlier. i sincerely apologize. in extract 1, ppi makes an implicit critique of the lateness of ppo’s arrival, without a more direct critique of ppi himself, by simply noting the passage of time and creating the impression of critique within the apology. the judgment comes through indirectly, as ppi says it is already going to maghrib (prayer performed just after sunset) and that it apologizes, all of which suggests a nag but not a resounding criticism. ppo apologizes sincerely in response, and it is clear that ppi has communicated what ppo needed to hear most. this exchange illustrates how ppi deliberately avoids expressing his disappointment explicitly. instead of issuing a direct complaint, he conveys his message through indirect cues, leaving it to ppo to interpret and respond appropriately. such an approach enables ppi to maintain politeness and social harmony by shielding ppo’s face from results the data analysis identified four types of offrecord politeness strategies: giving hints, associative clues, overstating, and using metaphors. ppo, pph, and ppi used these strategies during the merariq ceremonies. in this context, the pembayun were not exempt from performing face-threatening acts (ftas) toward their interlocutors (recipients) and mitigated these acts through off-record politeness strategies. hinting politeness: indirect criticism and suggestion as an off-record politeness strategy identifying one of the most dominant off-record politeness strategies used by sasak pembayun is giving hints, as seen in the analysis of ritual interactions in merariq ceremonies. the strategy is often used indirectly to send criticisms, advice, or rejection (especially during the sorong serah part of the ritual). sorong serah is the last and highest ceremonial stage, which is conducted as a formal means of customary law after the merariq process. the exchange generally occurs in the bride’s front yard, where representatives from both families meet and negotiate and resolve any outstanding issues symbolically. ppi refers to the bride’s family, and ppo refers to the groom’s family. it is a politeness strategy that preserves face by providing an implicit message instead of an explicit one and allowing the recipient to interpret the speaker’s more delicate intention without confrontation. fig. 1. adopted the interactive model, miles and huberman (1994) data display organizing and entering data into matrices lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 340 the threat of overt criticism. using this off-record strategy reinforces cultural expectations around tact and respect, especially in ceremonial contexts where preserving relational dignity is paramount. the off-record nature of the criticism thus avoids confrontation and facilitates smooth interpersonal dynamics during the ritual. extract 2: ssdrpm 30 pph : jam due wah te sak berangkat, bareh we will leave at two o’clock. 31 ppo : sampun siap tiang pasang sapuk niki i am already ready with my sapuk (traditional headscarf). extract 2 the interaction between pph and ppo regarding the agreement to conduct the sorong serah ceremony. the dialogue occurs at the groom’s house while preparing arte berane, or ritualistic gifts to be sent to the bride’s house. it includes an off-record request, which implies that pph should already be at the bride’s home before 2:00 pm, asthe ceremonial team will leave by that time. rather than directly telling ppo to come early, pph says, “we will leave at two o’clock,” allowing ppo to infer the intended meaning. ppo responds humorously by saying he has already donned the traditional headscarf (sapuk), signaling his readiness and understanding of the implied message. this exchange illustrates how off-record hinting successfully maintains politeness while ensuring coordination. pembayun also uses the strategy of giving hints when offering suggestions. typically, this strategy is employed when the speaker wishes to perform a facethreatening act (fta) while avoiding the negative impact or undesirable consequences that could follow, as further seen in extract 3. extract 3. ssds 02 pph : lamun arak kurang, arte berane ance aji krame, biase jak bagian te sanget ketat adat ne, jari selapuk sak eak te jauk harus lengkap, adek te sak dek tesuruk tulak if the ceremonial offerings and traditional symbols lack something, the strict rules in that region require everything to be complete, or they might ask us to return. rather than issuing a direct order, pph frames his warning as a general observation about customary expectations. extract 3 reflects pph’s suggestion to the delegation to prepare ceremonial offerings for the sorong serah event. he does so by merely giving a hint, leaving the interpretation and necessary action to the recipients. pph avoids issuing a direct command, instead employing the off-record strategy by emphasizing the importance of thoroughness, implying that incomplete offerings may not be acceptable. this phrasing conveys the intended meaning while giving the impression that no pressure is involved. the delegation of pembayun interprets the utterance as a gentle reminder and takes the necessary actions based on pph’s implied message. in this context, the off-record strategy is deemed successful when there is a positive alignment between the speaker’s intention and the listener’s interpretation. based on the research results, offrecord strategies are more effective than on-record approaches among the pembayun. in several instances observed during merariq ceremonies, direct suggestions were occasionally misinterpreted, resulting in unintended or mismatched responses. speakers may choose the off-record strategy when they believe that the illocutionary act expressed in a non-coercive manner can potentially threaten the recipient’s positive face. extract 4 illustrates the point in a conversation between pph and ppi, who are also close friends. extract 4: srdk 45 pph : kolok ceraken rombong no lek to place the ceremonial bowl over there. 46 ppi : lamun ne ceraken rombong biase lek julu taok ne tekolok usually, the ceremonial bowl is placed at the front. this exchange highlights how ppi deflects pph’s instruction by referencing tradition. the utterance in extract 4 shows pph suggesting to one of the delegations the placement of the ceremonial bowl (ceraken rombong), which is part of the offerings to the bride’s family. ppi rejects the suggestion of using an off-record strategy. he does not explicitly state his refusal but emphasizes that the item is “usually placed at the front,” implying that pph’s suggestion deviates from customary practice. from the contextual cues, pph understands that his proposal may not be suitable according to tradition. extract 4 demonstrates that even between close interlocutors such as pph and ppi, off-record politeness strategies are employed to preserve face and mitigate the threat of direct refusal. furthermore, off-record politeness is evident in the rejection of specific proposals during fig. 1. adopted the interactive model, miles and huberman (1994) data display organizing and entering data into matrices lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 341 bride-price negotiations, as illustrated in extract 5. extract 5: srdk 04 pph : sepulu doang sik ne siep marak sak aturan keluarge mame only ten, as per the request from the groom’s family. 05 ppi : dek te bau beli sebie bawang, lamun tek itung ajian-ajian nani looking at current prices, that is not enough to buy chili and onions. in extract 5, pph proposes reducing the bride’s price to ten units, a suggestion made on behalf of the groom’s family. ppi, who represents the bride’s family, meets this offer with a firm yet indirect rejection. ppi replies with a culturally resonant analogy: “that is not enough to buy chili and onions if you look at current prices.” this offrecord response implies that the proposed amount is insufficient without directly confronting the offer. the strategy fosters harmony and consensus, aligning with the broader communicative ethos of sasak ritual discourse. by employing quotidian economic expressions, ppi communicates not merely the rejection but one couched in the familiar and non-aggressive. the solution preserves the other party’s dignity. it strikes a balance between being formal enough to respect everyone’s dignity and informal enough to accommodate everyone’s needs. during merariq, numerous indirect refusals are selected to minimize the possibility of conflict and preserve the cultural values of respect and politeness. ppi’s metaphor registers dissent while protecting mutual dignity, then draws from their common stock of social norms and ceremonial expectations. these extracts above show that sasak merariq rituals badly need hinting as a strategy of off-record politeness. it empowers speakers to share criticism, make suggestions, and manage disagreements without endangering relational harmony or social order. in high-context or collectivist cultures (like sasák society), hinting maintains the careful equilibrium between deference and assertiveness expected in ceremonial discourse. cultural scripts and communal knowledge that facilitate the understanding of messages, even when implicit, support the strategic use of hinting in these exchanges. hinting thus serves as a facesaving measure to reinforce community norms and facilitate respectful negotiation. this observation confirms the applicability of brown and levinson’s politeness model to ritual situations while illustrating the necessity to consider culturespecific modes of indirectness in the linguistic approach (brown & levinson, 1987). associative clues as an off-record politeness strategy sasak ritual discourse employs associative clues as an off-record politeness strategy. the strategy enables speakers to direct listeners to a desired interpretation without explicitly stating it, instead drawing on relevant prior knowledge from shared culture and context. such techniques are employed regularly in merariq, especially during the ceremonial negotiations known as sorong serah, which ultimately solidify traditional agreements made following elopement. politeness stems from nuanced language that focuses on cultural harmony and understanding, a shared interpretation of conduct, rather than issuing blunt instructions or resorting to aggression. extract 6: srdk 51 ppi : nunasan tang, ape symbol aji krame niki arak tejauk endah? excuse me, is the aji krame symbol (gold ornament) also brought here? in the extract, ppi smartly questions what is not being seen; ppi inquires about the presence of customary goods that should be there (aji krame), while during the ceremony, ppi asks where this thing is. ppi’s question, without a direct, explicit request, suggests that the item is essential and should be available or visible. the utterance serves as an association cue, indicating that the item should nearby and perhaps even highlighting its exact positioning or visibility. interpretation of the subtext: the recipient moves the object forward. ppi request was made “without pressure” with a minimized likelihood for threats in the “face” and ceremonial decorum. with a collective grasp of the customs, society employs these indirect strategies in its interactionsustaining communication, despite a firm reliance on high-context markers in sasak communication, such as associative strategies. shared knowledge is crucial in these forms of cultural and ritual communication, where indirectness can occur, as it enables participants to pick up on nuances that are not explicitly stated. the context and knowledge shared among members of a collectivist society help individuals infer deeper meanings in hints and lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 342 associations. in communities with a strong oral tradition, this dependency on common knowledge becomes even more pronounced, producing a dynamic where listeners fill in gaps for vague utterances in rituals with their embedded narratives and socialized knowledge. in these contexts, associative meaning-making is crucial, as it fosters connections between linguistic expressions and their social and cultural consequences. they are indirect by making criticisms or expressing needs, doing so in a way that avoids direct interaction with their interlocutors. this roundabout approach gives face, encourages mutual understanding, and strengthens community ties. participants draw upon contextual clues and insights about community norms to navigate sexualized spaces, allowing them to communicate in a way that (relatively) avoids offending. overstating as an off-record politeness strategy overstating is another off-record politeness strategy; pembayun can overstate their utterances for communicative effect. in that sense, it is essential to note that indirectness is not limited to understatement or exaggeration. still, it can also serve as a politeness strategy, particularly in situations involving humor, subtle rejection, or mild criticism. exaggerations in ritual communication soften the force of an utterance, allowing speakers to disagree or make a request in a way that minimizes potential face threats. extract 7: srdp 56 ppi : lamun lek deriki aji satak ajin aji krame niki here, the value of aji krame is usually two hundred. 57 pph : ampure, tang, sai sak piyak kesepakatan masalah harge niki, bije jarin raden bae aji satus. excuse me, but who agreed to this price? only those of the raden lineage would have a value of one hundred. in this exchange, which occurs during dowry negotiations in the sorong serah ceremony, ppi proposes a figure for the ceremonial gold (aji krame). pph responds with an exaggerated statement framed as a rhetorical question: “only the raden would price it at one hundred,” implying the proposed figure is too high for their social status. this overstatement serves as a subtle criticism and polite rejection, conveyed without overt confrontation. pph’s indirect response allows ppi to infer disapproval while maintaining face. the exaggeration, embedded in humor and cultural reference to the raden nobility, invites reconsideration of the proposal without creating tension. this type of rhetorical exaggeration is common in sasak ceremonial discourse as it communicates disagreement while preserving social cohesion. extract 8: ssds 57 ppi : selapuk ne mangkin eak mau selawat, pire keloek ne selawat niki? everyone will receive selawat (gift money), so how many are there? 58 pph : sejute tang dek ne kurang sesenpun one million rupiah, not a single cent less. in extract 8, during the distribution of selawat (a ritual monetary gift), ppi uses the word selapuk (everyone), an exaggeration that suggests a large group. this indirect request implies substantial financial requirement. pph responds with matching hyperbole, promising one million rupiahs without deduction. the exchange is light-hearted but purposeful: ppi avoids directly stating the amount needed, and pph accepts the implication in kind. the mutual use of exaggeration reflects shared cultural norms, allowing both parties to maintain politeness and humor while meeting the ritual obligation. extract 9: ssdbk 59 pph : dek tenik nani jak selesai, sampe ne arak subuh there is no way we will finish this now; it might go until subuh (morning prayer). 60 ppi : lamun dekman lengkap arte berane niki,,silak te penyalak obor if the offerings are not complete yet, let us go ahead and light the torches. in extract 9, it occurs amid a prolonged negotiation. pph exaggerates the time expected to complete the discussion, joking that it might continue until subuh (morning prayer). ppi responds with a similar overstatement, suggesting they light torches. the use of hyperbole here softens the frustration felt over delays and avoids attributing blame. pembayun shared that exaggeration signals a cooperative stance and shared understanding. humor and overstatement function as tools to reduce interpersonal tension, preserving the face of lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 343 all participants while still expressing dissatisfaction. in sasak culture, such exchanges are emblematic of indirect confrontation wrapped in jest. in these cases, exaggeration is a deliberate and culturally salient form of off-record politeness. exaggeration is often employed as a politeness or mitigation device to maintain social harmony in interactions within certain southeast asian cultures. this strategic overstatement mitigates requests or criticisms, helping speakers emphasize their communicative goals without directly challenging the face of the interlocutor (astruc & vanrell, 2016; duffau & fox tree, 2024). for instance, exaggeration can be purposely employed (e.g., in ceremonies) to amplify feelings of gratitude or happiness, thereby orchestrating a sense of collective celebration and agreement (rezaie, 2014; wang et al., 2010). exaggeration is often correlated with humor or irony in ritual discourse and contributes to lessening the seriousness while reinforcing ties among participants. the mutual coherence of humor provides everyone involved with a of “saving face” in a fraught social situation, serving as a vehicle for commenting on otherwise loutish or controversial opinions (meiratnasari et al., 2019; syting & gildore, 2022). these humorous exaggerations are closely tied to oral traditions that value storytelling and embellishment, leading to an enhanced communicative experience (beschieru, 2021; duffau & fox tree, 2024). in many southeast asian cultures, the norms of politeness may be more relaxed and refer to the collective values in some cultures and social hierarchies, where hyperbole is allowed more freely than in individualistic cultures. hyperbole is often acceptable and appreciated when it serves to the benefit of group cohesion or a collective cause. on the other hand, there are various cases where international students use excessive exaggeration in their speech, which can be perceived as insincere or disrespectful to individuals, provoking a backlash and highlighting the need to balance humor and propriety. (getkham, 2014). metaphorical expression as an off-record politeness strategy in the sasak marriage ceremony, metaphorical language is an essential off-the-record politeness strategy. instead of using literal or direct language, speakers use culturally resonant metaphors to critique, humble, or evaluate in a way that minimizes face loss and conforms to social norms. extract 10: ssdjg 60 ppi : ternyate dek dengan sembarangan, semaken te petoes kau lapah clearly, not just anyone moves like waking a hungry buffalo. in the extract, 10 ppi delivers this utterance after witnessing another speaker perform a song. the metaphor “like waking a hungry buffalo” is an indirect compliment, indicating that the performer is powerful and energetic. this metaphor is a culturally embedded form of praise, allowing ppi to express admiration while avoiding overly direct flattery. using an animal metaphor familiar in sasak’s cultural imagery, ppi draws on shared knowledge to ensure the comment is positive yet modest. extract 11: ssdlsd 65 ppi : selapauk dedare anyong penek ne, sik tembang niki, lamun tiang jak jauk dunie bekek langit all the young maidens would lose control hearing this song: my voice is as far from yours as the earth is from the sky. in extract 11, ppi compliments pph’s singing with a metaphor comparing their voices to the distance between earth and sky. the expression serves two functions: praising pph while simultaneously showing humility. in sasak culture, direct self-praise is frowned upon, so ppi uses metaphor to avoid elevating himself while elevating the other speaker. this strategy also preserves the social equilibrium between the interlocutors. extract 12: ssbp 50 ppi : halus manis subasaning raga lwir kadya subasaning para ratu luwih. the speech was so refined and sweet, like the words of noble kings. in this case, ppi compares the speech of another participant to that of royal figures. the metaphor honors the recipient and demonstrates high regard for their eloquence. such expressions reinforce cultural ideals of politeness and humility, elevating the other party’s status while implicitly lowering the speaker’s own. it is consistent with local etiquette that prioritizes humility, especially in formal or ceremonial language. with these examples, lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 344 metaphors protect literal meaning; that is, metaphors are ambiguous compared to direct meaning: speakers could praise or criticize in a gentle, artistic, or socially acceptable manner. they introduce a layer of abstraction that allows for interpretation without confrontation; we are still telling the same story, but it requires an accepted level of familiarity with our cultural narrative, from the nightly news, to hang together. in cultural and ritual communication, inferences about indirectness occur since shared knowledge enables the participants to understand the slight variations and implicit messages that are not explicitly stated. in collectivist societies, the shared background knowledge among community member’s fosters familiarity, making hints, associative meanings, and impressions more significant. in communities with strong oral traditions, this dependence on the group’s knowledge is further evident; it allows for dynamic interaction between speakers and listeners, who can come to understand the significance of vague language or allusions made during performative rituals based on their own relevant social experiences and culturally determined narratives. contextualizing linguistic expressions in relation to social and cultural events and associative meaning-making would be invaluable. the implicit references in ritual discourse serve as politeness devices that allow members to articulate their needs or critiques without explicitly challenging their interlocutor. this indirectness preserves face, encourages mutual understanding, and reinforces social bonds. with both contextual clues and standard community norms, participants can approach complex social interactions in a more cohesive and socially relevant manner, allowing members to maintain a shared sense of interaction that is primarily respectful and civil. widely used across cultures, particularly in ritual or religious contexts, metaphor serves as a politeness strategy, allowing speakers to convey criticism or humility in a culturally significant manner. metaphorical language in sasak and other indonesian cultures is often rooted in elements of nature, spirituality, and communal living, reflecting the shared experiences and values of these cultures. in particular, as a staple food, metaphors associated with rice represent abundance and prosperity, whereas the invocation of water brings about purification. pembayuns are handy devices for conveying criticism or humility indirectly. using metaphorical techniques can soften the face-threatening acts that may be inherent in speakers’ commentaries or critiques on the subject matter, which may need to be avoided in the deliberation process to create a more civilized discussion atmosphere. (meiratnasari et al., 2019). as an illustration, a speaker might note, “the river flows quietly but carries stones,” strongly advising against reflection less verbally than directly admonishing a person. language remains a ritual in the indonesian community, allowing them to critique and maintain social harmony, intimating their inseparable bond within the tapestry of culture. therefore, referencing metaphors also strengthens the variety of communication by reflecting the cultural values of respect and delicacy, so that the cultural context behind sasak society and language, among others, should also be considered when articulating words (astruc & vanrell, 2016; widiana et al., 2024). strategic functions of off-record politeness strategies in managing social dynamics this section systematically discloses how off-record politeness strategies were instantiated in the sorong serah of sasak elopement practices, providing the communicative function, facesaving orientation, and correlation with brown and levinson’s (1987) politeness theory for each strategy. as examined in the preceding sections, the strategies of hinting, associative hints, overstatement, and metaphor have specific functions in mitigating face-threatening acts (ftas), particularly in negotiating sensitive topics such as dowry, role, and ritual obligations. according to the brown and levinson model, speakers of an fta (face-threatening act) can do so on-record or off-record. in an on-record situation, speakers may then decide whether to rectify it through positive or negative politeness. off-record strategies that fit the sasak pembayuns involve the speaker blurring their intention, leaving it ambiguous and open to interpretation, which allows the speaker to avoid accountability and potential conflict. these strategies demonstrate the sasak speakers’ preference for indirect, high-context communication which prioritizes relational harmony over confrontation. the use of off-record politeness not only reflects strategic linguistic lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 345 behavior but also embodies the profound moral and cultural values embedded in the sasak cultural practice. notably, such strategies rely heavily on shared interpretive frameworks between speaker and listener, reinforcing group identity and socio-cultural coherence. politeness strategies in cross-cultural pragmatics literature have been extensively categorized, primarily drawing on the foundational work of brown and levinson (1987) and subsequent adaptations and critiques. brown and levinson (1987) classified politeness into positive, negative, and off-record strategies which enable individuals to navigate social interactions, strengthening the social bond or minimizing threats to one another’s face. with the emergence of more nuanced frameworks, comparisons of off-record strategies between different speech communities have been made, including cross-cultural differences in requests and politeness strategies in american english and saudi arabic, which highlight the cultural specificity in these interactions (tawalbeh & al-oqaily, 2012). the framework of brown and levinson (1987) remains helpful for analyzing the linguistic choices in the sasak merariq ritual. nevertheless, it is crucial to note that the effectiveness of each strategy relies not only on its theoretical classification but also on how well-suited it is to local traditions and communicative expectations. in this way, vague politeness serves the complex process of negotiating marriage alliances within sasak culture by enabling socially valued exits that save face and offer flexibility of interpretation, both of which are essential for maintaining social harmony. thus, while structures of politeness can be viewed through the lens of brown and levinson’s theory, the actual practice of politeness among the sasak is a delicate balancing act influenced by the context of the social environment and cultural structures. iv. discussion this study’s results confirm that sasak speakers employed off-record politeness strategies, especially during the sorong serah ritual, which serves significant communicative and cultural functions. this affirms the function of politeness as both a communicative and moral resource in ritual discourse. these strategies enable parties to avoid conflict in sensitive negotiations, such as those surrounding dowries and ritual obligations, and reflect the deep-rooted sasak values underpinning such sensitive communications. patterns of directness or indirectness can be culturally conditioned based on social relationships and the specific situation. however, the tendency for indirectness reflects the collectivist-oriented culture that compromises and respects the hierarchy and society as a domain of moral obligation under adat (custom). according to sukarno (2018), politeness in collectivist societies, such as indonesia, extends beyond mere social conventions, reflecting societal and moral values that help maintain a sense of respect and cohesion among their members. indirectness is considered a virtue in sasak culture; the language used in this way, ranging from metaphor to associative clues and hints, avoids confrontation and thus preserves the interlocutor’s face, allowing for the consensus necessary to make a decision. these practices align with the commitment to maintaining a communal identity and relational equilibrium, rather than prioritizing individual aggression. in contrast, individualistic cultures emphasize clarity and assertiveness in speech (mahmud et al., 2019). ethnographic data also demonstrates that sasak communicators draw upon standard cultural schemas and expectations to help decode such indirect utterances with minimal ambiguity. so, metaphors such as “squeezing the rocks that have no water” are no linguistic embellishments but culturally accepted poetic indirection. this respect for high-context communication means that any disagreement reinforces relationships rather than tearing them apart. these findings further support the work of mahmud et al. (2019) and yaqin et table 2. off-record strategies in sasak merariq (elopement) functions and face orientation strategy communicative function face-saving orientation hinting indirectly criticizing or requesting without imposing negative face associative clues using shared cultural knowledge to infer meaning positive face overstating exaggerating to reject, mock, or humorously critique negative/positive face metaphorical expression encoding evaluation or humility via culturally resonant symbolism positive face lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 346 al. (2022, 2023), who argue that ritual discourse constitutes a social practice of re-establishing order and solidifying societal norms of facesaving and harmony. if the vernacular notes that off-record politeness is more than a functional linguistic strategy, it embodies social values; it is performative. especially in rituals like merariq, where social ties are (re)negotiated through marriage, internal negotiations falling off the record, politeness through off-record strategies enables participants to maintain decorum while pursuing complex negotiations. brown and levinson’s (1987) theory has been strongly criticized for its limited relevance to non-western contexts, despite being seminal in its approach. the sasak case study supports this criticism by revealing that indirectness in interaction achieves adjudged options concerning face management, which is but one of many socio-cultural imperatives (including honor, ritual propriety, and communal obligation). this implies the necessity to complement politeness theory theoretically, which establishes the interdependence between culturally motivated indirectness and local morality and ritual norms. wildan et al. (2024) reported that incorporating localized values (e.g., humility, harmony, hierarchical state) into long-standing theoretical models could result in a richer yet contextually specific understanding of politeness phenomena. in another example, sasak culture has a linguistic habit of utilizing overstatement or metaphor to represent critique, defying gricean maxims, but this is a culturally bound, accepted, and respectful manner of expressing disagreement (yaqin & shanmuganathan, 2018). furthermore, the face-saving behavior in the sasak society prioritizes relational equilibrium over individual autonomy. this critical distinction opens the way for reconceptualizing “face” in non-western settings not just as a separate image, but as a socially distributed asset that is textured by ritual and custom. thus, we have also seen some empirical support for pluralizing politeness theory in relation to high-context, ritual-centered cultures. it entails introducing ethnographic perspectives that draw out the moral logic behind indirectness and embeddedness of speech acts within ritual practices of culturally bounded applicability, made apparent in the sorong serah. the implications are essential beyond the sasak context. the insight into indirectness as something culturally valued in intercultural communication may foster sensitivity in communication across cultural borders. competence in the effective use of indirect styles is essential in multilingual and multicultural contexts. duffau & fox tree (2024) and ojwang et al. (2010) argue that some traditional implicit cues for a particular culture, such as interpreting off-record politeness and not being offended by thinking of oneself as superior to something, can help avoid misunderstandings and foster mutual respect. in applied domains such as diplomacy, negotiation, and education, understanding cultural expectations related to indirectness can facilitate dialogue management and prevent unnecessary conflict. for example, in diplomatic or organizational contexts where people from southeast asia are involved, recognizing that a common metaphor or rhetorical questioning can indicate disagreement or resistance without open confrontation can lead to more effective communication. sasak’s elopement rituals, with their ritualized politeness, also provide comparative potential. similar strategies in ceremonial talk are found in other collectivist or ritualized societies, including those of the javanese and balinese, as well as the arab and south asian communities. comparative work might consider how metaphors, honorifics, or associative speech promote face and mitigate conflict across cultures. this study can advance our understanding of universal vs. culture-specific aspects of politeness phenomena. the sasak case has demonstrated that politeness is not only a matter of linguistic politeness or pragmatic strategy; it is a medium through which social values, identity, and power relations are negotiated. v. conclusion this study investigated off-record politeness strategies among sasak pembayun (adat leaders) during merariq, a culturally sanctioned elopement ritual in lombok, indonesia. by examining discourse data from sorong serah ceremonies, the research identified four key off-record strategies: giving hints, using associative clues, overstating, and metaphorical expression. these strategies proved to be integral not only for managing facethreatening acts but also for upholding the moral, relational, and ritual values embedded in sasak cultural practices. indirectness was not merely a lalu nurul yaqin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 347 stylistic preference but a communicative necessity informed by collectivist norms and a desire for social harmony. the findings challenge the universal applicability of western-centric politeness theories, particularly brown and levinson’s (1987) model, by demonstrating how politeness in high-context, ritual-oriented cultures is shaped by collective identity, honor, and hierarchy. while the study confirms the relevance of off-record politeness strategies, it also highlights the need for cultural adaptation in politeness models. the reliance on shared cultural knowledge and ritual obligation underscores a more dynamic and context-sensitive understanding of face and interaction. this study’s limitations include its focus on a specific ethnic and ritual context, which may limit generalizability. future research should explore similar strategies in other indonesian or southeast asian communities and examine how gender, generational differences, or digital communication contexts influence indirectness. this study contributes to a growing body of research advocating for a culturally grounded understanding of politeness. this study affirms the role of ritual communication as a site where language, culture, and morality intersect, offering valuable insights into cross-cultural pragmatics and sociolinguistics. ethics statement this study was reviewed and approved by the faculty of arts & social sciences, universiti brunei darussalam (ubd) research committee. informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the author declares that no competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references astruc, l., & vanrell, m. del m. 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(2023). negotiating price in the elopement of the sasak culture: politeness acts in disagreeing. gema online journal of language studies, 23(4). mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 244 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 23, 2024 final revision: august 26, 2024 accepted: september 02, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 the translation of song lyrics is challenging for translators primarily due to the intricate poetic and musical elements, which often compel them to employ specific strategies for effective translation. this study was an attempt to investigate the translation strategies in selected translated movie song lyrics and explore the challenges in translating the lyrics. in this qualitative study, the songs were purposefully selected from “mulan” (1998) and “aladdin” (2019) movies. low’s (2013) translation strategies were applied during the process of translation. the “translation” (transfer of material with a reasonably high degree of semantic fidelity), and “replacement” (a re-creation of text by only preserving the music element) strategies were found as the common strategies in the translation of song lyrics. the use of a replacement strategy could be due to technical difficulties in translating songs, such as the constraint of rhythm, hence a total replacement of meanings to match the rhythm of the song. a significant challenge in translating song lyrics from english to chinese was in translating the concept of face-saving, which is an eminent process in social interactions in chinese culture. it was concluded that the use of a translation strategy depended on the lyrics, translators’ creativity, melody, rhyme, and the differences between the languages and cultures, while the “skopos”, i.e., the correspondence of aim/purpose in the source and target cultures should play the key role. keywords challenge, chinese, english, song lyrics, translation correspondence e-mail: mansour@usm.my article strategies and challenges in english to chinese translation of selected song lyrics mansour amini1, faith ooi fang xi2, sue anne choo xuan-en3, narges saffari4, kam-fong lee5, latha ravindran6 1school of languages, literacies and translation, universiti sains malaysia, pulau pinang, malaysia 2,3faculty of social sciences and liberal arts, ucsi university malaysia, malaysia 4academic service center, nyenrode business university, netherlands 5,6faculty of education, languages, psychology and music, segi university, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.244-262.2024 i. introduction songs, as a type of literary work, are significant parts of animations and musical movies that are usually well-received by translation users or audiences from all nations (susam-sarajeva, 2008). a song can intensify the emotional effect of a given scene in the movie and aid in expressing the thoughts and feelings of the characters (aminoroaya & amirian, 2016). this may not be attainably expressed in the movie considering the time restriction in revealing a lot of information. as a leading production company, the walt disney company has produced many animated feature films over the decades, along with songs specially composed for the films (holliday, 2023). the songs often contain central ideas in these films and the popularity of the films has in turn catapulted the songs themselves into their popularity and success (hischak & robinson, 2009). disney has had a long history of adapting its music into several languages, one which extends decades ago and even continues today (bontrager, 2011). in the works of other production companies, the music is usually incorporated into the background and functions to establish appropriate moods (park, 2015). this adaptation is necessary for the company due to multiple factors. the songs serve for the characters to express themselves. hence, for the audience to be connected to the story, adaptations of songs cannot mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 245 be disregarded. the second factor could be related to the age of target audiences, to whom these films are primarily aimed (leonardo et al., 2009). while some research has been conducted on the challenges of song translation, there is still a significant need for more focused study, particularly in establishing norms and developing or validating strategies tailored to the unique features of song lyrics. therefore, the following research questions were formulated: 1. to what extent the translation strategies are used in selected translated song lyrics from chinese to english? 2. what are the reasons behind the challenges in translating selected song lyrics from chinese to english? the interdisciplinary approach to song translation integrates insights from literary, music, and theatre studies alongside traditional translation studies, reflecting the multifaceted nature of translating lyrics that encompass both poetic and musical dimensions (khoshsaligheh et al., 2023). despite this comprehensive approach, research in song translation often suffers from a lack of robust methodological frameworks, leading to inconsistent results and varying quality in translations. for instance, an examination of translation strategies employed by students demonstrated diverse methods but also highlighted notable inconsistencies in translation quality, underscoring a gap in effective, standardized approaches (fadli et al., 2023). additionally, the broader field of translation studies has largely overlooked the complexities inherent in song translation, which uniquely challenges translators due to the intricate interplay between poetic devices and musical elements (fadli et al., 2023; tambunan et al., 2024). this underexplored aspect points to a critical need for further research to develop more refined strategies for translating songs, addressing a significant gap in both theory and practice that merits deeper investigation and attention. in addition, translating songs involves addressing numerous challenges that are distinct from other forms of interlingual translation, such as poetry translation. for instance, in a study on song translation, xu yuanchong’s translations of “the book of songs” demonstrated the need to balance aesthetic features with content, highlighting the complexities involved in translating lyrical works (guo et al., 2024). despite the growing interest in song translation, the field still needs systematic exploration to unify its diverse elements and address methodological weaknesses (zhang, 2024). low (2005) highlights the importance of creating “singable” translations that maintain the musical integrity of the original piece. this involves managing constraints like note-values, rhymes, stresses, and the need for paraphrasing (wan & amini, 2020). the originality of the music imposes additional restrictions, making song translation particularly complex. the originality of music imposes additional restrictions that significantly complicate the process of song translation, due to the intricate interplay of cultural, linguistic, and artistic elements inherent in musical compositions. unlike standard text, songs are a fusion of lyrical content, melodic structure, rhythm, and emotional nuance, each of which contributes to the overall artistic expression and meaning. the absence of well-established norms and organized systems for song translation is a significant issue in the field (dong & zhang, 2023). bontrager (2011) notes that without clear guidelines, translators often struggle to create accurate and effective adaptations. this underscores the need for the translation field to develop more structured approaches to song translation, recognizing its distinct demands. while translating songs, particularly those in musicals, is widely recognized as a demanding art that requires both creativity and experience (smola, 2011), unlike other forms of translation which primarily focus on converting text from one language to another, song translation involves a complex interplay of linguistic and musical elements that must be harmoniously integrated. translators in this field are not only required to possess advanced language skills but also need a deep understanding of musicality, including rhythm, melody, and the emotional impact of the music. bontrager (2011) highlights that successful song translation goes beyond merely translating words; it demands a passionate commitment to capturing and conveying the song’s original essence, cultural context, and emotional resonance in the target language. this process requires significant creative effort and innovation to adapt lyrics while maintaining the musical and lyrical integrity of the original composition. furthermore, the literature indicates a notable ambiguity surrounding the professional identity of song translators, with franzon (2008) noting that this lack of clear definition contributes to the marginalization of song translation within mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 246 the broader translation field. the absence of a well-defined professional identity not only affects the recognition and support for song translators but also underscores the need for more research and professional development in this specialized area. such efforts are crucial for advancing the understanding and appreciation of the expertise required for effective song translation and for elevating its status within the broader translation profession. in this study, skopos theory is used for the song translation to maintain the target language and culture rather than the source. in skopos, ‘purpose’ in greek, the translation is determined by its purpose (skopos). skopos theory, established by the german linguist hans vermeer in 1978, encompasses the idea that the process of translation and interpretation should substantially focus on the function of both the st and tt. hence, the strategies and methods employed in producing a translation are governed by the tt’s intended purpose. this is embellished by the difference between equivalence-driven theories and skopos theory. the former bases its orientation towards the st, its effects on the source language audience, and/ or the function assigned to it by the author, whereas in the latter the intended function (skopos) of the target text (tt) is determined by the client and the translator (metin tekin & uluc isisag, 2017). one “must translate consciously and consistently”, being by principles respecting the tt, with the principles varying between specific cases (vermeer, 1989, p.182). therefore, the application of skopos theory in the translation of songs from english to chinese highlights the significance of the translation’s purpose, coherence, and cultural fidelity in producing effective translations. skopos theory can offer a valuable framework for handling the complex task of translating song lyrics. this theory is particularly relevant when translating musical songs, where the interplay between language, culture, and emotion is paramount. in a related study, daud et al. (2021) explored the application of skopos theory in evaluating the readability and cohesion of english-tomalay translations of selected children’s fables. their research focused on how effectively the “purpose” of children’s literary texts is conveyed in translation. the findings suggest that skopos theory is instrumental in maintaining the intended message and readability in translated literature, which is essential for preserving the educational and entertainment value of children’s stories (wan & amini, 2020). the importance of aligning translation with its intended purpose is further emphasized by lin et al. (2023), who specifically examine the translation of folk songs. their research underscores that folk songs are not merely musical compositions but are deeply imbued with rich cultural meanings and emotional depth that are integral to their original context. these songs often embody specific cultural narratives, traditions, and sentiments that reflect the values and experiences of a particular community. lin et al. argue that translating folk songs requires an approach that is acutely sensitive to these cultural and emotional dimensions. this means that translators must carefully consider the communicative goals of the original work, which include not only the literal meaning of the lyrics but also the intended emotional resonance and cultural significance. by prioritizing these communicative goals, translators are better equipped to convey the nuanced cultural and emotional layers of folk songs in the translated version. this approach helps ensure that the translated work preserves the original impact and effectiveness, allowing the new audience to experience the same depth of meaning and emotion as the original listeners. in this way, lin et al.’s research highlights the critical role of purpose-driven translation in maintaining the integrity and essence of folk songs across linguistic and cultural boundaries. yang (2024) underscores the critical importance of cultural considerations when translating songs. the study reveals that translating musical content from english to chinese requires more than just linguistic proficiency; it demands a deep understanding of the cultural, historical, and social factors that shape audience perceptions and expectations in china. yang argues that a successful translation must maintain the cultural integrity of the original while ensuring that the translated version resonates with the target audience. this balance is crucial for preserving the emotional impact and meaning of the song, which are often deeply rooted in cultural context (yang, 2024). lan and zhao (2024) further enrich the discourse on song translation by illustrating the practical applications of skopos theory in achieving coherence and meeting communicative objectives. their study highlights how skopos mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 247 determined by the translator and client. this is particularly relevant in song translation, where the goal is not just to replicate the source text but to create a version that works effectively in the target culture, often requiring adaptation and creativity. likewise, given that song lyrics often carry significant cultural, poetic, and emotional weight, skopos theory’s focus on the tt’s function and audience is particularly appropriate. the theory supports the idea that translators must consider the cultural and linguistic context of the tt audience, ensuring that the translated lyrics are not only accurate but also culturally relevant and emotionally impactful. furthermore, although the source and tts can have identical functions (vermeer, 2000), the function changes due to the skopos (nord, 1997), which may differ due to the needs of the types of source and target audiences belonging to independent linguistic and social backgrounds. it is this skopos that determines if a text should be “translated,” “paraphrased,” or completely “re-edited” (vermeer, 2000, p. 237). therefore, translation is not limited to st only, and the tt is the focus. in the present study, the term “strategy” is operationally defined as the specific method employed by the translator to address and resolve a particular translation problem. this definition underscores the strategic nature of translation, where the choice of method is crucial for effectively overcoming challenges encountered during the translation process. it is important to recognize that different scholars might use varying terminologies to describe similar concepts, reflecting their philosophical perspectives and research scopes. for instance, what one scholar labels as a “strategy” might be referred to by another as a “procedure,” “technique,” “solution,” or “approach.” these alternative terms might emphasize different aspects or nuances of the translation process, highlighting the diversity in the terminology used within the field of translation studies. specifically, the “translation” strategy is the transfer of a message from the st/sl “with a reasonably high degree of semantic fidelity” to the tt/tl (low, 2013, p. 231). it displays omissions, additions, or/and other deviations from the st to the tt. in other words, a translation strategy is where all the important and significant details of the meaning in st are transferred into the tt (metin tekin & uluc isisag, 2017; wong et al., 2019). “adaptation” means adjusting the translation to the target culture. theory, which emphasizes the purpose or function of a translation in the target context, plays a pivotal role in maintaining both the structural integrity and the cultural relevance of the lyrics. by applying skopos theory, translators can ensure that the translated song not only preserves the original lyrical structure but also adapts the content to align with the cultural and emotional expectations of the target audience. this adaptability is crucial in song translation, as it involves more than mere linguistic accuracy; it requires the lyrics to resonate deeply with listeners on an emotional level, reflecting the nuances of the original while also engaging the new audience in a meaningful way. lan and zhao’s research underscores the importance of considering the translation’s purpose and audience impact, demonstrating that effective song translation involves a careful balance between fidelity to the original and responsiveness to the cultural and emotional needs of the target audience. collectively, these studies suggest that integrating skopos theory into the translation process is crucial for improving the overall quality of translations, particularly in culturally rich and emotionally charged content such as songs and children’s literature. by adapting content to align with the cultural and emotional context of the target audience, translators can ensure that the translated works not only convey the original message but also resonate deeply with the target audience (he et al., 2024). this approach enhances cross-cultural understanding and fulfills the communicative purpose of the original work, making skopos theory an indispensable tool in the field of translation. skopos theory is chosen as the theoretical framework for this paper because it emphasizes the importance of the target language and culture in the translation process, particularly in the context of song translation. this focus aligns with the needs of song translation, where the goal is often to make the lyrics resonate with the target audience in their own cultural and linguistic context. moreover, the theory allows for flexibility in translation strategies based on the specific purpose of the tt, as indicated by vermeer’s emphasis on conscious and consistent translation principles that vary between cases to effectively convey the original meaning, emotion, and cultural nuances. additionally, the text highlights that unlike equivalence-driven theories, which focus on maintaining the effects of the source text on its original audience, skopos theory centers on the tt’s intended function as mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 248 in other words, adaptation is “a tt that draws on an st, but which has extensively modified it for a new cultural context” (munday, 2009, p. 166). adaptation can contribute to “wilfully modifying a text to create meanings that readers would never find in the source” (low, 2013, p. 230). the distinction between “translation” and “adaptation” is that adaptation can be modified easily. for example, there could be a difference in the cultural context, change of names, substitution of metaphors, or lengthening or shortening of text (wan et al., 2018). thus, adaptation aligns with the skopos theory as function-driven and purposeoriented. at the same time, adaptation creates more flexibility in the possible deviations. however, when considerable changes are made to suit the text for a specific audience (shuttleworth & cowie, 1997). thus, “adaptation” is less equivalent (to the st) compared to “translation” due to the extensive deviations from the st. the third strategy, “replacement (of text)” refers to re-writing the text and preserving the melody or the music elements. in other words, a replacement could be useful when “a song lyric created to be used with a pre-existing melody yet manifesting no semantic transfer from the text previously sung to that melody” (low, 2013, p. 231). it is the rewriting of the original song with changes in the setting, structure, or themes, but maintaining the tune or melody in the translated text. at the same time, the meaning of the translated song can be completely altered since the text is non-derivative and there is no echo from the original lyric. the only similarity between the st and the tt is the rhythm, i.e., it can be sung in the same melody or tune. moreover, the writing of replacement text in translating texts is “among the non-translating options available for the songs (alongside the option of performance in the sl)” (low, 2013, p. 239). in addition, in the field of translation studies, researchers have increasingly focused on the complexities involved in translating culturally rich and context-specific texts, such as proper names, song lyrics, comics (goh et al., 2022), audiovisual content (tee et al., 2022), and ancient poetry (hee et al., 2022). the application of various translation strategies has proven essential in addressing these challenges. for example, amini et al. (2022) explored the challenges associated with translating proper names, particularly geographical names, in the classic chinese novel journey to the west. the study highlights how proper names carry significant cultural, historical, and semantic meanings that are often difficult to convey in translation. they found that the most effective strategies for translating these names were rendition, transposition, and a mixed procedure. in another study, batmanathan et al. (2022) explored the subtitling strategies used in the malayto-english translation of the malaysian movie ejen ali: the movie. the study focused specifically on the criterion of “accuracy” and the findings revealed that the most accurate translations employed strategies such as “transfer,” “paraphrase,” and “expansion.” in contrast, “dislocation” was frequently found in less accurate translations. the study identified nine of gottlieb’s ten strategies (excluding transcription) and described nine additional mixed strategies used in the subtitling process. the results suggest that a more strategic selection of subtitling approaches could improve translation accuracy, thereby enhancing the viewer’s understanding and enjoyment of the film. goh et al. (2022) investigated the problems and effective strategies for translating chinese comics into english. the study analyzed 71 comic strips, focusing on the technical and linguistic difficulties encountered in the translation process. the findings indicated that the major challenges were related to the translation of linguistic paratexts and onomatopoeias, which are integral to the comic’s narrative and humor. the study identified five effective strategies out of six, highlighting the importance of a nuanced approach to comic translation that considers both the visual and verbal aspects of the medium. translation strategies for ancient chinese poetry are crucial due to the significant challenges involved in preserving both the artistic conception (yi jing) and the cultural significance of the original text. hee et al. (2022) conducted an in-depth study on the translation of five ancient chinese poems, with a particular focus on how the artistic conceptions of these works were preserved. they utilized vinay and darbelnet’s translation model to analyze the various strategies employed in the translation process, with a specific emphasis on the use of footnotes as a means to convey additional context. the study found that “equivalence” was the predominant strategy used in translating these poems. this strategy involves finding a translation that closely matches the meaning of the source text in the target language while attempting to maintain similar artistic effects. mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 249 “modulation” was the second most frequently employed strategy, which involves altering the form of the message to achieve a more natural expression in the target language while retaining the original message’s essence. other strategies, such as “literal translation,” “transliteration,” “borrowing,” and “adaptation,” were also used but to a lesser extent. “literal translation” focuses on translating the source text word-for-word, which can be effective for preserving the exact wording but may struggle with maintaining artistic nuances. “transliteration” involves converting text from one script to another, which is useful for preserving proper names and specific terms but may not always convey the full meaning. “borrowing” involves taking terms or phrases directly from the source language, which can be useful for preserving specific cultural references but may require additional explanation for the target audience. “adaptation” involves modifying elements of the text to better suit the target culture, which can help the translation resonate with readers but may alter the original meaning. the study also highlighted several challenges in translating elements that reflect the rich cultural and historical context of the poems. these challenges include conveying symbolic meanings and traditional references that may not have direct equivalents in the target language. hee et al. (2022) concluded that incorporating footnotes in translations can effectively bridge these gaps by providing additional explanations and context. this approach helps to preserve the artistic intentions and cultural significance of the original text while minimizing potential confusion among readers. by applying these strategies and considering the use of footnotes, translators can better address the complexities involved in translating ancient chinese poetry, ensuring that both the artistic and cultural dimensions of the original works are effectively communicated to a new audience. furthermore, on the importance of cultural knowledge, afshord and amirdabbaghian (2024) emphasized the intricate relationship between language and culture, where a lack of cultural understanding could lead to misinterpretation of the intended message. likewise, the researchers reported that insufficient cultural knowledge influences translation accuracy. moreover, song translation aims to be able to sing the words in the target language (tl) while preserving the rhythms and the tune of the original music (low, 2013). song translation requires compromises in linguistics (adawiyah & firdausi, 2023) and extra-linguistic features. these features include cultural context (e.g., tambunan et al., 2024), nonlinguistic presuppositions (e.g., misievici, 2023), and the interplay between music and lyrics (e.g., sánchez, 2019). for example, if the translation intends to maintain the original music in the source language (sl), then the translation may disregard the original text’s extra-linguistic features. low (2003) proposed the pentathlon approach to produce a text that a singer can sing to an audience (gorlee, 2005, p. 185). low (2003) introduced the five criteria of song translation to maintain a balance, for example in determining whether the st “should be translated, paraphrased or completely re-edited” (vermeer, 2000, p. 231). the five criteria include: (a) singabality, (b) sense, (c) naturalness, (d) rhythm, and (e) rhyme, while singabality is the utmost factor to be taken into consideration in translating lyrics. at the same time, a translator should also maintain the balance between these criteria to produce a singable, meaningful, and natural translation (james et al., 2018; jing, & amini, 2019). low suggested guidelines for translators to maintain the balance between the verbal text and the music element (low, 2005, p. 189). the suggestions include respecting the rhythms, finding and respecting the meaning, respecting the style, respecting the rhymes, respecting the sound, respecting choice of intended listeners, respect the original. the pentathlon approach explains the possible changes in the semantic content of the source text to maintain the rhythm and musical feel related to a song’s words. low (2013) suggested three strategies (a) translation, (b) adaptation, and (c) replacement for translating songs, which are used in the present study. the studies collectively underscore the critical role of employing appropriate translation strategies to preserve the cultural, historical, and emotional integrity of the source text. it is essential for translators to carefully consider both the purpose of the translation and the cultural context in which it will be received. skopos theory’s emphasis on the purpose-driven nature of translation is especially relevant in this context, guiding the translation of song lyrics to maintain their singability (zheng & gao, 2024), rhythm, and cultural relevance (qi, 2024). mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 250 the present study positions song translation as a complex and creative task that demands careful consideration of the target audience’s needs. ii. methods this study employs a qualitative approach to explore disney songs’ lyrics from two walt disney musical movies; “mulan” (1998) and “aladdin” (2019). two songs were purposefully selected from each of these movies. the translation strategies suggested by low (2013) were employed in the analysis of the song lyrics. the reason for selecting these two songs from “mulan” (1998) and “aladdin” (2019) is to analyze how cultural elements and themes specific to each story are conveyed through the lyrics and how these elements are adapted or preserved in the translation process. “mulan” and “aladdin” are both rich in cultural references, making them ideal for examining how song translation navigates cultural nuances, particularly in preserving the original context and meaning while ensuring the songs remain singable and resonate with the target audience. these songs also provide a comparative basis to explore how translation strategies may differ between the older and more recent disney productions. the two songs were “i’ll make a man out of you” in the “mulan” movie and “speechless” in the “aladdin” movie. the translated version of these two songs into mandarin was found on the official youtube channel (disney channel asia). this channel provides various types of translated songs from disney movies sung by renowned singers. the original lyrics were selected from the channel disney music vevo and disney. each song was segmented and the source text in english and the target text in mandarin were categorized for further analysis. the process continued with back-translation (see appendix a) and an in-depth analysis of the translation strategies employed. finally, the data were discussed about the translational strategies, and conclusions were drawn based on the findings. ethical considerations for this study include ensuring the accuracy and integrity of the data by using official sources for both the original and translated song lyrics from the publicly accessible versions of the songs. since the study involves textual analysis rather than human subjects, issues related to confidentiality and consent are not applicable, but to maintain ethical research standards sources were carefully attributed. iii. results both songs were analyzed, and the frequency and percentages of the strategies were presented. a total of 63 lines from the two songs were analyzed. overall, the “translation” strategy was the most frequent in the translated texts (38.1%), followed by “adaptation” (33.3%), and the “replacement” strategy (28.6%). table 1. the overall analysis of strategies strategy frequency percentage (%) translation 24 38.1 adaptation 21 33.3 replacement 18 28.6 total 63 100 there were 29 lines in the song i’ll make a man out of you (mulan). table 2 shows the percentage of frequency of the translation strategies identified in the i’ll make a man out of you. table 2. analysis of strategies used in “i’ll make a man out of you by disney” strategy frequency percentage (%) translation 10 34.5 adaptation 9 31 replacement 10 34.5 total 29 100 “adaptation” had a slightly lower percentage than the other two strategies (31%). table 3. analysis of strategies used in “speechless” translation strategies frequency percentage (%) translation 14 41.2 adaptation 12 35.3 replacement 8 23.5 total 34 100 “translation” has the highest percentage among the three translational strategies (41.2%). the second highest is “adaptation” (35.3%), followed by “replacement” (23.5%). translational strategies: “translation” low (2013) proposed that the “translation” strategy is the transfer of material with a reasonably high degree of semantic fidelity from the st to the tt. table 4 shows examples of analysis of the “translation” strategy in “i’ll make a man out of you” sung in “mulan”. mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 251 in this song, the example displays omission; “be a man” (st) to “man” (tt). next, there is an omission of one word from “time is racing toward us, till the huns arrive” (st) to “time is not ruthless; the huns are approaching” (tt). in another example, there is also an addition of words, “heed my every order, and you might survive” (st) to “listen to my instruction then you can live” (tt). in these three examples, the important details were transferred into the tt. for example, the word “man”, “time”, and “hun” were found in the tt. although there are changes in the word choice, the semantic fidelity was transferred to the tt. table 5 shows examples of analysis of the “translation” strategy in “speechless”. there are omissions and additions in the “translation”. for example, “cause i know that i won’t go speechless” (st) has eight words, translated into nine words (“因为我绝对不会沉 默”). next, in the translation of “speechless” (st) to two words – “沉默” (tt). there was no omission or addition in the word count and the significant meaning in the st was transferred to tt, e.g., in table 4. “translation” strategy in “i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy be a man 男子漢 (nan zi han) man translation time is racing toward us, till the huns arrive 時光毫不留情匈奴快逼近 (shi guang hao bu liu qing xiong nu kuai bi jin) time is not ruthless; the huns are approaching translation heed my every order, and you might survive 聽從我的指令才能夠活命 (ting cong wo de zhi ling cai neng gou huo ming) listen to my instructions then you can live translation table 5. “translation” strategy in “speechless” source text target text back translation strategy speechless 沉默 (chen mo) silence translation ‘cause i know that i won’t go speechless 因为我绝对不会沉默 (yin wei wo jue dui bu hui chen mo) because i will never be silent translation ‘cause i’ll breathe 要呼吸 (yao hu xi) breathe translation “breathe”. translational strategies: “adaptation” low (2013) also proposed that “adaptation” is to suit the target culture where the tt has been extensively modified into a new cultural context. “adaptation’ is used to modify the st to fit into the target culture. since it is a purposeoriented approach, the target reader should be able to relate to it. this song was translated into mandarin in china; hence the translated text shows the elements of chinese (mainland china) culture. for example, the st “daughter” is translated to “姑 [gu] 娘 [niang]”, i.e., “lady”. in another example, the tt uses “my breath is as short as a cow’s” to represent “never gonna catch my breath”. the tt uses “short as a cow’s”, which is an idiom used in mandarin to illustrate a person’s incapability. next, the word used in the tt has the element of martial arts, such as in “action is fast” considering that china is renowned for martial arts, while the st uses the word “swift”. table 6. “adaptation” strategy in “i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy did they send me daughters, when i asked for sons? 為何這群士兵都像個姑娘 (wei he zhe qun shi bing dou xiang ge gu niang) why these soldiers look like girls? adaptation i’m never gonna catch my breath 我氣喘如牛快斷氣 (wo qi quan ru niu kuai duan qi) i am as short as a cow adaptation we must be swift as a coursing river 行動快速像那江河湍急 (xing dong kuai shu xiang na jiang he tuan ji) the action is fast like the river adaptation mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 252 table 7 provides examples of the “adaptation” strategy used in “speechless” in “aladdin”. “adaptation” allows flexibility in the translated text. for example, the st segment “written in stone” can be back-translated as “written a long time ago or was written ages ago,” but the tt correspondence (“古老传统”) is straightforward and means “ancient tradition.” similarly, “stay in your place” can have several meanings, such as “to be quiet or to stay still,” but the tt “要守规矩” means “to follow the rules.” here, the tt is more direct compared to the st. for instance, “要沉默 不惹事” means “have to be silent and not to make trouble,” which is longer than the st “better seen and not heard.” “adaptation” allows flexibility in the translated text. for example, the st segment “written in stone” can be back-translated as “written a long time ago or was written ages ago,” but the tt correspondence (“古老传统”) is straightforward and means “ancient tradition.” similarly, “stay in your place” can have several meanings, such as “to be quiet or to stay still,” but the tt “要守规矩” means “to follow the rules.” here, the tt is more direct compared to the st. for instance, “要沉默 不惹事” means “have to be silent and not to make trouble,” which is longer than the st “better seen and not heard.” replacement (text) low (2013) stated that “replacement (text)” means a re-creation of text that has no relation to the st, but the music element is preserved. table 8 illustrates the use of the “replacement (text)” strategy in translating “i’ll make a man out of you” in “mulan,” where the music element is retained but the text is significantly altered. in “replacement” the lyrics are re-written with changes but the tune in the translated text is preserved. in other words, the rhythm is preserved, but the meaning is altered. for instance, “but you can bet before we’re through” (st) and “我會改變 你的前途” (tt), both have eight words (english)/ characters (mandarin), but the meaning is different from the st as shown in the backtranslation above. “and you haven’t got a clue” and “you panic and helpless” (back translation) do not seem to relate exactly. table 9 shows examples of the “replacement” strategy used in “speechless” in “aladdin”. “replacement” is the re-written form of text in which the meaning can be different from the st because this strategy aims to preserve the melody (low, 2013). therefore, the st and the tt might indicate a slightly different meaning. for example, table 7. “adaptation” strategy in “speechless” source text target text back translation strategy written in stone 古老传统 (gu lao chuan tong) ancient tradition adaptation stay in your place 要守规矩 (yao shou gui ju) follow the rules adaptation better seen and not heard 要沉默不惹事 (yao chen mob u re shi) have to be silent and not cause trouble adaptation table 8. “replacement (text)” strategy in i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy but you can bet before we’re through 我會改變你的前途 (wo hui gai bian ni de qian tu) i will change your future replacement and you haven’t got a clue 你驚慌茫然無助 (ni jing huang mang ran wu zhu) you panic and helpless replacement say goodbye to those who knew me 西方極樂等我光臨 (xi fang ji le deng wo guang ling) western bliss waiting for me to visit replacement table 9. “replacement” strategy in “speechless” source text target text back translation strategy you can’t keep me quiet 你听听我的故事 (ni ting ting wo de gu shi) listen to my story replacement i cannot be broken 我一定都抵御 (wo yi ding di yu) i will defend all replacement when they try to suffocate me 我向往的自由空气 (wo xiang wang de zi you kong qi) freedom in the air that i yearn for replacement mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 253 in “you can’t keep me quiet” (st), “你听听我的故 事” (tt), “listen to my story” (back-translation). in another example, ‘我一定都抵御” meaning “i will defend all” is different from the st “i cannot be broken”. lats, “when they try to suffocate me” was translated with a completely different meaning in the tt, “我向往的自由空气’ which means “freedom in the air that i yearn for”. challenges in translating songs translating songs that appear in movies involves the interdependence of words, music, and images, which together create unique constraints for the translator, particularly when transferring linguistic and cultural references (aminoroaya & amirian, 2016). this section explores two significant challenges in translating songs: preserving the cultural concept of “face” and maintaining rhythm. face-saving in translation in chinese culture, the concept of “face” plays a crucial role in regulating social interactions (brunner & you, 1988). “face” represents a person’s social worth and reputation, and any actions that might cause someone to lose face are carefully avoided. this cultural dynamic poses a challenge when translating songs into chinese, as translators must be sensitive to the nuances of facesaving to avoid offending. the concept of facesaving (mianzi 面子) is central to chinese culture and influences social interactions by prioritizing the maintenance of dignity, reputation, and social status (keevak, 2022). this cultural emphasis on face-saving presents challenges in translating english song lyrics into chinese, as western cultures often prioritize directness and individual expression (lin, 2024)., which can conflict with the more indirect and context-sensitive nature of chinese communication, such as in humour translation (tee et al., 2022; xia et al., 2023). translators must carefully navigate these cultural differences to ensure that the translated lyrics resonate with chinese audiences, often requiring adaptations that go beyond direct translation to preserve the intended meaning. this challenge reflects the broader difficulties in translating between cultures with differing social norms and values. for instance, the phrase “mister, i’ll make a man out of you” in the source text implies that the addressee lacks the qualities of a man, which could cause the addressee to “lose face.” the target text adapts this to a more general statement, “[in order] to be a man, don’t admit defeat,” to mitigate the potential offense. similarly, while the source text “you’re unsuited for the rage of war” might be considered an insult, the target text shifts focus to the harshness of the battlefield, thus softening the critique. table 10 presents examples from the song “i’ll make a man out of you”. as an example, is implied in the st that the addressee has no qualities of a man, which can be a cause of “losing face”, hence the adaptation of the tt to address with a more general reach “[in order] to be a man, don’t admit defeat”. in another case, tt has the insertion of additional meanings “bravery” to the st with “but still fighting” when the st only mentions the addressee’s timidity. face-saving can also be seen in two other lines, whereby the st indicates insults towards the addressees, but the tt alters slightly the angle of view to lessen the harshness of insults: “you’re unsuited for the rage of war” construes how one is incapable of withstanding the dangers of war, yet the tt places the focus on how the battlefield is too harsh to enter, or in “go home, you’re through”, the tt does not reflect this aspect. rhythm in translation rhythm is integral to the musicality of a song, and translating lyrics requires careful attention to syllable count, stress patterns, and note lengths table 10. “face” challenge in translating “i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy mister, i’ll make a man out of you 要成為男子漢不認輸 (yao cheng wei nan zi han bu ren shu) to be a man, don’t admit defeat adaptation this guy’s got ‘em scared to death 他們心驚膽又戰 (ta men xin jing dan you zhan) they are scared but still fighting translation you’re unsuited for the rage of war 沙場太殘酷 血光殺戮 (sha chang tai chan ku xie guang sha can) the battlefield is too cruel, bloody killing adaptation so pack up, go home, you’re through 若害怕踏上歸路 (ruo hai pa ta shang gui lu) if you are afraid to step on the road adaptation mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 254 (low, 2005). a significant technical problem a song translator has to deal with is how to match the rhythms of the source and target lyrics of songs (aminoroaya & amirian, 2016). to preserve rhythm, the st and the tt should have an identical number of syllables in each line (low 2005). however, this can lead to the omission, addition, or even total replacement of words in the tt to match the rhythm of the song, which might not always carry the same semantic function as the st. this can be seen in “i’ll make a man out of you”. in several lines, the number of syllables in the st and st are identical. although the tt syllables match the st syllables, the semantic meanings are mostly replaced, with the main purpose of fitting the syllables in the restricted space. table 11 demonstrates how rhythm constraints were handled in the translation of “i’ll make a man out of you.” low (2005) notes that when there is a discrepancy in syllable count between the source and target texts, translators might need to add or repeat words to preserve the rhythm. for example, in the phrase “be a man,” the target text uses ‘ 男子漢’ (nan zi han), which has three syllables, the same as the source text. however, this translation does not fully capture the source text’s meaning, demonstrating the trade-offs involved in maintaining rhythm. in sum, the analysis revealed that the most frequently used translation strategy across both songs was the “translation” strategy. in “i’ll make a man out of you,” the strategies of “translation” and “replacement” were dominant, while “translation” was more prevalent in “speechless.” these findings indicate that the translators prioritized retaining the primary meanings of the source text (st), particularly in “speechless.” in contrast, the frequent use of the “replacement” strategy in “i’ll make a man out of you” suggests that translators faced technical challenges such as rhythm constraints, leading to more significant modifications to match the song’s musicality. iv. discussion the topic of song translation remains marginalized in translation studies despite the many challenges that translators navigate because of the poetic and musical features in song lyrics. therefore, investigating strategies in translating songs, could help to identify and describe the adaptations required in song-lyrics translation. one element distinguishing song translation from other translations, such as poetry translation, is the making of “singable” translations. another challenge is maintaining the “originality” [sense] of the music. the challenges include numerous complex features such as note-values, rhymes, stresses, paraphrasing, and the absence of established norms to arrive at such adaptations. it is necessary to have creative and experienced translators to translate songs or rewrite the translated songs. translators should put more effort into not only translating the words of a song but to skilfully adapting the intricate poetic and musical features from one language to another, a task that requires significant effort and passion. the analysis of translation strategies in the two disney songs, “i’ll make a man out of you” from mulan and “speechless” from aladdin, reveals distinct patterns. the “translation” strategy was the most commonly used overall, which suggests a strong emphasis on maintaining the original meaning and semantic fidelity of the source text (st) in the target text (tt). this aligns to convey the core messages of the songs without table 11. “rhythm” challenge in translating “i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy but you can bet before we’re through 我會改變你的前途 (wo hui gai bian ni de qian tu) i will change your future replacement say goodbye to those who knew me 西方極樂等我光臨 (xi fang ji le deng wo guang ling) western bliss waiting for me to visit replacement boy, was i a fool in school for cutting gym 我看大家全都被他嚇傻了 (wo kan da jia quan dou bei ta xia sha le) i think everyone is scared of him replacement table 12. “word/syllable count” challenge in the translation of the song “i’ll make a man out of you” source text target text back translation strategy be a man 男子漢 (nan zi han) man translation mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 255 significant alterations. the results also indicate that the “replacement” strategy was more frequently used in “i’ll make a man out of you” compared to “speechless,” possibly due to the technical challenges in translating lyrics that need to match the rhythm and cultural context of the original songs. the findings align with low’s (2013) theory that the “translation” strategy is preferred when a high degree of semantic fidelity is needed. however, the relatively high use of the “replacement” strategy, particularly in “i’ll make a man out of you,” suggests that maintaining rhythm and cultural relevance often necessitates significant deviations from the original text. this is consistent with aminoroaya and amirian’s (2016) observation that song translation requires balancing the preservation of meaning with musicality and cultural adaptation. the study also supports brunner and you’s (1988) insights into the challenges of translating concepts like “face-saving” in chinese culture, where indirect communication is preferred, leading to adaptations that soften potentially offensive content. the findings have several implications for both translation theory and practice. the dominance of the “translation” strategy suggests that translators prioritize retaining the original message when possible. however, the frequent use of “replacement” highlights the importance of flexibility in translation, especially in contexts where rhythm and cultural nuances are crucial. for practitioners, these results emphasize the need for a careful balance between maintaining the original meaning and adapting the text to fit the target culture and musical constraints. the study contributes to the broader discourse on cross-cultural translation, emphasizing the need for translators to prioritize the target culture’s quality “expectations” (kuek et al., 2024), aligned with the “skopos” theory. this study has several limitations that may affect the interpretation of the results. firstly, the sample size is limited to two songs from disney movies, which may not be representative of translation strategies used in other types of songs. additionally, the focus on mandarin translations limits the generalizability of the findings to other languages and cultures. the analysis also primarily focuses on the text, with less emphasis on how the musical elements influence translation choices or the broader reception of these translations by the target audience. based on the findings and limitations, several areas for future research are suggested. investigating the role of musical elements, such as rhythm and melody, in shaping translation decisions could offer deeper insights. additionally, exploring how different cultural concepts, like “face-saving,” influence translation strategies across various cultures could further enhance our understanding of cross-cultural translation challenges. future research could expand on this study by exploring a broader range of songs and genres to assess whether the findings hold in different musical contexts. additionally, examining the audience reception of translated songs could provide valuable insights into how effectively translation strategies convey the intended meaning and emotional impact. v. conclusion it can be concluded that balancing fidelity to the original text with the technical demands of song translation, such as melody and rhythm, while the translation strategy chosen depends heavily on the specific needs of the lyrics and the translator’s creativity, as well as the cultural nuances that must be conveyed. the concept of face-saving, crucial in chinese social interactions, poses a unique challenge in translation, requiring a careful approach to ensure that cultural values are respected. this study sheds light on the complexities of translating song lyrics between chinese and english, underscoring the delicate balance required between maintaining the original meaning and adapting to the musical and cultural constraints of the target language. by exploring the translation strategies used in disney songs, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the intricacies involved in cross-cultural translation, offering implications for both translators and language learners. ultimately, the study emphasizes the importance of creativity and cultural sensitivity in the translation process, aligning with the broader goal of achieving effective and meaningful communication across languages. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer, and the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 256 credit author statement dr. mansour amini: conceptualization, review, polishing the final draft, and project supervision; faith ooi fang xi: data collection, data analysis, and drafting of the initial manuscript; sue anne choo xuan-en: data collection, data analysis, and drafting of the initial manuscript; dr. narges saffari: review, and updating the literature review; dr. latha ravindran: validating the sources, and re-writing introduction; dr kamfong lee: validating the back-translations, and validating the analysis). acknowledgements this research is not supported by any funds from any agencies in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors 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(2024). analysis of the subtitle translation of the shawshank redemption from the perspective of the skopos theory. journal of contemporary educational research, 8(2), 151-156. https://doi. org/10.26689/jcer.v8i2.6153 mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 260 appendices appendix a: disney song “i’ll make a man out of you” from disney movie – mulan verse 1 no source text target text back translation strategy 1 let’s get down to business, to defeat the huns 大家同心作戰 讓匈奴絕望 fighting together with each other, let the huns despair translation 2 did they send me daughters, when i asked for sons? 為何這群士兵都像個姑娘 why do these soldiers look like girls? adaptation 3 you’re the saddest bunch i ever met 你們笨拙散漫又扭捏 you are clumsy and tweaking translation 4 but you can bet before we’re through 我會改變你的前途 i will change your future replacement 5 mister, i’ll make a man out of you 要成為男子漢不認輸 to be a man, don’t admit defeat replacement verse 2 no source text target text back translation strategy 6 tranquil as a forest, but on fire within 紮穩你的步履 內心要堅定 stabilize your steps, be firm inside adaptation 7 once you find your center, you are sure to win 開闊你的胸襟 求勝要決心 broaden your chest, be determined to win adaptation 8 you’re a spineless, pale pathetic lot 膽小又害怕 心亂如麻 timid and scared replacement 9 and you haven’t got a clue 你驚慌茫然無助 you panic and helpless replacement 10 somehow i’ll make a man out of you 要成為男子漢不認輸 to be a man, don’t admit defeat replacement bridge no source text target text back translation strategy 11 i’m never gonna catch my breath 我氣喘如牛快斷氣 i am as short as a cow adaptation 12 say goodbye to those who knew me 西方極樂等我光臨 western bliss waiting for me to visit replacement 13 boy, was i a fool in school for cutting gym 我看大家全都被他嚇傻了 i think everyone is scared of him replacement 14 this guy’s got ‘em scared to death 他們心驚膽又戰 they are scared but still fighting translation 15 hope he doesn’t see right through me 我的身份還是秘密 my identity is still a secret translation 16 now i really wish that i knew how to swim 掉到水裏可會要了我小命 falling into the water will kill me adaptation chorus no source text target text back translation strategy 17 be a man 男子漢 man translation 18 we must be swift as a coursing river 行動快速像那江河湍急 the action is fast like the river adaptation 19 be a man 男子漢 man translation 20 with all the force of a great typhoon 破壞力像那風暴無情 destructive power is like a storm adaptation 21 be a man 男子漢 man translation 22 with all the strength of a raging fire 滿腔熱血像那野火壓境 full of blood like the wildfire adaptation 23 mysterious as the dark side of the moon 神出鬼沒像那暗夜的惡夢 mysterious just like the nightmare of the night adaptation 24 be a man 男子漢 man translation mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 261 verse 3 no source text target text back translation strategy 25 time is racing toward us, till the huns arrive 時光毫不留情匈奴快逼近 time is not ruthless; the huns are approaching translation 26 heed my every order, and you might survive 聽從我的指令才能夠活命 listen to my instructions then you can live translation 27 you’re unsuited for the rage of war 沙場太殘酷 血光殺戮 the battlefield is too cruel, bloody killing replacement 28 so pack up, go home, you’re through 若害怕踏上歸路 if you are afraid to step on the road replacement 29 how could i make a man out of you? 要成為男子漢不認輸 to be a man, don’t admit defeat replacement appendix b: disney song “speechless” from disney movie – aladdin verse 1 source text target text back translation strategy 1 written in stone 古老传统 ancient tradition adaptation 2 every rule, every word 记下的每一句 every sentence is written down adaptation 3 centuries old and unbending 世世代代不能抗逆 cannot be resisted for generations translation 4 stay in your place 要守规矩 follow the rules adaptation 5 better seen and not heard 要沉默不惹事 have to be silent and not cause trouble adaptation 6 but now that story is ending 我偏要改写这故事 i have to rewrite this story adaptation pre-chorus no source text target text back translation strategy 7 ‘cause i 现在 right now replacement 8 i cannot start to crumble 我不能够不坚持 i cannot be impersistent translation 9 so come on and try 你可以尝试夺去我 you can try to take away adaptation 10 try to shut me and cut me down 自主的权利 my right to freedom adaptation chorus 1 no source text target text back translation strategy 11 i won’t be silenced 我不再沉默 i won’t be silent anymore translation 12 you can’t keep me quiet 你听听我的故事 listen to my story replacement 13 won’t tremble when you try it 我不怕你的攻击 i am not afraid of your attack adaptation 14 all i know is i won’t go speechless 因为我绝对不会沉默 because i will never be silent translation 15 speechless 沉默 silence translation 16 let the storm in 面对风雨 facing the wind and rain adaptation 17 i cannot be broken 我一定都抵御 i will defend all replacement 18 no, i won’t live unspoken 不让命运被摆布 won’t be manipulated by fate replacement 19 ‘cause i know that i won’t go speechless 因为我绝对不会沉默 because i will never be silent translation bridge no source text target text back translation strategy 20 try to lock me in this cage 谁要把我关牢笼 who wants to hold me caged? adaptation 21 i won’t just lay me down and die 我一定全力去反抗 i must go all out to resist adaptation 22 i will take these broken wings 带着折断的翅膀 with broken wings translation 23 and watch me burn across the sky 燃烧中在天空飞翔 flying in the sky while burning translation 24 and it echoes saying– 听听我心中声音 listen to my heart replacement mansour amini / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 262 chorus 2 no source text target text back translation strategy 25 i won’t be silenced 正在回响 resounding replacement 26 no, you will not see me tremble when you try it 如果你要看我跌倒你会失望 if you want to see me fall, you will be disappointed adaptation 27 all i know is i won’t go speechless 因为我绝对不会沉默 because i will never be silent translation 28 speechless 沉默 silence translation 29 ‘cause i’ll breathe 要呼吸 breathe translation 30 when they try to suffocate me 我向往的自由空气 freedom in the air that i yearn for replacement 31 don’t you underestimate me 你们不能让我窒息 you can’t let me suffocate replacement 32 ‘cause i know that i won’t go speechless 因为我绝对不会沉默 because i will never be silent translation 33 all i know is i won’t go speechless 我是我绝对不会沉默 i will definitely not be silent translation 34 speechless 沉默 silence translation said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 1 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 4, 2023 final revision: march 22, 2024 accepted: march 25, 2024 available online: april 5, 2024 research on writing strategies has defined their characteristics and focused on their contribution to writing gains over the last few decades. however, little has been written about how moroccan efl students perceive and use these strategies in their attempts to produce an essay. this paper seeks to fill that gap by investigating the employment of writing strategies by 245 students majoring in english at a university. the data were collected through a questionnaire, inspired by some related existing scales, and interviews were conducted with a group of participants. the participants were sampled adhering to the convenience type of sampling since the data collection was completed in one of the students’ usual classes. combining both quantitative and qualitative analyses, findings demonstrated that writing strategies were used to a higher extent, with the students’ strong tendency to deploy memory and compensation strategies. it was also found that there is a positive and significant correlation between students’ use of writing strategies and argumentative writing. the qualitative findings added that the although the participants said they practiced writing strategies, the majority did not know how to use them. some implications and recommendations are also discussed. the current study has provided useful insights into students’ readiness to use writing strategies in the moroccan context and how their use may mitigate their difficulties in producing a well-argued essay. keywords arguments, argumentative writing, efl students, writing strategies correspondence e-mail: sa.oussou@edu.umi.ac.ma article the relationship between efl students’ use of writing strategies and their writing achievement said oussou1, smail kerouad2, saida hdii3 1-3faculty of arts and humanities, moulay ismail university, meknes, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.1-12.2024 i. introduction expressing one’s ideas through writing has become a crucial ability in l2 learning. however, writing has been widely regarded as the most complex skill (fahim & mirzaii, 2014; kang, 2005; okasha & hamdi, 2014; wang, 2023). it does not only involve knowledge of grammar and vocabulary, but it also requires control and metacognition (hyland, 2003; zhang, 2021; zimmerman & risemberg, 1997). the degree of the challenge exacerbates even more when students have to produce an argumentative essay (zhang, 2021). this mode of writing involves a number of higher order thinking skills such as “reasoning, evaluation and persuasion” (knapp & watkins, 2005, p. 187), and it is goal-oriented (ferretti et al., 2009). one of the purposes of setting goals is to manage the task and to affect the reader (flower & hayes, 1981). increasingly, researchers and scholars have recognized the utility of writing strategies in second language (l2) writing. indeed, specialized literature in this area has been abundant over the last few decades (cumming, 1989; dinsa, 2023; ferretti & lewis, 2018; flower & hayes, 1981; graham & harris, 1997; nussbaum & kardash, 2005; crossley et al., 2016). given its problemsolving nature (flower & hayes, 1981), becoming an adept writer requires using a set of self-regulated processes and strategies that may help him/her cope with and hence manage the complexity of a writing task (graham & harris, 1997; zimmerman & risemberg, 1997). indeed, recent lines of evidence show that students who employ writing strategies while writing produce well-developed essays (teng said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 2 & zhang, 2016; zhang & zhang, 2021). the first section of the paper provides a concise overview of both theoretical and empirical research that has dealt with writing strategies. the second section is concerned with the research methodology of this study, including participants, the sampling technique, and data collection and analysis procedures. the third section is devoted to the description of the results. the forth section discusses the findings and links them to other studies. the paper ends with a set of pedagogical implications, conclusions and recommendations for future research. research on writing has pounced on the cognitive processes employed while writing (flower & hayes, 1981; odell, 1977; teng & zhang, 2016). in fact, odell (1977) recommends that teachers of writing help students be wary of their use of both cognitive and affective strategies when they deal with a given writing task, for this will make their writings more mature and persuasive. of significance of instruction in the use of these writing strategies also, he adds, is its suggestion of ways to deal with immature writing produced by some students. in this line of thought, cumming (1989) states that the use of writing strategies brings about substantial improvements in l2 writing performance. following flower and hayes’ (1981) conception of writing as a problem solving process, spack (1984) argues that poor writers are usually those who do not assimilate to these writing processes. also, flower and hayes (1981) state that learning to write is a process that requires developing effective composing processes. in other words, those who fail to adequately adhere to what writing takes to come into its final product will not arrive at that end. this new line of research on writing has thus changed its focus from studying what students write to what these students do as they compose. therefore, studies that have been carried out in this concern have drawn some differences between groups of writers who have been labeled in different terms. labels used to differentiate between these groups of writers include unskilled (perl, 1979), experienced vs. inexperienced (flower, 1979), experts vs. novices (hull, 1987), more skilled vs. less skilled (hull, 1987), student vs. experienced adult writers (sommers, 1980), and poor vs. good writers (flower and hayes, 1981), among others. equally, several factors have been reported by researchers throughout l2 writing research to account for proportions of variance among students’ writing quality; students’ level of l2 proficiency (cumming, 1989), writing expertise (cumming, 1989), motivation (dornyei, 2009), speaking/reading-writing relationship (akki et al., 2023; campbell, 1990) and writing strategy use (zamel, 1982), among others, are variables that intersect with l2 writing. as researchers have realized that the product perspective of writing did not account for the complex process of composing (odell, 1977), they started to investigate what goes in the mind of the writer while writing. according to zamel (1982), emig’s (1971) classical study has marked one of the earliest attempts to investigate what writers do as they compose. having conducted a study on learner writing strategies, zamel (1982) showed how naive a view that teachers had regarding writing as they oversimplified the composing process of students whom she identified to actually exhibit a number of behaviors indicating the nonlinearity of writing. indeed, research on writing strategies has come to the forefront in l2 writing. as the latter involves a wide range of cognitive processes (flower & hayes, 1981), l2 student-writers, when they are engaged in writing, plan (sommers, 1980), revise (sommer, 1980), organize ideas (flower & hayes, 1981) and use personal writing styles (arndt, 1987). cumming (1989), citing jones (1983), states that inadequacy of the use of writing strategies may result in poor performance. similarly, arndt (1987) argues that poor performance is not merely the result of the lack of knowledge of the mechanics of the target language, but it can also be ascribed to the inefficient use of effective writing strategies. this researcher, thus, states that it is of vital importance that the teaching of l2 writing needs to have a two-fold aim; it should help l2 writers enrich their linguistic resources (cohesion, coherence, formality, etc.) and, at the same time, it must help them become more efficient in the use of writing strategies. this indicates that writing a paragraph or an essay involves a number of composing processes which are applied to it at different stages of this complex task. communicating ideas through writing involves a range of requirements such as paying attention to grammar, punctuation, cohesion, etc. these requirements will in turn make writers said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 3 engage in planning, editing, revising, drafting, and writing (khosravi, choorchaei & mofrad, 2017). embedded in this mode of writing is this critical term of argument, receiving a wide attention by many researchers who try to define it. while a dictionary may give some synonyms of “argument” including the term “disputation”, this is not what the term is about, at least in the present research. for this reason, some researchers have provided descriptions and definitions of what the term really means. for example, freely and steinberg (2009, p. 5) define argumentation as “reason giving in communicative situations by people whose purpose is the justification of acts, beliefs, and values” (p. 5). having demystified the term “argumentation” in its more academic and complex sense, the definition that would summarize the above description was provided by van emeren, grootendorst and henkemans (1996). they defined it as “a verbal and social activity of reason aim[ing] at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint for the listener or reader, by putting forward a constellation of propositions intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint before a rational judge” (p. 4). as a matter of fact, the failure to include counterarguments impedes the route to a well-argued point (liu & stapleton, 2014), which therefore weakens the persuasiveness of the essay (ferretti, lewis & andrews-weckerly, 2009). in the literature, lack of incorporating counterevidence in students’ writings has been known as ‘myside bias’ (liu & stapleton, 2014, 2020), which is found to be a barrier to effective argumentation of student’s written discourse. therefore, in addition to providing a clear claim, supporting it with sound arguments (usually in the form of reasons) including more elaborated examples, acknowledging alternative views and refuting them thereof is a necessary part of the whole. thus, it is clear that research into writing and writing strategies has been well-established. such headway, however, has failed to be made in the moroccan efl context. while the local official documents have stressed the importance of teaching writing as a process rather than a product, its reflection in empirical research remains largely lacking. therefore, the present study seeks to partially fill this gap by investigating the use of writing strategies by 245 moroccan university students majoring in english studies. it also aims at examining whether there is a relationship between students’ use of these strategies and their argumentative writing achievement. the study will contribute both to the body of literature on the same topic and to the moroccan context and other similar contexts. indeed, insights into how students use these writing strategies will be gained, which will be a step forward to designing a local model. the guiding research questions are as follows: 1. to what extent do moroccan efl students use writing strategies? 2. is there any relationship between students’ use of writing strategies and argumentative writing? ii. method the approach and the research design in this study, mixed methods approach was adopted. indeed, eliciting the strategies that the students use is a difficult undertaking that should involve a combination of methods to gain more informative insights into what strategies they actually practice, which ones they use more, and why they employ one more than another (petric & czarl, 2003). in examining learning strategies in general, scholars advocate the combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods (oxford & amerstofer, 2018; pawlak, 2018) because “the most valuable insights will likely come from mixed-methods studies” (pawlak & oxford, 2018, p. 528). influential as it was, oxford’s (1990) strategy inventory for language learning (sill) has informed the present research instrument, particularly in the creation of the questionnaire for writing strategy use. the specific design is explanatory sequential design where quantitative results are explained by the qualitative strand. participants a sample of 245 efl students belonging to the department of english was non-randomly selected. the number of the participants consists of 105 males (42.86%) and 140 females (57.14%), and their age range was between 19 and 22 years old (group 1), between 23 and 25 (group 2) and 26 or above (group 3). data collection instruments there are many reasons behind the employment of the questionnaire, the most relevant of which is the opportunity to administer it to a large said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 4 sample of respondents from different locations. in fact, according to dornyei and taguchi (2010), questionnaires are ‘versatile’ in the sense that they “can be used successfully with a variety of people in a variety of situations targeting a variety of topics” (p. 6). convenience, for the participants too, is ensured as they can complete the questionnaire at their own pace (bryman, 2012). the internal consistency of the questionnaire was measured through cronbach’s alpha, the commonly used statistical test (bryman, 2012; loewen & plonsky, 2016), and was found to be 0.85, which indicates, according to bryman (2012), an acceptable level of reliability. moreover, the students’ essays were holistically graded by two raters who are familiar with writing assessment, and the value was found to be 0.82, which is an acceptable estimate. the study also employed a semi-structured interview. before actually interviewing the participants, the interview questions were piloted on 3 participants to check for their understanding of the questions. essentially, following bryman’s (2012) recommendations for formulating questions and piloting, a set of procedures were followed, namely: the general area of writing strategies was identified, the research questions were specified, the interview themes were set, and the interview questions were formulated, piloted, revised, and finally finalized. data analysis scale item analysis for writing strategies was then carried out. the analysis was mainly descriptive in accordance with the first two research questions which inquired about students’ perceived level of autonomy and their perceived level of writing strategies use. moreover, concerning the other question which addressed the relationships between writing strategies (ws) and writing achievement (wa), pearson correlation was used to answer the research questions and subsequently evaluate the hypothesized relationships. since the interpretation of the qualitative data is “only one of several ‘right ways’” (auerbach & silverstein, 2003, p. 32), one of the suggested ways to support the interpretation of the participants’ responses was to cite examples of text data. in this way, other researchers can understand the way through which the present data was analyzed, which adds to transparency and credibility. given the large quantity of narrative data, the researcher read it repeatedly and drew a number of codes when necessary. the objective of the codes was to ascertain the emerging themes that would later be needed for subsequent analysis. iii. results students’ perceived level of writing strategies use the second research question of the present research aimed to find out about the students’ level of their use of writing strategies. following the same way of presenting and describing the results, the analysis of the writing strategies is presented in tables each containing a sub-scale with a group of items. results of the first sub-scale of writing strategies do not seem to be that conclusive. that is, at times some items received high joint agreement ratings from the participants, yet at other times others were significantly rated in terms of the disagreement levels or the neutrality ones. in response to item 1, more than two thirds of the table 1. students’ use of metacognitive writing strategies no items sd % d % n % a % sa % 1. i organize my ideas before writing an essay. 2.9 11 9.8 45.3 31 2. before i write, i set goals to achieve at the end of my writing. 2 18.4 15.1 45.7 18.8 3. i revise and re-revise my writing to make sure that it includes everything i want to discuss in my writing after finishing it. 2.9 9.8 8.6 44.9 33.9 4. when i am writing an argumentative essay, i spend considerable time to better attract and convince the reader. 1.6 5.3 15.5 52.2 25.3 5. i check my writing to make sure it is grammatically correct. 3.3 7.3 6.5 42.9 40 6. i set up a plan that i will follow in writing an essay. 2 13.9 16.3 44.9 22.9 7. i control the timing devoted for each process (e.g. when to move from drafting to writing and to revising). 7.8 25.3 23.7 30.6 12.7 8. if necessary, i go back to my plan and make some changes in it and continue writing. 4.5 16.3 11.8 47.8 19.6 said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 5 participants agreed (45.3%) or strongly agreed (31%), and only a minority disagreed (11%) or strongly disagreed (2.9%). concerning item 2, less than two thirds of the respondents agreed (45.7%) or strongly agreed (18.8%) that they set goals to achieve at the end of their writing. for item 3, the majority of the participants agreed (44.9%) or strongly agreed (33.9%) that they revise and rerevise their writing. regarding item 4, over two thirds of the respondents agreed (52.2%) or strongly agreed (25.3%) that they spend considerable time to better attract and convince the reader. results of item 5 present that the majority agreed (42.9%) or strongly agreed (40%), and only insignificant percentages were divided among the remaining response levels. also, with respect to item 6, two thirds of the participants agreed (44.9%) or strongly agreed (22.9%), while another third of them seemed not to do so. contrary to those of the previous statements, results of item 7 indicate that most of the participants do not control the timing devoted for each process (e.g. when to move from drafting to writing and to revising). indeed, as perceived by the participants, over half of them disagreed (25.3%), strongly disagreed (7.8%) or were neutral (23.7%). regarding item 8, most of the participants agreed (47.8%) or strongly agreed (19.6%) with the item. in response to item 9, a large proportion of the participants disagreed (30.6%), strongly disagreed (11.8%), or remained uncertain (21.6%). only one third of them agreed (25.3%) or strongly agreed (10.6%). more than half of them agreed (37.6%) or strongly agreed (19.6%) that they work hard to do well in their writing. however, over one third of them disagreed (16.3%), strongly disagreed (4.1%) or remained uncertain (22.4%). also, concerning item 11, the majority of the participants agreed (47.8%) or strongly agreed (31.4%). regarding item 12, a large number of the respondents agreed (44.1%) or strongly agreed (37.6%) that they concentrate as hard as they can when doing a writing task. with respect to the third subscale which elicited students’ use of cognitive and memory strategies, the majority of the participants rated the items in higher agreement levels. results of item 13, most of the respondents agreed (55.1%) or strongly agreed (26.9%) that they consider the task or instructions carefully before writing. concerning item 14, more than two thirds of the respondents agreed (41.6%) or strongly agreed (29%). in response to item 15, a large number of the participants agreed (56.3%) or strongly agreed (20.8%). similar results were achieved throughout the remaining items of the subscale. results of the students’ use of social and compensation strategies are at times positive, yet at other times negative. in response to item 18, almost two thirds of the participants disagreed (29.4%), strongly disagreed (17.1%) or remained neutral (17.6%). only quite a small number of them reported their agreement (35.9%). for item 19, almost half of the respondents disagreed (19.6%), strongly disagreed (9.4%) or were uncertain (17.1%). similarly, concerning item 20, only just over half of them agreed (34.7%) or strongly table 2. students’ self-regulated strategies for writing no items sd % d % n % a % sa % 9. i write a lot to develop my writing skills. 11.8 30.6 21.6 25.3 10.6 10. i work hard to do well in my writing. 4.1 16.3 22.4 37.6 19.6 11. if i feel that a writing task is difficult, i do not give up but try to engage in it. 2 7.3 11.4 47.8 31.4 12. i concentrate as hard as i can when doing a writing task. 1.2 5.7 11.4 44.1 37.6 table 3. students’ use of cognitive and memory strategies no items sd % d % n % a % sa % 13. i consider the task or instructions carefully before writing. 1.6 6.5 9.8 55.1 26.9 14. i put newly learned vocabulary and grammar in my writing. 2 11.4 15.9 41.6 29 15. i generate as many relevant ideas as i can when i am writing an essay. .4 4.9 17.6 56.3 20.8 16. i use my experiences and previous knowledge while writing. .4 2.4 6.1 43.3 47.8 17. i try to use appropriate linking words and good paragraph structuring to ensure cohesion and coherence in my writing. .8 2.4 9 51.4 36.3 said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 6 agreed (17.1%). however, the two remaining items received significant positive results. for example, regarding item 21, over two thirds of the participants agreed (43.3%) or strongly agreed (38.8%) that they use different words that have the same meaning to avoid unnecessary repetition. also, concerning the last item, the majority of the respondents agreed (46.9%) or strongly agreed (43.3%). regarding the last sub-scale, the three items generally received positive results. in response to item 23, almost two thirds of the participants agreed (47.3%) or strongly agreed (17.1%). concerning item 24, more than two thirds agreed (49.8%) or strongly agreed (23.7%) that they try to relax whenever they feel afraid of writing. results of the last item present that the majority of the respondents agreed (45.3%) or strongly agreed (38%), while only an insignificant proportion of them expressed their disagreement or their neutrality. the qualitative results the results of the interview yielded three main themes, namely: the practice of writing, writing perceptions, and strategic writing behaviours. the practice of writing the theme of the practice of writing emerged out of the participants’ responses to the question relating to the number of essays they write throughout a given semester in which they had the course. the question was: “how many essays do you write from the beginning of the semester until the end of it?” from the analysis of their responses, it appears that the participants do not practice writing enough. this is because the majority said they wrote only up to two, three or four essays, and only one participant (p1) said she did once or twice a week. for example, p7 said he wrote about four essays a week, while p5 and p11 did not specify the number, saying that they wrote a lot. however, the majority of them write essays only either if asked by their teachers or if the exams are closer. for example, p10, p15, and p12 said they wrote two essays or so throughout the whole semester. p15 explained his reluctance towards writing essays by saying that “writing is something boring”. similarly, p13 answered that she only wrote one and when asked to explain more, her reply was: “i don’t like writing. i enjoy speaking and reading more than writing. writing is difficult”. also, p 14, in his own words, said the following: i would write basically two essays maximum because, you know, i just feel like it’s a lot to just sit down and jot ideas or think of a certain topic. but once i’m in the table 4. students’ use of social and compensation strategies no items sd % d % n % a % sa % 18. in order to generate ideas for my writing, i usually discuss the writing topic with a friend or classmate. 17.1 29.4 17.6 26.5 9.4 19. after finishing an essay, i give it to a classmate or teacher to give me feedback. 9.4 19.6 17.1 38.8 15.1 20. i try to identify friends or classmates whom i can ask for help in my writing. 9.8 18 20.4 34.7 17.1 21. i use different words that have the same meaning to avoid unnecessary repetition of some words. .8 4.9 12.2 43.3 38.8 22. when i do not find a specific word to express something, i try to use a word of similar or closely similar meaning. .8 2 6.9 46.9 43.3 table 5. students’ use of affective strategies no items sd % d % n % a % sa % 18. in order to generate ideas for my writing, i usually discuss the writing topic with a friend or classmate. 17.1 29.4 17.6 26.5 9.4 19. after finishing an essay, i give it to a classmate or teacher to give me feedback. 9.4 19.6 17.1 38.8 15.1 20. i try to identify friends or classmates whom i can ask for help in my writing. 9.8 18 20.4 34.7 17.1 21. i use different words that have the same meaning to avoid unnecessary repetition of some words. .8 4.9 12.2 43.3 38.8 22. when i do not find a specific word to express something, i try to use a word of similar or closely similar meaning. .8 2 6.9 46.9 43.3 said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 7 participants were: “when you face a difficulty in writing, how do you manage it?” do you revise your essays after finishing them? what do you exactly revise? what do you revise in an argumentative essay? the aim of these questions was to examine how the students would deal with difficulties that they might face during the act of writing, to see both whether they revise their products before either handing them to their teachers or after finishing them in general and what they revise exactly. in this respect, the analysis of the data revealed that the students resorted to seek help either from others including their peers and/or teachers or simply from the internet. for instance, p6 said this: “when i face a difficulty while writing an essay, sometimes i ask other students or some teachers. sometimes i just check it out in the internet like youtube to figure out the difficulty”. other participants expressed that they were confronted with the writer’s block and reported varied ways of dealing with the problem they happened to face during writing. for example, p11 stated this: “firstly, i take a break. then, i look in the dictionary or google or everything that would help me”. similarly, p7 summarized the way he solved or dealt with the difficulty as follows: i get blocked a lot when i am writing essays. when i am blocked, i take a break. then, i read again the topic, and i try to change the plan. i take like a new plan to write again. sometimes, i write down the headlines that i want to discuss in paragraphs of the essay before i am writing. so, i just return to the plan and change it again to avoid this block if i change the plan again. that’s why i don’t get blocked too much when i do this. another question that sought to find out the strategies they used was related to the revision strategy. they were asked about whether they practiced the strategy of revision and what they revised exactly both in essay writing in general and in argumentative essays in particular. the analysis showed that most of the participants did revise their essays after finishing them. however, when asked about what they would revise when writing an argumentative essay, they did not really seem to revise what should be normally revised in this type of essays, with an exception of very few of them who appeared to know some important aspects to attend to and to revise them accordingly. for example, p6 said: “i always revise essays to make sure if there are no grammatical mistakes or some spelling mistakes”. when asked about what he would revise in an argumentative essay, his answer exam, i just feel like you have got to do it. i’m working under pressure. so, the ideas just come out of my mind and just like organizing. writing perceptions another question the respondents were asked was: “do you enjoy writing essays?” the analysis of the participants’ responses revealed that almost all of the students did not enjoy writing at all. very few said they might enjoy writing other in modes but not the argumentative one. mainly, they were asked to see whether or not they enjoyed writing essays the question after which a follow up probe in the form of an explanation was sought. indeed, through the examination of the nature of their answers and in their explanation of the responses they provided, a number of factors appeared to contribute to their negative perceptions of writing in general, and of argumentative writing in particular. the most recurring words across the interviewees’ responses were “difficult”, “challenging” and “boring”. for example, p6 responded that he likes to write some types of essays except for the argumentative type. his words were: i enjoy writing essays especially positive and negative effects or solution, but rarely i write argumentative essay, because honestly it is difficult and challenging. you should spend a lot of time just in writing argumentative essay, and sometimes i don’t have enough arguments. a very similar response came from p7, saying: “not really. i don’t enjoy writing, i rather enjoy speaking and reading”. when asked to explain his attitudes, he said “i just don’t feel like writing; it’s boring little bit”. p8, on the other hand, enjoys writing in general but not on paper because, according to him, spelling related problems make it difficult for him, thereby choosing to “write on the computer because it will correct spelling mistakes automatically”. therefore, her being afraid of making spelling mistakes hindered the practice of writing essays. moreover, p12 held negative attitudes towards the writing skill, saying that whenever she has to write an essay, she suffers from lack of vocabulary, thereby, according to her, making it a difficult task as she has to use the dictionary and the internet. strategic writing behaviours the sixth and the last theme, strategic writing behaviours, was also derived from the participants’ responses to the questions probing into writing strategies that might be used by the students interviewed. mainly, the questions addressed to the said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 8 was: “i check my arguments if they are really strong because i should influence and convince the reader”. similarly, p7 also showed that he does not only check spelling and grammar mistakes, but he also pays attention to some aspects that are specifically related to this mode. they were simply preoccupied with the grammar and spelling related revisions only. generally, the participants attempted to use the revision strategy. however, what they said they would check in their essays may not show their knowledge of this strategy. they did not provide enough details that would display their awareness of the intricate details of what to exactly revise in an argumentative essay. in other words, when asked about this writing mode, their responses were generally related to the general conventions that a writer would check in any essay regardless of the specific type. because unless one attends to the sophisticated details of this genre i.e. the claim, the supporting arguments, the examples, the counterarguments, the rebuttals, etc., the essay may not be rigorously revised, which will certainly, as a result, lead to low quality essays. the relationship between writing strategies and writing achievement to answer the second question of whether there is a relationship between students’ perceived level of writing strategies use and their writing achievement, pearson correlation has been used, the results of which are presented in table 6. table 6. the correlation between writing strategies and writing achievement writing strategies writing achievement writing strategies pearson correlation 1 .147* sig. (2-tailed) .021 n 245 245 writing achievement pearson correlation .147* 1 sig. (2-tailed) .021 n 245 245 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). it can be seen in table 6 that a positive correlation was found between the two variables (r = 0.14), indicating a weak relationship between students’ perceived level of writing strategies use and their writing achievement. this means that the more the students used writing strategies, the higher efl writing achievement the students showed. also, since the p-value (0.02) was shown to be less than the level of significance (0.05) set as a criterion above, there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between writing strategies and writing achievement in support of the alternative one that there exists a relationship between the two variables. iv. discussion concerning the findings obtained on writing strategies, it seems that efl students’ level of writing strategies use is generally high, though some strategies received low levels of agreement ratings. it has been found that the highest percentages, adding the two levels of agreement (91% and 90.2%), have been manifested in the students’ strong tendency to use their experiences and previous knowledge while writing and to resort to using alternative words in case of any lack of a specific word for something, respectively. these strategies are related to memory and compensation strategies. equally, students have demonstrated substantially high levels of agreement (87.8%, 82.9%, and 82%) with regards to strategies related to, respectively, using appropriate linking words and good paragraph structuring to ensure cohesion and coherence in their essays, checking their writing to make sure it is grammatically correct, and considering the task or instructions carefully before writing. this strong tendency of the students to use memory, compensation, cognitive and metacognitive strategies may suggest how important these strategies are for efl learners, at least in the moroccan context. these results are to some extent consistent with other studies’ findings in other efl contexts. for example, in a study conducted by baker and boonkit (2004), it was revealed that metacognitive, cognitive and compensation strategies are the most frequently used. furthermore, forbes (2018) carried out a study on one student’s use of a set of metacognitive strategies and concluded that the student was observed to show an increased practice of the planning strategy. concerning the revision strategy, more than two thirds (78.8%) stated that they revise their essays after finishing them. while this might be a good indicator that they engage in this critical strategic behaviour, the qualitative analysis has demonstrated quite the reverse as their approach to revising their essays is restricted to checking over only language mechanics especially in relation to the argumentative mode of writing. said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 9 in fact, this can also be discussed in relation to the literature on the importance of the revision strategy and how it distinguishes between high and low achieving writers. the revision strategy is indeed observed to be practiced by both poor and good writers (sommers, 1980). however, following the literature, it has been found that writers revise both at a surface level and at a global one. the results of this research concerning the practice of the revision strategy are in accordance with student writers in sommers’ (1980) study. this researcher conducted a study on both student writers and experienced writers’ practices with regard to how they revise during the act of composing. results indicated that the former type of writers reduced their revision to no more than making changes on the lexical level but not on the semantic one. in other words, these writers simply reworded their sentences as a way to avoid the lexical repetition, thereby failing to solve problems at the conceptual or textual level, which in turn led them to repeating the same idea but with different words only. another closely related item that falls within the same component of metacognitive strategies has to do with whether students write for a purpose in mind. specifically, this strategy is related to students’ anticipating of the audience while writing an argumentative essay. while the quantitative results showed that the majority of the students (77.5%) reported using this strategy, the qualitative findings appear to prove the inefficiency of this practice. indeed, in responding to what they pay attention to while writing an argumentative writing, very few of the participants mentioned the terms ‘audience’, ‘reader’ and ‘you’. the others were concerned with only language related aspects. as a matter of fact, the participants were not asked in the interviews a direct question: do you take audience into consideration while writing an argumentative writing?, as this would apparently lead to a positive answer. this is because the aim of the interview was to elicit what and how they practice a strategy as “strategies in themselves are not inherently good or bad, but can be applied successfully or unsuccessfully” (cohen, 2011; grenfell & harris 1999, as cited in forbes, 2018, p. 152). in line with the recognition of the recursive nature and nonlinearity of the writers’ cognitive writing strategies employed while in the process of producing a piece of writing (flower & hayes, 1981), the students seemed to do the same as the majority of them (67.3%) reported using strategies recursively. that is, writers, at times, plan, write, reread, and yet at other times, they go back to planning and editing in a non-restricted, dynamic way whenever necessary. it is worth noting that this recursive use of strategies is not limited to either poor or good writers. indeed, in her study of unskilled writers’ composing processes, perl (1979) observed that these writers exhibited a number of composing strategies: their “talking led to writing which led to reading which led to planning which again led to writing” (p. 324). while this points to the recursiveness of the composing process these unskilled writers engage in, and while this consistency implies that they are not novice writers, the researcher warns that this does not necessarily suggest that they are skilled writers, an implication that applies to the present study’s finding. the students’ responses to the question of whether they would identify peers whom they can ask for help indicated that they are not that collaborative as only 51.8% reported using the strategy. the qualitative analysis revealed that most of the students resort to the dictionary or internet when faced with a difficulty. very few of them would consult with their peers or their teachers. this can also be compared with item 18: “in order to generate ideas for my writing, i usually discuss the writing topic with a friend or classmate” about which one of the least rating levels (35.9%) was reported. this indicates that these students have a strong tendency to work alone as far as writing is concerned. the current finding is in line with teng and zhang (2016) who studied different multidimensional models of self-regulated learning strategies, concluding that chines university students appeared to lack willingness to engage in peer learning as part of self-regulation strategies in writing. v. conclusion the present study investigated moroccan efl students’ use of writing strategies and how these relate to their argumentative writing achievement. based on the findings obtained, students’ level of use of writing strategies was high, with some strategies being rated at lower levels. this, however, does not mean that all of the students have demonstrated the same level or that those students have shown a high level of use across all the strategies. what said oussou / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 1 (2024) 10 this implies is that some students either do not use those strategies or are unaware of them in the first place. given this state of affairs, teachers should raise students’ awareness of the importance of the use of writing strategies and teach them how to use them. it is also recommended that teachers show their students how the use of these strategies helps produce more efficient and well-developed essays. this study has been afflicted by some weaknesses upon which recommendations for future research can be suggested. first, the generalizability of the results is constrained by the fact that the sample was taken from one research site. second, the present research investigated the constructs from the students’ point of view. while this has revealed a great deal of evidence with regard to students’ practices, further research may include teachers’ views on how they see their students’ readiness. third, at the level of data collection tools, the investigation relied mainly on two data collection tools, the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview, which 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(2021). taking stock of a genre-based pedagogy: sustaining the development of efl students’ knowledge of the elements in argumentation and writing improvement. sustainability, 13, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111616 ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 192 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 15, 2025 final revision: april 24, 2025 accepted: april 28, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 this study aims to identify the language attitude tendencies of the millennial sundanese-speaking group in the city of bandung, along with the factors that influence them. a sociolinguistic approach using a mixed-methods design is employed to measure the dominance of language attitudes among millennials within various domains of their daily communication. this can indicate whether this generation is inclined to maintain their mother tongue or shift toward using other languages in their interactions. a total of 97 individuals responded to the distributed questionnaire; however, only 80 met the predetermined criteria. in this context, the researcher utilized a modified version of the instrument developed by cohn (2013). in addition, interviews and observations were conducted to gain a deeper perspective on the language attitude tendencies of this millennial group. millennials like indonesian and international languages better than sundanese online because they perceive them as more functional and global. however, though sundanese use declines in everyday life, a significant majority of respondents are also concerned about language conservation and have encouraged electronic means of preserving sundanese to thrive in new communication spaces. this study determines that while millennials are cognizant of sundanese’s cultural and identity value, pragmatic limitations such as speech-level complexity and technological influence are contributing factors in its gradual decline. the findings emphasize the need for innovative strategies, including online content creation and policy implementation, to preserve the use and liveliness of sundanese among the younger generations. keywords language attitude, millennials, sundanese language correspondence e-mail: ikmaltrianto@upm.edu.my article language attitude of millennial sundanese speakers: a sociolinguistic perspective ikmal trianto1, r. dian dia-an muniroh2, wawan gunawan3, retty isnendes4, yanty wirza5 1department of foreign languages, faculty of languages modern and communication, universiti putra malaysia, selangor, malaysia 2-5linguistics study program, school of postgraduate studies, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.192-209.2025 i. introduction language attitude is one of the sociolinguistic issues within a speech community and plays a significant role in determining the sustainability of a language from the perspective of its speakers. language attitude is essential for understanding the concept of a speech community. each generation has its own understanding of language attitude, including the millennial generation, which is often considered highly adaptable, especially in language use. this adaptability stems from the prevalence of millennials. corvi (2007) states that nearly all millennials interviewed in italy speak one or more languages besides their native tongue. baker (2016) notes that millennials have long been agents for language shifts, often innovating in their language use. they frequently adopt specialized terms, slang, jargon, or foreign vocabulary, creating a linguistic identity that might not always be understood by older generations (syafyahya & yades, 2020). additionally, they tend to communicate using abbreviations, compound words, and specific terminology that allow them to convey meaning more succinctly (crystal, 2006; tagliamonte, 2017; mcculloch, 2019). this generation has largely stopped creating new slang ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 193 terms and playing with grammatical rules (devlin, 2021). language chosen are influenced by specific social factors including the identity of the interlocutors, the social context of the conversation, the function of the communication, and the topic of discussion in terms of domains (family, work, association) by considering various sociocultural factors (holmes, 2013; fasya & sari, 2021). these factors play a crucial role in language choice within various speech communities. besides these social factors, technology also impacts language use. millennials, often referred to as generation y, are closely tied to the digital age. research by gibson and sodeman (2014) reveals that many millennials prefer technology-mediated communication over face-to-face interactions. similarly, kraus and sears (2008) highlight that millennial grew up in a highly technological environment, allowing them to connect directly with friends or family through the internet. wodak et al. (2012) explains that the social factors influencing the choice of language as an effective communication tool in society include social status, gender, age, level of education, position or occupation, and an individual’s membership in a particular group. stuart-smith (2007) states that television, may influence systemic language change, but indirectly, through changes in attitudes toward language varieties. the situational context affects an individual’s choice and use of language, whether due to social or cultural factors. in indonesia itself the majority of millennials are aware recognized that their native/local languages are often unsuitable for effective communication in broader contexts. basically they can speak in more informal or formal styles (also called “registers”) with the different styles generally falling along a continuum of variable pronunciations, choice of words, and syntactic features (cohn & ravindranath, 2014). however, bilingualism and multilingualism, where a person can communicate effectively in more than one language, provide a clear example of how individuals use language but it can pose challenges to a threat to the maintenance of native languages (fitriyah & turistiani, 2024; wardaugh, 2014). although wurm (2003) stated that the young indonesian speech community actually understands their parents’ local language, but prefers to use indonesian to communicate. meanwhile, sobarna (2007) showed that the younger generation living in big cities in west java, especially bandung, are reluctant to use sundanese to communicate. the millennial generation has justified itself as a modern group capable of mastering more than one language. nevertheless, they remain aware of the importance of using their mother tongue. however, social circumstances have gradually led them to stop using their native language and affect to the language attitude. this language attitude can also refer to people’s feelings, opinions, and evaluations of a specific language or language in general (trudgill, 2000). the dynamic nature of language attitude evolves over time often driven by language contact, that fosters social shifts, cultural movements, and increased awareness of linguistic diversity. the use of indonesian among millennials is also undergoing shifts, factors influencing the choice is formality and professionalism (mulyani & afina, 2022; ramdhani & enawar, 2019). the demands of the millennial era have introduced new terminologies into everyday communication, especially through the adoption of foreign terms. this increasing reliance on non-local linguistic elements poses a challenge to the sustainability of local languages. hopkyns et al. (2021) argues that the majority of emirati millennials mix the languages through various forms of linguistic hybridity such as translanguaging and arabizi, and this is a phenomenon which is generally considered ‘second nature’, ‘an essential part of lifestyles’ and ‘hard to turn off’. lauder (2004), explains that this occurs because local languages face social and economic pressures from more dominant languages. for example, the use of indonesian as the national language has impacted the continuity of the sundanese language (sudarma et al., 2018). sundanese language is the native language of the sundanese people who reside in west java and its surrounding areas. coolsma (1985) explained that sundanese belongs to the language family known as the malay-polynesian group. according to census data conducted by the central statistics agency (bps) in 2010, the number of sundanese speakers in indonesia was recorded at 32 million. meanwhile, in the 2015 bps data, the number of sundanese speakers was estimated to have reached 42 million. lewis et al. (2013) explained that sundanese speaker reach 34 million in region ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 194 java and bali. sundanese as a regional language is a minority language, while indonesian is the majority language in indonesia (kurniawati, 2021). before indonesia’s independence, sundanese played the role of a mother tongue. when the central urban area of priangan was relocated from cianjur to bandung, the role of bandung in developing sundanese culture significantly increased (sudaryat, 2007). bandung government has the regional regulation (perda) no. 9 of 2012, which explain about the use, maintenance, and development of the sundanese language, literature, and script stipulates that the community is encouraged to actively participate in the efforts to use, maintain, and develop the sundanese language. the preservation of sundanese can be realized as a means of communication, both spoken and written, within families, formal and non-formal institutions, and various social activities in the community. alhazmi (2023) explains understanding language attitude may help researchers identify positive or negative patterns in attitudes toward languages or regional varieties, and researchers can recommend suggestions based on experimental evidence. positive attitudes toward language use, can be seen in people’s tendency to use a language correctly and enthusiastically (misnadin & yuliawati, 2023). a study by the west java language center recorded that only about 40 percent of children in west java know and can speak sundanese (permesti, 2013). this finding shows that the sundanese language is becoming less frequently used by the current cohort. wagiati et al. (2022) explain that many millennials are more fluent in foreign languages compared to local languages or even indonesian. these observations signal the gradual decline of the sundanese language. widianto (2018) states that foreign language speakers are also perceived as more educated and having a higher social status. several previous studies on language attitude toward the sundanese language (e.g. anggraeni, 2018; fitriani & nabila, 2019; junawaroh, 2020; puspitasari & kuswari, 2021; wagiati et al., 2017) indicate positive attitudes within various domains such as education, government and gender. these studies explain that sundanese speakers still show a willingness to maintain their native language and the social factors such as age (nurhaq et al., 2019), technologies (rahmawati, et al., 2022) are influenced the usage of sundanese. however, the previous studies on language attitudes did not specifically focus on the millennial generation in sundanese. they merely indicated that the general public still shows a positive attitude toward the sundanese language in certain domains. sundanese is still regarded as an important language to be preserved. this study aims to detail the factors that influence the mismatch between positive and negative attitude spaces and to explore possible factors that may, to some extent, contribute to the emergence of a gap that affects the attitudes demonstrated by the millennial group. this raise concerns that the sundanese language is no longer valued by millennials, especially as the increasing use of technology is considered to be gradually eroding the significance of sundanese language and culture. millennials themselves constitute the majority group in the city of bandung, accounting for 51% of the total population. with a larger percentage of the population consisting of millennials, their language use is likely to influence, to some extent, the language practices of other generation. therefore, this study aims to describe the language attitudes of the millennial group, considering the influence of technology that dominates their daily lives. thus, this study holds significance in the following aspects: (1) the realization of language use and language attitudes among millennials, and (2) the impact of technology use by the millennial generation on the existence of the sundanese language. ii. methods in this study, the authors employed a sociolinguistic approach using a mixed-methods methodology, which integrates both qualitative and quantitative research. morse explains that a mixed-methods design is a rigorous scientific research plan that consists of a core qualitative or quantitative component that is theoretically driven, supplemented by an additional qualitative or quantitative component (kircher & hawkey, 2022). these research components complement each other to enhance description and understanding and can be conducted simultaneously or sequentially. the quantitative data, obtained from research instrument scores, yield specific numerical values. meanwhile, qualitative data, gathered through open-ended interviews, provide different perspectives from research participants and offer a complex depiction ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 195 following qualifications: (a) residing in bandung city; (b) being a sundanese speaker; and (c) marital status (either unmarried or married). the research instrument, such as questionnaire was adapted from rusdiansyah (2018) and cohn et al. (2013). the data will demonstrate the community’s linguistic attitudes, showing both positive and negative tendencies toward the sundanese language, classified according to garvin & mathiot (1968). this instrument was further developed by the authors and utilized a likert scale assessment (1-5) as following table below. table 1. likert scale score answers score ss (strongly agree) 5 s (agree) 4 r (neutral) 3 ts (disagree) 2 sts (strongly disagree) 1 the next stage involved data collection through interviews. the purpose of interviews is to obtain primary data, complement other data collection techniques, and validate the research conclusions. in this study, the authors conducted open-ended interviews, where questions were generalized from the questionnaire to further explore participants’ opinions on language attitudes concerning the research questions. the third stage was observation. in this study, the authors employed non-participatory observation, meaning that only the participant’s activities within their family environments were observed. the authors acted solely as an observer without engaging in participants’ activities. the observation conducted in this study was systematic, utilizing a pre-designed observation checklist to assess language use in specific situations. the points in the observation sheet emphasized the justification of language use patterns within millennial family environments. additionally, the authors provided explanatory notes in the observation sheet to offer further clarification regarding language use of the situation based on specific themes (creswell, 2012). the research strategy in this mixed-methods study follows a sequential combination, specifically employing an explanatory sequential method. data collection commenced with quantitative data through the distribution of questionnaires (in likert scale) to millennials in bandung city, followed by qualitative data collection through observations and interviews. the objective of quantitative data collection was to elucidate relationships between variables that could potentially be identified in qualitative data (creswell, 2009). subsequently, qualitative data were collected to explore language attitude phenomena within predefined domains. creswell states that in this strategy, data integration occurs when quantitative results inform the qualitative data collection process. therefore, while these two data types remain distinct, they are interrelated. the overall purpose of this explanatory sequential design is that quantitative data help explain or build upon the findings of quantitative research. the explanatory design variant consists of two models: the follow-up explanation model, which emphasizes the quantitative aspect, and the participant selection model, which focuses more on the qualitative aspect (samsu, 2017). in this study, the follow-up explanation model was prioritized. research participants marked their answers to the questionnaire and provided basic personal or demographic information about themselves. data were collected through a google forms distributed questionnaire via whatsapp which was shared within the community of bandung city. following this, the research incorporated interviews and observations to gain deeper insights into language attitudes and ideologies, as suggested by rourke (2022). the survey utilized a computer-delivered method targeting the millennial population in bandung city. for data identification, the authors categorized participants based on person, place, and paper criteria (arikunto, 2013), with the qualitative data collection and analysis figure 1. explanatory sequential design (creswell, 2009) ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 196 of the situation based on specific themes (creswell, 2012). the research strategy in this mixed-methods study follows a sequential combination, specifically employing an explanatory sequential method. data collection commenced with quantitative data through the distribution of questionnaires (in likert scale) to millennials in bandung city, followed by qualitative data collection through observations and interviews. the objective of quantitative data collection was to elucidate relationships between variables that could potentially be identified in qualitative data (creswell, 2009). subsequently, qualitative data were collected to explore language attitude phenomena within predefined domains. creswell states that in this strategy, data integration occurs when quantitative results inform the qualitative data collection process. therefore, while these two data types remain distinct, they are interrelated. the overall purpose of this explanatory sequential design is that quantitative data help explain or build upon the findings of quantitative research. the explanatory design variant consists of two models: the follow-up explanation model, which emphasizes the quantitative aspect, and the participant selection model, which focuses more on the qualitative aspect (samsu, 2017). in this study, the follow-up explanation model was prioritized. research participants marked their answers to the questionnaire and provided basic personal or demographic information about themselves. data were collected through a google forms distributed questionnaire via whatsapp which was shared within the community of bandung city. following this, the research incorporated interviews and observations to gain deeper insights into language attitudes and ideologies, as suggested by rourke (2022). the survey utilized a computer-delivered method targeting the millennial population in bandung city. for data identification, the authors categorized participants based on person, place, and paper criteria (arikunto, 2013), with the qualitative data collection and analysis patterns. for interviews and observations, the authors focused on participants residing in coblong subdistrict. coblong was chosen for its central location in bandung city and its status as the third most populous subdistrict (bps bandung, 2021). the authors assumed that observations conducted in coblong could adequately represent the broader millennial population of bandung city. the authors conducted first prerequisite tests, including validity and reliability tests of the research instrument. quantitative data analysis was performed using ibm spss 25, involving several tests such as normality tests, validity tests, reliability tests, and hypothesis testing using correlation coefficient analysis (r-test). the normality test aims to determine whether the data distribution is normal or not. normality test is commonly used for ordinal, interval, or ratio-scale data. if the data distribution is normal, parametric statistics are used. however, if the data is not normally distributed, non-parametric statistics are applied. in this study, the hypotheses for normality testing are as follows: table 2. the population of bandung by district district population male female both 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 bandung kulon 73231 73221 72875 72955 146106 146176 babakan ciparay 78333 78622 75084 75421 153417 154043 bojongloa kaler 57860 57420 55353 54977 113213 112397 bojongloa kidul 44515 44546 42103 42217 86618 86763 astana anyar 31254 30842 31397 31022 62651 61864 regol 39617 39369 40038 39845 79655 79214 lengkong 32488 32061 33413 33015 65901 65076 bandung kidul 35223 35805 35430 36050 70653 71855 buah batu 51654 51987 51752 52131 103406 104118 rancasari 40588 40850 40806 41126 81394 81976 gedebage 19226 19351 19490 19637 38716 38988 cibiru 42479 43306 41431 42264 83910 85570 panyileukan 23747 24209 23524 24002 47271 48211 ujung berung 43352 43947 42535 43166 85887 87113 cinambo 14228 14423 13730 13946 27958 28369 arcamanik 33464 33331 32885 32777 66349 66108 antapani 46062 47039 46183 47198 92245 94237 mandalajati 38917 39743 38070 38944 76987 78687 kiaracondong 63470 63042 63562 63230 127032 126272 batununggal 55992 55383 54393 53838 110385 109221 sumur bandung 16152 15939 16083 15891 32235 31830 andir 44253 43671 43351 42834 87604 86505 cicendo 49860 49733 49784 49712 99644 99445 bandung wetan 13972 13788 14402 14230 28374 28018 cibeunying kidul 49219 48592 48536 47956 97755 96548 cibeunying kaler 33096 32752 31829 31544 64925 64296 coblong 67017 66961 61354 61381 128371 128342 sukajadi 53364 53142 53576 53411 106940 106553 sukasari 39900 39687 40470 40320 80370 80007 cidadap 31383 31563 30533 30738 61916 62301 ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 197 • h0: the sample data comes from a normally distributed population. • ha: the sample data comes from a nonnormally distributed population. to assess data normality, the researcher employed the kolmogorov-smirnov test using spss ibm 25. the kolmogorov-smirnov test is a statistical method used to determine whether a sample data follows a specified distribution. this test compares the empirical distribution of the observed data with the expected theoretical distribution. a significance level of α = 0.05 was used, with the following criteria: • if the significance value > 0.05, the residual values are normally distributed. • if the significance value < 0.05, the residual values are not normally distributed. table 3. kolmogorov-smirnov normality test unstandardized residual n 30 normal parametersa,b mean .0000000 std. deviation 1.64109669 most extreme differences absolute .100 positive .100 negative -.092 test statistic .100 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .200c,d based on the results above, the two-tailed significance value for the sample size of n = 30 is 0.200, which is greater than 0.05. thus, it can be concluded that the residual values follow a normal distribution, and h0 is accepted. the validity test refers to a measure of how well a research instrument assesses what it claims to measure (jackson, 2016). validity testing is conducted to determine the degree of accuracy and legitimacy of an instrument. in this study, the validity test was performed using spss ibm 25. the validity test utilized pearson’s bivariate correlation by correlating each item score with the total score. items that significantly correlated with the total score were considered valid. the criteria for validity are: if the calculated rvalue (rcount) ≥ table rvalue (rtable) at a 0.05 significance level (two-tailed test), the instrument is significantly correlated with the total score and is deemed valid. if rcount < rtable, the item is not correlated or considered invalid. table 4. questionnaire validity test questions rcount rtable value 1 0,619 0,3494 valid 2 0,626 0,3494 valid 3 0,666 0,3494 valid 4 0,712 0,3494 valid 5 0,680 0,3494 valid 6 0,526 0,3494 valid 7 0,415 0,3494 valid 8 0,623 0,3494 valid 9 0,446 0,3494 valid 10 0,402 0,3494 valid 11 0,615 0,3494 valid 12 0,640 0,3494 valid 13 0,411 0,3494 valid 14 0,455 0,3494 valid 15 0,381 0,3494 valid 16 0,713 0,3494 valid 17 0,363 0,3494 valid based on the validity test results, the trial conducted on an initial sample of 30 participants shows that r_hit > r_table at a 0.05 significance level with n = 30 (r_table = 0.3494). therefore, all research questions were deemed valid. the reliability test in this study was conducted using cronbach’s alpha coefficient in spss ibm 25. reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measurement instrument (jackson, 2016). for multiple-choice or scale-based responses, cronbach’s alpha is used to determine internal consistency, and the obtained value is compared to the minimum acceptable reliability coefficient (warnilah, 2018). the criteria for reliability testing are: if cronbach’s alpha > 0.06, the instrument is considered reliable. if cronbach’s alpha < 0.06, the instrument is considered unreliable. table 5. reliability test cronbach’s alpha n of items 0,741 18 in this study, the reliability test using spss ibm 25 resulted in a cronbach’s alpha value of 0.741. since this value exceeds 0.06, the instrument ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 198 is considered reliable. ghozali (2016) states that a variable is deemed reliable if it produces a cronbach’s alpha (α) value greater than 0.06. meanwhile, qualitative data were analyzed using the miles and huberman model. denzin and lincoln (2008), emphasize that qualitative research employs two approaches: interpretative and naturalistic. this implies studying phenomena in their natural settings and attempting to understand or interpret them in the context of their meaning. the data analysis model components in this study are interactive, based on mahsun (2017). iii. results after distributing the research questionnaire, a total of 97 participants completed the questionnaire link. however, when categorizing the data, only 80 participants met the criteria for participation. after collecting quantitative data, the authors then gathered qualitative data through interviews with 10 participants, focusing on those residing in the coblong-district, and conducted observations on three participants to analyze language usage patterns. in the initial phase of the study, the researcher conducted validity and reliability tests on the instruments using an initial sample of 30 participants. additionally, normality tests and correlation coefficient tests were performed on the research results, which consisted of 17 questions related to language attitudes and language use within the domain of technology usage. the results of analysis from questionnaire data showed that the language attitude of the millennial community in bandung city towards the sundanese language is moderately positive. based on garvin & mathiot’s framework, the positive attitude of millennials is represented by a percentage of 68.94%, while negative attitudes account for 13.08%, and 17.98% of participants expressed uncertainty. one reason for the assumption that millennials do not use sundanese is the complexity of undak-usuk basa (speech table 5. language attitude of millennials sundanese speakers aspect no statement strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree la ng ua ge l oy al ty 1 mastering sundanese is important 5% 7,5% 7,5% 2 using sundanese should be practiced at every opportunity 8,75% 0% 1,25% 0% 3 teaching sundanese to children is important 6,25% 3,75% 8,75% 0,25% 4 using sundanese when communicating with family face-to-face 6,25% 5% 3,75% 5% 5 using sundanese when communicating with family online 0% 5% 0% 5% percentage of language loyalty attitude 82% 4% 4% la ng ua ge p rid e 6 speaking sundanese as part of identity 3,75% 37,5% 7,5% 1,25% 7 feeling proud when speaking sundanese 43,75% 50% 6,25% 8 maintaining the use of sundanese in digital world 26,25% 52,5% 17,5% 3,75% 9 speaking sundanese is outdated 8,75% 5% 30% 35% 21,25% percentage of language pride attitude 80% 15% 5% la ng ua ge n or m aw ar en es s 10 sundanese is part of culture 63,75% 31,25% 5% 11 using sundanese with its various of speech levels (undak-usuk basa) is difficult 25% 2,5% 6,25% 6,25% 12 avoiding the use of sundanese if not fluent 11,25% 3,75% 0% 8,75% 6,25% 13 sundanese language is endangered 6,25% 1,25% 0% 0% 2,5% percentage of language norm awareness attitude 42% 5% 33% positive attitude percentage 68,94% negative attitude percentage 13,08% neutral attitude percentage 17,98% ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 199 levels), which makes it challenging for them to communicate. consequently, millennials tend to choose alternative languages such as indonesian and english, which are more widely used. coblong-district has the highest number of participants, accounting for 18.75%. this result aligns with the researcher’s initial expectations, as interviews and observations will be primarily conducted in coblong district. the next highest percentage is buahbatu-district with 8.75%. following this, sukajadi, sukasari, and cibirudistricts each account for 7.50%, while bandung kidul and arcamanik districts each have 6.50% of the participants. other districts with participants include kiaracondong, antapani, and babakan ciparay, each contributing 3.75%. meanwhile, bandung wetan, batununggal, mandalajati, panyileukan, regol, bojongloa kaler, and ujungberung each account for 2.50%. lastly, the districts of andir, astana anyar, bandung kulon, cicendo, lengkong, rancasari, and cibeunying kaler each have a 1.50% participants share. the figure below illustrates the distribution of the majority of participants who completed the research questionnaire. based on interviews one of participants argue: “we should not be ashamed to speak sundanese, learn it independently, and master its linguistic aspects more broadly. however, nowadays, people feel prouder to learn english or other languages rather than their own. they think that sundanese is only a language used for practical purposes” (p10). figure 2. language attitude frequency figure 3. participants distribution by districts ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 200 so one other participants also stated: “nowadays, it has become automatic for many people, for example, when communicating with young children, they prefer to use indonesian rather than sundanese. this phenomenon seems to go unnoticed by everyone, and it all leads to that form of communication” (p-2). one factor contributing to the decline in the use of sundanese, as noted by rosidi (2006), is the lack of pride among the sundanese people themselves in their mother tongue. prayogi et al. (2021) explain that millennials in lampung feel embarrassed to use their local language variety when visiting other regions. they believe it is better to use a more universal language that can be understood by everyone in the group of millennial parents who are native sundanese speakers, there is a preference for teaching their children indonesian or english for certain terms, especially those that are more modern or commonly used, due to their perceived lack of proficiency in sundanese (trianto & muniroh, 2023). the millennial parents argued: “parents feel that the sundanese language spoken in society is not the refined variety, so they avoid using it” (p-3). there is a certain pride in using indonesian within the sundanese community. in fact, we often see that in almost every region, parents communicate with their children in indonesian rather than sundanese. many people avoid speaking sundanese because they fear being considered rude or impolite due to misusing the speech level. additionally, there is a perception that those who master speech level are unwilling to teach it effectively to those who lack proficiency. instead of providing guidance, they often pass judgment on mistakes made when using these speech levels, without offering a persuasive approach to correcting sundanese language errors. this aspect of speech level can potentially hinder communication among millennials. rosidi (2006) mentions that mistakes in using speech level result in social punishment from those who understand the linguistic rules and there were suggested that speech level be eliminated, as it does not align with the democratic principles embraced by the sundanese community as part of democratic indonesia. the opinion to eliminate of the speech levels can be an alternative to make the use of sundanese more dominant, so that people can use sundanese without having to worry about using speech levels. although it will not guarantee that society’s interest in using sundanese. the removal of speech level and the use of the ragam loma (common speech) variety aim to increase motivation to speak sundanese, as the speech levels are often avoided by the community. however, on the other hand, it is considered preferable to speak sundanese, even without adhering to speech levels, rather than resorting to indonesian. yet, in this study, many millennials expressed a preference not to use sundanese at all, viewing it as harsh. indonesian is often chosen to avoid making errors in sundanese speech, which may be perceived as rude, or due to a lack of knowledge about the appropriate speech level equivalent. by study from robiah and hernawan (2021) found that 92% of sundanese students had limited understanding of speech level, with only 8% students showing proficiency. apart from the impact of technology, another factor contributing to language shift is social structure. one such factor is the difference in social classes, which shapes language usage spaces. it is commonly observed that in urban areas, language use is dominated by multilingualism, whereas in rural and suburban areas, sundanese remains dominant. participants mentioned: “the changing times are one of the factors causing the shrinking environment for the sundanese language. additionally, new environments and diverse social circles gradually erode the use of sundanese, especially for those living outside their hometowns” (p-9). this language shift is expected to expand further due to the rising rate of urbanization each year. this shift influences the tendency to feel awkward or even ashamed of using sundanese. in the research focus area, coblongdistrict, indonesian is the dominant language used in various aspects of daily life, including education, social interactions, family, and transactions. as we know, coblong is located in the central area of bandung. the numerous social, educational, and tourism activities in coblong have led to a multilingual phenomenon, which may indicate competition between languages. one participant mentioned: “millennials and young people tend to use indonesian more often, and this also applies to traders in coblong. when serving customers, they use indonesian, even if the customers speak sundanese” (p-7). sulistiyaningsih et al (2018) the aim of the community to maintain its regional language is not always related to economic or trade ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 201 matters, but is also related to the field of education and for the sake of existence. meanwhile, based on observations of three participants, all of them displayed a negative attitude toward using sundanese in daily communication. this was evident in their language usage patterns within their families. sundanese was only used when speaking to older relatives, such as parents, grandparents, uncles, and aunts. additionally, to avoid making linguistic mistakes that might offend their conversation partners, they preferred to mix languages, incorporating indonesian and simpler english terms when explaining something to the older generation. code-switching has become an inevitable and automatic choice in family communication, both online and face-toface. however, when speaking to younger family members such as children or nephews/nieces, indonesian was the dominant language. in this case, indonesian is constructed as the preferred language to avoid mistakes in sundanese speech that might be considered rude or inappropriate, as well as due to the speakers’ lack of knowledge about the correct speech levels equivalents. from the interviews, millennials consciously acknowledged that technology gradually influences their language use. as one participant stated: “technology is based on language, so it will inevitably affect language use to some extent” (p1). for example, smartphones often have present language options, and millennials frequently rely on translation tools in their daily lives. another participant noted: “certain english terms, due to their frequent use in technology, undergo phonological changes and become new words, such as ‘charge’ turning into ‘cas’ (indonesian terms/differential phonetic). many people use this word because there are no equivalent terms in sundanese or indonesian” (p-6). millennials believe that technological features should support language through both education and entertainment. these two aspects are seen as crucial for language preservation, as technology is not only used for daily tasks but also for entertainment. one participant stated: “technology is widely used, so we should make an effort to promote sundanese through technology” (p-1). social media content can be a powerful tool for keeping sundanese alive and recognized by millennials and future generations. as one participant suggested: “entertainment content can be used to preserve sundanese, for example, through youtube” (p-4). media should support language development not only for commercial purposes but also for public education. this way, technology can serve as a learning platform for sundanese speakers and the general public. however, the development of regional languages through technology requires time for trial and error to evaluate its effectiveness in language preservation. the survival of a language depends on its ability to adapt, and if technology continues to dominate, language use will be shaped by the surrounding environment. “encouraging the use of sundanese online is a way to preserve the language through digital platforms and social media” (p-5). meanwhile, participants who were uncertain about the idea believed that language-supporting features in technology might help develop sundanese but could also make technology harder to use. on the other hand, those who disagreed felt that using sundanese online would not make technology table 6. technology aspects no statement strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 1 the presence of technology influences language use 7,5% 8,75% 7,5% ,75% 2,5% 2 technology should support the preservation of sundanese language 8,75% 45% 3,75% 1,25% 1,25% 3 interacting on the internet/digital platform is easier without using sundanese language 13,75% 31,25% 27,5% 22,5% 5% 4 the language used on internet/digital platform should include sundanese 8,75% 22,5% 43,75% 20% 5% positive attitude percentage 71,54% negative attitude percentage 10% neutral attitude percentage 18,60% ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 202 more practical or facilitate information retrieval. one participant even stated: “sundanese is only suitable for entertainment content. if it is used for educational purposes, especially in a formal context, it will be difficult to accept compared to entertainment content. however, this does not mean it is impossible. if content creators present it in a creative way, it could be well-received” (p-9). regarding the role of technology, millennials generally believe that technology is now unavoidable and has a significant influence on their language use, whether they realize it or not. however, they hope that technology can also support the preservation of sundanese so that its existence can be maintained in the future. to answer the rq regarding the influence of technology on the language attitudes of the millennial population in bandung, the researcher conducted hypothesis testing on both research variables. this test aimed to examine the extent to which technology impacts the language attitudes of millennials. in this study, the first variable— language attitudes of the millennial generation— served as the dependent variable, while the second variable—technology usage—was the independent variable. the hypothesis of this research posits that technology influences the language attitudes of millennials, particularly in the bandung metropolitan area. the hypotheses for this study are as follows: h₀: technology has no influence on the language attitudes of millennials regarding the use of the sundanese language among millennials in bandung. hₐ: technology influences the language attitudes of millennials regarding the use of the sundanese language among millennials in bandung. hypothesis testing was conducted to analyze the correlation coefficient between the dependent variable (language attitude, x) and the independent variable (technology usage, y). a significance level of 0.05 was applied, using pearson correlation analysis to determine the strength of the relationship between the two variables. statistically, the hypotheses in this study are formulated as follows: h₀: ρ = 0 hₐ: ρ < 0 the correlation coefficient, denoted as ρ, represents the hypothesized relationship between the two variables. if h₀ is accepted, it indicates no relationship between technology usage and the language attitudes of millennials in bandung regarding their use of the sundanese language. conversely, if h₀ is rejected, the relationship may be either positive or negative. the results of the hypothesis testing are presented in the table below: table 7. correlation coefficient test on the influence of language attitudes on technology usage language attitude technology usage pearson correlation 1 .511** language attitudesig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 80 80 pearson correlation .511** 1 technology usagesig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 80 80 from the table above, the pearson correlation coefficient (ρ) between variables x and y is 0.511. this value indicates a moderate correlation, as it falls within the range of 0.41 – 0.60. thus, it can be concluded that there is a positive relationship between millennials’ language attitudes and the influence of technology usage. if the two-tailed significance value is less than 0.05, the two variables are considered correlated. in the table above, the significance value is 0.000, which is lower than 0.05. therefore, hₐ: ρ < 0 is supported, and the correlation test results indicate a significant relationship, as the significance value is below 0.05. consequently, h₀ is rejected and hₐ is accepted, confirming that technology influences the language attitudes of millennials regarding the use of the sundanese language in bandung. iv. discussion according to language attitude theory by garvin and mathiot (1968), the millennial language attitude based on questionnaires and interviews is categorized as positive in terms of language loyalty. however, there is a difference in attitudes regarding language pride. the questionnaire shows a more positive attitude compared to interview results, which tend to indicate a negative issued towards sundanese. in terms of awareness of language norms, both the questionnaire and interview results show that the millennial community falls into the negative category. but, there is a disparity in the ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 203 actual pattern of language use. the use of sundanese is lower than that of indonesian, with sundanese spoken by 40.17%, indonesian by 54.52%, and english/foreign languages by 5.10%. this is due to various factors influencing millennials’ language use. millennials tend to prioritize the use of indonesian over local or foreign languages for both verbal and nonverbal communication (mulyani & afina, 2022). in most contemporary communication settings, indonesian is the preferred language for everyday interactions (hidayat et al., 2021). however, many millennials integrate elements of their native or local languages into their daily communication, creating a linguistic mix with indonesian (ngaeni et al., 2022). moreover, there is a gap between the idealistic views of millennials regarding language use and the reality of their everyday language patterns. sneddon (2003) states that the presence of the english language in indonesia represents a culture perceived as prestigious. in another survey, swiftkey recorded that approximately 17.4% of indonesians use a combination of three languages simultaneously for communication. these three languages are a regional or native language, indonesian, and english or another foreign language. moreover, in the past two years, various digital platforms have emerged, encouraging people to interact virtually. this development further reinforces the categorization of indonesian society as a multilingual community. the use of foreign languages is seen as beneficial for their life strategies, and support all aspects of people’s live (grishchenko & titarenko, 2019; nurhanasan et al., 2018). participants believe that sundanese should still be used in communication across different linguistic domains to help preserve the language, even if it is spoken without adhering to speech level. many millennials choose not to use sundanese due to the principles of ease and practicality in communication, leading to code-mixing and codeswitching. ramdhani and enawar (2019) argue that this occurs because inserting foreign terms into conversation makes them feel more modern and educated, resulting in language contamination. the prestige associated with language often relates to social value and status in modern society, including fluency in foreign languages. the majority of millennials are aware recognized that their native/ local languages are often unsuitable for effective communication in broader contexts. foreign language speakers are often considered more educated and of higher social standing because the languages play more functional role in professional career development and broader knowledge acquisition (widianto, 2018; hajrah, 2024). the study showed us about differentiation attitudes towards millennial’s generation. the authors posits that millennial language use is driven by two attitudes: ideational and realization. these two attitudes form the basis for decisionmaking in the linguistic situations experienced by millennials. feng et al. (2024) explain these attitudes are influenced by interactions with others and maintained by broader social structures, a holistic approach may be better able to capture this complex interplay of systems. the ideational attitude relates to millennials’ awareness of their mother tongue as something that requires attention and serves as their identity. in this attitude, millennials show concern for the existence of the sundanese language to prevent its extinction in the future. however, this contrasts with their realization attitude. situational factors influencing language choice leads millennials to exhibit convergence or divergence towards sundanese. to illustrate the realization of millennial language attitudes, the authors developed an attitude framework adapted from previous theories (anderson, 1972; garvin & mathiot, 1968) and cohn’s (2013) research instrument as shows in figure 3. based on finding the authors define that language attitudes, particularly among millennials, depend largely on the context, interaction space, or domain. these domains can include social factors, technology usage, language choice and application, as well as communication settings, whether faceto-face or virtual. in different contexts, habits may not manifest as fixed actions, leaving attitudes unexpressed. thus, specific contexts that facilitate actions in response to language attitudes are considered natural contexts (menggo & suastra, 2020). affective and cognitive factors within communication contexts contribute to differences in language attitudes among millennials. jendra (2007) notes that actions are definite forms of behavior primarily influenced by context. language attitudes are tendencies shaped by individuals’ habitual interactions, which are further reinforced by societal behavior. garrett (2010) explains that language attitudes have a cognitive component, ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 204 figure 3. language attitude framework among millennials reflecting an individual’s knowledge about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable. this cognitive aspect influences interaction styles and language choices based on different interlocutors. the realization of language attitudes may vary, sometimes creating gaps or tendencies that result in cognitive dissonance in language use among millennials. cognitive dissonance in language attitudes refers to a mismatch between an individual’s beliefs or knowledge about a language and their behavior or attitudes toward it. for instance, a person may recognize the value of a language but exhibit behaviors that lack appreciation for it. cognitive dissonance occurs when choices or efforts conflict with one’s beliefs, leading to discomfort (cooper, 2010). in this context, millennials may feel hesitant or embarrassed about their proficiency in sundanese, prompting them to avoid using it. research by sopyan & buana (2022) provide that most of sundanese speaker (88%) thought that speaking sundanese language was oldfashioned. it made them unconfident. the linguistic situation among millennials is not necessarily due to the inherent difficulty of the sundanese language but rather to their adaptation to contemporary, often multilingual, contexts. millennials believe that as long as sundanese continues to be spoken by the broader community, its existence will persist. factors such as urbanization and cultural shifts have influenced societal attitudes and behaviors, leading to less active or intense use of sundanese among millennials compared to earlier generations. thus, negative experiences among sundanese speakers may foster negative attitudes toward their mother tongue. while some individuals acknowledge the importance of sundanese, they may not further explore or develop their proficiency in the language, perceiving it as already familiar and sufficient for daily use. reduced domains of language use within a society tend to influence perceptions of its broader applicability (ibrahim, 2011). festinger (1957) emphasizes that individuals seek consistency between their cognitions, such as beliefs and opinions. cognitive dissonance is influenced by logical inconsistencies, experiences, environmental factors, and adherence to norms. resolving dissonance often involves creating new cognitions or beliefs to alleviate conflict (yahya & sukmayadi, 2020). millennials are acutely aware of this dissonance: on the one hand, they recognize their limitations in using sundanese; on the other, they worry about the potential decline of the language and its cultural heritage. one of participants stated: “sundanese has many speech levels rules, which are only formally taught in schools. in daily life, people often struggle to apply them. many avoid using the language due to the fear of being considered rude or impolite” (p-8). addressing this linguistic phenomenon requires recognizing the central role of families in maintaining and developing language use. families provide the initial environment for language learning and serve as a control mechanism for its use. within family settings, spaces for language instruction and interaction are created. abdelhadi (2017) notes that ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 205 community language preservation relies heavily on the family’s role at home, where they exert close control over children’s communication and language transmission. language development cannot be sustained across generations unless it is passed on within families. pauwels (2005) highlights those children exposed to community languages at home tend to develop strong receptive skills, even if their productive skills are imperfect. the family environment serves as a key driver for successful intergenerational language preservation, although external factors such as intermarriage, the birth of new children, parental work environments, and school settings can influence language choices and attitudes. lubis et al. (2023) argue that as one of the cultural treasures, language must be passed to the next generation through education and learning, formal and non-formal. the use of vernacular languages must be taught from an early childhood because the early age level is the first level of language learning. one of the most feasible ways for these efforts to be well-received is through social media and the use of technology. according to herskovits (2005), one of the elements of culture involves technological tools. compared to previous generations, millennials have a more positive outlook on technology and its influence on their lives. technology makes their daily routines easier and helps them stay closer to friends and family. technology can be used in nonverbal communication, which is beneficial for children who are resistant to open communication (makarov et al., 2023) and ways to most effective (sagitova et al., 2023). this tendency should be leveraged as an approach to developing the sundanese language. rahmawati et al. (2022) mentioned technological advances and make it an opportunity to introduce and maintain sundanese in virtual spaces. the technological aspect can have a significant impact and encourage millennials to share with their peers and influence one another. technology, including social media has ability to break down barriers and connect people from all corners of the world, facilitating knowledge exchange and idea sharing (zulkifli & bakar, 2024). there is almost no society that does not know and use technology in their daily lives, this can be an opportunity to reawaken society to the importance of sundanese as the mother tongue for the people of west java. v. conclusion the language attitudes of millennials in bandung toward sundanese are generally positive, although variations exist in how the language is used. factors such as hierarchical language norms and technology use influence millennials’ preferences for incorporating terms from indonesian or foreign languages. to ensure the preservation of sundanese, strategies must involve broad community engagement and the promotion of sundanese on digital platforms. such initiatives would enhance the relevance and accessibility of the language for younger generations in the modern era. this study serves as a simple reference for sociolinguistic research examining language phenomena among the millennial generation. although previous studies have shown that the language attitudes of sundanese speakers, including millennial sundanese, tend to be positive, the actual use of the language in family settings remains dominated by indonesian rather than sundanese. the authors hopes that future studies will refine research methodologies by employing a more comprehensive mixed-method analysis. the language attitude framework identified in this study may serve as a conceptual foundation for future research on language attitudes (garret, 2010; garvin & mathiot, 1968; lambert, 1967), offering a new perspective in the field. ethics statement this study was reviewed and approved by the linguistics study program, school of postgraduate studies, universitas pendidikan indonesia research committee. informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement ikmal trianto: conceptualizing the study and collecting data and analyzing. r. dian dia-an muniroh: analyzing, supervising the study process and providing guidance to developing framework. wawan gunawan: analyzing, supervising the study process and providing guidance to developing framework theory. yanty wirza: supervising the study process to framework. retty isnendes: supervising the methodology. ikmal trianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 206 acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references abdelhadi, m. 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(2024). language shaming on youtube: linguistic features, themes, and social implications. journal of research in applied linguistics, 15(1), 128-144. https://doi. org/10.22055/rals.2023.43456.3034 surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 384 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 19, 2024 final revision: september 01, 2024 accepted: september 08, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 this study aims to explain the role of ethnic humor as a practice of marginalization against minority ethnic groups in indonesia. the research data consists of 270 instances of ethnic humor sourced from books, websites, and social media. the data were analyzed using fairclough’s critical discourse analysis approach, which includes three stages: description, interpretation, and explanation. textual characteristics of ethnic humor were analyzed using sketchengine, a corpus management and text analysis software developed by lexical computing. the findings indicate that ethnic humor can marginalize minority ethnic groups in indonesia through three mechanisms: (1) negatively representing the targeted ethnic group, (2) constructing unequal social relations, and (3) justifying the behavior of the targeted ethnic group as inferior, strange, or even negative. the ideology embedded in ethnic humor discourse can be traced through patterns of language use, including word choice, sentence structure, and discourse organization. words, sentence strcuture, and discourse organization are ideological because they contain experiential, relational, and expressive values. the results of this study reveal that ethnic humor, often appreciated for its entertainment value, can marginalize minority ethnic groups in two ways: by restricting their identity and roles. these findings reinforce previous research, such as that conducted by pérez (2022), which argues that the ideological nature of ethnic humor can be harmful as it reinforces the dominance of majority groups. this finding also reinforce the findings of mendiburo-seguel & ford (2023) which show that ethnic humor can strengthen ethnic prejudice. this situation suggests that ethnic humor should be approached cautiously to avoid negative impacts on indonesia’s multiethnic society. keywords ethnic humor, marginalization, minorities, representation correspondence e-mail: surahmat@mail.unnes.ac.id article marginalization of minority ethnicities in ethnic humor discourse in indonesia: a critical discourse analysis surahmat1, i dewa putu wijana2, sulistyowati3 1faculty of language and arts universitas negeri semarang, indonesia 2,3faculty of cultural science universitas gadjah mada. indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.384-398.2024 i. introduction ethnic humor has become an integral part of the multicultural fabric of indonesian society. it entertains, fosters internal group solidarity, and regulates intra-group and inter-group relations. its presence can be observed in everyday conversations, books, magazines, and websites. in today’s era of social media, ethnic humor is also reproduced through platforms such as facebook, instagram, and tiktok. it has become one of indonesia’s most popular types of humor (lesmana, 2016). the forms of ethnic humor in indonesia are diverse, ranging from anecdotes, wordplay, riddles, mockery, and even bullying (wijana, 2015) ethnic humor is defined as a type of humor that uses the characteristics, beliefs, and behaviors of a specific ethnic group as the source of humor (apte, 1985). ethnic humor differs from other types of humor because it employs specific scripts. raskin (1985) describes these scripts as language distortion, foolishness, stinginess, and deceitfulness. these scripts are constructed by creating an oppositional narrative between the targeted ethnic group and the group employing humor. within these various scripts, the targeted ethnic group is stereotyped with peculiar traits, beliefs, and behaviors, contrasting surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 385 with other ethnic groups portrayed as possessing normal traits, beliefs, and behaviors. ethnic humor has many social functions that can be counterproductive to one another. on one hand, ethnic humor has a positive impact as it can serve as entertainment that alleviates fatigue. the pleasant sensation it creates can also be used to ease communication. when used in the appropriate context, ethnic humor can strengthen group solidarity and reinforce societal values. based on research in the united states, hylton (2018) suggests that ethnic humor can be a strategy to counter racist narratives. on the other hand, horisk (2024) argues that ethnic humor can be harmful as it disseminates unjust knowledge about marginalized groups. according to the prejudiced norm theory developed by ford & ferguson (2004), disparaging humor can make individuals exposed to it more likely to accept ethnic prejudice. this occurs because humor possesses specific linguistic features that can shift one’s cognitive mode from serious, critical thinking to non-serious, uncritical thinking. through a study rooted in social psychology, mendiburo-seguel & ford (2023) further explored this issue and reinforced the finding that aggressive ethnic humor can increase tolerance toward ethnic prejudice. the use of ethnic humor in indonesia becomes problematic because it is produced and interpreted within a racially charged social context. indonesia is a multiethnic country, home to more than 364 ethnic groups (irawanto et al., 2011). these ethnic groups coexist, cooperate, and compete with one another. interethnic relations in indonesia are often marked by tensions resulting from prejudice and discrimination, particularly against minority ethnic groups. for example, setijadi (2017) demonstrates that ethnic groups identifying as indigenous tend to perceive chinese indonesians as outsiders who are solely focused on business, lack nationalism, and are not religiously devout. the competition for space and resources in papua has led to the marginalization of indigenous papuan tribes (dewi, 2024). discrimination against papuan students still frequently occurs in cities such as yogyakarta, malang, and surabaya. another example is the rejection of migrants from madura by the local community in cempaka, kalimantan (rahman, 2019). researchers argue that ethnic humor plays a role in marginalizing minority ethnic groups in indonesia by perpetuating ethnic stereotypes and prejudices. this role can be realized because humor possesses unique linguistic, cognitive, and psychological features. linguistically, humor has the ability to implicitly convey taboo topics by leveraging society’s tacit knowledge (aarons, 2014). the rhetoric of “it’s just a joke” allows humor to achieve its ideological aims precisely by denying its own ideological nature (weaver, 2011). cognitively, humor always involves ambiguity, which can obscure the racist knowledge it contains (suls, 1983). humor can also shift serious, critical thinking to a non-serious, uncritical mode of thinking (ford et al., 2015). the ability of humor to marginalize minority ethnic groups can be observed in the frequent use of negative stereotypes in ethnic humor. negative stereotypes are a discursive practice that can both spread and reinforce overgeneralized knowledge. such knowledge can either reinforce existing ethnic prejudices or make them more easily accepted socially. previous researchers have demonstrated that ethnic humor is a discursive practice that can influence the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of those exposed. ford & ferguson (2004) showed that ethnic humor can reinforce ethnic prejudice. according to them, humor that marginalizes certain ethnic groups does not create ethnic prejudice but rather strengthens existing prejudices. the study by pérez (2022) and kuipers & van der ent (2016) also indicates that disparaging ethnic humor can reinforce stereotypes and racist ideologies within society. such stereotypes can facilitate segregation between perceived superior and inferior groups. these findings support earlier studies by billig (2001) and weaver (2011), which demonstrated that ethnic humor has an impact on legitimizing racist discourse. ethnic humor has also attracted the attention of sociologists, who focus on examining humor’s social functions and impacts in various social contexts. islam (2018) demonstrated that ethnic humor plays a role in maintaining social hierarchies. kuipers & ent (2016) highlighted the role of ethnic humor in regulating relationships between the ethnic group using the humor and the targeted ethnic group. the presence and persistence of ethnic humor in society are seen as indicators of slow social progress toward a more progressive direction. however, (shifman & katz, 2005) pointed out that ethnic humor can have a positive surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 386 function in the process of intergroup assimilation. several researchers have also studied ethnic humor from a linguistic perspective. pioneered by victor raskin and attardo, research on the linguistic aspects of humor has developed rapidly. raskin (1985) introduced the semantic theory of humor to demonstrate script opposition as a minimal condition for humor. meanwhile, attardo, with the general theory of verbal humor (gtvh), outlined the constitutive elements of humor. the linguistic study of ethnic humor was further advanced by ermida, who focused on analyzing the narrative elements of humor. although it has developed significantly, research on the linguistic aspects of humor tends to be limited to structural, semantic, and pragmatic studies. for example, the study by burgers & van mulken (2017) focused on understanding linguistic markers in humor. aarons (2014) concentrated on the semantic-cognitive aspects of humor processing. el refaie (2011) and ibraheem & abbas (2015) examined the pragmatic mechanisms in humor processing. in indonesia, the linguistic aspects of ethnic humor have also attracted the attention of several researchers. however, most of these studies primarily focus on the grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic constructions involved in creating and appreciating humor. wijana (2015) identified the forms of script opposition used in the semantic construction of ethnic humor in indonesia. arnawa (2022) explained balinese humor’s linguistic and cultural aspects, focusing on structural ambiguity, lexical processes, and logical manipulation in traditional balinese humor. meanwhile, setyaningsih & larassati (2023) examined the role of social and cultural contexts in the creative process of ethnic humor in indonesia. in the past five years, there has been an increasing trend in using critical discourse analysis (cda) to study humor. surahmat et al. (2024) employed cda to explain the function of ethnic humor as a form of cultural violence against minority ethnic groups. cda was also utilized by zihni and rahman (2021) to understand the ideologies within humor associated with specific figures. zihni used cda to explore the humor of gus dur, while rahman et al. (2021) applied cda to investigate the ideologies present in bintang emon’s humor. none of these studies have addressed the use of ethnic humor as a form of marginalization. this study aims to address this gap by analyzing the role of ethnic humor in the marginalization of minority ethnic groups in indonesia. marginalization refers to the restriction imposed on individuals or groups that hinders their opportunities to participate fully in society (mowat, 2015). marginalization has significant impacts and is considered one of the forms of social injustice as it prevents individuals or groups from having equitable opportunities to engage in social life (bernt & colini, 2013). the researcher argues that ethnic humor plays a role in marginalization due to its ability to propagate and perpetuate ethnic stereotypes and prejudices. the presence of racist stereotypes and prejudices within ethnic humor allows it to underpin attitudes and behaviors that marginalize minority ethnic groups. based on this argument, two research questions are posed in this study: (1) how is the formal language of ethnic humor used to represent minority ethnic groups in indonesia? (2) how do these representations in ethnic humor contribute to the marginalization of minority ethnic groups in indonesia? ii. methods this study employs a critical discourse analysis (cda) approach, specifically fairclough’s model, to examine the relationship between language, discursive practices, and social practices in ethnic humor. cda assumes that linguistic units in discourse are linked to the ideological and political motivations underlying them (fairclough, 2010). this relationship is not direct but mediated by discursive practices (fairclough, 2001). the data for this study consists of 270 examples of ethnic humor concerning three minority ethnic groups in indonesia: chinese (71 examples), madurese (93 examples), and papuans (106 examples). these examples were sourced from websites, books, and social media platforms (facebook, instagram, and tiktok). data were collected from diverse sources to provide a varied perspective, reflecting indonesia’s diverse society and the range of humor enjoyed from various media. adult humor enthusiasts more commonly use books and facebook, while younger audiences frequent newer social media platforms like instagram and tiktok. all age groups generally use websites. written humor data from books and websites surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 387 the interpreter. given the complexity of interpreting humor discourse, which involves the text, cognitive factors, aesthetic tastes, and social background, the researcher focused solely on the forms of ethnic representation. representation is the process by which an interpreter creates meaning from discourse according to their mental model. as hall (1997) has shown, representation is not merely a reflection of reality but also a practice of creating new realities. in the explanation stage, the researcher explained the role of ethnic humor in marginalizing ethnic minorities. at this stage, ethnic humor discourse was analyzed as a form of social practice whose usage influences and is influenced by social structures. the values inherent in ethnic humor have a reproductive effect, possibly perpetuating or altering existing social structures. this analysis is grounded in searle’s (1969) speech act theory, which posits that speaking is essentially acting. however, as critical discourse analysis, this study views discourse not merely as an act but also as a social practice involving social order, situational context, interactional history, and intertextual context (fairclough, 2001). iii. result this study aims to explain the role of ethnic humor in marginalizing ethnic minorities in indonesia using a critical discourse analysis approach. the findings will be presented below, covering the forms and scripts of ethnic humor in indonesia, the language of ethnic humor, the interpretation of ethnic humor, and the role of ethnic humor in marginalizing ethnic minorities. forms and scripts of ethnic humor in indonesia ethnic humor is one of the most popular types of humor in indonesia. in addition to its abundance, ethnic humor in indonesia is also diverse in form and structure. data indicates that out of the 270 humor samples analyzed, 247 (91.4 percent) are jokes, while the remaining 23 (8.6 percent) are conversational humor, as presented in the table 1. table 1 types of ethnic humor in indonesia no ethnic joke conversational humor 1 chinese 54 17 3 papua 104 3 4 madurese 89 3 total 247 23 were obtained through copying. audiovisual data from social media were transcribed into text using microsoft word. narrow transcription was applied to language-based humor (e.g., puns) because it contains unique linguistic information, such as phonological details, that can only be understood with phonetic codes. broad transcription was used for other types of humor. the researcher focuses on general pronunciation in broad transcription to differentiate between words with distinct meanings. discourse analysis was conducted in three stages: description, interpretation, and explanation. in the description phase, the researcher focused on identifying the microstructure of the discourse, which includes the use of words, sentences, and stylistic elements. microstructure is crucial as it generates lexical, grammatical, and general meaning within the discourse. the formal language also contributes to three types of textual values: representational, relational, and expressive. representational value concerns how the text depicts the world’s reality; relational value pertains to how the text positions social subjects about one another, and expressive value relates to the moral judgments of the text’s user regarding specific objects. to gain insights into the microstructural aspects of discourse, the researcher first identified the types and forms of ethnic humor in indonesia. categorization of discourse types and forms was done using two indicators: textual modality and the types of scripts employed. textual modality and script types describe how humor creators realize their information and ideas within coherent discourse units according to specific linguistic rules. the researcher then explored the textual characteristics of humor, including lexical, grammatical, and schematic features, using sketchengine, a corpus management and text analysis software developed by lexical computing. this software was used to categorize word types, frequency of word usage, and collocation analysis. word class categorization was conducted using the wordlist feature, while word frequency and collocations were examined using the concordance menu. the second stage of the analysis is interpretation. in the context of this research, interpretation involves explaining the interaction between the text and discourse participants (fairclough, 2001). this interaction encompasses textual elements and those present “within” the discourse participant as surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 388 jokes are a type of humor consisting of anecdotes memorized and passed from one person to another. the common structure found in jokes includes a setup and a punchline. conversely, conversational humor is spontaneous and closely tied to the context, often losing its humor when retold (martin, 2007). jokes are a prevalent form of ethnic humor because they accommodate various forms of ambiguity and incongruity without being bound to the conversation’s context. they can portray characters from the target ethnicity according to existing stereotypes and creative elements. based on their textual form, ethnic humor is predominantly composed of mixed discourse, with 120 examples (35 percent); narrative, with 78 examples (26 percent); dialogue, with 50 examples (17 percent); and monologue, with 38 examples (13 percent), as shown in the table below. narrative humor is a joke that arises when a narrative work can create and/or exploit incongruity and superiority among the participants in the narrative, such as the writer, narrator, reader, audience, and characters. monologue humor features speech delivered by a single speaker, characterized by the absence of conversational turns, as the opportunity to speak entirely belongs to the humorist. dialogue humor involves interactions between two or more characters, incorporating conversational turns. mixed humor combines narrative and dialogue modalities within its structure. in addition to textual forms, variations in ethnic humor in indonesia can also be analyzed based on the types of script opposition employed. contrary to the findings of raskin (1985) and wijana (2015), which identified only four types of script forms, this study reveals eight forms of script opposition: linguistic distortion (ld), foolishness (f), stinginess (s), greed (g), cunning (c), atheism (a), cosmopolitanism (cos), and rudeness (r). the number of each script type is detailed in the table below. linguistic distortion humor (ld) is a type of humor constructed by contrasting the dialect of the targeted ethnic group with the standard language considered proper and correct. the foolishness script is created by comparing the target group to another group (usually the humorist) perceived as more intelligent or knowledgeable, portraying the former as less intelligent, foolish, or uncivilized (raskin, 1985). the stinginess script is organized by depicting the target ethnic group schematically and stereotypically as a group that employs strange, irrational, or even impossible methods to retain their wealth. the cunning script involves creating imaginary situations where members of the targeted ethnic group perform highly unusual actions to achieve their goals. in addition to these four scripts, ethnic humor in indonesia also includes the greed script. this is a variation of the stinginess script but differs as it portrays the target ethnic group’s overwhelming desire to accumulate wealth. the atheism script contrasts the religious beliefs of the targeted ethnic group, which may be depicted as non-believing or less devout, with other ethnic groups that are portrayed as religious. the cosmopolitanism script constructs opposition between the perceived lack table 2 forms of ethnic humor in indonesia no ethnic textual forms of humor narrative monologue dialogue mix 1 chinese 17 34 8 12 3 papua 43 2 9 51 4 madura 18 2 33 39 total 78 38 50 102 table 3 script form in ethnic humor in indonesia no ethnic script forms ld f s g c a cos r other 1 chinese 13 2 13 16 2 2 3 0 20 2 papua 23 42 0 0 1 0 0 16 25 3 madurese 21 37 0 3 7 0 0 4 19 total 57 81 13 19 10 2 3 20 64 surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 389 of nationalism in the target ethnic group and the nationalism of other ethnic groups. the rudeness script is constructed by an oppositional portrayal of the target ethnic group as rude compared to another ethnic group depicted as polite. the linguistic distortion script is used uniformly across nearly all ethnic groups. however, the data shows a tendency for other scripts to target specific ethnic groups. the foolishness script tends to target the madurese and papuan ethnic groups. the stinginess, greed, atheism, and cosmopolitanism scripts predominantly target the chinese ethnic group, while the cunning script primarily targets the madurese. the rudeness script is frequently used against the papuan and madurese ethnic groups. these patterns suggest the presence of stereotypes, assumptions, and ethnic prejudices underlying the use of these scripts. microstructure analysis of ethnic humor language plays a crucial role in producing humor, including ethnic humor. it is responsible for various phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and even pragmatic symbols used in humor (ermida, 2008). in ethnic humor, language serves as a medium to convey three values: representational, relational, and expressive. representational value illustrates how humorists employ words, sentences, and discourse structures to represent the world’s reality. relational value indicates how the language of ethnic humor is used to regulate inter-ethnic relationships. expressive value reflects judgments about right or wrong, good or bad, and beautiful or ugly (fairclough, 2001). these various values can be found in the use of different linguistic units. representational values of language in humor the chinese ethnic group is represented as homo economicus, a term used to describe individuals who are solely concerned with economic matters, neglecting social and spiritual issues. this representation can be both explicit and implicit. an explicit example of the representation of stinginess is evident in humor 1 below. humor 1. irit mungkin ada benernya kalau dibilang orang cina itu pelit. gimana gak pelit man, saking pelitnya melek aja ngirit. humor 1. frugality perhaps it’s true when people say the chinese are stingy. how could they not be, man? they’re so stingy that even staying awake is an effort to save. (source: ernest prakasa, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9gibprzmus0) meanwhile, an implicit stereotype of chinese stinginess can be observed in humor 2 below. humor 2. pinjam uang “chow, tolong pinjami aku sejuta yuan.” “sayang sekali, ya aku nggak punya, tuh?” “kalau begitu seratus ribu saja, deh.” “kalau segitu sih aku punya, tapi aku nggak mau minjamin, tuh?” humor 2. borrowing money “chow, can you lend me a million yuan?” “i’m sorry, but i don’t have that much.” “well then, just a hundred thousand.” “i have that much, but i don’t want to lend it to you.” (source: humor china lintas generasi) the word “stingy” in humor 1 and “i don’t want to lend it” in humor 2 represent the peculiar behavior attributed to the chinese ethnic group, who are perceived as excessively fond of money. the chinese are depicted as being so enamored with money that they are willing to do anything, even engaging in odd behaviors, to retain it. the script portraying the stinginess of the chinese is a commonly employed trope in ethnic humor in indonesia. data reveals that this script appears in 13 pieces of chinese humor. language also serves as a linguistic tool to represent the madurese ethnic group negatively. the primary stereotype used in madurese ethnic humor is that of being unintelligent. the use of sentences that reflect this stereotype can be observed in humor 3 below. humor 3. memarahi habibi orang madura naik pesawat buatan habibi cn 235 yang menggunakan baling-baling, sebelum berangkat orang madura sudah masuk dalam pesawat. dia merasa kepanasan di dalam pesawat. lalu dia berbisik ke penumpang sebelahnya. orang madura: habibi ini bodoh buat pesawat. penumpang: loh kenapa pak? orang madura: wong yang panas di dalam kipasnya di taruk di luar (sambil menunjuk baling-baling pesawat yang ada di sayapnya). humor 3. scolding habibi a madurese person boards a propeller-equipped habibimade cn 235 aircraft. before departure, the madurese passenger enters the plane and feels hot inside. he whispers to the passenger next to him. madurese person: habibi is foolish for making this plane. passenger: why do you say that, sir? madurese person: well, it’s hot inside, but he put the fan outside! (while pointing to the propeller on the aircraft’s wing). (source: humor madura untuk penyegar jiwa) surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 390 in the humor above, the sentence “well, it’s hot inside, but he put the fan outside” represents the perceived foolishness of the madurese, as they cannot distinguish between the function of an airplane propeller and that of a ceiling fan. this script is a common stereotype used in madurese ethnic humor and is employed in at least 37 different jokes. meanwhile, the papuan ethnic group is represented as having a rough demeanor. this is evident from the use of language in the humor below. humor 4. tinus dapat togel satu kali begini, tinus de dapat togel 4 angka, 60 juta pica. tinus pu senang apa e, de langsung pulang ke rumah. baru sampe depan pintu rumah, tanpa toki pintu lagi tinus sepak pintu. begitu pintu tabuka, tinus masuk, dan de pu maitua heran-heran lihat dia. begitu tinus masuk, de menuju televisi dan tendang televisi sambil bilang “ganti”. de jalan ke lemari baru de tendang lemari lagi baru de bilang “ganti” tinus lanjut jalan ke dapur baru tendang rak piring kasih tahambur baru de bilang “ganti” semua yang de lihat de tendang akan baru bilang “ganti” karena tinus pu maitua su tra tahan jadi maitua tanya “eeee pace ko kenapa tendang barang-barang semua kasih hancur ? ko su gila ka ?? …… mace belum selesai bicara lagi tinus tendang de pu mace baru bilang “kooo lagi ganti” hahahahahahaae humor 4. tinus wins the lottery one day, tinus won the lottery with a 4-digit number, winning 60 million pica. tinus was so happy that he went straight home. as soon as he reached his front door, he kicked it open without even knocking. when the door swung open, tinus entered, leaving his wife bewildered at his behavior. upon entering, he walked over to the television and kicked it, saying, “replace it.” he then walked to the wardrobe, kicked it, and said, “replace it.” tinus continued to the kitchen, where he kicked the dish rack, sending the dishes flying, and said, “replace it.” everything he saw, he kicked, shouting, “replace it!” unable to bear it any longer, tinus’s wife asked, “hey, why are you kicking everything and breaking it all? have you gone mad?” before his wife could finish speaking, tinus kicked her too and said, “replace you as well!” hahahahahahaae (source: https://www.nabire.net/cerita-mop/) the humor above portrays a papuan character who wins a lottery. the character, tinus, kicks all the old items in his house, believing he now has enough money to buy new ones. he even kicks his own mother-in-law, assuming he can replace her with a new one using his winnings. the depiction of rough behavior is evident in 14 jokes, making this script closely associated with the papuan ethnic group. relational value of humor language in addition to representing reality, ethnic humor language also conveys relational value. relational value indicates an unequal relationship between the targeted ethnic group and the humor users. this can be observed in the use of pronouns such as “dia” (he/she) and “mereka” (they), as well as the definite articles “si” and “sang.” pronouns carry relational value because they imply the speaker’s self-positioning relative to their interlocutor or other subjects. in the context of ethnic humor in indonesia, pronouns are used for two purposes: direct usage by the speaker and as part of a character’s dialogue with another character. the use of the pronoun “mereka” (they) has ideological significance because it positions the referred party as “the other” outside the speaking community. this positioning reflects a phenomenon of othering or social exclusion. social subjects referred to as “dia” (he/she) and “mereka” (they) are intentionally excluded, as demonstrated in the following joke. humor 5. pendidikan yang timpang orang-orang china selalu mendidik anaknya agar tidak berbohong, tapi mungkin karena lupa, tampaknya tidak satu pun dari mereka mau mendidik anaknya agar tidak jadi penipu. humor 5. unequal education chinese people always teach their children not to lie, but perhaps they forget to teach them not to become cheaters. (source: dada, humor china lintas generasi, kombat publisers) the word “they” (mereka) in the joke above indicates that the chinese ethnic group is not considered part of the speaking community. ethnic humor is linguistically excluded. linguistic exclusion can lead to social exclusion because it prevents the targeted ethnic group from participating in speech events. the relational value is also evident in the use of definite articles. both “sang” and “si” are used to denote definiteness (baskoro, 1998). however, the two words have different lexical and collocative meanings, which give them different relational values in their usage. the article “si” is attached to surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 391 subjects considered equal, inferior, or less respected, while “sang” is attached to subjects considered equal, superior, or more respected. the use of the definite articles “si” and “sang” in indonesian ethnic humor demonstrates their relational function by indicating superior and inferior ethnic groups. based on an analysis of 270 instances of ethnic humor, it was found that the article “si” was used 27 times, with 17 occurrences referring to the chinese ethnic group, 9 to the madurese ethnic group, and 1 to the papuan ethnic group. the article “sang” was used 32 times. the article “si” tends to be used for the ethnic group targeted by the humor 63% of the time, which is significantly higher than its use for non-target subjects at 37%. on the other hand, the article “sang” is more frequently used to refer to non-target subjects, 23 times (72%), compared to its use for target ethnic groups, 9 times (28%). this pattern suggests that the article “si” tends to be used for ethnic groups that are less respected. on the other hand, the article “sang” is more likely to be used for ethnic groups that are more respected within the discourse. this pattern indicates that the choice of articles “si” and “sang” is not random but is regulated by the perceptions and motivations of the humor creators to manage the subjects mentioned in the humor. the article “si” can be observed in humor 5 below. humor 6. cerita lucu dasar orang cina si ateng cina glodok 70thn meninggal dunia sebelum imlek. ketika arwahnya dalam perjalanan ke akherat, bertemulah dengan malaikat. malaikat: “teng, lu mau masuk surga atau neraka?” ateng: “haiyaa, ga pentinglah buat owe nelaka apa solga, cuman owe mau tanya banyakan mana olang ke nelaka atau ke solga?” malaikat: “jaman sekarang banyak ke neraka, emang kenapa lu tanya gitu?” ateng: “soalnya owe mau buka toko disitu.” humor 6. basic chinese humor si ateng, a 70-year-old chinese man from glodok, passed away shortly before the chinese new year. as his spirit journeyed to the afterlife, he encountered an angel. angel: “teng, do you want to enter heaven or hell?” ateng: “haiyaa, it doesn’t matter to me whether i go to hell or heaven. i just want to ask, where do more people go, to hell or heaven?” angel: “these days, more people end up in hell. why do you ask?” ateng: “because i want to open a shop there.” (source: https://detiklife.com/2016/10/09/cerita-lucuhumor-cina/) in the above humor, the article “si” refers to a chinese character named ateng, who passed away at the age of 70. in the indonesian social context, being 70 years old is categorized as elderly, a typically respected status. however, using the article “si” here is an expression of disrespect. the word “si” is deliberately used to regulate the social relations of the chinese character, placing him in a less respected social position. the expressive value of humor language the most potent discursive feature expressing the expressive value of ethnic humor in indonesia is the discourse schema represented in script opposition. there are eight script oppositions explicitly or implicitly reflecting the author’s judgment about a subject. these eight scripts include language distortion, scripts of stupidity, stinginess, greed, cunning, atheism, cosmopolitanism, and rudeness. in each of these scripts, certain traits are schematized as “good” or “neutral,” while the traits attributed to the target ethnic groups are schematized as “bad.” this article will examine two forms of scripts that are used with particularly high frequency: language distortion and stupidity. the script opposition used in the language distortion script is the standard language versus dialect. the standard language is positioned as the language of the educated, used by the upper class of society. in contrast, the dialect is positioned as the language of the lower class, spoken by villagers from lower social strata. humor 7. makan radiator ada pasien madura masuk igd diantar keluarganya. pada dokter si pasien mengeluhkan sakit pada perutnya. sang dokter bertanya pada keluarga pasien, “kenapa pasien ini? sepertinya menahan sakit yang sangat luar biasa.” kemudian salah satu keluarganya menjawab “iki akibat makan radiator,” katanya. mendengar itu sang dokter sangat kaget, lalu keluarga yang lain menjelaskan bahwa maksudnya makan itu ra “tidak” diatur. humor 7. eating the radiator a patient from madura was brought to the emergency room by their family. the patient complained of severe abdominal pain. the doctor asked the family, “what’s wrong with this patient? it seems like they are enduring extreme pain.” one of the family members replied, “it’s because of eating the radiator.” the doctor was very surprised, and then another family member explained that “radiator” actually means “not regulated.” (source: http://dadangwe.blogspot.com/2015/11/guyonmeduroan-style-people-of-madura.html) surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 392 in this humor, the madurese dialect introduces morphological ambiguity. the dialect, represented by the phoneme “o,” is schematized as the cause of misunderstandings between the patient’s family and the doctor. positioning the madurese dialect as the source of the misunderstanding conveys the judgment that it is inferior to standard indonesian. the expressive value is also evident in the rudeness script. the rudeness script is constructed by depicting the target ethnic group speaking or acting rudely in specific situations. such behavior, including swearing and kicking, is schematized as negative. this script predominantly targets the papuan ethnic group, as illustrated in the following humor. humor 8. sa bicara deng ko satu kali tinus ada duduk mabuk pagi2, tra lama begini ahmad lewat dengan kambing kurban. langsung tinus bilang.. “pace ko mau bawa monyet itu kemana ? karena ganas, ahmad de bilang “ko tolol sampe, ini kambing bukan monyet” tinus langsung pica ketawa baru de bilang “baah ko ni pede skali, sa tra bicara deng ko, sa bicara deng ko pu kambing mo” humor 8. talking to you one day, tinus was sitting drunk early in the morning when ahmad passed by with a sacrificial goat. tinus immediately said, “where are you taking that monkey?” annoyed, ahmad responded, “are you so stupid? it’s a goat, not a monkey.” tinus then burst out laughing and said, “oh, you’re so confident. i’m not talking to you; i’m talking to your goat.” (source: https://www.nabire.net/cerita-mop/) in this humor, two characters from different ethnic groups are involved. based on their names, tinus is identified as papuan, and ahmad as a nonpapuan. tinus uses implicature to call ahmad a monkey. this term is considered rude as it demeans human status. in this context, such derogatory language is viewed negatively. interpretation of ethnic humor ethnic humor in indonesia is a discursive practice that plays a significant role in producing and reproducing ethnic knowledge. humor is interpreted both individually and socially, resulting in meanings that influence the audience’s understanding. this interpretative mechanism becomes political as it involves preexisting ethnic knowledge and biases. the presence of ethnic prejudice in indonesia can be traced back to the dutch colonial era. in 1845, the dutch administration issued the regering reglement (government regulation), which categorized the population into three classes: europeans (including americans and japanese), east asians (including arabs, indians, and chinese), and indigenous people (hosniyah, 2016; suryadinata, 2023). this stratification policy profoundly impacted the social, economic, and political life of these ethnic groups (hosniyah, 2016). when indonesia gained independence in 1945, it embraced diversity as a fundamental principle of the state, symbolized by the slogan “bhinneka tunggal ika” (unity in diversity). however, ethnic segregation did not disappear automatically. new forms of social segregation emerged, distinguishing between “native” or “indigenous” and “immigrant” or “foreign.” during the new order era (1967-1998), the government pursued political homogenization instead of acknowledging heterogeneity as a natural trait of indonesian society (lan, 2011). the new order regime enforced assimilation policies, requiring ethnic groups considered non-”native” to conform their identities and cultures to those of the “native” groups. during this period, interethnic competition and conflict occurred, often triggered by struggles for political dominance, territorial control, and natural resource access. however, these conflicts were generally repressed and “exploded” during the final years of the new order regime in the late 1990s (bertrand, 2008). the relationships between ethnic groups have given rise to practices of ethnic discrimination, which continue to affect interactions among ethnicities in indonesia. minority ethnic groups frequently experience discriminatory actions. examples include the refusal of landlords in yogyakarta and salatiga to accommodate students from papua (nababan, 2022; putri & kiranantika, 2020), the rejection of migrants from madura in several cities in kalimantan (k. rahman, 2019b), and the higher fees charged to chinese indonesians for immigration document processing (tyson, 2003). discriminatory behavior toward minority ethnic groups is linked to the persistence of ethnic prejudices. these prejudices are perpetuated not only through institutional regulations (awaliyah, 2016; tyson, 2003) but also through media coverage (thaniago & jovanović, 2017) and literary works (taufiq, 2014). ethnic humor is a form whose surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 393 production and interpretation cannot be detached from this social context. additionally, the nature of humor, which often relies on implicature, implies that its interpretation is always intertextual. when interpreted, ethnic humor is influenced by ethnic knowledge or meanings derived from other texts that exist in society. marginalization of minority ethnic groups in ethnic humor in indonesia the above explanation indicates that ethnic humor in indonesia utilizes forms and language that produce and reproduce knowledge representing minority ethnic groups in a negative light. the knowledge generated through ethnic humor tends to be discriminatory because it is produced and interpreted within a socially and historically racist context. there is a relationship between the formal aspects of language, mechanisms of interpretation, and its use as a tool for marginalizing minority ethnic groups. this relationship can be illustrated in the following diagram 1. the diagram above illustrates that the microstructure of ethnic humor discourse in indonesia (forms, scripts, words, sentences, and schemas) is connected to ideology. this relationship is mediated by communicative motivation and humorous motivation. communicative motivation relates to the user’s desire to convey information or messages to the audience. this motivation is realized through specific choices of words, sentences, and structures that can be decoded through interpretive mechanisms at both semantic and pragmatic levels. on the other hand, humorous motivation concerns the user’s aim to create a humorous effect in their discourse. this is achieved through ambiguity and incongruity, manifested through script opposition. ideological motivation is a higher-level, abstract motivation that does not directly relate to the text’s form or the humor script. ideological motivation is realized when humor texts are interpreted within a historical and political context that is racist. in this context, stereotypes and ethnic prejudices play a significant role. ethnic humor texts can only be understood in terms of their ideological nature when interpreted with support from a racist historical and political context. when such a context is present, ethnic marginalization will occur in two stages: stigmatization and social exclusion. stigma refers to negative characteristics attributed to specific individuals or groups. the stigmatization process occurs through identifying and labeling undesirable traits in individuals or groups, thereby narrowing one’s social identity to these negative characteristics (chen & courtwright, 2022). in ethnic humor in indonesia, stigmatization is a prevalent phenomenon because ethnic humor scripts utilize ethnic stereotypes. stigma is produced through generalizations that attach certain negative traits to the targeted ethnic groups. as a result of this stigmatization, representations restrict the understanding of these ethnic traits to the negative attributes ascribed to them. stigmatization of minority ethnic groups is achieved by leveraging preexisting ethnic figure 1. the role of ethnic humor in marginalizing ethnic minorities in indonesia surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 394 stereotypes. these stereotypes are normalized as common and accurate by activating ethnic prejudices present in society. stereotypes can be used both explicitly and implicitly. stereotypes may be personal knowledge or general, encyclopedic knowledge. in the context of ethnic humor, the stereotypes used are often negative, thereby potentially triggering negative effects towards the targeted ethnic group. in this context, the use of stereotypes constitutes a form of stigmatization. in the humor discussed in the previous section, it has been outlined that chinese, madurese, and papuan ethnicities are constrained in their identities through negative stereotypes. the chinese are stereotyped as stingy, the madurese as foolish, and the papuans as rude. in such humor, non-definitive subjects are often used, so these negative traits are not only attributed to individuals but generalized as collective characteristics of the targeted ethnic groups. the second stage of marginalization is social exclusion. the term exclusion is commonly used in political, economic, social, and cultural contexts. in this study, exclusion is understood as an idea or concept described by (levitas, 2005) as “… a significant division between the included majority group and the excluded minority group.” exclusion becomes problematic because it affects how the included and excluded groups are perceived and how these two groups become models in concrete social life. the linguistic representation of social exclusion uses the pronoun “they” when referring to the excluded group. the pronoun “they” projects the user’s views and attitudes regarding which social subjects are considered members of their group and who is outside it. in the context of ethnic humor in indonesia, the chinese ethnic group is the most frequently excluded. humorists often position themselves as the “other,” who, for various reasons, cannot or should not be part of the in-group. among the three minority ethnic groups, the chinese are the most vulnerable to social exclusion. exclusion in ethnic humor parallels the exclusion that occurs in social practices within indonesian society, both historically and currently. in the dynamics of interethnic relations in indonesia, the chinese have indeed been and continue to be treated as “the other” by other ethnic groups that identify as “native” or “indigenous.” such practices occur across various aspects of life. according to (suryadinata, 2023), this situation arises from political, economic, and cultural influences. the exclusion of the madurese is manifested by positioning them as a second-class ethnic group whose knowledge and civilization are considered inferior compared to those of other ethnic minorities. social exclusion of the papuan ethnic group is influenced by racial background differences and the unique political processes involved in integrating the region with indonesia. iv. discussion the findings outlined above indicate that the ideological nature of ethnic humor discourse can be evidenced through the formal linguistic structures it employs. besides serving as markers and sources of humor, language in ethnic humor in indonesia also functions as an instrument for marginalizing minority ethnic groups. the relationship between formal linguistic structures and their role in marginalization is illustrated in diagram 1. more specifically, ethnic humor contributes to the marginalization of minority ethnic groups through two preceding processes: identity limitation and role restriction. ethnic humor in indonesia encompasses various textual forms and scripts. four scripts are particularly distinctive because they have not been identified by previous researchers: greed, atheism, cosmopolitanism, and rudeness. the presence of these four scripts illustrates that minority ethnic groups in indonesia experience unique forms of marginalization that differ from those in other countries. this uniqueness is evident in the chinese ethnic group, which is marginalized through stereotypes of greed, irreligiosity, and lack of nationalism. in contrast, the papuan ethnic group is marginalized through stereotypes of rudeness. these findings reinforce previous research, such as that conducted by pérez (2022), which argues that the ideological nature of ethnic humor can be harmful as it reinforces the dominance of majority groups. pérez’s study demonstrated that ethnic humor contains values that can entrench dominant ethnic prejudices against minority groups. however, pérez did not provide detailed textual evidence to support his arguments. this study provides empirical textual evidence to show that the ideological nature of ethnic humor is realized through linguistic units, such as words, sentences, and discourse structures. surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 395 the schema presented in diagram 1 can serve as a formula for examining the ideological aspects of various types of humor, including ethnic humor. thus, studies on the relationship between microstructure and marginalization can be conducted with more precise criteria and variables. the reduction makes the relationship between microstructure, interpretation, and macrostructure of discourse more comprehensible. this study also reinforces previous findings regarding the relationship between formal language forms and the practice of marginalizing minority ethnic groups, as presented in diagram 1. it also supports the theory proposed by mendiburo-seguel & ford (2023) about the impact of humor on ethnic prejudice. mendiburo’s research demonstrates that exposure to humor increases the acceptance of prejudices against minority groups. however, their study was limited to only one type of humor: mocking. this research utilizes various humor types in textual and script opposition forms. even humor that appears non-aggressive can harbor values that marginalize minority ethnic groups by facilitating stigmatization and social exclusion. marginalization is conceptually close to social exclusion but differs in that it encompasses not just status but also the experiences and feelings associated with that status. to be marginalized means to feel that one is not accepted and, thus, to feel that one is not part of a community or cannot openly access various resources. in discourse, social group marginalization can manifest through limited involvement or engagement, as they are positioned peripherally. in ethnic humor, marginalization is realized through three aspects: identity limitation, role restriction, and access limitation. identity limitation is achieved by selectively presenting the target ethnic group’s identity, particularly its negative aspects. this limitation impacts the reduction of the target ethnic group’s self-perception as a social subject with multiple identities. when their identity is restricted, the potential of the ethnic group to participate in the collective life of society is also diminished. this results in restricted roles. role restriction is executed by positioning the target ethnic group as socially weak subjects. for example, the chinese ethnic group’s characteristic of stinginess is deemed incompatible with the values of generosity upheld in indonesian society. similarly, the perception of the madurese ethnic group as less intelligent is seen as a disqualification for holding important social roles. likewise, madurese’s perceived lack of education and rudeness are considered barriers to optimal participation in societal life. identity and role restrictions create limitations on access to discursive and social resources. minority ethnic groups are perceived as only capable of taking on minor roles in society, thus being denied access to discursive and social resources. this condition underscores how ethnic humor serves as a form of marginalization against minority ethnic groups. given its potential implications for indonesia’s multiethnic society, studies on the ideology of ethnic humor must continue. indonesia’s troubled history, marked by ethnic conflicts such as the 1998 riots and the 2001 sampit riots, as well as ongoing conflicts in papua due to political disputes between indonesian supporters and the free papua organization, puts the country in a vulnerable position for future ethnic conflicts. proper management of ethnic humor is crucial to prevent its misuse, which could potentially trigger future conflicts. with the existing linguistic evidence, this study has demonstrated the role of humor in producing and reproducing ideological knowledge that can marginalize minority ethnic groups. however, the study has limitations due to the small sample size used. the selected sample of three ethnic groups does not fully represent the variety of ethnic humor present in indonesia. future research could strengthen these findings by incorporating a more diverse sample. as a discourse analysis study, this research focuses solely on explaining discourse interpretation mechanisms. future studies could expand upon this by incorporating social psychology research to empirically examine the impact of humor on individual and group behaviors. v. conclusion this study aims to explain the role of ethnic humor in the marginalization of ethnic minorities in indonesia. employing a critical discourse analysis approach, the research was conducted in three stages: (1) describing the formal linguistic forms of ethnic humor, (2) explaining the mechanisms of interpretation, and (3) explaining the use of ethnic humor as a social practice. the findings indicate that there are various forms of ethnic surahmat / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 396 humor in indonesia. pragmatically, the humor is predominantly of the joke type. textually, the humor is mainly narrative and mixed in form. in terms of script opposition, there are several types of script opposition in ethnic humor in indonesia, with the largest quantity observed. while previous studies have focused on the psychological and social aspects of ethnic humor, this research examines the use of formal linguistic forms as discursive instruments in propagating ethnic stereotypes. formal linguistic forms, including words, sentences, and discourse structures, reveal representational, relational, and expressive values. the findings indicate that the use of words, sentences, and discourse structures is ideologically charged when interpreted with racist ethnic knowledge and prejudices. although this study demonstrates a consistent relationship between formal linguistic forms and their ideological implications, it has yet to provide a solid argument for explaining the use of humor in concrete social practices. this limitation arises because the social function of humor is highly dependent on the influence of social context. therefore, the researcher suggests that future studies incorporate social psychology-based research to examine the social impact on society empirically. additionally, it is recommended that future research utilize a larger sample of ethnic humor to better represent the 364 ethnic groups that present. research on ethnic language and humor needs to be continued because ethnic humor plays an important role in the life of a multi-ethnic nation like indonesia. acknowledgment this article is part of the author’s dissertation written in a study at the doctoral program in humanities studies, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada, funded by puslapdik kemdikbud (ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia) and lpdp (indonesia endowment fund for education). ethics statements the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement surahmat: collected data, developed the methodology, analyzed data, drafted the manuscript, and revised the content; i dewa putu wijana: supervised, provide a theoretical framework, critically reviewed, and edited the manuscript; sulistyowati: critically reviewed, provide a theoretical framework, and edited the manuscript. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or 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(2015). on ethnic jokes in indonesia. journal of language and literature, 15(2), 103– 110. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24071/joll.v15i2.181 ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 221 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 9, 2023 final revision: september 25, 2023 accepted: september 27, 2023 available online: october 5, 2023 this study aims at exploring comparative linguistic variation across pakistani and chinese learners’ english argumentative essays using a multidimensional analysis (mda) approach. this study uses a quantitative approach to describing co-occurring linguistic features. the corpus comprising 400 pakistani and chinese learners’ essays used in this study has been electronically derived from an online source, icnale. the representative corpus has been tagged and analysed through mat tagger. this study addresses how the language of pakistani and chinese learners vary comparatively linguistically; it also explores their linguistic characterization which distinguishes their variety through their co-occurring linguistic features using md analysis by utilizing five dimensions. the study is restricted to only two countries i.e., pakistan and china, and the size of the data is considerably more restricted to one sub-register of essay writing, namely, argumentative essays. the results indicate that the language of pakistani learners’ essays is informational but chinese learners’ essays are involved in dimension 1 chinese learners’ essays are narrative whereas pakistanis learners’ essays are non-narrative on dimension 2. dimension 3 specifies that pakistani learners’ essay writings implement that the text is independent of context and contains significant nominalizations while chinese learners’ essay writings are context-dependent in nature. dimension 4 indicates that chinese learners’ essay writings are more explicit and persuasive specifying extensive use of modal verbs than pakistani learners’ writings. the nature of chinese learners’ essays is abstract, formal, and technical while pakistani learners’ essays are non-abstract, objective, and natural on dimension 5. this study has shed light on how learners acquire new words and expressions from reading different texts that identify various lexical grammatical aspects writers employ and serve as the fundamental source of variety in their language. the categories of dimensions are developed based on particular linguistic features that are overor under-utilized by assessing the statistical data. keywords icnale, argumentative essays, pakistani, chinese, multidimensional analysis correspondence e-mail: aalimalik381@gmail.com article exploring cultural dynamics: comparative analysis of argumentative english essays among pakistani and chinese learners using multidimensional analysis arooba abid1, ali raza siddique2, nisa fatima3 1-3department of applied linguistics, government college university, faisalabad, pakistan under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.3.221-230.2023 i. introduction this present study explores the linguistic variation through comparative analysis across pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays with respect to grammatical and lexical features. by examining co-occurring linguistic characteristics in learners’ corpora, this study investigates linguistic patterns of learners’ language, such as cohesion, coherence, readability level, etc. along with their roles (tabassum, farooq & mahmood, 2021). so, this study is based on macroscopic analysis and it seeks to offer a framework for comparing and contrasting texts as well as a complete investigation of their linguistic variety by finding the dimensions in a group of ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 222 texts (biber, 1995). the objective of this study is comparing argumentative essays produced by pakistani and chinese english language learners. to investigate the linguistic variation, this study decides to perform mda (biber, 1988) and utilizes mat software to obtain the desired results in terms of normalized frequencies over 100, zscores, dimension scores and linguistic parameters which decide the text types. this study is an exploratory and based on multidimensional approach suitable for studying linguistic variations across the developed corpora of pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays. in this regard, 800 argumentative essays from an online source, i.e., icnale, have been collected from pakistani and chinese english language learners. the limitation of this study is that the limited size of data is considerably more restricted to argumentative essays (i.e., limited area). the reason behind choosing the data of chinese learners is that pakistan and china have cordial relations with each other. biber originally created the mda method to compare the written and spoken registers of english, widely used to analyze the synchronic and diachronic registers of different languages, specifically english. biber’s mda model investigates grammatical as well as semantic features of the text. it consists of semantic and grammatical taggers (xiao, 2009). similarly, by proposing that the term ‘register’ should be understood as a continuous (rather than discrete) notion and listing the numerous situational variables that have been taken into account in register studies, biber (1993a) attempts to give an overarching framework. in its broadest sense, register describes how language is used differently in various functional settings. this study has utilized corpus linguistics, which analyzes the linguistic structure of a large corpora of text using computational methods (argamon, 2019). moreover, the md technique has made use of computational tools to ‘tag’ words for different lexical, grammatical, and syntactic categories, generate frequency counts of linguistic characteristics inside texts, and evaluate the distribution of linguistic features both within and across texts. instead of analyzing individual language constructs, the study objective of the method is the linguistic analysis of texts, genres, text kinds, styles, or registers. it is corpusbased and is based on the examination of several naturally occurring texts. it combines macroand microscopic perspectives. based on my perspective, many different domains, even specialized ones like academic discourse, have used md analysis. but my target domain is considerably more restricted to argumentative essays (i.e., limited area). this study studies what kinds of dimensions the corpus generates. therefore, analysis of argumentative essays of pakistani and chinese students have been investigated using md analysis. each of the five dimensions is classified individually and then compared. under this research, many researchers have been conducted with two methodologies i.e., corpus-based analysis and mda. data for research is obtained through a wide range of approaches and arrives in a number of formats. research technique is essentially the ‘how’ of any given research activity. similarly, any data that is collected, examined, and maintained with the goal of generating and verifying novel study results is regarded as research data. following are the studies conducted by different researchers on different features such as linguistic features, metadiscourse, and structure analysis. the researches in mda have been done by many researchers in different language and domain (reppen, 1994; grant and ginther, 2000; hyland, 2004; biber and hared, 2008; liu and furneaux, 2013; weigle and friginal, 2015; crosthwaite, 2016; kim and nam, 2019; lin and lin, 2019b; vögelin et al. 2019). in term of pakistani context, some researchers also have done research in multidemensional studies (rasheed and mehmood, 2014; musarrat azher and mehmood, 2016; azher and mahmood, 2018; abbas, mahmood, and asghar, 2020; tabassum et al. 2021). however, most of the previous studies, especially in the pakistani context, focused on only in one context. therefore, this study fouceses in evaluate the argumentative essays of pakistani and chinese students electronically derived from icnale. four hundred essays from each category derived from icnale were used as the corpus for this study. results and discussions are further investigated in this article by using five dimensions using mat tagger software (1.3), which has been downloaded, installed, and utilized. this program was created in 2013 by nini using biber’s model (1988). it just ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 223 works with normal text. using stanford tagger, data is annotated. ii. method the present study adopted a quantitative method for a comparative analysis of the argumentative essays written by pakistan and chinese learners. these essays used in the present study were derived from icnale (ishikawa, 2007) in an e-version comprising four hundred essays from pakistan and china. chinese learners’ essays contained 93755 words whereas pakistani learners’ essays contained 94547 words. the tools for data collection were such as antconc, kennis word counter, and mat software. initially, data from chinese and pakistani learners’ essays was derived from an online source, icnale. secondly, the folder was created and all the essays of pakistan and chinese students were kept separately after naming them accordingly. thirdly, four hundred essays of pakistani and chinese argumentative essays were compiled into one notepad file in order to analyze it via mat tagger. after that, the size of all data files was calculated by counting the words in each file. additionally, data for the analysis was gathered for research from online sources. lastly, examples were represented using the textual examples to distinguish between the writings. chinese and pakistani students’ writing contains a few grammatical mistakes. this study’s focus on linguistic variation in argumentative essays led to the tagging and analysis of the data using the biber’s model of mda. in order to identify linguistic variation, the biber model’s five dimensions were analyzed. dimension 6 is not analyzed and discussed due to its insignificant features and explainability and the limited number of linguistic features. the three main types of dependent clauses that may be found in d6 are that-complement clauses on verbs, that-complement clauses on adjectives, and thatrelative clauses on object position. the comparison of academic works is observed using a quantitative approach. through statistical factor analysis, cooccurring linguistic characteristics are found, and those traits are then interpreted using mat tagger in the dimensions file. information is produced in a separate folder called mat_mat_file name. it contains five files, which are listed below: dimensional 1 (mat file name) dimensional 1 (mat file name) dimensions (mat file name) statistics (mat file name) type (mat file name) zscore (mat-file name) ii. results z-scores analyzed by mat tagger of the linguistic features for the representative corpus as shown in table 4.1 below. the means and standard deviations stated in biber (1988) are used to generate the z-scores. all z-scores with magnitudes greater than 0.2 will be categorized as “interesting variables” by the mat tagger. only the dimension scores are impacted by the ‘z-score correction’ option. moreover, the z-scores of the variables with a mean greater than 1 according to nini (2014) are used to calculate the dimensional scores which helps in identifying the closest text type to biber’s model. linguistic features with “[]” indicates that these features are present in various dimension that is interpreted and analyzed for the comparative study accordingly. also, the table 4.2 given below displays the location of the text’s dimensional score text type closest to biber’s eight text types i.e., conversations, academic prose, broadcasts, press reportage, prepared speeches, personal letters, general fiction, and official documents. the program will interpret the closest genre to the selective text i.e., argumentative essays of pakistani and chinese learners. dimensions value of sig. (p-value) dimension 1 0.0002 dimension 2 0.0012 dimension 3 0.0001 dimension 4 0.0357 dimension 5 0.0543 table 4.1 anova test across pakistani and chinese english argumentative essays firstly, the p-value of 0.0002 for dimension 1 suggests that there is a highly significant difference between pakistani and chinese english argumentative essays in terms of this dimension. with a p-value of 0.0012 for dimension 2, there is a statistically significant difference between the essays from the two groups in this dimension. although the significance might be slightly lower compared to dimension 1, the result still indicates a meaningful distinction. next, the p-value of 0.0001 for dimension 3 signifies a highly significant difference between the essays of pakistani and ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 224 chinese origin in this dimension. the result reinforces the notion that the essays significantly deviate from each other in this particular dimension. then, dimension 4 has a p-value of 0.0357, which suggests that there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups’ essays in this dimension. while the significance level is comparatively higher than in the previous dimensions, it still indicates a meaningful difference. for dimension 5, the p-value is 0.0543. this result indicates a relatively moderate level of significance, suggesting a potential difference between the essays from the two groups. discourse particles, demonstrative pronouns etc., although the pakistani texts seem closer to biber’s (1988) prepared speeches on the basis of the linguistic features’ results. texts belonging to this text type are typically texts that present an extreme narrative concern. therefore, pakistani learners’ essay writings are narrative. however, because of differences in their language structure, chinese learners’ writings lack internal coherence. the functions of the co-occurring linguistic patterns across pakistani and chinese learners’ essays have been exemplified in table 3. filename d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 chn 8.04 -2.13 2.44 5.71 1.99 pak 3.76 -2.62 6.68 0.74 0.43 table 2 dimension scores of pakistani and chinese english argumentative essays iv. discussion dimensions interpret the comparison of argumentative essays in pakistani and chinese, focusing on certain features accordingly, and examines several linguistic features significant on the basis of negative and positive loadings. dimension 1: involved vs. informational discourse production in view of biber (1988), dimension 1 differentiates between involved and informational discourse production which are characterized through positive and negative loadings of cooccurring linguistic features across the text type. on the basis of these features, positive are subtracted from negative loadings for calculating dimension scores. the positive/negative symbol dimension scores lead us to decide the text type whether it is informative or involved. the dimension scores in pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays have been calculated that pakistani learners’ essays are informational due to the abundance of negative loadings, whereas chinese learners’ essays are involved due to abundance of positive loadings. therefore, pakistani learners’ essays are characterized through the following features such as hedges, contractions, second person pronouns, private verbs etc., whereas chinese learners’ essays are featured of first-person pronoun, emphatics, possibility modals, pronoun it etc. the chinese texts seem isolated from biber’s text types because it differs on the basis the linguistic features such as nouns, attributive adjectives, be as main verb, pak chn restaurant is such a place where every sort of people come... in this way pakistan’s progress will improve… someone need experience of yourself…. our government want to check this problem. but now a day it’s very difficult for some of the parents to do so the students can help themselves. so, when women is doing part time job, she is neglect her home and children and family… he became a machine, and this causes a mental problem… i am really against the part time job are essential for students. the student might not give proper time to their studies. she believes that herself is an adult and has the responsibility to support her life… we really should take some measures… we spend most of the time and the energy to concentrate on studies. he works for a factory for nearly one year. they might think smoking-banned in the restaurants harms their rights… it will result in troubles at people’s lung. it can not only fulfillment the people who smoke but also not bother the other people who don’t smoke. we could develop our ability through the part-time job. table 3. textual examples of dimension 1 from pakistani and chinese learners’ essays dimension 2: narrative vs. non-narrative concerns in view of biber (1988), dimension 2 differentiates between narrative and non-narrative discourse production which are characterized through positive and negative loadings of cooccurring linguistic features across the text type. on the basis of these features, positive are subtracted from negative loadings for calculating dimension scores. the positive/negative symbol dimension scores lead us to decide the text type whether it is narrative or non-narrative in nature. the dimension scores across pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays have been observed that pakistani learners’ essays are narrative in nature due to the abundance of positive loadings, whereas chinese learners’ essays are non-narrative due to abundance of negative loadings. therefore, chinese learners’ essays are nonnarrative due to perfect aspect, past tense, public verbs etc. while pakistani learners’ essays are narrative due to third ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 225 person pronoun, public verbs etc. the pakistani features categorize the text closer to biber’s (1988) academic prose which indicates that these writing genres consist of formal, narrative, informational expositions that are very technical, focused at communicating information. whereas chinese writings is closer to professional letters. this text style often consists of persuasive or argumentative texts. the functions of the co-occurring linguistic patterns across pakistani and chinese learners’ essays have been exemplified in table 4. dimension 3: explicit vs. context-dependent discourse production in view of biber (1988), dimension 3 differentiates between context-independent and context-dependent discourse production which are characterized through positive and negative loadings of co-occurring linguistic features across the text type. on the basis of these features, positive are subtracted from negative loadings for calculating dimension scores. the positive/negative symbol dimension scores lead us to decide the text type whether it is context-independent and contextdependent. the dimension scores across pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays have been observed that pakistani learners’ essays are context-dependent in nature due to the abundance of negative loadings, whereas chinese learners’ essays are context-independent due to abundance of positive loadings. therefore, chinese learners’ essays are context independent due to concessive adverbial subordinators, phrasal coordination, predicative adjectives etc. on the other hand, pakistani learners’ essays are context-dependent due to features such as time adverbials, wh relative clauses on object position, place adverbials etc. pak chn some people use part time job to spend his free time in any activity and work. this statement is written in every public place. for this regard, it can be said that it is a public place why all the places comes for different purposes.… on the one side they do the marketing of it and on the other hand they warns the public. the teacher should suggest a good and safe place for students to work. though some people may argue that the job will distract students’ attention to study… before i have got into the university, i once thought that i should get some part-time job on my weekends or holidays because … many studies add to the growing evidence that a ban on smoking in public places seems to have a positive impact… the students who succeeded in being admitted to the colleges find them faced more changes and challenges. he doesn’t have time to study what he should learn and have no time to exercise. table 4. textual examples of dimension 2 from pakistani and chinese learners’ essays pakistani learners’ writings are closer to biber’s (1988) professional letters while chinese learners’ writings are closer to biber’s (1988) popular lore. politics, history, health, and other areas are explored in texts found in popular fiction (popular lore) and magazines. the functions of the co-occurring linguistic patterns across pakistani and chinese learners’ essays have been exemplified in table 5. pak chn first people take it as an enjoyment with friends but later it becomes habit. early in the morning, the people turn to, god but a tobacco slave is at the pipe coughing and spitting… the smoke which he emits from his mouth and the above all are some benefits … and they learn from this fair use of money which they get from their parents at the time of necessity. it mostly begins through the bad company of bad friends whose spoil the habit of the others. because pakistani people leave below the poverty line. although the money may be not enough, but that is all they have earned by themselves. many students spend time on shopping, singing, or playing computer games which are pointless. … it is important for our college students to have a part-time job… though it is hard to carry it out, we have innumerous reasons to support this action… as an adult, it will be shameful for us to ask our parents for money. he said that although it sounded perfect, it was very hard to make the two into the balance. table 5. textual examples of dimension 3 from pakistani and chinese learners’ essays dimension 4: expression of argumentative discourse production in view of biber (1988), dimension 4 interprets overt expression of persuasion production which are characterized through positive and negative loadings of co-occurring linguistic features across the text type. on the basis of these features, positive are subtracted from negative loadings for calculating dimension scores. the positive/negative symbol dimension scores lead us to decide the text type whether it is less persuasive or more persuasive. the features on this dimension are related to the speaker’s own point of view to persuade the audience. the dimension scores across pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays have been observed that pakistani learners’ essays are less persuasive in nature due to the abundance of negative loadings, whereas chinese learners’ essays are more persuasive due to abundance of positive loadings. thus, chinese learners’ essays are more persuasive due to conditional adverbial subordinators, necessity modals, infinitives etc. alternatively, pakistani learners’ essays are less persuasive in nature due to the predictive modals, split auxiliaries, and suasive verbs. the chinese text is closer to biber’s text type ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 226 named as telephone conversations and prepared speeches while the pakistani linguistics features classify the text as being closer to biber’s (1988) professional letters. political and legal speeches, sermons, and university lectures are examples of prepared speeches although the temporal context of telephone conversations is shared. most speech situations in these types of talks are comparable; the main differences are in the social roles that participants play, the quantity of background information that participants share, and the goal of communication. the functions of the co-occurring linguistic patterns across pakistani and chinese learners’ essays have been exemplified in table 6. pak chn in this way pakistan’s progress will improve... destination and achievement of destination shall be present in the mind of the students. although that person is not a machine, but he would do every work…. in european countries women are also chain smokers. a message is also given on cigarette by ministry of health that it is injurious to health. i agree in that smoking should be completely banned at all the restaurants in the country… moving towards part time job. student living in hostel are commonly moved towards these types of jobs. if they have a part-time job, they are able to living better with extra money. though we always emphasize the point that study must come first, it doesn’t mean that we cannot have part time job. we should make them clear. they pay for the foods and service so that they ought to enjoy their time in restaurants. despite its merits, it also brings some problems to solve… because of this, law says that cigarette case have to show smoking is harmful to health. they must do a good job to promote their ability. table 6 textual examples of dimension 4 from pakistani and chinese learners’ essays dimension 5: abstract vs. non-abstract style in view of biber (1988), dimension 5 differentiates between abstract and non-abstract discourse production which are characterized through positive and negative loadings of cooccurring linguistic features across the text type. on the basis of these features, positive are subtracted from negative loadings for calculating dimension scores. the positive/negative symbol dimension scores lead us to decide the text type whether it is abstract and non-abstract. the dimension scores across pakistani and chinese learners’ argumentative essays have been observed that pakistani learners’ essays are nonabstract in nature due to the abundance of negative loadings, whereas chinese learners’ essays are more inclined towards abstract due to positive loadings. thus, pakistani learners’ essays are nonabstract due to agentless passives, past participial whiz deletion relatives, and stranded preposition while chinese learners’ essays are abstract due to by-passives, conjuncts, past participial clauses etc. the linguistic features in chinese learners’ writings are closer to biber’s (1988) religion and pakistani learners’ writing categorize the text closer to biber’s (1988) press reportage and professional letters. politics, sports, society, news stories, finance, and cultural events are all represented in press coverage. compared to other categories, they are more informal, emotive, and involved. it is said to be an accurate, straightforward reporting of information. the functions of the co-occurring linguistic patterns across pakistani and chinese learners’ essays have been exemplified in table 7. pak chn even smoking is very common in restaurants it should be banned because other people do affect by smoking. these students done very honestly and never be afraid to done tough job. once a person is addicted to it, it is very difficult for him to shake it off… people far away from islam and down those work which are forbade in islam. vegetable fruit and other food items and the has a natural capacity to obscure the dangers gasses, which smokers spread in the atmosphere…. part time job is really a good habit for students. however, it also has negative effect on students…. thus, restaurant is a place where we enjoy delicious food, the atmosphere should not be disturbed by annoying smoke. …moreover, it can give you some life-experience, such as shopping, living and so on….? then, based on many surveys, smoking can result in many kinds of disease which lead to death… we have been college students. instead of playing online games all day long… second, there are lots of fire accidents being caused by smoking in recent years. table 7 textual examples of dimension 5 from pakistani and chinese learners’ essays v. conclusion in this study, the five textual dimensions of md analysis were used to examine and compare the argumentative writings written by chinese and pakistani learners. to address the question of how they differ in terms of their linguistic features using md analysis of five dimensions, the results indicate the statistically significant differences along each dimension. in conclusion, the linguistic variation indicate that chinese and pakistani learners’ writings are involved persuasion, with a non-informational focus. they are verbal, interactional, subjective, and generalized in nature. the excessive use of linguistic features is: necessity modals, pomd, pred, and [spin] that indicates that text is involved rather than informative in nature. the major purpose of this study was to compare the dimensions of argumentative writing between chinese and pakistani learners’ writings. this comparative analysis includes a total of 67 ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 227 have implications for second language teaching and learning by shedding light on how learners acquire new words and expressions from reading different texts. the results of this study are constrained in that they cannot necessarily be applied to other types of essays. the data was restricted to one subregister of essay writing, namely, argumentative essay writing. moreover, it is restricted to only two countries i.e., pakistan and china. the findings from this study could be helpful for future research on comparative literature and second-language writing instruction. linguistic features. the dimensions are involved and informational discourse production, narrative and non-narrative discourse, context-independent and context-dependent discourse production, overt expression of persuasion, and abstract and nonabstract discourse respectively. the present can assist future academics in their analysis of linguistic variety and comparative study of argumentative texts. this research can identify various lexical grammatical aspects that writers employ, and which serve as the fundamental source of variety in their language. findings could references abbas, h., mahmood, m. a., & asghar, s. a. 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(2009). multidimensional analysis and the study of world englishes. world englishes, 28, pp. 421-450. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.2009.01606.x ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 229 dimension 1 dimension 3 positive features scores positive features scores split infinitives 1000.00 predicative adjectives 3.19 total other nouns 2.15 phrasal coordination 1.85 pro-verb do 2.03 wh relative clauses on subject position 1.65 amplifiers 1.77 nominalizations 0.16 causative adverbial subordinators 1.59 pied-piping relative clauses 0.09 possibility modals 1.51 that relative clauses on subject position 0.00 analytic negation 0.98 positive features scores pronoun it 0.75 concessive adverbial subordinators -0.13 sentence relatives 0.75 place adverbials -0.53 existential there 0.44 wh relative clauses on object position -0.53 emphatics 0.24 time adverbials -1.11 present tense 0.19 total adverbs -1.91 downtoners 0.12 dimension 4 direct wh-questions 0.00 positive features scores positive features scores necessity modals 1.81 attributive adjectives -0.16 infinitives 0.80 discourse particles -0.17 conditional adverbial subordinators 0.27 average word length -0.18 positive features scores demonstrative pronouns -0.27 suasive verbs -0.35 wh-clauses -0.30 predictive modals -0.67 be as main verb -0.44 split auxiliaries -1.12 independent clause coordination -0.46 dimension 5 hedges -0.46 positive features scores total prepositional phrases -0.49 conjuncts 0.94 indefinite pronouns -0.55 other adverbial subordinators 0.45 first person pronouns -0.57 past participial clauses 0.00 contractions -0.61 positive features scores second person pronouns -0.62 by-passives -0.15 subordinator that deletion -0.66 agentless passives -0.38 stranded preposition -0.70 past participial whiz deletion relatives -0.58 private verbs -1.06 stranded preposition -0.70 type-token ratio -2.13 dimension 2 positive features scores third person pronoun 1.16 public verbs 1.06 synthetic negation 0.12 positive features scores present participial clauses -0.35 past tense -1.12 perfect aspect -1.37 appendix 1. factor loading across pakistani english argumentative essays ali siddique/ jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 3 (2023) 230 dimension 1 dimension 3 positive features scores positive features scores possibility modals 3.43 predicative adjectives 2.73 sentence relatives 2.75 concessive adverbial subordinators 0.63 emphatics 2.21 phrasal coordination 0.52 direct wh-questions 1.33 wh relative clauses on subject position 0.50 pronoun it 0.99 that relative clauses on subject position 0.38 downtoners 0.75 place adverbials 0.00 amplifiers 0.65 negative features scores analytic negation 0.56 nominalizations -0.43 total other nouns 0.54 pied-piping relative clauses -0.45 first person pronouns 0.52 wh relative clauses on object position -0.53 existential there 0.44 time adverbials -0.74 causative adverbial subordinators 0.35 total adverbs -1.64 pro-verb do 0.34 dimension 4 wh-clauses 0.30 positive features scores second person pronouns 0.22 necessity modals 2.71 hedges 0.15 infinitives 1.86 subordinator that deletion 0.15 predictive modals 0.76 attributive adjectives 0.14 conditional adverbial subordinators 0.68 private verbs 0.02 negative features scores split infinitives 0.00 suasive verbs -0.06 negative features scores split auxiliaries -0.24 present tense -0.09 dimension 5 average word length -0.10 positive features scores independent clause coordination -0.15 conjuncts 2.63 stranded preposition -0.26 other adverbial subordinators 0.27 contractions -0.28 by-passives 0.00 demonstrative pronouns -0.29 past participial clauses 0.00 discourse particles -0.35 negative features scores be as main verb -0.53 stranded preposition -0.19 indefinite pronouns -0.55 agentless passives -0.30 total prepositional phrases -0.84 past participial whiz deletion relatives -0.61 type-token ratio -0.84 dimension 2 positive features scores present participial clauses 1.59 negative features scores synthetic negation -0.13 third person pronoun -0.48 public verbs -0.70 past tense -1.16 perfect aspect -1.25 appendix 2. factor loading across chinese english argumentative essays untitled handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 413 online version available in : http://arbitrer.�b.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 24, 2024 final revision: september 13, 2024 accepted: september 15, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 this paper discusses the design for developing the minangkabau language corpus, especially regarding the opportunities and challenges. the corpus development of minangkabau is a crucial project to document, preserve, and revive the treasure trove of culture within the language. the availability of a minangkabau language corpus can open opportunities for more intensive research on the minangkabau language with a more modern and data-based approach. it can also encourage the development of minangkabau corpus-based teaching materials. the corpus is manually assembled using various sources’ comprehensive data collection, annotation, and curation pipelines. these may be manuscripts, books, newspapers, or other written texts and spontaneous conversations, such as interviews or public speeches. multimedia resources, such as television and radio broadcasts, audio-video recordings, and social media content, also add to the diversity of data gathered. the availability of accessible digital sources, such as online videos, online radio programs, and ebooks, can make data collection easier. however, several challenges may appear in developing the minangkabau language corpus, such as limited technology accessibility, dialect variations, and the involvement of highly skilled human resources. this paper explains some opportunities for developing the minangkabau language corpus and increasing the role of the corpus in revitalizing and documenting the minangkabau language. furthermore, the availability of the minangkabau language corpus can also be a starting point for developing linguistic technology, such as voice recognition, textto-speech, and natural language processing. keywords minangkabau corpus, language documentation, language preservation, corpus methodology, digital resources correspondence e-mail: handoko@hum.unand.ac.id review developing the corpus of minangkabau language: insights, challenges, and future directions handoko handoko faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.413-429.2024 i. introduction the minangkabau language is one of the malay language families spoken by most of the people of west sumatra, indonesia. in addition, the minangkabau language is also spoken in other regions, namely by people in jambi, riau, and negeri sembilan (aman et al., 2019; anwar, 1980). although minangkabau is closely related to malay and the other languages grouped with it in the “malayic” subgroup of austronesian, distinct phonological, lexical, and grammatical features set it somewhat apart from the others (mcginn, 2009). over the past few decades, the minangkabau language has been undergoing changes that threaten its vitality. this is becoming more common among the young as they are losing their competence in using the minangkabau language since indonesian has been replaced with the ofïcial national language that is used in school, mass media, and daily conversation (suryani, 2018). conversely, language is not only a means of communication but also part of identity and a reflection of the culture. therefore, maintaining the minangkabau language is key to preserving minangkabu culture. among the ways that can be done to preserve the minangkabau language is to develop a welldesigned corpus. this corpus can be a valuable data source for linguistic analysis, developing teaching material, as well as using linguistic data-based technology, such as speech recognition and speech generation (mcenery & xiao, 2011; o’keeffe & mccarthy, 2010). handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 414 unlike the english language or other major languages, the research on corpus linguistics in regional languages such as minangkabau is still limited (koto & koto, 2020), although some studies have engaged in constructing and analyzing corpora, general language documentation of indonesian local languages including collaborative efforts for creating useful corpora are yet to be developed (hamamah 2023). advanced corpus tools, such as sketch engine, are available but their usage in indonesian research is limited by subscription costs and the adoption of corpus linguistics by the academic community (isti’anah et al., 2023). the paper aims to investigate the development of the minangkabau language corpus and how available resources can be used as data for corpus development. this paper also explores the challenges in developing the corpus and research opportunities that can be carried out using the minangkabau language corpus. later, this paper will also discuss the methodology and some strategies in different places that have been successful in developing a regional language corpus so it can be applied to minangkabau. ii. developing the minangkabau language corpus over the decades, corpus linguistics has had many more uses and provided a great resource for language studies in general. major languages, such as english, french, and spanish, have large annotated corpora that consist of billions of words and are annotated with various linguistics annotations, such as phonology, morphology, lexical, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis (zufferey, 2020). such corpora allow further research of various linguistic phenomena and serve applied linguistics, language teaching, cultural studies, and discourse analysis (al-hamzi et al., 2020). british national corpus (bnc), for instance, demonstrates how large and complex annotated corpus can serve as an environment for testing linguistics theories, including phonology, semantics, syntax, and discourse analysis (love et al., 2022; mustafa & yusuf, 2021; nurmukhamedov & sharakhimov, 2021; peksoy, 2017) corpora also play a critical role in the evolution of linguistic theories, and language models. it has contributed significantly to modern corpus-based linguistic studies by providing valuable and reliable contextualized information (xiao, 2008). corpora provided a more reliable way to test linguistic hypotheses when considering the frequency and distribution of language in larger samples (stubbs & halbe, 2012). the role lies in verifying and modifying existing theories as well as developing new linguistic theories (xiao, 2008). working with corpora has given insights into adequate and accurate statistical analysis of language use, including concordances, collocations, and frequency studies (anthony, 2013; cushing, 2017; meyer, 2002; stubbs & halbe, 2012). while the precise relationship between corpus linguistics and theoretical linguistics remains debatable, corpusbased research has come to be seen as an important complement to the traditional approach (barlow, 2011). the development of corpora in regional languages holds the key to conserving cultural history, education reform, and social inclusion. these corpora are valuable to researchers, learners, and teachers as they offer authentic texts for language and cultural studies (juško-štekele & kļavinska, 2024). they facilitate the digitization and preservation of ethnocultural units, helping to maintain and renew national culture across generations (barmenqulova, 2024; felde, 2022; rao et al., 2020). bilingual corpora, in particular, serve as modern libraries of language heritage and reflect advanced contrastive analysis (dimitrova & garabík, 2012; lane et al., 2022). collaboration among corpus compilers is necessary for addressing common challenges and applying shared methods despite different needs and goals (kretzschmar et al., 2006). in language education, corpora can serve as a tool to increase access to multilingual quality education by offering authentic resources in the local languages of the different linguistic communities, which are indispensable for contributing towards promoting quality. in this way, community use of heritage languages within formal educational systems can reinforce cultural identity and resilience (migge & léglise, 2010; oriyama, 2010; poku, 2024; tembe & norton, 2008). additionally, corpus-based methods work in synchrony with hands-on learning and inquiry-based approaches to language use — as opposed to the simplified examples common in structured teaching (mcenery & xiao, 2011; o’keeffe et al., 2007; johns, 2002). handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 415 this enables effective language learning and allows for the creation of materials by educators that are reflective of the linguistic needs of certain communities, reinforcing cultural understanding and more successful learning outcomes (boulton & landure, 2016; bennett, 2010; breyer, 2009). overview of existing linguistic corpora over the years, the field of corpus linguistics has developed considerably thanks to new methodological and technological advancements. in the beginning, corpora were mostly made manually with early corpus such as the brown corpus (1964) showing an organization of texts for linguistic analysis (kytö, 2011)). some of the well-known language corpora include the corpus of contemporary american english (coca), which contains over 1 billion words from diverse genres; the british national corpus (bnc), representing a wide range of british english; and the international corpus of english (ice), which allows for comparative studies of english varieties globally. additional noteworthy corpora include the michigan corpus of academic english (micase), focusing on academic discourse; the childes database for child language acquisition; and the corpus of global web-based english (glowbe), which provides insights into online communication. regional and minority language corpora emerged as a corollary to this development in response to the necessity of documenting languages that are under threat of extinction. corpus linguistics has also been used in projects such as the digital indigenous language archive (dila) and the endangered languages documentation programme (eldp) to help preserve linguistic diversity (nathan & austin, 2004; grenoble & whaley, 2006). today, there are many regional languages available, such as corpus of contemporary arabic (cca), the indian languages corpora initiative (ilci), bangla national corpus, uzbek national corpus, korpus dewan bahasa dan pustaka (malay), titml corpus (japanese), finnish national corpus, russian national corpus (rnc), thai national corpus, kurdish corpus, and many more. some minority languages also have collection of data in the form of a corpus, such as the basque corpus (spoken in the basque region of spain and france), the sami corpus (spoken by the indigenous sami people in northern scandinavia), ainu language corpus (corpus developed for ainu, an indigenous language of japan), nahuatl language corpus (language spoken in mexico), buryat language corpus (spoken in parts of russia, mongolia, and china), and many more. the creation of corpora for minority languages is fundamental for the documentation and preservation of linguistic diversity, offers resources to support language revitalization efforts, and provides data for academic research and language technology (arkhangelskiy, 2019; lane et al., 2022; trosterud, 2002). previous work on minangkabau language documentation prior records of the minangkabau language are mostly in descriptive linguistic research and dictionary compilation (dipatuan, rusmali et al., 1985; saydam, 2004). adelaar’s (1992) comprehensive grammar of minangkabau remains foundational, offering detailed descriptions of its phonological, morphological, and syntactic structures. furthermore, research that examined the lexical language of minagkabau was also carried out, such as lexical variations from several regions in west sumatra (heni & suryadi, 2022; nesti, 2016; novita et al., 2021; razin & subiyanto, 2024; reniwati & khanizar, 2022), and comparison of lexicons with languages in minangkabau outside west sumatra (reniwati et al., 2017). despite the foundational studies on minangkabau, significant gaps remain in the comprehensive documentation and analysis of the language. one major gap is the lack of a large, annotated corpus that captures the linguistic diversity and usage patterns of minangkabau across various social contexts (koto & koto, 2020). while some of the resources provide a wide range of free resources focused on supporting a particular dialect or genre, most do not give an elaborate view (himmelmann, 2006). however, the applicability of most language processing tools has been limited to major languages, since they are predominantly designed for the description of major languages and have excluded minority languages like minangkabau (bird & simons, 2003). these are critical gaps that need to be addressed in order for documentation and preservation work on minangkabau to move forward. furthermore, community involvement in language documents has been insufïcient as well. good language documentation also requires the involvement of speakers and communities, not handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 416 learning application (oswari et al., 2020). these corpora repositories are critical resources for a variety of purposes, such as natural language processing tasks or linguistic applications for interactive language learning tools. in education, the corpus can be used to develop teaching/learning materials based on minangkabau linguistic features to give more natural language knowledge to purchasers. corpus linguistics has contributed vastly to language education with practical implications in teaching and learning (flowerdew, 2011). they can be effectively employed for syllabus development, materials creation, and data-driven learning to supplement both general and specialized language education (römer, 2011). the integration of corpus linguistics in teacher education programs can improve teachers’ research skills and language awareness, enabling them to create more effective classroom tasks (o’keeffe & farr, 2003). the empirical data integrated with the intuitions of potential speakers give corpus-based approaches an advantage over their non-empirical counterparts in terms of objectivity and representativeness (mcenery & xiao, 2011). despite some criticism, corpora have become widely used in linguistics and language pedagogy, contributing to lexicography, grammar, language variation, translation studies, and discourse analysis (mcenery & xiao, 2011). the combination of teaching and language corpora is increasingly becoming a convergence proving to be valuable in the field of language education (mcenery & xiao, 2011). additionally, it serves as a cultural preservation tool, capturing the oral traditions and linguistic practices of the minangkabau people for future generations (handoko et al., 2024; nelisa et al., 2021; sakti & nakamura, 2013). iii. methodology in developing corpus minangkabau data and source of data the development of a comprehensive minangkabau corpus requires a systematic approach to data collection to ensure it accurately reflects the full diversity of the language. to capture the rich linguistic landscape of minangkabau, data is sourced from a wide array of spoken and written forms. the most important are recordings of spoken language, such as natural conversations, interviews, oral traditions, and public speeches. the recordings just as assistants in data collection (chelliah & de reuse 2011). by soliciting active participation early on, the project can ensure that documentation efforts reflect the cultural values and needs of the language community. importance of developing a minangkabau corpus corpus linguistics approaches have greatly facilitated language research in many fields. the methods behind it serve as the empirical foundation providing more insights into language use and structure through the analysis of massive textual data (mcenery & hardie, 2011; philip, 2018). the application of corpus-based methods has pushed forward several fields of linguistic research, including lexicology, discourse studies, and literary stylistics (bhatia et al., 2008; philip, 2018). using corpus-based methods, researcher have addressed a deeper analysis of topics across discourse analysis, grammar in use, and meaning, both integrating sociocultural ideology and the cognitive evaluation of text (conrad 2002; deignan 2005; gerbig & mason 2008; vessey, 2015). corpus linguistics has been successful in two ways, promoting interdisciplinary research and joining linguistic disciplines to contact the humanities and social sciences (ancarno, 2018). more recent studies on language variation and change have started to engage with more diverse data sources, such as social media platforms (coats & laippala, 2024). the field is still growing, with theoretical and methodological questions being addressed while empirical approaches to language study increase (aijmer & altenberg, 2004). using the minangkabau language corpus, linguistic research can be more comprehensive with real and varied data (data-driven language analysis). moreover, a quantitative approach can also be used to describe linguistic phenomena in the minangkabau language. moreover, corpora are commonly used for the development of nlp applications like speech recognition systems and machine translation tools to fit language into the modern technological environment (musgrave, 2014). recent work has provided minangkabau corpora for sentiment analysis and machine translation to combat the lack of annotated resources in this language (koto & koto, 2020). such digital resources can facilitate computational linguistics research and applications such as the android-based minangkabau language handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 417 provide unique insights into everyday language practices, local dialects, and cultural expressions. moreover, written sources are also important, including traditional and modern materials such as books, manuscripts, and digital content. social media, blogs, and mailing lists are quoted to give you insight into the current usage of language in informal, online communication. by collecting data from these varied sources, the corpus portrays the living and changing character of the minangkabau language in different social contexts and media and creates a resource for linguistic research, language preservation, and computational applications. audio-visual documents serve as valuable resources for developing a comprehensive minangkabau language corpus. tv and radio programs can be useful resources for developing the spoken corpus of the minangkabau language. in west sumatra, two prominent television stations, tvri sumatra barat and padang tv, offer rich data sources (see figure 1 and figure 2). the variety of programs in the minangkabau language broadcast by these stations includes interviews, news reports, talk shows, scripted television dramas, and other spoken environments for which a set of authentic reference works is available. in addition, the use of audio-visual materials ensures the same linguistic features of language and regional dialectal variations, intonation and body language as accompanying cultural and social dynamics can be captured by researchers. these broadcasts provide formal and informal speech, including specialized language use in media settings. this will expand the corpus in both size and diversity regarding audiovisual content, thus rendering it a more extensive resource for analyzing minangkabau language-inuse. although audio recordings transmitted via radio have a limited reach, they have an important role in disseminating information to the local area (onyenankeya & salawu, 2022). there are a lot of linguistic data that could be extracted from the recordings coming from these various communities in minangkabau. most cities and regencies in figure 1. interview in minangkabau language on padang tv (source: padang tv, 2023) figure 2. interview in minangkabau language on tvri sumatera barat (source: tvri sumatera barat, 2022) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 418 west sumatra have local radio stations. the radio programs may consist of talk shows, interviews, local news, cultural discussions, and traditional storytelling, all authentic examples of the spoken language in various dialects and sociolects of the minangkabau language. the current digital age has made way for hundreds of online, and eventually digital, radio stations, which have further broadened the reach of these resources. digital platforms provide wider and more convenient access to radio content by tearing down geographical barriers to collect and curate datasets from around the region (see figure 3). moreover, some program from various radio stations can now be accessed online with live streams or archived content often available on demand at the click of a button which can be essential sources for sophosticated corpus. digital radio and the broadcast of such information also allow for language data to be collected from various fieldwork contexts, including work with rural dialects, urban variations, and even cross-cultural influences (adeyeye et al., 2021). thus, radio is an extraordinarily important resource for constructing a minangkabau language corpus since it enables us to capture written and spoken language on a formal-informal speech continuum directly from the media that use it and makes regional variations easily documentable. adding radio broadcasts to the corpus data will also lead us to a greater understanding of how it is used in both high and low contexts in the larger, more general sense from local cultural expressions besides that, the minangkabau also has a rich oral tradition (amir et al, 2006). various forms of oral tradition have been recorded on various media, such as cassette and vcd (suryadi, 2010). this is certainly a useful resource for the making of minangkabau language corpus based on the recordings of oral tradition. suryadi (2010) has documented various minangkabau oral traditions that have been recorded in the form of audio videos, such as rabab pariaman, indang, rabab pesisir selatan (or rabab pasisia), dendang pauah, sijobang, saluang (or bagurau), salawat dulang, randai, and traditional speech and pasambahan (see figure 4). more interestingly, these audiovisual recordings of minangkabau oral traditions also indicate lexical variation because each form of oral tradition is closely related to the regional dialects in minangkabau (suryadi, 2010). in terms of written resources, written language data is gathered from a variety of genres like newspapers, magazines, novels, religious texts, and so on. after the arrival of islam, minangkabau as an oral language had a written form in the 18th century and started to be written with the jawi script, then later using latin alphabet (harun et al., 2018; pramono et al., 2018). this script was used by ofïcials in the 19th century, and as a symbol for identity and defiance against colonialism (sulistiyo et al., 2023). the minangkabau manuscripts on islam studies topics indefinite with the malay texts are hadith, shariah, history, and sufism (taufiqurrahman et al., 2021). these manuscripts provide opportunities for research in philology, linguistics, and islamic studies. besides religious figure 3. online radio program in minangkabau language (source: https://radio-online.id/rri-pro4-padang) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 419 texts, many minangkabau manuscript talks about minangkabau oral literature, known as tambo and kaba (figure 5). while some contemporary works attempt to revitalize these texts, they may also weaken the image of traditional cultural values (nurizzati & nasution, 2021). written documents provide insights to those who study both formal and informal minangkabau writing styles. some sources even can be valuable resource for the classical minangkabau language, which can be extracted from classic minangkabau manuscripts, including tambo (historical chronicles), kaba (epic tales), and other traditional manuscripts (abdullah, 1970; jamaris, 2002). these texts provide rich historical and cultural context and are crucial for capturing the figure 4. audiovisual recordings of minangkabau oral tradition (source: suryadi, 2010) figure 5. kaba manuscript in jawi script handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 420 traditional forms and uses of the language. thus, the presence of these classical manuscripts ensures the corpus captures the richness and history of the minangkabau language (almos & ladyanna, 2019; hanif et al., 2022). in addition to manuscripts in jawi script, many minangkabau books have also been written in latin script. the use of jawi script was widespread in the 19th century, serving as an ofïcial script and symbol of identity (sulistiyo et al., 2023). however, dutch colonization introduced the latin script, resulting in the emergence of numerous minangkabau literary works (noranda, 2023; nurizzati & nasution, 2021). this transition included transcribing oral literature and writing contemporary works that transformed traditional stories and values (nurizzati & nasution, 2021). the development of written languages in minangkabau resulting various kinds of literature, including oral and written forms (maryelliwati et al., 2018). the works were even then republished as classic literature by those in the printing industry who played an important part in the history of these books being popularized (herbowo & sulastri, 2020). this effort aimed to preserve minangkabau folk literature, which contains valuable cultural wisdom and life philosophies (herbowo & sulastri, 2020). the existence of the publisher even provided the space for minangkabau books to be published by local publishers, and a number were also published by national publisher balai pustaka indonesia (herbowo et al., 2021). these publications have contributed significantly to the development of the minangkabau language corpus and literary tradition. books and manuscripts are among other valuable written sources for developing the minangkabau language corpus together with magazines and newspapers. although there are limited publications are solely in the minangkabau language, newspapers and magazines such as padang ekspress and singgalang have sections written in minangkabau. these sections could contain articles, columns, or cultural stories from newspapers grounded in the ordinary practice of language among large groups of speakers and so provide useful tools for capturing current spoken norms. it is also feasible to access older newspapers and magazines, like barito minangkabau (figure 6), which can help in building the classical corpus. data preparation in preparing corpus data, digitization and transcription of linguistic data become a very important process. recorded audio data needs to be correctly transcribed in a written format for analysis (o’keeffe & mccarthy, 2010). this involves a lot of time, manpower, and monetary input. transcription is performed by individuals who are proficient in minangkabaunese language, as well as technology-savvy to ensure conformity and productivity (litosseliti, 2018). it is essential that these transcribers possess the necessary expertise to manage the technical aspects of transcription, ensuring that the resulting text is a reliable representation of the original spoken data. wray and bloomer (2013) provide a very comprehensive reference to standard orthographic transcription devices, including marking speaker identity, pauses, overlaps, backchannels, laughter as well as simple phonetic variability (see figure 7). it can also be expanded to phonemic transcription, a system for representing pronunciation further down from basic textual form, and finally, phonetic transcription, which uses the international phonetic alphabet (ipa) to map out exact sounds. transcriptions in multi-modal corpora can also figure 6. majalah barito minangkabau (source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 421 combine the unfolding of gestures with that of speech (o’keeffe & mccarthy, 2010). for written data, digitization is essential, particularly when the source is a physical document like a book or manuscript. they need scanning with standard or applicable scanners to develop digital images (see figure 8). this technology allows scanned images to be transformed into text via optical character recognition (ocr). yet manuscripts in jawi script, especially in manuscript form and handwritten, are more complex personalities. that would require transliteration from the jawi script to the latin script (ghani et al., 2009; singh et al., 2023). after the image data has been converted into text using ocr, the next crucial step is to verify the accuracy of the conversion. since ocr still frequently fails, especially with complicated fonts, handwritten text, or non-latin scripts, it leads to differences between the produced text and the original source. hence, it is important that the content should be compared with their ocr results. the process of cleaning up typos, punctuation, and formatting is called post-editing. text checks and corrections text is only considered as text if listed in the corpus and it becomes reliable for textual operations. as it ensures the corpora data is trustworthy and correct, which then are critical for any linguistic analysis afterwards. data processing and annotation after being collected, data is processed and annotated extensively for linguistic analysis and different applications. in order to enable efïcient analysis of data, we will need to encode three types of information in our corpus: metadata, markup elements extracted from the texts, and annotations for language (o’keeffe & mccarthy, 2010). metadata provides information for the text that exists beyond a specific context. for written texts, metadata typically includes details such as figure 7. transcription process with elan figure 8. digitalizing minangkabau manuscript (source: pramono) handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 422 the author’s name, the language of the text, the date of publication, and the genre or source. for spoken data, metadata might include information about the speakers, such as age, gender, dialect, and the context in which the conversation or speech took place (bird & simons, 2003). textual markup is used to describe non-linguistic or paralinguistic facets of the text and capture the document structure and appearance. this may involve things like the placement of italics, line breaks, and image or diagram positioning in written documentation. the markup for text corpora could be transcribed pauses, fillers, or interruptions, which would give us a clearer idea of how the language can appear in context. linguistic annotation is the third layer of encoding and involves adding explicit linguistic information to the corpus. this may consist of pos tagging, lemmatization, parsing or chunking grammatical structure or named entities, thematic roles, etc. tools like treetagger and uam corpustool facilitate these annotations, ensuring a rich linguistic description (schmid, 1994). these linguistic annotations expose more profound patterns in the data, such as syntactic dependencies or the association of specific constructs and offer a greater depth of linguistics analysis. over this, the metadata, textual markup, and linguistic annotation layers form a broad model to be used when analyzing the corpus in diverse directions as they offer both qualitative and quantitative new opportunities for linguistics. the functionality and accessibility of the minangkabau corpus both depend on the quality of design and architecture. a sub-corpora organization is used, found in the commonality across spoken, written, or multimedia and various genres (e.g., narratives, conversations, monologues, formal). the hierarchical structure of these types of data enables users to navigate with ease proving the capacity for recovery (leech, 1991). as the data is linked to the content in its original form, annotations, and transcriptions can also be produced per video or audio file, making it possible for researchers to cross-reference their data with transcripts. this linkage improves the corpus maintainability and accessibility (wittenburg et al., 2006). the corpus is indexed using robust database management systems, to support efïcient data retrieval and analysis. advanced search functionalities, including keyword searches, pattern matching, and frequency analysis, are implemented to enhance user access to the corpus (wittenburg et al., 2006). iv. challenges and future directions developing a comprehensive minangkabau language corpus will face several challenges, including technical challenges such as mastering technology and challenges in data collection. therefore, it is necessary to design solutions to face these challenges and build sustainable projects. the main challenge in developing a minangkabau language corpus is the wide geographic distribution of minangkabau language speakers. despite the large area of west sumatra, minangkabau speakers are also widely spread in various regions and even abroad (novita et al., 2021; reniwati et al., 2017). this migration has dispersed minangkabau speakers to numerous cities and regions, making it difïcult to collect a representative corpus of figure 9. data annotation with uam corpustool handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 423 spoken language data that reflects the full range of linguistic variation, including both dialectal and sociolectal differences. the scatter makes it challenging to collect data from multiple dialects, each of which may have developed differently across regions due to geographic isolation or the influence of neighboring languages and cultures (honkola et al., 2018). to reflect the linguistic richness of minangkabau, it is essential to collect data from urban areas, where modern versions of the language are probably spoken, and rural areas, where some level of traditional varieties (dialects) might be preserved. in addition to geographic barriers, local sociolinguistic factors may further complicate data collection. for example, speakers in urban areas may have adopted elements of other languages, such as indonesian or english, resulting in code-switching and language mixing that differ from the purer forms spoken in more isolated regions (schreier, 2013). another problem is related to technical challenges, especially dealing with digitization, annotation, and data management. the first main barrier is the need for advanced software or tools to handle linguistic data in a small language like minangkabau. most of the existing linguistic tools are designed for high-resourced languages and might not be directly applicable to low-resourced ones that have phonological, grammatical, or syntactic features different from those commonly considered in popular languages (koto & koto, 2020). this incompatibility can result in problems when both transcribing and annotating data, which makes it harder to manage data accuracy and consistency. annotating the data is another obstacle that requires linguistic skills and software capable of tagging phonemes, morphemes, syntax, and semantics in high detail (o’keeffe & mccarthy 2010). since there are not a set of existing general annotation guidelines specifically for minangkabau, individual corpus developers have to come up with customised guidelines representing the specific characteristics of this language. this, in turn, demands an investment both in terms of technology and also deeper collaboration between linguists and software developers. another set of challenges arises from the linguistic diversity within minangkabau. minangkabau has various features for each of its dialects (antoni et al., 2019; novita et al., 2021; pramono, 2018; reniwati et al., 2017). this variation takes a significant investment in fieldwork and planning to ensure that all of the dialectal variation is properly captured. the diversity of both the extent of use and proficiency will present a variety of sociolinguistic challenges in the minangkabau language. most minangkabau speakers are bilingual or multilingual, with proficiency in indonesian only or in other regional languages (marnita, 2017). as for the former, multilingualism can affect their use of minangkabau, which in turn encourages code-switching and borrowing that complicates linguistic analysis. despite the challenge in developing the corpus, the minangkabau language has a great opportunity to be explored with the most robust technologies. this rich set of language resources is a serious candidate for building an extensive minangkabau language corpus. using these different sources of data, many forms of corpora can be formed, including spoken corpus and written corpus (o’keeffe & mccarthy 2010), wherein each focuses on different functionalities of the language. moreover, specific subcorpora or small corpora may be created to emphasize a particular theme or a particular source of data, such as the corpus of the classical minangkabau language, journalistic corpus, minangkabau dialects corpus, and corpus on the social media usage of the minangkabau language. the subcorpora offers more detailed access to certain linguistic domains and allows for targeted studies of the particularities of minangkabau in different environments. similarly, it would drastically enhance the state-of-the-art of corpus-based minangkabau language research. making the minang dataset available to other researchers enables them to readily query and investigate their research with little or no struggle as per traditional constraints. the availability of features like this opens access to a wider range of scholars, democratizing linguistic research. furthermore, having an extensive corpus allows different ways of conducting research: quantitative methods like frequency analysis or corpus-based statistical techniques can now be combined with the usual qualitative approaches. by combining methods, such as these, the incorporation of more robust and data-driven insights could ultimately push minangkabau linguistic research forward. in short, it will be a valuable resource that facilitates research and avoids the extinction of the handoko / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 424 minangkabau language as an academic culture so they can overcome problems and endure greater sociocultural impacts. v. conclusion the minangkabau corpus development is an important project to document and save the minangkabau language and culture. the corpus is a rich repository of data on which linguistic research can be carried out for educational purposes as well as technological advancements and has been curated through detailed data collection, annotation, and organization. drawing from a wide range of spoken, written, and multimedia data, the corpus provides a representation of the rich complexity and versatility present in minangkabau language use across contexts and types. moreover, the availability of secondary data from television and radio broadcasts, audio-video recordings, books and manuscripts, and social media is a very valuable opportunity for developing a minang language corpus. the corpus can cover a wide range of linguistic and nonlinguistic information, which will help researchers study different levels of structure, free variation, and developments in a language. furthermore, the corpus functions as an indispensable catalyst for language preservation and revitalization within the minangkabau community. through the development of language teaching materials, curriculum, and cultural records, the corpus enables community members to participate in their heritage languages by forging intergenerational continuity. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or 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(2020). introduction to corpus linguistics. dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 391 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 4, 2023 final revision: december 27, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 verb aspects in the form of -teiru in japanese is a category that is still common to be discussed as the result of meaning classification that is prompted. this article tries to explore the aspect relations in -teiru form toward negation to see the change of meaning that is produced. this way, the writer recommends the aspects classification of -teiru when it is present with a negation constituent in clause construction. the object of this research is the verb form -teiru in japanese, the data are taken from konotoha corpus in collecting the data, the writer used several keywords including -teiru, -teinai, -teita, -teinakatta, -teimasu, -teimasen, -teimashita, and -teimasendeshita. the aspect analysis of -teiru in this research refers to a theory that is explained by nitta (1995) who classified the japanese -teiru meaning in four categories, including: ugoki no saichuu ‘continuity of action’, kekkajoutai no jizoku ‘continuity of result state’, kurikaeshiteki jizoku ‘repeated continuity’, and keiken-kiroku ‘experience-note/memory’. based on the data analysis, it shows that the presence of negation in both past and non-past can generate -teiru form which is later classified into two, they are perfective and imperfective. those that are categorized as perfective aspect are the presence of negation on aspect meaning of -teiru within category kekkajoutai no jizoku. while the imperfective aspect occurs during the presence of negation within categories ugoki no saichuu, kurikaeshiteki jizoku, and keiken-kiroku. keywords aspects, negation, verb -teiru, meaning correspondence e-mail: dinimaulia@hum.unand.ac.id article the semantics relation of japanese aspect -teiru and negation dini maulia1, tatang hariri2, sailal arimi3 1universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1-3universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.391-399.2023 i. introduction when discussing the categories of aspects in a language, we are faced with two different perspectives. first, present or not the condition as an entity that cannot be analyzed. second, the aspect category is often correlated with time. however, the analysis shows that both categories indicate significant differences. if the time category is related to the time when the event occur, action, or situation that is expressed at the present moment or derivative time. it is different from aspects that correspond to the status of the action, event, or situation that is related to the duration and accuracy of time (soga, 1983). both of them correspond to the time of action, event, and situation; however, the detailed aspects describe the duration that is not only correlated to time but also verb categories in certain clause construction. one of the verbs in japanese that indicates the aspect categories is -teiru. the verb in the form of -teiru shows different kinds of aspects categories, in which its differences are still unexplained in detail; it also causes some controversies (shirai, 2000). this controversy gave rise to a debate regarding the classification of aspects of the japanese language characterized by the auxiliary verb -teiru, motivated by the ability of -teiru in producing various meanings. nitta (1995) classified the japanese -teiru meaning in four categories, they are ugoki no saichuu ‘continuity of action’, kekkajoutai no jizoku ‘continuity of result state’, kurikaeshiteki jizoku ‘repeated continuity’, and keiken-kiroku ‘experience-note/memory’. when it is seen as an aspect classification, it shows that the meaning dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 392 classification is still unable to describe the detail of each aspect that is marked by -teiru verb. based on the meaning classification, it is recommended to include further analysis to find the types of aspects that are produced through -teiru verb. some research in determining the -teiru aspects has been previously done. however, those researchers are still splitting the focus of the research into several parts of meaning. some of the meaning tests of -teiru aspect are also used in determining the meaning classification of -teiru aspect. kindaichi (1950) explains that the resultative meaning of form aspects of teiru is possible as the result of the time precision of the verb. different arguments are given by okuda (1978) and kudo (1955) who believe that the aspects of -teiru produce meaning that is influenced by the duration of it. later (1950) and vendler (1957) suggest that verb classification determines the aspects categories of -teiru. these different perspectives indicate that -teiru is appealing to most linguists as each of them has their own theory, which is built from different considerations in determining the aspects of the category of meaning of -teiru. some form of meaning test toward aspects category on -teiru has been used. kindaichi (1950) and vendler (1957) used the distinctive aspects of verb class to classify the verb meaning of -teiru. in this classification, the class of the verb category determines the verb meaning of -teiru. a different perspective was offered by soga (1938) who used duration and punctual aspects to classify the verb meaning of -teiru. there is also an entailment test by shirai (2000) that is used to clarify the meaning of -teiru. based on the test features that were used in the previous research, this article tries to use the negation constituent to explain the classification of -teiru as a verb. by adding the negation constituent into the clause construction that contains -teiru auxiliary verb, the aspect classification in the form of -teiru will be outlined in this article. negation is one of the constituents that can be presented in a sentence and later change the sentence into a new form (van der sandt, 2006). negation is a denial that has the function of changing the affirmative sentences to negative. the discussion about negation is always correlated with affirmative form. the relation between negation and affirmative form is seen in two ways: symmetrical and asymmetrical relations. in theory, symmetrical shows that the affirmative condition will always have a linear relation with negation. while asymmetrical perspective believes that the relation between both of them is not usually linear. however, both of them have pointed out that the presence of negation has some kind of relation/ corresponding to the affirmative (yamada, 2003). when using the negation constituent as a text instrument to determine the meaning of an aspect, negation is believed to correspond linearly to affirmative. it means that a sentence that uses the verb -teiru in affirmative form will be compared with sentences that have the verb -teiru together with its negation constituent. the present of negation affects the meaning as well as the verb aspect of -teiru as seen in the following examples: (1) kyou wa yuki ga futteiru (kotonoha) today snow fall ‘today snow falls’ (2) ko mado ga aiteiru (kotonoha) small window open ‘the small window open’ (3) yokohama de yuki nado futteinai (kotonoha) in yokohama snow fall-neg ‘the snow has not fall in yokohama’ (4) mado ga aiteinai (kotonoha) window open-neg ‘the window doesn’t open’ data (1) shows that the -teiru form creates progressive meaning as is seen in the verb futteiru ‘fall’. the verb futteiru indicates a situation where yuki ‘snow’ that is currently falling. it is different from data (2) which is classified as a resultative aspect. the verb aiteiru ‘open ’ shows a situation as a result of an action. the result indicates a situation of ko mado ‘small window’ is instate of aiteiru ‘open’. in the aspect of category, although both data (1) and (2) share the same auxiliary verb that is -teiru, the meanings are different. when the verb of -teiru consists of a negation constituent, it will produce sentences in the form of data (3) and (4). data (3) shows that the verb futteinai ‘doesn’t fall’ indicates a situation that has not occurred, but it can happen in the future or has a probability to have occurred later on. it is different with data (4) verb aitenai ‘doesn’t open’ show a condition as a result of an action. there is a significant difference in both data if we trace back from the duration as well as time precision, this phenomenon can be analyzed further. this paper tries to parse the relation of the verb -teiru on dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 393 negation. data (3) and (4) indicate the semantic behavior of the verb -teiru also produces a variation of meanings that are also interesting to analyze. as a result, problems that are parsed in this paper focus on the relation between the category aspect of -teiru and the negation constituent in japanese while producing meaning. ii. methods the object of this research is the verb form -teiru in japanese. data is collected from the kotonoha corpus that is gathered from https:// shonagon.ninjal.ac.jp/. the website provides” balanced corpus of contemporary written japanese” (bccwj) which was developed by the national institute for japanese language and linguistics, ministry of education, culture, sports, science, and technology on a research project ”nihongo koopasu”. bccwj consists of 100 million sample words that are collected to describe the written language of modern japanese. in this research, data are collected by using keywords teiru, teimasu, teita, teimashita, teinai, teimasen, teinakatta, dan teimasendeshita. eight forms of auxiliary verbs is the realization of transformation that presents data which will later on be analyzed the relation between verb -teiru and negation. in this research, the verb meaning of -teiru will be compared with the construction of -teiru with a negation constituent. while the constituent that is used in this research are -nai and -masen. both negation constituents have the same meaning and function, although they share different forms as the result of language variation. as a result, verb forms that are presented in the data analysis are divided into varied common languages as it is marked by -ru (non-past) and ta (past) on common language variation and -masu (non-past) and -mashita (past) on polite language on affirmative form. later, the presence of negation constituent will result from -nai (non-past) and -nakatta (past) on common language variation and -masen (nonpast) and -masendeshita (past) on polite language variation. verb on a past form is also included in this analysis, as the present of negation with -teiru has a different form and meaning between non-past and past. data analysis refers to shirai (2000) indicating that auxiliary verb analysis -teiru can be done by determining the temporal limitation through aspect interpretation on syntaxis construction with -teiru behavior test. analyzing the verb relation of -teiru with negation constituent is possible by comparing the basic verb between the construction of sentences contained -teiru only and the verb construction of -teiru that consists of negation constituent both in past and non-past form. iii. result theoretical preliminaries aspects are commonly juxtaposed with a discussion of tense. both grammatical categories have covered analysis of time, but they share significant differences. tense relates to the moment of the utterance when it is said since the classification of then is present and past. present refers to the utterance that is said at the current time, while past implies an utterance that is said in the past (comrie, 1976). on the other hand, the aspect is not related to time instruction but the temporal constituent of a situation that can be seen internally (comrie, 1976). as a result, when we discuss time as internal, tenses are applicable. however, when we discuss time as internal, the aspect is the applicable one. in determining the aspectual meaning, the aspect will be divided into two forms the grammatical aspect and the lexical aspect (nishi and shirai, 2016). the grammatical aspect refers to temporal meaning that is marked with an aspect sign, while the lexical aspect refers to temporal meaning as intrinsic to a verb. smith (1997) explains that both grammatical forms and lexical aspects are central to aspectual theory that can explain the universality and difference of interlanguage aspect systems. in determining the aspect meaning of a sentence requires the interaction between the situational aspect (it is included in the lexical aspect) and the aspect point of view (it is attached to the grammatical aspect). the term aspect is generally described on the semantic scope. when discussing aspects, the classification would be in the form of perfective and imperfective. semantically, the perfective aspect and the imperfective aspect have a contrasting relationship. the perfective term refers to the situation of the part that is still relevant in the present. in other words, the perfective aspect produces meaning that shows the result of the past action or situation. discussing the imperfective aspect usually relates to the situation that can be differentiated into progressive and continuous. as we classify a situation as an imperfective aspect, it should be free from the starting and the final point of a situation. dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 394 it is different from the perfective aspect which sees a condition that is limited within the starting to end point (comrie, 1976; okuda, 1978; smith 1997; shirai 2000). negation is also called as sine qua non, a component that describes the uniqueness of language as it belongs to a human communication system in a complex form that distinguishes human and animal communication (horn, 2010:1, deprez and espinal, 2020:1). as the result, negation is a grammatical unity that presents in all language which makes it a universal constituent that can be used to test grammar. in japanese, negation is expressed in two ways, including lexical negation and clausal negation (kishimoto, 2018). lexical negation relates to the lexical ability to create negative meaning with a negation constituent. when lexical negation includes analysis of negative meaning in words, the negation clause becomes a range of extensive analyses that is the clause. negation constituents that are discussed in this research include the clause negation construction that presents in two forms including -nai and -masen. both constituents are the similar to negation, although they share different forms which is influenced by the language variation (nyberg, 2012). moreover, both negation constituents will be placed at the back of -teiru aspect when the signifier of -teiru aspect is present altogether. this research discusses the relation between negation and aspects that was previously done by (tsimpli et al., 2010) where he analyzes the aspect relation and negation in determining the adverb clause interpretation in greek. in addition (schapansky, 2010) also discusses the relation between negation and aspect in french, which indicates that the presence of negation will also affect the aspect interpretation. the binding strategy of negation in french also influences the aspectual theory and the interpretation of events. in addition, research about the aspect relation and negation in both rusian and czech was done by (dickey & kresin, 2009) , who described negation in both languages as different in terms of aspectual theory. in rusian, there is a sense of stativity and temporal definiteness which makes it distinct from the czech language as the presence of negation in aspectual usage reflects the perception of casualty. in this research, the relation of negation and aspect in japanese will be used to determine the aspect classification in -teiru meanings that are proposed by nitta (1995). aspect -teiru research on teiru form in japanese has been done by several experts, some of them are yoshikawa (1976) who classifies verb aspect -teiru into several kinds such as progressive, resultative, simple state experiential, and iterative. second, soga (1983) classifies -teiru aspect into progressive, resultative, experiential and existential, and perfect resultative. this article will classify -teiru based on nitta (in hariri, 2017) who states that the aspect in japanese can be divided into 3, they are: 1. primary aspect (ichiji asupekuto), it is formed based on the form contrast between -ru and -teiru. 2. second aspect (niji asupekuto), can be found in form of -kakeru, -dasu/-hajimeru, -tsudzukeru, and -owaru. 3. middle aspect (chuukan asupekuto), is found in form of -teiku, -tekuru, dan -teshimau based on the classification of the aspect form, -teiru is categorized as the primary aspect (ichijiasupekuto) that has multiple meanings. the meaning classifications of teiru by nitta (in hariri, 2017) are divided into four ugoki no saichuu (continuity of action), kekkajoutai no jizoku (continuity of result state), kurikaeshitekijizoku (repeated continuity), and keiken-kiroku (experience-note/ memory). the analysis of the following data refers to those four categories. types of meanings are later analyzed further with the presence of negation in its construction in determining the aspect classification. ugoki no saichuu (continuity of action) continuity of action, event, or process means situations that occur from the time it starts until it ends. the meaning of ugoki no saichuu is also classified as the progressive aspect (soga, 1983; nishi & shirai, 2016, shirai, 2000). data that are included in the progressive aspect are: (5) sore mo ima wa yuki ni kawatte, that now snow change shinshin to futteimasu (kotonoha) slowly fall-asp ‘over there is also changing to show, it falls slowly’ dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 395 if it is seen based on the negation relation and past, it shows the use of furu verb in -teiru form in the following sample: (6) ame mo futteimasenga rain fall-asp-neg-conj watashi mo sapporo na nodesuga, i sapporo nmnl-conj sakki kara modemu ga kachikachi just now since modem clicking ittete netto ni tsunagari internet connection nikuku narimasu (kotonoha) difficult to become ‘although it is not raining yet, as i live in sapporo, and my modem is continue clicking for several time, it makes the internet connection disturbed’ (7) asa kara shitoshito ame ga futteimashita (kotonoha) morning since drizzling rain fall-asp-tense ‘since morning, it continues to drizzle’ (8) yoru no roppongi ni wa, mou, night roppongi before long ame wa futteimasendeshita (kotonoha) rain fall-asp-neg-tense ‘it is no longer raining in ropongi, especially at night’ it indicates that data (5) shows a situation that is occurring as it is marked by the presence of -teiru form on the furu verb ‘fall’ to become fitteimasu  ‘is falling’ to indicate that it is raining. by taking the data from the same basic verb, data (6) shows the presence of the negation constituent in the form of -masen. as a result, furu verb transforms into futteimasen ‘is not falling’ which indicates the situation when ‘it is not raining’. however, the proposition meaning indicates that the rain has not occurred yet, but it will probably happen in the future. moreover, when the data are taken from the same basic verb in the past form it will result in data (7) and (8). past form will cause -teiru form to transform into the past form as it is marked by the verb conjugation -ta. data (7) shows that furu verb is presented in form of futteimashita which shows a condition when the rain occurred in the past. in the past form, the constituent is also present; as a result, it produces a different form as it is shown in data (8) that is marked by the futteimasendeshita verb ‘was not raining’. data (8) explains a situation when there was no rain in the past. in addition, there is a comparative meaning that is present in the data (8). there is a possibility that the use of negation in data (8) shows a situation in which the rain usually occurs at night but not at the moment. the use of negation explains the comparative situation that is uncommon, or unusual. it indicates that when -teiru verb is present together with the negation constituent, the comparative meaning will also be produced that generates meaning which is against the negative situation. kekkajoutai no jizoku (continuity of result state) aspect of this form is also known as the perfect aspect (kudo, 1955; shirai, 2000). the use of -teiru on this aspect are shown as follow: (9) namiuchi giwa ni samazamana waves on the edge various kaigara ga ochiteiru (kotonoha) shell fall-asp ‘various of shell falls on the edge of waves’ if it is analyzed based on the negation relation and past tense, it shows several used of ochiru verb in -teiru form as seen on: (10) shitsu wa ochiteimasen (kotonoha) quality fall-asp-neg ‘the quality is not declining’ (11) sono tatemono wa wangan sensou that building gulf coast war chuu ni bakugeki o uke, kyodaina konkuriito during exposure get giant concrete no yane ga kenkyuushitsu ni kuzure roof laboratory collapse ochiteimashita (kotonoha) fall-asp-tense ‘the building was bombed during the gulf war, the giant concrete roof has fallen under the laboratory’ (12) gomi wa amari ochiteimasendeshita (kotonoha) trash not much fall-asp-neg ‘there is not much trash fall’ data (9) shows the -teiru form from the aspect of continuity of result state. on data (9) -teiru aspect is formulated from basic verb ochiru ‘fall’, when the data produce the meaning of “fall” to show the result of a situation. as the same basic verb is attached to the negation constituent, it will produce a formula as it is shown in data (10). ochiteimasen verb means ‘not fall’ on data (10) it also shows the result of a situation. the addition of the negation constituent on -teiru verb on data (9) and (10) still shows the meaning based on the result. -teiru form on basic verb ochiru present in a tense form it will produce the form which is shown in data dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 396 (11) and (12). on data (11) the basic form of the ochiru verb ochiteimashita ‘ has fallen’ on data (11) produces the meaning ‘has fallen’ which indicates the result of a situation that occurred in the past. if the constituent present on the verb ochiteimashita will produce ochiteimasendeshita ‘has not fallen’ as in data (12). on data (12) ochiteimasendshita verb produces the meaning “not fall” which also shows the result of a situation. kurikaeshitekijizoku (repeated continuity) meaning on this category is also called iteration or habitual aspect, both shares significant difference. the use of verb within this category is seen bellow: (13) yuuka san no okaasan ga, chikaku no yuka mother closest koujou de hataraiteimasu (kotonoha) factory work-asp mrs. yuka works on the closest factory. if it is seen from the negation relation and past tense it can be seen the use of hataraku ‘work’ -teiru form as follow: (14) watashi wa genzai kyuushokuchuu de i currently looking for job mada hataraiteimasen (kotonoha) not yet work-asp-neg ‘currently i am looking for job and i have not worked’ (15) watashi, soko no o mise de go nen i that store five year hataraiteimashita (kotonoha) work-asp-tense ‘i work on the store for 5 years’ (16) mata, shain to kaisha no shinrai then employment and factory trust kankei ga usuku, chekku kinou mo relationship low check function hataraiteimasendeshita (kotonoha) work-asp-neg-kala ‘then, the trust between employment and the factory is low, and the checking is not working at that time’ other people used to do it but not anymore. data (13) indicate the -teiru on the basic verb hataraku ‘work’ to produce hataraiteru. this verb produces meaning that shows a situation that continues to repeat. with the same basic verb, the -teiru form present with the negation constituent, it produces a form that is shown in data (14) hataraiteimasen. verb hataraiteimasen ‘don’t work’ produce meaning ‘have not worked” on data (14). an additional negation constituent indicates a situation that has not occurred but can happen in the future. it also means that the negation constituent produces comparative meaning which is against a situation in the future. if the form of -teiru is present in past tense it will produce data (14) and (15). data (15) hataraiteimashita indicates a continuity of a situation that is repeated in the past. when the verb hataraiteimashita is present with the negation constituent, it will produce hataraiteimasendeshita as seen in data (16). verb hataraiteimasendeshita means ‘didn’t work’ implies a comparison with the current time. the comparative situation is produced by the negation constituent that shows different situations in the past and in the present time. keiken-kiroku (experience-note/memory) one of the -teiru form that indicates the experience-note is seen on verb kekkonsuru on kekkonshiteiru. it is explained as follow (17) gosai wa kotoshi no gogatsu goro chichi second wife this year may around father to kekkonshiteimasu (kotonoha) marry-asp ‘my second wife married to my father around may this year.’ if it is present in past tense equipped with negation, it will produce the following form: (18) watashi ga yonin shimai de, ichibanshita wa mada, i four sisters youngest not yet kekkonshiteimasenga waga ko sannin ane marry-asp-neg-conj i children three sister imouto no kodomo ga kei gonin imasu.(kotonoha) children child total five be ‘i am one of the four sisters, the youngest is not married, but we have 5 children in total; 3 are my children and one of my oldest sister and the other one is from my younger sister.’ (19) konoaida ni, watashi wa tougou to wakare, during this time i togo break up sakka no kitahara takeo to novelist kitahara takeo kekkonshiteimashita (kotonoha) marry-asp-tense ‘so far, i broke up with togo and i had married with a novelist named takeo kitahara’ if it is present together with negation and build up in past tenses, the data will look like: (20) keito wa, kare no kuruugaa burentosha e no kate he kruger brent chuusei kokoro o takaku. katteita loyalty heart high buy-tense dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 397 negation that produces perfective meaning. on this aspect, the presence of negation will produce a result meaning as seen in verb construction -teiru. on aspect meaning ugoki no saichuu, the presence of negation on the verb -teiru shows the condition that has not yet happened, but this condition has possibilities to change on the condition which is the opposite. when the negation constituent is present on -teiru verb in past tense, the meaning that is produced will show the situation that is not express the situation that is unusual or uncommon at different times. based on those, it can be said that -teiru aspect of this type of meaning shows the continuity of a situation or action. when the negative constituent is present, the meaning indicates the possibility of continuous action. as a result, it can be said that the meaning of ugoki no saichuu that is proposed by nitta (1995) can be categorized into progressive aspects as explained by shirai (2000) later, the present negation on kurikaeshiteki jizoku aspect shows the situation that has not happened, but it also describes the transformation possibility of a situation in the future. if it is present in the past tense, it shows a situation that did not occur in the past but it has changed at the present. the meaning of negation shows the comparative condition in the past that has changed in the present. based on the analysis, it shows that the meaning of kurikaeshiteki jizoku in -teiru form shows a condition that continues to occur. when the negation constituent is present, it will produce continuous conditions that probably occur in the future. it can also be said that kurikaeshiteki jizoku meaning that is found by nitta (1995) can be classified into a habitual aspect that refers to the theory which is proposed by comrie (1976). the aspect meaning of -teiru verb produces meaning keiken-kiroku shows the situation that occurs as an experience or note. the presence of negation on the verb -teiru indicates meaning that has not occurred but might happen in the future. if it is presented in the form of past tense, the aspect meaning that is produced indicates a situation if it is written in past tense, the aspect meaning that is produced indicates a situation that had not happened in the past but has changed at the present. on the aspect of meaning, the presence of negation shows the situational transformation that occurs at a different time. the presence of negation in this meaning indicates a process similar to the buraddo wa kekkonshiteinakatta (kotonoha) brad married-neg-tense kate admires her loyalty to kruger brent. brad has not married yet’ data (17) is formed from the basic verb kekkonsuru ‘marry’ in -teiru form to produce kekkonshiteiru ‘marry’. verb kekkonshiteiru shows a condition or status that is part of an experience. when the negation constituent is present with the verb, it will produce the form kekkonshiteimasen ‘not married’ as seen in the data (18). on the data. the meaning indicates the condition of not being married. this condition can change to the opposite in the future. when the form of the basic verb is similar to the past form, it will produce a formula as seen in data (19) and (20). kekkonsuru present in the form of -teiru with past tense will produce kekkonshiteimashita ‘has married’ as seen in data (19) means ‘had married’. this meaning shows notes/experiences that are present in the past. in which the situation has now changed. when the negation constituent is added to data (20) will create kekkonshiteimasendeshita ‘has not married’. on data (20) kekkonshiteimasendeshita means ‘has not married’ which refers to the current situation. during that time (in the past) the condition of “not married’ is noted as an experience. however, the situation has changed in the present time which is the opposite of the past situation. iv. discussion in general -teiru verb can at least produce two meanings: progressive and result interpretation (kindaichi, 1955; shirai, 2000; nishiyama 2006; ogihara, 2020 and many others). based on its meaning classification, verb -teiru can be divided into the continuity of action, continuity of result state, repeated continuity, and experiencenote/memory (nitta, 1995). from four basic verbs that is furu ‘fall’, ochiru ‘fall’, hataraku ‘work’, and kekkonsuru ‘marry’ that are used to analyze the data indicates that the presence of negation can cause transformation of meaning on aspects and sometimes it doesn’t cause any change at all. the presence of negation causes the division of aspect meaning into two, they are imperfective and perfective. the presence of negation on meaning that contains imperfective aspects causes comparative situations that happen at different times as the result of transformation and possibility. it is different from the present of dini maulia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 398 construction without negation, that is, to produce the result. a result that is shown by -teiru construction indicates an experience. when the negation constituent is present, the -teiru meaning expresses a situation as an experience that is explained in the negative proposition. based on this, the meaning of keiken-kiroku that is proposed by nitta (1995) can be categorized into the experiential aspect which refers to the definition given by hughes and mcclure (2017). the aspect meaning ugoki no saichuu, kurikaeshiteki jizoku, dan keiken-kiroku shares distinctive meaning with aspect kekkajoutai no jizoku, it shows the result. the presence of negation in this aspect shows the situation as the result of an action. if the negation is present in past tense, it shows the result condition of an event that has never happened. this aspect cannot be compared with the situation in the future. based on the analysis, it shows that the use of negation on aspect meaning ugoki no saichuu, kurikaeshiteki jizoku, dan keiken-kiroku shows the comparison and transformation of situations that happen in the future. as a result, when the event happens in past form is something different from the current situation. those three meanings are distinct from the aspect meaning of kekkajoutai no jizoku. as for this meaning, the -teiru verb shows the result›s meaning. the presence of negation on this aspect also indicates the result of a process or an action. it is also similar when it is present in past form, as it shows the result of a situation in the past. this condition isn’t related to the present condition. based on this analysis, it can be said that the meaning of kekkajoutai no jizoku which is classified by nitta (1995) is part of the perfective aspect that refers to the definition given by shirai (2000). it can be said that the presence of negation on -teiru produces meaning ugoki no saichuu, kurikaeshiteki jizoku, and keiken-kiroku that are categorized as imperfective aspects. the imperfective aspect is later divided into progressive, habitual, and experiential aspects. in addition, the presence of negation constituent on -teiru which means kekkajoutai no jizoku produces the meaning of the perfective aspect. v. conclusion based on data analysis, it shows that the presence of a negation constituent can change some of the aspect meaning of -teiru, and some can’t. the presence of a negation constituent on -teiru verb can be classified into two aspects, they are perfective and imperfective. those that are categorized as imperfective include the negation constituent on -teiru verb that produces meaning ugoki no saichuu categoried as progressive aspect, kurikaeshiteki jizoku as habitual aspect, and keiken-kiroku as experiental aspect. in addition, meanings that are categorized into perfective aspects include the negation constituent on -teiru verb that produces kekkajoutai no jizoku meaning. japanese has aspect signifiers that consist of varied forms. the analysis in this paper is limited to the aspect that belongs to -teiru form. it is recommended that further research about the aspect classification in japanese and its relation to negation is done in a field that discusses aspect signifiers in the verb category. references comrie, bernard. 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(1976). gendai nihongo doosi no asupekuto no kenkyuu [research on the aspect of verbs in modern japanese]. in: haruhiko kindaichi, ed., nihongo doosi no asupekuto, 155-327. tokyo: mugi shobo. suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 334 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 25, 2024 final revision: september 10, 2024 accepted: september 13, 2024 available online: september 25, 2024 this current study investigates how english language teachers in indonesian higher educational institutions define and conceptualize intercultural literacy and practice it in their classrooms. eight elt practitioners were interviewed through narrative inquiry, and the data was analyzed using thematic analysis to explore their lived conceptualizations. the findings suggest three major themes on intercultural literacy, including conceptualization of intercultural literacy, implementation in professional practice, challenges in fostering intercultural understanding, and strategies to overcome these challenges. teachers defined intercultural literacy as encompassing cultural understanding, adaptability, comparative analysis, and professional knowledge. they integrated it into their teaching through curriculum design, student-centered methods, and digital tools. this was done by weaving these into the curriculum design and retraining pedagogy with student-centric methods and other digital tools. however, the participants mentioned that they faced some obstacles, including institutional barriers, limited funding, and the difficulties of switching from the traditional to the newest teaching method. these issues were mitigated by professional development, collaboration, and inclusive instructional materials. the current research finding indicates the importance of comprehensive professional development and institutional support for teachers in developing intercultural competence in their students. these findings contribute to intercultural literacy in indonesia and practical recommendations for improving it within indonesian higher education. the finding highlights the how to prepare students for a globalized world through intercultural literacy and educator support. keywords higher education, intercultural literacy, professional practice, challenges, strategies correspondence e-mail: e20e030f@siswa.umk.edu.my article conceptualising intercultural literacy: narratives from english language teachers suharni1, siti bahirah binti saidi2, nur hafezah binti hussein3 1-3faculty of language studies and human development, universiti malaysia kelantan, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.334-347.2024 i. introduction in language education, intercultural literacy has been highlighted as a key aspect of our globalised and increasingly interconnected world (porto, 2019b). since english is the lingua franca of international communication, a key role of efl teachers is to promote intercultural understanding and competence (araujo portugal, 2021; shin & jeon, 2018; tsatzali & beazidou, 2023). intercultural literacy encompasses the ability to understand, communicate, and effectively interact with people across culture (heyward, 2002; phipps & st clair, 2008). therefore, for english language teachers who teach diverse student populations, it is a vital component in establishing inclusive and equitable learning environments is to develop intercultural literacy (fang & elyas, 2021; vižintin, 2018). research has shown that intercultural literacy increases students’ critical literature do not include each other (angelelli et al., 2021; byram & wagner, 2018; caetano et al., 2020; deardorff, 2006; huh & suh, 2018; lau, 2015; pocevi, 2023). despite the presence of existing research on intercultural literacy in western settings, no empirical evidence as regards how english language teachers working within non-western contexts like that one in indonesia perceive and enact their practices about it has been established to date (fajriyah et al., 2020; morganna et al., 2018; morganna et al., 2020; suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 335 mubarok & sofiana, 2022; munandar & newton, 2021). given this gap, one of the priorities is to explore how educators in non-western settings may approach intercultural literacy differently because their socio-cultural context, belonging to a particular region, has different cultural dynamics, educational practices, and institutional frameworks. instead, empirical research examining the constraints and affordances of cultural contexts where classroom teachers work is needed to enrich this void in the literature. this will provide some insights into how intercultural literacy could be integrated within english language teaching in indonesian. the importance of teachers’ development of intercultural literacy is borne out in the education sphere to a greater extent because it determines their impact on students, leading them towards an understanding and appreciation for cultural diversity (smolcic & katunich, 2017; tambyah, 2019; vižintin, 2018; winarti, 2017). this implies the ability, knowledge, and skills that individuals need to acquire in order for them to understand one another, communicate with each other efficiently, and effectively interact irrespective of their cultural background (byram & grundy, 2002; byram, 1997; ilie, 2019; karlik, 2023; schulz, 2007; valiandes et al., 2018). teachers who possess high intercultural literacy, rather than engage in stereotyping thinking and mutual ignorance with students towards other cultures, can provide necessary resources for understanding different cultural contexts (baker, 2012; baker, 2015; byram & wagner, 2018; segurarobles & parra-gonzález, 2019). this model has been widely carried over to the language classroom to improve learner intercultural competence and communicative competencies. despite the well-documented formative process of intercultural literacy principles in language education, deeper understanding and further development within non-western contexts can be challenging. hence, the mechanism of education in indonesia and their culture are a lot different compared to western countries for example (marmoah et al., 2021; nurman et al., 2022; zein, 2019). in addition, as english language teachers in indonesia, the teacher must have other understanding related to linguistic and cultural diversity (hamdani & husain, 2023; marcellino, 2015; poedjiastutie et al., 2021). teachers in many places must navigate between languages and do not always teach or learn in their first language (baker, 2015a). furthermore, cultural elements in indonesian society, such as collectivism and hierarchical relationships within certain norms, can also affect teachers’ or students’ views toward intercultural learning (aulia, 2022; timotius & rofil, 2023). indonesian higher education exemplifies how traditional teaching methods and hierarchical relations represent obstacles to intercultural competence (atmojo & putra, 2022; pinariya & sutjipto, 2021). although intercultural literacy is a recognized pivotal skill for living in diverse contexts (novianti et al., 2020; phipps & st clair, 2008; widiati et al., 2021), it has maintained low profile status as an articulated concept within educational settings, especially higher education environment of indonesia. learning about the life stories and experiences of elts concerning their approaches toward intercultural literacy seems particularly important considering this research focus. this study draws on and explores these narratives to further some discussion about how english language teachers engage with intercultural literacy practices, thus suggesting a pregnant pedagogical mode or programming research all at once. existing literature on intercultural literacy usually emphasizes theoretical orientation and teaching intervention or practical dimension but relatively less highlights the real experience and views of a language teacher (bin-hady, 2024; göbel & helmke 2010; yan 2021). this research, therefore, aims to investigate and theorize intercultural literacy through the voices and narratives of english language teachers in indonesia. through exploring the lived experiences and narratives of these teacher educators, this study seeks to contribute to understanding how intercultural literacy is conceptualized, practiced, and negotiated in language education contexts within indonesian higher education. the study also explores some of the problems, solutions, and perspectives on intercultural understanding in english language teaching among teachers encountered by these professionals. in the end, research in this field should produce findings that can be valuable for educators and teacher education programs as they seek to foster intercultural competence in second language learners. based on the purpose outlined above, the appropriate research questions addressed in this suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 336 study are: 1. how do english language teachers conceptualize intercultural literacy within their professional practice? 2. what challenges and strategies do english language teachers encounter in fostering intercultural understanding among their students? methods this study uses a qualitative research design of narrative inquiry to seek lived experiences through storytelling. narrative inquiry offers a capacity for researchers to look closely at personal and professional narratives from participants within the broader context of their life stories (clandinin, 2006). this research investigates how english language teachers in indonesian higher education institutions understand intercultural literacy and implement it when practicing with students. this study involves eight efl teachers in higher education in indonesia who were selected by using purposive sampling (campbell et al., 2020; korstjens & moser, 2018). the participants have different teaching experiences, educational backgrounds, and overseas experiences, which allows for cross-contextual perspectives on intercultural literacy. the primary data collection instrument was the semi-structured interview. this instrument enables in-depth examination of essential topics while remaining grounded within a predetermined structure. the interview guide consisted of questions about participants’ definitions and understanding of intercultural literacy, experiences teaching the concepts, as well as difficulties and positive outcomes. semi-structured interviews allow the researcher to drill down into answers, which often enables a more complete picture of how participants view an issue (adams 2015; dejonckheere & vaughn, 2019). the data were analyzed using thematic analysis, which aims to identify, analyze, and report patterns or themes within the data (braun & clarke, 2014; clarke & braun, 2017). the analysis began with the transcription of the interview recordings and reading through each transcription again to read the data. next, the coding process was conducted to identify the data related to the research questions. after the coding process, the data was categorized into tentative themes. the last step is to analyze the theme to uncover the hidden patterns and meanings as reflections of efl teachers in indonesian higher education toward conceptualizing intercultural literacy into practice. the application of thematic analysis allows the researcher to provide an organized, coherent description of their reflections and experiences, emphasizing both commonalities as well as differences between narratives (thomas & harden, 2008). iii. results the thematic analysis process was used to categorize themes derived from the data of teachers. the researchers performed a detailed descriptive analysis of each corpus establishing as close to an explicit level as possible the meaning behind every word ordered in discourse by the teachers. analysis of the data identified three overarching themes within the dataset. theme 1: conceptualization of intercultural literacy during the interview, the participants were asked to share their perspectives on intercultural literacy. the majority of the teachers define and conceptualize intercultural literacy based on table 1: the participants of the study participants age range in (years) years of teaching experience educational background overseas experience participant 1 46 and above 11 – 20 years doctoral degree yes participant 2 41 45 5 – 10 years doctoral degree yes participant 3 36 40 11 – 20 years master degree none participant 4 41 45 11 – 20 years master degree none participant 5 41 – 45 11 – 20 years doctoral degree none participant 6 46 and above 21 + years master degree yes participant 7 31 35 5 – 10 years master degree yes participant 8 36 40 5 – 10 years doctoral degree none suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 337 their own perspectives and understanding. they expressed their personal experience without referring to the related theories. table 2 indicates the teacher’s definition of the participants’ perspective of intercultural literacy. table 2 indicates participants’ perspectives on intercultural literacy. some participants consider intercultural literacy as understanding and knowledge of cultural diversity (p1, p4, p3, p7, and p8). this ties into the more significant idea of intercultural literacy or being both knowledgeable about and critically aware of cultural context. after that, p2 highlights the relevance of being flexible and sensitive to cultural diversity. this indicates a dynamics and responsiveness to intercultural literacy. p3 also mentions intercultural literacy as comparing the targetted culture and their own culture, which can be seen as reflective intercultural communication and interaction. at the same time, p5 defines intercultural literacy as offering deeper insight by celebrating other cultures. p7 comments on the function of expert knowledge as an english lecturer. p8 also discusses intercultural literacy as the ability to process and relay information based on contexts that reflect critical thinking and contextual analysis competence. the responses of all participants above indicate a comprehensive intercultural literacy, understanding of culture and cultural practices, adaptation to diverse ways cultures operate, and respect for these differences while incorporating this knowledge into their professional work and communicating across it. the participant’s responses provide a new perspective on intercultural literacy. intercultural literacy covers knowledge, skills, and necessary attitudes to engage with diverse cultural contexts. this includes a deep understanding of one’s own and other cultures, the ability to adapt and communicate effectively across cultures, and the integration of intercultural competencies into professional practice. theme 2: implementation in professional practice intercultural literacy is a key dimension of the professional practice required by english language teachers who aim to develop an inclusive, culturally responsive educational environment. teachers have an important effect on student attitudes and skills when discussing intercultural understanding. the ability of teachers’ competence to embed intercultural literacy and teaching strategies in curriculum and to apply culturally diverse methodologies also impacts students’ intercultural competence. furthermore, the participants were asked about the specific ways of incorporating intercultural literacy into their teaching, successful stories, and areas of improvement and development. most participants across the study believe that all efl teachers should be interculturally table 2. teachers’ definitions participants definitions of intercultural literacy components participant 1 intercultural literacy is the ability of how someone can understand each other between different cultures. cultural understanding, communication participant 2 addressing the differences, we have the ability or knowledge to adapt. adaptability, cultural awareness participant 3 intercultural literacy is understanding the culture of the language we are studying or studying and comparing it with our culture. cultural knowledge, comparative analysis participant 4 thinking golbally, intercultural literacy is not dealing with reading and writing but interculture, but mostly about having specific information about different culture. we have the ability to understand the differences, value the differences, and respect the differences. cultural knowledge, cultural sensitivity, respect participant 5 appreciating other cultures and how other cultures become things that can enrich our insight. cultural appreciation, enrichment participant 6 knowledge, attitudes and skills in communicating with someone from a different culture are integrated in english learning. integration in teaching, communication skills participant 7 basically intercultural literacy is the intercultural knowledge possessed by an english lecturer. cultural knowledge, professional knowledge participant 8 ability to understand sources, reading, seeing or hearing sources, processing, then relaying it based on the contexts. information processing, contectual understanding suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 338 literate while governed by a broader state and federal political framework. p8 has also identified embedding intercultural literacy into the curriculum as an important factor. in the interview, he underlies: “systematic approach is of high importance for well-designed educational planning and delivery, particularly in the context of intercultural literacy, to be applied by teachers in their classroom practice”. (p8) this is a testament to the critical role that standard operating procedures (sop) play in guiding how we develop and roll out educational content, providing uniformity across teaching practices. the main concern is well-defined learning objectives that inform lesson planning and double up as measures against student progress. the teachers reported that the faculty and curriculum developers or institutions should inform teacher educators about courseware and whether to include intercultural competence in their classes or not. it is also examined in several subjects or topic areas in much earlier work on intercultural literacy embedded and interleaved with lesson plans and learning objectives (p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6). in addition, the way or strategies of making it possible to become intercultural literate through teachers. most teachers employ student-centered learning like group discussion, project-based methods, and case studies (p 1, p 7, p6, p8). various other differentiated learning models (p3, p4, p5) are also all based on role-playing and real debates to teach students about interculturality, as reflected in the following quotations: “i think i focus on the method, like the case method. students are given a case first, given a video that has a case, after that they discuss on their own, they look for references first, the next day we discuss it”. (p3) “i am more of an independent learning approach and they are indeed given the space to choose the texts they want to know but still with the general topic that we are discussing at that meeting, for example now we are talking about technology, well later we lure him with several types of texts and then we discuss, sometimes the discussion spreads to development, to others, by spreads i mean it doesn’t focus on the content...”. (p4) in implementing intercultural literacy, teachers use a variety of teaching references as well as technology integration, such as online platforms, social media, and digital storytelling, to assist with intercultural learning. most participants expressed similar ideas (p1, p2, p3, p4) and suggested respondents are utilizing online resources more, perhaps due to improvements in technology and the availability of digital format. four participants (p4, p5, p7, and p8) mentioned international journals; another four cited expertauthored textbooks as evidence of diverse sources to draw upon for teaching materials. furthermore, incorporating digital tools (p7, p8) and multimedia (p3, p8) reflects a future-looking perspective to enhance effectiveness in teaching intercultural literacy. “yes, because my most common method is corporation. for example, i will ask the students, ‘who watched video on youtube today? do you understand? please explain to your friends? so my work is sitting around like that. that’s a corporation, so the name of the corporation is that we invite people who know more in their environment to connect with the corporation like that”. (p8) thus, although there is some agreement on the trend towards digital sources, as noted earlier in this article. each offers different points over the materials used to support such intercultural literacy, including traditional print resources, contemporary cutting-edge computing tools, and multimedia content. theme 3: challenges in fostering intercultural understanding and strategies to overcome these challenges one of the most important and challenging jobs faced by efl teachers is to promote classroom intercultural understanding. this theme addresses the multiple dilemmas that teachers would come across while enabling students to have intercultural literacy. most of these challenges were due to personal and professional constraints. these problems provide a view of the complexity of teaching intercultural literacy and what gets in its way. understanding these challenges is crucial for crafting policies that help teachers improve their ability to create an inclusive cultural learning environment. p1 reports no significant difficulties because of the availability of best-practice articles in highranking international journals. this indicates that the participants have access to high-quality resources to fulfill their needs and overcome their limitations. “so far i have not found any significant difficulties because i can look for ideas from best practices articles published in reputable international journals that are databased”. (p1) this also indicates that teachers who have limited suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 339 access to high-quality resources will face significant challenges in intercultural literacy. p1 illustrates the need for continual professional learning and the ability to integrate current research-based methodology in developing intercultural literacy strategies. some of the big challenges are student engagement and comprehensibility. however, p2 adds that it is hard to teach students outside of a teacher-centered learning paradigm, and there are still curriculums with which teachers have the requirement to keep pace. case stories from p2 illustrate the tensions between new and traditional practices of teaching. the difficulty in moving from teacher-centered to student-centered practices of instruction reveals a deficiency in training and institutional support for enacting proposals that critically transform teaching techniques. “i don’t think cross-cultural teaching should be implemented in the early semesters. indeed, there is a specially designed policy or we say it is more like an agreement so that later if you meet with circumstances or conditions related to this cross-cultural information. it does not have to be in the course that will be designed but it can also be in other courses that information about cross-culture can appear. this means that there is a form of agreement with other courses to include cultural elements. usually the lecturer must have included it. when i meet with the context, for example in teaching reading, there must be a direct telling of students, as if telling, recalling information when they have taken courses that are specifically designed for cross-cultural teaching”. (p2) p2 statements indicate the need for comprehensive training programs to equip teachers with skills to improve student engagement and adapt teaching to promote intercultural literacy. p3 mentions the need for reading and watching. there are videos of cultural elements that she watches to get a lesson and try to share with her students. p3 argues that this is a good example of how multimedia can be useful in promoting intercultural engagement. “as for the course, no difficulties, just have to read a lot, read and watch a lot. i happen to like watching, sometimes i like watching short movies on social media for that purpose too. sometimes we watch those short movies, those short videos to find out about people’s culture. i like watching darman’s videos. darman is a short video film that contains how outsiders interact indeed how, for example, black americans are discriminated against...”. (p3) however, this activity requires time to locate and digest the materials during office work. the barriers are in the form of time constraints for teachers. they have established a curriculum to follow and limited class and prep times. p3 suggests that providing teachers with high-quality media resources can help the teacher to integrate intercultural literacy into their courses. p4 does not formally apply the intercultural content, but it appears naturally during the reading class. although she argues that she used intercultural content, this may lead to some problems. “cross-cultural literacy, in my opinion, literacy is related to reading and writing activities. maybe the reference is that we think globally, so that we can relate teaching materials from information related to cultures that exist in other than our country. but that does not mean talks to many in one meeting. for example we discuss seven texts, one of which is about us and the others from other countries”. (p4) her decision not to formally integrate the intercultural content into the curriculum may lead to the uneven coverage of critical issues. this shows that the other challenge is to ensure that intercultural literacy is not integrated into the curriculum. as p4 indicates, explicit criteria for implementing intercultural literacy should be provided in the lesson plan so the student can identify the key concepts. p5 shows another problem in designing the curriculum that fits students’ knowledge and cultural understanding. “yes ... there must be difficulties like that in designing there must be because we collide later with how much input we have. sometimes when we design this, our expectations of how cross-cultural is included in our course are too high, it turns out that our students do not have input or concepts about cross-culture itself or something that is not acceptable to them. so it is indeed those difficulties that must often be found how students how this is suitable for their students later”. (p5) she mentions that what she expected is sometimes different from reality. the p5 challenges of aligning the curriculum with students’ prior knowledge and cultural contexts. she suggests the need for ongoing reassessment and refinement of curricula to meet students where they are. teachers need tools to evaluate their students’ intercultural competency and adjust instruction so that all learners can access the same intercultural literacies. p6 has difficulty finding relevant cultural materials, especially those pertaining to local contexts. p6’s struggle to find culturally relevant and localized teaching materials underscores a significant barrier to fostering intercultural suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 340 understanding. “i find it difficult to get video materials from the internet that are relevant to the topic being taught, especially those based on local culture”. (p6) this challenge points to developing and disseminating culturally appropriate resources that reflect the local context. providing access to diverse teaching materials can help educators like p6 present intercultural content that resonates with their students’ experiences and backgrounds. p7 said that she can teach intercultural topics quite easily because they often run parallel to students’ own culture, and so rely on existing knowledge structures. “i really appreciate students who write essays on the theme of culture, especially their own culture. it means they recognize and are proud of their own culture. if they can also write on the theme of a culture different from their own, it means that their cross-cultural knowledge is good enough so that they can later make cultural comparisons in their writing”. (p7) p7 strategy of leveraging students’ cultural background facilitates intercultural learning by making content relatable. this approach highlights the importance of contextualizing intercultural education within the students’ own cultural frameworks. however, it implies that teachers must have these skills to build connections and adjust instruction based on various cultural differences, supporting the call for focused professional development in this area. p8 underscores the significance of knowing about students’ cultural issues in connecting with them efficiently. he integrates students’ behavior into his lesson. “people have experiences and knowledge. with these experiences and knowledge, it means that he can adapt to existing cultures. this could be the definition of intercultural. this means that a person who can quickly grasp or learn a language is a person who can adapt to his environment”. (p8) the p8 adaptive teaching approach enforces the importance of creativity skills that need to be personal and culturally sensitive for better intercultural understanding. this method shows that successful intercultural literacy education means having a positive regard for their cultural contexts and using the most effective teaching approach or educational programs must train teachers within these areas. the assessment of constraints about personal and professional capacity in promoting intercultural sensitivity articulated from the review includes the need for high-quality and accessible resources, challenges in distributing traditional and innovative teaching methods, the challenges in using effective multimedia resources, the necessity for deliberate inclusion of intercultural content, the alignment of curricula with students’ existing knowledge, the availability of localized materials, and the significance of cultural sensitivity and adaptability. these challenges require focused training, institutional assistance, and guidelines for developing an all-encompassing, effective, culturally relevant teaching material. by recognizing and addressing these limitations, educators can better support intercultural literacy in their classrooms to create a more inclusive cultureaware learning environment. iv. discussion the thematic analysis used in this paper offers a nuanced description of how efl teachers in indonesia’s higher education describe and understand intercultural literacy. the participants have different definitions of intercultural literacy, but they can highlight some key aspects, including cultural understanding, adaptability, comparative analysis, and respect for cultural differences. these differences align with other models that describe intercultural competence as a combination of knowledge, skill, and attitudes needed to navigate and engage with different cultural contexts effectively (byram, 1997; byram & zarate, 1996; michael byram & wagner, 2018). as byram (1997) mentions, there are four levels of intercultural communicative competence: attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical cultural awareness. similarly, deardorff (2006) highlights that intercultural competence emphasizes attitudes (respect, openness), knowledge (cultural self-awareness, deep cultural knowledge), and skills (listening, observing, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting, relating). this study, therefore, makes a significant contribution by placing professional knowledge as the center of attention and intertwining intercultural literacy into a professional practice lens previously missing in earlier studies. some of the participants emphasized that their memories and personal encounters often preceded academic knowledge about what people call today intercultural literacies. consequently, it points to the importance of professional development initiatives as their aims should not only speak to suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 341 teachers’ personal experiences but also draw from theoretical grounds in an effort; to both increase intercultural clarity and improve teaching efficacy. well-designed programs, grounded in theory and emphasizing reflection and enactment, have shown long-lasting impacts on educators and their students (garson et al., 2016; romijn et al., 2021). intercultural experiences can lead to more balanced attitudes towards teaching practices and increased awareness of culturally sensitive pedagogy (gu, 2005). however, while studies have explored the relationship between faculty’s backgrounds and their intercultural sensitivity, there is limited conclusive evidence on how these traits translate into classroom practice (schuerholz-lehr, 2007). to effectively increase teachers’ intercultural competencies, professional development should adopt an embedded and contextual approach, guiding reflection and fostering enactment (romijn et al., 2021). this highlights the importance of holistic teacher education that combines personal experiences with theoretical knowledge to enhance intercultural clarity and teaching efficacy. the documentation of changing intercultural literacy across the professional practice is identified as an emerging theme. teachers reported that they had applied several strategies to include intercultural elements in their teaching including integrating the curriculum with cultural content, using student-centered learning methods and technology such as digital tools or multimedia resources. these practices are consistent with pedagogical approaches that forefront active, engaged learning and the incorporation of multiple sources for increased intercultural competency (havis, 2020; vižintin, 2018). there was a strong emphasis on curriculum integration; participants rallied around the need for coherent and organized, scaffolded methods to macro-level constructs such as the internationalization of learning objectives or curricula. an embedded intercultural literacy component in the curriculum is also important for fostering a full appreciation for cultural diversity (brown & alford, 2023; coulby, 2006; cummins, 2015; otten, 2003), and this structured approach ensures that it remains central to the educational experience rather than an add-on. furthermore, the higher application of digital tools and multimedia resources means dealing with contemporary educational tendencies as well as a variety of cultural content available by electronic methods. it is contended that through this technological integration, learners have experienced more interactive learning and been able to be exposed to numerous cultural perspectives, which in turn promote them for the digital age along with enhancing their global awareness (eristi, 2009; eteokleous-grigoriou, 2009). although the approaches were innovative, educators struggled to create intercultural understanding in many significant ways. lack of access to high-quality, culturally relevant learning materials was a key gap identified and one that raises the ongoing struggle between maintaining traditional versus creative education techniques. this underscores a broader set of challenges that have appeared across some research in intercultural pedagogy surrounding the issues and resource demands associated with introducing culturally diverse material into educational practices sustainably (jin & cortazzi 2017; vižintin, 2018). thus, many constraints however encountered in the field also prevented a successful integration with intercultural literacy education such as personal professional limitations and time or lack of methods. for example, concerns were expressed about how time-intensive reading and preparing culturally pertinent materials would be. these results imply that teachers may need to participate in professional development programs tailored to help cope with these challenges. respondents also discussed the challenge of connecting students’ backgrounds and cultural histories with educational content, emphasizing a call for adaptable teaching treatments. these gaps suggest that the present professional development and institutional support systems need improvement to enable teachers to effectively foster intercultural literacy (romijn et al., 2009; tambyah, 2013). the findings from this study have significant implications for educational practice and policy. teacher training programs must be extended to develop institutional intercultural competence among educators, and professional development can foster teachers doing it (dejaeghere & zhang, 2008; romijn et al., 2021). these programs could be oriented around the idea of increasing teachers´ theoretical ideas so as to make their teaching practice more based on intercultural literacy principles and provide them with examples of strategies for implementing diverse cultures into suharni / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 342 curriculum planning options. also, guidelines and frameworks that foster systematic inclusion of intercultural literacy through educational programs are still necessary (bak 2021; gilmore et al., 2020; romijn et al., 2021). that means building related content that can understand cultures, is culturally responsive, and is tailored to the tastes of various digital learning mediated by technologies. v. conclusion this study provides a comprehensive understanding of implementing intercultural literacy among english teachers in higher education institutions in indonesia. the result shows that efl teachers have different definitions of intercultural literacy, leading to different teaching approaches. the research also highlights several issues regarding teachers’ challenges in implementing intercultural literacy into their classes, including challenges in incorporating intercultural literacy into the curriculum, availability of relevant teaching materials, switching from traditional to innovative teaching approaches, and professional competence in pedagogy. the current study suggests some solutions to overcome the challenges, such as providing professional development programs for the teachers, providing high-quality and openaccess teaching materials, and implementing continuous assessments to tailor the learning activities to the student’s needs. this effort required support from the educational institution as well as support from the government to provide sustainable programs to develop efl teachers’ competence. educators and policymakers can work toward providing inclusive and culturally responsive educational environments that prepare students for global citizenship and effective intercultural communications. future research should investigate the long-term impact of intercultural literacy education on students’ attitudes, behaviors, and academic outcomes. longitudinal studies could provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of different teaching strategies and interventions in fostering intercultural competence among students from diverse cultural backgrounds. further research could also investigate what professional development is necessary to help educators better integrate intercultural literacy in their work. acknowledgements we are grateful to the participants who volunteered to participate in our research project. ethical statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. this research adheres to strict ethical standards to ensure the protection and respect of all interview participants. confidentiality is maintained by anonymizing personal data, and all information are securely stored. the data is only be used for the purposes of this study, and participants’ privacy and autonomy are respected throughout the research process. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references adams, w. c. 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(2019). english, multilingualism and globalisation in indonesia. english today, 35(1), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1017/s026607841800010x anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 114 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 11, 2025 final revision: april 19, 2025 accepted: april 24, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 this paper focuses on metathesis, a linguistic phenomenon observed in the unique language called kunha, a part of the north-dravidian language family, where sounds are swapped within words. so, instead of the anticipated order of ..xy.. in a sequence of participating sounds, we encounter ..yx.. the final segments of a word can vary depending on the context; in some cases, they appear as a vowel followed by a consonant, while in others, they may be a consonant followed by a vowel. metathesis in the kunha language (odisha, india), analysing its phonological patterns and linguistic implications from a synchronic perspective. data was collected via 5,000 lexicons and sociolinguistic interviews with norms in sundergarh and sambalpur districts of odisha state, alongside comparisons to kurux and dravidian etymological sources. theoretical frameworks categorise metathesis as (1) copy-delete/coalescence operations, (2) transposition outcomes, or (3) allomorphy-driven cv/cc/ cvc rearrangements. the results focus on kunha’s pervasive yet irregular cv/cc/cvc metathesis, previously undocumented, highlighting its typological rarity and challenges for linguistic prediction. for example, the word /oɽok/ ‘bark of a tree’ in kurux, changes to /uɽku:/ in kunha. similarly, /calkur/ ‘sand, gravel’ in kurux, transforms to /calkri:/ in kunha. these peculiarities in sound change are not limited to cv (consonantvowel) clusters; they also occur in cc (consonant-consonant) clusters. for instance, /maːkcuːɳɖ/ ‘name of a flower’ in kurux, changes to /maːskuːɽ/ in kunha, resulting in the sound change from [kc] to [sk]. additionally, metathesis can affect cvc (consonant-vowel-consonant) order, as seen in the transformation of /letheɽ okk-aː/ ‘to sit with the legs crossed’ in kurux, into /thepeɽ okk-aː/ in kunha, yielding the change from [leth] to [thep]. due to these sound transpositions, there is an emergence of a new speech variety called kunha. keywords kisan, kunha, metathesis, language change, variation, contact, phonological adaptation correspondence *e-mail: anuu.kjr@gmail.com article peculiarities of metathesis in kunha language anup kumar kujur1*, biswanandan dash2 1,2department of linguistics, berhampur university, odisha, india under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.114-124.2025 i. introduction each language has its own peculiarities and should be described with its descriptive notions rather than making assumptions. kunha (pronounced as kũɳhã) is a speech variety of kurux belonging to the north dravidian language family and spoken by kisan, kuda, matiya, and mirdha tribes in the odisha state of india. the language was erroneously reported as part of the austroasiatic family by sten konow, the then government epigraphist (see in grierson, 1906). the language was later recognised as north dravidian and documented to be distinct from kurux/oraon in the government of india’s linguistics report (perumalsamy, 2002 & 2004). it must be noted that the term ‘kisan’ is an exonym used by nonnative speakers to refer to the language and the tribe. on the other hand, the term ‘kunha’ is used as an endonym by the native speakers and essentially denotes both the language and the tribe. the speakers of kunha call themselves ‘kunhar’ ~ ‘kurkhar’ (pronounced as kũɳhãr ~ kuɽxar) (goswami, 1989; kujur, 2021). kunha language is spoken by four different tribes in the odisha state of india, e.g. kisan, kuda, matiya, mirdha. however, the language has unfortunately been indexed recently as ‘kisan’ rendering importance to anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 115 outsider view and not as ‘kunha’ with a three-letter code (iso 639-n°. xis) for kisan, kuda, mirdha, and birhor tribes by ethnologue (2018 [see also in eberhard et al., 2023]) and not for matiya tribe (see also glottolog code: kisa1260). the term ‘kunha’ is a significant linguistic and cultural marker for the kisan, kuda, matia, and mirdha tribes, which are geographically separated but share a deep cultural bond. the use of ‘kunha’ to refer to their shared language highlights the linguistic unity among these tribes, even though they may not live close to one another. the preference for this term by native speakers is rooted in the desire to foster a sense of solidarity and shared identity among individuals from these diverse tribal groups. this shared language creates a bridge between communities that, while isolated by geography, remain connected through cultural practices, traditions, and language. using ‘kunha’ as a unifying term also plays a crucial role in promoting social cohesion. it gives the speakers a sense of collective belonging, allowing them to overcome the divisions imposed by geographic and social barriers. this shared linguistic identity helps to mitigate feelings of fragmentation and builds a sense of common heritage and purpose among the tribes. continuous efforts are made to officially recognise this unified identity by registering a ‘kunha samaj’ (society for kunha speakers) with the government of india. this registration is essential in formalising the social cohesion fostered by the language and reinforcing the tribes’ collective identity in a national context. by establishing a single society that represents all kunha speakers, these tribes aim to strengthen their presence and advocacy for their rights, welfare, and cultural preservation. the phenomenon of metathesis involves the reversal of linear order with two segments. it most commonly occurs with a vowel and /r/ and is attested widely across many languages. for example, ‘bridde’ = ‘bird’ = (middle english and modern english) and ‘modern’ /mɒdɻən/ = (modern english and irish english). similarly, metathesis may also occur with two consonants. in the history of english and among different language varieties, a change of order with /ks/ or /sk/ to /sk/ or /ks/ is frequent, e.g. ‘ask’ derives from old english ‘ascian’, which also showed a variant ‘acsian’. the second form is the source of the modern word. it stems from the first form by metathesis and was subject to metathesis again, reversing the original change in segment order. in the period when it was /aksian/, the palatalisation of /sk/-clusters took place — cf. ‘dish’, old english ‘disc’ from latin ‘discus’ — but the metathesis form was not affected. after the reversal of the first metathesis, the form ‘ask’ resulted and retained this pronunciation, which is why one does not have /æʃ/ in modern english, which would be the regular development of old english ‘ascian’ (an argument for this is found in bauer & warren, 2004). studying metathesis in the kunha language for the first time adds to linguistics via phonological processes. metathesis in kunha follows distinct patterns. it is the rearrangement of sounds within words. the reversal movement may be due to phonetic ease, language contact, or historical stages. linguistic analysis includes inversion sounds, conditions, patterns, and effects on word constructions. linguists examine how metathesis interacts with morphology, meaning, word formation, and historical development. with crossvariation between words regarding metathesis functioning, linguists can predict patterns and variability within a language. metathesis models in kunha are probable cultural and historical determinants. understanding this model exposes the language’s development and history in time and space. the investigation improves the knowledge of the culture and language of the kunhaspeaking community. recording and documenting metathesis in kunha, as in all endangered languages, is important for preservation and other linguistic resources, which will spur further work on this language. language material can save some phonological kunha descriptions to revive and secure the language. the dravidian language sub-grouping places kurux/oraon and malto in the central group, with brahui isolated. based on shared phonological features, emeneau (1962) suggests the possibility of brahui and kurux-malto forming a sub-family within the dravidian family. despite andronov (2003) bringing kurux and malto under a northeastern subgroup and brahui forming a northwestern sub-group, most scholars, like emeneau (1962), krishnamurti (2003), kobayashi and oraon (2017) and steever (2019) argue for a north dravidian group consisting of kurux/oraon, malto, anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 116 and brahui. at the same time, kurux is relatively autonomous and hence given a classification status, with malto being its closest cognate. however, a few recent studies on kunha (kujur, 2016, 2021 & 2024) show some dialectal differences when compared with kurux. grierson (1906) reports that speech varieties of a language are the outcomes of indo-aryan influences in north and central india, and so are the dialectal differences in kunha. roy (1915) notes that kurux are identified as dhangars or kisans in different regions, showing complex interactions. a more comprehensive study to include linguistic, cultural, and historical dimensions is much needed. the linguistic studies of kurux, malto and brahui and their associated speech varieties within the dravidian language family need more attention from future researchers (subrahmanyam, 1971). russell ultan’s seminal work in 1978 presents the first cross-linguistic metathesis analysis, including numerous types of sounds involved in the process, the types of metatheses, their manifestation, and the implications for the phonological processes and derivation. he claims that such a description “encompasses all sounds and kinds of sounds likely to be involved directly or indirectly in metathesis”. then, he tries to list “sociolinguistic justification for metathesis systematically” (ultan, 1978: 409). blevins and garrett (1998 & 2004) systematise and describe types of consonant-vowel metathesis, arguing against saying what is “commonly said, that metathesis is less than fully phonetic in nature”. the authors mention the universality of “natural, phonetic bases for metathesis” and specific cases of metathesis in the leti, luang, and wetan languages. it suggests a new analysis of the diachrony of metathesis in leti, overlooks examples of highvowel metathesis in other languages, and claims it is possible to explain metathesis from the perceptual point of view. they further analyse how phonetics can be related to phonology and phonological underpinnings. mielke and hume (2000) add more evidence regarding the comparative rarity of metathesis compared to assimilation. metathesis is expected to occur less often because it can significantly hinder word recognition relative to assimilation. subsequently, hume (2001 & 2004) proposes that rather than metathesis being random and unpredictable, a fuller understanding of why gemmation occurs and its functional and formal dimensions can also offer a more phonological theory of metathesis. the external factors that shape the patterns of metathesis determine how metathesis may be understood. she further explains how gemmation can happen across languages and why certain consonant groups result in metathesis when gemmated. she analyses the patterns of gemmation across the different languages and states that the phonetic nature and the native sounds of language help understand gemmation as it results from indeterminacy in the signal. she also suggests that gemmation may result from speech processing and word recognition effects. according to stonham (2006), metathesis transposes elements in a string for reordering, which can also be used to analyse them using constraint-based approaches like optimality theory. metathesis involves converting marked structures into more acceptable ones. buckley (2011) examines some metathesis phenomena, such as theoretical perspective in linguistics, perceptual metathesis, and phonological conditioning in languages. he discusses vc metathesis in surface forms caused by an overwriting pattern and illustrates how metathesis can be applied to loanwords in different languages. chandlee and heinz (2012) explore the conditions for sub-sequential copying and deletion processes. they analyse metathesis as a composition of copying and deletion, determine whether metathesis and reduplication are subsequential or reverse sub-sequential, and apply computational analysis of copying and deletion in linguistic patterns. chandlee (2023) discusses the transposition of segments to mark inflection and the transposition or displacement of morphemes and presents a series of metathesis examples in four categories along a phonology–morphology continuum. on sound reversals of the afroasiatic language, hume and seyfarth (2019) examined metathesis of the interaction of ‘h’ assimilation as metathetic changes in classical mandaic, a distinct form of aramaic used in ritual context (see also macuch, 1965 [2014]), realising that “vowels and consonants do not belong to the same class” is crucial to understanding these sound patterns. they provide evidence that “consistent synchronous metathesis does occur in a wide variety of languages”. they also present different formal accounts and factors that condition metathesis by providing yuman language (a subgroup of the hokan language anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 117 interviews. additionally, sociolinguistic interviews were conducted to collect spontaneous speech in natural settings, focusing on identifying instances of metathesis. the research was conducted in the districts of sundergarh and sambalpur in odisha, with a random sampling method employed to select participants, specifically targeting norms (non-mobile, rural, and male speakers) 10 male participants aged sixty-plus living in rural areas were taken up. the study also compares data from the kurux language with the kunha language to observe occurrences of metathesis. several lexicons were cross-checked with the dravidian etymological dictionary revised (dedr) by burrow and emeneau (1984) to trace their etymological origins. theoretical framework the three theoretical frameworks in metathesis can be summed up as first, and metathesis is not transposition but the serial application of smaller copy-and-delete or coalescence operations (besnier, 1987; hume, 1991; blevins & garrett, 1998; takahashi, 2018 & 2019; mooney, 2022). second, metathesis is an outcome of transposition (hume, 1998, 2001; canfield, 2016). third, allomorphy-based accounts of metathesis deal with metathesised allomorphs formed by fully transposing the cv segments (edwards, 2018 & 2020). in the present article, the transposition of cv, cc, and cvc syllable segments are analysed and discussed in view of metathesis. it is highly restricted and exhibits an irregular distribution, posing difficulties in analysing and making linguistic predictions. the present article relies on novel data from original fieldwork on the kunha language (odisha, india), a north dravidian language with robust cv, cc, and cvc metathesis. there has been some descriptive work on the language (goswami, 1989; kujur, 2016 & 2021). however, there is no discussion on the kunha metathesis, which is productive occurring with almost all segments in the language. iii. results vowel-consonant metathesis metathesis involves the exchange or reversal of adjacent sounds, particularly a vowel and a consonant. this phenomenon alters the phonetic structure of words between kurux and kunha, family) data tested against universals proposed by ultan (1987). hume and seyfarth (2019) suggest possible ways to integrate phonological and syntactic approaches in further research. kiegel-keicher (2020) captures a simple metathesis in ibero-romance /arabisms/ v/s. / andalusi/. arabic focuses on syllable structure and weight relations in loanwords, with a brief final section on metathesis’s odd, largely optional association with arabic-romance phonology. gilbert and mooney (2022) claim that metathesis is gestural overlap and a phonological explanation. phonology has an early and late stratum with different representations. late phonology has only gestures, not atomic segments. the metathesis phenomenon is viewed as an odd character having rare cases with a few samples in the languages, and so it has been called sporadic (powell, 1985), irregular (montreuil, 1981), or sometimes altogether non-existent (webb, 1974). it has received little attention from researchers in the literature. yet, many cases of productive phonological metathesis have been documented over the years (hume, 1998; blevins & garrett, 1998; mccarthy, 2000; hume, 2001, and others). this paper explores the unique metathesis patterns in the kunha language, focusing on transposition effects and cv/cc/cvc rearrangements. the study highlights kunha’s widespread but irregular metathesis, previously unrecorded, and its rarity in world languages, posing challenges for linguistic theory. it highlights the important role of the metathesis phenomenon in contributing to the formation of a new speech variety called the kunha language. ii. methods this research investigates the phenomenon of metathesis and its linguistic implications in the formation of the kunha language, spoken in the odisha state of india. the study is approached from a synchronic phonological perspective, remarking on its typological oddity and that of a native speaker. data collection to collect data on the kunha language, the language documentation handbook by rao (2016) was utilised. the primary data set comprises a list of 5,000 lexicons gathered through informant anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 118 reflecting dialectal variation within the same language family. kunha language of odisha presents distinct features of metathesis in the following examples: metathesis of vowel /a/, and consonant the lexicons in kurux underwent metathesis involving a vowel /a/ and a consonant to form a new language, kunha. kurux kunha meaning metathesis /ekdaː/ > /ekaːd/ ‘who, which’ [da:] > [a:d] /tal-iː/ > /atl-iː/ ‘copula verb (present tense)’ [ta] > [at] /apʈaː/ > /apoʈ/ ‘complete (__dusmani)’ [ʈaː] > [oʈ] metathesis of /u/, and consonant the following data shows the involvement of the sound /u/ in the metathesis process in the kunha language. the metathesised outcomes are presented as [uk] > [ku:], [ut] > [tu], [ukh] > [khu], [ur] > [ri:]. odisha. a random sampling method was employed to select participants, specifically targeting norms (non-mobile, older, rural, and male speakers); 10 number of male participants aged sixty plus living in rural areas of sundergarh and sambalpur districts of odisha. kurux kunha meaning metathesis /oɽok/ > /uɽku:/ ‘bark of a tree’ [uk] > [ku:] /orot/ > /urtu/ ‘indefinite article’ [ut] > [tu] /xall-ukhɽi:/ > /hallu-khuɽi:/ ‘agriculture’ [ukh] > [khu] /calkur/ > /calkri:/ ‘sand, gravel’ [ur] > [ri:] vowel sound /i/, and consonant metathesis in kunha involves /i/, and /a/ vowel sounds as a part of cv in kurux > vc in kunha structural changes, which include [li] > [il], [im] > [na], etc. in the following examples. kurux kunha meaning metathesis /lidrʔ-aː / > /ildr-aː/ ‘to get up’ [li] > [il] /idim/ > /idnaː/ ‘just at present (i.e. nowadays)’ [im] > [na] metathesis and aspirated sound metathesis with aspiration sound is a linguistic phenomenon where the order of sounds in a word is changed, typically resulting in the placement of an aspirated sound in a different position within the word. for example, in kunha, metathesis with aspiration sound can be observed in words like / tupphaloː/ ‘saliva, spittle’, /umbhaloː/ ‘liver; kidney, heart, lungs’, /ɡuchaː-ba-a/ ‘to move away; to throw away’ a change involving aspiration. kurux kunha meaning metathesis /tuppalxoː/ > /tupphaloː/ ‘saliva, spittle’ [palx] > [phal] /umbalxoː/ > /umbhaloː/ ‘liver; kidney, heart, lungs’ [balx] > [bhal] /ɡuchaː-baʔ-aː/ > /ɡhucaː-ba-a/ ‘to move away; to throw away’ [ɡuch] > [ɡhuc] /letheɽ okk-aː/ > /thepeɽ okk-aː/ ‘to sit with the legs crossed’ [leth] > [thep] metathesis between two consonants there are instances of metathesis involving two consonants. it is a linguistic phenomenon where the order of two or more consecutive consonant sounds within a word is changed. this can occur for various reasons, including ease of pronunciation, phonotactic constraints, or language evolution. kurux words exhibit a linguistic process of metathesis in kunha, for example: kurux kunha meaning metathesis /maːkcuːɳɖ/ > /maːskuːɽ/ ‘name of a flower’ [kc] > [sk] /hoɽm-baʔ-aː/ > /homɽa-ba-aː/ ‘to throw one down headlong’ [ɽm] > [mɽ] /xarɖkaː/ > /haɖrkaː/ ‘stolen’ [rɖ] > [ɖr] /lapsaːrʔ-aː/ > /lahpaːr-aː/ ‘to take long strides’ [sp] > [hp] /õːsaɽɡoː/ > /õːɽskaː/ ‘a kind of mushroom’ [sɽ] > [ɽs] iv. discussion the occurrence of metathesis is exhibited in the kunha language with the transposition of vc or cv, cc, and cvc structures. the cc and cvc instances are rare in most languages of the world. hume (2001) and horwood (2004) have observed that the typology of metathesis is far more restricted. it is often limited to certain segments or a few morphemes in a given language. metathesis uses transposition, a single operation that changes the precedence relations of two segments, e.g. cv, in the following examples: • the feminine suffix has two variants, /-ni/ and /-i(n)/. kunha uses only the latter, while kurux uses both. for instance, /khaɽiya-in/ ~ /khaɽiya:-n/, which stands for ‘belonging to the kharia tribe’ in kurux, is represented as /khaɽiya:-n/ in kunha. /corh-niː/ ~ /cor-ni:/ referring to ‘lady thief’ in kurux is represented as /cor-ni:/ in kunha. • kurux form /naːmukil kaːl-aː/ ‘to deny; to oppose’ where metathesis cluster changes from /il/ to /li/ in kunha /naːmukli: kaːl-aː/. • kurux form /biyaːriː/ ‘wee hours’ > /pairiː/ in kunha, where the vc sequence /iaː/ becomes /ai/. anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 119 metathesis involving vowel /e/ and consonant sounds alters the phonetic structure of words when transitioning between different dialects within the same language family, reflecting the dynamic nature of linguistic variation. • dedr 789 /eɽeth/ > /iɽtu:/ (long-bow) kurux form includes the sequence /eth/. however, in kunha, metathesis has occurred, resulting in the sequence /tu:/ from /eth/ in /iɽtu:/. • /keber moːx-aː/ > /kebra moːh-ã:/ ‘to be scolded’ the kurux form features the sequence /e/ followed by /r/. in kunha, metathesis has led to the rearrangement of sounds, with the sequence /er/ becoming /ra/. • /xeːxel/ > /heːhla:/ ‘land, earth’ kurux form contains the sequence /eːx/. in kunha, metathesis results in the sequence /heː/. • /endraː/ > /ende:r/ ‘what, why’ – kurux form includes the sequence /en/. in kunha, metathesis causes the sequence /ne/. an instance of metathesis involves vowel /o/, such as dedr 3520 /tolokh/ ‘side of the body, and armpit’ in kurux changes to /tolkho:/ in kunha. the result of metathesis [okh] > [kho:] indicates the phonetic representation after the change. aspirated sounds are involved in a similar cv transposition process with sound segments. krishnamurti (2003) shows that the transposition of an apical consonant from the coda of the first syllable to its onset is a defining isogloss for the south-central subgroup. this process has gained ground in kuvi, for example, / ɡɽu:-/ ‘knock against something’, /dɽova/ ‘basket’, /kɳupa/ ‘berry of a tree’. some verbs alternate between metathesised and non-metathesised stems in their conjugation, for example, /pa:ɳ-/ ~ /pɳaʔ-/ ‘receive’, /pe:r-/ ~ /preʔ-/ ‘chase’, and certain nouns have a metathesised stem in the plural, for example, /ɖo:ri/ ‘rope’ ~ /ɖro:-ka/ ‘ropes, /pe:ɳu/ ‘louse’ ~ /pɳe:-ka/ ‘lice’ (note the retroflex nasal in the plural). while telugu has subsequently simplified clusters thus generated, for example, /vra:yu/ ‘write’ (< /*varia/ ‘draw’) has become /ra:yu/ ‘write’, kuvi retains its initial clusters (steever, 2019). dravidian languages of the south-central group have innovated, to a greater or lesser extent, a rule of metathesis or apical displacement (see krishnamurti 1961 & 1978), which now permits resonants and laterals to appear word-initially, as in telugu /ra:yu/ ~ /wra:yu/ ‘write’ from /*varay/ ‘draw, make lines’ (dedr 5263), kui /la:venju/ ‘youth’ and gondi /leyyor/ ‘id’ from /*iɭay-aṉṯu/ ‘young man’ (dedr 513). a comprehensive overview of dravidian languages by steever (2019) touches on metathesis patterns, providing insights into how these languages exhibit unique metathetic processes and their significance within the dravidian language family. internal changes in many languages have also created initial clusters, so that metathesis changed /*varay/ ‘write, draw’ into telugu /vra:yu/ ‘id’; however, the subsequent development of this telugu form into /ra:yu/ ‘id’ indicates that the pdr (proto-dravidian) prohibition against initial clusters was still operative at some level. there is hardly any instance of compressing two syllables into one. the general patterns in the kunha language show that two segments are transposed, keeping the syllable structures intact, and metathesis segments do not transpose. however, the second syllables in disyllable words tend to end with a vowel. for example: [na.kar nu.kur] ‘tottering’ resyllabifies into [na.kru nu.kru] and so do in other examples [na.lakh] ‘work, duty’ > [nal. khu], [ma.raɡ] ‘horn, antler’ > [mar.ɡu]. metathesis under transposition is, therefore, expected to be phonetically perfect, thereby maintaining the language’s coda-onset sequence. kurux kunha meaning metathesis /nakar-nukur/ > [nu.kra-nu.kru] ‘tottering’ [ar] > [ra] [ur] > [ru] /nalakh/ > [nal.khu] ‘work, duty’ [akh] > [khu] /maraɡ/ > [mar.ɡu:] ‘horn, antler’ [aɡ] > [ɡu:] reordering of cc sequence is distinctively realised in the kunha language, which is rarely found in other dravidian languages, e.g. [kc] > [sk], [ɽm] > [mɽ], [rɖ] > [ɖr], [sp] > [hp], [sɽ] > [ɽs]; however, there is an explicit change in the syllabification of sound segments, for examples: kurux kunha meaning syllabification /maːk.cuːɳɖ/ > [maːs.kuːɽ] ‘name of a flower’ /σσ/ → [σσ] /hoɽm-baʔ-aː/ > [hom.ɽa-ba-a:] ‘to throw one down headlong’ /σσ/ → [σσ] /xarɖ.kaː/ > [haɖr.kaː] ‘stolen’ /σσ/ → [σσ] /lap.saːrʔ-aː/ > [lah.paːr-aː] ‘to take long strides’ /σσ/ → [σσ] /õːsaɽ.ɡoː/ > [õːɽs.kaː] ‘a kind of mushroom’ /σσ/ → [σσ] the transposition of cvc structures in the kunha language presents an interesting phenomenon of anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 120 metathesis, and these changes involve aspirated sounds, e.g. [palx] > [phal], [balx] > [bhal], [ɡuch] > [ɡhuc], [leth] > [thep], are the cases of reversal in consonant. metathesised sequences are uniformly treated as matching their underlying precedence order and keeping the numbers of syllables intact. factors influencing metathesis in language variation phonological environment metathesis in language variation could be accounted for by the phonological environments, such as phonetic contexts or structural conditions, which may assist or obstruct the metathesis between kurux and kunha language variations. it is likely that a particular sound, such as vowel sounds [a, e, i, o, u] or sound sequences [kc], [leth], [ɽm], etc., are prone to reordering due to articulatory ease or perceptual salience in a specific phonological environment. phonological features such as vowel harmony or consonant cause the likely occurrence of metathesis as they create conditions conducive to sound rearrangement. language variations in phonological patterns, such as differences in vowel or consonant inventories, syllable structures, or stress patterns, can lead to differences in the prevalence or patterns of metathesis across different language variations. due to unique phonological characteristics or historical developments, certain speech variations may exhibit more frequent or regular metathesis phenomena. geographical location languages spoken in regions with diverse linguistic communities, such as odia, hindi/sadri, munda, and kharia, exhibit metathesis influenced by language contact. if neighbouring languages or dialects have metathesis patterns, speakers may adopt or adapt these through language contact. geographically isolated dialects can preserve archaic linguistic features, including metathesis patterns, that have been lost or changed in surrounding dialects. therefore, language varieties in isolated regions may exhibit unique metathesis phenomena that reflect historical linguistic developments. physical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or valleys can restrict communication and interaction between different communities, leading to distinct dialects with their metathesis patterns. geographic features can thus contribute to the divergence of metathesis phenomena across regions. historical migration and settlement patterns can spread specific dialectal features, including metathesis, to new geographic areas. dialects spoken by communities that have migrated from different regions may exhibit metathesis patterns characteristic of their ancestral dialects. cultural influences the analysis of metathesis in the kunha language highlights the profound influence of cultural factors on phonological processes and language evolution. the kunha people’s unique cultural practices, beliefs, and social interactions have significantly contributed to the occurrence and prevalence of metathesis within their language. cultural practices and beliefs often shape how individuals produce and perceive speech sounds. in the case of the kunha language, cultural practices related to storytelling, music, and oral traditions might have influenced the phonetic patterns and the occurrence of metathesis. additionally, social interactions and cultural exchanges with neighbouring communities could have introduced new phonological features and influenced the adoption and spread of metathesis within the kunha language. sociolinguistic changes evident in kunha can be associated with the urbanisation and industrialisation of the kunha-speaking regions of western odisha. urbanisation has paved the way for linguistic changes among tribal language speakers. the culture of kunha speakers has also changed with time. major religions like christianity and hinduism drive it by adopting religious rituals and tribal ceremonies (for a detailed overview, see kujur, 2021, 143). a few cultural aspects of kurux/ oraon still exist in kunha, but several linguistic differences between the languages have developed. the kunha culture is dynamic and influenced by language contact and external influence from dominant and minor languages. therefore, further research in odisha’s kunha language will reveal complex language contact features, cultural evolution, and sociolinguistic composition. kunha has been undergoing a linguistic process of aryanization in odisha that is majorly influenced by indo-aryan languages. there has been extensive language contact between the speakers of kunha and those of indo-aryan and munda languages in odisha. consequently, the loanwords in kunha are borrowed majorly from odia, hindi/sadri, and anup kumar kujur / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 121 minorly from munda and kharia. kunha also exhibits some remnants of the kurux/oraon language; however, prolonged interactions with several languages and religions have shaped the significantly distinct linguistic landscape of kunha culture. interaction with hindi-sadri and christian missionaries significantly influences the gradual shift to the major language family in the region. v. conclusion over the centuries, each linguistic community has developed its peculiarities concerning specific image components and special traits. studying metathesis in the kunha language provides valuable insights into languages’ evolution and phonological processes. the study contributes significantly to linguistic typology by exploring morphological and phonological changes, this research sheds light on the mechanisms of linguistic change over time. the findings suggest that language variation and contact play significant roles in phonological adaptation, contributing to the dynamic nature of language development. historical linguistics studies like this are crucial for understanding the intricate processes that shape languages and their evolution. further research in this area can deepen our understanding of the complexities of linguistic change and its implications for language typology and contactinduced language change. the speakers of kunha are continuously working to develop the language and restrict the use of the term kisan; however, it will pose a great challenge to the people as many have adopted kisan as their clan’s name instead of the original clan’s name. there are sociolinguistic motivations behind reordering cv or vc, cc and cvc sequences, such as phonological, geographic and cultural influences. the codas of the first syllable in the pre-metathesised sequence occupy the onset position of the second syllables in the cv or vc, and cc sequences. these patterns from kunha language confirm the cross-linguistic tendencies for metathesis discussed in hume (2004): (i) metathesis involves adjacent segments, and (ii) ordering reversals are preferred at the end of stems and words because word position and proximity constitute significant factors for speech processing (mielke & hume, 2001). as such, this experience will remain in the history of linguistics and enhance language documentation for a very long time, providing a resource for comparative studies within the language family. ethics statement this study was reviewed and approved by berhampur university research committee. informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement anup kumar kujur has conceptualised, collected data, studied literature, formal evaluation, funding approval, inquiry, methodology, and initial draft preparation. biswanandan dash processed the concept, verified subjectivity, adduced literature, developed content, reviewed, and edited for final draft production. acknowledgements the corresponding author would like to thank the odisha state higher education council for providing support for the research project under ourip seed fund-2022/071-linguistics, odisha, india. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references andronov, m. s. 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(1974). metathesis. phd dissertation, university of texas, austin. low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 82 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: july 24, 2024 final revision: january 23, 2025 accepted: february 03, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 studying from home may cause problems for academic performance and psychological well-being, however, studying from home may bring advantages for “flexibility”, “study-life balance” and academic achievement. hence, this paper investigated whether university students gained benefits by studying mandarin (as a foreign language) from home based on the theory of needs of david mcclelland. this theory has linked to the need for power (through flexibility), the need for affiliation (through study-life balance) and the need for achievement (through learning performance). the study employed a quantitative method, and the instrument used was a survey. the samples comprised of 326 students who enrolled in a mandarin course at the universiti teknologi mara (uitm), shah alam and puncak alam, selangor. the data was analysed using the statistical packages for social sciences (spss) for obtaining descriptive statistics such as mean scores, standard deviations and correlation. in terms of the need for power (through flexibility), the results demonstrated that students very often had the power for saving on commuting expenses and focus on the study; while the results for the need for affiliation (through study-life balance) revealed that students were able to save more time to handle tasks on hand, attend to family needs and enhanced family relationship. the results for the need for achievement (through learning performance) indicated that students very often had control over learning performance due to their mandarin lecturers understood their challenges, provided more learning materials and monitored their progress. it is recommended that the motivation to study from home can be further explored. this study could be replicated to examine if the mcclellan’s needs theory would meet the needs of other larger groups of students. keywords study from home, needs theory, study-life balance, flexibility, learning performance correspondence e-mail: hiangloon2004@yahoo.com article perception of studying mandarin from home: an analysis from mclelland’s theory low hiang loon1, goh chin shuang2, teh hong siok3, tuan sarifah aini syed ahmad4 1-4academy of language studies, universiti teknologi mara (uitm), malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.82-95.2025 i. introduction due to the covid-19 attack in march 2020, malaysia had switched the traditional face-to-face classroom instruction to studying from home for all educational institutions including universities and other institutions of higher education, in which it was a situation where there was a sudden change from “studying physically at campus” to “studying from home”, aiming to prevent the spread of covid-19. generally, it is believed that studying from home will cause several problems to students especially on the aspects of academic performance (aileen farida, 2022; hastutiningtyas & rosdiana, 2021), psychological well-being (amin et al., 2023; duan & zhu, 2020; zhang & ma, 2020), infrastructure issues (aileen farida et al., 2021; demuyakor, 2020) and issues of lack of technical skills in handling the technology devices that affects the effectiveness of students studying from home (brilliannur et al., 2020; khanna, & prasad, 2020; okyere et al., 2022). however, some research has also reported about the advantages of studying from home in terms of “study-life balance” because compared with studying on campus, the mode of studying from low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 83 home has reduced the travelling time to a physical campus and solved the distance issues (fidalgo et al., 2020; nik md salleh et al., 2022). in this way, students do not only save on accommodation, transportation and other expenses, but also gain more time to handle the task at hand. at the beginning of implementing the mode of studying from home, students may get lost in adapting to the new learning environment when using online applications to study at home. in the later stages, most students slowly mastered the new learning methods through e-learning resources, digital meeting platforms and online learning systems (santiago et al., 2022), and eventually most students were on the track to receive knowledge as usual and were able to maintain their academic performance. on top of that, studying from home also presents encouraging aspects such as flexibility in terms of convenience and more freedom. students can study at anytime and anywhere (manea, et al., 2021; thamri, et al., 2022). with that, they can learn at their own pace and repeating learning is possible as a lot of visuals, article links, videos, and interactive exercises are provided (huang et al., 2020; yuhanna et al., 2020). according to mcclelland (1965), need for achievement, need for affiliation and need for power are 3 important aspects needs to be achieved by people in life (figure 1). the need for achievement refers to the ability to handle academic tasks and academic performance. this motivation extends to individuals’ ability to handle academic tasks and impacts their overall academic performance. in the context of studying from home, students with a high need for achievement are more inclined to set ambitious learning objectives and demonstrate persistent efforts to excel in their studies (turabik & baskan, 2015; vero & puka, 2017). the need for affiliation refers to “study-life balance” where one does not only do well for the study, but could pay greater attention to the family to enhance family relationships. mcclelland defines the need of affiliation as the need to belong to a group. the core of the need for affiliation is the desire to establish a warm relationship with others including their family members, concerned with the establishment and maintenance of a sustainable and good interpersonal relation (corpuz et al., 2022; uduji & ankeli, 2013; vero & puka, 2017). last but not least, the need for power will be gained when one has the flexibility in one’s life. studying from home has offered the great flexibility (nik md salleh et al., 2022) that has given a positive impact on students’ learning as compared to traditional education (santiago et al., 2021), especially on the aspects of remote learning, easy administration, accessibility and comfortability (mukhtar et al., 2020). based on the above motivating aspects, it is particularly important to investigate malaysian university students’ perceptions on studying from home. this paper focused on investigating whether university mandarin students in malaysia had gained benefits from the mode of studying from home based on the theory of needs proposed by david mcclelland (1965). generally, this paper will analyse the advantages and disadvantages of studying from home based on the theory of needs proposed by david mcclelland (1965). specifically, this research will explore the perceptions of university mandarin students in malaysia on how flexibility, study life balance and academic performance were affected by the mode of studying mandarin from home. figure 1 conceptual framework of the study: theory of needs and factors for studying from home low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 84 many studies have been conducted to investigate the advantages and challenges of studying from home during the pandemic. the studies are described as follows. kastaty and prihatini (2022) investigated how indonesian students learned asian languages during the covid-19 pandemic. the results of the study showed that all 310 participants expressed interest in learning an asian language during the pandemic. of the respondents, 55% mentioned that online learning from home had motivated them to acquire a foreign language. another reason for their motivation to participate in online classes was the user-friendly nature of online platforms, making the learning process more enjoyable and engaging. additionally, studying from home allowed students to learn asian languages at their own pace and with flexibility. the study also found that 86% of students reported that online platforms had improved their writing skills. furthermore, most students mentioned that teachers used online platforms to provide clear instructions for completing tasks. the interview findings also indicated that students had enhanced their knowledge of vocabulary and pronunciation, including the correct intonation. huang and wang (2023) conducted a study on how to motivate students to engage in online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the study selected a large sample of 14,935 postgraduate students from 31 universities in china. the research consisted of three scales that measured the participants’ perceptions of needs satisfaction, engagement, and academic achievement. the findings demonstrated that postgraduate students at chinese universities benefited from increased autonomy in the online learning environment encouraged them to set learning goals, access learning resources, and employ learning strategies that facilitated the mastery of difficult skills, understanding complex ideas, and the use of deep learning strategies to achieve academic success. students’ perceptions of relatedness satisfaction also contributed to increased participation in online learning activities with teachers and peers. in conclusion, students’ feelings of autonomy and competence, which stimulated behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement in online learning activities, were found to positively influence academic achievement. mahyoob (2020) examined the challenges and obstacles of online learning faced by students studying from home during the covid-19 pandemic. a total of 184 tertiary english as a foreign language (efl) learners in saudi arabia participated in the study. the findings revealed that the primary challenges of efl online learning were related to technical issues, such as poor internet connectivity. students also faced difficulties accessing learning platforms, such as using the blackboard tool, downloading materials, and conducting online exams etc., due to unreliable internet connections. in addition, communication issues were prominent. inefficient interaction with teachers and peers demotivated students studying from home. as a result, over 30% of students reported missing tasks, assignments, and communications with their teachers. the study found that less than 50% of students were satisfied with online learning from home. aroonsrimarakot et. al. (2023) investigated the challenges of online learning and strategies to overcome challenges from the students’ perspectives. in this study, 465 students were purposively selected at two public universities in thailand. the results revealed that the major challenges were students facing difficulty in understanding the context of the lesson, poor internet connection, difficulty in managing time, difficulty in taking online exams, poor quality of learning experience, low interest or motivation, difficulty in selecting the area to follow the online lesson at home, difficulty in completing work assignment or task, and distraction from the learning environment at home. factor of distraction was caused by noise and poor learning environment at home; teachers’ incompetency was caused by technical, inadequate teaching skills, unstructured content, and lack of follow-up; technological limitation was caused by the quality of uploaded audio or video files, connectivity, technical problems, or data limitations. remote learning or online distance learning (odl), spurred by the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic in 2020, forcing higher education institutions in malaysia to adapt their teaching methods to maintain high standards of education. students had the transition from traditional faceto-face learning to online or remote learning. this significant shift in the mode of education prompted the current study to investigate the impact of studying mandarin from home. hence, this study low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 85 they were studying mandarin as one of the courses of the university. therefore, the students who enrolled in a mandarin course at the universiti teknologi mara (uitm), shah alam & puncak alam, selangor were selected. purposive sampling is applied when a sample requires certain criteria and is convenient to researchers (andrade, 2020). however, the results obtained from this sampling cannot represent and be generalized to the population (andrade, 2020). table 1 shows the results for demographic profile of the respondents. the sample consisted of 326 fulltime university mandarin students. the majority of the students (82.5%) were females and only 17.5 % of them were males. it is because the majority of students enrolled in all faculties every semester are females, reflecting the imbalance of gender ratio. table 1 also demonstrates that the respondents were from nine mandarin classes from three faculties namely, faculty of accountancy, faculty of computer science and faculty of mass communication. the number of students ranged from 32 to 40 students per class. respondents of each faculty comprised students of mandarin level 1, 2 & 3, respectively. besides, table 1 shows that the students studied mandarin from home at various states in malaysia. almost half of (40.5%) the sample were from selangor while the rest were from other states with the percentages ranged from 0.3% to 8.9%. this is due to the location of uitm campuses selected were in selangor. thus, the was conducted to investigate university mandarin students’ perception of studying from home using the mcclellan’s theory. the investigation was conducted to answer the following research questions: 1. how do learners gain power when studying mandarin from home? 2. how do learners gain affiliation when studying mandarin from home? 3. how do learners gain achievement when studying mandarin from home? 4. what is the relationship between the three factors in the theory of needs (mcclelland, 1965) and studying from home experience for a mandarin course? ii. methods the study employed a quantitative method by using a survey. the survey was conducted by using a questionnaire developed by using google forms due to its convenience that missing data can be eliminated when all items in the questionnaire were set as required to be answered, and its link can easily be sent via any online platforms. in this study, the link was distributed via the class whatsapp groups, and it was open for four weeks. the sample for this study was obtained through purposive sampling due to the sample had to fulfil the following criteria: (1) it was convenient to access, (2) it was studying from home, and (3) table 1 demographic profile gender frequency percent male 57 17.5 female 269 82.5 total 326 100 group frequency percent act1ma 40 12.3 cst1me 33 10.1 mct1mc 30 9.2 act2ma 34 10.4 cst2ma 32 9.8 mct2ma 39 12.0 act3ma 40 12.3 cst3me 40 12.3 mct3mb 38 11.7 total 326 100 state frequency percent selangor 132 40.5 melaka 9 2.8 perak 21 6.4 johor 29 8.9 penang 13 4.0 kedah 19 5.8 pahang 11 3.4 kelantan 28 8.6 terengganu 3 0.9 negeri sembilan 10 3.1 sabah 10 3.1 sarawak 12 3.7 kuala lumpur 24 7.4 putrajaya 4 1.2 labuan 1 0.3 total 326 100 low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 86 majority of the students were from selangor. the questionnaire for this study consisted of five sections (a, b, c, d and e) as shown in table 2. 30 items in section b, c, d and e were adapted from abdullah, rahmat, zawawi, khamsah and anuarsham (2020) and constructed based on david mcclelland’s motivation theory. modifications were done to make it applicable for this study. content validation of the items was conducted by an expert in the english as a second language teaching. the reliability of 30 items with likert scales was evaluated by using the cronbach’s alpha test. the α value obtained was very good (n=30, α=.944). according to ursachi et al. (2015), the α value that is 0.8 or greater is very good. therefore, the items were reliable. the data for demographic profile was analysed for frequencies while the data for sections b, c, d and e was analysed for mean scores and correlations. the interpretation of results for mean scores of five likert scales for sections b, c, d and e was based on alston and miller (2002) as shown in table 3. iii. results flexibility to gain power this section presents the results to answer research question 1: “how do learners gain power when studying mandarin from home?”. in the context of this study, the need for power refers to flexibility. table 2 distribution of items in the survey section items factors number of items scale reliability (α) a demographic profile 3 b power flexibility 9 never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), very often (4) and always (5). c affiliation study-life balance 10 .944d achievements learning performance 10 e overall 1 very poor (1) poor (2), fair (3), good (4) and excellent (5) total number of items 33 table 3 interpretation of mean of the five-likert scales likert scale coding five likert scales (alston and miller, 2002) five likert scales in sections b, c and d five likert scales in section e mean of likert scale 1 strongly disagree never very poor 1.0 1.49 2 disagree rarely poor 1.5 2.49 3 neutral sometimes fair 2.5 3.49 4 agree very often good 3.5 4.49 5 strongly agree always excellent 4.5 5.0 table 4 flexibility to gain power items mean std. deviation interpretation fq1 i take less time to complete my task when studying from home. 3.03 .965 sometimes fq2 i cherish not having to spend time commuting to university on daily basis. 3.34 1.103 sometimes fq3 i am able to save on commuting expenses while studying from home 4.22 .914 very often fq4 i can immediately attend the class upon waking up every day while studying from home. 4.11 .950 very often fq5 i am comfortable to do my study anytime. 3.85 1.017 very often fq6 i can focus my study by managing my own schedule. 3.74 1.027 very often fq7 i am able to enjoy a healthier lifestyle. 3.44 1.068 sometimes fq8 i face less stress doing some class work at home. 3.01 1.154 sometimes fq9 my productivity increases with less stress while studying from home 3.03 1.141 sometimes low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 87 table 4 shows the results for flexibility to gain power. the results demonstrated that students very often had the power for five items: saving on commuting expenses while studying from home (m=4.22, sd=.914), immediately attending the class upon waking up every day while studying from home (sd=4.11, sd=.950), feeling comfortable to do their study anytime (m=3.85, sd=1.017), and focusing their study by managing their own schedule (m=3.74, sd=1.027). while the other four items, they sometimes had the power to take less time to complete their task when studying from home (m=3.03, sd=.965), cherish not having to spend time commuting to university on daily basis (m=3.34, sd=1.103), be able to enjoy a healthier lifestyle (m=3.44, sd=1.068), face less stress doing some class work at home (m=3.01, sd=1.154), and increase productivity with less stress while studying from home (m=3.03, sd=1.141). study-life balance to gain affiliation this section presents the results to answer research question 2: how do learners gain affiliation when studying mandarin from home? in the context of this study, the need for affiliation refers to study-life balance. table 5 shows the results for study-life balance to gain affiliation. the results revealed that students very often had control for six items: assisting their family with household chores (m=3.66, sd=.972), improving their learning satisfaction for having a study space at home (m=3.67, sd=1.063), simultaneously attending to their family needs while studying from home (m=3.60, sd=1.032), not having to face traffic jams to and from university every day (m=4.19, sd=.998), not having to travel to university, therefore they were able to spend more time on the task at hand (m=3.89, sd=1.036), and take care of themselves better while studying from home (m=3.52, sd=1.078). for the other four items, students sometimes had control on managing their study responsibilities alongside their personal and family needs (m=3.37, sd=.948). the students also perceived that the flexibility of learning from home was ideal for them (m=3.42, sd=1.031), studying from home was more conducive than learning in a normal classroom (m=3.12, sd=1.136), and feeling healthy and having a better well-being when studying from home (m=3.31, sd=1.103). learning performance to gain achievement this section presents the results to answer research question 3: “how do learners gain achievement when studying mandarin from home?”. in the context of this study, the need for achievement refers to learning performance. table 6 shows very encouraging results for learning performance. the results indicated that students very often had control over all the items due to their mandarin lecturers understood their challenges while they studied from home (m=3.89, sd=1.012), had high trust in them when they studied from home (m=4.02, sd=.915), provided more learning materials when students studied from home (m=4.28, sd=.780), were table 5 study-life balance to gain affiliation items mean std. deviation interpretation wlbq1 i can manage my study responsibilities alongside my personal and family needs. 3.37 .948 sometimes wlbq2 i prefer flexibility for my study as i can assist my family with household chores. 3.66 .972 very often wlbq3 the flexibility of studying from home is ideal for me. 3.42 1.031 sometimes wlbq4 i find having a study space at home helps improve my learning satisfaction. 3.67 1.063 very often wlbq5 i find studying from home beneficial for me as i am able to simultaneously attend to my family needs. 3.60 1.032 very often wlbq6 i find studying from home more conducive than learning in a normal classroom. 3.12 1.136 sometimes wlbq7 i do not have to face traffic jams to and from university every day. 4.19 .998 very often wlbq8 i do not have to travel to university, therefore i am able to spend more time on the task at hand. 3.89 1.036 very often wlbq9 i feel healthy and have a better well-being when studying from home. 3.31 1.103 sometimes wlbq10 i am able to take care of myself better while studying from home. 3.52 1.078 very often low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 88 table 6 learning performance to gain achievement item mean std. deviation interpretation wpq1 my mandarin lecturers understand students’ challenges while students studying from home. 3.89 1.012 very often wpq2 my mandarin lecturers have high trust in students when students studying from home. 4.02 .915 very often wpq3 my mandarin lecturers provide more learning materials when students studying from home. 4.28 .780 very often wpq4 my mandarin lecturers are concerned with monitoring students’ progress when students studying from home. 4.22 .804 very often wpq5 my mandarin lecturers arrange additional quizzes and exercises when students studying from home. 4.30 .782 very often wpq6 studying from home improves my study progression. 3.52 .976 very often wpq7 studying from home improves my academic performance for mandarin course. 3.59 .975 very often wpq8 i have a comfortable space when i study from home. 3.87 1.031 very often wpq9 my mandarin lecturers conduct live teaching when students studying from home. 4.53 .747 very often wpq10 i do self-directed learning when i study from home. 3.79 .936 very often table 7 means score of studying from home experience for a mandarin course n mean std. deviationvalid missing interpretation 326 0 3.68 .779 good table 8 tests of normality factors in the theory of needs (mcclelland, 1965) kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. studying from home experience for a mandarin course .255 326 <.001 .842 326 <.001 need for power (through flexibility) .060 326 .006 .986 326 .003 need for affiliation (through study-life balance) .070 326 <.001 .977 326 <.001 need for achievement (through learning performance) .061 326 .006 .972 326 <.001 a. lilliefors significance correction concerned with monitoring their progress when they studied from home (m=4.22, sd=.804), arranged additional quizzes and exercises when students studied from home (m=4.30, sd=.782), and conducted live teaching when they studied from home (m=4.53, sd=.747). moreover, they were very often able to control their learning due to studying from home improved their study progression (m=3.52, sd=.976), studying from home improved their academic performance for mandarin course (m=3.59, sd=.975), they had a comfortable space when they studied from home (m=3.87, sd=1.031), and they did self-directed learning when they studied from home (m=3.79, sd=.936). the relationship between three factors in the theory of needs (mcclelland, 1965) and studying from home experience for a mandarin course section e contains the item of “how was the studying from home experience for your mandarin course?”. table 7 shows that the score of the item (m=3.68, sd=0.779), indicating the students had good studying from home experience for a mandarin course. the relationships between three factors in the theory of needs (mcclelland, 1965) with studying from home experience for a mandarin course were analysed using the spearman rho correlation test because the data for all variables were not normal low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 89 (p < 0.05) for both types of normality tests (the kolmogorov-smirnova test and the shapirowilk test) as shown in table 8. furthermore, the sampling was conducted through purposive sampling. the results of the spearman’s rho correlations tests between the variables are shown in table 9. the strength of the correlations between the variables were interpreted based on these r values: very low (r≤0.20), low (0.20<r≤0.39), moderate (0.40<r≤0.59), high (0.60<r ≤0.79) and very high (0.8 – 1.0) (permansah et al., 2023). the results demonstrated that all factors in the theory of needs had moderate positive correlation with studying from home experience for a mandarin course. need for achievement (r = 0.589, p < .001) demonstrated the highest r value compared to the other two factors, need for power (through flexibility) (r = 0.420, p < .001) and need for affiliation (through study-life balance) (r = 0.412, p < .001). iv. discussion this paper investigated students’ learning perceptions and experiences on studying from home in malaysian higher learning institutions based on mcclellan’s needs theory (1965). according to mcclelland, need for power, need for affiliation and need for achievement are three important aspects to be achieved by people in life. the need for power refers to flexibility where one will gain the power when one has the flexibility in one’s life. the need for affiliation refers to “studylife balance” where one does not only do well for the studies but could pay greater attention to the family to enhance family relationships. finally, the need for achievement refers to the ability to handle learning tasks and academic performance. although some research has reported about the challenges on the aspects of academic performance (hastutiningtyas & rosdiana, 2021; negri, 2023), disadvantages on psychological well-being (duan & zhu, 2020; amin et al., 2023), internet connectivity problem (demuyakor, 2020; mahyoob, 2020), lack of time management skills and noisy home environment problems faced by students in higher learning institutions of studying from home (aileen farida et al., 2021), this study achieved positive outcomes in exploring the perception of studying from home based on the mcclellan’s needs theory. pertaining to research question 1, “how do learners gain power when studying from home?” in which the need for power refers to flexibility, the results demonstrated that students very often had the power for saving on commuting expenses, had comfortability to do their study anytime and were able to focus on the study. students with a more flexible schedules may not have to follow a class at restricted hours every day. flexibility in studying hours helped students to be more productive and enjoy a healthier lifestyle. as how other researchers (manea et al. 2021, normah et al., 2022; thamri et al, 2022) have revealed, the students appreciated the flexibility offered by studying from home in allowing them to carry out their coursework at their own pace. the findings are consistent with the past research where flexibility and comfortability had given a positive impact on students’ learning (mukhtar et al., 2020; nik md salleh et al., 2022). this may be due to the mode of studying from home has reduced the commuting time to universities and solved the distance issues (fidalgo et al., 2020). for research question 2 “how do learners gain affiliation when studying from home?” where the need for affiliation refers to study-life balance, the results revealed a positive impact from studying at home. the findings suggest that studying from home has its benefits, allowing students to balance their academic responsibilities with those at home. they appreciated that by studying from home, they table 9 results of the spearman’s rho correlations tests between factors in the theory of needs (mcclelland, 1965) and studying from home experience for a mandarin course factors in the theory of needs correlation coefficient (r) direction strength interpretation need for power (through flexibility) .420** positive moderate moderate positive correlation need for affiliation (through studylife balance) .412** positive moderate moderate positive correlation need for achievement (through learning performance) .589** positive moderate moderate positive correlation n=326, **p<0.001 low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 90 mandarin lecturers when students studying from home. the findings were aligned with the outcomes of a research where “satisfaction” was identified as one of the factors to improve students’ academic achievements through online learning (abuhassna et al., 2020; huang and wang, 2023). besides, the students were supported by more mandarin learning materials, additional quizzes and exercises. with the sufficient learning aids arranged for them by the mandarin lecturers, students were guided well and competent to do self-directed learning in the tasks given when studying from home. having taskrelated competence is important as the confidence to do the tasks given is fundamental to achievement (benneker et al., 2023). hence, although students were in the challenging learning environment, the need of gaining achievement motivated them to handle academic tasks well and to achieve academic success as how other past research had reported (huang & wang, 2023; kastaty & prihatini, 2022). the very positive outcome for the research question 3 contrasts with some other studies (hastutiningtyas & rosdiana, 2021; negri, 2023) where studying from home was reported as reducing students’ academic performancewith one of the important factors was the environment that was not conducive to home learning (aileen farida, 2022). the research question 4 has obtained moderate positive correlation for all 3 factors in the theory of needs in exploring the students’ studying from home experience for a mandarin course. among them, need for achievement (through learning performance) demonstrated the highest correlation with studying from home experience for a mandarin course as compared to need for power (through flexibility) and need for affiliation (through study-life balance). the result shows the need of the students to succeed in their mandarin learning and the findings of the need to excel in the aspect of academic is consistent with the research of abuhassna et al. (2020) and kumar and tankha (2020). to conclude, the university mandarin students perceived a positive impact from studying mandarin at home. this outcome is aligned with the studies by hermanto et al. (2021), normah et al. (2022), manea et al. (2021), and thamri et al. (2022) in which they have also demonstrated the positive aspects of studying from home. could avoid traffic jam when commuting to campus, giving them more time to manage their tasks (nik md salleh et al., 2022). students were also able to attend to family needs, such as assisting with household chores, and had more time to handle personal tasks. this flexibility enabled them to take better care of themselves and have improved learning experiences. with the emphasis on achieving study-life balance, students were able to maintain warm relationships with others, including family members, which fulfilled important needs in their lives(corpuz et al., 2022; uduji & ankeli, 2013; vero & puka, 2017) hermanto et al.’s (2021) research on studying from home found that nearly 90% of students reported having more quality time with their families, which contributed to improved family relationships. additionally, students experienced more harmonious relationships in group settings compared to competitive environments, enhancing their sense of affiliation (martincová et al., 2016). although there are certain challenges associated with studying from home, such as technology glitches in rural areas and limited access to online classes (aroonsrimarakot et al., 2023; clarissa & daniel, 2022; hu et al., 2022; onyema et al., 2020;), advancements in technology—especially ai and the expansion of 5g internet access in southeast asia—promise to address these issues in the future. another challenge is the difficulty in maintaining relationships or communication with teachers or peers (amin et al., 2023; mahyoob, 2020; norasyikin et al., 2022). however, these challenges can be mitigated by organizing appropriate online learning activities, selecting suitable assessment methods, and defining clear learning materials for each activity (selvanathan et al., 2023). responding to the research question 3 “how do learners gain achievement (through learning performance) when studying from home?” that achievement refers to learning performance, the results indicated that students “very often” had control over many aspects due to their mandarin lecturers understood their challenges, and had high trust in them. as an overall, students were satisfied with what were provided on the online learning platforms for their mandarin courses including great attention and consideration given by their low hiang loon / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 91 v. conclusion this paper has gathered positive perceptions on studying from home based on the mcclellan’s needs theory. in terms of the need for power (flexibility), students perceived that studying from home reduces their vehicle commuting expenses. studying from home also gives freedom to students to manage their own schedule and study at the right time. in regards to the need for affiliation (study-life balance), students felt that studying from home plays an important role in balancing study and home life. by studying from home, they were able to build better relationship with family members where they were able to cater to their family needs. last but not least, the need for achievement (learning performance) also indicated very positive outcome. in assuring students’ good academic performance, productivity of students and monitoring by lecturers are vital. based on the findings on learning performance, students very often had control over learning performance due to their mandarin lecturers understood their challenges and had high trust in students when students studying from home. the limitations of the research are some aspects were not explored under the three factors, such as psychological problems, infrastructure issues, economic situations, home environment and other issues that may be relevant and contribute to the disadvantages of implementing the mode of studying from home. however, with the positive findings from the investigation based on the mcclellan’s needs theory, the mode of studying from home has its great impact in meeting the students’ need for power (flexibility), affiliation (study-life balance) and achievement (learning performance). hence, it is recommended that the motivation to study from home can be further explored. to achieve the purpose, this study could be replicated and use to examine other student communities on whether the mcclellan’s needs theory would meet the needs of other larger groups of students. last but not least, future studies may include interview as a different approach in collecting data to allow respondents the opportunities to convey their opinion and views directly. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement low hiang loon: project administration, supervision, conceptualisation, literature review, methodologies, data collection, writing, reviewing and editing. goh chin shuang: conceptualisation, literature review, methodologies, data collection and writing. teh hong siok: conceptualisation, literature review, methodologies, data collection and writing. tuan sarifah aini: conceptualisation, data extraction, data analysis and writing, visualisation, reviewing and editing. acknowledgements this research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abdullah, n. a. a., rahmat, n. h., zawawi, f. z., khamsah, m. a. n., and anuarsham, a.h. 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(2020). impact of the covid-19 pandemic on mental health and quality of life among local residents in liaoning province, china: a cross-sectional study. int j environ res public health, 17(7), doi: 10.3390/ijerph17072381. pmid: 32244498; pmcid: pmc7177660. yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 96 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: january 25, 2025 final revision: march 13, 2025 accepted: march 15, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 the purpose of this study is to validate a theoretically based blended assessment model with sdl and to show empirical validation of it. the study materials developed include a model book, a students’ book, and a lecturer’s book modeled on an authentic blended assessment framework for basic reading. a mixed-methods approach was used, and the validation process involved six expert validators. one-on-one evaluations were conducted with ten students and one lecturer who were purposively selected to be part of the study. the data were collected from validation sheets as well as semi-structured interviews. the results of statistical analysis performed on expert validation showed that the evaluation model has achieved high validity (i.e., content, construct, criteria, and face validity), producing a highly valid prototype of instruction. the findings indicate that there is no need for any further refinements, and the model is thus ready for immediate implementation. moreover, the intrinsic and impact validity of the authentic blended assessment model was corroborated with the support of empirical user validation (lecturer and students) feedback. this describes the inherent characteristics that include main usability elements like clarity, easy usage, logical mapping, and completeness of learning content. the impact aspect highlights the effectiveness and worthiness of using the products in real-world learning environments. the study addresses an important gap in reading assessment and presents a practical and effective solution for educators and institutions looking to leverage basic reading assessor skills within a self-directed learning principles approach. the results can provide an important link to promote autonomous learning, develop evaluation methods, and, finally, enhance students’ independent learning ability and academic achievement. keywords validity, reading assessment, self-directed learning, blended learning correspondence e-mail: adrias@fip.unp.ac.id article yulmiati1, andiopenta purba2, harisnawati3, akhyaruddin4, adrias5*, nazhifah6, weni yulastri7 1program studi pendidikan guru sekolah dasar, universitas adzkia, padang, indonesia 2,4 program studi pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas jambi, constructing the validity of a reading assessment model for 21st century education with a focus on self-directed learning jambi, indonesia 3program studi ips, fakultas ilmu sosial dan humaniora, universitas pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia 5program studi pendidikan guru sekolah dasar, fakultas ilmu pendidikan, universitas negeri padang, indonesia 6prodi ilmu komunikasi, fakultas ilmu komunikasi, universitas muhammadiyah riau, pekanbaru, indonesia 7prodi s2 pendidikan dasar, universitas adzkia, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.96-113.2025 i. introduction as an essential skill in learning english as a second/foreign language (esl/efl), reading is a valuable tool in language acquisition and comprehension, primarily what is written in the text. reading is a source of information and fun activity and broadens one’s language knowledge (juyandegan, 2016). within reading skills, students are helped to acquire a foreign language because readers try to understand the text they read. the more accessible students understand the text, the easier they master foreign languages (rahmat, fitriyah, et al., 2023). effective reading instruction yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 97 in efl classrooms involves fostering cognitive, metacognitive, and linguistic skills, enabling learners to decode, process, and interpret texts efficiently (baharum, 2024; grabe & stoller, 2013). in the traditional approach, teaching reading in efl classrooms has been teacher-centered, which relies on textbooks and direct instructions. however, with the increasing integration of technology, especially in online learning platforms, blended learning has introduced new approaches for teaching and assessing reading skills in efl classrooms (aziz et al, 2024; handoko & ayumi, 2022; tiawati et al., 2022). blended learning allows students to experience a more interactive and flexible approach to reading by combining face-to-face instruction with online activities. incorporating digital platforms into reading instruction will improve students’ engagement by utilizing online activities, such as online discussion forums, digital annotation, and adaptive learning to monitor students’ progress (handoko & ayumi, 2022; stockwell, 2013). however, this advanced technology integration requires a self-directed learning (sdl) environment that enables students to regulate their learning process, set goals, and assess their progress independently (garrison & vaughan, 2008). as the demand for student-centered learning increases, the need for effective and authentic assessment accurately evaluates not only students’ linguistics competencies but also their self-directed learning skills. knowles’ (1975) self-directed learning theory serves as a cornerstone in adult education, asserting that learners must take initiative in diagnosing their learning needs, setting goals, and evaluating their progress. this aligns with current perspectives that emphasize the systematic approach to self-directed learning processes, which are echoed in various studies and frameworks. for instance, klerk and fourie discuss systematic self-directed learning models that coincide with knowles’ five self-instructional steps, indicating that learners engage in an interactive journey that reinforces mastery of content through peer interaction and theoretical understanding (klerk & fourie, 2017). yerrabati also highlights that self-directed learning, as posited by knowles, is influenced significantly by an individual’s life situation, underscoring the diversity in adult learning experiences (yerrabati, 2017). the process-oriented nature of self-directed learning involves a dynamic interplay of various stages, emphasizing the role of motivation and personal responsibility in adult education (kvedaraitė et al., 2013; morris, 2019). authentic assessment must be implemented for teachers to reflect on and improve their teaching. as an evaluation process, authentic assessment involves various forms of performance measurement that reflect student achievement, motivation, and attitudes toward learning (afflerbach, 2010; brown, 2004; mulyaningsih et al., 2022). it is an approach to finding out what students know or what students can do through their performance. thus, teachers must develop authentic assessments to create effective class measures that encourage students to be more active. assessment in blended learning is a good option because it helps an educator know whether the learning objectives are achieved or not (sriarunrasmee, et al, 2015). with the adaptability and effectiveness in integrating technology into the learning environment, the blended learning model is the most practical way to deal with the challenges posed by the ‘new normal’ (nantha et al., 2024). the blended assessment provides opportunities for students to be independent and collaborate in using technology in an online learning environment. it is suggested that lecturers maximize the use of technology in assessing students’ learning in higher education. an authentic assessment occurs in context with actual conditions reflecting student learning and achievement. authentic assessment means evaluating students’ knowledge or skills in a context as close to real life as possible (martika & zaim, 2021). it is hoped that from authentic assessment, there will be changes in students after the learning process. authentic assessment measures what is essential for students to know and be able to do, which can be in the form of various works and products produced from time to time (denisenko, 2015). thus, an assessment is authentic when the results can be used to improve teaching and contain accurate information about student progress. authentic blended assessment is the best way to identify appropriate learning outcomes in higher education. the research found that blended teaching provides a feasible and scientific method for college english reform that exerts yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 98 teachers’ leading role and allows the learners to be autonomous (koc et al, 2015; liu & dun, 2016; yingxuan et al., 2023). furthermore, course designers and instructors should recognize the value of fostering students’ self-directed learning in a more flexible learning context that gives the impact of social presence emotionally and socially engaging students in blended learning (geng et al., 2019). through technology, students will grow more independently and become self-directed learners. based on these studies, it can be said that blended assessment supports the implementation of self-directed learning. self-directed learning (sdl) is important to be increased for adult learners. a self-directed learner tends to actively engage in the learning processes, such as acquiring information, planning, and evaluating the learning activities that make them active in participation and performance (geng et al., 2019). technology utilization is appropriate to facilitate self-directed language learning. students engage in a variety of self-directed language learning activities outside the classroom, mostly by using technology (haidari et al., 2019). however, not much empirical evidence is available regarding the use of self-directed learning in the blended setting in assessing students’ learning. consequently, there are limited guidelines and sources to practice authentic blended assessments oriented to self-directed learning, especially for reading. several studies have explored blended learning and found that it could improve students’ engagement and foster more independent learners. hrastinski (2019) mentioned that blended learning environments foster deeper student engagement by combining both synchronous and asynchronous activities, which encourages deeper engagement among students and facilitates the development of autonomy and self-directed learning skills. this model aligns with advancements in educational practices that allow students to access and interact with learning materials in a more engaging way (casselman et al., 2019). furthermore, boelens et al. (2018) studied the complexities of assessment design for blended learning, pointing to a clear lack of models that specifically focus on measuring self-directed learning skills (boelens et al., 2018). they argue that current assessment frameworks— often embedded in personality or intelligence frameworks— do not sufficiently evaluate how well students transfer their learning strategies across different modalities, and hence they suggest a need for new assessment designs that better reflect the blended learning context. this highlights the need for assessments that reliably measure degrees of student involvement and agency during hybrid interactions (boelens et al., 2018). similarly, albiladi & alshareef’s (2019) research illustrates the beneficial effect of blended learning in improving students’ critical thinking and reading comprehension skills in the field of language learning. their study demonstrates that hybrid instruction methods are effective in fostering learners’ analytical skills and enriching their learning experiences (casselman et al., 2019). it further emphasizes the wider scope blended learning provides being a strategy that does not solely boost academic success but also develops vital abilities needed within the study and actual environment. although the studies provide valuable insights into the possible positive outcome of blended learning, their main focus is on learning outcomes rather than the development and field testing of assessment models suited for self-directed learning in blended settings (nassar, et al, 2023). it is essential for future research to address the critical gap between learning outcomes and the methodologies employed in assessing these outcomes effectively (boelens et al., 2018). existing research on blended assessment also underscores the need for more authentic, processoriented evaluations. for example, gikandi et al. (2011) suggest that blended learning environments involving higher-order thinking and creative activities are not easily assessed because traditional assessments tend to favor summative assessments rather than formative and self-assessment strategies. likewise, graham et al. (2019) highlight to point out that assessments must extend beyond traditional testing and include interactive, technology-based, and performance-based assessments that measure knowledge in a real-life context. despite the extensive research on blended learning and its impact on self-directed learning, there remains a significant gap in the availability of validated assessment models that evaluate selfdirected learning within blended language learning environments. most assessment models focus on yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 99 ii. method design of the study and participants this study utilized a mixed-method design to enhance a full understanding of the validity of the assessment model. this research used research and development design with addie model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation). this framework also enables the research process to be organized very effectively. the measure is aimed at powering a model that moves toward the 21st-century educational paradigm and assesses self-guided learning environments with blended environments. participants and sampling technique a purposive sampling technique (gay et al., 2012) was used to select the participants to guarantee that only participants who had knowledge relevant to the research area were included. six experts were engaged who reviewed the research products. there were three experts in teaching reading and instructional design, three experts in educational technology, and experts in graphic design. experts had to possess a minimum of five years of professional experience in their respective fields, thus guaranteeing a high level of specialization in the use of the assessment model. they had multidisciplinary expertise, which strengthened the validation process. in addition, the sample consists of 10 students on the same course and one of the lecturers on that course. the participants were obtained from a private university in padang city, west sumatra, indonesia, so that the assessment model could be used in the real educational context. data collection several data collection instruments were used to validate the study at different stages. using messick’s validity theory (1995) as a conceptual framework, a likert-scale questionnaire was developed to assess the validity of the assessment model. this questionnaire assessed content validity, construction validity, and consequential validity, among others. semi-structured interviews were also administered to the students and lecturers to provide qualitative feedback on the proposed model. the interviews were constructed with selfdirected learning theories (knowles, 1975; garrison, 1997) in mind, to ensure that important aspects of the autonomous learning process would traditional face-to-face education or fully online learning, rather than the hybrid nature of blended learning, which requires adaptive evaluation strategies. moreover, current assessments tend to overlook best practices in authentic assessments, which would require real-world tasks, learner autonomy, and immediate feedback channels. this study aims to establish and validate an assessment model of blended learning in the reading course contexts, paying more attention to self-directed learning. the study seeks to confirm that the model measures the students’ self-regulated learning abilities, self-efficacy, and general language performance, as well as meets the requirements of 21st-century education. to achieve this, the study seeks to answer several key research questions: 1. how valid is the authentic blended assessment model in terms of content, construct, criteria, and face validity according to expert validation? 2. how do lecturers and students perceive the usability and effectiveness of the developed materials in supporting self-directed learning? by conducting this research, it is expected that the proposed assessment model, which will be developed through this research, will provide practical tools to develop students’ reading talents through structured, meaningful, and integrated evaluations designed according to blended learning. afterward, integrating digital with a traditional reading syllabus allows for a less-obligated format of reading and engagement with the text in a much more ideal self-regulated pay-off process. further, it seeks to provide students with skills for self-directed learning by giving them tools and strategies for self-monitoring, goal-setting, and reading reflection that they can make use of independently. the utilization of the model will promote autonomy and metacognitive awareness by preparing students to oversee the entire learning process, acquiring lifelong skills, critical thinking, and self-motivation along the way. moreover, the study will add to the existing literature regarding blended learning and assessment by providing a valid process that is fit for the 21st-century education paradigm to ensure students are ready for complex reading tasks being filtered into academic and professional venues. yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 100 be recorded. additionally, an observation checklist was used to interpret the student’s engagement and self-directed learning performance in a blended learning environment. research instruments expert reviews, validation sheets, and interviews with students and the lecturer obtained the data of this study. the validation sheet was created to evaluate the content, construct, criterion, and face validity of the proposed model. validation items were constructed for indicators and sub-indicators of validity to evaluate the assessment model thoroughly. three main research deliverables were assessed through expert judgments: the model book, the student book, and the lecturer book. the experts reviewed the data based on the validation sheet provided, and the results were quantitatively analyzed by calculating the values of the likert scale for the extent to which the model met the established validity criteria. qualitative insights were developed using interviews with students and the lecturer about their experiences and perceptions of the feasibility and effectiveness of the assessment model. this establishes a level of transparency in the evaluation process. the intrinsic and impact aspects are attained from the interview protocol. the intrinsic part comprises the elements of products that include clarity, ease of use, sequence of use, and complete elements of the products. the impact aspect gives us the impact and significance of utilizing the items. the researcher transcribed and interpreted the interview after the interview to obtain the needed data for this research. the interview data was analyzed qualitatively according to gay et al. (2012) procedures: reading/memoing, describing, and classifying. the validity of the developed model was implicitly and explicitly assessed using quantitative and qualitative analysis. data analysis the data analysis process incorporated both quantitative and qualitative methods to ensure robust findings. quantitatively, a validity score formula was applied to measure the validity index of the assessment model. the steps to determine the validity were established as follows: 1. giving the score of the questionnaire response within the following criteria: besides inter-rater reliability analysis, descriptive statistical methods, such as mean and standard deviation, were used to summarize the expert feedback on the validation sheet. the means reflected a general level of agreement about the model’s effectiveness, and the standard deviation reflected variation in how experts rated the model. the quantitative analyses were conducted simultaneously and collectively assisted in identifying strengths and areas for improvement in the proposed blended language learning assessment model, thereby further refining the model and ensuring its suitability for implementation in blended language learning settings. qualitative thematic analysis was performed on interview and observation data to further explore student engagement and self-directed learning within a blended learning environment. data familiarization — in the initial stage of the analysis, transcripts and observational notes were reread to look for repetitive themes. next, open coding was used to subdivide raw data into separate units of meaning, code words assigned to meaningful phrases and expressions about students’ learning experiences, motivation, and engagement with blended learning materials. this initial coding was then developed through axial coding, which was used to connect the specific facets of student engagement, including aspects such as self-regulation strategies, digital literacy, collaborative learning, and issues with adapting table 6. validity category score category interpretation 0 – 20 invalid cannot be used 21 – 40 poorly valid can be used with mayor revision 41 – 60 fairly valid can be used with moderate revision 61 – 80 valid can be used with minor revision 81 – 100 very valid can be used without revision (riduwan, 2005) 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree 2. giving validity value using the formula below: determining the level of validity based on the following criteria: yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 101 to blended learning. data were extracted from individual interviews by identifying recurring patterns and enhancing trustworthiness through member checking. thus, this method guarantees that the views of students and lecturers were not only accurately represented but also served as a complementary tool to the quantitative validation results, providing deeper insights into the practical implications of the proposed model for the implementation of the assessment process to encourage students’ autonomous learning in blended language learning contexts. iii. results this study aimed to validate the research products developed for implementing a reading assessment model with a focus on self-directed learning. two validation processes have been obtained in this research. they were the validation process by experts and the validation process by users. expert validation based on the prototype design, this research generates three products: the model book, the student book, and the lecturer book. six experts validated the products within the different areas of expertise, including reading experts, language experts, language teaching experts, graphic design experts, educational technology experts, and instructional design experts. language teaching experts (vcc1, vc2, vcc3) validated the products’ content, construct, and criteria. meanwhile, a graphic design expert (vf1), an educational technology expert (vf2), and an instructional design expert (vf3) validated the visual and instructional aspects of the products. the experts’ review determined whether the research products were valid by scoring and giving comments or suggestions based on the questionnaire in the validation sheet. the quantitative analysis of expert validations focuses on assessing the validity of the model book, students’ book, and lecturer’s book, ensuring that each resource meets academic and instructional standards. meanwhile, the qualitative analysis is centered on a thematic examination of expert suggestions, identifying key areas for improvement and refinement based on validator feedback. based on these analyses, necessary revisions and enhancements were implemented, improving the content clarity, structural organization, visual presentation, and overall instructional effectiveness of the books to better support students and lecturers in achieving their learning objectives. statistical analysis of expert validation validity of the model book in the validation process of the model book, a validation sheet with 32 items about content and construct and 16 items about face/graphics was developed. the results of validation for the model book from the experts are displayed in table 7. table 7. validation results of the model book no aspects validators mean std dev vcc1 vcc2 vcc3 1 content 83 80 62 75 11.35 2 construct 90 78 80 82.67 6.42 vf1 vf2 vf3 3 face / graphic 99 75 86 86.67 12.01 insights on the content, construct, and face/ graphic validity of the model assessment are provided by validating the model book through expert ratings. an aspect is valid if its mean is > 70, meaning it passes essential quality criteria. however, a high standard deviation indicates inconsistencies among validators, which can further cosmopolis for agreement. model book features a content validation reach the mean score 75.00 ≥70 valid. even so, the significant standard deviation (11.36) and the spread in ratings (62 to 83) indicate that experts disagreed. some validators deemed the content well-structured and relevant; others raised issues with clarity, comprehensiveness, or alignment with learning objectives. the construct validity (82.67 ±6.43) indicates very high validity and more expert consensus. based ratings (the pure number of ratings) range from 78 to 90, indicating that experts agree the model book has a solid theoretical and structural basis. this means that the model book closely represents the constructs, educational, and assessment principles intended to underpin the model book. that is relatively low variation indicates a slight and possibly minor improvement otherwise. the face/graphic validity showed a mean score of 86.67, indicating that validators had a favorable opinion of the model book’s design, layout, and visual elements. in contrast, the standard deviation is very high (12.01), and the scores varied from 75 to 99, which may signify that the design was highly effective in the eyes of most experts. still, some were not yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 102 satisfied with the readability, clarity, or usability of graphical elements. validity of the students’ book to determine the validity of the student’s book, a validation sheet with 30 items about content, construct, and criterion validity and 13 items about face/graphic validity were developed. the results of validation for students’ books from the experts are displayed in table 9. table 9: validation results of the students’ book no aspects validators mean std dev vcc1 vcc2 vcc3 1 content 80 88 60 76 14.42 2 construct 77 80 65 74 7.93 3 criterion 93 100 68 87 16.82 vf1 vf2 vf3 4 face / graphic 97 82 85 88 7.93 the expert ratings of the students’ book offered valuable data on the content, construct, criterion, and face/graphic validity of the students’ book. content scored a mean score of 76.00, suggesting it is a valid threshold. however, the high standard deviation of 14.42 and the wide range of scores (60–88) indicate considerable variation in expert judgment! this means that although a few validators considered the content as “effective” and “relevant,” others raised concerns about the clarity, depth, and overall learning standards of the content created. the quality of the informant content might be improved or made more consistent by yet more specific expert feedback despite detailed areas. the reliable construct aspect was 74.00 with a standard deviation of 7.94, showing moderate validation with lower variability than the content aspect. overall ratings varied between 65 and 80, with most validators agreeing that the structure of the students’ book was suitable for the purpose. nevertheless, some discrepancies persisted, indicating that, unlike handiwork, the instructional framework and logical sequencing that form the basis of the implementation could benefit from minor adjustments to strengthen its validity. the criterion aspect had the second-highest average across the four aspects (87.00 mean ratings) but also had the most significant standard deviation (16.82). the 68–100 range signifies that while many responders rated this aspect highly, there were some perceived weaknesses. this difference indicates room for improvement with the book’s alignment to established evaluation benchmarks and measurement standards.” the face/graphic element had the highest mean score of 88.00, accompanied by a relatively low standard deviation of 7.94, indicating that validators broadly shared similar opinions on the effectiveness of the arrangement, design, and visual aspects of the text. the scores varied from 82 to 97, signifying high acceptance, yet minor readability, visuals, or formatting adjustments could elevate user satisfaction. validity of the lecturer’s book the data from a validation sheet with 15 items about content and construct validity and 16 items about face/graphic validity was developed for the lecturer’s book. the results of the experts’ validation of the lecture book can be seen in table 11. table 11. validation results of the lecturer book no aspects validators mean std dev vcc1 vcc2 vcc3 1 content 76 80 69 75 5.56 2 construct 90 77 80 82.33 6.80 vf1 vf2 vf3 3 face / graphic 96 84 91 90.33 6.02 the validation of the lecturer’s book based on the expert rating gives an idea about the content, construct, and face/graphic validity of the lecturer's book. with a scale of 0–100, the content aspect scored a mean of 75.00, so it is reasonable to point out that it achieves the minimum for validity. despite a standard deviation of 5.57 and a score range from 69 to 80, suggesting moderate variability among expert evaluations, the validators rated its content as acceptable, although some gave it marked-down scores, suggesting possible issues around clarity, organization, or comprehensiveness. improvements in aspects of content delivery and depth of teaching may secure greater consensus among experts and provide ways to mitigate concerns. finally, the construct aspect yielded an even better average (82.33), but a similar standard deviation (6.81) suggesting that construct validation was high, but with a more marked dispersion in the ratings (with a range of 77–90). this implies that most validators considered the types of the guide’s structure, logical flow, and instructional framework to be rather acceptable. however, there are still lower ratings, which yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 103 suggest that small changes in instructional design or alignment with learning objectives could improve its validity. experts highly valued the visual presentation, layout, and design of the lecturer’s book, as seen in the face/graphic dimension, with the highest mean score of 90.33. validators reached a high level of agreement about usability, readability, and clear visual structures of the book (s = 6.03, range = 84 96). while changes are minor, small tweaks to visual components within the text could improve the aesthetics and accessibility of the materials. thematic analysis of validators’ suggestions for the books feedback from the validators on the model book, students’ book, and lecturer’s book indicates several major issues that need addressing. these range from clarity in the instructional content and alignment with 21st-century learning needs, refinement of assessment techniques, structural organization of learning activities, and visual and formatting enhancements. answering these issues will guarantee that the books offer reasonable, organized, and fascinating materials that meet the educational norms and contents and pay a unique mind to what goes well with the learning. clarity in instructional content and learning models a recurring theme in all three books is greater clarity in instructional content, learning syntax, and theoretical frameworks. in the model book, a validator emphasized that “the learning model developed has not accommodated the needs of students in the 21st century. it’s better to include them to improve academic literacy” (vcc3), suggesting that the book should integrate modern pedagogical approaches such as critical thinking, digital literacy, and student-centered learning. similarly, in the lecturer’s book, another validator noted that “it needs to clarify syntax, learning strategy, and learning materials” (vcc1), underscoring the importance of ensuring explicit guidance on instructional methods. additionally, validators highlighted the need for a stronger theoretical foundation for the learning models. a validator in the model book recommended that “the concept of a theoretical model and a hypothetical model should be explained to ensure better implementation” (vf2). likewise, in the lecturer’s book, a validator suggested that the book should “provide details of its distinctiveness, characteristics, from existing models as well as explanations at the conceptual and theoretical levels” (vcc3). these comments emphasize the need for a more comprehensive and well-articulated explanation of the learning models to ensure they are both conceptually sound and practically applicable. refinement of assessment techniques and learning outcomes across all three books, validators stressed the importance of refining assessment techniques and ensuring clearly defined learning outcomes. in the model book, a validator recommended that “learning outcomes need to be detailed as a reference to determine whether the learning goals that have been set are achieved” (vcc3). similarly, in the lecturer’s book, another validator pointed out that “we should add types of assessment techniques, including formative, summative, diagnostic, and performance assessments” (vcc3). these suggestions highlight the need to expand assessment strategies to evaluate student learning and progress comprehensively. moreover, one validator in the students’ book questioned whether “students are facilitated with all the text in the identifying learning needs section” (vcc2), indicating that learning resources and assessment methods should be carefully reviewed to ensure accessibility and effectiveness. implementing these refinements will help ensure that the books provide clear learning goals and robust assessment frameworks that support student growth and achievement. structural organization of learning activities the need for better structuring of learning activities was another consistent theme across the books. in the lecturer’s book, a validator noted that “learning activities carried out on each topic must be by the syntax previously designed by the model developed” (vf2). a similar concern was raised in the model book, where a validator emphasized that “in reviewing the learning model, there are three main activities: planning, implementing, and evaluating” and recommended that “each phase should be explicitly outlined in the book” (vf2). a standard recommendation clearly distinguished instructional phases, ensuring that yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 104 planning, implementation, and evaluation were systematically structured. for example, in the lecturer’s book, a validator pointed out that “the lecturer still uses a model that does not separate planning activities, implementing activities, and evaluating activities” (vf2). this suggests that a more structured presentation of learning activities is needed to provide educators and students with a clear roadmap for teaching and learning. visual and formatting enhancements validators provided extensive feedback on layout, aesthetics, and structural formatting, particularly regarding cover design, text formatting, and content organization. in the model book, a validator recommended that “the layout of the book should be aesthetically appealing” and emphasized the need to “improve the header and footer design for better visual presentation” (vf2). a similar recommendation was made for the lecturer’s book, where a validator noted that “the font size of the cover book should be given a sharp emphasis so that it stands out from the others” (vf1), indicating the need for more visually distinct cover elements. additionally, formatting issues such as misaligned figures, text cutting, and inconsistent spacing were identified across the books. in the students’ book, a validator suggested that “the level of text density on the page should be reduced so as not to seem too dense and make readers bored” (vf2). another validator in the lecturer’s book pointed out that “self-evaluation in part e on page 16 should be moved to the next page” to improve content flow and readability (vf3). ensuring consistent formatting, structured text placement, and clear visual hierarchy will significantly enhance the usability and professionalism of the books. proofreading and grammar accuracy the need for thorough proofreading and grammar accuracy was frequently mentioned. in the model book, a validator recommended that “mechanics of writing should be paid attention to” (vcc1) and emphasized correcting grammatical errors (vcc2). similarly, in the students’ book, another validator suggested “checking the book for some english grammar mistakes” (vcc2) and correcting typos such as ‘mocrosof,’ which should be ‘microsoft’” (vf3). this feedback highlights the importance of linguistic accuracy in ensuring that the books maintain high academic standards. revision and enhancement the content clarity, instructional coherence, and overall presentation of the model book, students’ book, and lecturer’s book were significantly improved based on experts’ recommendations. these updates were designed to align the books with academic standards, enhance readability, embed digital tools, and provide an overarching structure to the learning experience, both for students and lecturers. the model book also got some of the biggest upgrades around, including a new cover image showcasing reading in the classroom — to make sure that the book comes with an image that matches the content. validators had red-marked writing mechanics — spelling, punctuation, sentence structure — and this all got addressed and corrected. finally, based on extensive expert feedback, these changes were supplemented with some logic and grammar corrections, increasing the content’s linguistic accuracy and overall readability. a second major refinement came from revising the theoretical foundation, where we embraced ecological theory as a guiding framework. this shift told us that ecology theory resonates more consistently with many themes and the context of the reading materials, providing a more cohesive conceptual foundation for the book that is more relevant and pedagogically appropriate. revisions on the students’ book were dedicated to improving readability, format consistency, and internationalization of digital learning tools. the book cover was updated with a visual of learning activities, emphasizing the practical and instructional approach of the book. the main body spacing of the text was changed from 1.15 to 1.5, creating greater distance to improve readability for students. grammatical and sentence structure improvements refined the writing mechanics, while improved organization of references was also added by placing the references on a new page, which allows seamless navigation. an additional critical revision included converting reading activities to an online format to allow more interaction between technology and the material. multimodal engagement evolving from visual, auditory, and written aspects was then enhanced with video explanations from youtube accessible through qr code scanning. the teacher can consider different types of students with varying styles of yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 105 with extensive corrections to spelling, punctuation, and grammar where necessary to ensure maximum academic integrity and professionalism. besides further language refinement, formatting issues in precise shapes, lines, and visual components were also fixed for better overall aesthetic quality and readability of the book. these revisions guarantee that the lecturer’s book is a well-formatted, organized, and professional document, which helps lecturers deliver organized and structured classes. the revisions were across all three books and centered on conceptual reinforcement, readability, integration of digital tools, and visualization. this new version of the model book introduces stronger learning and encourage self-directed learning, which allows students to reach course materials at different points in time and away from depending on textbooks. with technology-enhanced learning, the incorporation of qr codes addresses the physical and static nature of textbooks and leads to enriched digital content, which is more interactive and accessible. the lecturer’s book was also revised where it was needed for structural clarity, grammatical accuracy, and graphical presentation. a learning activities image was used to update the cover design to better represent the book’s instructional purpose. the book was meticulously proofread, figure 1. the display of reading choice in e-learning figure 2. the display of the revision of learning material yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 106 theory (ecosystem theory), clean and unambiguous language, and a better-designed cover that aligns to provide a more cohesive teaching experience. other design elements of the students book were adjusted; there was also greater integration with youtube and qr codes for websites to access resources to either build a wider knowledge of what was being studied or provide further references or readings to assist with topics. at the same time, the lecturer’s book was tweaked for grammar, formatting consistency, and professionalism so that it could act as an organizational tool throughout the course, looking as official and clear as possible. these changes allow the books to be more effective devices to support students and lecturers in achieving their learning outcomes in a structured, interactive, and pedagogically valid way. users validation the validation of students and the lecturer is grouped into some key themes that were noted from the evaluation of the basic reading book, such as clarity, ease of use, sequence of use, completeness of the material, product impact, and worthiness. these categories informed further analysis of the overall strengths and weaknesses of the book and allowed us to gain a better sense of the user experience and perception of the book. through the breakdown of each of these themes, educators and authors alike can address user needs, improve the quality of instruction, and enhance the effectiveness of the basic reading book in helping students learn how to read and enable independent learning. clarity respondents overwhelmingly agreed that the book was clear and easy to understand, emphasizing consistency and conceptual clarity throughout the chapters. student 1 stated, “all parts are clear, and everything is conceptualized to have the same flow, making it easy to understand.” student 3 similarly noted, “nothing, all parts are clear, and there is always a reading text in each chapter that helps the reader better understand the meaning of the chapter title.” however, some concerns were noted regarding unclear explanations, typographical errors, and duplicated content. student 4 mentioned, “some explanations are still lacking examples, such as on page 98 about skimming,” while student 10 identified duplication issues stating, “the content on pages 53 and 55 is the same or duplicated.” student 9 added, “nothing, because all parts are well explained.” the lecturer supported the overall clarity, remarking, “the material presented in this basic reading book is very clear.” ease of use feedback on ease of use indicated that while most students found the reading texts manageable, specific challenges were highlighted. student 1 stated, “for the reading text, it is easy to understand,” but also pointed out layout issues on pages 13 and 21. student 4 explained, “i lacked time to complete the exercises because i had to reread the text to understand the meaning of the questions,” and student 2 noted vocabulary issues, stating, “some words are still mistyping. page 31, section b. learning material.” student 7 reported, “i can still understand it, but sometimes i need to use a dictionary to comprehend difficult words,” highlighting vocabulary challenges. student 10 remarked, “the text about biography is too long for me,” suggesting text length as an area needing adjustment. the lecturer emphasized careful vocabulary selection and manageable text lengths, suggesting, “even though the material to be taught is skimming, we should also consider the number of words in a text and the difficult words.” sequence of use the structured sequence of the book was praised consistently by respondents, as it facilitated comprehension and independent learning. student 5 articulated this clearly: “the sequence of activities is clear, and it challenges us to follow the instructions in the book.” student 6 echoed this sentiment, noting, “the sequence is quite clear for me and is very helpful in understanding the reading materials.” student 8 added positively, “i understand it quite clearly, and the lecturer also helps explain it,” while student 9 appreciated the variety, mentioning, “the sequence of activities is varied, and some also provide choices for us.” the lecturer recognized the effectiveness of the structured approach, stating, “all the materials are very helpful for students to master basic reading, but the material on context clues might be considered to be placed at the beginning.” completeness of material feedback on completeness indicated that the book successfully covered essential components like reading choices, learning goals, yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 107 and assessment sections. student 3 noted, “it is very helpful because, before i dive deeper into the reading text, this book provides reading choices, learning goals, and learning materials, which guide my understanding effectively.” student 5 confirmed the comprehensive nature of the book, highlighting, “it is quite comprehensive because it includes materials, exercises discussed in class, and an assessment section.” student 8 expressed satisfaction, stating, “complete. the activities are varied and aligned with our capabilities,” while student 10 appreciated the guidance provided, remarking, “i like the activities provided, as they also guide us toward independent learning.” some respondents, however, requested additional explanatory examples, as mentioned by student 4: “each explanation should be accompanied by examples.” the lecturer confirmed the completeness, noting the book effectively reached the assessment component. impact of using the product feedback indicated a predominantly positive impact, fostering increased student engagement and improved attitudes towards reading in english. student 1 mentioned, “yes, i found it easier to understand the material. previously, i was not interested and afraid it would be difficult.” student 4 acknowledged an increased interest, “previously i was less interested in basic reading, but it turns out that basic reading is enjoyable.” student 5 remarked positively about reading habits, “i have become more diligent in reading because of the requirements in the book,” and student 6 added, “some of the provided texts are entertaining, making me enjoy reading.” the lecturer positively assessed the book’s impact, stating, “i am positive about this basic reading book because it is very helpful for a lecturer in teaching.” worthiness respondents highlighted various practical issues, such as submission difficulties, typographical errors, and overly lengthy texts. student 1 expressed a specific difficulty: “i found it difficult to submit the assessment in retelling.” student 2 mentioned vocabulary difficulty, stating, “some vocabularies are still unfamiliar for me. i still need a dictionary.” student 5 recommended corrections, “some typos need to be corrected, such as on page 87,” and student 8 pointed out duplication issues, “there are three duplicate questions on page 31.” practical adjustments were suggested, including reducing text length and enhancing writing mechanics, as noted by the lecturer, “i think the writer should pay more attention to the mechanics of writing, such as punctuation and spelling, and the fonts used are too diverse and not the same size.” as the students and the lecturer used the basic reading book in the implementation of the authentic blended assessment model geared to self-directed learning in the teaching-learning process, the book was deemed valid based on the results of the oneon-one evaluation. the book is comprehensive, helpful, easy to read, and clear. along with improving students’ attitudes, perceptions, and reading skills, the book also makes both students and lecturers satisfied when they use it. this text can be utilized with minimal editing despite various typos and writing mechanism flaws. iv. discussion the findings of this study provide empirical support for the validity, usability, and effectiveness of an authentic blended assessment model designed for basic reading instruction within the self-directed learning (sdl) framework. the findings reinforce prior research on reading instruction, assessment design, and the integration of technology in language learning, confirming the significance of comprehensive, multimodal, and iterative assessment approaches in modern education. the study’s validation process aligns closely with knowles’ (1975) self-directed learning (sdl) theory, which emphasizes the learner’s autonomy, responsibility, and ability to selfregulate learning. the results confirm that the developed reading course materials effectively foster independent learning, student engagement, and self-assessment, reflecting the core principles of sdl. as outlined in the introduction, sdl requires learners to diagnose their own learning needs, set learning goals, and evaluate their progress (haidari et al., 2019; klerk & fourie, 2017; song & hill, 2007; yoo, 2024)). the study’s findings reinforce this claim, as students found the materials effective in promoting independent reading practices while incorporating digital resources, such as qr codes for youtube video explanations and online reading platforms, which allowed for greater flexibility and self-paced learning. the validation results indicate that students responded positively to these yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 108 resources, demonstrating improved engagement, comprehension, and autonomy in their learning process. furthermore, the results strongly support authentic assessment theory, which advocates for assessments that reflect real-world applications rather than relying solely on standardized testing (mulyaningsih et al., 2022; valencia, 2010). the high validity scores from expert validation confirm that the developed model effectively incorporates formative, summative, diagnostic, and performancebased assessments, which provide students with meaningful opportunities to apply reading skills in practical, real-world contexts. this aligns with martika & zaim (2021), who emphasized that authentic assessment should measure students’ ability to perform real-life tasks. similarly, the findings indicate that lecturers recognized the model as a practical tool for evaluating students’ critical reading skills, engagement levels, and reading comprehension progress. the results also align with blended learning theory, which highlights the integration of traditional and digital instructional strategies to create flexible and interactive learning experiences (graham, 2006; qin, 2019). the implementation of digital tools, particularly the use of qr codes for video explanations, aligns with prior research suggesting that technology-enhanced reading instruction increases student motivation and engagement (cronje, 2020; ferdiansyah et al., 2023; handoko & ayumi, 2022; hamzah et al., 2022; nguyen et al., 2023; stockwell, 2013; suriaman et al., 2023). content validity refers to the extent to which the instrument reflects the desired content that accurately reflects the syllabus on which it is based (syahrum & salim, 2012; setiaman, 2020). the suitability of the book content has been considered with the syllabus, the level of students, the needs of teaching materials, and the correctness of the substance of the learning material. construct validity, the extent to which measurement results can be interpreted according to the elements of the construct or concept, in accordance with the principles of foreign language learning theory. it consists of presentation and language elements. the criteria of presentation elements are systematic, logical, and clear. the criteria for language elements are grammatically correct, language level, clarity of information, readability, and punctuation. the user validation phase of this study confirmed that students benefited significantly from the multimodal approach, as it provided additional context for reading tasks and improved comprehension. the research shows that blended learning fosters deeper student engagement by integrating synchronous and asynchronous learning activities (adinda & mohib, 2020; gaa & aliazas, 2024; hrastinski, 2019). the findings of this study support the studies that have previously identified a lack of attention to self-directed learning evaluations in blended learning contexts. studies by boelens et al. it also pointed out that transactions a did not reflect this for the most part since previous blended learning assessment research focused on student learning results and not on assessing self-directed learning skills (albiladi & alshareef, 2019, 2018). this study addresses this gap by validating an assessment model that explicitly measures self-regulated learning behaviors — including goal setting, selfmonitoring, and problem-solving independence. this point is repeated in the thematization of validator comments as this expert considers that structured self-assessment activities and reflective learning tasks should promote higher-order thinking and self-regulated learning strategies. in addition, this study also reaffirms the relevance of a structured validation process when developing assessment models, and that endorses brookhart (2013), who indicated that assessment in education should be aligned with learning goals and that students should be provided with helpful feedback. highly favorable content and construct validity scores from validators confirm that the model developed adheres to established pedagogical best practices. user validation empirical data confirms that the model was correct as students and lecturers found it helpful, easy to use, and practical. blended learning and selfdirected learning models need careful structuring to ensure students are engaged and develop their skills. based on the results of the research, the model on figure 3 can be a framework for developing a reading course assessment that aligns with selfdirected learning (sdl) principles. the reading assessment model is a widely structured framework framework that helps create effective, valid, and reliable reading assessments aligned to self-directed learning (sdl) principles. yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 109 stage, allowing for final implementation, the final output takes the model back into needs analysis, where continuous refinement occurs. this iterative process allows the model to continually adapt to changing student needs and conditions, improving reading instruction, self-directed learning, and literacy development. the result of this research contributes to the implementation of self-directed learning, authentic assessment, and blended learning. validation of a rigorous, multimodal assessment model adds further support for the hypothesis that students are afforded independent learning strategies if they are given flexible, technologyenhanced materials. the results advocate for the incorporation of digital tools, multimodal assessments, and organized feedback mechanisms in reading instruction for educators and curriculum developers. analysis of the feedback received regarding qr-based learning materials suggests that the students are more motivated when the assessment models include interactive resources. moreover, the study identifies the need for expert validation and iterative revisions, thereby indicating best practices for material development in higher education contexts. though it makes contributions, this study has limitations. validation was done with limited data from only a few students, lecturers, and expert validators. although the results offer convincing evidence for the model’s robustness, the study’s participant pool should be expanded in future work. moreover, this study was concerned only with the area of basic reading instruction in an efl-focused instructional context, and future inquiry could address other linguistic skills or more general areas of education. future research would expand and broaden the sample size and use longitudinal studies to explore the long-term effects of blended assessment models compared to traditional measures of reading comprehension and selfdirected learning behaviors. future studies may consider comparative study design to validate whether our model outperforms traditional assessment frameworks. machine learning: machine learning can complement traditional datadriven assessments to create even more adaptive and personalized learning experiences, especially for blended learning reading programs. figure 3. model for developing reading course with self-directed learning (sdl) this has an iterative step where the expert gets to provide feedback based on user reviews to keep on making the estimate better. it starts with needs analysis, whereby students’ reading proficiency levels, instructional goals, and curriculum requirements are identified. this step ensures that the assessments are suitable not only to the needs of the learners but also to target significant literacy skills, understanding skills, and assessment standards. this model includes formative, summative, diagnostic, and performance-based assessments, embedded in authentic environments, that assure valid and reliable evaluation of reading comprehension, critical thinking, and engagement. the evaluation & feedback has many facets, collecting data on student performance that is potentially enriched through digital integration, allowing usage of qr codes, multimedia resources, and online platforms to increase the interactive and multimodal learning experience. so, this model focuses on self-directed learning while encouraging students to take ownership of their education by selfassessing themselves. finally, to promote academic robustness, evaluation by experts & student and lecturers evaluation assesses content, construct, criteria, face validity, and usability/effectiveness. while these two stages of user testing allow feedback to inform the refinement & improvement yulmiati / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 110 v. conclusion in designing the prototype of a reading assessment model, three products were validated: the model book, the student book, and the lecturer book. six experts with different expertise areas were involved in the validation process to ensure the validity of the research product theoretically. the result shows that all of the research products were valid with little revision. considering the suggestions from the experts, the research products were revised for the draft to be implemented in basic reading class. in the process of the implementation, the researchers asked users’ opinions about the research products during one-to-one evaluation. the users, lecturers, and students perceived that the research products were also categorized as valid. based on the result of this study, it is implied that since the reading assessment model with a focus on self-directed learning is implemented in online and offline settings, lecturers and students should have the skills to use technology. in addition, the availability of the internet network is needed. the model developed provides students with basic reading opportunities anywhere and anytime independently, so the next research is recommended to examine the implementation of this model at other reading levels. references adinda, d., & mohib, n. 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(2024). self-directed learning ability and shadow education expenditures: a comparison of impact on student achievement in korea during covid-19. sage open, 14(2), 1–17. https://doi. org/10.1177/21582440241245206 muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 51 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 15, 2023 final revision: may 03, 2023 available online: may 10, 2023 this study examines the translation techniques used in the arabic, indonesian, and english languages. one of the studies in textual equivalence involves the translation of the information structure of themes (starting point of speech) and rheme (new information). mapping the structure of the themes and rheme in the source language text (sl) will assist the translator in determining the flow of information and identifying the type of genre in both the source and the target text. thus, the research problems can be stated as follows: (1) what the form of information structure is in alhikam aphorisms, and (2) how to apply translation techniques in al-hikam aphorisms. the results show that arabic-to-indonesian and arabic-toenglish aphorism translations employ a variety of translation techniques. there are 1,169 different translation techniques utilised in al-hikam aphorisms (arabic to indonesian). meanwhile, the number of translation techniques in al-hikam aphorisms (arabic – english) amount to 962. on the other hand, the dominance of established equivalent techniques in arabic – indonesian and arabic – english translations indicates that there are many terms or expressions that have been recognised in the dictionary or are commonly used to achieve equivalence from the source language to the target language, thereby increasing the readability of aphorism. the results of macro level data analysis indicate that translation of al-hikam’s aphorisms in arabic indonesian and arabic english tends to be oriented towards the target language and adopts the ideology of domestication. keywords al-hikam aphorism, arabic – english translation, arabic – indonesian translation, systemic functional linguistics, translation method and ideology, translation techniques. correspondence e-mail: yunus_678@staff.uns.ac.id article comparative analysis of arabic-indonesian and arabicenglish translation techniques in the al-hikam aphorism muhammad yunus anis1, arifuddin arifuddin2 1-2universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.1.51-65.2023 i. introduction the study of ideology is inextricably linked with the study of power relations, particularly since the development of deconstruction and cultural studies. the study of ideology also contributes to the study of translation (fawcett 2001)(fawcett 2001)(fawcett 2001). translation is the process of converting the source text into the target text. a translation can also be assumed as a text in a certain language that serves as the basis for the text production process to the target language for a particular purpose (williams and chesterman 2002). in this definition, it should be noted that “translation” has a certain “purpose”. the purpose of this translation is to provide an understanding of an “area of study” through a comprehensive translation. chesterman explains in detail that the first area of translation study is the relationship between text analysis and translation. according to this explanation, the study of text analysis in translation can be divided into four types; (1) source text analysis, (2) comparison of translation and their source texts, (3) comparison of translation and untranslated texts, and (4) translation with commentary. the second analysis in this study is a comparative analysis of the translation product with the source texts. the term “translation comparison” is better understood as a comparation of multiple translation texts to the same language muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 52 or to the different language from its language source. choosing the discussion focus is a factor to be considered when conducting a study about translation comparison. thus, a researcher of translation comparison has to be careful in choosing the study focus. comprehensive consideration must be given to the relationship between the problem formulations and the character of the text. chesterman notes that these subjects cannot cover every aspect of the texts. the aspects of the text can be investigated, for instance, from the stylistic side or syntax features in the text. because one of the texts’ characters can be investigated based on the stylistic side or syntactic features of the source text, it is crucial to investigate these aspects, which are then tested in the target text. in addition to these aspects, the study of text analysis can also be reviewed based on the translation problem. chesterman provides numerous examples of this type of issue, including passive sentence translation, dialect translation, satire translation, figure of speech, allusion, and many others. the responsibility of the researcher in this case is to see how the translator addresses these issues with translation strategies that are selected and used by the translator. in terms of translation strategy, the analysis of the translation comparison can begin with what kind of strategy the translator employs, what impact that strategy has, and whether it results in a change or shift between the source and target text. chesterman gives an example of the implementation of an explicitation strategy, i.e., how the explicitation strategy used by the translator is and if it will affect a change or shift between the source text and the target text. studies that specifically discuss the translation of the information structure (theme – rheme) have been carried out by previous researchers including aini et al. (2020), biadi (2020), ethelb (2019), karini (2016), wang (2014), and kadhim and alshaibani (2013). the research is still in its early stages, with only one type of theme translation being discussed. this is as done by karini (2016). the investigation of the themes in this study was limited to shifting topical themes from the source language (sl) text (english) into the target language (tl) text (indonesian). in general, the study concluded that there was a shift in topical themes in the text of the bilingual children’s book sangkuriang. the study focused only on topical themes (marked and unmarked) and did not go into detail about why topical themes in english change form and meaning in indonesian. meanwhile, studies on interpersonal themes and textual themes were not investigated in this study. this allow researchers to investigate how interpersonal themes and textual themes are translated from sl to tl. in general, this study contributes to future research on the “distribution of information” between the source and target languages that a translator should consider. previous research related to the development of themes (thematic progression) in arabic has been reviewed by almanna (2016), anis (2018a), anis (2018b), anis (2015). in this study, it is concluded that theme development is one way of organising text and it must be distinguished from cohesive devices. in this study, it was also determined that the structure of the theme rheme has an important role in building the element of cohesion in a text (theme-rheme relations play a significant role in building cohesion within a text). almanna’s (2016) study on the annotation of theme development patterns in arabic should be expanded to aesthetic language, specifically aphorisms. how does the pattern of developing the theme in the aphorism structure (which is dense in meaning and very concise) work, particularly when using a translation approach? the studies related to the translation technique, method, and ideology that especially use arabic and english were conducted by hamdan et al. (2021), akmaliyah et al. (2020), abidin et al. (2020), farisi (2020), munip (2018), farisi (2018), baharudin (2017), ikbal et al. (2016), farisi (2015), thawabteh and hreish (2014), thawabteh (2013), and masrukhi (2010). these studies used analysis of translation technique which is focused in poem, malay arabic idiom, al-qur’an, hagiography, arabic prose in the form of novels, and the translation of the arabic-javanese yellow holy book. according to the author, there has yet to be a study that specifically discusses the technique, method, and quality of translation in arabic aphorisms, particularly the translation technique of amplification in al-hikam aphorism (arabic indonesian and arabic – english). ibn athaillah as-sakandariy is a writer of al-hikam. he was an egyptian mystical author and hagiographer. he was a follower of shafi’i and/or maliki, the religious scholar, and was also a prominent member of the shadililiya thariqah. the book of aphoristic muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 53 wisdom (kitb al-hikam) is the most influential of his 20 extant works. this book of aphorism had been translated into the javanese language by mishbāch zainil-mushthafa al-bangilaniy aththubaniy and pustaka publisher in indonesian and english. based on the reviews, there are numerous opportunities for researchers interested in thematic structures in arabic. this is since previous researchers have left many unanswered questions, particularly concerning translation techniques in al-hikam’s aphorism texts. ii. methodology this research is a combination of linguistic research and translation research. this study uses a systemic functional linguistics (sfl) approach to explore the structure or flow of information in arabic texts (al-hikam aphorisms). in accordance with the objectives to be achieved, in a paradigmatic way, this study chose a qualitative research design. this research also uses ethnographic methods to collect some of the data. research location (focus determined boundary) focused on arabic text. in al-hikam’s translated text, it was found that there are 435 aphorism clauses from arabic (sl) which have been translated into various languages, namely indonesian (tl1) and english (tl2). therefore, the boundary of this research location is the “media” in the form of al-hikam aphorisms in arabic indonesian and arabic – english. in this study, primary data consisted of two types of research data, e.g., linguistic data and translation data. linguistic data is in the form of a detailed description of the information structure (theme – rheme) in al-hikam’s aphorisms. the data sources of this study were taken from the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic indonesian and arabic english. the translation data are the variants of translation technique (amplification). this study uses triangulation since the data comes from documents in the form of al-hikam aphorisms and their translations, two sources as arabic validators, two translation experts as assessors of translation techniques, shifts in form/meaning, and translation quality. thus, this triangulation precisely looks at various places of assessment and sources. this study also uses a triangulation method as similar data were collected using different methods (sutopo, 2002), namely the document analysis method and focus group discussion (fgd). the data analysis in this study used a qualitative content analysis of the spradley model modified by santosa (2017). the analysis phase begins after obtaining narrative data from document analysis, interviews, and questionnaires. this study uses analytical techniques consisting of domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and analysis of cultural themes (spradley, 1980). the material object of this research is the al-hikam aphorisms which has been translated from arabic into indonesian and from arabic into english (pustaka, 2016). meanwhile, the formal object of this research is the “amplification technique” which is applied by the translator in the translation product of al-hikam aphorism (arabic – indonesia) and (arabic – english), especially in the sentences or clauses. the total data of this research are 435 clauses that have thematic structure in 100 al-hikam aphorisms, arabic – indonesian and arabic – english. in arabic – indonesian al-hikam aphorisms, 218 clauses are found. in the arabic – english al-hikam aphorism, 217 clauses are found. each clause contains a different thematic structure. several types of themes found in the clause can be: (1) unmarked topical themes, (2) marked topical themes, (3) interpersonal themes, and (4) textual themes. topical themes that occupy the position of the subject are also called unmarked topical themes. topical marked themes can be identified by determining whether there is other information in the form of circumcision in front of the subject, or if the theme is in the form of “non-subject” (emilia 2014). textual themes are useful for connecting one clause to the previous one, which is marked by the presence of conjunctions in front of the clause. textual functions can be: (1) continuative, (2) conjunction (structural theme), and (3) conjunctive adjunct. interpersonal themes are characterised by vocatives, interpersonal adjuncts, and other interpersonal expressions (santosa 2003). the interpersonal theme has two functions, namely, to determine the closeness (close, intimate, formal) of interpersonal relationships between participants, especially the vocative form. the second function is to determine interpersonal transactions of giving/ requesting information or giving/requesting goods or services. in this case the form of interpersonal adjuncts or word forms in english is used. the distribution of the selection of themes in the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic indonesian and arabic – english can be observed in table 1a. muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 54 the results of this study confirm that there is a significant relationship between the study of systemic functional linguistics (sfl) and translation studies, which is evidenced by the relationship between thematic structure, theme development patterns, aphorism genres (as part of sfl studies) with translation techniques. the relationship between lsf studies and the translation studies can be seen from the data in table 1a. the statistical data show that there is a decrease in the number of unmarked topical theme, interpersonal theme, and textual theme models in arabic when the theme is translated into indonesian and english. +meanwhile, there was a significant increase in the number of marked topical themes in arabic when the themes were translated into indonesian and english. one of the reasons for this decrease was the application of reduction translation techniques. meanwhile, the increase in numbers is possible due to the existence of a modulation translation technique that changes the word order from the source language into the target language. therefore, this study uses two approaches simultaneously (a hybrid approach), namely the linguistic approach and the translation approach. when analysing the translation of the thematic structure from the source language (arabic) into the target language (indonesian) in al-hikam’s aphorisms, it was found that there was a significant shift in numbers between the two languages. the decrease in the number of thematic structures occurred in unmarked topical themes, interpersonal themes, and textual themes. the increase in the number was in the position of the marked topical theme. the total number of themes in general in arabic is 375. after undergoing the translation process, the number of themes was reduced to 303, a decrease of around 72 types of themes. this indicates that there are types of themes that are undergoing a process of “reduction” or category shift from the source language to the target language. this phenomenon is also observed in the translation of arabic-english aphorisms. the data shows that the number of themes in arabic, in general, decreased when translated into english, from a total of 375 themes in arabic to a total of 317 themes in english. it decreased by 58 themes. several types of themes that have decreased in number when translated from arabic into english are: (1) unmarked topical themes, (2) interpersonal themes, and (3) textual themes. meanwhile, the number of marked topical themes has increased, both in arabic-indonesian aphorisms and arabicenglish aphorisms. the shift in the pattern of theme development from the source language (arabic) to the target language (indonesian and english) cannot be separated from the application of translation techniques as an important part of micro-translation analysis. translation technique is a special method used in translating the linguistic unit (micro level) of the source language to the target language. this translation technique used 18 techniques that are introduced by molina and albir (2002) which are: (1) adaption, (2) amplification, (3) borrowing, (4) calque, (5) compensation, (6) description, (7) discursive creation, (8) establish equivalence, (9) generalisation, (10) linguistic amplification, (11) linguistic compression, (12) literal translation, (13) modulation, (14) particularisation, (15) reduction, (16) substitution, (17) transposition, and (18) variation (molina and albir 2002; elewa 2016). the translation technique refers to the process of sentence translation and smaller translation units. it differs from method which focuses on the overall translation process of the text. this means table 1: the distribution of themes in the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic indonesian and arabic – english theme type arabic (source language) indonesian (target language 1) english (target language 2) frequency percentage frequency percentage frequency percentage unmarked topical themes 205 54.6% 195 64.35% 189 59.62% marked topical themes 13 3.46% 23 7.59% 28 8.83% interpersonal themes 40 10.66% 20 6.60% 12 3.78% textual themes 117 31.2% 65 21.45% 88 27.76% total 375 100 303 100 317 100 muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 55 the material object from the translation techniques is a handling of text at the micro level, that is sentence that become small units in syntax while in the translation method is in the form of discourse. micro study in that translation technique is in accordance with the study by molina and albir (2002) showing that translation technique has several basic characteristics. these include (1) translation technique affects the translation result, (2) translation technique compares the source language and target language, (3) translation technique affects the smaller text unit (micro) such as words, phrases, and sentences, (4) translation technique is discursive (logical), natural, and contextual, and (5) translation technique is functional. figure 1 shows a flowchart of the methodology and theory for a more thorough understanding of the research method model and framework of this study. iii. result 3.1 theme and rheme in al-hikam aphorism in this section, we will discuss in detail each example of the types of theme and rheme found in the aphorisms of al-hikam. four types of theme were found in the aphorisms of al-hikam which become an important basis in determining the cohesion and coherence of a text, or textual equivalence (baker 2018). an explanation of the types of themes above can be seen in the table 2. based on table 2, it can be concluded that figure1: flowchart of research methodology and theory table 2. arabic – english your remissness in what is demanded of you in the form of phrases and added descriptions in arabic. the phrase occupies the position of the subject. thus, unmarked topical themes in arabic (sl) are translated with the same type and realisation in english (tl), both as subjects and in the same form, namely phrases. the data explains the attitude of wise people who do not interfere in matters that are already the right of allah. the aphorisms in table 2 tried to explain to the reader that a strong determination alone will not produce anything except with destiny and permission from allah subhanahu wa ta’ala (swt). thematic structure is a process of developing elements from known elements to unknown or less well-known elements, or in other words from theme to goal of speech(vinay and darbelnet 1995). based on table 3, it is found that there are topical themes marked only in english (target language), namely ’if what was promised’. the marked topical theme comes from the translation of arabic (sl) in the form of multiple or multiple themes (textual + interpersonal + unmarked topical), namely (wa + in + ta’ayyana). this is proof that a shift in the type of theme in a multilingual utterance is a sure thing to happen. marked topical themes are unusual forms in a particular language. marked the unmarked topical theme in arabic, namely ijtihāduka fīmā dhumina laka wa taqshīruka fīmā thuliba minka by using the idhafah pattern and occupying the position of mubtada’, is translated into english into you are striving for what has already been guaranteed to you, and muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 56 data, the study of interpersonal themes is more inclined to the study of evaluating comments on the subject discussed, which is related to the study of comments and modal adjuncts. vocatives in arabic are widely used in jumlatun-nida (calling sentences) using the particle /ya/ (يا) such as /yā maryam/ ‘o mariam/. meanwhile, studies related to comments and modal adjuncts in arabic are closely related to the expressions of speakers or writers regarding justification or an attitude regarding the substance of a message. in arabic, adjuncts are often used in the form of prepositional phrases, namely /minalmumkin/ ( الممكن (of the certain = certainly) (من and /minal-mu’akkad/ (من المؤكد) (of the probable = probably) (bardi, 2008).table 3: arabic – english marked topical themes table 4: arabic – english interpersonal themes in english, the form of ‘in truth’ is used to realise the interpersonal theme. the data in table 4 explains that god’s wisdom has nothing to do with the deeds that have been done by humans. the form /in truth/ in the data shows the reader that allah swt will open the door for makrifat or knowledge because allah swt essentially wants to introduce himself to his servants. the form /in truth/ has similarities to /inna/ in arabic, which is used to emphasise meaning. thus, it can be said to be equivalent and commonly used in both languages. the things that are most emphasised in the study of interpersonal themes are of two kinds, the first is related to the interaction between the speaker and the speech partner, such as in the vocative form, and the second is related to the speaker who is evaluating comments on the subject being discussed (bardi 2008, 499). related to the topical themes are themes that are complementary or adjuncts and are not the subject of a particular clause. the data in table 3 explains that promises that are not fulfilled by allah swt on time should not make people doubt. because in sufi teachings, doubt can ruin everything. based on the data in table 4, it is found that there is a phenomenon of interpersonal themes, both in arabic (sl) and the target language (tl). the interpersonal theme shows the closeness of interpersonal relationships between participants. in arabic it is manifested in the particle /inna/ ‘really’ which is used to emphasise existence. meanwhile, table 5: arabic – english textual themes based on table 5, it can be seen that there is a phenomenon of textual theme data in both arabic (sl) and english (tl). the textual theme is useful for connecting one clause with the previous one, which is indicated by the presence of a conjunction in front of the clause. these elements can be textual functions. in arabic, this textual theme is usually used in the form of a conjunctive adjunct in the form of particles /wa/, /idzā/, in english such as: then, however, nevertheless, therefore (bloor and bloor 2004). textual themes are: conjunctions, adverbials, modalities, and transitional phrases, such as: /wa akhīran/ finally, /tsumma ta’tiy ba’da dzalik/ – then follows (ethelb 2019). the textual theme /fa/ is found in the source language (sl) arabic. lexically, /fa/ is a particle in arabic, which is translated into /maka/ in indonesian and translated into /therefore/, /so/, and /thus/ in english. however, the textual theme /fa/ in sl is translated into /for/. the data in table 4 explains that the delay in giving allah swt should not weaken the human spirit to continue to ask allah swt. so, it is expressed by using /fa huwa dhamana laka-ijabata/, ‘because he guarantees’ where in this data there is a textual theme /fa/ which muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 57 using certain types of translation techniques. translation techniques have a fairly fundamental role in the study of micro translation. the study of translation methods and ideology, for example, has a fairly strong relationship with micro translation analysis. the micro study in translation techniques is in accordance with what has been studied by molina & albir (2002), that translation techniques have several basic characteristics, namely: (1) translation techniques affecting the translation results, (2) translation techniques compared between source language (sl) and indonesian. targets (tl), (3) translation techniques affecting smaller text units (micro) such as: words, phrases, and sentences, (4) translation techniques are discursive (logic), natural, and contextual, (5) translation techniques are functional. based on the results of the focus group discussion that have been carried out, the results of applying the existing translation techniques in arabic-indonesian aphorisms with arabic-english aphorisms have different results. this is due to differences in the translator’s point of view in an effort to achieve equivalence in the smallest language units of the source language (arabic), such as words and phrases, so that they can be commensurate, accurate, legible and acceptable in the target language (indonesian and english), citing opinions from molina and hurtado (2002), namely how equivalence in translation can work in relation to the source text (how translation equivalence works in relation to the original text). furthermore, this relation is not only limited to text, but also how translation can work in relation to context and process (molina and albir 2002)(molina and albir 2002)(molina and albir 2002). thus, there are three categories that play a significant role in the translation of al-hikam’s aphorisms, the first is related to (1) the textual category, especially those related to aspects of cohesion, coherence, and thematic progression patterns, as explained in the previous study. then (2) the contextual category which emphasises the extra-textual aspect and its relation to the context of the source language and the translation product. (3) the process category is designed to answer two basic questions, first, what choices are made by translators in terms of translation methods and second, how a translator solves problems that arise in the translation process, such as what strategy is chosen by a translator. to achieve these three categories in the study of al-hikam’s aphorism translation products is used as a connector from the previous clause. the textual theme is translated into english as / for he has guaranteed you/. in this case the textual theme /for/ is a continuation of the previous clause (let that not be the cause for your despairing for he has guaranteed you). based on the formulation of the problem, data analysis, and discussion, the following conclusions can be drawn. first, in the aphorisms of al-hikam arab-indonesian data, there are 218 clauses found. each clause contains a different thematic structure. several types of themes found in the source language (arabic) can be: (1) unmarked topical themes amounted to as much as 205 or 54.6%, (2) topical marked themes 13 or 3.46%, (3) interpersonal themes amounted to 40 or 10.66%, and (4) textual themes amounted to 117 or 31.2%. meanwhile, these types of themes were translated into target languages (indonesian and english), with the following results in indonesian: (1) unmarked topical themes amounting to a total of 195 or 64.35%, (2) marked topical themes amounting to a total of 23 or 7.59%, (3) interpersonal themes amounting to 20 or 6.60%, and (4) textual themes amounting to 65 or 21.45%. the thematic structure in al-hikam’s arabic-english aphorisms has a distinctive form and character. in the arabic-english aphorisms of al-hikam, there are 217 clauses in the data. like the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic – indonesia, in each clause there are types of themes, such as: (1) unmarked topical themes (unmarked) amounting to 189 or 59.62%, (2) marked topical themes (marked) amounting to 28 or 8.83%, (3) interpersonal themes amounting to 12 or 3.78%, and (4) textual themes amounting to 88 or 27.76%. the high percentage of unmarked topical themes shows that textually the distribution of information on arabic – indonesian and arabic – english aphorisms is organised in a coherent and systematic manner through placing the subject in front of the clause as a tool to emphasise the main issues discussed in it, especially for language clauses. in addition, it can also be seen that the subject matter that is used as the theme of the clause is in the subject itself. 3.2 the translation technique in al-hikam aphorism in the next analysis, the thematic structures in arabic are translated into indonesian and english muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 58 requires attention and a comprehensive study of textual micro-units. therefore, in this section, micro-analysis of translation will be presented, particularly related to the translation techniques in al-hikam (arabic – indonesian) and (arabic – english) aphorisms. the research findings generally show that: (1) in arabic – indonesian al-hikam aphorism, several amplification techniques are found which are: explicitation, paraphrase, and addition. (2) in arabic – english al-hikam aphorism, several amplification techniques are found which are: paraphrase, explicitation, and addition. those sequence are sorted from the most dominant. (3) the explicitation technique is at the highest position table 6: the distribution of translation techniques: arabic indonesian and arabic english no. translation techniques arabic – indonesian arabic – english frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 established equivalent 754 64.49 615 63.92 2 explicitation 135 11.54 65 6.75 3 reduction 67 5.73 34 3.53 4 paraphrase 55 4.70 75 7.79 5 modulation 46 3.93 63 6.54 6 compensation 22 1.88 26 2.70 7 variation 22 1.88 16 1.66 8 transposition 20 1.71 16 1.66 9 discursive creation 16 1.36 34 3.53 10 implicitation 16 1.36 10 1.03 11 addition 7 0.59 3 0.31 12 pure borrowing 5 0.42 0 0 13 description 2 0.17 1 0.10 14 literal 2 0.17 2 0.20 15 generalisation 0 0 2 0.20 total 1.169 100 962 100 in the arabic indonesian al-hikam aphorism, at around 11.54%, while the amplification paraphrase technique is at the highest position in the arabic english al-hikam aphorism, at 7.79%. the detail of this is illustrated in table 5. (4) the high explicitation technique in the indonesia language demonstrates that there are many language units in indonesian, as a result of arabic translation. the meaning should be explicitly translated so that the readers understand more about al-hikam aphorism. meanwhile, the dominance of paraphrase technique in english shows that there are a lot of language units that have to be replaced, without changing the meaning, so that the readability of aphorism is higher. figure 2 arabic indonesian and arabic – english translation technique muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 59 the established equivalent technique is a translation technique that uses terms or expressions that have been recognised in the dictionary or are commonly used to achieve equivalence from the source language into the target language. established equivalent techniques in arabicindonesian data had been found to be at a total of 754. meanwhile, in the data of arabic-english aphorisms, 615 techniques were found. thus, this type of technique is more commonly found in arabic-indonesian aphorisms. of the paraphrasing technique in the second clause can be seen from the sequence position between arabic and english. in arabic, the focus of the second clause is in the phrase / fa + mā qāma bihi/, the focus of arabic aphorisms is on the word /mā/ or ‘something (thing)’, while the focus of english is on ‘someone else’. a total of 55 techniques for paraphrasing were discovered in the arabic aphorism data and translated into indonesian. meanwhile, this technique can be found in the arabic aphorism data, which has 75 techniques translated into english. thus, it can be concluded that the data in arabic-english aphorisms do more of the paraphrasing process. table 7. established equivalent technique in the sample table 7 data, it is found that there is an established equivalent technique phenomenon in the word /irādatu + ka/ (إرادتك). the phrase comes from the word /irādatun/ plus dhamir / ka/, the masculine pronoun for the second person singular. the word irādatun in several arabicenglish dictionaries is commonly paired with the following words: will, volition, wish, and desire. in arabic the word irādatun (إرادة) is matched with the words /masyī’atun/ (مشيئة), /ikhtiyārun/ (اختِيار), and /raghbatun/ (َرغبَة). the word comes from the root verb /a – rā – da/ (َأراد) which is equivalent to the words: to want, wish, desire, will, be willing (to); to seek, aim at; to intend, purpose, mean, have in mind. in the english arabic dictionary, the word irādatun is formed into the phrase quwwatul’irādah (ةُ اإلرادة ’which translates to ’willpower (قُوَّ (baalbaki 2009)(baalbaki 2009)(baalbaki 2009). table 8. paraphrasing technique the paraphrasing technique contains two important things, namely: (1) expressing it in another way without changing the message, and (2) giving a different emphasis. the application table 9. reduction and implicitation technique the reduction technique is a translation technique that tries to condense information from the source language into the target language (to suppress a st information item in the tt) (molina and albir 2002). in the data, the particle /fa/ undergoes a reduction technique, both in the arabic-indonesian al-hikam aphorism, and the arabic-english al-hikam aphorism. the particle /fa/ above is one part of the letter of answer to connect the answer of condition, for example in the following sentence: “who studies will succeed” (مْن / in the example sentence, the particle .(يدرْس فينَجْح fa/ is also not translated. there are 67 techniques of reduction translation techniques found in arabicindonesian aphorisms. meanwhile, this technique found a number of 34 techniques. thus, it can be concluded that arabic indonesian data performs more reduction techniques than arabic english data. the application of this technique is very influential, especially on aspects of translation accuracy. discursive creation is a translation technique that tries to arrange an equivalence that is still temporary. the temporal equivalence is not permanently out of context. in the table 9 data, it is found that there is an application of discursive creation techniques, especially on the word /albashīrah/ in the source text. the word /bashīratun/ in several english arabic dictionaries is (بصيرة) paired with the words /tabash-shurun/ (تَبَّصر), / fithnatun/ (فِطنة), /’ilmun/ (ِعلٌم) which means: ‘insight, discernment, sagacity, acumen’. based on muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 60 the elaboration of the lexical meaning, the translation of the phrase /inthimāsil-bashīrati/ (ِاِْنِطَماِس اْلبَِصْيَرة) ‘blind the eyes of your heart’ into ‘blurring of your intellect’ is one form of application of discursive creation techniques. the word intellect in this case is the temporal equivalent of the word albashīrah. in some sufism references, the word is interpreted as ‘spiritual insight’ or ‘inward vision’ (renard 2009)(renard 2009)(renard 2009). the application of the technique discursive creation is more commonly found in arabic english (34 techniques) than in arabic – indonesian (16 techniques). thus, it can be concluded that the results of temporary translation are found more in arabic english data. table 10. discursive creation technique table 11. modulation technique the modulation technique is a translation technique that seeks to change the point of view, focus, or cognitive category in relation to the st (molina and albir 2002). the modulation technique makes the translation results have a different point of view without ignoring the meaning that must be transferred. the table 10 data has used a modulation technique from the negation form in arabic to the adverb form ‘at the time’ in indonesian and ‘hardly does’ in english. the main focus of the text according to the explanatory statement states that they sālik will not stop, while the translator states by ‘when a sālik’s determination wants to stop’. there are 46 modulation techniques found in arabic-indonesian aphorisms. meanwhile, in arabic-english aphorisms found a number of 63 techniques. this condition indicates that the results table 12. explicitation technique the explicitation technique is understood as a translation technique that makes explicit (clarifies) words that are not clear, especially in the translation of the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic english. this technique aims to improve readability or to make it easier for the reader to understand the translated text, in this case al-hikam’s aphorisms. the subject of the verb /ḥa-ja-ba/ is allah swt, he prevents humans from seeing him. the translator adds the word ‘he’ written in capital letters as a marker that ‘he’ referred to in the verb /ḥa-ja-ba/ is allah swt. then the translator made explicit the information by adding ‘from himself’, that allah swt prevents humans from seeing himself, while in arabic it is only expressed by /ḥajabaka ‘anhu/. there are 135 techniques of explicitation found in arabic-indonesian data. meanwhile, this technique was found to be 65 in arabic-english data. this further emphasises that indonesian language is more explicit when translating language units derived from arabic. table 13. compensation and variation technique the compensation technique is a translation technique that seeks to introduce elements of information or stylistic effects in the source language by changing its position in the target language. in the source text the verb /ya’zhumu/ is attached to the subject /adz-dzanbu/. in this case basically the element of ‘sin’ is great. however, in the translated text (target text), the stylistic element is changed to ‘let no sin reach such proportions in your eyes’, the addition of the element ‘don’t let it’ and replacing the position of ‘you’ /’indaka/ is a form of application of compensation techniques. of the arabic english translation apply more modulation techniques. muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 61 moving the position of ‘you’ /’indaka/ and the arabic style /ya’zhumu ‘azhamatan/ in different positions in the target text is one of the distinctive characteristics of compensation techniques so that legibility is maintained properly. the variation technique is a translation technique that seeks to replace linguistic elements or paralinguistic elements (such as intonation and gestures) which ultimately have an impact on aspects of linguistic variation. in the table 12 data, it was found that there was an application of the variation technique on the pronoun /ka/ in arabic which was translated into ‘you’ masculine, singular, second person in english. data in the form of compensation techniques have found 26 translation techniques in arabic-english aphorisms. meanwhile, in arabicindonesian aphorisms, there are 22 compensation translation techniques. this shows that the english text applies more compensation techniques. table 14. literal technique the literal technique is a translation technique that seeks to translate words or expressions using a word for word (word for word) model. in the table 13 data, the arabic phrase /min ‘alamātin-najḥi fin-nihāyāti/ (النَِّهايَاِت فِي النَّْجحِ َعَلَماِت is literally (ِمْن translated into ‘among the signs of success at the end’. in this case, the term ‘success at the end’ will make the reader ask the meaning of the translation. there are 2 literal techniques found both in arabicindonesian and in arabic-english. this shows that both sides of the translation result are more likely not to be oriented to the source language. the literal technique is one of the techniques oriented to the source language (arabic). table 15. generalisation technique ‘lifeless’ is a general form of the word ‘body’. the generalisation technique is only found in arabic-english data (2 techniques). meanwhile, the generalisation technique was not found in the arab-indonesian data. this confirms that the english text uses more generalisation techniques to explain more specific elements. to achieve good translation quality, one way table 14. literal technique is to clarify a missing expression, avoid ambiguity, and add connectors. therefore, it is quite important to apply the addition of the amplification technique. there is an application of the addition technique in the data above, particularly to the word ‘the prophet’ because in arabic it is only mentioned /qaulihi/ ‘his words’ shalla allhu ‘alaihi wa sallam, which is usually abbreviated as saw (as pure borrowing), to make it clearer and to clarify missing expressions. for clarity, the phrase “the prophet” was added. there are 7 techniques of translation (addition) found in the arabic-indonesian data. meanwhile, in the arabic-english data only 3 techniques were found. in this case, indonesian language adds more elements to the translated text than english. meanwhile, there are 5 techniques (pure borrowing) found in arabic-indonesian. this technique was not found in the arabic-english data. the use of this technique affects the natural condition of the translated text. the more borrowing techniques are used, the text will read unnaturally. table 17. description and transposition technique the generalisation technique is a translation technique that uses and utilises a more general and neutral term. in the table 14 data, it is found that there is an application of generalisation techniques, especially in the phrase /shuwarun qā’imatun/ which is translated into ‘lifeless forms’. the word the sescription technique is a translation technique that seeks to replace a term or expression with a description of its form or function. the following sample data shows how the description technique is used in english arabic al-hikam aphorisms, particularly when translating the word muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 62 al-asbba (to make a living in the world), which is one of the sufi’s typical terms. transposition is a translation technique that replaces a grammatical category (to change a grammatical category). the word al-asbāba (arabic noun) had been translated into the english verb (to gain a living in the world). the description technique found a number of 2 techniques in the arabic-indonesian data. meanwhile, the description technique found 1 technique in the arabic-english data. this emphasises that the elements in arabic when translated into indonesian require more descriptions than when the elements in arabic are translated into english. likewise with the transposition technique, 20 techniques were found in the arabic-indonesian data. meanwhile, there are 16 transposition techniques found in the arabic-english data. this shows that the structure of the language in arabic is replaced more when translated into indonesian. iv. discussion the translation method has an important role in the analysis of translation products. in this case, the study of translation methods will focus on the aphorisms of al-hikam (arabic – indonesian) and (arabic – english). comparing the two types of translation products in terms of translation methods leads to discussion of translation studies from a macro perspective. the translation method refers to the macro-level procedures carried out by the translator. the use of translation methods oriented to the source language (arabic) or translation methods oriented to the target language will be examined as two crucial aspects of the translation method (indonesian and english). based on the analysis of translation techniques applied to the indonesian arabic alhikam aphorisms, it can be concluded that the translation techniques used tend to be oriented towards the target language: communicative method, and source language: literal method (newmark 1988)(newmark 1988)(newmark 1988). the communicative translation method is supported by the use of translation techniques in the form of: (1) 64.49% established equivalent, (2) 11.54% amplification in the form of explicitation, (3) 5.73% reduction, (4) 4.70% amplification in the form of paraphrasing, (5) 3.93% modulation, (6) 1.88% compensation, (7) 1.88% variation, (8) 1.71% transposition, (9) 1.36% discursive creation, (10) 1.36% implicitation, (11) 0.59% amplification in the form of addition, (12) 0.17% description. these data indicate that the tendency to use communicative methods in indonesian arabic al-hikam aphorisms is 99.34%. however, other data also show that the tendency to use methods oriented to the source language is also found to be 0.59%. this source language-oriented translation method can be proven by the use of the following techniques, e.g., (1) 0.42% pure borrowing, (2) 0.17% literal. on the other hand, a target language-oriented method was also found in the aphorisms of al-hikam arabic english, which can be proven by the use of the following translation techniques: (1) 63.92% established equivalent, (2) 7.79% amplification in the form of paraphrasing, ( 3) 6.75% amplification in the form of explicitation, (4) 6.54% modulation, (5) 3.53% discursive creation, (6) 3.53% reduction, (7) 2.70% compensation, (8) 1.66% transposition, (9) 1.66% variation, (10) 1.03% implicitation, (11) 0.31% amplification in the form of addition, (12) 0.20% generalisation, and (13) 0.10% description. these data indicate that the tendency of using communicative methods in english arabic alhikam aphorisms is 99.72%. however, other data also show that the tendency to use a method oriented towards the source language is also found in the aphorisms of al-hikam in english arabic by 0.20%. this source language-oriented method can be proven by the use of literal translation techniques of 0.20%. these data indicate that in the english arabic al-hikam aphorisms there is a tendency to use communicative translation methods on the one hand and literal translation methods on the other. the results of this study indicate that the translation method used in translating al-hikam’s aphorisms into english arabic is a communicative translation method oriented to the target language (english). the use of the translation method which tends to be dominantly oriented towards the target language indicates that al-hikam’s arabicenglish aphorisms tend to primarily adhere to the ideology of “domestication” translation rather than foreignization (venuti 2019)(venuti 2019)(venuti 2019). v. conclusion aphorism is a genre which has quite a unique characteristic. this is due to the fact that aphorism has three strong characteristics, e.g., memorability, concision, and ambiguity. these three factors enhance the aphoristic style of expression. how a translator decides when confronted with aphorism muhammad yunus anis / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 1 (2023) 63 language translation is dependent on this aesthetic and meaningful form of language, which eventually opens up the possibility to numerous types of translation problems. al-hikam’s aphorisms in indonesian arabic and english arabic contain the themes and rhemes information structure. in this case, the themes can be categorised into four groups, e.g., unmarked topical themes, marked topical themes, textual themes, and interpersonal themes. in general, the number of translation techniques in indonesian arabic al-hikam aphorisms was found to be 1,169. meanwhile, the number of translation techniques in the english arabic al-hikam aphorisms was found to be 962. on the other hand, the dominance of the established equivalent technique in arabic – indonesian and arabic – english shows that there are a lot of terms or expressions that have been recognised in the dictionary or are commonly used to achieve equivalence from the source language to the target language, so that the readability of aphorism is higher. thus, it can be concluded that to reach a high readability level, established equivalent technique has to be implemented by the translator to bridge or translate between the two languages. it was ultimately the distribution of these techniques that narrowed the orientation of translation, whether it was more inclined towards the source language or towards the target language; both translation products emphasise the target language orientation (indonesian and english). these limitations become “research gaps” that can be studied in future research. this study is limited to the aphorisms of al-hikam arabicindonesian and al-hikam arabic-english devoted to the chapter on monotheism (tauhid) and morality (akhlaq), while the chapter on “suluk” in al-hikam can be studied in the next study. language has three primary functions according to systemic functional linguistics, e.g., ideational functions, interpersonal functions, and textual functions. this study only explores textual functions, but future studies can investigate alaphorisms’ hikam’s ideational and interpersonal functions. al-hikam’s translation books in indonesian and english have always been best sellers for their readers. this provides a gap for further studies so that the quality of translation of al-hikam’s aphorisms in indonesian and english continues to improve, both in terms of accuracy, acceptability, and readability. acknowledgement this research was funded by direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat, deputi bidang penguatan riset dan pengembangan, kementerian riset, teknologi/badan riset dan inovasi nasional republik indonesia for fiscal year 2022/2023 through penelitian dasar unggulan perguruan tinggi scheme desentralisasi. master contract number: 096/e5/pg.02.00. pt/2022 and derivative contract number: 673.1/un27.22/pt.01.03/2022, under the title ‘optimalisasi kajian kearifan lokal bahasa melalui penerjemahan periodisitas teks keagamaan bahasa arab ke dalam bahasa jawa: analisis linguistik sistemik fungsional (optimizing the study of local wisdom of language through translating the periodicity of arabic religious texts into javanese: functional systemic linguistic 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chesterman. 2002. the map: a beginner’s guide to doing research in translation studies. united kingdom: st. jerome publishing. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 208 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 30, 2024 final revision: june 10, 2024 accepted: june 14, 2024 available online: june 30, 2024 this conceptual article explores the role of metaphor in navigating and bridging the diverse realms from an interdisciplinary context. metaphor, as both a linguistic device and a cognitive mechanism, is a powerful tool for transcending disciplinary boundaries, facilitating the exchange of ideas, and fostering innovation in language. this article built the concepts underlying mechanisms through which metaphor enables the synthesis of knowledge from linguistics, literature, history, archeology, and culture. furthermore, the article examines the implications of metaphor use in interdisciplinary contexts, including its potential to enhance collaboration, creativity, and problem-solving. this article contributes to a deeper understanding of knowledge integration and synthesis dynamics in today’s increasingly interconnected academic investigations. in linguistics, metaphor is a powerful tool for understanding abstract notions through verbal expression. metaphor in literature enhances narrative and symbolism by adding layers of meaning and emotion to writings. in history, metaphor is a tool through which people perceive events and narratives, affecting historical discourse and collective memory. in archaeology, metaphor assists the interpretation of material culture and reconstructs the former cultures and their symbolic systems. metaphors are essential in cultural communication because they shape cultural narratives, identity formation, and social understanding. keywords language, metaphor, linguistic, literature, history, archeology, culture correspondence e-mail: ferdinal@hum.unand.ac.id review bridging the worlds: metaphors in interdisciplinary contexts ike revita1, ferdinal ferdinal2, oktavianus oktavianus3, gusti asnan4, herwandi herwandi5 1,3department of linguistics, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 2department of literature and culture, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 4,5department of history, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.2.208-227.2024 i. introduction human beings have unique and exciting ways of communicating their ideas and concepts compared to other creatures. through language, people express their ideas and develop their cultures. people use their language to survive (oktavianus & revita, 2013). an american linguist, charles hocket, even put forward the design features of human languages (hocket, 1960). two of the design features of human language are productivity and semanticity. the speakers and users of a language develop their language productivity and semanticity through metaphors. besides, creativity is also a characteristic of human language (asnan, 2020). we can see the speakers’ creativity in using language through various forms and styles of metaphor they choose. we can also observe various names of local foods in the minangkabau language and culture; some use metaphors (oktavianus et al, 2022). the productivity of human languages occurs at all levels, including vocabulary, phrases, and sentences. besides, language contact in this globalization era has progressively developed language productivity and creativity. likewise, language speakers develop a language’s semantic system in various ways. the speakers of a language do not only deliver the messages literally and indirectly but also metaphorically. a metaphor is a complex figure of speech. referring to the design features of human language proposed by charles hocket, productivity, creativity, and language innovation lie in the use of ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 209 metaphor. speakers of languages can use metaphors in all domains of language use and communication. metaphors are everywhere, and we can find them in every language and culture people have studied (gibbs, 2020). using metaphors has a unique effect because people create metaphors using various sources of inspiration, such as flora, fauna, and other inanimate objects (oktavianus, 2022). the beauties of language in various realms of speech, literary works, advertising texts, texts with cultural nuances, and historical and political texts are created through metaphor (ferdinal et al., 2023; oktavianus, 2024; arif et al., 2024). politicians also use metaphors to create persuasive language in their political activities (farhan et al., 2024). metaphors describe deceases (zulprianto and fanany, 2023). metaphors can create the power of language and the effectiveness of conveying messages. for example, religious preaches in the minangkabau language and culture often use metaphors to show parables and provide illustrations (oktavianus, 2023). legal terminology also often uses conceptual and lexical metaphors (kordić, 2023). lawyers often use metaphors in their legal theory and practice. metaphors are not only limited to language style and become linguistic issues but are also used interdisciplinary. in this regard, this conceptual article attempts to discuss and develop a concept of metaphor from the perspective of linguistics, literature, history, archeology, and culture, as illustrated in figure 1. the aim of writing this conceptual article is to formulate the integration of metaphor in an interdisciplinary context. a metaphor is an influential, persuasive linguistic figure of speech. it can go beyond its linguistic function to uncover deeper layers of meaning and ideology, metaphor and culture, the use of metaphor in monomodal and multimodality metaphors, and meaning relation among lexicon (zibin, 2024; musolff, 2021; zykova, 2023). ii. discussion metaphor: bridging the worlds and connecting entities our world contains entities connected through their behavior, characteristics, form, size, and quality similarity. entity as the object may include object, individual, being, existent, matter, quantity, substance, thing, commodity, subject, integer, stuff, reality, something, body, and individuality (https:// www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/entity). the similarity and identicality of behavior, physical characteristics, size, quality, design, form, and structure among the entities connect them. the experts use different terminologies to describe the relationships between entities, constructing metaphors. the terminologies they use are target and source domain (lakoff et al., 1994), analogy (ricoeur, 1977), topic and image (newmark, 1988), vehicle and the target (croft et al., 2005), matsal or ibrah (subhani, 2007) and kiasan (oktavianus, 2022). a conceptual metaphor is a systematic set of correspondences between two domains of experiences or entities (kövecses, 2017). the following are several lexical metaphors in the political texts of several politicians from metro tv, a national private television station in indonesia, following the constitutional court trial in resolving disputes over the results of the presidential election in indonesia. we can observe the different models of interconnection between two entities. (1) kita mengalami defisit demokrasi. ‘we have a democratic deficit.’ (2) demokrasi kita sedang mendung. ‘democracy is cloudy.’ (3) proses demokrasi tergerus sedikit demi sedikit ‘the democratic process is being eroded little by little.’ source: panggung demokrasi, metro tv, 2024 figure 1. metaphor from interdisciplinary perspectives ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 210 the collocation between deficit and democracy in (1) leads us to treat demokrasi ‘democracy’ as keuangan ‘finance’ because keuangan ‘finance’ can undergo a deficit. the collocation between demokrasi and mendung in (2) leads us to identify demokrasi as cuaca ‘weather’ because cuaca ‘weather’ can be cloudy. the collocation between demokrasi and tergerus in (3) leads us to liken demokrasi ‘democracy’ to objects or things that can erode, like skin and cliffs. human beings build their communication medium by using linguistic signs in spoken and written language and nonlinguistic signs such as body language and pictures. in their way of communicating ideas and concepts, people also create communication mediums by using nonlinguistic signs in the form of multimodality text to construct metaphors (wilcox, 2000). we have a computer mouse which looks like a mouse. aircraft have wings like birds. in a political context in west sumatra, we can observe this conceptual metaphor in the figure 2. conceptual metaphors from the perspective of literature, history, archaeology, and culture. we can analyze metaphorical expressions or linguistic metaphors from the perspective of linguistics. a comprehensive analysis of linguistic metaphors can cover the application of linguistic branches to analyze metaphors. metaphor from linguistic perspective the speakers and language users express conceptual metaphors through words, phrases, and sentences (yu, 2022). from a linguistic perspective, metaphor is not only a matter of language style but also the grammar of a language. therefore, we can describe the relationship between metaphor and linguistics based on the following four main themes: language design of metaphor, function of metaphor, meaning in metaphor, and value delivered through metaphor (figure 3). figure 2: comparing two entities source: map : https://infosumbar.net/peta-wisatasumatera-barat/ vehicle: facebook of west sumatra governor 2024 the two entities that we compare are west sumatra and the vehicle. west sumatra province is like a vehicle with its driver and co-driver. based on conceptual metaphor theory, we can also treat west sumatra as kapal ‘ship,’ perahu ‘boat,’ biduk ‘river craft,’ and even rumah tangga ‘household.’ the connection between two entities is what we call bridging the entities or worlds through metaphor. metaphors are not only in language but also in thought (kövecses, 2017). therefore, based on conceptual metaphor theory, what the speakers and users of language say is closely related to what they have in their minds. two entities or domains they have in their mind are called conceptual metaphors. the language used to express the two domains is called a metaphorical expression or linguistic metaphor. we can explore figure 3. metaphor from linguistic perspectives human language is dynamic (kaelan, 2017). language is dynamic regarding design, function, meaning, and value delivered. we can observe the following conversation between two people to explore the design of metaphorical expressions. (4) a : kecewa bana awak jo paja baruak tu. ‘i am very disappointed with that monkeyman.’ b : sabalah, jan dibaruak-baruakan pulo urang. mintak sajo baik-baik ‘be patient. do not say monkey to him. just ask (him to pay) nicely’ a : awak tasasak. inyo ndak pulo mangarati ‘i am in difficulty. i need my money.’ the short text in data (4) above is a conversation between two speakers of the ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 211 minangkabau language, one of the local languages spoken by the minangkabau tribe. in the above conversation, a complained to b that the one who borrowed his money had not paid it. to vent his disappointment, a called the person who borrowed his money as baruak ‘monkey’. the sentences used by the speakers in conversation (4) above contain metaphors uttered by a and b to each other. we can observe the following example. (4a) paja tu baruak ‘he is a monkey’ syntactically, clause (4) in the example above can be categorized as an equative clause with a subject + predicate pattern so that this simple clause has the following syntactic structure as in the following example. (4b) subject predicate paja tu ‘he baruak is a monkey’ the word order pattern above occurs because, typologically, the minangkabau language is a language that has a word order pattern or syntactic function of subject and predicate (jufrizal, 2012; yusdi, 2013). language is dynamic and functional based on the events behind the emergence of an utterance. the word order in a sentence (4a) can change. lingual units that are not subjects can occupy the subject position. changes in the order of lingual units are rising (jufrizal, 2012) and topicalization (song, 2014). thus, sentence (4a) can change in word order, as in the following example. (4c) predicate subject baruak ‘monkey paja tu he’ ‘he is a monkey.’ topicalization is closely related to the pragmatic aspects of language. context influences topicalization. therefore, if the emphasis of information lies in the predicate, as in example (4b), there will be topicalization in the use of the sentence. if the speakers use sentences (4a) and (4b) orally, the suprasegmental aspects determine the emphasis on the information the speaker wants to convey. therefore, suprasegmental elements are also essential in determining the focus of information delivered through word order in a sentence. from the semantic aspect, sentences (4a) and (4b) are still considered rude or impolite. it happens because, as a metaphorical expression, the target domain is humans, while the source domain is animals. therefore, there is a process of animalization if someone addresses the sentence to someone else. animalization is not commonly acceptable in human culture. people regard it as humiliation. we can extract the meaning components or components of meaning (leech, 1981) of baruak ‘monkey’ by analyzing the components of the word’s meaning. (4d) paja tu baruak (+) human (-) human (+) male (+/-) male (+) debt (+) cunning (+) debt unpaid (+) ignorant ‘he is a monkey.’ based on the analysis of the meaning components, people who do not pay their debts are identical to the bad behavior of baruak ‘monkey’, namely cunning, sewing, and ignorant. from pragmatic and ethnolinguistic perspectives, metaphor is related to polite and impolite use of language contextually and culturally. we named it as two faces of metaphor. metaphors, distinguished by their capacity to evoke strong emotions and breathe life into language, can take on an unanticipated variety of persons (ifantidou, 2019). by leveraging our linguistic proficiency, we shall undertake a discerning analysis of the two proverbial elements that constitute a coin—decency and impoliteness (revita, 2020). from a sociolinguistic aspect, the word baruak ‘monkey’ has many variations in pronunciation and the lexicon used in speech. therefore, people in minangkabau have lexical variations of baruak / barua?/ ‘monkey’ in solok; baruk /baru?/ ‘monkey’ in kuranji padang city, bawuak /bawwua?/ ‘monkey’ in south solok. such lexical variations can enrich the linguistic metaphor with the word baruak ‘monkey’ in the minangkabau language and culture. in the text (4) above, b tells a not to call someone a baruak ‘monkey.’ this remark is considered unkind and impolite. therefore, b advised a not to address the one who borrowed his money as baruak ‘monkey’ as in the following sentence. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 212 (4e) sabalah, jan dibaruak-baruakan pulo urang. mintak sajo baik-baik ‘be patient. do not say monkey to him. just ask (him to pay) nicely.’ an interesting thing to observe from sentence (4e) is that there is a morphological process of the word baruak ‘monkey’ from syntactic category (noun) through affixation di-an and the process of reduplication to produce the form dibaruakbaruakan ‘to say as a monkey’. some semantic components of baruak ‘monkey’ are attached to the one who is cunning and ignorant. in minangkabau, baruak ‘monkey’ becomes an entity placed as a source domain for someone’s bad behavior. baruak ‘monkey’ is an animal found in minangkabau society and culture. baruak ‘monkey’ is an animal we can find in the bushes, and people treat monkeys as pets in a given context. besides, the baruak ‘monkey’ is considered “smart.” people trained baruak ‘monkeys’ to climb the coconut tree to pick up the coconut. baruak ‘monkey’ has even become a source of inspiration for various minangkabau expressions, which result from the intensity of human observation of all the attitudes and behaviors of the baruak ‘monkey’ in their everyday activities (oktavianus, 2022). from the perspective of ecolinguistics, language has its ecology. language ecology is a physical, social, and cultural environment where the speakers use the language. the ecology of language is the source of metaphor. there are various types of metaphors formed from the ecology of language. these metaphors are significant for communication and creating new meanings in a human language system (fill et al., 2001). a cleverly chosen metaphor that establishes a correlation between the inexplicable and the mundane has the potential to elucidate an inherently complicated notion. consider offering elucidation to a friend concerning an unfamiliar concept. metaphors function as advantageous aids, augmenting the lucidity and allure of verbal discourse (revita, 2023). metaphors employ evocative imagery to represent concepts figuratively via language (kissine, 2013; zeinkowski, 2011). through analogies between abstract and concrete ideas, they enhance the comprehension of the concept among the audience. it instantly elevates the unfamiliar to a more relatable level by stimulating the mind. metaphors from a solitary individual are potent (leech, 2014). they convey profound significance by deftly condensing complex ideas into a solitary, persuasive analogy (tracy, 2009; revita, 2023). we can observe the following linguistic metaphorical expression used widely by the speakers or users of a language. (5) life is a journey. the metaphor in (5) is the analogy between life and a journey, underscoring the perpetual quality of life and experiential learning. this linguistic metaphor is very philosophical and has a deep meaning. describing life as the target domain from the journey as the source domain is unique and beautiful. a journey is going from one place to another for some distance (https://www.merriamwebster.com/thesaurus/journey). going from one place to another can be easy or difficult and full of challenges depending on the road conditions we choose, such as uphill, downhill, slippery and muddy, rocky, and even steep. therefore, to go from one place to another, people must be strong, diligent, full of preparation, careful, vigilant, patient, and intelligent. metaphor plays an essential role in creating beautiful and meaningful language. the beauty of a linguistic metaphor depends on the type of semantic component of the entity used as the source and target domain, as shown in the following example. (6) love is a flower that needs nurturing. through an analogy between love and a flower, this metaphor underscores the critical significance of maintaining a robust partnership through vigilant watchfulness and conscientious effort. metaphors are considered preeminent in the linguistic domain (revita, 2021). comparable to vivid colors present on a canvas, these perceptive analogies infuse language with liveliness. nevertheless, metaphors also unveil a compelling duality akin to the twosided nature of a coin: the courteous and the impolite (revita, 2020). furthermore, much like a painter’s tool, metaphors evoke mental images through sparse, delicate strokes (revita, 2020; 2023). the audience can quickly grasp the concept by juxtaposing the abstract and the tangible. it furnishes the reader with a mental image that establishes an immediate connection with the unfamiliar. metaphors can be exceptionally formidable, besides serving as vehicles for information and evocation. a metaphor, ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 213 analogous to a magnifying lens, guides attention to a specific aspect of a concept. metaphors facilitate the skillful conveyance of deep meanings by concisely encapsulating complex ideas in a potent analogy (asri et al., 2021). metaphors, similar to other instruments, are vulnerable to misuse. when transferred to antagonistic individuals, they can transform into verbal weapons (paola, 2020; purwanto, 2020). serious injury may come from a severe analogy presented through a metaphor. comparable to a verbal assault, it causes a lasting sense of distress. a disagreement may also arise due to the improper application of metaphor. let us contemplate a metaphor that strengthens negative preconceived notions, analogous to starting a firestorm. it can provoke conflicts and cultivate hostility among entities or individuals. consequently, context is critical for the responsible application of metaphor. the range of concepts elicited by a single metaphor can be diverse. metaphors have the potential to be a weapon. a speaker can inflict pain and offense by comparing an individual to an object in a negative or derogatory manner. comparable to administering a verbal strike that causes permanent suffering. metaphors can obscure cruelty (macagno, 2019). by employing metaphor, an intense comparison has the potential to cause profound suffering. let us consider an individual who engages in bullying by skillfully concealing their malicious intent through wordplay. the careless utilization of metaphors can provoke conflicts (revita, 2020; revita et al., 2017). a metaphor that reinforces negative stereotypes possesses the capacity to incite hatred among both individuals and groups. such an action can provoke a substantial conflagration. we can observe an impolite metaphor in the following examples. (7) he is a greedy pig. (8) her heart is (like) a stone. (9) his intellect is comparable in size to a pea. in example (7), a person is compared to a pig to convey the connotations of lethargy and lack of self-control. in (8), a person is likened to a stone, suggesting they lack emotion and exhibit indifference. it is not a good character in life. meanwhile, in (9), the person in question possesses a deficiency in intellectual capacity. it is an underestimate of someone’s capacity. thus, we must strive to utilize metaphors innovatively and beneficially, facilitating understanding with every analogy we establish. in essence, metaphors are powerful tools similar to any other tool. metaphor from a literary perspective from a fictional perspective, many scholars, including lakoff et al. (2020) argue that writers can explore metaphors through narrative aspects, ranging from the story’s imagery and character development to the plot flow. in their argument, the metaphors may appear in literature in multiple forms and through fictional elements, as seen in figure 4. figure 4: metaphor in literature with metaphors, authors can enrich their writing with depth and resonance and involve readers interacting with the text. in addition, writers can use metaphors to convey mood and tone by using language to give birth to sensory experiences and emotional responses in readers. through metaphor, authors can create fiction that affects readers even after the story ends. the writers of a literary work manifested metaphors in literature in the form of conventional and novel metaphors that associate culture or language to create a resonance and depth of narrative. next, an extended metaphor compares the two entities while reinforcing their thematic meaning. furthermore, symbolic metaphors use characters, events, or backgrounds to represent abstract concepts. metaphors communicate complex ideas and emotions through analogy with the reader’s experience and help give readers an understanding of the abstract concept meant ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 214 by mapping more concrete domains (lakoff, 2020). metaphor also contributes to character development through individuals with symbolic attributes. in addition, metaphors also enhance the thematic resonance of a story by conveying a more profound meaning and enabling readers to think of universal truths. the universal truth is essential for human life, as we can understand from the following examples. (10) “it’s a tree, lu. a chokecherry tree. your back got a whole tree on it.” (11) “the clocks stopped at 1:17. a long shear of light and then a series of low concussions … a dull rose glow in the window glass.” the metaphor in (10), as found in beloved (marrison, 2007), describes the scar on the back of sethe’s tree-shaped figure, reminding him of the presence of the past and the impact of slavery on her. in the quote (11) from the road (mccarthy, 2006), metaphorically, this author equates a dirty sight with a piece of light, conveying the destruction of the world and the light of hope amid darkness. the metaphors in (10)-(11) enrich the story, deepen the thematic resonance, and bring the reader into the atmosphere and emotions of the story. metaphors also allow the writer to communicate abstract feelings and experiences, reduce the gap between the real and the unreal, and activate images and sensations that resonate with the readers’ life experiences, as seen in the following two examples. (12) trapped in a glass case of emotion. (13) those two of the large jaws, the other two from the plain and fair faces. in (12), quoted from the catcher in the rye (salinger, 1991), the protagonist, holden caulfield, metaphorically depicts a feeling trapped in an emotional glass box, which shakes the inner chaos. we can also see the other example as follows. similarly, in (13), as seen in a tale of two cities (dickens, 2012), this author compares the kings of england and france to the jaws and the queens of france and england to the faces. similarly, things we can find in great works that authors use metaphors in their writings. we can read the use of metaphors in various aspects of storytelling in literary works. first, the image plays a vital role in storytelling, enriching the narrative by stimulating the reader’s senses and triggering the mental image. images make text formally, artistically, and functionally attractive (paudyal, 2023). images in literary texts strengthen readers’ perceptions, arouse their interests, and activate their senses. similarly, images serve as a tool to convey abstract concepts and complex emotions (bohata, 2019). by drawing the scene in detail and lively, the author brings the reader into the story and enjoys the fictional world’s scenery, sound, smell, and texture. the metaphor serves as an image amplifier in the story. metaphors allow authors to draw mental images with complex ideas, objects, or experiences with the readers (miller, 2019; johnson, 2018). the author covers the description metaphorically with depth and resonance, triggering the reader’s sensory experiences and emotional responses. the writer transforms earthly scenes into fascinating landscapes and living characters. thus, metaphor increases the depth of the narrative and enriches the reader’s experience and the relationship between the reader and the narrative world. metaphors show the power of language in producing vivid images and deep emotions, as in the following example. (14) to kill a mocking bird the example in (14), as seen in to kill a mocking bird (lee, 1960), shows how harper lee uses a bird metaphor, symbolically resonating throughout the narrative. these examples illustrate the ability of metaphor to go beyond simple descriptions, enriching narratives with layers of meaning. secondly, symbolic metaphors serve to convey more profound meaning and thematic resonance. these metaphors cover characters, events, and backgrounds with symbolic meanings and entice readers to interpret representations of broader ideas or concepts, as in the following example. (15) the scarlet letter a in (15), the scarlet letter (hawthorne, 2003) uses the letter a as a symbolic metaphor. the author used this metaphor for the sin and redemption of protagonist hester prynne, indicating the themes of guilt, shame, and public judgment (minderop, 2022). we can also observe the symbolic metaphor in the following example. (16) animal farm there is also a metaphor in animal farm (orwell, 2000) in example (16). this author ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 215 uses the farm as a symbolic metaphor for the russian revolution, totalitarian regimes, political corruption, and abuse of power (haliti, 2019). metaphors in (15)-(16) describe how symbolic metaphors enrich fiction by conveying complex themes and social comments. third, allegorical fictional characters and backgrounds can convey abstract concepts and moral truths (fletcher, 2021). the allegory elements represent the archaeological characters that embody ideas or broader themes in the narrative. we can observe the following example. (17) christian and slough of despond in (17), as taken from the pilgrim’s progress (bunyan, 1957), christian (a character) and slough of despond (setting) serve as symbolic representations of a spiritual journey and moral struggle. they guide the reader through the symbolic landscape of faith and redemption (crisp, 2012). we can also observe the following example. (18) gregor samsa the character gregor samsa in (18), taken from the metamorphosis (kafka,1988), indicates the protagonist’s transformation. the character gregor samsa, who turns into a giant insect, is a symbolic exploration of existential ignorance, identity, and despair (akbar, 2017). these examples show how characters and allegorical backgrounds enrich fiction by giving symbolic meaning. the metaphorical characters in fiction give rise to symbolic meanings beyond literal representation, as joseph campbell presents. these characters serve as archetypal figures or symbolic representations of universal themes to convey the truth about the human condition. we can observe the following examples. (19) the character captain ahab (20) the characters frodo baggins and gandalf in moby-dick (melville, 1966), as in (19), captain ahab’s character is often interpreted as an application of obsession, representing a futile human quest to dominate the universe (burnham, 2017). we can also observe the following example. likewise, in the lord of the rings (tolkien, 2002), characters like frodo baggins and gandalf, as in (19), symbolize virtues such as courage, wisdom, and self-sacrifice. the examples in (19)(20) describe how metaphorical characters enrich fiction by offering insights into deep philosophical questions, moral dilemmas, and existential truths. fourth, integrating metaphors into the characters’ dialogue is one of the characteristic features of a powerful story. metaphors in dialogue are essential to express characteristics, motivations, and relationships (musolff, 2011). with metaphorical language, writers enrich the texture of their dialogues. metaphors in dialogue convey emotions, complex ideas, and consolidation to give more insight into narrative dynamics. metaphors are essential in character development in literature (crisp et al., 2002). metaphors offer insights into characters’ inner worlds, highlighting their personalities, desires, and conflicts. the author reveals the underlying motivations, fears, and aspirations through characters in dialogues and narratives. through metaphorical language, the author creates multi-dimensional characters whose complexity reacts with the reader as in the following examples. (21) cannot repeat the past? …why, of course, you can! (22) “you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view … until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. the sentences in (21), taken from the great gatsby (fitzgerald, 2021), show how the character jay gatsby speaks metaphorically to express the vision of the ideal world and the belief of gatsby in the power of rediscovery and the pursuit of the american dream (see prajoko, 2014). in example (22), quoted from to kill a mockingbird (lee, 1960), atticus finch wisely tells his daughter scout that atticus’s worldview and commitment are necessary to understand the perspective of others. these examples describe how metaphorical dialogue in literature enriches character development and thematic exploration. fifth, metaphor is significant in advancing the plot because of its ability to develop narratives with a layer of meaning and depth of the theme. ‘narrative analogy’ or ‘narrative duplication’ catalyzes character development and plot dynamics while embedding stories with symbolic resonance (berman, 2004). by applying this metaphor method strategically, the writer develops the circuit and triggers the reader’s emotional response. through metaphoric language and plot structure, the author creates narratives that resonate at various levels, engage the audience, and enrich the story experience. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 216 finally, metaphors are essential in exploring themes to convey abstract concepts and universal truths and allow the writer to explore complex ideas and moral issues. through metaphorical language, writers can cover their narratives with layers of meaning, encouraging readers to think deeper truths about the human condition. metaphors enrich thematic exploration by offering new perspectives and insights and bringing together different narrative elements, introducing a deeper understanding of the topics. in fiction, metaphors help authors produce extraordinary meanings as they go beyond literal language, enrich narratives with layers of meaning, trigger vivid images, and invite readers to explore deeper truths about human experience. by embroidering metaphors into story texture, the author creates works with depth and resonance, encouraging emotional involvement and bringing readers closer to the text. metaphors are powerful tools to convey complex ideas, shape character development, enhance thematic exploration, and ultimately enhance a practical storytelling experience for readers. using metaphor in organizing and beautifying literary works is advantageous compared to literal language. metaphorical languages have no limits in creating new meanings. metaphor from a historical perspective history contains two meanings: history as past events and history as narrative or representation. first, history is events, actions, and processes that have occurred before, are unique (einmalig), and impact current conditions (salevouris, 2015). second, history is a recording or story about past events in writing or oral utterances. this second understanding refers to documenting and interpreting historical events by historians (writers) based on available evidence. in this context, history is considered a narrative recorded and conveyed to the next generation to understand and study the past (marius, 2010). we can treat history as text in which historians or writers express their thoughts or research results about past events. the creation of history as a narrative text is to understand and study the past. a gripping narrative text is usually conveyed in language the readers can understand (curthoys, 1997). we can frame the role of metaphor in history as in the figure 5. based on the diagram above, metaphorically, history is a mirror that reflects a portrait of each era and phase of time to us. history is a teacher in which we learn the lessons from history. history is a tree in that we can trace the origin of every historical event. deep and wide, history is a sea that relates many things to human life. the skill of using language in a narrative or text is an aspect of art in history. apart from presenting their work using formal language elements, according to correct language norms and rules, historians or writers often present their narratives or writings using metaphors. in history, the use of metaphor is to present the construction of past events and complex ideas precisely and unambiguously. using metaphors also motivates and triggers people to read historical and narrative texts (altherr, 1971). the presentation with a literary nuance and writing with metaphorical content is preferable to writing that always adheres to formal language norms and rules, often said to be dry and stiff. using metaphors in historical reconstruction in indonesia showed that history as a narrative text was initially part of literary works. indonesian history writers generally came from among amateur historians with various scientific and literary backgrounds. most are political activists (soedjatmoko, 2007; klooster, 1985; frederick, 1982). these amateur historians wrote history long before the advent of academic historians who graduated from well-known universities. their works were not only widely consumed by indonesians but also played a role in the process of figure 5: metaphor and history ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 217 growing nationalism, especially during the period of the struggle for independence and in the first years after the proclamation of independence in 1945, when the new indonesia was born. sukarno and muhammad yamin are two writers who produced narrative texts on indonesian history during the colonial period. similar to other writers, their writing is full of metaphors. sukarno and muhammad yamin used metaphors to describe political ideas and concepts, geographical environments (regions), the past, historical actors, and events. sukarno used many metaphors in his plea entitled indonesia menggugat, which he delivered during his trial at the bandung court. the word tua, ‘old imperialism,’ refers to european imperialism before the industrial revolution. we can also observe other metaphors in the following examples. (23) balapan untuk cari daerah jajahan di zaman imperalisme modern. ‘racing to find colonies in the era of modern imperialism.’ (24) bahwasanya matahari bukan terbit karena ayam jantan berkokok. ‘the sun does not rise because the rooster crows.’ (25) ayam jantan berkokok karena matahari terbit! ‘the rooster crows because the sun is rising!’ the metaphor in (23) expresses competition between western nations to gain colonies. the metaphors in (24) and (25) narrates the coming of indonesian nationalism. these two metaphorical expressions can trigger the heroic spirit. other exciting metaphors are as follows. (26) drainage ekonomi’ atau ‘penghisapan kekayaan indonesia.’ ‘economic drainage’ or ‘extraction of indonesia’s wealth.’ (27) kemerdekaan adalah kunci pintu gerbang surga kebesaran.’ ‘freedom is the key to the gate to heaven of greatness.’ (28) “kami adalah kaum kepala banteng.’ ‘we are the bull heads.’ the metaphor in (26) describes colonialist economic exploitation. the metaphor in (27) portrays the meaning of independence for the indonesian people. the metaphor in (28) figures out revolutionary citizens who want to bring about change quickly. we can also observe the other metaphors in texts with historical nuances in the following examples. (29) nasionalisme nyawanya pembentukan kekuasaan.’ ‘nationalism is the lifeblood of the establishment of power.’ (30) indah (keadaan orang indonesia di masa lampau). ‘beautiful (the condition of indonesian people in the past) (31) gelap (keadaan orang indonesia pada masa kolonial). ‘dark (the condition of indonesia when colonialism came) (32) hari kemudian yang berseri-seri dan cuaca terang. ‘the next day was radiant and sunny.’ the metaphor in (29) narrated the role of nationalism in the struggle to achieve independence. sukarno used beautiful metaphors, as in the example (30), to show the condition of the indonesian people in the past (the period before the arrival of westerners). sukarno also used the word gelap ‘dark’ in example (31) to narrate the condition of indonesia when colonialism and western imperialism came to power in indonesia. then, the metaphor in (32) depicts indonesia in the future, an independent indonesia ruled by its nation. we can also observe the other forms of metaphor in the following examples. (33) dahulu begitu bersinar-sinar dan tinggi kebesarannya.’ ‘in the past, it was so shining and so great.’ (34) sekarang sudah hampir sebagai bangkai.’ ‘now it’s almost a corpse.’ (35) negeri-negeri yang bermandikan cahaya matahari.’ ‘the lands bathed in sunlight.’ the metaphors in (33) and (34) depict the condition of indonesian people in the past before being colonized by westerners and during the colonial period. the metaphor in (35) is used instead of regions or countries located in the equatorial region (including indonesia) (sukarno, 1956). muhammad yamin, in his work entitled indonesia tanah tumpah darahku, written in 1928, also narrated much of indonesian history using metaphors. it is evident when he names indonesia, narrating the history of the independence, glory and decline of several great kingdoms in indonesia and the history of the great indonesian people (heroes). the many metaphors used are also motivated by the presentation of history in literary works (poetry). some other examples of metaphors are as follows. ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 218 (36) indonesia tanah tumpah darahku. ‘indonesia is my motherland.’ (37) membuat terang nusantara. ‘making the archipelago bright.’ (38) menerangi kelam benua besar. ‘illuminating the darkness of the great continent.’ (39) pelita bangsa yang gemerlap cahayanya.’ ‘the shining lamp of the nation.’ (40) menerangi gunung, negeri dan rimba. ‘illuminating mountains, lands, and jungles.’ (41) hilang dan padam di lautan sejarah. ‘lost and extinguished in the sea of history.’ (42) datanglah zaman gelap dan kelam bagi bangsa indonesia. ‘a dark and darker era came for the indonesian people.’ the example (36) is the title of yamin’s article. the writer quoted this title many times in his article. it reflects the strong nationality. metaphors in (37) and (38) portray the existence of the sriwijaya kingdom. these metaphors show the world the dignity of the sriwijaya kingdom. metaphors in (39) and (40) depict the majesty of mataram and majapahit kingdom. metaphors in (41) and (42) describe syailendra dinasty’s decline on the java island. the great people of the country, such as diponegoro, tuanku imam bonjol, tuanku umar, suropati, trunojoyo, and sentot prawirodirjo, are named bunga ‘flowers.’ flowers that are coldhearted and patient, radiant like the moon, shine brightly and are always remembered, and flowers that smell fragrant (yamin, 1951). in contrast to soekarno and muhammad yamin, several indonesian academic historians use metaphors when narrating the process of historical research or naming figures. it can be seen from sartono kartodirjo’s statement as follows: (43) belantara arsip. ‘archive wilderness’ (44) timbunan arsip. ‘archive pile’ (45) arsip yang perawan. ‘virgin archives’ (46) demam arsip. ‘archive fever’ metaphor in (43) refers to the collection of the national archives of the republic of indonesia. metaphor in (44) refers to the collection of the national archives of the republic of indonesia) as stated by mestika zed. metaphor (45) refers to the collections of the national archives of the republic of indonesia that have not been used by historians or historical researchers (tanjung, 2021). metaphor in (46) marks the era in which historians widely sought and used archives to write history (burton, 2005). metaphors also narrate historical heroes or individual figures who made history. therefore, metaphor also plays a role in giving appreciation to national figures. in this way, the image of heroes and national figures improves. we can observe these types of metaphors in the following examples. (47) ayam jantan dari timur. ‘rooster from the east’ (48) singa podium. ‘great orator’ (49) ayam betina yang berkokok. ‘a crowing hen’ the metaphor in (47) was the name of sultan hasanuddin, namely a makasar hero who fought against the dutch. the metaphor in (48) was the name of rasuna said, a female national hero from minangkabau and the first indonesian woman imprisoned because dutch colonialists accused her speech of inciting the people to revolt against the dutch colonialists. the metaphor in (49) is the name of rahmah e-yunusiah, a female figure from minangkabau, founder of a modern school for women who participated in the struggle to achieve and maintain indonesian independence. the writing on modern indonesian history also uses metaphors to name historians who have played a significant role in developing historical science. it is the appreciation for people who have contributed to this republic. we can observe these types of metaphors in the following examples. (50) nakhoda pertama sejarawan maritim di asia tenggara. ‘the first captain of maritime historians in southeast asia.’ (51) bintang sejarawan dari sumatera barat. ‘femous historian from west sumatera.’ (52) bintang sejarawan indonesia generasi 80-an. ‘femous indonesian historian of the 80s generation.’ the metaphor in (50) is a.b. lapian’s title for his actions to develop the indonesian maritime history (setyawati, 2001). metaphors in (51) and ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 219 (52) are the titles of the late mestika zet (asnan, 2018). giving nicknames using metaphors with positive connotations shows how a nation appreciates the achievements and accomplishments of people who have contributed to this country. it will be a historical document of this nation’s journey. historical reconstruction has used metaphor for a long time. its use is not just a rhetorical tool but also a reflection of cultural richness, the diversity of forms of historical writing, and differences in understanding the past, present, and future. although metaphors can make historical narratives more exciting, we need to be careful in their use because excessive use of metaphors, incredibly inadequate or inappropriate, can obscure historical facts or even lead to wrong interpretations. metaphor from archeological perspective archeology is a rapidly developing scientific discipline. in the mid-20th century, modern archaeologists arrived at the reconstruction of cultural processes and the classification of monuments. the discipline of archeology has even inspired the development of other sciences (woźny, 2021). reconstruction of cultural processes has covered many artifacts from the past, resulting in the emergence of art archaeology, photo archeology, and archeology of knowledge about various artifacts people can use to make life easier in their time. metaphorically, we can frame archeology as in the figure 6. in this modern era, as human life becomes increasingly complex, one field of science will come into contact with other fields. grouping and sorting scientific fields is the only way to facilitate the handling and development of these scientific fields through each scientific field’s ontological, epistemological, and axiological aspects. metaphors are also related to archeology. metaphorically, archeology can be a radar and a tool to investigate and find artifacts, evidence, and data. we can also treat archeology as a jungle of artifacts, evidence, and data. from these artifact, evidence, and data, we can learn many things related to human life in the past. they help uncover the facts about the way people built their lives in the past. archeology is a metaphor for contemporary culture (woźny, 2021). this statement has a broad meaning. today’s cultural artifacts can be a link between the past and the present. semantically, artifacts that existed at an era in the past can be related to artifacts that exist today. therefore, there will be a connection between a time phase from the past and the present through the similarity of the semantic components of the artifact. archeological studies find artifacts created by people in the past. contemplating ideas and thoughts at a time in the past with the tools and knowledge of society led to artificial objects or human findings related to stones, as follows. (53) kursi batu. ‘stone chair.’ (54) batu sandaran. ‘stone chair.’ kursi batu ‘the stone chair’ in example (53), and batu sandaran ‘the stone backrest’ in example (54) are cultural products that existed in prehistoric times (neolithic-megalithic) in which it was to the knowledge and availability of basic materials for creating cultural artifacts, namely stone -large stones as the primary material of their culture (herwandi, 2010). megalithic means large stone. one of the functions of stone chairs and stone backrests is to provide a place to sit during deliberations. technological advances due to the achievements of human thinking abilities today have given rise to contemporary cultural products. chairs, made of stone in the past, are now made of wood and other soft materials so that the chairs are comfortable to sit on. however, when a chair was figure 6: metaphor and archeology ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 220 as hard as a stone, the name stone chair was used again to compare with chairs from the neolithicmegalithic period. in specific contexts, we can observe the following examples. (55) ini kursi batu ya ? ‘is it a stone chair? (56) rasa-rasa duduk di kursi batu kita ini. ‘as if we sat on a stone chair.’ we can observe the same phenomenon in the shape of batu sandaran. semantically, a batu sandaran means being strong, sturdy, and comfortable as a place to lie down. people use the word sandaran, which came from batu sandaran, the lexicon of the neolithic-megalithic era, as in the following examples. (57) agama adalah sandaran kita. ‘religion is our backrest.’ (58) agama adalah sandaran kuat bagi kita. ‘religion is a strong backrest for us.’ (59) presiden terpilih adalah sandaran bagi rakyat indonesia ke depan. ‘the elected president will be the backrest for indonesia in the future.’ the example in (57) and (58) can be semantically synonymous with sandaran batu. the relationship between cultural objects in contemporary culture and artifacts in the past based on identical semantic components is called archeology as a metaphor for contemporary culture. therefore, we can have the new discipline named archeo-semantics of the relationship between contemporary cultural objects and past artifacts having identical semantic components. in connection with beliefs in the past since prehistoric times, there are many metaphorical expressions related to the beliefs of human beings. we can observe one of the following examples. (60) bekal kubur. ‘grave goods.’ bekal kubur ‘grave goods’ are cultural materials people use to accompany corpses during burial. this tradition came from believing the dead should be equipped with grave goods. therefore, people equipped the dead with the goods like humans living on earth. belief in the continuity of life in the afterlife requires that people who have died still be provided in their graves with things that can be used for survival (james, 1957). this tradition of grave goods has begun since prehistoric times. archeologists found an exciting finding of grave goods at the gilimanuk bali site, which came from prehistoric times (kifli, 2000). the objects used as grave goods include bracelets for legs, hands, and ears, ceremonial axes/tajak, spiral chains, vines, and necklace eyes. some of these objects were available in sarcophagi stored in pots (soejono, 2008). besides bali, grave goods are also found in sumba (soejono, 2008), especially among the maramba strata of society. grave goods given by family and particular acquaintances from the leadership group include woven clothes, weapons (swords, spears), earrings), gongs, and gold jewelry. everything in the grave is considered grave goods for the spirit to live “beyond nature” (adams, 1969). the phenomenon of grave goods still exists in the society today. semantically and historically, grave goods are objects. however, nowadays, grave goods can take the form of prayers offered to god so that the soul of the deceased will be comfortable in the grave. therefore, at this time, we often listen to the following expressions in islamic society to advise and warn others who have done bad things. (61) beribadahlah kamu untuk bekal kubur nanti ! ‘do the worship to help you in the afterlife.’ the example in (61) is interesting to look at more in-depth. in the past, as explained above, grave goods were in the form of objects such as bracelets (legs, hands, ears), ceremonial axes/tajak, spiral chains, vines, and necklace eyes. nowadays, grave goods are transformed into good deeds in the form of worship for happiness in the afterlife. the concept of grave goods in the past and the present are different. in archeology, metaphors often manifest in various forms, from linguistic expressions to conceptual frameworks. linguistically, archeologists employ metaphors to describe archeological phenomena, such as likening a site to a window into the past or artifacts to keys unlocking ancient secrets. conceptually, metaphors function as cognitive tools, aiding archeologists in conceptualizing and explaining abstract or intangible aspects of the archeological records. metaphor from the perspective of culture culture is an essential aspect of human life. human culture is what differentiates them from ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 221 other creatures on earth. experts have formulated the meaning of culture. culture is the result of human creativities and initiatives in the form of tangible and intangible cultural heritage, which originates from a simple or complex idea and concept that human beings can use for their survival (see koentjaraningrat, 2004; geertz, 1999). the formulation of culture, which concerns various aspects of human life, was even started long ago by edward burnett tylor, an anthropologist, through his writings primitive culture in 1871. this writing is even widely referred to today. clyde kluckhohn, an anthropologist in his writing universal categories of culture in 1953, proposed seven universal elements of culture such as religious systems and religious ceremony, social systems and organization, knowledge systems, language, art, livelihood system, equipment, and technology system (see koentjaraningrat, 2004). we can find these seven essential universal elements in every human culture. however, the descriptions and details of each in practice may vary and show their uniqueness. through this complexity of their culture, humans build their lives. an essential element in human culture is metaphor. metaphors about culture have two leading roles. first, metaphor is the other way to portray culture. second, people do their cultural practices and activities using metaphors. we can see the portrait of culture through metaphor in the figure 7. is like a house for a family. a house is a place where all activities begin. physically, the house consists of spaces such as a bedroom, living room, sitting room, kitchen, toilet, garden, and bathroom. each room has its function. a comfortable house has entertainment, equipment, and other facilities appropriate for each individual’s needs. the house must be maintained and cared for to remain beautiful and neat. the house must be environmentally friendly. it is also possible for the house owner to renovate the house and adapt it to the situation and environment. a happy family emerges from a wellorganized house physically, socially, and culturally. like a house, culture contains layers with all their respective equipment and functions, such as belief systems, sociocultural and organizational systems, knowledge, art, language, livelihood, equipment, and technological systems. these cultural layers must be arranged in such a way and maintained well for strengthening and surviving the future of that culture, just like arranging and maintaining a house. the house and culture are assets, too. like a house, culture is very diverse both within an ethnic group and across ethnic groups. diversity must be accepted and appreciated to create harmony in the diversity of life. culture is like an onion. onion is a widely cultivated herbaceous plant in tropical countries like indonesia and other southeast asian countries. onion is also known as tanaman umbi lapis, ‘tuber plant.’ onion is a layered bulb because the bulbs consist of a pile of leaf bases arranged neatly and in layers. culture is like the layers of an onion (geert hofstede in roll, 2022). the seven universal elements of culture, as proposed by clyde kluckhohn (koentjaraningrat, 2004), can be metaphorized as layers of an onion. the other example of culture as an onion is language. language is one element of culture that has a dual role. on the one hand, language is an element of culture. on the other hand, language is a tool for building, developing, and symbolizing culture (kramsch, 1998). language as a tool for carrying out culture is arranged in layers from the smallest elements to the largest ones, such as phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and combinations of sentences to form paragraphs. culture is a mosaic. a mosaic is a surface decoration made by inlaying small pieces of various colored materials to form pictures or patterns figure 7: metaphor and culture in figure 7, based on conceptual metaphor theory, culture is the target domain, while house, onion, and mosaic are the source domains. culture ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 222 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ mosaic#). we can portray the heterogeneity of cultural groups within a nation as a mosaic (roll, 2022). for example, the diversity of culture in indonesia are mosaic with all its uniqueness and complexity. indonesia has an area of approximately 1.9 million square miles, 17,508 islands, 770 ethnic groups, and 726 languages (oktavianus, 2018). on one hand, such a large area with so many ethnic groups and languages is a valuable asset that could be well-managed. on the other hand, if we cannot manage the cultural diversity of this nation, this mosaic will break and be separated from one another. therefore, the ideology of pancasila, the concept of bhinneka tunggal ika, and negara kesatuan republik indonesia (nkri) become the path for the unity of indonesia as a nation and culture at this time and in the future. furthermore, cultural practices of various kinds usually use metaphors. metaphors build the knowledge systems of ethnic groups in indonesia and even the world. likewise, the belief system of each tribe in indonesia also contains various forms of metaphor. metaphors also deliver moral teachings through advice, warning, and prohibition. it applies to all ethnic groups in indonesia and even in the world. metaphors also deliver work ethic, spirit, and a good paradigm of thinking of human beings (oktavianus et al., 2023). the meanings of metaphors are culture-based, society-based, and context-based (zibin, 2024). for the minangkabau ethnic, west sumatra, metaphors of animalization using dog, pig, buffalo, cow, cat, snake, and crocodile as target domain are generally rude and taboo. if someone addressed metaphors of animals to someone else, the person may have done something bad. metaphors of animals with a harmful semantic component are unacceptable in minangkabau society for at least two reasons. first, the majority of minangkabau people adhere to islam. they have restrictions on certain animals that are considered unclean, and they must not eat them. second, culture teaches humans to do good things and avoid animal behavior. metaphors color every ethnic culture in the world. metaphors reflect the uniqueness and specificity of the culture possessed by each ethnic group. the sources for forming metaphors differ from place to place. besides, every ethnic group has a different sociocultural environment, experiences, habits, and customs. therefore, culturally, the forms of metaphor can be different, but the meaning and value can be universal. iii. conclusion in conclusion, this exploration underscores the significance of metaphor as a unifying force in interdisciplinary endeavors. metaphor transcends the limitation of disciplinary boundaries, offering a language through which scholars from different fields can communicate, collaborate, and innovate. by employing the structures and mechanisms of metaphor, this article highlights its capacity to bridge various worlds of knowledge, offering a more prosperous and broader understanding of complex phenomena. using metaphor as an essential tool for interdisciplinary interaction can advance research, foster interdisciplinary collaboration, and address urgent global issues in the future. metaphor plays a crucial role in the dynamic field of transdisciplinary study and communication. understanding and using metaphor’s power can open doors to fresh perspectives, groundbreaking discoveries, and innovative ideas as academics continue to negotiate the challenges of interdisciplinary research. by promoting a culture that values metaphorical thinking and fosters cross-disciplinary conversation, academia has the potential to expand knowledge and innovation, leading to a more harmonious and interconnected society. we can observe the integration of metaphor into linguistics, literature, history, archeology, and culture in the following diagram. figure 8: metaphor in interdisciplinary context ike revita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 2 (2024) 223 metaphors have strategically advanced human civilization in linguistics, literature, history, archeology, and culture. the fundamental idea of metaphor is in linguistics and culture, where it manifests itself in mono-modality metaphors that combine linguistic and nonlinguistic signals and multimodality metaphors that include both linguistic and nonlinguistic indicators. metaphors are used in literary studies to enhance a piece of writing’s beauty. history uses metaphors to capture the essence of a nation at a particular period in its history, as evidenced by the historical metaphors used to characterize the indonesian nation both before and after independence. archeology 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(2023). linguistic creativity and multimodal tropes in cinematic discourse. russian journal of linguistics 27(2), 334–362. https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-008833206. setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 547 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 17, 2024 final revision: november 18, 2024 accepted: november 24, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 the fetish for disseminating knowledge through scholarly publication is tangible today with local scholars being heavily pressured to publish in both indexed local and international journals. while this intellectual endeavour is commendable for knowledge generation and dissemination, the very notion of knowledge is still strongly influenced by the euro-and western-centric orientation. this article problematizes the perpetuation of such knowledge especially in local academic publishing (i.e. indonesia), and invites local scholars to mull over the possibility for thinking and acting otherwise, for seeking a radical alternative out of the existing alternatives, and for considering other ways of knowing and of being – that is to say, to embrace pluriversalim of knowledge through a space of “worlds and knowledges otherwise” (escobar, 2007). in so doing, we can cultivate among local scholars another way of thinking – non-euro-and non-western-modes of thinking. the article will first examine the longheld scientific tradition in local academic writing and publishing practices. then it discusses the lingering processes of intellectual hegemony in these practices. finally, it offers another radical thought for creating a space of worlds and knowledges otherwise. keywords scholarly publication, euro-and western-centric orientation, pluriversalim of knowledge, non-euro-and western-modes of thinking, worlds and knowledges otherwise correspondence e-mail: setiono.sugiharto@atmajaya.ac.id review embracing pluriversalism in knowledge production and dissemination: towards the ethical imperative to listen to worlds and knowledges otherwise setiono sugiharto doctoral program in applied english linguistics, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.547-556.2024 i. introduction in his book on a geopolitics of academic writing, canagarajah (2002) asserts that “the hegemony of western academic journals is so complete that the superiority ascribed to them has been somewhat internalized by periphery scholars themselves” (p.19). this assertion rings true if we observe the gate-keeping publishing practices here in indonesia. in these practices the established western literate discourse conventions characterized by such infamous facets as impersonality, detachment, scientific and rational thinking indomitably prevail. it is important to note that these literate conventions have become a prime indicator for censoring manuscripts submitted to local journals. too often, the rejection and acceptance of manuscripts are determined by this powerful indicator. for example, it is well established that local journals require authors to produce ideas and knowledge based on the criteria of objectivity which can be proven empirically and universally. thus, accept the manuscript if it conforms to the standard conventions but reject it if does not (see for example kubota 2020; sugiharto, 2023). what we are facing here is the perpetuation of the spirit of scientism through the imposition of scientific discourse and scientific knowledge. this spirit of scientism and scientific knowledge can be traced their origin from the scientific rationality reminiscent of the western modernity emanating from the age of european enlightenment or the age of reason (see sousa santos, 2018; de sousa santos & meneses, 2020). there are, however, the dark side of its prevalence in the global academic practices. the peril of such notion of scientism has been astutely observed by mogobe ramose (2020) setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 548 as follow: centuries of this dogmatism and scientism… continue to serve objectively the ideology of exclusion, oppression, and exploitation of the alienated “wretched of the earth” (p. 60). [quotes are in original]. the ideology exclusion and oppression is alive and kicking in gate-keeping practices like journal publication in both global and local context, which is further exacerbated by the domination of eurocentric and exclusionary academic theory (deumert & makoni, 2023). speaking from the context of western’s epistemological domination kubota (2020) further elucidates this ideology well when she avers that “the eurocentrism of knowledge often excludes research focused on non-euro-american issues produced in noneuro-american locations or utilizing alternative orientations, especially when it is produced by non-euro-american scholars of color” (p. 719). decolonial perspectives of knowledge construction and production view the imposition of such an ideology as “an act of self-imposed colonization” (min 2014, p. 196). what ensues from this practice of self-imposed colonialization is internal colonialism in practice. as jospeh (2008) has remarked “when members of the “peripheral” population are themselves the ones opting for…the center language or promoting it for their countrymen, this merely means that they have been co-opted into linguicism themselves; they are internal colonialists” (p. 360). countering this internal colonialism, we local scholars need to have a radical perspective of what constitutes ways of knowing and being in knowledge production and dissemination. this means we need to embrace pluriversal perspectives of knowledge through a space of “worlds and knowledges otherwise” (escobar, 2007). in other words, what we need is another way of thinking – non-euro-and non-western-modes of thinking. in this article, i will first examine the long-held scientific tradition in local academic writing and publishing practices. then i will discuss the process of intellectual hegemony in these practices. finally, i conclude by offering another radical thought for creating a space of worlds and knowledges otherwise. ii. the preservation of scientific-empirical tradition as act of selfimposed colonialization an archetypical norm that has been feverishly emulated in knowledge production and dissemination through local publishing practices has been an established mode of euro-and western centric thinking, or simply “eurocentered mode of thinking” as esobar (2007) dubs it. consider, for example, the author guidelines taken by the scopusindexed local journals in applied linguistics and language teaching below, which require authors to organize their writing based on the introduction, method, result and discussio (imrd) mode: authors must strictly follow the submission guidelines of the journal. to submissions that do not adhere to the guidelines provided, they will be rejected. the sources cited are primary sources in the forms of reputable journal articles (strongly recommended), books, and research reports, including .theses and dissertations. citations from journal should be at least 80% of the total references cited. the first and second journal warn the authors to strictly conform to the guidelines which oblige them to organize their research by following the imrd method. failure to do so will result in the outright rejection of the submitted manuscripts by the journal administrators. the second journal, however, expects more than just imposing this convention; it compels authors to cite “at least 80% of the total references cited” from “reputable journal articles.” reputable journal here has been construed as the ones that is registered in the international indexations such as scopus and ssci. not complying with such a citation practice will risk of being denied entry to the journal. as there have been few internationally indexed journals in applied linguistics and language teaching in indonesia, authors who wish their articles to get published in the second journal mentioned above need to seek “reputable journal articles” published in the centre, which exerts considerable control over the global academic publishing industries (see canagarajah, 2002). the author guidelines indirectly exhort local authors to rely on the perspectives and knowledge imported from the outside of the local territories, setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 549 especially from the centre which holds control over knowledge construction and production. the journal’s requirements for this citation practice also helps validate other western centred knowledge at the expanse of the vibrantly circulating local knowledge. in essence, what these local journals enact in their guidelines further perpetuate selfimposed colonialization in knowledge making and production. there is also a growing perception that phenomena especially related to social issues and quandaries are supposed to be best represented by clinging to entirely to a scientific-empirical orthodoxy. as alluded to before, this orthodoxy emanates from the modern science which is founded upon two key premises: systematic observation and controlled experimentation and the distinction between scientific knowledge and non-scientific knowledge or simply ways of knowing (sousa santos, 2018). in local gate-keeping practices it is not uncommon to witness the stigmatization of other modes of thought patterns and knowledge. the privilege in such diverse fields of humanities such as language education, language teaching, literacy studies, and cultural studies, amongst others, is still given to rationality, logic, and orthodoxy in research practice. it thus comes as no surprise that most journals in these fields always compels researchers to conform to a rigid and formulaic pattern of research model, the prominent of which is the swales’ (1990) cars model. the notions of objectivity and universality in academia –which owes its allegiance to modernist philosophical outlook – has been ardently preserved and inculcated among local scholars especially the novice scholars. in the nonanglophone country like indonesia, for instance, academic publishing in humanities (accredited and non-accredited) tend to encourage scholars to adopt the orientation of scientism as a model of research reporting. this model has become an important criterion for censoring articles submitted to the journals also, it is no surprise that local scholars who wish to apply a grant in research especially in humanities need to abide by this dominant model to win the grant. the preservation of scientism to knowledge production and dissemination in academia is perilous. to begin with, it can shape the mindset that only the scientific paradigm is the only accepted paradigm in research reporting in disciplinary fields, and therefore closes off the possibilities of other research traditions not belonging to this established paradigm. those scholars hailing from the qualitative research tradition, for instance, tend to be disparaged as they are considered ‘unscientific’ in their inquiry. as qualitative-oriented researchers often include their biases, passion, and emotion in writing their research, their works tend to be relegated as not conforming to objectivity or “truth”. it has become a dictum that scientism “must be free of passion”, and that passion…must be supressed and excluded from scientific discourse because it tends to becloud objectivity” (ramose, 2020, p. 59). moreover, inexperienced scholars who are still at their initial stage in research can easily be captivated by an oversimplistic belief that objectivity and universality the ultimate goal of a research product, but they are never made aware of the subtle research processes a researcher must go through and of the interwoven unexpected variables that mask the intricate research process. in addition, it eludes the distinctiveness of socio-political and cultural contexts where the research is conducted. as the scientific orientation presumes detachment and standardization of discourse and repudiates diversity in thinking, a researcher is not allowed to enact their locus of enunciation to explore their individual resources by making use their ecologies of knowledges. to the extent that the assumption of universality in the construction of discourse is conceived as valid in every context reflects the sustenance of “the power of eurocentered modernity – as a particular local history”…and “has produced particular global design” (escobar, 2007, p. 183) [italics in original]. such a reality also testifies to the gripping control of the colonial matrix of power (mignolo & walsh, 2018) in knowledge construction and production. moreover, a blind obedience to the orthodoxy that has prevailed in research tradition in local gate-keeping practices often relegates and silences the researcher’s agency and denies their complex subjectivities, values, ideology and their discursive traditions, all of which serve as an important intermediary in the process of knowledge generation. the purity for maintaining impersonality and objectivity from the contamination of personal subjectivities s described by ramose (2020) as “an arbitrary fragmentation of the oneness of the human being” (p. 59). this fragmentation is eventually setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 550 pointed to the hegemonic nature of english, along with the constellation of power of eurocentric knowledge in academic publishing (see politzerahles, holliday, girolamo, spychalska, berkson, 2016; curry & lillis, 2018; shorten 201; lee & jenks , 2018, and kubota, 2020, 2022). however, the irony here is that this hegemony takes place within the peripheral context (i.e. indonesia) where the ecologies of knowledge is not amendable with the idea of scientism. following canagarajah’s (2002) classification of the processes of intellectual hegemony, i subsume the processes under for categories: (1) inequality, (2) exploitation, (3) assimilation, and (4) control. as for the case of inequality, the flow of knowlege is made unilateral, emanating from the center as the one who holds a firm grip in publishing industry, to the periphery as the consumer and passive recipient of knowledge. knowledge constructed in the periphery and disseminated in local journals will not gain international recognition, as it is “relegated to the status of “local knowledge” or “folk wisdom”” (rajagopalan, 2005). 239, quotation marks in original). quite ironically, the indonesian government helps sustain this inequality by regulating that indonesian academics must publish in internationally-indexed journals, most notably those indexed in scopus, the science citation index (sci) and the social science citation index (ssci), as the prerequisites for higher academic promotion. although locallyenglish written journals are accepted for the promotion, they are valued less than those published in the centre journals. this because knowledges generated by the latter journals are considered prestigious, modern, generalizable, and as such applicable to other contexts. meanwhile, local journals written in indonesian is less valued that those local journals written in english, and will be denied acceptance if used as the sole requirement for obtaining professorship. as such, the government perpetuates intellectual dependency on the centre communities. the one-sided imposition of knowledge unsurprisingly leads to ideological domination. exploitation of knowledge is another process that helps sustain the hegemony of the center. this takes the form of borrowing or taking knowledge resources from the periphery either through the available written records such as unpublished manuscripts, local journals and other intellectual aimed at the “purification of orders” (escobar, 2007). probably lured by the professed infallibility of the prevailing scientific research tradition, local scholars are wooed in oversimplifying its usefulness for all disciplinary fields, simply accepting and using it obediently without critically interrogating the philosophical underpinnings underlying it. the fact that the scientism remains sturdy in research and academic practice and enjoys paradigmatic status in the humanities also attests to its axiomatic status. obviously, the exultation of scientific tradition in research may, to a great extent, be out of sync with the nature of social studies such as education, literacy and cultural studies, which in a stark contrast, appreciates and respects researcher’s subjectivities, biases, values and ideologies that mediate the research process. what this research paradigm attempts to produce is the “idealized representations of texts produced mostly by white monolingual english-users occupying a socially dominant position” (garcía, et.al. 2021, p. 209). finally, instead of abiding reductively to formulaic conventions imposed by the empiricist orientation, local scholars and researchers in humanities need to exercise their latitude to shape their academic writing innovatively and creatively by voicing their inner feelings and thoughts. this can bring about discovery in search for alternative discourses in academic writing practice, rather than simply reproduce the existing dominant mode. even if we insist that scientific orientation be employed (and indeed it is highly prevalent in use hitherto) as a favoured research architype in humanities, it fails to fully capture the complexities of the human subjects we intend to explore, thus downplaying the import of other research traditions as a legitimate field of inquiry. iii the processes of intellectual hegemony in local academic publishing the preservation and sustenance of the scientific tradition in local academic publishing discussed above augurs badly for the epistemological stances and positionings of local scholars in knowledge production and dissemination, because these efforts perpetuate the ideology of exclusion in the local context to further its grip in the process of intellectual hegemony, so to speak. the plethora of literature related to global academic publishing has setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 551 works, or through direct observation or theorization of the lifes of periphery communities. grosfoguel (2020) develops the idea of “epistemic extractivism” to explain such explotation of knowledge. as he explains “epistemic extrativism extracts ideas... from indigenous communities, removing them from the contexts in which they were produced to depolitize them and give them a new meaning based on western-centric ideas (grosfogues, 2020, p. 208). consider, for example, the case of the jakarta field station of the max planck for evolutionary anthropology, leipzig, which, in association with the university of delaware, deployed centre linguists to document indonesia’s indigenous languages in the form of computerized databases and to theorize these languages. these databases were sent every week to the max planck institute in leipzig as well as to the university of delaware (personal communication with uri tadmor, the jakarta post, may 13, 2008). they are now available not only to world linguists, but also to anyone concerned with the indonesian local languages. while, on the one hand, it is good that centre scholars help bring indonesian local languages to a global readership through publication, it is, on the other hand, the above-mentioned centre scholars who are able to construct, reproduce, and disseminate this local knowledge to the international fora via their published works. thus, they borrow locally generated data, take and store it in their own date-bases, and eventually “build their own knowledge in mainstream journals and take credit for intellectual contribution” (canagarajah, 2002, p. 244). this is a massive exploitation carried out at the institutional level. though in the publication centre scholars (very often as the first author) coauthor with local scholars, it is still centre scholars that is seen as having the authoritative voice over the knowledge being disseminated. rarely do they let local scholars speak for themselves using their own voices. another form of exploitation takes place at a more individual level. this is often done by traveling researchers who make use of local informants’ oral knowledge by observing and theorizing their everyday experiences through their fieldwork (canagarajah, 2002). travelling max planckbased scholars (see my personal communication with david gill, the jakarta post, august 1, 2012) were also passionate about collecting data through their fieldwork through travelling to many provinces in indonesia. they profited their interactions with the local people, observing and theorizing the ways the use their native languages. another similar case is amber engelson, who did her ph.d. research by travelling to yogjakarta and interacting with the people there. involving some local informants as her research subjects, she managed to assemble information about the roles of local religious identities, religious expressions, and rhetorical tradition in academic discourse, and eventually published her research in an academic journal in the centre (see engelson, 2014). thus, data obtained from the periphery can contribute to the strengthening of the centre’s knowledge bases, providing its scholars easy access to construct knowledge, produce academic paper, and claim originality to what they have theorized. another process of intellectual hegemony is assimilation. in this process periphery scholars, while researching in their specific locations, need to align their locally-developed perspectives and findings into the established or authoritative voices of the centre in order to gain entrance into the mainstream journals. this is a process whereby the assimilation of knowledge takes place. it is also frequently the case that during the blindreviewing process local researchers are advised by journal reviewers to read and include references of those centre scholars which have been published beforehand. citing references from these centre scholars can prove that local researchers keep abreast of the state of the art developed in the centre community, which in the end can boost their scholarship. thus, if indonesian scholars who are interested in writing about, say malay-indonesian linguistics, and wish to get their research published in the english-mainstream journals, they need to refer those authoritative works written by centre scholars in the same field from the university in the centre as important references to strengthen their findings. not to include their works will give the impression that local researchers fail to keep abreast of the state of the art in linguistics, and that their writings lack supporting authoritative voices. a case in point is bambang kaswanti’s effort to write in centre publication. the editor required that he find and cite sources from centre scholars in order to strengthen his argument about the concept of marriage seen from a javanese perspective setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 552 (personal communication, january 11, 2019). despite being javanese in ethnicity, kaswanti, who has knowledge about javanese culture, still needs to resort to references written by centre scholar to back up his opinion (see also sugiharto, 2021). bibliographical conventions, as canagarajah (2002) contends, “can function as a filter on the thought of periphery scholars” (p. 252). control is the last process of intellectual hegemony. through its publishing industry, the centre can regulate the academic conventions to their interest and ideology. flouting these conventions can only result in the academic ostracism, as has been the case of ena lee and dana ferris described above. the persistent use of the imrd elements of research article in most international publishing reflects a tight control over the production and dissemination of knowledge. although other modes of research reporting such as narrative inquiry, autoethnography, case histories – all written in a “story telling” style –are beginning to be acknowledged in applied linguistics journals, most of these journals still impose the imrd as the generic template of research reporting. quite interestingly, most, if not all, locally published journals in indonesia follow this generic mode of reporting, as has been stated in their “submission guidelines” pages. yet, this control is small in coverage compared to today’s on-going intellectual hegemony process where a tight control over the construction, production, and dissemination of knowledge can be felt globally through the use bibliometric indicators. with the monopoly of academic publication by the center, the value and legitimacy of knowledge status are determined one-sidedly by virtue of its knowledge tradition. as it is the center that is regarded as the epicenter of globalization of knowledge, knowledge emanating from this place is more valued and revered, and considered more superior than that stemming from other places or sources. consequently, it is the center that has a strong grip in exerting a massive control over knowledge at the global level. thus, it comes as no surprise that the center can recently successfully cajole global communities to have their practices of knowledge construction and production registered in their databases such as science citation index (sci), social science citation index (ssci) –owned by thomson reuters, as well as scopus –run by elsevier, the ambition of which is to marshal a massive amount of academic output worldwide (nygaard & bellanova, 2018). iv. embracing pluriversal thinking, listening to worlds and knowledges otherwise as a starting point of departure to embrace the idea of pluriversalim in thinking and acting, it would be useful to ponder over the following assertion: proposed ideas for praxis-oriented scholarly work include, but are certainly not limited to, decolonizing our minds, paying attention to and intentionally making a commitment to transformation, actively engaging with public scholarship for knowledge m o b i l i z a t i o n , legitimizing and encouraging multilingual scholarship, changing institutional expectations and practices, and actively connecting with communities (kubota, 2022 p. 4). proposed ideas of praxis-oriented scholarly work adumbrated by kubota here differs considerably from what has been patently privileged in journal publication in particular and in academic writing practice in general in that they are situated in a broader ideological, cultural and socio-political context of epistemological practices. mind decolonialization, commitment to transformation, knowledge mobilization, legitimation of multilingual voices, alteration of institutional expectation, and community involvement imply ethical imperatives to listen to, acknowledge, value, appreciate and create other ways of knowing, thinking, behaving, acting, without which we will still succumb to self-imposed coloniality. kubota’s proposal echoes escobar’s (2016) contention that sees thinking from worlds and knowledges otherwise as “efforts at thinking beyond the academy, with the pueblos-territorio (peoples-territory) and the intellectual activists linked to them” (p. 29). from the perspective knowledge making and production, praxis-oriented work values plurivesal sources of knowledge, apart from scientific knowledge. thus, in a stark contrast to an established academic practice which promotes the glorification of scientific knowledge and detachment of reason from emotion, feeling, passion, biases and subjectivities, praxis-centred setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 553 academic practice, subscribes to the view of what desousa-santos (2018) calls “artisanal knowledges”, or “non-scientific knowledges.” these knowledges are “practical, empirical, vernacular, and popular knowledges, knowledges that in spite of their many differences have one feature in common: they were not produced separately, as a knowledge practice separated from other social practices (p. 132). for rajagopalan (2005), they are “local knowledge,” as opposed to “professional knowledge.” the former refers to knowledge produced by lay people, and the latter is knowledge generated by experts. it is the latter knowledge that is often privileged in the scholarly journal publication. one intriguing instance of the elevation of vernacular and popular knowledges can be seen in alwasilah’s (2000) proposal for the renaissance of sundanese culture whose goal is to reinvigorate sundanese culture. many of his thoughts on the revitalization of the language were published in his book pokokny sunda: interpretasi untuk aksi (nothing but sundanese: interpretation for action). this proposal emerged since he was appointed chairman of the organizing committee of the international conference on sundanese culture, pioneered by renowned poet ajip rosidi in bandung in 2001. alwasilah encouraged local scholars to use their indigenous languages and knowledges in academic writing practices so that they can preserve and elevate their ancestral knowledges in international fora. another example comes from oostendorp’s (2023) story of academic publishing where she brings humour in her writing and uses it “not only as a topic of investigation but also as a methodology and a form of knowing” (p. 229). for oostedorp, bringing common-sense knowledge in the form of humour in scholarly work has a significant bearing for disrupting abyssal thinking. in preserving her indigenous voice in writing by not translating and analysing her humour (i.e. parody), oostedorp (2023) puts the idea of “epistemic disobedience” in practice (p. 231). employing these non-translation and non-analysis strategies, she can not only feel connected and engaged with her community but can also decolonize the established methodology. the elevation of the ecology of knowledges such as these clearly reflect the pluriversal politics (esobar, 2020) of knowledge enacted from the periphery. both scholars in the different peripheral communities enact the “multiple reals/possibles” (esobar, 2020) in their respective localities, thereby disrupting the circulation of hegemonic knowledge in the non-western territories. this enactment of multiple reals/possibles also can help dismantle “globalocentric thinking” in knowledge making and production, eventually enabling local scholars “to consider the power of place based and of local becoming in new forms…and of healing multiple locals through communal economics and logics connecting with each other into diffuse, constitutive and sustaining forms of translocal meshed-worked power” (escobar, 2020, p. 88). it precisely the healing of multiple locals that we need to proclaim in our effort to curb the colonial mentality in local publishing practices. thus, mulling over the relevance of the pluriverse politics to our local situation, and embracing the tenets of pluriversalim (see escobar for detailed explanation) can indeed provide “a space for healing” (deumert & makoni, 2023). on a final note, the implication of the examples of the abovementioned scholars speaking from their worlds and knowledges otherwise cannot be overlooked. they exemplify one important lesson for us to contemplate and then to act: one has the full authority for legitimating and validating one’s suppressed ecology of knowledges in light of one’s locus of enunciation or one’s geo-political and body-political location (figueiredo & martinez, 2021; sugiharto, 2022). v. conclusion the article has showcased the present reality of the lingering imperial forces of hegemonic knowledge (i.e. ways of knowing, thinking, and acting) which is feverishly preserved and cultivated among academia in local scholarly practices. this form of “colonial mentality,” defined by phyak (2021) as “the psychology of inferiority constructed by oppressive…and unequal sociopolitical structures” (p. 228), closes off the possibility for (re) imagining radical thoughts and actions otherwise from radical alternatives and perspectives. this mentality continues to be inculcated into local scholars in local epistemology, despite the fact that local conditions allow scholars to construct knowledges from their loci of enunciation. with this in mind, we therefore need a radical epistemological orientation which embraces a more inclusive, ethical, and egalitarian setiono sugiharto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 554 knowledge-making practices. crucially, contesting the hegemonic eurocentric knowledge in academic publishing requires a delinking and decolonizing such knowledge from the worlds and knowledges otherwise. decolonial and delinking discourse have shown a rejection of western mode of knowledge production (deumert & makoni, 2023). in other words, knowledges should be constructed and produced everywhere without being constricted by its supposed epicentre. such is a pluriverse perspective, and the pluriverse knows no centre (ramose, 2020). embracing pluriversalism in knowledge making of course presupposes a political struggle (de sousa santos, 2018; pennycook, 2023). to enact this struggle, kumaravadivelu (2020) proposes “fundamental epistemological rupture” where “the subaltern community has to unfreeze and activate its latent agentive capacity, and strive to derive a set of concerted, coordinated, and collective actions based not on the logic of coloniality but on a grammar of decoloniality (pp. 80-81). this strategic tactic can raise heightened awareness among scholars, journal editors and administrator for the import for transforming “absent subject into present subject as a primary condition for identifying and validating knowledges capable of reinventing social emancipation and liberation (de sousa santos & meneses, 2020, p. xx). this strategy is the project of the “sociology of absences” (de sousa santos, 2018). finally, as the scientific rationality and eurowestern centred thinking preserved in the local academic publishing practice is a form of “abyssal thinking” (de sousa santos, 2014, 2018), then the act of political struggle needs to be directed at reclaiming and reviving “silenced knowledge or knowledges that are produced as non-existent” (de sousa santos & meneses, p. xix). in doing so, we can “transform the landscape… into a vast field of living, rich, and innovative social experience” (de sousa santos & meneses, p. xx). this strategy is the assigned task of the “sociology of emergences” (de sousa santos, 2018). in sum, the sociology of absences and the sociology of emergences, and decolonial discourses can serve as useful frameworks, or rather “as tools for scholarship and academic and political activism” (deumert & makoni, 2023) for future decolonizing projects in the pursuit for emancipatory knowledge making practices in our local contexts and for entering another doorway to worlds and knowledges otherwise. such a political activism can be enacted by means of promoting and elevating one’s ecology of knowledges in local journal publication, and of reclaiming local research tradition as a radical alternative of the established tradition. there ought to be a political will for decolonizing and liberating our minds from the imposition of hegemonic euro-western -centred knowledge. references alwasilah, a.c. pokoknya sunda: interpretasi untuk aksi. bandung: kiblat. canagarajah, a. s. 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(1990). genre analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 259 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 11, 2025 final revision: april 19, 2025 accepted: april 24, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 in this paper, the chinese to english literary translation of culture-specific items (csis) published between 2019 and 2024 is analyzed. different types of csis, such as idioms, historical references, proverbs, and culturally specific phrases, are among the most difficult items to translate because of their deep cultural meaning and the challenge in finding appropriate english equivalents. although exploration of cultural factors and their translations has become increasingly popular, particularly in translation studies, systematic reviews of csis especially in chinese to english literary contexts are limited. we employed a qualitative content analysis to synthesize the findings of 25 selected and refined articles. among them, 18 were empirical articles, while seven were reviews, mainly focusing on the theoretical and conceptual features of csis, collected from google scholar, jstor, and pubmed databases. three major themes were identified: (1) definitions and typologies of csis, (2) translation strategies, and (3) translation errors. we found that among the various strategies and procedures involved in translating csis, domestication, foreignization, annotation, adaptation, and literal translation were the most popular, each acknowledging their contextspecific efficiencies and limitations. furthermore, the identified translation errors included cultural misinterpretation, loss of style, omission, and loss of functionality. these errors could often hinder reader comprehension and negatively influence the narrative. based on the findings, we recommend maintaining a balance between linguistic and cultural faithfulness, emphasizing genre sensitivity, recognizing the significance of translator visibility, and in-depth exploration of the context, and functional equivalence. conducting empirical reception studies, in addition to further examination of genre representation, integration of human evaluation, and exploring the potential role of translation technology in translating cultural items could offer theoretical and practical guidance to literary translators dealing with cultural items. keywords culture-specific items, translation strategies, translation errors, cultural context, literary translation correspondence *e-mail: mansour@usm.my review strategies, errors, and challenges in translating culturespecific items in chinese-english literary works: a systematic review wang qiufen1, mansour amini2*, debbita tan ai lin3 1,2,3school of languages, literacies and translation, universiti sains malaysia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.259-273.2025 i. introduction csis are culturally bound linguistic items with no equivalent direct meaning in another culture. they consist of idioms, proverbs, historical references, social customs, and cultural symbols bearing meaning but also containing a community’s unique worldview and patterns of communication (purwaningsih et al., 2023; rohmawati et al., 2022; wan & amini, 2020). in literary translation, particularly between culturally and linguistically distant languages such as chinese and english, meaningful and intuitive translation of these items is a fundamental concern (amini et al., 2024; wang et al., 2025). csis are challenging because they have a dual nature—although they possess literal meanings, they are also culturally embedded and can be lost if translated insensitively. literature, especially fiction such as novels, wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 260 short stories, and culturally rooted poetry or drama, is rich in csis. such writings are not just pieces of art but reflections of their respective cultural settings. hence, the translation of csis is beyond linguistic competence; it requires translators to navigate the two languages’ cultures (amenador & wang, 2022; he et al., 2024; james et al., 2018; sun et al., 2022). neglecting these aspects of culture may result in the loss of meaning, beauty, or even lead to misinterpretation by the target audience (ikawati, 2022; antonie, 2022; wan et al., 2018). for instance, idiomatic expressions, embedded symbolism, and socio-historical allusions are particularly vulnerable to distortion, which can lead to communicative breakdowns unless properly controlled (abdelaal & alazzawie, 2020; effendi et al., 2024; tukhtarova et al., 2021) and may lead to communicative breakdowns if not handled with care. due to such challenges, scholars have proposed various strategies for regulating csis in translation. there are some in favor of domestication, i.e., translation to fit the culture of the target audience, and there are others in favor of foreignization, i.e., maintaining the distinct features of the source culture. strategies, such as annotation, adaptation, and literal translation accompanied by contextual changes, are also deemed efficient (guluzada, 2023; tsoi, 2022; chai et al., 2022; tee et al., 2022). the choice of translation strategy tends to rely on such factors as the goals of the translator, the nature of the source text, and reader expectations in the target market (jing & amini, 2019). such strategic decisions are essential as improper handling of csis not only affects comprehension but also tends to lead to cultural dissonance in the translated product. this review aims to integrate and critically evaluate recent scholarly literature on the translation of csis within the framework of chineseenglish literary fiction. through the integration of knowledge in existing studies, the review aims to evaluate prevailing practices, identify frequent translation errors, and explore the conceptual models that inform csi translation. specifically, the review will explore three objectives: 1. to explore how csis are identified and typologized in literary fiction. 2. to discuss the major translation strategies used in translating csis into english. 3. to describe common translation errors concerning csis in terms of their causes and consequences. by reviewing the current body of literature, this review seeks to enhance understanding of how csis function in literary translation, determine methodological trends, and contribute to areas worthy of future research. through this process, the paper seeks to enable better translation practice and promote a more culturally sensitive approach to the translation of literary texts. ii. methods this review considers chinese-english literary production csis’ translations. a systematic search was conducted using three major scientific academic databases, namely google scholar, jstor, and pubmed, by using pairs of keywords, such as “culture-specific items” together with “translation strategies” as well as “chinese-english translation,” “literary translation” (combinations included) using and and or boolean operators in expanding the scope for searches. for instance, the search phrase “culture-specific items and chineseenglish translation” produced 18 articles, but more general terms such as “translation strategies or culture-specific items” generated over 30 hits. after eliminating duplicates and irrelevant studies, 42 unique records were found. screening was carried out in three stages: the removal of duplicates, title and abstract screening, and full-text screening. the inclusion criteria were: (1) peer-reviewed journal articles; (2) english language; (3) published between 2019 and 2024; (4) concerning csis in chinese-english literary translation; and (5) including empirical data or theoretical discussion of translation strategies or translation errors. exclusion criteria were book reviews, editorials, review papers, or investigations involving other language pairs or non-literary sources. eighteen empirical articles met all the requirements and were thus included. also, seven seminal theory publications between 1988 and 2006 were selected to build the conceptual framework for this study. these are the original publications of theorists such as newmark (1988), aixela (1996), and florin (1993), whose typologies and definitions are still extremely cited and pedagogically very influential. the final corpus of this review thus comprises 25 sources: 7 theoretical and 18 empirical. wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 261 fig. 1. thematic categorization of the 25 selected articles in this review, based on their contribution to csi definition/ classification, translation strategies, and translation errors in literary works. fig. 2. prisma-style flowchart outlining the article selection process, including empirical screening (n = 18) and addition of conceptual literature (n = 7), resulting in 25 final studies. wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 262 model includes: (1) ecology (e.g., flora, fauna, geographical features), (2) material culture (e.g., food, clothing, tools), (3) social culture (e.g., sports, leisure activities), (4) organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts (e.g., educational, legal, or political systems), and (5) gestures and habits. newmark’s classification provides practical guidelines for recognizing and translating csis in literary and non-literary texts. pavlović and poslek (1998), in their comparison of british and croatian culture-specific concepts across cultures, expand the classification of csis by proposing thirteen types. they include ecology, everyday life, material culture, history, religion, economy, political and administrative tasks, armed forces, education, forms of address, gestures and habits, work, and leisure or entertainment. their classification is constructed from literary and nonliterary examples, with the focus on transmission of subcultural values and reference to institutions through specific lexical options. they also mention that seemingly synonymous words in other cultures may go in different directions due to differing cultural assumptions and that it is the translators’ task to identify not only overt but also covert cultural features. their work is most useful in delineating the embeddedness of csis in linguistic and extralinguistic structures like branded goods, tv culture, and public rites. this kind of understanding adds depth to csi study by reminding students and professionals that translational decisions are not just linguistic but ideologically situated too. jurgita mikutytė (2005) offers one definition that negotiates between cultural specificity and conceptual non-equivalence. she defines csis as “distinct items or experiences, material and spiritual components of a culture, intrinsic to a particular ethnic group, a nation or a region, which generally have no equivalents in other cultures or languages.” her typology distinguishes between geographic realia, ethnographic realia, social and political realia, and situational realia. this difference emphasizes that csis are special as opposed to general non-equivalent terms because they are inextricably embedded within specific symbolic and historical contexts. espindola and vasconcellos (2006) further enrich the field by proposing a twelve-category approach that incorporates linguistic and extralinguistic characteristics. these are: (1) toponyms, to describe the thematic split, figure 1 illustrates the split of the literature selected into three categories: (1) definitions and classifications of csi (n = 7), (2) translation strategies (n = 9), and (3) translation errors (n = 9). a flowchart of the article selection in prisma style is presented in figure 2. all the chosen works were examined using qualitative content analysis to establish important themes, persistent concerns, and emphasize translation strategies. the examination enables critical understanding of available csi translation practice and finds areas that are still underdeveloped for further study. iii. results definitions and classifications of culturespecific items in order to establish a coherent analytical framework for evaluating the translation of csis, it is necessary to first define what constitutes a csi and then to compare the most influential classification systems in translation studies. different terminologies and conceptualizations have emerged across scholarly traditions, each reflecting distinct perspectives on the cultural, linguistic, and semiotic complexity of such items. the term “culture-specific item” was popularized by aixela (1996), who uses it as a general label for all textual elements that are anchored in a given culture and which thus pose interpretive and translational challenges when transferred into another linguistic and cultural system. aixela argues that csis are not confined to fixed categories but rather emerge contextually in discourse, depending on how the source text evokes its own cultural environment. from a functionalist perspective, aixela suggests that the translator either preserves the foreignness of these items or adapts them in a way that renders them accessible to the target audience. this approach emphasizes the translator’s role as a cultural mediator who must make choices about visibility, equivalence, and cultural accommodation. in contrast, newmark (1988) proposes a more structured and widely adopted taxonomy. he defines csis as elements tied to the social and organizational culture of the source language, which often include institutional names, social customs, or material objects. his five-category wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 263 (2) anthroponyms, (3) entertainments, (4) transports, (5) fictional characters, (6) legal systems, (7) local organizations, (8) measures, (9) victuals and beverages, (10) scholastic terms, (11) religious festivals, and (12) dialects. this typology, initiated amid unequal cultural contacts, is particularly relevant in postcolonial and multilingual translation contexts. it points to how translation may reproduce or resist dominant cultural narratives by managing certain items. in an independent effort to characterize the dimensions of culture-specific phenomena, pavlović and poslek (1998) offer a typology from their comparative examination of british and croatian conceptions of culture, emphasizing both linguistic and extralinguistic aspects. their system includes thirteen distinct categories: ecology, everyday life, material culture, history, religion, economy, political and administrative institutions, military, education, titles of address and terms of reference, gestures and posture, occupations, and leisure activities/entertainment. they also use the terms subcategories such as mass media references (e.g., tv shows), branded products, and consumer behaviors. their typology is particularly attuned to cultural structures reflecting not only national identity but also subcultural and generational distinctions. they argue that successful translation of csis depends on the capacity to sense these multiple levels of meaning and how they operate across both the source and target cultural systems. this method is especially useful for literary translation because it emphasizes the importance of untangling both overt and covert cultural signals in narrative discourse. apart from the above models, there have been other researchers, e.g., florin (1993) and nedergaard-larsen (1993), who have offered other models, with a focus on audiovisual translation and realia, respectively. nedergaard-larsen’s model, for example, has classes like geographical references, cultural references (everyday culture, institutions, history), and linguistic references. florin, by contrast, introduced the notion of “realia” as words and expressions referring directly to objects, phenomena, and concepts that are culture-specific, proposing a typology founded on pragmatic and semantic features. in spite of the divergent orientations of these frameworks, there are a number of convergences to be noted. further, the scope and depth of typologies converge in the significance of ecology, material culture, social institutions, and expressive practices as fundamental domains of csi occurrence. however, the scope and depth of categories vary, as some authors emphasize institutional and ideological dimensions, while others address ordinary life and linguistic variation. curiously, earlier typologies are more likely to favor the precision of categorization and practical recommendations for translators, whereas more recent systems emphasize socio-political importance and cultural relations of power, in line with post-structuralist and critical translation theories. critical comparison of these systems identifies their respective merits and demerits. newmark’s model is useful in its simplicity and applicability across types of texts, but may be overly simplistic to accommodate dynamic manifestations of culture. pavlović and poslek’s (1998) and espindola and vasconcellos’ (2006) models have greater descriptive detail, but risk becoming burdensome to implement in practice in translation analysis. aixela’s approach, though theoretically versatile, is less useful in the supply of empirical classification information. nedergaard-larsen and florin complement by integrating pragmatic concerns and foregrounding challenges typical of media and realia translation, though their models require contextual adaptation upon utilization in the case of literary works. for literary translation, where stylistic subtlety and cultural sophistication are most relevant, the collective use of these typologies is most useful. combining categorically defined types with contextual sense enables more fine-grained identification and interpretation of csis. such a hybrid model not only benefits textual analysis but also allows for more rigorous evaluation of translation strategies, making it especially useful for comparative analysis of translated texts. thematic analysis of challenges and strategies in translating csis in translating csis from chinese to english, more than one layer of complexity is faced by the translators. these complexities are not merely linguistic but also cultural, contextual, and even ideological in nature. from the reviewed literature, an array of recurring themes concerning both the wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 264 challenges of csi translation and the strategic options embraced in response is found. instead of presenting each of these studies individually, these findings are synthesized into thematic clusters underpinned by recent empirical evidence. one of the fundamental challenges invariably encountered is the linguistic ambiguity and semantic density in most csis. there are certain words or onomatopoeias that carry meaning beyond their literal interpretation. wang (2020), for instance, examines how chinese stand-up comedy ambiguity creates challenges to effective cultural transference. his study illustrates how subtlety of humor, especially punchlines based on cultural expectations, makes direct translation ineffective. similarly, xu and chen (2022) evoke the issue of onomatopoeia in literature, arguing that literal translation fails to provide representation of sound symbolism or emotional tone. such authors demonstrate that onomatopoeic terms evoke auditory and emotional connotation that is highly culture-bound. in light of this, strategies such as italicized transliteration or literal translation with explanatory footnotes have been utilized. whereas these preserve shape and some amount of semantic coherency, they can undermine smoothness or interrupt accessibility to regular readers. thus, such strategies are best usually effective where cultural fidelity predominates over smoothness of the narrative. yet they might be inappropriate to apply to readers of low tolerance of linguistic foreignness or in need of entertainment more than ethnographic understanding. yet another important theme is the translation of allusions and historical mentions buried in cultures. examples include idiomatic phrases grounded in confucian philosophy, words symbolically laden and linked with cultural rituals, or the religious lexicon absent in any western language. guo (2022) argues, drawing an example from ku hungming’s translation of the analects, that defaulting strategies borrowed from culture and generalization enable historical and conceptual lacunas to be overcome between cultures for european readers. such strategies, in her observation, while simplifying the foreigndense, at times obscure subtleties of ideology embedded in the original. tang (2022) disagrees, arguing that cultural identity is best maintained by conservation rather than replacement in diary of a madman. by avoiding simplification, tang believes the translator can guarantee textual authenticity so that overseas readers can experience cultural dissonance firsthand. li, z. (2023), in a discussion of red sorghum, argues that some forms of annotation, such as interlined notes and footnotes, are a good compromise between access and depth. concurrently, li, m. (2023) discusses title translation in chapter headings of dream of the red chamber’s russian translation, revealing the application of literal and free translation strategies. these findings confirm that title translation has a lot to do with dealing with symbolic resonance and cultural references embedded in framing narratives. such additions or modifications, though enriching comprehension, may detract from narrative development and ruin aesthetic experience. thus, the performance of each strategy relies on the cultural information density, the source text genre, and the reader’s predicted familiarity. cognitive overload may result from over-annotation, while oversimplification can deprive the original of its cultural meaning. the genre of the literary text also determines the choice of strategy. poetic or symbolic works are often in need of solutions other than those for straightforward prose narratives. zuo et al. (2023) address this in their analysis of big breasts and wide hips, where they propose contextdependent solutions such as literal translation with amplification or free translation with substitution. these approaches preserve the aesthetic effect of metaphorical passages. for example, metaphors referring to traditional beliefs about femininity, fertility, and motherhood require culturally adaptive strategies to maintain their evocative power. similarly, xing (2024), examining li bai’s silent night thoughts, emphasizes that poetic images require strategic creativity, combining cultural knowledge with reader-oriented decisions. free translation in such cases is not merely deviation but an act of literary recreation. but such creative interventions must be used judiciously to avoid tone or meaning distortion. misused or overused, they can result in reinterpretations that favor targetlanguage aesthetics over original authorial intent. this challenge emphasizes the necessity of genresensitive approaches that balance artistic form, thematic content, and cultural fidelity. of equal concern is the effect of the translator’s visibility and reader expectation. some translators have an overt presence in the text on purpose by wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 265 giving interlinear glosses or in-text commentary. li, z. (2023) is a good illustration of how cultural information, if added quietly, can contribute to understanding without interfering with flow. leonaviciene and inokaityte (2023) confirm that such practices are successful in intercultural contexts when foreignization is pedagogically appropriate. their findings suggest reader engagement increases if translators take up the role of cultural mediators rather than neutral transmitters. in contrast, in fiction set for mass audiences, invisibility on the translator’s part could be a desideratum. strategies such as domestication—including where csis are translated as culturally familiar forms—are frequent attempts to mitigate disruption. this, however, is a danger factor for erosion of cultural subtlety. if the translator over-domesticates, the end product may be culturally homogeneous and stripped of the richness of the original. a final thematic aspect in csi translation involves the function of csis elements within the source text. scholars like zuo et al. (2023) and tang (2022) argue that policy on translation cannot be dictated by linguistic form but should respond to the functional function of csis in context. for example, some csis can be metaphorical or symbolic and can aid character development, thematic unity, or social commentary. in these cases, the original wording should remain even if it is at the expense of reader comprehension. where csis add background information to the environment that does not further the narrative, more liberal strategies such as omission or adaptation may be viable. this functionalist strategy promotes decision-making on the basis of rhetorical effect, rather than formal equivalence. it goes against the idea of cultural retention always being the best choice and rather promotes strategic maneuverability guided by textual function and communicative intent. these thematic findings are combined graphically in table 1, which encapsulates the main csi-related challenges and plots them against corresponding approaches. the diagram is also an analytical tool to depict how translator choice is influenced by text type, culture, and communicative objectives. it also reveals the multi-dimensional nature of csi translation and the interplay of fidelity, fluency, and functionality. categorization of translation errors in csis translation errors in csis remain a chronic issue with chinese-english literary translation. in an extended integration of more recent research, five prevalent types of translation errors emerge, each a variant of misrepresentation, misinterpretation, or strategic shortcoming. they include pragmatic errors, cultural misinterpretation, over-literal translation, stylistic and aesthetic loss, and machine translation limitations. all these categories are not only technical flaws but more general conceptual tensions among fidelity, accessibility, and communicative purpose. rather than analyzing these errors through isolated examples, this section synthesizes findings thematically from multiple studies on how errors in translation occur, why they are important, and how they can be avoided. one of the most common types of translation error is pragmatic errors, where the translatable message in translation fails to align with the intended communicative function of the target culture. y. li (2023) finds most common errors to be pragmatic errors in csi translation, especially with culturally specific speech acts, addresses, and implied meaning. li’s analysis emphasizes that such errors frequently stem from the translator’s insufficient awareness of target-language pragmatics, or from their unfamiliarity with how politeness, hierarchy, or indirectness are expressed across cultures. the consequence is often an output that, while grammatically correct, appears table 1. thematic model of challenges and strategies in translating csis. challenge preferred strategy supporting studies linguistic ambiguity transliteration; footnotes wang (2020), xu & chen (2022) cultural allusions annotation; generalization guo (2022), tang (2022), li, z. (2023), li, m. (2023) genre constraints amplification; free translation zuo et al. (2023), xing (2024) translator visibility interlinear gloss; domestication li, z. (2023), leonaviciene & inokaityte (2023) functional role conservation; omission zuo et al. (2023), tang (2022) wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 266 inappropriate, offensive, or overly literal in context. such an error impacts not only interpersonal tone but also the credibility of the story, particularly in character speech and culturally rich interactions. the cultivation of pragmatic competence and crosscultural sensitivity must therefore be regarded as part and parcel of training literary translators rendering csis. cultural misinterpretation is another red thread in csi translation error. zhang (2019) and zagood (2023) offer compelling evidence that errors of this sort are most likely to result when the translator does not adequately appreciate the cultural significance of a term or conception. for example, zhang (2019) describes how misunderstandings of key values and ideologies such as filial piety, collectivism, or ritual result in oversimplifications that minimize chinese cultural representation. similarly, zagood’s examination of an arabic-english translation elucidates how literal renderings of cultural idioms failed to reach local habits, and resulted in skewed readings. what these investigations point out is that surface equivalence can be misleading when deeper contextual knowledge is lacking. not being able to observe the symbolic or ideological functions fulfilled by csis generates substitutions that are either tone-deaf or semantically inadequate. overliteral translation also appears as a severe category of error when formal equivalence is the priority of translators over communicative accuracy. harmon (2022) and obeidat et al. (2020) analyze how hyper-literal translations could lead to translations that are syntactically precise but semantically awkward. harmon’s contrastive analysis of three polish translations of the great gatsby reveals how rigid adherence to surface form immures subtextual sense and emotional depth. similarly, obeidat et al. illustrate how translations attempting to be natural in terms of grammar but lacking in accuracy—or vice versa— result in unnatural or misleading expressions. their discovery of three subtypes—natural but inaccurate, unnatural but accurate, and unnatural and inaccurate—offers a diagnostic model for determining csi-related errors. collectively, these studies argue that good csi translation involves a dynamic balance between fidelity and functionality. translators must make interpretive decisions that are in the service of the tone, rhythm, and communicative purpose of the narrative, and not constrained by fixed lexical substitution. loss of stylistic and aesthetic features is another major area of concern. literary translation as a principle is about recreating content, but also form, tone, and texture. dildabekova et al. (2021) show how weakening of metaphor, rhythm, or imagery in style diminishes the literary effect of the translation. in their contrastive analysis of english translations of kazakh prose, they found that many errors involved in metaphorical flattening, tonal incongruity, and cohesion error were due to a lack of adequate concern for the poetic organization of the original. in literary prose, csis typically carry multi-faceted meanings and stylistic connotations that cannot be translated by literal equivalence. their replacement or omission, unless conceived with strategic intent, destroys the global narrative effect. therefore, translation strategies must be focused on stylistic preservation, such as compensatory methods or rhetorical re-creation, while translating csis with figurative or symbolic language. the fifth theme involves machine translation and automation errors. because csis are highly dependent upon cultural expectations, socio-pragmatic sensitivity, or world knowledge, algorithms lack such sensitivities and therefore produce incoherent or culturally inappropriate translations. sibuea et al. (2023) address this issue by looking at the google translate translation of harry potter and the order of the phoenix. they discover repeated inability to cope with culturally unique words, idioms, and expressions. from their findings, while the software is very proficient in syntactic form, it has an extremely difficult time with metaphors embedded in culture, intertextual references, and implied meaning. these are the signs that human intervention is needed, particularly post-editing. they also pose general questions regarding the constraints of the state-of-the-art neural machine translation (nmt) models on literary styles, where narrative flow, subtlety, and context are top priority. the five categories mentioned are united in the fact that they are evidencing systemic and not accidental errors. each category of error points to a particular kind of knowledge or judgment required by translators in order to perform effectively with csis. the implications are both applied and theoretical. from a training perspective, it goes without wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 267 saying that translators require interdisciplinary competence—not only in language and literature but also in sociolinguistics, cultural studies, and communication theory. procedurally, classification of translation errors contributes to building stronger evaluation models and criteria. instead of basing judgments of csi translations on faithfulness, the judges must also consider cultural adequacy, narratological coherence, and stylistic closeness. these categories of csi-related translation errors are schematically represented in table 2. this can assist in recognizing translation errors and finding translation solutions for them. on the broader literary translation level as well, it also reiterates the need for integrative methodology that combines linguistic skill with cultural competence and narrative sensitivity. iv. discussion the translation of csis in literary works is challenging, as noted by several studies, particularly about the translations of contemporary chinese literature. while most studies focus on classical literature or canonical fiction, the contemporary literary works often contain some novel cultural elements and new social values which differ from those of older texts. translation of such texts need more attention considering the evolving cultural practices and uses of language that can complicate the common practices and approaches in translation, often leading to only partial or outdated theoretical explanations. furthermore, various cultural subtleties embedded in historical contexts of literary texts require translators’ deep understanding of the unique features to be received in the target language and culture. one common gap in the existing literature is integrative examination of the source and target languages’ specific cultural contexts rather than generalizing the cultural elements independently of the context (bayraktar, 2022). in other words, specificity in contextual examination of the cultural elements together with the application of appropriate translation strategies can assist in preserving the cultural essence of the original texts (hamamoto, 2023). some studies (e.g., amenador and wang’s (2022) have examined how modern cultural elements are passed across languages, or how refinement of the existing methodologies have assisted in achieving cultural fidelity (hamamoto, 2023). another gap is the (over)generalization of cultural phenomena beyond their communicate purpose and setting. for example, in some cases, culture-specific items and idiomatic expressions, and phrases are discussed without complete acknowledgement, or analysis of the particular social and communicative setting, such as time and place, in which these items are being described. therefore, an effective csi translation depends not only on the identification of cultural elements (e.g., bayraktar, 2022; hee et al., 2022; hamamoto, 2023), but also on a thorough understanding the functional operations of the items within the cultural, ideological, and communicative frameworks. for genres like poetry, science fiction, and modern drama, where symbolic meaning and cultural subtlety are significant, a detailed textual analysis becomes indispensable. as stated by liu (2022) in examination of csis in ming and qing novels, dream of the red chamber, exploring the translation of csis is not only investigating how decision-making works in terms of lexicogrammatical choices and their denotative meanings, but is also about the symbolic, ideological and even in-depth analysis of the emotional connotations of the items as csis are central to a narrative’s social and aesthetic values. furthermore, narrative prose prevails compared to other genres such as satire, fantasy, and illustrated fiction, while the influence of literary genres also needs further exploration, table 2. categorization of translation errors in chinese-english csi translation error type typical characteristics example studies pragmatic errors misaligned speech acts; inappropriate register y. li (2023) cultural misinterpretation symbolic/ideological misreading zhang (2019), zagood (2023) over-literal translation syntactic fidelity over clarity harmon (2022), obeidat et al. (2020) stylistic loss tone, metaphor, rhythm ignored dildabekova et al. (2021) machine translation gaps lack of cultural sensitivity sibuea et al. (2023) wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 268 particularly in chinese-english translations. these genres are more likely to include hybridized or invented cultural elements that resist traditional categorization. as calvert (2022) suggests, a wider variety of genres would allow for a more subtle understanding of the manner in which culture dictates literary expression. these less typical genres may also demand more flexible and imaginative translation strategies. the translator’s personal and professional background is another factor worth greater consideration. amenador and wang (2022) and mallah (2022) argue that the cultural sensitivity and linguistic ability of a translator strongly influence the way csis are translated. the ability to interpret and reproduce cultural meaning is likely to be guided by the translator’s academic training, life experience, and familiarity with the target audience. these can affect strategic decision-making at all levels of the translation process. el mallah (2022), for instance, demonstrates that even religious texts such as the quran may be ideologically screened, depending on the translator’s beliefs or affiliation. this emphasizes the translator’s role not just as a linguistic intermediary but also as an active cultural transmitter. at the same time, the lack of practical instruments and translation support still frustrates efficient handling of csis. translators would benefit from greater resources, including glossaries, strategy recommendations, and computer-based support tools. as implied by setiawan (2022), qian and wu (2023), bihych and strilets (2020), and petronienė et al. (2019), systematic aids can help translators to identify csis, choose relevant strategies, and justify their choices in professional practice. smith, adams, and munnik (2022) also note that standard checklists and quality assessment tools can similarly enhance training outcomes by introducing greater coherence into translation practice. these tools are particularly important as global translation demands continue to rise. translation technology has also been a central part of this debate. google translate and other such tools often fail when working with culture-specific material, especially idiomatic language, figurative language, or culturally loaded concepts. alonso and vieira (2020) observe that the development of automated translation processes has transformed the role of the translator. human translators are now assuming a critical role of editing and polishing machine outputs. xu and shin (2023) note that collaborative workflows, blending automated processing and specialist editing, offer one feasible way ahead. these approaches may maximize efficiency without compromising cultural sensitivity and interpretive depth. in the future, more research should be carried out on how technological systems can be developed to better process csi translation. this includes teaching artificial intelligence on datasets with annotated cultural elements, and calibrating algorithms to consider contextual and pragmatic cues. furthermore, the reception of translated csis by readers is worth investigating more deeply. how readers respond or interpret various approaches will tell researchers whether an approach enhances accessibility or leads to cultural distortion. comparative testing and user-based feedback would be informative. cumulatively, these observations suggest that csi translation is not an activity where one size fits all. instead, it is a highly adaptive and contextcontingent practice. it involves multiple levels of decision-making and necessitates attention to language, genre, cultural appropriacy, and reader expectation. to be useful, future research must reflect this complexity and offer solutions that are not just conceptually rigorous but also pragmatically feasible. v. conclusion translating csis between english and chinese particularly in literary contexts is often challenging mainly because of the entanglement of these items within their source cultures and the uncertainty in the acceptable level of adaptation to the target culture. a main challenge is identifying direct equivalent values in the target culture because translating csis entails analyzing various factors, such as forms of social norms, idiomatic expressions, and historical references. a solution to this translation problem could be incorporating a substantial understanding of both source and target cultures in addition to the linguistic expertise to ensure that translations are adequate and fluent. language and culture continue to evolve and upgrading translators’ cultural knowledge of the source and target norms and values plays a key role in this respect. previous studies have emphasized the intricate balance needed between remaining wang qiufen / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 269 faithful to the source text and ensuring that the translated text is well adjusted and adapted to the target audience’s expectations. various translation strategies such as domestication or foreignization are employed based on the context and function of the csis, with foreignization being favored when the cultural reference is central to the text’s meaning, while domestication or adaptation is preferred when the reference is less familiar to the audience. moreover, translation style may vary significantly across literary genres; for example, it is evident that poetry, or any form of creative literary writing, typically requires more creative adaptation to preserve aesthetic features, while for example informative prose can often utilize more direct translation strategies and procedures. some of the common pitfalls in translating cultural items include loss of contextual nuances, cultural misunderstandings, misrepresentation, and overreliance on word-for-word translations that can deliver the denotative meaning, but fail to convey the complete original intent, connotative meaning or sense. likewise, idiomatic expressions and cultural allusions frequently suffer when translated word-for-word, leading to a dilution of meaning that is critical to the csis. finally, as machine translation software struggle to accurately convey cultural nuances and contextual intricacies, the role of human translators and their awareness of cultural sensitivity remains undeniable where a collaborative approach could enhance both the accuracy and cultural relevance of translations. future research can investigate comparative effectiveness of translation strategies across different genres and contexts, exploration of translation methods that prioritize representation of cultural richness in translation. ethics statement the authors hereby declare that they have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnalarbitrer and confirm that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement wang qiufen was responsible for writing the manuscript and other related tasks. mansour amini and debbita tan ai lin provided suggestions and guidance for the paper. acknowledgements in writing this article, ai tools (gimini and grammarly) were used to for language editing and grammar checking of the final version of the manuscript. the content, including the ideas, results and conclusions are the exclusive work of the authors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abdelaal, n. m., & alazzawie, a. 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(2023). strategies for translating culture-specific items from chinese into english. world journal of english language, 13(7), 27. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel. v13n7p27 ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 27 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 10, 2024 final revision: december 24, 2024 accepted: january 10, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 this study investigates the strategic application of translanguaging in english classes at yunnan agricultural university, a context marked by significant linguistic diversity and socio-economic challenges that have been underexplored. employing a mixed-methods approach, the research integrates quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews to provide comprehensive analysis. grounded in vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development, the study reveals that translanguaging significantly enhances comprehension and reduces stress for students across varying levels of english proficiency. however, it also identifies potential risks associated with excessive reliance on native languages, which may hinder the development of critical cognitive abilities necessary for english language acquisition. the findings underscore the importance of a balanced approach to translanguaging, where strategies are carefully adapted to the unique linguistic, cultural, and institutional contexts of learners. this research highlights the need for further exploration into how translanguaging strategies can be optimized to support both critical thinking and language comprehension in diverse educational settings. keywords translanguaging, second language acquisition, pedagogy strategies, english language classes, yunnan agricultural university correspondence *e-mail: yaptengteng@um.edu.my article balancing language learning with translanguaging: insights from yunnan agricultural university ke xin1, yap teng teng2* 1faculty of social sciences and humanities, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, malaysia 2faculty of languages and linguistics, universiti malaya, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.27-39.2025 i. introduction the selection of instructional language in second or foreign language classrooms is a pivotal yet contentious decision, reflecting evolving pedagogical philosophies. cen williams (1994) originally coined the term ‘translanguaging’ to describe the process of making sense, forming perceptions, acquiring understanding, and information through two languages. the concept was later expanded upon and popularized by scholars (baker, 1994; lewis et al., 2012). translanguaging and scaffolding strategies are not just educational tools but are integral in fostering a bilingual student’s complete linguistic repertoire, as they allow students to make meaning through a combination of languages (garcía & li wei, 2014). this approach, which emphasizes the use of the entire linguistic and multimodal repertoire in education, enhances students’ ability to articulate understandings and create new meanings (feller, 2022). particularly for emergent bilinguals, previous studies underline even more how translanguaging not only helps understanding but also generates inclusive and fair learning environments (hansen et al., 2020). these strategies help students to overcome language obstacles so that they may negotiate difficult content using their entire linguistic abilities. translanguaging, emerging from nuanced understandings of bilingual and multilingual development, offers a paradigm shift in language education. the study of translanguaging arose from advances in our understanding of bilingual and multilingual development. translanguaging (garcía, 2009) is the preferred method of operation for many bilinguals. language teaching has evolved professionally, yet many asian educational contexts traditionally regard the target language as a distinct entity to avoid linguistic interference (garcía & li wei, 2014). ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 28 astika (2013) contends that only through this immersive experience can students internalize english, start thinking in it, and comprehend it. while this approach may seem beneficial in theory, muhammet and kenan (2022a) highlight a potential drawback: when students are required to discuss, debate, and enquire in english, yet their proficiency is not up to the task, they may choose to disengage and withhold their ideas. this situation can hinder students’ learning and use of english, as they may fear making mistakes while expressing complex thoughts in a language, they are not fully comfortable with. recent developments in translanguaging have shown its effectiveness not just within classrooms but in shaping broader cultural and linguistic landscapes. szabó et al. (2023), for example, address how translanguaging strategies used in educational environments can change schools’ capes, so producing inclusive environments reflecting and honouring students’ linguistic identities. similarly, garcía and li wei (2021) have highlighted how translanguaging spaces can challenge and reshape traditional power dynamics, promoting a more equitable and dynamic learning environment. translanguaging refers to bilinguals’ complex and fluid language practices and the pedagogical techniques that utilize such practices as multilingual cultures and bilingual education in foreign nations shift, according to garcía (2017). furthermore, in a bilingual class, this word has been conceived as a helpful instructional activity (lewis et al., 2012) and a way to moderate understandings, establish context, include, omit, and present information” (garcía & li, 2014; sarah et al., 2015). students practice “translanguaging.” (kiramba, 2017) by using multiple semiotic tools to switch languages in different social contexts. muhammet and kenan (2022b) argue that translanguaging has a substantial impact on inducing microand macrobehavioural changes in instructors’ identities, leading instructors to reassess their bilingual competences and redesign their teaching methods considering flexible bilingualism. the phenomenon of translanguaging in bilingual classrooms has been studied in various schools in different regions. several studies (wang, 2016; muhammet & kenan, 2021; sara et al., 2021; zhou et al., 2020; robillos & art-in, 2023) found that students used translanguaging strategies to construct meaning and negotiate. they also felt comfortable and motivated to speak english. other comparable studies have also shown that advanced translanguaging techniques work in three languages, highlighting their importance for english language acquisition (dafna et al., 2020). jack and kevin (2021) find that translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy can coin a space for contentbased thematic learning. in addition, liu and fan (2022) found that diverse student groups support translanguaging. their study found positive attitudes towards translanguaging and its potential as a personalized pedagogical tool. current research suggests that translanguaging is an effective pedagogical tool, enhancing both educational outcomes and learning efficiency (christina, 2019; wang, 2021). studies have shown that the complex interplay of teachersstudents’ interactions, encompassing perceptions, motivations and behavioural intents, is essential for the effectiveness of translanguaging practices. this interactional complexity has been the focus of attention for numerous scholars (fang & liu, 2020; huang & chelmers, 2023; wang, 2022). significant research has examined students’ experiences with translanguaging across diverse educational settings, including a university in japan, (kavitha, 2014), an emi finance international classroom in shanghai (zhou et al, 2021), an elementary school of indonesia (khairuunisa & iwa, 2020) and a reading classroom at a bangladeshi private university (abu & anne, 2022). additional research in china has examined translanguaging within specific domains such as academic writing (zhang, 2022) and l3 classrooms, particularly in spanish language learning (zhou et al., 2020), as well as in knowledge construction (jack & kevin, 2021). chinese students complete 14 years of compulsory english education, with english being taught from elementary school through university. english ranks among the highest-scoring subjects alongside chinese and math. however, the english proficiency index (ef epi, 2023) ranks china 84th out of 113 countries, revealing a significant gap between the time invested and actual proficiency achieved. this discrepancy highlights english as a persistent challenge for chinese students, even as they progress to higher education. although it is expected that university students will have adequate competence to engage in english-only courses, ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 29 translanguaging practices frequently emerge as a common strategy in university settings, suggesting a need to examine its role and effectiveness in enhancing english learning. xiong’s (2019) findings underscore the essential function of translanguaging in bridging linguistic gaps. nevertheless, most previous studies have focused on urban or well-resourced academic settings (xiong, 2019; zhou et al., 2020; zhou, 2020; wang, 2021; wang 2022; zhang, 2022); and there has been comparatively less research on english language learning at the university level. leaving a gap in understanding how translanguaging is utilized in more linguistically diverse and socioeconomically challenged regions. research on under-represented regions, such as yunnan, the province with the most ethnic minorities in china (there are 55 ethnic minorities in china, distributed in 23 provinces and 5 autonomous regions, of which 25 are concentrated in yunnan province), where various local languages as well as mandarin impact english language acquisition, is still limited. moreover, there is a paucity of research examining both students’ and teachers’ perceptions of the utilisation of the target language and the mother tongue in bilingual educational settings. most studies have concentrated on either teachers or students as the primary focus. this study addresses a significant gap in the research on chinese undergraduate students, instructors and learners on both sides, while also considering the impact of geographical diversity. this study aims to fill these gaps by investigating translanguaging practices. the study examines the unique language learning environment at yunnan agricultural university and provides new insights into the translanguaging strategies used by teachers and students in this diverse environment. the objective of the study is to improve comprehension of how students and instructors perceive and implement translanguaging in the classroom and to better understand how both students and instructors perceive and apply translanguaging in their teaching and learning environments. this study examines the intentionality behind chinese university english instructors’ translanguaging practices and explores the attitudes of both students and instructors, offering a comprehensive perspective on the phenomenon. the research will address four key questions: (a) what are chinese undergraduates’ attitudes toward translanguaging in english classes? (b) how do university english instructors perceive translanguaging? (c) under what circumstances do chinese students and instructors practice translanguaging in the classroom? (d) how does the use of a native language affect communicative abilities in english for both students and instructors? ii. methods this study employed a mixed-methods approach, guided by vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978), which emphasizes the importance of social interaction in cognitive development, to explore translanguaging practices among instructors and students at yunnan agricultural university (yau). guided by vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978), which emphasizes the importance of social interaction in cognitive development. this theoretical framework was used to examine how translanguaging functions as a mediating tool in multilingual educational settings. both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are used to provide a comprehensive analysis of the translanguaging practices within the university. theoretical framework this study involves two concepts from vygotsky’s theory: the term “scaffolding help” refers to a type of learning support that includes the usage of the mother tongue. the mother tongue has the advantage of facilitating the building of scaffolding assistance” by students since it serves as an important psychological tool for learners. learners are thus able to construct a social and cognitive space in which they can utilise their mother tongue to assist one another in the completion of a task. another term ‘zone of proximal development’ is defined as the discrepancy between an individual’s actual and potential developmental levels. the objective of teaching should be to focus on the zone of proximal development of students, which provides valuable insights into university english teaching. these two concepts offer a practical and pragmatic framework for rethinking the role of translanguaging in second language acquisition. participants among the universities in yunnan, yunnan agricultural university recruits the most local students. taking the admission data released in 2021 as an example, the number of local students ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 30 administered online, and participants provided informed consent prior to participation. the wenjuanxing platform was used to automatically record responses, ensuring data accuracy and facilitating real-time monitoring of response rates. for qualitative data, thematic analysis was conducted to identify key themes and patterns within the participants’ responses. this systematic coding process ensured the reliability and depth of analysis, capturing the key themes that resonate with vygotsky’s emphasis on social interaction and cognitive development. the data was collected over a two-week period. to maintain consistency in data analysis, a bilingual research assistant translated questionnaire responses from chinese to english with descriptive statistics employed to summarise the findings, preserving participants’ nuances. quantitative data was converted from likert scale responses into percentages for cross-group student and instructor comparisons. qualitative data underwent thematic analysis in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding to identify recurring themes. two researchers independently coded a subset of the responses to assess inter-coder reliability, resulting in an agreement rate of 85%. this methodological approach is comprehensive and guarantees the reliability and validity of the results, giving a detailed comprehension of the functions of translanguaging in a multilingual educational setting. the analysis is enhanced by quantitative and qualitative data, laying the groundwork for similar educational settings. iii. results in order to find out the first research question of chinese undergraduates’ attitudes towards translanguaging in english classrooms, this study is based on a strict likert scale (table 1), which is used to measure the intensity of respondents’ feelings about this item (table 2) and set with four options: strongly agree (4 points), agree (3 points), disagree (2 points), and strongly disagree (1 point). admitted accounts for 90.6% of the total, and the number of ethnic minorities also far exceeds that of other schools. therefore, choosing yunnan agricultural university for research is more representative. the sample comprised 100 undergraduate students and 10 instructors from yunnan agricultural university. a stratified random sampling method was selected to ensure a representative cross-section of students across the university’s diverse linguistic and academic backgrounds. students were stratified by the ten public english courses offered each semester, and ten students per course were randomly selected to achieve a total of 100 participants. this method was chosen to reduce biases related to specific course content or instructional styles, ensuring a wellrounded perspective on translanguaging practices. purposive sampling was used for instructors. ten instructors were chosen based on two criteria: a minimum of ten years of teaching experience and active participation in english instruction, including courses that utilise translanguaging practices, which ensured the instructors had sufficient exposure to the relevant teaching strategies being studied (dörnyei, 2007). instruments the primary data collection tool was a chinese online questionnaire website—wenjuanxing (问卷 星), and the questionnaire was developed following dörnyei›s (2007) framework for designing research instruments in second language acquisition studies. the questionnaire consisted of two parts: closedended likert scale (likert,1932) questions that researchers have excluded the ‘neutral’ option to obtain better results to quantify the frequency and context of translanguaging practices, and openended questions designed to capture qualitative insights into the participants’ attitudes and experiences. the questionnaire was pilot tested with 15 students and 2 instructors and found to have strong internal consistency and acceptable reliability by using spss with a cronbach’s alpha between 0.7 and 0.9. pilot feedback led to minor question wording changes to improve clarity. procedure data collection was conducted in compliance with institutional regulations, following approval from the faculty of foreign languages at yunnan agricultural university. the questionnaire was table 1. likert scales (1932) attitudes mean score very positive attitude 3.28-4.00 positive attitude 2.52-3.27 negative attitude 1.76-2.51 very negative attitude 0.75-1.75 ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 31 table 2. undergraduates’ attitudes toward translanguaging in english classes statements strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree mean score 1. it would be easier for me to understand if the english instructor used the native language appropriately in the english classes 26% 47% 18% 9% 2.90 2. it is inappropriate for english instructors to use their native language in the english classes 28% 31% 29% 12% 2.75 3. instructors only use english in english classes i would consider the instructor more professional 36% 30% 24% 10% 2.92 4. instructors using only english in english classes can leave me potentially confused about parts of the lecture 42% 27% 17% 14% 2.97 5. the appropriate use of native language by english instructors in english classes will make me feel friendly and relaxed 38% 37% 14% 11% 3.02 6. using my native language when appropriate will help me better understand the class content 40% 38% 9% 13% 3.05 7. the instructor’s use of my native language in english classes will prevent me from improving my english skills. 31% 28% 23% 18% 2.72 8. instructors who only let undergraduates use english may cause stress. 32% 35% 22% 11% 2.88 the examination of the survey data, using a likert scale (table1), indicated that the average scores for statements 1 to 8 ranged from 2.52 to below 3.28. these findings suggest that undergraduate students possess a favourable disposition towards utilizing their native language in english classes. nevertheless, these findings also indicate a diverse viewpoint, as the scores demonstrate a certain level of ambivalence among the students. despite this overall positive attitude towards native language use in english classrooms, a sizable proportion of the cohort, approximately 66%, expressed a preference for an exclusively english-speaking classroom environment. most undergraduates have a psychological preference towards an immersive english language learning experience, as indicated by this point of view. this trend reflects the complexities of student attitudes in language education, where a balance of native language use and english immersion is both desired and difficult to achieve in practice. in fact, 59% of the undergraduates admitted that their language skills are insufficient, and 69% of the undergraduates felt that they might have difficulty understanding the class content if the instructor only spoke english, which indicates that they would express their native language in actual english classes. to address the second research question, the likert scale model was continued to explore instructors’ attitudes towards using translanguaging in english classrooms (table 3). the results indicated although instructors may encourage the utilization of chinese in english classes, this does not constitute official sanction. as table 3 above demonstrates, more than half of the instructors believed that utilizing the native language in the english classes was advantageous, and 80% of the instructors disagreed with the teaching approach of using just english and favoured the use of the native language in the english classes. also, 40% of instructors disagreed that utilizing the native language in english classes was beneficial. from this it can be deduced that most instructors emphasized the helpfulness of table 3. instructors’ attitudes towards using translanguaging in english classes questions strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree 1. it is beneficial for english instructors to use their undergraduates’ native language in english classes 10% 50% 40% 0% 2. instructors should use only english in english classes 0% 20% 50% 30% 3. the instructor is using native language in english classes, which will prevent undergraduates from improving their english skills 0% 10% 50% 40% ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 32 translanguaging in english classes. for answering the third research question, tables 4 and 5 detail the specific circumstances in which students and teachers use translanguaging. open-ended questionnaires were also designed to allow teachers and students to add other situations not mentioned in table 4 and 5, and only the responses of teachers adding additional situations were received (table 6). table 4 shows that for students, translanguaging is most frequently employed during group discussions, answering questions, and when clarifying difficult content. table 4 shows that only 10% to 20% of undergraduates in the 10 examples do not speak their native language. these findings show that most undergraduates use chinese in english classes. over half of surveyed undergraduates ask or suggest solutions in their native languages when facing english class challenges. when english instructors use chinese, 75% of undergraduates feel at ease and learn better. the goal of university english classes is to teach language history and culture, not just language acquisition. these two goals require classroom dynamics knowledge. undergraduates’ responses adhere to vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, revealing that a well-implemented translanguaging strategy in english classes can improve language proficiency and effectiveness in learning english. table 4. the circumstances for undergraduates use native language in english classes statements never not often often very often 1. i use native language in english classes when doing group discussions on the tasks assigned by the instructor 11% 25% 38% 26% 2. i use native language when answering the instructor’s questions in english classes 20% 23% 24% 33% 3. i use native language when i ask the undergraduates next to me in english classes some relevant questions 20% 14% 35% 31% 4. i use native language when brainstorming in the english class activities 16% 20% 43% 21% 5. i use native language when i help other undergraduates in english class activities. 13% 18% 56% 13% 6. i use native language when i ask a question to the english instructor alone for an answer in english classes 12% 17% 46% 25% 7. i use native language when i ask my english instructor for help when i don’t understand an assignment in english classes. 10% 19% 41% 30% 8. i do not understand the tasks set by the english instructor and use native language when i ask the english instructor questions. 14% 17% 34% 35% 9. i don’t understand something in english classes and use native language when asking questions to the english instructor 17% 15% 36% 32% 10. i use native language when i want to remind the english instructor of something in english classes (e.g. remind the instructor that it’s time to leave class.) 16% 16% 37% 31% table 5. the circumstances for instructors using native language in english classes circumstances never sometimes often always 1. to explain the concept 10% 40% 50% 0% 2. to describe new vocabulary 10% 60% 30% 0% 3. to provide guidance 20% 60% 20% 0% 4. to maintain class discipline 30% 30% 40% 0% 5. to give feedback to undergraduates 0% 40% 50% 10% 6. to praise undergraduates 40% 30% 30% 0% 7. to build bonds with undergraduates 10% 30% 60% 0% 8. to help low-proficiency undergraduates 10% 40% 40% 10% 9. to quickly clarify during activities 20% 60% 20% 0% 10. to ease the atmosphere of the class 0% 60% 40% 0% 11. to talk about personal experience 0% 60% 40% 0% 12. to empower undergraduates’ interests 0% 70% 30% 0% ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 33 thus, undergraduates psychologically request that instructors use the target language, but they use their native language. the results of table 4 imply that using the mother tongue as a bridge to be learning a second language is helpful for english learning at the undergraduate level. the native language can also improve undergraduates’ scaffolding help learning, helping them learn a foreign language. there were 12 scenarios (table 5) in which instructors could use their native language in english classes, covering a wide range of situations. given the small sample size, the data was displayed as a headcount immediately after collection. as for instructors, translanguaging is often used to explain concepts, provide guidance, and build rapport with students. table 5 demonstrates that the number of instructors who answered “never” does not reach 50%. it showed that more than half of the english instructors used chinese in their english classes. for example, 60% of instructors use their native language to greet undergraduates and 50% use it to provide feedback. 60% of instructors use their native language more than necessary to understand english classes content better when explaining difficult points, giving instructions, describing class activities, or sharing personal experiences. second, instructors combine english classes with their native language to facilitate individual learning and understanding. according to the instructors, the native language helps undergraduates assimilate english teachings. by instructing in the native language, instructors can better comprehend the requirements of their undergraduates. in addition, to compensate for the potential exclusion of the 12 circumstances (table 5) listed above, the questionnaire was developed to include supplementary questions (table 6) enabling 10 instructors to add additional situations in which they would also utilize chinese during english classes. table 6 highlights supplementary circumstances where instructors engage with undergraduate students in chinese to clarify misunderstandings or address specific classroom needs. these circumstances include pointing out students’ errors, comparing english and chinese language structures, responding to requests for explanations in the native language, evaluating homework, and teaching foreign literature. the data from table 6 indicate that instructors use chinese as a tool to connect concepts between english and american literature, as well as to draw meaningful comparisons between the two languages and their respective cultures. in these supplementary situations, the native language plays a crucial role in facilitating communication, enhancing student engagement, and ensuring that instructions are clear and comprehensible. this practice focuses not only on language usage, but primarily on cultivating a harmonious and inclusive linguistic atmosphere within english classes. the native language should not impede second-language learning; rather, it should act as a scaffold to support the learner. when used appropriately, the native language aids in acquiring a second language. however, effective language instruction requires a balanced integration of both theory and practice. while translanguaging offers benefits, such as improved comprehension and reduced anxiety, it must be carefully managed to avoid potential drawbacks. in english classes, the native language is a valuable tool, but the goal is to enhance communication in english. the success of language learning often depends on the instructor’s ability to adapt their language use to the students’ proficiency levels and class context. instructors should adjust the balance between native language and english based on classroom needs, ensuring that the native language serves as a temporary scaffold that can be gradually removed. strategic use of the native language helps students internalize challenging concepts and fosters confidence in their english abilities. furthermore, teaching in the native language, when done scientifically and rationally, can stimulate english thinking and help students overcome feelings of inferiority. this highlights why an table 6. supplementary circumstances in which instructors use students’ native language in class (open-ended responses) supplementary circumstances (i=instructor) 1. point out the problems of undergraduates (i2) 2. when instructors need to compare english and chinese languages (i6) 3. pointing out mistakes (i10) 4. when undergraduates ask the instructor to use native language (i3) 5. to evaluate undergraduates’ homework. (i4) 6. when teaching foreign literature (i8) ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 34 all-english classroom may not be ideal in the context of china. however, this does not suggest that the native language should dominate english instruction. instead, a balanced, strategic use of the native language can enhance learning without compromising the goal of english proficiency. to answer the fourth research question, which further explores the reasons for and effects of translanguaging in the english classes. table 7 and table 9 explore how the use of the native language affects communicative abilities in english. the data reveals a dual impact: while translanguaging supports comprehension and reduces anxiety, it can also lead to dependency on the native language, potentially limiting students’ opportunities to practice and develop their english-speaking skills. learning, aiding comprehension and engagement. using only english in classes, without considering students’ proficiency levels, can cause significant psychological stress, leading to feelings of being overwhelmed and potentially threatening their cultural identity. to delve deeper into research question (d), we posed an open-ended question to the participants to explore their views on how using their native language in english classes might hinder their improvement in english. the responses are summarized in table 8. table 7. chinese undergraduates to use native language in english classes (open-ended questions) what are your reasons for using your native language in english classes? 1. because we all speak our native language in our lives, it would be strange and awkward to communicate with classmates in a language other than our native language. 2. when asking my instructor, a question, i am afraid that i cannot express clearly what i really want to ask in english. 3. because english speaking is not very good, it is efficient to discuss in native language. 4. not good enough to speak english. 5. not confident in using english. according to table 7, students identified five main reasons for preferring to use their native language in english classes. primarily, the abrupt transition from daily communication in chinese to english in the classroom causes discomfort, which is rooted in china’s dominant language environment. additionally, using english outside of class is often perceived as pretentious by peers, further discouraging its use. while the reasons vary, they are generally linked to a lack of confidence in english proficiency, leading students to avoid using english to prevent embarrassment. this reliance on their native language helps them feel more comfortable and effective when asking questions or engaging in discussions, particularly in situations outlined in table 4. instructors also noted the potential drawbacks of frequent native language use, such as creating an “inertia” that can hinder the development of english language skills. however, the native language can also serve as a crucial scaffold for second language table 8. impact of native language use on english communicative abilities among undergraduates (open-ended responses) what are the reasons using your native language in english classes might hinder your ability to communicate in english? 1. dependence on native language and failure to improve oral english. 2. it is easy to form inertial thinking in native language. 3. we do not get any exercise in speaking and listening if we use of native language long-term. this table shows student responses to the open-ended question about how using their native language in english classes may hinder their english communication. three main concerns emerged from the responses. first, undergraduates concerned about dependency because overusing the native language can hinder oral english improvement. second, students indicate “inertial thinking” in their native language prevents them from developing english thinking patterns for fluency. third, students emphasize that long-term use of the native language limits their english speaking and listening practice, which is essential to language acquisition. due to cultural and linguistic reasons, chinese undergraduates get used to translating chinese into english before they say it, which can easily result in thinking in chinese and making it difficult to develop english thinking. for example, chinese undergraduates often say “i very like you” in chinese, while “i like you very much” is the standard english expression. “i really like you” is not grammatically incorrect, but it is not in keeping with english idioms. to gain insights into research question (d), which explores how the use of native language in english classes impacts the communicative abilities of both instructors and students, we asked instructors to provide their ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 35 chinese university students’ attitudes towards translanguaging in english classrooms. undergraduate students generally held positive attitudes towards the use of their mother tongue in english classrooms, but more than half of them still preferred an english-only environment. however, students also acknowledged that their language skills were insufficient, which led to difficulties in comprehension, reflecting the contradictions and challenges between the use of the mother tongue and immersive teaching. the results align with existing research on translanguaging, particularly in its ability to enhance students’ sense of security and comfort, reduce psychological pressure in englishonly environments (muhammet & kenan, 2021), and promote bilingualism and multilingualism alongside academic content learning (zhou et al. 2020; khairuunisa & iwa 2020). the positive attitudes observed among students suggest that they perceive translanguaging as a valuable tool for understanding complex material and navigating language barriers. for instance, a significant proportion of students (75%) reported feeling more relaxed and capable of understanding the content when instructors used chinese in the classroom. this finding is consistent with previous research by xiong (2019), which highlighted the supportive role of the native language in second language acquisition. the second research question explored university teachers’ attitudes towards translanguaging in english classrooms. the results showed that, in general, teachers were positive about using their mother tongue in english classes and believed that this practice helped english learning, but also acknowledged that excessive use of the mother tongue could hinder students’ english learning. the third research question explored the classroom application of translanguaging. the research suggests that translanguaging can help students understand difficult concepts, reduce anxiety, and improve english language learning, but it can also lead to overreliance on the first language and reduce opportunities for oral english practice. teachers must balance the use of both languages to support learning and boost students’ confidence. this study extends the general findings of other studies by analysing specific contexts in which translanguaging is most effective (tables 4, 5 and 6). namely, that students with lower english table 9. impact of native language use on english communicative abilities among instructors (openended responses) if you think the use of native language in english classes is beneficial for undergraduates, please give at least one reason. (i=instructor) when pointing out problems with undergraduates, it is more effective to communicate in the native language (i2, i6) bridging the gap between two languages for second language learnersii3, i7i the use of native language helps undergraduates understand obscure grammar and concepts (i4, i8) cultural exchange (i1, i9) when teaching foreign literature, some experts suggest that it should be taught in the native language (i5, i10) if you think the use of native language in english classes will prevent undergraduates from improving their english skills, please give at least one reason. (i=instructor) dependency (i1, i8, i5) undergraduates need a lot of language input for their language skills to improve (i2, i7, i10) undergraduates are reluctant to paraphrase after developing a dependency (i3, i9) thinking in native language can hinder the ability to express oneself in english (i4, i6) table 9 shows that instructors of english priorities using their native language when explaining complex issues or grammar points. this strategic use of chinese clarifies difficult material and bridges linguistic gaps to improve student understanding. the application of translanguaging in subjects requiring intercultural competence, such as english and american literature, is especially effective. instructors help students understand cultural differences in literature by comparing chinese and western literary forms. this practice helps students understand complex literary concepts and improves their analytical skills, allowing them to distinguish eastern and western literary traditions. the targeted use of translanguaging in this context demonstrates its utility as a pedagogical tool that supports comprehensive learning outcomes, fostering both linguistic proficiency and intercultural awareness. iv. discussion the first research question explored reasons for using or avoiding the native language in their teaching. their responses, categorized into reasons for and against the use of the native language, are summarized in table 9. ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 36 proficiency levels tend to use translanguaging as a mechanism to cope with language anxiety, suggesting that teachers should adapt language use to the individual needs of students to avoid overreliance. these findings are consistent with takaki’s (2019) research, which showed how translanguaging can enhance creativity and engagement through multimodal and intercultural elements. similarly, uddling and warren’s (2023) research suggested that spontaneous translanguaging in linguistically diverse classrooms can enhance learning outcomes, as observed at yunnan agricultural university where students used their mother tongue to engage with challenging academic content, further evidencing the importance of flexible, contextsensitive approaches to language teaching and learning. furthermore, kelvin’s (2024) research supported the use of technology to enable strategic translanguaging, thereby creating a richer, interactive learning environment. overall, the findings highlight the potential of translanguaging to promote active participation, critical thinking and dynamic learning, as supported by kelvin’s (2024a) concept of ‘translanguaging’, which aligns with the questionnaire results that teachers at yunnan agricultural university switch roles between teaching and co-learning and utilise students’ linguistic resources to improve classroom interactions. the fourth research question explored the impact of translanguaging strategies on students and teachers. findings suggest that students use their first language for reasons including lack of confidence in english, avoidance of embarrassment and cultural influences. while first language use can help reduce classroom stress and understand complex content, overreliance can hinder the development of spoken english and thinking in english. teachers’ use of first language to explain difficult concepts can help with understanding, but a balance needs to be struck to avoid overreliance and promote intercultural awareness. seals (2021) emphasised the transformative potential of translanguaging to empower students and challenge monolingual bias. the results confirm this view, showing that strategic translanguaging not only promotes understanding, but also empowerment by validating students’ linguistic backgrounds. jenny and anne (2023) pointed out that translanguaging can reduce language stress and simplify academic content. the findings further reveal a challenge rarely reported in the literature, namely that overreliance on the mother tongue may hinder the development of critical thinking skills in advanced english. all of the findings discussed above can be better understood through the lens of vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (1978), which posits that interpersonal interactions and cultural resources significantly impact cognitive development. translanguaging plays a key role in promoting understanding and the development of higher cognitive abilities. at yunnan agricultural university, translanguaging not only enhanced students’ comprehension but also promoted cognitive development. the study emphasises the need for teachers to balance the use of translanguaging to avoid hindering english learning. this strategic approach, which combines methodological and critical pedagogies, requires further research on how to adapt to different learning environments. the effectiveness of bilingual education depends on the language, cultural and institutional backgrounds of the learners, so translanguaging strategies need to be studied in greater depth to enhance students’ critical thinking and language comprehension skills. while most prior research (zhou & gao, 2021) has concentrated on translanguaging in urban, well-resourced universities, our study examines its dynamics in a less-studied, diverse linguistic environment. this study adds a significant socioeconomic and geographical aspect to the literature on translanguaging, indicating that the advantages and challenges of translanguaging might differ according to institutional and regional contexts. v. conclusion this study investigated the role of translanguaging as both a supportive scaffold and a strategic instructional tool in english classrooms at yunnan agricultural university. the findings demonstrate that the mother tongue, rather than acting as a barrier, serves as a valuable resource for enhancing comprehension and reducing students’ anxiety. pedagogically, this suggests that a balanced use of translanguaging can aid in developing students’ english proficiency by easing their transition into complex language tasks, while also promoting autonomous, higher-order thinking. teachers should adjust the ratio of native language and english based on lesson objectives, student ke xin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 37 proficiency, and classroom dynamics, allowing the mother tongue to support—not replace— target language development. yunnan agricultural university was chosen as the focus of this study due to its unique linguistic diversity and socioeconomic setting, which is representative of underresearched, non-metropolitan educational contexts in china. this study provides insights that may be applicable to similar educational settings, where linguistic diversity and varying proficiency levels pose challenges to english language instruction. future research should extend these findings across diverse educational contexts to assess the long-term impact of translanguaging on language acquisition and cognitive development, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of its role in global language education. ethics statement this study was conducted in accordance with ethical standards outlined in the declaration of helsinki. informed consent was obtained from all participants (students and instructors) prior to data collection. the research adhered to the ethical guidelines of yunnan agricultural university for studies involving human subjects. credit author statement ke xin conducted the field research, performed data collection, and carried out the statistical analysis. yap teng teng provided the main direction and overall guidance for the article, contributing to the research focus and conceptual design of the study. both authors collaborated closely to ensure the rigor and quality of the final manuscript. acknowleagement the authors express their sincere gratitude to the instructors and students at yunnan agricultural university who participated 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(2020). translanguaging in l3 spanish classrooms: practices and attitudes. shen, qi and xuesong (andy) gao (eds.) multilingualism in chinese universities. círculo de lingüística aplicada a la comunicación, 84, 65-75. https://doi.org/10.5209/ clac.71996 maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 227 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 11, 2024 final revision: june 14, 2025 accepted: june 15, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 children’s literature plays a crucial role in shaping young minds by constructing and representing gender roles and expectations. in classic stories, the male protagonists are usually active, adventurous, and solvers of problems, whereas the female roles are supporting, nurturing, and waiting to be rescued. this study seeks to examine images of femininity and power relations in society dealt with in children’s literature through its female characters’ levels of agency, power, and children-related roles. the data of the study involves selected excerpts from the classic children’s literature “sindbad, the sailor’s seven voyages” written anonymously in (1835) in “the arabian nights’ entertainments” by philadelphia/thomas wardle. connell’s (1987) model of power and gender is adopted for the analysis where nine excerpts are randomly selected from the seven voyages stories of sindbad. each excerpt is given, then the effects of themes like authority, financial inequality, and social norms on both family and society are reflected along with discussion for each analysis. it is concluded that the traditional children’s literature often reinforces patriarchal norms, particularly in the portrayal of femininity and power dynamics. female characters are often marginalised and used as tools to maintain male authority, reinforcing traditional gender roles and limiting female agency. hence, the findings imply that sindbad the sailor’s story reflects a world shaped by patriarchal power, with women showing little economic power, not much authority, and being stuck in roles based on traditional gender norms. the conclusion proves the given hypothesis. keywords children’s literature, femininity, gender, power correspondence *e-mail: alihussein@uohamdaniya.edu.iq article gendered narratives in children’s literature: analyzing femininity and power maha m. al-gailany1, abeer khalaf hussein2, ali hussein hazem3* 1department of english, college of arts, university of mosul, iraq 2open educational college, nineveh, ministry of education, iraq 3department of english, college of education for humanities, university of al-hamdaniya, iraq under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.227-237.2025 i. introduction children’s literature plays a crucial role in shaping a child’s mind and emotions, as it directly and indirectly influences their responses and achieves desired goals. regmi (2024: 65) defines children’s literature “as a genre encompasses a wide range of works including acknowledged classics of world literature, picture books, stories (fairy tales, fables and others), poems and other primarily orally transmitted materials intended for and used by children and young people”. the first one who considered children’s literature as a genre in its own right is perry nodelman (regmi, 2024: 66). the child’s mind is malleable and can be shaped as desired, making it a blank page for educators and writers to write about. parents and educators play a significant role in shaping a child’s behavior and actions, and children’s literature is closely linked to the family (baregish, 1996:43; yoon, 2020; bell and o’sullivan, 2005). in the current study, this genre, as a kind of discourse, is approached discoursally. according to fairclough (1989: 36), “discourse is a mode of action, one form in which people may act upon the world and especially upon each other”. gill (2000: 172) writes that discourse analysis includes a range of approaches to studying texts, each approach is rooted in different theoretical traditions maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 228 and disciplinary contexts. in addition, discourse analysis is an effective tool for investigating how language is used, illuminating how power and authority are exercised and policies are communicated (widdowson, 1995 in hussein et al, 2024:126; also hussein et al, 2025; abdurrahman et al, 2023; see also estaifo et al, 2023). this approach allows researchers to explore the ways in which language shapes and reflects social realities, power dynamics, and institutional practices. hence, studying children’s literature from a discourse analysis perspective opens the way to analyzing gender, power and social norms in such genre (see also nel and christensen, 2021). traditionally, children literature conveys messages that are affected by social norms and culture, especially those related to gender and power. according to beall (1993: 144), gender is both culturally and individually constructed: “cultures distinguish between two or more genders and organize beliefs and activities according to these categories. individuals are influenced by the existence of these categories and their perceptions of the world are organized according to them”. as for power and authority, they are basic culturally inbuilt themes in children literature. baker and ellece (2010: 99) states that power is the ability to control environment, lives of oneself and those of others. in children literature, there is a clear focus on creating different criteria for distinguishing between masculinity and femininity. masculinity is often associated with traits like strength, violence, and aggression, often equated with nature or ‘nature’ in sexual contexts. in contrast, femininity is characterized by beauty, nonviolence, emotional softness, and obedience, often aligned with ‘culture’. masculinity is often associated with competitiveness, protectiveness, power, independence, and analytical thinking, while femininity is associated with self-effacement, caring, vulnerability, powerlessness, dependence, passivity, and qualitative thinking. these schemata reflect enduring societal norms and the ongoing struggle to redefine gender roles and attributes (stephens, 1996: 18 19). therefore, children’s literature is particularly effective in constructing and representing gender roles and expectations. historically, classic stories have frequently depicted male characters as embodying traits of activity, adventure, and problem-solving prowess, while female characters are often relegated to roles characterized by passivity, nurturing instincts, and a need for rescue (crisp and hiller, 2011: 20-25). recent research continues to highlight the persistence of these patterns; studies analyzing contemporary children’s picture books confirm the prevalence of gender stereotypes, where male characters are overrepresented and portrayed as dominant and active, while female characters remain marginalized or confined to traditional roles such as caregivers or princesses (qiu and yoke, 2024). such portrayals reflect and reinforce societal biases, potentially limiting children’s understanding of gender possibilities. however, there is a growing trend in contemporary literature to challenge these established norms. narratives featuring strong, independent female protagonists or sensitive, empathetic male characters are increasingly common, offering alternative models that can broaden children’s perspectives and encourage the acceptance of a wider spectrum of behaviors and interests beyond rigid gender lines. the representation of domestic units and the language used within children’s literature further contribute to the formation of gender understanding (stephens, 1992: 67-69; lehr, 2001: 45-48). while conventional plots often center on nuclear families with clearly defined, traditional roles, modern stories increasingly feature diverse family structures. yet, the subtle, and sometimes overt, ways gender stereotypes are perpetuated remain a concern. for instance, descriptions often emphasize female beauty versus male strength or intelligence. large-scale analyses of contemporary children’s books reveal that they contain significant linguistic gender bias; many words commonly used are judged by adults as distinctly masculine or feminine, often aligning with established stereotypes. semantic analyses show clusters of words associated with femininity relating to emotions and interpersonal interactions, while masculineassociated clusters relate more to tools, professions, and physical actions. this suggests that children’s books serve as an early and potentially powerful, albeit often inadvertent, vehicle for transmitting gendered associations and stereotypes (lewis et al., 2021). the responsibility, therefore, falls upon maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 229 educators, authors, and publishers to critically evaluate and consciously select or create stories that challenge the status quo, offering more equitable and representative portrayals to help dismantle narrow, stereotypical views of gender among young readers (qiu and yoke, 2024). for other critical discourse, see (kid, 2016; anand and hsu 2020; chung et al, 2024; ogungbemi, 2024; smith, 2025; xiang, 2025; despite the acknowledged influence of these narratives and ongoing research highlighting the issue (e.g., lewis et al., 2021; qiu and yoke, 2024), a critical examination of the specific gendered storytelling technique, particularly concerning the complex interplay of femininity and power within diverse cultural contexts, remains necessary. this study addresses this gap by analyzing narratives of femininity and power within a specific example of non-western children’s literature, focusing on their implications for gender equity and the reinforcement or challenging of societal structures. the research aims to answer the following questions: (i) what are the specific constructions of femininity and power in the selected children’s literature (sindbad the sailor), with particular focus on female characters’ agency and authority? (ii) how do these narratives challenge or reinforce traditional gender roles and patriarchal structures, considering the cultural and societal influences that shape them, and what is their potential impact on young readers’ perceptions of gender and power? to answer those questions, the study adopts connell’s (1987) mosel, which focuses on the relationship between separation of labor (economic difference), structures of power (authority and control), and structure of sentiment (norms). this model provides a clear sociological view for exploring how traditional gender roles and social norms are dealt within the narrative understudy. applying such model allows for an exploration of how these dimensions form the characters’ experiences and the underlying societal messages in sindbad’s tales. it facilitates an analysis of power imbalances, social class implications, and the ways the narrative supports or contests dominant masculine. the study hypothesizes that this example of conventional children’s literature, rooted in a specific cultural and historical context, reflects traditional notions of femininity, often depicting women in ways that align with patriarchal standards, portraying them as subordinate or instrumental to male characters. both the dynamics of power and the depiction of femininity within literature are understood as socially constructed values that significantly influence, and are influenced by, the prevailing gender relations within a society. this study tries to fill a gap in literature by utilizing a rigorous theoretical framework to examine gender and power in a non-western children’s literature sindbad’s story through the perspective of femininity. it seeks to analyze female agency, economic and social power dichotomies, and the patriarchal society within the given adventure narrative. such studies focus on non-western cultural stories that have been traditionally ignored in gender studies like western ones. unlike other literary works that reinforce patriarchy (qiu and yoke, 2024; lewis et al., 2021), this study aims at providing a more clear understanding of such traditional literature. findings are expected to make clear how such literature relates the values of their cultures while reinforcing dominantly accepted notions in such societies. ii. methods this study employs a qualitative textual analysis approach to investigate the constructions of femininity and power within the selected children’s literature, specifically “the story of sindbad the sailor and his seven voyages” as found within common english translations of the arabian nights (or one thousand and one nights). the study design focuses on interpreting the narrative through the theoretical lens of raewyn connell’s (1987) model of gender and power to address the research questions regarding female characters’ agency, authority, and the reinforcement or challenge of patriarchal structures. the model consists of three parts that combine to examine how (financial inequality, authority and structure of the social norms) shape the characters’ lives and societal message. mbonu et al (2010: 3-5) discuss those three parts as follows: first, financial inequality suggests that women frequently depend on their husbands for money. women’s low financial position makes them even more helpless than men. second, authority, accordingly, means that women are always marginalized in one way or another. either as a cause or as a consequence of the power difference, men have a dominant attitude finally, the structure of the social norms maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 230 the structure of social norms (analyzing cultural expectations, gendered ideologies, and emotional relationships). data analysis is conducted through an interpretive qualitative process. nine excerpts are analyzed through studying the effect of gender, authority and social norms on the familial level and on the social level to identify patterns in the portrayal of femininity and masculinity, the scope of agency afford to female characters, and the ways in which power is distributed and exercised along gender lines within the narrative. the analysis focuses on how specific events, character dialogues, descriptions, and plot developments align with or illustrate the concepts within connell’s (1987) model. the analysis aims to connect the textual evidence directly to the research questions, evaluating how the sindbad tales construct, reinforce, or potentially challenge traditional gender roles and patriarchal values within their specific cultural and historical context. the analysis seeks to provide a detailed, theoretically grounded reading of the text, moving beyond surface-level descriptions to explore the underlying structural dynamics of gender and power as represented in this classic work of children’s literature. iii. results the result of the data analysis are presented below: financial inequality the following are examples of financial recommends men to go to work and therefore they are not expected to stay by the bedside. most men need to continue providing for their families even when their wives are sick; in contrast, most married women are housewives, so they are likely to stay in the wards with their sick husbands. the figure below summarizes the interplay of these three dimensions in shaping gender roles and power dynamics within the text. as a sample for children’s literature, the data to be analyzed in this study are selected tales from the arabian nights, especially the story of sindbad, the sailor which includes his seven voyages tales. each voyage represents a tale in itself. sindbad’s voyages serve as a case study for examining how issues related to gender and power are interlaced with culture and how these discourses reinforce or deviate from sociocratic paradigms. the analytical procedure involves several stages. initially, the full narrative of the seven voyages is read thoroughly to gain a comprehensive understanding of the plot, characters, and recurring themes. subsequently, the text is systematically examined to identify all instances featuring female characters, descriptions of gender roles, and representations of power relations (including economic status, authority figures, and social expectations). these relevant sections and excerpts are coded according to the three key dimensions of connell’s (1987) model: the division of labor (including financial inequality and economic dependence), structures of authority (examining decision-making power, control in relationships, and institutional dominance), and figure 1. connell’s (1987) three parts structural model maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 231 inequality and its effect on family and society: excerpt (1) “ my father left me a considerable estate, the best part of which i spent in debauchery during my youth; but i perceived my error, and reflected that riches were perishable, and quickly consumed by such ill managers as myself.” (voy.1, p. 208) effect: on family: family instability on society : societal expectations cause: careless inheritance sindbad’s financial struggles impact his family’s economic stability, requiring patriarchal male intervention. his carelessness with his inheritance puts his family at risk, leading to reckless financial decisions. sindbad’s actions are influenced by the patriarchal system, which disproportionately burdens men and vulnerable women. the narrative critiques this system, highlighting its instability and cyclical nature. the relationship between financial privilege, patriarchal responsibility, and social expectations shapes gender dynamics. sindbad’s misusing of his inherited wealth demonstrates the unpredictable nature of financial balance in patriarchal societies, where wealth is linked to social status and respect. excerpt (2) “i began to gather together the largest diamonds that i could see, and put them into the leathern bag in which i used to carry my provisions” (voy.2, p. 217) effect: on family: family reliance on society : wealth idolization cause: patriarchal provision the patriarchal nature of society places men as primary providers for the family, leading to financial stability through their diamond acquisition. sindbad’s diamond acquisition supports the family, which is economically reliant on him. this excerpt mirrors the modern society where wealth and success are the ultimate goals. sindbad’s calculated response to wealth accumulation, driven by instinctive recognition of its value, highlights societal expectations that reward risk-taking for financial gain. the use of a provisions bag to store precious gems further emphasizes the prioritization of material wealth over basic security. the story symbolizes success in wealth and society, reflecting the traditional gendered division where men are the primary providers of money to the family. the analysis highlights the interplay between adventure, gender roles, and capitalism in children’s literature, and how it impacts attitudes on success, responsibility, and gendered roles in historical and present-day contexts. excerpt (3) “the blacks gave us that herb at first on purpose to deprive us of our senses, that we might not be aware of the sad destiny prepared for us; and they gave us rice on purpose to fatten us; for, being cannibals, their design was to eat us as soon as we grew fat.” (voy.4, p. 228) effect: on family: emotional/physical sufferin on society : societal imbalance cause: economic disparity sindbad and his companions were exploited by cannibals, highlighting the societal imbalance of power and inequality. the cannibals, driven by extreme social and economic disparity, resort to ruthless measures for survival, often resulting in violence. the trauma inflicted on sindbad and his companions mirrors the plight of those in economically unstable societies, where survival often comes at the cost of dignity and safety. the passage critiques societal failures and the urgent need for equitable structures to prevent cycles of violence and despair. the cannibals used drugs to fatten their victims, highlighting the financial inequality and lack of job opportunities in patriarchal societies. authority the following are examples of authority and its effect on family and society: excerpt (4) “the giant failed not to come back, and supped once more upon one of our companions; after which he slept, and snored till day, and then went out, and left us as formerly”. (voy.3, p. 222) effect: on family: family instability on society : fear, violence cause: power imbalance the excerpt critiques the brutal hierarchy in sindbad’s third voyage, highlighting the power imbalance and fear that drives the giant’s systematic killing of sindbad’s companions. the unchallenged authority of the giant deepens systemic instability maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 232 and emotional shattered families, perpetuating a class divide. the lack of equitable governance and collective resistance further exacerbates the oppression, highlighting the devastation of families and social cohesion in societies that normalize such oppression. the excerpt shows how strongly the giant is controlling sindbad and his companions, destroying family patterns and increasing emotional and economic suffering. women and children become more subject to poverty and ill-treatment. the giant’s region of terror imitates the sultan’s region, where he exercises power of authority to achieve unjust and violence among his people, making them live fear all the time. excerpt (5) “the old man perceiving the effects which this drink had upon me, and that i carried him with more ease than i did before, made a sign to me to give him some of it” (voy.5, p. 240) effect: on family: family well-being on society : powerless exploitation cause: systemic oppression the excerpt critiques the old man’s control over sindbad, highlighting the societal expectation of men to endure hardship for their roles. it also highlights the issue of authority figures exploiting individuals for their own benefit, often at the cost of their families’ well-being. the excerpt highlights the hierarchical order where power is concentrated among the few, with marginalized individuals paying the price through exploitation and lost autonomy. the old man’s manipulation of sindbad’s altered state is a powerful example of exploitation, as he exploits it for his own benefit. the excerpt critiques exploitation, both personal and systemic, highlighting how seemingly innocuous gestures can reinforce oppression and imbalance. the text highlights the societal expectation of men to endure hardship for their roles as providers and protectors. excerpt (6) “the caliph, said he, has sent me to tell you, that he must speak with you. i followed the officer to the palace, where being presented to the caliph, i saluted him, by prostrating myself at his feet” (voy.7, p. 250) effect: on family: family instability on society : centralized power cause: unchecked authority the excerpt from sindbad’s seventh voyage highlights the oppressive nature of centralized authority in a family setting. the caliph’s absolute power, despite his life-threatening task, disrupts sindbad’s family life, causing emotional distress and sacrificing personal freedom. this reflects a society where power is centralized in the hands of a few, with obedience to authority valued over individual autonomy. the caliph’s absolute authority reinforces hierarchical relationships, with those in power holding significant control over others. resistance to authority is enforced through social norms and expectations, with consequences for resistance. the passage highlights the cycle of subjugation and marginalization of the powerless, perpetuating a rigid hierarchy and a culture of enforced obedience. structure of social norms the following are examples of the structure of social norms and its effect on family and society: excerpt (7) “they assured me, that every night a noise of drums was heard there, whence the mariners fancied that it was the residence of degial. i had a great mind to see this wonderful place, and in my way thither saw fishes of 100 and 200 cubits long, that occasion more fear than hurt; for they are so fearful, that they will fly upon the rattling of two sticks or boards. i saw likewise other fishes about a cubit in length, that had heads like owls” (voy.2, p. 211) effect: on family: family migration on society : socioeconomic struggle cause: patriarchal drive sindbad, a subset of explorers and thrill seekers, exacerbates socioeconomic struggles by forcing families to migrate for wealth and fame. this leads to instability and suffering, as sindbad permanently leaves his home. his explorations challenge societal norms, such as the dominance of nature and the pursuit of riches. the text critiques a cultural view prioritizing wealth and discovery over familial stability, revealing a patriarchal drive to conquer nature and accumulate wealth. sindbad’s defiance of these fears destabilizes families and reinforces exploitative societal norms. the text highlights the tension between societal beliefs regarding monetary success and individual aspiration, with the masculinity drive for wealth and adventure expanding beyond immediate patriarchal values. this worldview exacerbates the threat of instability and the subjugation of nature and fortune. maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 233 excerpt (8) “i have a mind thou shouldst marry, replied he, that so thou mayst stay in my dominion, and think no more of thy own country” (voy.4, p. 230 -231) effect: on family: family bonds on society : gender roles cause: king’s manipulation the king’s manipulation of sindbad through marriage disrupts his family’s stability and reflects societal issues of patriarchal authority overriding individual autonomy. the king’s use of women for control places a burden on families, forcing men like sindbad to conform to societal expectations at the cost of their happiness and stability. this exemplifies how social norms in patriarchal societies maintain male authority and control over women, resulting in women being excluded from power positions and treated as bargaining chips. the king’s use of a woman in marriage not only reflects the marginalization of women but also reinforces rigid gender roles that sustain male dominance, highlighting gender inequality and societal power structures. the excerpt criticizes a social order that puts control over freedom, keeping systemic inequality going. excerpt (9) “the living husband is interred with the dead wife, and the living wife with the dead husband. nothing can save me; everyone must submit to this law” (voy.5, p. 231) effect: on family: family disruption on society : oppressive norms cause: brutal tradition the excerpt discusses the challenges of burying the dead living, highlighting the oppressive social norms and lack of self-esteem in society. wives and husbands are forced to die together, and disrupting a family with living parents worsens survival chances. social values can be abusive, creating emotional and financial turmoil for families without earning members and love. the excerpt highlights the systemic methodologies used to control the feeble, with the few at the top having all the resources to control the rest. this brutal burial ritual in sindbad reflects a culture that uses tradition for power, causing emotional devastation, family instability, financial ruin, and psychological trauma. the qualitative textual analysis of sindbad the sailor’s seven voyages, organized according to connell’s (1987) framework of gender and power, reveals patterns in the representation of femininity, agency, authority, and power dynamics related to female characters within the narrative. the analysis shows repeated patterns indicating substantial gender-based economic inequality, with feminine characters often presented in economically vulnerable positions or subjected to economic dependence upon masculine characters. their economic agency is mostly restricted, and resources and wealth are mainly exercised and transferred between men. female characters are often impliedly or explicitly treated as wealth or commodities, bought and transferred through men’s actions, solidifying their inferior economic position. self-contained economic action or influence over important resources by female characters was the exception rather than the rule among the voyages examined. the analysis also shows that female characters are mostly portrayed in ways that stick to oldfashioned social norms, such as being passive, focused on home life, looking a certain way, and being defined by their relationships with men. these stories often push the idea that women should behave in a certain “feminine” way, playing symbolic roles tied to marriage, keeping the family line going, or acting as temptation. the emotional tone in these stories supports these traditional ideas, while the spotlight stays on male characters, with their adventures and heroism taking centre stage, pushing female experiences to the background and keeping men in the dominant role. hence, the analysis reveals that sindbad the sailor’s stories reflect a world shaped by patriarchal power, with women showing little economic power, not much authority, and being stuck in roles based on traditional gender norms. iv. discussion this examination viewed the intersection of power and femininity in the seven voyages of sindbad through the lens of connell’s (1987) framework and, to an extent, it corroborates the initial hypothesis as it validates other research on gender biases in children’s literature. the analysis reveals a distinct trend in the female character’s attributes – they are largely passive or peripheral, maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 234 undermining authority, which assists in preserving the dominant socio-political constructs and ideology of the arabian nights. this is what other studies have pointed out too. for instance, qiu and yoke (2024) highlight that female characters continue to be portrayed as caregivers or princesses, passive, submissive, and dependent, whereas males are cast in active, dominant, and aggressive roles of fighters or rescuers. in modern children’s literature, constructive femininity is excessively constrained within emotions and relationships, while masculinity is associated with tools, jobs, and action. these have also been highlighted by lewis et al. (2021). the sindbad tales incorporate that same trend of female passiveness with male action as movers of the plot. linking these findings directly to connell’s (1987) model of gender and power helps clarify how these dynamics play out in the stories. when it comes to financial inequality and the division of labor, the tales often show women in roles of economic dependence, or as objects to be traded or won by men. their financial situation, or the lack of one, shapes their position in the story, usually putting them in vulnerable or submissive roles. this lines up with connell’s view that economic systems help reinforce gender-based power differences (connell, 1987; mbonu et al., 2010). while sindbad gains wealth through his travels, women in the stories rarely have financial independence; their worth tends to revolve around marriage, inheritance controlled by men, or their place in a male-dominated household. the theme of authority is just as clear. male characters, especially sindbad, are the ones making decisions and holding power. even highranking female characters like princesses are often at the mercy of male decisions, whether it’s a father, husband, or captor. their choices are limited, and they’re more often portrayed as people who need rescuing or are used to move the story forward, rather than characters who drive the story themselves. this supports connell’s (1987) point that power imbalances in society and relationships tend to push women to the margins and keep men in control. female characters rarely challenge this setup in any meaningful way. social norms, especially emotional ties and cultural expectations, play a big role in shaping how femininity is portrayed. female characters are usually seen in relation to men, like being someone’s daughter, wife, or potential partner. they’re expected to be passive, nurturing, or attractive, fitting into traditional roles that focus on caregiving and keeping the peace within a maledominated system, just as connell (1987) and mbonu et al. (2010) describe. the stories tend to support these norms by rewarding women who go along with them and punishing those who don’t, which helps keep existing gender roles in place. the spotlight on male adventure and heroism pushes female voices to the background, reinforcing the idea that men’s actions and goals are what really matter. comparing these insights to earlier research shows both familiar patterns and some added depth. the way traditional gender roles are reinforced lines up with findings from studies on classic literature (like crisp & hiller, 2011; stephens, 1992). but the cultural setting of the arabian nights brings in its own unique elements, social customs and power dynamics that reflect that specific time and place. unlike much of today’s western literature, which often tries to challenge gender stereotypes (crisp & hiller, 2011), the sindbad stories mostly stick to the patriarchal norms of their origin. this analysis adds something new by applying connell’s sociological framework to a non-western text, showing just how deeply rooted these power structures are in the storytelling itself. what makes this important is the impact these tales can have, especially on kids. stories like these are widely read and can subtly teach gender roles from a young age. lewis et al. (2021) emphasize the significant role children’s books play in shaping early gender ideas. they highlight the limited power and agency given to female characters in sindbad’s stories, emphasizing the need to question these classics’ messages. they emphasize the importance of exposing children to stories that offer a broader, more balanced view, while acknowledging their cultural significance. this study differs from many of the gender studies of children’s literature now available since those are more often concerned with the relatively western picture book corpus or with contemporary texts (as in lewis et al., 2021; qiu & yoke, 2024). by putting the focus on a traditional, non-western text such as sindbad the sailor from the arabian nights, it fills an obvious void in the literature. maha m. al-gailany / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 235 it doesn’t simply read stereotypes on the surface: it relies upon connell’s (1987) intricately woven framework of gender and power to unravel the structures behind the narrative layer: labour, authority, and social standards as the fundamentals of the narrative power dynamics. while the findings echo the broader trend of traditional literature reinforcing patriarchal systems, what makes this work unique is how it shows connell’s model can be used to unpack those dynamics in a culturally and historically specific setting. it points out that female characters aren’t just boxed in by obvious stereotypes, they’re limited by the very structure of power that drives the story. this kind of analysis helps fill a gap in the research by showing how strong gender theory can be applied to older, non-western tales that still shape the way gender roles are passed down to young readers (cf. macrobert 2011; ünal and sevimli-celik,2024). v. conclusion this study explores the role of classical children’s literature, such as sindbad’s voyages, in reinforcing patriarchal norms through gender representations. the study reveals that female characters are often marginalized or reduced to passive instruments supporting male authority, while male characters embody ideals of hegemonic masculinity through adventure, leadership, and economic dominance. this reinforces the research hypothesis that classical narratives mirror and perpetuate societal gender hierarchies, particularly in their portrayal of femininity as subordinate and masculinity as inherently powerful. the findings are important for many areas: theoretical, educational, publishing, cultural. they further advance feminist literary criticism by showing how adventure stories encode gender relations through distinct economic and heroic systems. they also demonstrate the need for teaching classical texts with more advanced literacy components and argue for diversifying children’s literature more to include stories that provide alternative representations of gender roles. nonetheless, these are some limitations of the study, such as consideration of a single textual tradition, viewing the narrative primarily through the gender lens without overlapping class, race, and historical context, lacking attention to real children readers’ perspectives and interpretations, and the oriental narratives culturally specific elements not captured by the western theory framework. more inclusive approaches may involve comparing gender portrayal across various cultural traditions, modern retellings, reader-response theories, intertextuality, and more dominant narratives under the one thousand and one nights framework. in conclusion, this study contributes to understanding how classical children’s literature functions as a cultural apparatus for gender socialization. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement maha m. al-gailany is verified the final draft of the data. abeer khalaf hussein is conducted the research and wrote the manuscript. ali hussein hazem is finalized the manuscript in a decent text. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abdurrahman, i. b., hasan, i. q. and hazem, a. h. 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(2022). how does children’s literature portray global perspectives?. journal of global education and research, 6(2), 206-222. https://www.doi.org/10.5038/2577-509x.6.2.1090 satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 338 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 18, 2023 final revision: december 25, 2023 accepted: december 27, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 languag¬e revitalization as a linguistic social movement that aims to preserve and promote local languages, is experiencing a paradigm shift in indonesia. these shifts can be seen from the aspect of language status objects. that is meant here is that the object of language status in language revitalization is not only languages with minority and endangered status. all local languages in indonesia can be revitalized. based on these conditions, this study explores the shift in the language revitalization paradigm in indonesia. this aims to explain the structure of paradigm shift and provide an explanation for understanding language revitalization in its historical development in indonesia. the study method uses qualitative methods with data collection techniques from the results of literature studies. data analysis refers to thomas samuel kuhn’s structure of the scientific revolution in terms of paradigm shift. as a result, the shift in the language revitalization paradigm in terms of the language status object is based on the heterogeneity of languages in indonesia. meanwhile, all languages in indonesia must and have the right to be preserved in accordance with statutory regulations. this condition makes the government regulate language revitalization regulations that apply to all languages so that all languages in indonesia receive the same treatment in the context of language preservation efforts. keywords paradigm shift, language revitalization, local languages, philosophy correspondence e-mail: satwiko.budiono@brin.go.id article paradigm shift of language revitalization in indonesia satwiko budiono1, selly rizki yanita2, tengku syarfina3 1,2national research and innovation agency, jakarta, indonesia 3universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.338-347.2023 i. introduction language revitalization efforts are on the rise in indonesia. this cannot be separated from the paradigm shift in language revitalization in indonesia. language revitalization itself is one of the language policies in indonesia, aimed at preserving local languages. according to the ministry of education and culture (2018), language revitalization has several important roles. starting from (1) keeping the authenticity of local languages alive, (2) regaining the relationship between local languages and the ways in which speakers maintain them, (3) rebuilding the traditions of local language communities, (4) finding new functions of a local language, to (5) presenting a new generation of local language speakers. this makes language revitalization activities necessary and urgent because indonesia has 718 local languages (national agency for language development and cultivation, 2019). in order to preserve it, it is important to take proactive steps toward language revitalization efforts. due to their critical or severely endangered status with only a small number of speakers, this language revitalization focuses on local languages (hinton & hale, 2001). this is because languages with a small number of speakers are at a higher risk of extinction compared to those with more speakers. language revitalization has been a topic of interest for multiple groups worldwide, including in indonesia. this attention has increased since the announcement of the international decade of indigenous language by unesco, which spans the years 2022 to 2032. this international decade aims to ensure the fulfillment of the rights of local communities to preserve, revitalize, and promote local languages in sustainable development efforts (unesco, 2021b). indonesia, as a un country member, is also making efforts to preserve and develop local languages in various regions more satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 339 intensively and massively. thus, efforts to preserve language and develop local languages carried out together can become a social movement in the field of language that has a high and real impact. language revitalization can increase awareness, recognition, integration, and support which are important points in this international decade. these conditions make the indonesian government interpret this international decade as a major celebration through language revitalization by ensuring the fulfillment of the rights of all local communities. this prompted a shift in the status of language that could be revitalized, from prioritizing languages with endangered status to all languages that could be revitalized. in this regard, this study is interesting to discuss shift in the language revitalization paradigm in indonesia. this aims to explain the structure of paradigm shift and provide an explanation for understanding language revitalization in its historical development in indonesia. this is because the concept of language revitalization in indonesia has expanded, thereby influencing a shift in the paradigm itself. surely, this study has a very high level of novelty because there have been no other studies that discuss the shift in the language revitalization paradigm. several previous studies discussing paradigms have not been linked to the field of language, especially language preservation efforts in indonesia. start with asrudin (2017), almas (2018), ambarwari et al. (2023), and firdiyanti (2023). asrudin (2017) discusses the development of the realism revolution in international relations theory. in that study, asrudin critically responded to van ness’s paper. almas (2018) discusses the development of the learning revolution in the education field. in that study, almas provides views on problem-based learning and discovery learning. ambarwari et al. (2023) discuss the development of the revolution in the field of geography. in that study, ambarwari et al. explain the development of remote sensing image classification methods, which have given rise to several paradigms. firdiyanti (2023) discusses the relevance of paradigm revolution theory to islamic studies. in that study, firdiyanti linked the paradigm shift in buying and selling transactions from offline to online in the context of islamic studies. from several previous studies, it can be seen that the discussion about paradigms focuses more on the education learning field. besides that, discussion about paradigms also exists in other fields, such as international relations, geography, and economics. however, talk about paradigms in linguistics has never existed before. this gives this study new data in the field of linguistics in discussions about scientific paradigms. in this case, most linguistic studies, especially language revitalization, tend to focus more on the reason for language revitalization efforts (kamma, 2016) and the language revitalization process (mu’jizah, 2018). in this way, this study fills the gaps in language revitalization by taking a different perspective from previous studies. this study also adds to the number of studies on language revitalization in indonesia, which are still small. ii. methods this study uses a qualitative method. this is in accordance with the opinion of heigham & croker (2009) that qualitative research studies phenomena, participants, or events in a particular setting. besides qualitative research is also a research method that is useful for conducting exploration to find ideas, new insights, or new theories. in this research, the discussion leads to studying the phenomenon of the language revitalization paradigm shift that occurred in indonesia. besides that, this qualitative method is also suitable to be used because this study aims to explore finding new ideas and insights regarding language revitalization to preserve language in indonesia. the data collection technique in this study uses a literature review by taking data from language revitalization research and theory published in journals or books. data analysis in this study refers to the structure of the scientific revolution in terms of a paradigm shift (kuhn, 1996) as can be seen in figure 1. in this case, the structure of the scientific revolution proposed by kuhn (1996) consists of (1) paradigm i, (2) normal science, (3) anomaly, (4) crisis, and (5) paradigm ii. this structure of figure 1. the structure of scientific revolutions by kuhn (1996) satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 340 the scientific revolution is suitable for exploring the growth of scientific knowledge, which in this study is the development of a paradigm shift in the language revitalization concept in indonesia. this is because wray (2023) reveals that scientific revolution is at the core of kuhn’s understanding of the growth of scientific knowledge. kuhn noted that paradigm shifts involved relatively sudden and unstructured transformations so that there is a previously unseen pattern. this is also found in language revitalization as an effort to preserve language in indonesia. the target object of language revitalization, which started for endangered languages, can now be applied to all languages in indonesia. in this way, the discussion of analysis using the structure of the scientific revolution becomes interesting to explore the understanding of this paradigm shift. iii. result and discussion as explained in the previous section, the discussion in this study refers to the structure of the scientific revolution by kuhn (1996). starting from paradigm i, normal science, anomaly, crisis, to paradigm ii. each structure is associated with the development of language revitalization in indonesia. in this case, paradigm i is the conceptual framework that underlies scientific activities to determine the research structure, the problems studied, and the methods used. the explanation of paradigm i here is that the target object of language revitalization is prioritized for endangered languages. normal science is research that is based on the results of previous scientific achievements, which become the basis for subsequent analysis. the normal scientific explanation here is more about the theory of language revitalization, which links it to endangered languages. anomaly is the discovery of new facts that arise from the existing paradigm’s failure to see existing phenomena. the explanation for the anomaly here is more about the gap in the number of language speakers and technology in language revitalization. a crisis is the recognition of an anomaly that causes a loss of confidence in the existing paradigm and causes the emergence of alternative phenomena. the crisis explanation here is more about dominant language speakers executing language revitalization like minority language speakers. paradigm ii is a paradigm shift that answers the challenges of anomaly and responds to crises by giving rise to new phenomena that are different from the previous conceptual framework. the explanation of paradigm ii here is more about a paradigm shift from prioritized language revitalization for endangered languages to language revitalization for all languages in indonesia. all of kuhn’s structure of the scientific revolution then became the basis for discussion about the concept of language revitalization in indonesia. below in figure 2 is a flow chart of the discussion in this study, which is summarized in chart form to facilitate understanding of the paradigm shift regarding language revitalization in indonesia paradigm 1: revitalization for endangered language in the context of efforts to preserve languages, what is of concern to many linguists is preserving languages that have an endangered language status. this is because in a language, there is knowledge and wealth for the community of speakers, which is useful for living life by local situations and conditions. when a language becomes extinct, the intangible heritage is also lost, thus diminishing cultural diversity in the world (austin & sallabank, 1999). to preserve languages from extinction, there are several ways to carry out language figure 2. the structure of the scientific revolution regarding language revitalization satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 341 documentation and language revitalization (rau & florey, 2007). these two things can be a way to perpetuate the uniqueness of the language and minimize the extinction of the language. this condition creates a paradigm in the linguistics field that language preservation efforts, such as language revitalization, are intended for endangered languages with a small number of speakers. this is because languages with a better status with a larger number of speakers have a longer survival and, therefore, do not require language preservation efforts. meanwhile, endangered languages with a small number of speakers, if efforts to preserve the language are not immediately implemented, such as language documentation and language revitalization, could result in the extinction of language status. what is meant here by an endangered language is a language that has the criteria expressed by campbell & rehg (2018). some of these criteria consist of (1) the absolute number of speakers, (2) intergenerational transmission, (3) a decrease in the number of speakers, and (4) a decrease in the area of language use. in terms of the number of speakers, the fewer number of speakers of a language, it can be said that the less likely it is for the language to survive in the long term so that the number of speakers determines the status of a language in danger of extinction. in terms of intergenerational transmission, if a language is not learned by children from one generation to the next generations, then the language will become extinct so this also determines whether the language is endangered. on the other hand, the higher the intergenerational language transmission, the higher the hope that the language will continue to live or be spoken by communities. in terms of the decreasing number of speakers, the decreasing number creates a primary endangered language. in terms of decreasing language use, more areas of language use can give rise to high life expectancy for the language. however, the fewer areas where a language is used can result in a small life expectancy, such that the language can be categorized as an endangered language. normal science: language revitalization theory this paradigm of language revitalization for endangered languages has given rise to several theories of language revitalization. surely, the theory of language revitalization aims to preserve languages threatened with extinction. most theories, always link language revitalization with endangered languages. this theory of language revitalization as a normal science can be seen in hinton & hale (2001) and olko & sallabank (2021). based on hinton & hale (2001), language revitalization theory focuses more on guidelines and practicals of revitalization. starting from planning and determining appropriate language revitalization efforts for the target language to providing guidance to local language speakers so that intergenerational language transmission continues. in this case, language revitalization planning consists of three things: status, corpus, and acquisition. these three things aim to harmonize the needs and interests of target language speakers. thus, language revitalization is hoped to proceed according to effective and efficient planning. besides that, determining language revitalization efforts is also no less important. this is because there are five categories of ways to revitalize language. starting from (1) school-based language learning programs, (2) language learning programs after school as extracurricular, (3) language learning programs for adults, especially parents, (4) development of documentation and materials, and (5) learning programs for family-based language. in fact, the development of language speakers as agents of change is also discussed here. this is because the most significant cause of failure in teaching endangered languages is the lack of teacher training in the field of languages. over time, the development of language revitalization theory was continued by olko & sallabank (2021). the development of language revitalization theory shows more alternative language revitalization efforts that have been done in various languages in the world. however, olko & sallabank still use the language revitalization paradigm for endangered languages by adding various programs that are not limited to traditional language teaching. the language revitalization program offered here has expanded to various aspects, including adapting to the current situation by involving technology to revitalize endangered languages. various programs that can support language revitalization efforts include recording songs in local languages, developing linguistic satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 342 systems, changing geographical naming into local languages, creating local language applications, creating digital dictionaries, and creating local language signboards in public spaces. from these various revitalization efforts, it can be seen that there has been a significant expansion in efforts to preserve endangered languages. this means that language revitalization can be anything as long as it is acceptable to the target language, from small to big things. anomaly: gap in number of speakers and technology the language revitalization paradigm for endangered languages found new facts when applied in indonesia. this is because there is a deviation from the paradigm in viewing phenomena in indonesia. the anomaly here is based on the gap in the number of speakers and technology. these two things are perhaps less acceptable in indonesia. the reason for the gap in the number of speakers is that there is minimal support from the local government. when a language is endangered, it receives efforts to preserve the language, such as language revitalization, but local governments, as speakers of the dominant language, are less enthusiastic about supporting it. this is because the endangered language is classified as a minority language in the area, so local governments feel they do not belong to each other because local governments tend to come from speakers of the dominant language in the area. these conditions have an impact on the lack of continuity of language revitalization as a follow-up effort by local government to preserve local language in their regions, such as the revitalization of the limola language in north luwu regency, south sulawesi province (musayyedah et al., 2021). besides that, the anomaly is also based on the lack of access to and uses of technology for speakers of endangered languages in indonesia. this is because endangered language is usually located in isolated areas and do not have access to and use to technology. meanwhile, language preservation efforts such as language documentation and language revitalization currently require technological tools and internet access to collect, process, and present language (jones, 2015). this makes language revitalization programs in indonesia less flexible. what is meant here is that the endangered language revitalization program in indonesia cannot take advantage of access and uses of technology, so the program is executed in traditional ways. for example, the tobati language revitalization in papua province (budiono & harimansyah, 2023) and the retta language revitalization in east nusa tenggara province (budiono & noviani, 2023). this is done by creating songs in local languages. this is based on the lack of access and use of technology in the area so that the program being run can be said to be simple in accordance with the high interest of language speakers in songs. this simplicity can be seen from the tobati language performance in figure 3 and the retta language performance in figure 4, which displays local language songs in a choir with only guitar and keyboard instruments. figure 3. tobati language revitalization by creating songs in the local language figure 4. retta language revitalization by creating songs in the local language crisis: speakers of the dominant language revitalizing at this structure, the crisis in language revitalization began with the international decade of indigenous languages (unesco, 2021a). this raises awareness of the indonesian government in language preservation efforts such as language revitalization in indonesia. however, revitalizing endangered languages requires little attention and support from the local government. some of the satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 343 factors that local governments do not provide enough attention and support for are (1) the dissimilarity in the origins of speakers of endangered languages and speakers of dominant languages, which constitute many local governments, (2) the small impact of revitalizing endangered languages because it only involves a small number of language speakers, and (3) limited development of language revitalization program that is endangered, which correlates with the low level of public acceptance. this condition is in accordance with the problems in language revitalization expressed by hirata-edds & peter (2005). in this case, issues in language revitalization are divided into macro and micro-level problems. macro-level problems include government support for local languages and a lack of thorough language planning. furthermore, issues related to the macro level, such as government support, are demonstrated by the absence of relevant legislation or policies as a follow-up to the language revitalization that has been carried out. meanwhile, micro-level problems include the local language-speaking community itself. things that are of concern at the micro level include demographics, attitudes, cultural practices, and the state of the community. however, microlevel problems can usually be resolved internally by the language speaker compared to macro-level problems, which must be resolved externally by the language speakers. the various language revitalization problems that occur in indonesia actually threaten the language revitalization paradigm with extinction. speakers of the dominant language, with assistance from the government, are taking part in language revitalization. this, of course, creates a paradigm shift in language revitalization in indonesia. dominant language speakers revitalize the language by creating local content in local languages such as langkat malay (imran et al., 2021) and toba batak language (juliana et al., 2021). langkat malay speakers make local content books at the elementary school level, as shown in figure 5. toba batak language speakers also make local content books at the elementary school level, as shown in figure 6. besides that, speakers of the dominant language also revitalized the language by creating folklore books in the nias language, which can be seen in figure 7 (imran & sibarani, 2021) and simalungun language, which can be seen in figure 8 (rosliani et al., 2021). these two things are included in language revitalization efforts even though they are not carried out directly. in this way, efforts to create local content and folklore in local languages in the dominant language become normal, and this is being done massively in indonesia. paradigm 2: revitalization for all languages in indonesia the fairness of the dominant language in carrying out language revitalization in indonesia creates a new paradigm for language revitalization. this new paradigm is that language revitalization can be executed by all languages in indonesia, both dominant and minority languages. this figure 5. local content in the malay language figure 6. local content in batak toba language satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 344 as the golden indonesia 2045 program. this made the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology, through the national agency for language development and cultivation, create a national language policy system regarding language revitalization in accordance with a new paradigm in indonesia. this new paradigm shift can be seen from the existence of three language revitalization action models: model a, model b, and model c. each model has different characteristics and new paradigm shift in indonesia was marked by the 17th merdeka belajar program on the local language revitalization proposed by the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology. this program is included in the indonesian government’s response to unesco’s international decade of indigenous languages for the period 2023—2032. according to sartono (2021), this international decade coincides with the end of the national long term development, or in the indonesian language, called the pjpn period 2005—2025, towards the moment known figure 7. folklore book in the nias language figure 8. folklore book in simalungun language figure 7. the 17th merdeka belajar program on local language revitalization satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 345 approaches. model a language revitalization is characterized by language status in the safe category, with an inheritance approach carried out in a structured manner in schools. examples of model a language revitalization can be found in languages in western indonesia. model b language revitalization is characterized by the status of the language being classified as vulnerable and endangered with an inheritance approach carried out through community-based learning. examples of model b language revitalization can be found in languages in central indonesia. model c language revitalization is characterized by language status in the severely endangered and critically endangered with an inheritance approach carried out through learning adapted to the speech area and specificities of the local area. examples of model c language revitalization can be found in languages in eastern indonesia. in this way, all languages in indonesia can execute language revitalization according to the characteristics of their respective regions. this creates a crisis in the language revitalization paradigm for minority and endangered languages. this paradigm is starting to be abandoned. meanwhile, every language in indonesia must and has the right to be preserved in accordance with statutory regulations, whether it is a language with safe, vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, or critically endangered. this condition has forced the government to regulate language revitalization regulations that apply to all languages in indonesia so that they receive the same treatment. this was done in the context of language preservation efforts as a response to unesco’s international decade of indigenous languages. this regulation is also a sign of a paradigm shift in language in indonesia. however, the language revitalization policy in indonesia as part of a paradigm shift that can be carried out for all languages also has positive and negative aspects. some positive aspects of the paradigm shift impact of language revitalization in indonesia are that all languages have the same right to receive language preservation efforts from the government. this is the same as human rights, so everything depends on language speakers’ activeness in preserving and articulating their own languages. besides that, all regions in indonesia can carry out language revitalization as part of general language and culture preservation. furthermore, this paradigm shift also has negative aspects. the most visible thing is that languages with a small number of speakers are increasingly untouched by local governments. this is because speakers of the dominant language usually dominate local governments. this makes local governments definitely make language revitalization of their language. language empowerment is threatened with extinction with the number of small speakers decreasing. in fact, it can also be said that this paradigm change is correlated with the increasingly accelerated rate of extinction due to the increasingly widespread dominance of the dominant language in a region. the large political will of dominant language speakers within the local government makes the dominant language take part in revitalizing their language. only a few regions are willing to revitalize minority and endangered languages. regional governments still do not have an awareness of preserving all languages in their region. all regional heads of government are obliged to make efforts to preserve the language, whether dominant or minority. this is stated in minister of home affairs regulation number 40 of 2007 concerning guidelines for regional heads in the preservation and development of state and local languages. these conditions mean that the national agency for language development and cultivation, under the authority of the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology as a language institution in indonesia, needs to take follow-up action in collaboration with the ministry of home affairs. socialization in the context of building awareness of language preservation efforts, especially language revitalization, is very important for local governments. what needs to be emphasized is that all languages must be preserved so that the gap between dominant and minority languages does not occur again. iv. conclusion based on the discussion in the previous section, it can be concluded that the shift in the language revitalization paradigm in indonesia regarding the status of language objects is based on the heterogeneity of languages in indonesia. the large number of languages in indonesia means that endangered languages receive less attention and support from the government, which usually comes from speakers of the dominant language in the region. moreover, minority languages are generally located in isolated areas so their satwiko budiono / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 346 references almas, a. f. 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(2023). kuhn’s intellectual path: charting the structure of scientific revolutions. cambridge university press. safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 488 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 12, 2024 final revision: october 21, 2024 accepted: november 1, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 the goal of this research is to compare and contrast between article titles in the english education field authored by indonesian scholars published in local journals and those authored by foreign authors published in highimpact foreign journals. two hundred and ninety eight article titles from five different indonesian-accredited local journals and five hundred and twelve article titles from five different high-impact foreign journals form the corpus of this research. these journals were purposively selected based on several criteria, such as publication place, field of discipline, and the article authors. the analyses were manually done on the titles’ length, linguistic and content features following the frameworks suggested by cheng et al. (2012) and xiang and li (2019). the findings show that the article titles in high-impact foreign journals are slightly longer than those in local journals, local writers use nominal construction and verb-ing phrase types more frequently than high-impact foreign writers do; foreign writers use full sentences and prepositional phrases more frequently than the local journal writers do, and high-impact foreign journals use topiconly type of titles more frequently than in local journals do. the similarities are that nominal and compound constructions are the most dominant title types while topic-only and method types are the most dominant content features in both sets of article titles. the conciseness and preciseness of the information contained in the article titles are other important title features, future studies should investigate these aspects in the same or different fields. keywords linguistic construction, content features, article titles, local journal, foreign authors, english education correspondence e-mail: safnil@unib.ac.id article linguistic and content features of article titles published in local & high-impact foreign journals in english education: how are they similar and different? safnil arsyad1, syahrul ramadhan2, husnul hakim3 1doctoral program of applied linguistics, bengkulu university, bengkulu, indonesia 2indonesian department, universitas negeri padang, west sumatera, indonesia 3english education program, stkip al-azhar diniyyah, jambi, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.488-500.2024 i. introduction readers usually begin reading journal articles by reading their titles; if they find the titles attractive, they will likely continue reading articles, but if they do not, they may stop reading it (tullu, 2019; yang, 2019). according to day (2008), readers are more likely to choose to read articles depending on how well-written their titles are. therefore, article titles should be written as informatively and attractively as possible so that they can give a positive initial impression to readers. according to jamali and nikzad (2011), several variables can influence readers’ willingness to read particular articles, including (1) the journal’s reputation; (2) readers’ access to the articles; (3) the suitability of the issues discussed in the articles to readers’ needs; (4) the fame of the author/s; and (5) the attractiveness of the article titles. gastel & day (2016) highlighted that faulty syntax (word order) is the most common error in defective titles and without a doubt the most damaging one concerning the comprehension of the title. thus, writers must carefully select the appropriate terms for a title and how the words in the title are connected grammatically. safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 489 every academic genre has crucial components such as titles but research papers require them more than others (hyland & zou, 2022). according to hyland and zou (2022), an article title is used by readers when searching articles on the internet, such as in google search, educational resources information center (eric), researchgate, and semantic scholars and therefore, a title must be clearly and concisely written. this is because readers who are searching articles through a database only see the article titles and from these views, they will determine whether or not they need to read the article in more depth (bavdekar, 2016). thus, the article title although a very small part of an article functions as an advertisement to promote an article to potential readers and therefore, article titles must be attractive and informative to be successful in catching readers’ attention and willingness to read the whole article. a good title for a research paper can concisely and optimally introduce readers to the research work; however, writing explanatory, attractive, and concise titles is a difficult task (bavdekar, 2016). belcher (2009) suggested that one of the problems of an article title is that it is too broad as it is suitable for a book or book chapter title. according to belcher, readers will not be pleased if the article title does not address the information in the article. therefore, as belcher suggests, authors must avoid agitating readers with a too-broad, too-narrow, or mismatched title. similarly, hartley (2008) suggests that it is crucial to use some key terms in the title, because many computer-based searches rely on it for success. however, authors who are not familiar with writing manuscripts for a high-impact foreign journal may write a title as they write it for a local journal. this can be problematic since the length, linguistic and content features of journal article titles published in foreign journals might be different from those published in local journals. studies on article titles often include both the form and content features of the titles. the common questions addressed about the form features are how long are the titles in word count and how the titles are linguistically formed (i.e., using a compound, nominal, complete sentence, verb-ing phrase, and prepositional phrases), while the common question regarding titles’ content features is what information is found in the titles (i.e., research method or design, research results, geographical location, research treatment, and population and samples). as far as the method is concerned, some studies used a descriptive design in their study, while others used a comparative and/ or contrastive design (arsyad & wardhana, 2022). as in other discourse studies, the objects of these studies are academic texts written in english or other languages by native or non-native authors. the findings of these studies are very useful as pedagogical input for novice authors in learning how to write a manuscript to be submitted to prestigious foreign journals. several studies on article titles looked at the length of titles or the the quantity of words that make up the titles. swales and feak (1994) suggest that the number of words in titles is different from one field to the others. for example, anthony (2001) reported that the average number of words in the titles of computer science articles ranges from 8.0 to 9.9 words; while moattarian and alibabaee (2015) reported that the number of words in article titles within applied linguistics is 12.88 words, civil engineering 13.54 words, and dentistry 10.38 words. moattarian and alababaee claim that this is because writers in dentistry and other medicinal disciplines are not required to provide comprehensive data about their research, and this is why dental article titles are shorter than those in social and physical sciences. soler (2007) discovered that titles in medical sciences journal articles are longer than those in the social sciences and the lengths of titles in biology, medicine, and biochemistry range from 14.15 to 15.48 words, compared to 7.98 words for language studies and 12.63 words for psychology. additionally, yang (2019) looked into article titles in language education from 1990 to 2016 in reputable foreign journals and discovered that the titles grew lengthier and contained more keywords to increase the citations of the articles. according to yang, this is because more terms were used to suit the varied research subjects between 2011 and 2016 as a result of the increased diversity of research interests in applied linguistics. the linguistic characteristics of article titles were investigated by cheng et al. (2012), doykova (2016), yang (2019), and appiah et al. (2019) to name a few. according to cheng et al. (2012), compound constructions, nominal phrases, complete sentence, verb-ing phrases, and prepositional phrases are used to create titles safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 490 in applied linguistics. according to cheng et al., compound and nominal titles among the five distinct structural categories make up the majority of titles; this is likely because compound titles give writers the ability to link two or more significant factors in research and give them more freedom to arrange the information in the titles. however, doykova (2016) reported a different finding after looking into 500 articles in the fields of medicine and dentistry published in english by bulgarian writers. in contrast to yang’s findings, doykova discovered that nominal phrase titles were more prevalent and preferred by bulgarian authors because they are believed to be capable of attracting readers. appiah et al. (2019) compared 574 titles in the fields of gynaecology, business, and law. appiah et al. revealed that article titles in business contain more words than those in gynaecology and law and single-unit titles were more dominant in gynecology and law. however, compound titles were more dominant in business article titles and noun phrase titles were more dominant in all fields (gynaecology, law, & business). according to appiah et al., prepositional phrases were commonly used in post-modifying nominal construction titles and colon punctuation was commonly used in compound titles in all three disciplines. appiah et al. suggest that the title features found in their study confirm the results of previous studies on the same topic and writing an effective title requires carefully selected words to create a positive perception and strong interest in the article. also, belonging to some discipline is the strongest determinant for the length, linguistic and content features of article titles (milojevic, 2017). therefore, authors should try to comply with the norms set in their fields for journal article titles; however, these norms are not fixed in time and over the decades, the practices may change. a study on the content/information feature of article titles was conducted by kerans et al. (2016) on titles taken from eight different highrank journals in clinical fields. their study was aimed at investigating whether or not methods, results, clinical location, treatment, and patient are mentioned in the titles. they found that in the majority of the titles, the research method is mentioned in the titles, while the results, clinical context, geography, treatment, and patient population are also mentioned in the titles although not as frequently as the research method. according to kerans et al., authors tell readers that their research is high quality by mentioning methods in their titles; this is because the research method is an important aspect of clinical research, and therefore it is deliberately mentioned in the article titles. however, paiva et al. (2012) discovered that articles with results mentioned in their titles were cited more often than those with methods mentioned in the titles. short-titled articles had higher viewing and citation rates than those with longer titles. according to paiva, a lower number of citations was linked to titles utilizing a colon or hyphen, a question mark, or those mentioning a particular research location. compared to articles with methods-describing titles, those with resultsdescribing titles received more citations. few comparative studies on the length, linguistic and content features of article titles written by local or foreign authors have been conducted, such as by paiva et al. (2012), milojevic (2017) and appiah et al. (2019); however, a similar study comparing and/or contrasting article titles published in local in indonesia and high-impact foreign journals in the field of english education has never been conducted. this study is important because indonesian scholars, like other nonnative speakers of english, prefer publishing their articles in high-impact foreign journals in english to local journals because publications in high-impact foreign journals can be read and cited by academics worldwide, serving as a tool to enhance the reputation of individual lecturers and the university where they work. knowing the differences between the characteristics of article titles published in local and foreign journals will be useful for new authors trying to get their manuscripts published in reputable journals. indonesian authors can comply with the features of article titles published in highimpact foreign journals when writing an article to be submitted to a high-impact foreign journal. they can prepare their article titles to match the common features acceptable in foreign journals to meet readers’ expectations and to raise the possibility of their drafts being approved by top-ranking foreign journals. as a guideline, the following questions are addressed in this study. 1. what is the average number of words in article titles in english education in indonesian local journals and high-impact foreign journals? 2. what linguistic characteristics are found safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 491 australian review of applied linguistics (aral) journal, the taiwan tesol journal, the asian esp journal, regional english language center (relc) journal, and five local journals: journal of english as a foreign language (jefl), journal of english education, literature and culture (edulite), indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics (ijeltal), journal of english education and linguistics studies (jeels), and english review: journal of english education (erjee). these journals were selected based on several considerations. first, these journals publish articles about english education topics. second, the foreign journals are reputable journals and indexed by an international indexing organization (scopus) and the local journals are accredited journals indexed by science and technology index or sinta (i.e., the indonesian journal indexing organization). third, the articles published in the journals are research articles; other types of articles, such as review articles or teaching articles were not included. finally, the articles were taken from recent publications to represent the recent characteristics of the journal articles. table 1 presents the characteristics of the journals, the publication type, the quartile or sinta value of the journals, and the number of titles included. the quality of the foreign journals is indicated by their quartile (q) value ranging from q1 (the highest) to q4 (the lowest). the quartile value is based on the journal impact factor or index (orbay & miranda, 2020). the q value of foreign journals is given in the scimago journal and country rank website (https://www.scimagojr.com/journalrank. php). according to orbay and miranda, q1 journals are within the top 25% of the journal impact factor in the article titles in english education in indonesian local journals and high-impact foreign journals? 3. what information categories are found in article titles in english education in indonesian local journals and high-impact foreign journals? 4. what are the similarities and differences in how local and foreign journal authors in english education write their article titles? to answer the above questions, the average length, linguistic and content features of the article titles were analyzed following the framework suggested by cheng et al. (2012) and xiang and li (2019) and how the two sets of article titles differ and/or resemble. ii. method following white and marsh (2006), this study used a content analysis method since this method is very adjustable and frequently used particularly in library and information science studies with different study aims and objectives. white and marsh claim that, content analysis method has been used to produce findings and contextualize a variety of analytical tools used in conjunction with qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods of research frameworks. according to mohammed and raewf (2018:910), ‘the content analysis makes replicable and valid inferences from content or texts in context of their use’. the corpus of the study a corpus of journal article titles were selected purposively from five foreign journals in english education: the journal of asia tefl, the table 1. the corpus of the study no. local journals sinta value # of article foreign journals quartile value # of articles 1. journal of english as a foreign language (jefl) sinta 2 43 journal of asia tefl q1 152 2. edulite (journal of english education, literature and culture) sinta 2 68 australian review of applied linguistics (aral) q1 36 3. indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics (ijeltal) sinta 2 58 taiwan journal of tesol q3 27 4. journal of english education and linguistics studies (jeels) sinta 2 40 asian esp journal q2 241 5. english review: journal of english education (erjee) sinta 2 89 relc journal q1 56 total 298 512 safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 492 (jif), and those in q4 are within the lowest 25%. for example, the taiwan journal of tesol has a q2 value in linguistics and language with an average of 0.8 citations per published article while asian esp journal has a q1 value in language and linguistics with an average of 1 citation per published article. although the majority of the foreign journals chosen for this study are published in an asian country, such as the journal of asia tefl in korea and taiwan journal of tesol in taiwan, the authors may come from outside asia, such as australia, europe, or north america. other journals included in this study (relc journal and the australian review of applied linguistics or aral) are published by a foreign publisher, sage publishing company and john benjamins publishing company respectively. the quality of local journals is indicated by their sinta score ranging from sinta 6 (the lowest) to sinta 1 (the highest). the sinta score of each accredited local journal published in indonesia is given on the sinta website (https://sinta.ristekbrin. go.id/ journals). according to saputra (2020), the sinta score is used to evaluate the quality and citation frequency of indonesian journals. for example, the journal of english as a foreign language (jefl) has a sinta score of 2 with 678 citations in total, while the journal of english education and linguistic studies (jeels) has a sinta score of 2 with 373 citations in total. also, almost all articles published in local journals are written by indonesian authors, while articles published in foreign journals are written by foreign writers. the authors were identified by looking at their names and affiliations. some articles published in foreign journals may be written by indonesian scholars but in this study they are considered foreign authors because they write for a foreign journal by complying with the journal article writing rules and guidelines while almost all authors published in local journals are indonesian authors. very few foreign scholars publish their articles in indonesian journals, since these journals are not yet indexed by a foreign indexing organization, such as scopus or web of science. therefore, the articles are less visible and rarely cited by foreign authors. data investigation the linguistic categories used in this research, following cheng et al. (2012), are noun phrase construction, compound construction, complete sentence, verb-ing phrases, and prepositional phrases. table 2 gives the five distinct linguistic features taken from cheng et al. (2012) including their categories, descriptions, and instances. all article titles in the data of this research were analyzed and categorized into the five linguistic feature categories as in the above examples. however, if a title is categorized as having a compound construction type, there was no further analysis was done on the type of each part of the compound construction. in the second analysis, the content features of the article titles were identified following xiang and li (2019). according to xiang and li, there are five possible forms of information in constructing article titles in the fields of linguistics and literature journals; these are topic-only, method, data, finding, and closure. the forms, descriptions, and examples of the article titles were identified based on information features of the titles are presented in table 3. table 2. linguistic feature categories of the journal article titles linguistic construction categories description examples noun phrase comprises of at least one noun that can be preceded by pre-modifiers or followed by post-modifiers the linguistic and content features of article titles published in local & high-impact foreign journals in english education compound construction comprises of two constructions connected by a colon, dash, question mark, or period pointing out frequent phrasal verbs: a corpusbased analysis complete sentence comprises a complete sentence or clause, including both declarative constructions is it beneficial to use ai chatbots to improve learners’ speaking performance? verb-ing phrase the verb-ing form of one or more verbs, followed by objects or modifiers. exploring the effects of pair-interaction model on improving indonesian adult learners’ english proficiency prepositional phrase phrases begin with a preposition and followed by a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause towards transformative global citizenship through interdisciplinary arts education safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 493 using these guidelines, the selected article titles were analyzed to see how local journals and foreign journals in english education are similar or different. in identifying the title categories based on their content or information, the key or substantive words in the article titles were used as clues. however, it is important to note that an article title may contain more than one information category. xiang and li give an example of a title containing two information categories (methods and results) in ‘evaluating s(c)illy voices: the effects of salience, stereotypes and co-present language variables on real-time reactions to regional speech’ (p.853). according to xiang and li, this title can be categorized into the method category (evaluating s(c)illy voices) because the information comes first in the title. in this study, following xiang and li, if there are two possible classifications of a title, it is categorized based on the first key or important key words contained in the title. inter-coder reliability analysis to ensure the inter-coder accuracy of the linguistic construction and information features of the article titles, cohen’s kappa statistical measure was implemented in this research. an english education lecturer with a master’s degree who also completed an academic discourse analysis thesis was chosen as an independent coder. the independent coder was given 10% of the total article titles in the data of this research (i.e., 30 titles from the local journals and 50 titles from the foreign journals). the analysis results from table 3. content forms in the journal article titles content features description example topic-only specifies a topic but either omits information on the categories below or is unclear storytelling and legal legitimacy; lexical and linguistic causatives in oromo method provides a general description of a method, such as assessment, evaluation, or comparison, or refers to the statistical tests used in a study and also specifies the topic and an approach to studying design, data management, or analysis genocide: examining the dimensions of violence in heroes and toads of war data identifies the subject, title, or abbreviation of a particular research, which might identify the source of the data used or the population sample examined. the walls that emancipate: disambiguation of the “room” in a room of one’s own finding covers the topic, as well as quantitative, semi-quantitative, or ordinal data, or any other statement of a relationship concerning the results. the role of diffusion in the genesis of hawaiian creole closure incorporates the subject and a clear conclusion drawn from an examination of the presented information, such as the implications of a study or the overall finding. the time course of individuals’ perception of co-articulatory information is linked to their production: implications for sound change table 4. inter-coder accuracy of the linguistic construction and information feature of the article titles linguistic construction cohen’s kappa nominal construction .95 compound construction .92 complete sentence .95 verb-ing phrase .93 prepositional phrase .92 information feature topic-only .70 method .72 data .70 finding .73 closure .71 average .82 safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 494 the researcher and independent coder were then compared and the cohen kappa coefficient score was calculated. if cohen’s kappa score is 0.40 or below it is considered ‘poor’, from 0.40 to 0.59 ‘fair’, from 0.60 to 0.74 ‘good’, and 0.75 or higher ‘excellent’ (kanoksilapathan, 2005). lastly, the kappa coefficient calculation score was resolved and the result is given in table 4. table 4 indicates that cohen’s kappa score was 0.82, an excellent inter-coder accuracy showing that the processes of identifying and classifying the linguistic and content features of the article titles were already believed accurate. however, several discussions were held to resolve the differences between the coders until a full agreement was reached. iii. results the length of the article titles the first analysis concerns the length of article titles and the data are shown in table 5. table 5 indicates that the title length in the two groups of articles in terms of word count is slightly different (11.7 in local journals and 13.3 in high-impact foreign journals). below are examples of titles in local and high-impact foreign journals. example 1. an article title in a local journal profiling vocational school students’ word knowledge level: a study in jakarta timur (jeels-5) example 2. an article title in a high-impact foreign journal inter-cultural and intra-cultural contact and the l2 motivational self system: an efl classroom intervention study (relc-13) as can be seen in example 1, the article title consists of 12 words while in example 2 it consists of 14 words. the linguistic construction of the article titles the findings of the second analysis, which looked at the article titles’ linguistic features, are displayed in table 6. table 6 shows that nominal construction had the highest frequency found in both groups of article titles (339 or 41.85%), compound construction (244 or 27.65%) and verb-ing phrase (182 or 22.47%). below are examples from the data of this research. example 3. nominal construction the social construction of knowledge in synchronous text-based discussion during english language learning (jefl-6) example 4. compound construction digital learning of english beyond classroom: efl learners’ perception and teaching activities (jeels-2) example 5. verb-ing phrase applying semantic gravity wave profiles to develop undergraduate students’ academic literacy (aral-1). the title of example 3 is categorized as having a nominal construction form since the word table 5. the average number of words of article titles no local journals sinta score/ quartile value # of article titles the title length 1 jeels (journal of english education and linguistics studies) s2 40 12.7 2 indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics (ijeltal) s2 58 12.7 3 edulite: journal of english education, literature and culture s2 68 11.3 4 erjee (english review: journal of english education) s2 89 11.1 5 jefl (journal on english as a foreign language) s2 43 10.9 total/average 298 11.7 no foreign journals 6 the taiwan journal of tesol (tjtesol) q3 27 14.6 7 australian review of applied linguistics (aral) q3 36 13.9 8 the journal of asia tefl q1 152 13.1 9 the asian esp journal q2 241 13.1 10 regional language centre (relc) q1 56 12.0 total/average 512 13.3 safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 495 “social construction” acts as the head noun for a noun phrase. in example 4, the colon following the word “classroom” indicates that this title has a compound structure even if the title’s first word is the noun phrase “digital learning.” in addition, the phrase “applying” form in example 5 indicates that this title is categorized as a verb-ing form. table 5 also shows that prepositional phrase and full sentence forms are infrequently used by the authors in both groups of the journals (33 or 4.7% for full sentence form and 12 or 1.48% for prepositional phrase form). below are examples of the complete sentence and prepositional phrase forms of titles. example 6. full sentence is it beneficial to use ai chatbots to improve learners’ speaking performance? (the journal of asia tefl89). example 7. prepositional phrase toward an inclusive description of the segmental phonology of philippine english (asian esp44) the main clause of ‘is it beneficial to use ai chatbots to improve learners’ speaking performance?’ in example 6 indicates the use of complete sentence in an interrogative or question form and therefore it is categorized as having a complete sentence form of title. example 7 is categorized as having a preposition phrase form because it begins with a preposition of ‘towards’ and is pursued by a noun phrase of ‘an inclusive description of the segmental phonology of philippine english’. the percentages of linguistic construction type of titles in the two groups of articles, as identified in table 6, were quite different. the percentage of local authors using nominal construction and verb-ing phrases is higher than that of foreign authors while the percentage of foreign authors using full sentences and prepositional phrases is higher than the local journal authors. however, the frequency appearance of compound construction title types in the two sets of articles are similar and full sentence and prepositional phrase types of titles are equally rare in both groups of articles. information category of the article titles the final analysis was about the content feature contained in the article titles and the data is displayed in table 7. table 7 shows that from the view of content feature form, the titles are dominated by method form in both sets of articles and then the topiconly form of titles (363 or 44.81% and 241 or 29.75% consecutively). however, compared to local journals, high-impact foreign journals used topic-only type of titles more frequently (25.5% in local journals and 32.23% in high-impact foreign journals). the other two title types (i.e., data and findings) are infrequently used in both groups of articles (91 or 11.23% and 111 or 13.70% consecutively) while the closure type of title is never used in local journal articles and only 4 (0.49%) in high-impact foreign journals. an example of each information type of title is presented below. example 8. topic-only developing students reading skills through making multimodal inferences (erjee-2). example 9. method practicing genre-based language teaching model to improve students’ achievement of writing skills (ijeltal-16). example 10. data the protagonist’s shadow and persona as the reflection of an anti-hero in the phantom of the opera novel retold by diane namm (edulite-50). example 11. finding the impact of l1 on l2 in academic english writing: a multilingual dilemma of pakistani students (the asian esp journal-4). table 6. the linguistic construction of the article titles linguistic construction forms local journal (n=298) foreign journal (n=512) total (n=810) % nominal construction 143 (47.99%) 196 (38.28%) 339 41.85 compound construction 88 (29.53%) 156 (30.47%) 244 27.65 verb-ing phrase 61 (20.47%) 121 (14.94%) 182 22.47 complete sentence 5 (1.68%) 28 (5.47%) 33 4.07 prepositional phrase 1 (0.34%) 11 (2.15%) 12 1.48 total 298 (100%) 512 (100%) 810 safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 496 example 12. closure local thoughts on global ideas: preand in-service tesol practitioners’ attitudes to the pedagogical implications of the globalization of english (relc37). example 8 is classified as a topic-only form because it only mentions the subject of the title in general, without having specific information, while example 9 is classified as a method because the ‘genre-based language teaching model’ is a method experimented with in the research. example 10 is categorized as data form because it shows detailed information that includes: name, sample, and particular character that corresponds to the study while example 11 is identified as finding form since the word ‘impact’ shows the research results. finally, example 12 is classified as having a closure because the word ‘implications’ shows that the result of the study has been concluded. table 7 also shows that the frequency of information form in the two groups of articles is quite different, especially in the use of the topiconly category in which the foreign authors use it more frequently than local authors do (32.23% and 25.5% consecutively) while in the use of method and data categories, local authors use them more frequently than foreign authors do (47.32% and 43.36% consecutively for method category and 13.42% and 9.96% consecutively for data category). iv. discussion the first research question in this study is on the length of article titles in the two sets of journals. the data reveal that there is no significant difference between the two sets of journal article titles; the average number of words in high-impact foreign journals is slightly higher than those in local journals (13.3 for foreign journals and 11.7 for local journals). one possible rationale for writing a longer title is to address more focuses of the research in the title to attract readers’ attention. however, appiah et al. (2019) affirm that it is not clear whether or not the citation rate of longer titles is higher than that of shorter ones; shorter titles can be more easily found in the internet search than longer ones (grant, 2013; habibzadeh & yadollahie, 2010). yang (2019) suggests that longer titles can address more important terms in the study, and these typically spark the interest of journal editors and readers, increase the exposure of the papers, and raise the number of citations. this result is comparable to that of soler (2007) and moatarian and alibabaee (2015), who discovered that article titles in applied linguistics and linguistics journals published in high-impact journals were similarly long. thus, the average length of article titles in this study was typical and do not substantially vary from the results of earlier studies. in other words, in terms the length of journal article titles, local journal authors do not need to adjust their writing style and keep their present convention when writing an article title in the field of english education to be submitted to a foreign journal. in terms of linguistic constructions, the results show that nominal construction is the most frequent in titles used by both local and foreign authors. this is probably because a noun phrase as a title allows writers to state more crucial knowledge about the research to attract readers’ attention (moattarian & alibabaee, 2015). cheng et al. (2012) suggest that the headwords in nominal titles commonly function to tell readers the main focus of the research. these often require more detailed information, and nominal construction makes a tied construction, allowing writers to give as much focused information as possible using preand post-modifiers using head nouns as the object of research. for example, in the article titled table 7. the average number of information feature categories information feature forms local journal (n=298) foreign journal (n=512) total (n=810) % method 141 (47.32%) 222 (43.36%) 363 44.81 topic-only 76 (25.5%) 165 (32.23%) 241 29.75 finding 41 (13.76%) 70 (13.67%0 111 13.70 data 40 (13.42%) 51 (9.96%) 91 11.23 closure 0 (0%) 4 (0.78%) 4 0.49 total 298 512 810 100 safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 497 ‘effects of digital writing software as a tool for process approach to writing on teacher trainees’ academic writing performance’ (taken from the journal of asia tefl, volume 17, issue 4) in 2020, the noun-phrase head is ‘the effects’ showing the research focus in the article while the three postmodifiers of ‘digital writing software’, ‘tool for process approach’ and ‘writing on teacher trainees’ academic writing performance’ reveal specific information about the head of the nounphrase. cheng et al. suggest that an effective nominal title should use modifiers that not only contain optimum messages about the research but also assist authors in arranging the information to show a clear connection between the head noun and the modifiers. the data of this study also shows that compound construction is frequently used by both groups of authors. this is probably because with a compound construction title, the authors can present two research focuses in their titles: the research topic and another important aspect of the research. this finding is in line with that of cheng et al. (2012) who also found that compound and nominal constructions were the most dominantly used title constructions in their applied linguistics article data. according to cheng et al., authors prefer using compound construction titles since they permit the connection of two major elements of research in a title while nominal constructions let authors incorporate as much detail as they can in their article titles. xiang and li (2019) also found that nominal and compound constructions are frequently used in article titles in the linguistics and literature fields but the use of nominal construction has experienced a continuous decline while compound construction has enjoyed steady growth recently. the difference between the two groups of article titles in terms of linguistic construction is that local authors use nominal construction and verbing phrases more frequently than foreign authors do, while foreign authors use complete sentences and prepositional phrases more frequently than local journal authors do. these differences may be caused by different writing conventions or practices between indonesian and foreign authors or because of the different guidelines of the journals in which the articles are published (xie, 2020). according to xie, for chinese authors, a title is viewed as a name and, therefore, it must be written in a noun phrase. the different quality of local journals published in indonesia and those in high-impact foreign journals are not on the linguistic feature of the article titles but probably on the attractiveness, preciseness, and conciseness of the titles. another possible reason is the choice of research method used in the article. jasrial et al. (2024) suggest that nominal type of titles are commonly used in experimental and descriptive studies using a quantitative approach, while compound titles are often used in studies using case study methodology. about the content characteristic of the article titles, the finding shows that topic-only and method types are the most frequent forms used by both local and foreign journal authors. one possible reason is that in an experimental type of research, authors tend to show a new method they have implemented to solve a particular problem or issue addressed in the article introduction. another possible reason is that by stating the research method in the title of the article, authors show that their research is different from the previous one on the same or similar topics which will give better results or findings. similar result was found by moattarian and alibabaee (2015) in which topic-only title is the most dominant title type in their applied linguistics articles. according to moattarian and alibabaee, this is probably because ‘... the fact that applied linguistics links the study of language (linguistics) with the teaching and learning of languages; therefore, researching the construction of language involves several areas’ (p. 39). moattarian and alibabaee claim that studies in applied linguistics are often multi-disciplines attempting to solve language and language education problems; they show both practical and theoretical bases for empirical research to deal with problems related to language and language education. similarly, kerans et al. (2016) found that the research method is frequently stated by authors in clinical research field to convince readers that their research has been done correctly and therefore, the results are valid and reliable. thus, the frequent use of the method form of article titles in this study may show that authors in english education are willing to address the practical contributions of their research findings to be implemented in language education teaching practices. the difference between the two sets of journal article titles in terms of the content feature is that compared to local journals, foreign journals used safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 498 topic-only type of titles more frequently (32.23% versus 25.5%). one possible reason is that foreign authors tend to foreground the important aspects of their articles such as general subjects, findings, and methods to gain attention from readers (jiang & hyland, 2022). according to shah (2014), today readers search references mostly from the internet and this search technique identifies journal article titles from the words or phrases included in the titles and therefore, titles with clear and easy to find titles are more visible than those with vague and hard to read titles. in other words, titles that contain clear descriptions of the study, design, and results are more likely to be identified by search engines and used or cited readers. v. conclusion the similarities between the two groups of articles are (1) nominal and compound constructions of titles are the most dominant categories of content features and (2) topic-only and method categories are the most frequent types used by both local and foreign journal authors. the differences are that (1) the article titles in high-impact foreign journals are slightly longer than those in local journals, (2) local authors use nominal construction and verbing phrase types of titles more frequently than high-impact foreign authors, (3) foreign authors use full sentences and prepositional phrases more frequently than local journal authors do, and (4) high-impact foreign journals use topic-only type of titles more frequently than local journals. thus, compared to similarities, there are more differences between the two sets of journal article titles. this study is not without limitation; it only looked at the length, linguistic and content features of article titles in english education in local and foreign journals. probably, more important aspects of article titles are their attractiveness, preciseness, and conciseness because the more attractive and informative an article title the higher the chance of the article being read by readers and therefore, it has a higher chance to be accepted by high-impact foreign journals and read by readers. therefore, future studies should investigate these aspects of article titles published in high and low-rank local and/or foreign journals. another important and interesting analysis about journal article titles is the possible correlation between the article title types and the methods used in the research reported in the article. one pedagogical implication from the findings of this study is that indonesian authors in english education, especially young writers, have to be familiar with and acquire the accepted linguistic construction and content features of article titles when writing an article in english to be submitted to high-impact foreign journals. they, for example, should write a slightly longer title, use full sentences or prepositional phrases and topiconly type of titles for their journal article drafts. this is because titles are the first part of articles to be read by readers, including journal editors and reviewers; if the title is attractive and informative, the manuscript will have a better opportunity to be approved by a targeted foreign journal. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer, and the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement safnil arsyad: preparing the initial outline of the article, drafting the initial article draft, editing the manuscript and polishing the final draft version. syahrul ramadhan: preparing the research instrument, conducting data collection processes, and analysing the raw data husnul hakim: analyzing the research data, transforming the manuscript into an article draft following the suggested template, and checking the lay out of the article. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests we declare that we have no competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. safnil arsyad / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 499 references appiah, k. r., ankomah, c., osei, h. y., & hattoh-ahiaduvor, t. 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(2019). a diachronic keywords analysis in research title and cited article title in applied linguistics from 1990-2016. english text construction, 12(1), 84-102. doi: 10.1075/etc.00019. yan i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 40 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 17, 2024 final revision: november 09, 2024 accepted: january 30, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 this article was initially triggered by the use of ‘plays on words’ found in enterprise naming around yogyakarta. based on that phenomenon, this article focused on approaches and motivations of enterprises naming using plays on words, influences of foreign languages used as naming models, and their semiotic interpretations. the data were collected were in the forms of enterprise names suspected to have been created as plays on words by observing enterprises’ billboards and placards around yogyakarta. the data were also gained by interviewing several enterprise owners to reveal the motivations underlying the use of plays on words. the collected data were analyzed to unveil the closest pronunciations, meanings, and spelling of the names of enterprises influenced by various context, such as the products yielded, services offered, environments, location of enterprises, etc. this article found that naming practices involve several approaches, i.e., spelling deviations, homo phonic and nearly homo phonic pairing, spelling permutations, contractions, and word-to-word translation. there were at least six foreign languages used as models, namely english, french, italian, japanese, mandarin, and arabic. two main motivations were identified for these naming practices: to create jokes and to lend beauty. from a semiotic viewpoint, these phenomena constitute struggles of the dominated group, whose language is socially less prestigious, against the dominant group, whose language is considered more prestigious. it implies that using plays on words strategy in naming enterprises can be seen as a branding strategy to generate jokes or fun names and to lend beauty which in the end impact in persuading target market to visit their business enterprises. keywords pun, plays on words, enterprise, branding strategy, sociolinguistics correspondence e-mail: putu.wijana@ugm.ac.id article exploring approaches and motivations of plays on words in enterprise names in yogyakarta i dewa putu wijana1, adwidya yoga2 1,2department of languages and literature, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.40-53.2025 i. introduction crystal (1998, 1) states that nobody, especially those living in the twenty-first century, can avoid language play. all people play with language or respond to language play. however, they do so with different degrees of pleasure. in a broader scope, there are people (punsters, comedians, jokers, etc.) who are totally obsessed with the play of language, and there are people who only take mild pleasure from it. yogyakarta, where this research was conducted, is inhabited by people with a great obsession for plays on words (wijana, 2003, 1–2; wijana, 2009, 146–160). they have a special term for referring to such “puns”, i.e. plesetan, which literally means “slippery talk”. they use these activities for riddling; making graffiti; decorating t-shirts, truck containers, private vanities; and even, more uniquely, for naming enterprises. the people of yogyakarta are frequently blessed with punning ability. they can play with language at almost any time and on any occasion to fulfil various communicative purposes. as far as enterprise naming is concerned, several interesting phenomena have attracted my attention: this naming is created through various complicated ways, such as spelling deviations, homo phonic pairing, contractions, and phonological permutations, or a combination of the above; several prestigious foreign languages are used as naming models; and naming is motivated by many kinds of motivations. this phenomenon i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 41 can be explained using sociolinguistic and semiotic theory. further, regarding the relevant studies that had been conducted previously about plays on words by many scholars—particularly humour textbook writers such as raskin (1984), chiaro (1992), and crystal (1998)—those studies have only focused on various kinds of humorous texts in general. meanwhile, several studies carried out by indonesian scholars, including oemarjati (1978), soedjatmiko (1989), wijana (1995), and surana (2016), have dealt respectively with plays on words exploited in graffiti, american humors, indonesian cartoons, and indonesian stickers. none of these studies try to explain or pay specific attention to plays on words exploited by business owners in naming their enterprises. using very limited data (around 17 plays on words), this phenomenon has already been observed by wijana (2014, 227), but the four issues above have not yet to receive deep discussions. this paper, with more varied and expansive data (around 56 plays on words in enterprise names found in yogyakarta) will try to address them. a comprehensive study about jocular naming practices on enterprises is the study carried out by toolan (2005) on several linguistic aspects, such as linguistic structures, semantic tendencies, and interpersonal structures of the shop names, which are mostly coin operated washers and dryers (launderettes), cafes, take away food, food shops, pet shops, etc stretch along the contemporary british streets. he found that most of the jokes in shop names (mostly small shops) are created to arise of humor that are far different from conventional big business name creations which are motivated and driven by competitive and globalizing forces. sokolova’s study on naming creations does not concern much about “play on words”, but on practices about name making as means of trademarks and individualization by the name creators because the uniqueness giving for the company, product, or service are expected to be able affecting the potential costumers (sokolova, 2012, 64). the creations are carried out in careful and sophisticated ways by exploiting a lot of knowledge, mainly linguistics (phonology, semantics, and sociolinguistics), and cultural knowledge for the names, as intellectual properties, should enable to show their trademark rights. although in the past time this kind of naming activity is not known in russia for a lot of business enterprises do not have name, in more recent times because of extra linguistic factors, such as political, ideological, as well as economic development, enterprise name and name of products start to play their central part for its nicety, individuality and authenticity. various studies revealed that enterprise naming were influenced by social factors, such as religion, gender, race, education, regional, and the like which ultimately aimed to be a marketing strategy in selling varied products and services (chulakova et al., 2024; du plessis, 2023; durant & davis, 2023; gábor & béla, 2024; gambetti et al., 2024; kurniawan et al., 2024; marti-ochoa et al., 2024; olwi & alshammari, 2024; park et al., 2024; thneibat & majali, 2024; ye et al., 2024) food products in malaysia were influenced by arabic names, quranic verses, and hadiths as a marketing strategy to persuade public to buy the products (osman et al., 2024). enterprise naming as a marketing strategy was also studied by vardzelashvili and prokofyeva (2024) that found that duplicate naming (native and foreign) in explicitly nominative and implicitly subjectivepragmatic functioned to lift up the value of the services or products. further, regarding enterprise naming, there have been previous studies revealing how effective words in forming enterprise brands seen as as a marketing strategy (aksoy & tugrul, 2024; denistia et al., 2024; do et al., 2024; hodges et al., 2024; motoki et al., 2023; shabbirhusain et al., 2024; zihagh et al., 2024). moreover, fife’s study (1950, 274-279) is focused on word plays of cafe names, drive inn, motels, and other highway side establishments found elsewhere in america. he found that the word plays are created through many types of alliteration of various combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables, such as busy bee, chew and chat, camp comport cabins, chin chin chinchila farm, ten treees tourists, ect.; puns, such as combination of inn and preposition in in drive in and drop in and dew drop inn and dodge inn, chik in chik inn can be interpreted both as chiken or proper name name; and coinage of words via agglutination, such as urada motel in which stands for utah-arizonaand nevada, motel stands for ‘motor plus hotel’, el playtel ‘play hotel’, tourotel ‘tour hotel’; and naive conundrums such as aut -o-tel, bar-b-q, kt’s coffee shoppe (catty’s) , torest –inn, tou –restinn, to rest inn, etc. finally, i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 42 paviour-smith’s study on hair salon’s names finds that due to social condition, the linguistic elements of the salon’s names which are drawn from different linguistic systems (french, german, italian, and romansh, etc) are combined , blended, or juxtaposed for humorous and surprise effects by using three major strategies, i.e near homophones, near homograph, and respelling foreign material as if were local. the salon names themselves denote to at least 9 referents, i.e personal name, building and place, geographic location, names of another part of the world, euphemistic name, cute names, costumer type, mimicry of corporate business, spelling innovations. in his book chapter, christian thompson (2009) proposes how nomenclature and classification becomes the principles in creating names to distinguish from one entity to others. from the understanding, the authors elaborated that names can be possibly classified into several types, namely personal names for naming human beings, trademarks for merchandise, and road, village, building names for such entities, to avoiding confusing them with others. names attached to certain entities have different linguistic characteristics from the ones used as generic or common words. for more simple and practical reasons, words used for naming entities are commonly called “proper names”. unlike common words, proper names are generally difficult or impossible to translate into other languages (allan, 1986, 70–72). more importantly, name labeling was once conducted in a serious manner. even long before naming is done, people may work tirelessly to find good or proper names for the entities they wish to name. any proper name will thus convey putative expectations, historical events, etc. that are closely related to and inseparable from the entities that own the names. generally, it is rare to find naming practices conducted in a non-serious manner. however, one thing that we cannot deny is that human beings are “homo ludens” (huizinga, 1949; cook, 2000). by this call, they are fond of playing. playing constitutes an inseparable part of children’s personality. through playing, their creativity is evoked and stimulated. finally, through playing, human beings are prepared to be community members (daeng, 1982). to realize these matters, human beings play with everything existing surround them. meanwhile, language according to hockett (1959) is the most precious thing which human beings have, and they are inseparable from the language they use to communicate. these facts indicate that human beings as homo ludens will not miss the chances to play exploiting every aspect of their verbal means of communication. in human life, humor, including puns, serves various communicative functions. consequently, various genres of humorous text exist within any speech community. regarding play on words, according to “anti-language theory” proposed by hallyday (1978) and “weapon of the weak theory” by scott (1985), the existence of puns for naming enterprises is essentially a reflection of struggle done by dominated language speakers against the more dominant ones. for those matters, the practice of naming various public enterprises in yogyakarta through punning seem an interesting phenomenon to study, particularly in relation with crating approaches, languages used as the models, the extra-linguistic motivations possibly underlying it, as well as its semiotic clarification because only certain languages are used as models for such punning activities. hence, in accordance with, this research drew two objectives, 1) investigating how plays on words approaches and motivations of business owners are conveyed in naming their enterprises and 2) investigating languages influences and semiotic explanation of plays on words in enterprises naming. ii. methods this research began with the collection of data, i.e. enterprise names that are still found or were once found in yogyakarta which are suspected to be created using plays on words. as a person who has lived in yogyakarta for more than 40 years, the authors have a genuine experience in observing the enterprise names. however, some of them were found to be disappeared for being bankrupt or the like. hence, some of them could no longer be found physically. careful observations are carried out regarding the spelling, possible pronunciations, and meanings of all enterprises together with their various context, such as the products yielded or services offered, environments, location of enterprises, etc. through knowledge about several characteristics of indonesian, javanese, english, intalian, chinese, french, and arabic, all data were further classified according to the ways the names were created and the languages i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 43 clause is generally written as anda mari ‘you have recovered’. this word is accidentally with an old javanese word andamari ‘to give light’ from < {a (n)} + damar ‘lamp’ + -i). to keep the name secret, spelling deviation might also involve manipulating a new indonesian spelling into an old one. for instance, oe is the old spelling for u and dj for j. as such, the café, art, and antique house semoet (6) and ladjoe (7) are intended to conceal the words semut ‘ant’ and laju ‘fast, quick’. (6) semoet (7) ladjoe homo-phonic or near homo-phonic pairing in this matter, homo-phonic or near homophonic pairing involves the creation, through various manipulations of indonesian or regional word vocabularies, to have the same or similar form as a foreign language word, as shown by (8) to (11) below: (8) (bakso) josh bush (9) kentucku fried chicken (10) karaoke karoaku (11) milky wae in (8), the first name of former united states president george (bush) is modified into josh, echoing the informal javanese adjective jos, which means ‘very good, excellent’. this creation is intended to create sensation and attract consumers’ attention, implying that the bakso ‘noodle and meatball’ being sold is as prestigious as the former american president’s name being attached. because of the influence of american fried chicken businesses, many fried chicken restaurants in yogyakarta have become americanised. a few of them, such as olive chicken, rocket chicken, yogya chicken, choco chi ken, super chicken, pro-chicken, chicken crush, etc. have found success, but most remain small (street vendor) enterprises. accordingly, it is not surprising that one street vendor has slightly changed the name of the famous american fried chicken chain kentucky fried chicken (better known as kfc) into (9) kentucku fried chicken. kentucku, here, is really a polite javanese phrase ken tuku, which means ‘to be asked to buy’. karaoke is a japanese word that refers to ‘a kind of entertainment where people sing popular songs accompanied by a prior recorded music’. used as models in the naming practice. finally, by conforming the interview results with the owners of some businesses to the socio linguistic theory used, the authors identified and interpreted various motivations underlying such naming. antilanguage semiotic theory proposed by scott (1985) and halliday (1978) was used to comprehend the essence of plays on words in the enterprise naming practices found in yogyakarta. iii. result approaches and motivations of business owners in naming their enterprises spelling deviation javanese or indonesian words and phrases are found to often be uncommonly spelled by business owners to achieve certain communicative purposes in labeling their enterprises. by doing so, they get names that, immediately, look similar to more prestigious foreign names, as shown by examples (1) to (4) below: (1) baqull hp (2) lezzato (3) j’neus (4) (rumah makan) terrazzi example (1) is a name of a cellular shop, baqull hp, in which hp stands for ‘hand phone’ (cellular phone). the name is created from the javanese word bakul, which means ‘small trader’. lezatto in (2), which at a glance looks like an italian word, is actually a spelling manipulation of an indonesian word that was borrowed from arabic, lezat, which means ‘very delicious’. j’neus in (3), although spelled similarly to a french word, is actually from the english loan word genius ‘very clever’. finally, terrazi is a spelling deviation of the indonesian word terasi, which means ‘shrimp paste’. as such, the complete phrase (rumah makan) terazzi actually means ‘shrimp paste (restaurant)’. certainly, this name is intended to inform consumers that the restaurant’s menu is full of shrimp paste flavors. spelling deviation can also involve the combination of indonesian and javanese words, as shown in the following (5): (5) (klinik) andamari example (5) is the name of a health clinic. it consists of the indonesian word anda ‘you’ and javanese word mari ‘recover’. the blending i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 44 many restaurants and hotels in big cities offer such facilities to attract visitors. a small restaurant in yogyakarta named its business (10) karaoke karoaku. karo aku, which is nearly homo phonic to karaoke, is a javanese phrase that means ‘with me’. as such, the restaurant name could be understood as ‘to do karaoke with me’. the other example is takashimura ‘japanese name’. this restaurant name is accidentally homophonous with javanese clause tak kasih murah that means ‘i’ll give [something to] you cheap’ (supplement 48). milky wae in (11) is the name of small milk shop. this phrase is a slight phonemic modification of milky way, an english phrase that refers to ‘the system of stars that contains our sun and planets, seen as a bright band in the night sky’ (hornby, 2010, 614). this phrase is similar to a javanese clause meleki wae! that means ‘just give somebody milk’. the words being clashed are not always indonesian/local languages and foreign languages; sometimes, indonesian and local languages are clashed, as shown by (12) below: (12) padang jinglang example (12) is the name of a javanese padang restaurant. authentic padang restaurants commonly serve various specific and delicious ethnic cuisines and are run by people from the city of padang, west sumatra. however, in java these restaurants are being imitated by the javanese, and sometimes the names are wittily manipulated. padang jinglang in (12) is a javanese compound that means ‘very bright’. the javanese word padhang means ‘bright’ and jinglang is a unique constituent that can only occur or exist along with padhang for expressing intensity. therefore, it will be truly misleading to interpret padang as the name of a region in west sumatra. the difference between the two words is limited to the aspirated [dh] and the non-aspirated [d]. unlike (12), the restaurant name (13) below was created by confronting two javanese phrases. (13) kebelet pepes to understand what is combined in restaurant name (13), one must know colloquial javanese expressions such as kebelet pipis ‘have an urgent need to urinate’, kebelet ngising ‘have an urgent need to defecate’, etc. pepes, which is phonetically similar to pipis, is a javanese word referring to ‘roasted fish or meat wrapped in a banana leaf’. this name is probably created to imply the delicious menu that makes consumers unable to delay their desire to taste the food. from example (13) we can see that jocular activities often neglect politeness aspects of language use. quite a lot of indecent and swear expressions use to name enterprise even though yogyakarta is widely known as “kota pelajar” (student city) and the centre of javanese culture. see suplements bladocks ‘greedy’ (9), dasmu ‘your head’, and starfucks (49). contraction all ways of creating new, shorter, linguistic units from longer ones will be simply called contraction. enterprise names such as (mr.) teto (14) and (laundry) q-loan (15) are created through the contraction process. (mr) teto is an acronym that stands for sate ‘meat skewer’ and soto ‘chicken soup’, the two foods served by the restaurant. meanwhile, q-loan is a shorter way of writing the javanese word kiloan, which means ‘per kilogram’, to inform consumers how the laundry business charges for the services it provides. another is salon (16) ‘saloon’, which is intended to mean sate lontong ‘meat skewer and steamed rice wrapped in banana leaf’. in this matter, syllabic contraction is more common than writing or orthographic contraction, as the latter requires prerequisite knowledge of english spelling and pronunciation. (14) (mr.) teto (15) q-loan (16) salon phonological permutation words in indonesian and local indonesian languages have relatively similar spellings and pronunciations. in other words, there is no great difference between how these words are pronounced and how they are spelled. in addition, the spelling system of these languages mostly consists of single characters that generally have a one-to-one correspondence with the sound they represent. accordingly, phonological permutations are often found, particularly for creating slangy expressions in intimate speech among speakers that have close personal relationships (wijana, 2010, 36; wijana, 2014, 116). for example, the slangy expressions elub-elub, hacep tengab, oges, ogeb, etc. are respectively reverse creation of bule-bule ‘albino people’, pecah banget ‘severely broken’, meaning ‘unbearable’, sego ‘rice’, bego ‘very stupid’, etc. these kinds of phenomena are difficult to find in languages whose phoneme sounds differ greatly i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 45 from their graphemes. malang, a region in east java, is very famous of using this kind of language style, which the local people call “basa walikan” (reversed language). they use this language for many kinds of communicative purposes in informal occasions, both when speaking indonesian and when speaking the east javanese dialect. for example, soak ngalam, tahes, kera ngalam, ongis nade, respectively meaning kaos malang ‘malang t-shirt’, sehat ‘healthy’, arek malang ‘malang people’, singo edan ‘crazy lion’ (i.e. the call for malang’s soccer team). although yogyakarta people use this reverse style less extensively, one datum was created through this permutation technique, shown in (17) below: (17) lecep elel example (17) is a name of small restaurant that serves the very popular food pecel lele ‘blanched vegetable and catfish’. lecep is a phonological reversal of pecel ‘blanched vegetable’, while elel is a phonological reversal of lele ‘cat fish’. word-to-word translation in the data collected, only one example showed the exploitation of word-to-word translation in enterprise naming, i.e. yellow river, which constitutes a translation of kali kuning ‘name of river’; this business is located on the east side of that river. (18) yellow river all commercial activities have one main goal: profit. as such, business owners have to persuade potential customers to buy their products or use their services. to pursuit this purpose, businesses use various approaches. they may maintain and increase the quality of products or services, create persuasive advertisements involving popular film stars and other famous people, or create attractive jingles and catchy phrases. creating unique and sensational enterprise names using various punning techniques, in my opinion, is one of many ways businesses attract costumer attention. for example, an air conditioning service enterprise in indonesian capital city of jakarta is named ac milan, after the famous italian football team. in this case, the business owner has trickily exploited the homograph ac, which in italian and english means very different thing; in the former language, it refers to a football association, while in the latter language it refers to air conditioning. obviously, numerous motivations underlie the naming practices of business owners in general, including those in yogyakarta. these include conveying or implying the kind of business being run and its means of operation, as in bakso josh bush (8), kentucku fried chicken (9), and karaoke karoaku (10); persuading customers to use the service or buy the products being offered, as in (klinik) andamari (5), ben kwat (35), and milky wae (11); expressing putative expectations, as in la rizo (26), j’neus (3), and ben wazis (34); advising customers, as in kenstity (18); and making promises to customers, as in takashimura (32); etc. certainly, it is difficult to clearly separate one function from another, because—in most cases—a business name is intended to perform more than just one communicative function. for instance, karaoke karoaku in (10) may be used by the business’ owners not only to convey the kind of business they operate, but also to persuade and invite customers. the names j’neus (3) and ben wazis (34) do not only imply stationary shops, but also persuade and promise consumers that they may become geniuses in the future. motivation of enterprises naming in yogyakarta regarding the motivations under enterprises naming in yogyakarta, it is interesting to note that interviews carried out to discover those various motives faced several problems. first, nearly half of the enterprises discussed here are no longer extant. second, many of enterprises that are still operational are staffed by people who do not dare give information, citing their lack of authority to do so, even though some know the reason for the naming. third, in line with anti-language theory, many owners want to keep their business names secret, and the reasons regarding their enterprises’ unique naming are thus very difficult to learn. some owners who gave information identified various reasons, which can be divided into two key categories: for creating humour and for lending beauty. creating humour joking plays a very central role in human life, both because it can relieve various kinds of tension and, more importantly, because it can criticise social conditions to achieve intended improvements. however, most plays on words found in business names are intended to ensure readers feel amused or entertained after they realise the real meaning of the business owners’ wordplay. as mentioned i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 46 above, plays on words in enterprise naming is but one of many ways to attract consumers’ attention and persuade them to buy the product being offered. theoretically, at least two scripts are opposed by joke creators. one script is considered extraordinary or elegant, while the other is viewed as trivial (raskin, 1984). for example, notice (36) and (37) below: (36) yellow river (37) tickle hotel at a glance, yellow river is the name of a river located somewhere in an english-speaking place. however, after investigating the business carefully, particularly the location where it is operated, it can be understood that yellow river is simply a direct translation of kali kuning, the name of a small river that runs in the eastern part of yogyakarta. as with any other name, the name of this river cannot or is not allowed to be translated into another language unless another communicative function is intended. proper name translation is a very common phenomenon in joking activities. this can also be seen in (37). tickle looks like an english word that means ‘to move one’s fingers on a sensitive body part in order to make someone laugh’ or ‘to please or amuse somebody’. however, this name may also be interpreted as a spelling deviation of the javanese word tikel, which means ‘multiple’, as in ‘multiple profits will be gained by the hotelier’. similarly, no one will guess initially that benafix ‘to be good’ in (19) above is a javanese phrase that comprises ben ‘in order to be’ and apik ‘good’. only after investigating the name more carefully can the intended meaning finally be revealed. lending beauty besides for amusing readers who are expected to become customers, most plays on words in business naming in yogyakarta seem to be intended to lend beauty. nearly all of these business names are created to resemble foreign-language words that are considered more prestigious than their indonesian and javanese counterparts, such as those exemplified above. for more examples, see (38) to (40) below: (38) cullinan (39) shukaku (40) q-tha jilbab examples (38), (39), and (40) are respectively the names of a jewellery shop, a small restaurant, and a muslim attire shop. spelling deviation leads to the javanese word kulinan or kulino ‘already familiar’ becoming cullinan/kullino, thus resembling an english word; sukaku ‘my favorite’ is transformed into shukaku, thus resembling a japanese word; and kita ‘we’ becomes q-tha, exposing the foreign language (arabic) used as the model. all these undeniably constitute efforts to borrow from the prestige of a foreign language. at the same time, these efforts are used to hide or cover the low prestige of the indonesian and javanese words. language influences and semiotic explanations of plays on words in enterprise naming language influences on plays on words in enterprise naming english, as one of biggest international languages, is undeniably the most influential, lending many borrowings to other languages, especially in the fields of science and technology. consequently, english loan words are found extensively in all languages, and often regarded as more prestigious linguistic elements than native or local lexical items. therefore, it is not surprising that business owners in yogyakarta often play on indonesian or javanese words as if they were english words (as shown in more than 19 data out of 56); several of them can be seen in (19), (20), (21), (22), (23) and (24) below: (19) kenstity < ken ‘asked to be’ + setiti ‘economical’ > ‘asked to be economical’ (jean repair) (20) benafix < ben ‘in order to be’ + apik ‘good’ > ‘be good’ (jean repair) (21) ayam gemez < ayam ‘chicken’ + gemes ‘could eat up’ > “could eat up the chicken’ (fried chicken restaurant) (22) qualy < kuali ‘cooking pot’ (restaurant name with menus prepared in traditional cooking pot to achieve a special taste) (23) sambal pedazz < sambal ‘chili sauce’ + pedas ‘hot’ > ‘hot chili sauce’ (restaurant name) (24) soocha > soca ‘jewel’ (furniture shop) all six examples above are javanese phrases or words whose spellings have been adapted to english in various ways. in example (19), javanese, which does not have the cluster [st], is forced to have one by omitting [∂], and changing the final sound spelling i into y, which does not exist in javanese orthography but is very common in english. in (20), the prepositional phrase benafix is a javanese phrase consisting of two words, namely ben ‘to be’ i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 47 and apik ‘good’. the final letter k is changed into x to resemble english spelling, with x representing [ks]. in (21), the final letter s is changed into z; this is used to represent the voiced palatal fricative [z], which does not exist in javanese. in (22), qualy is resulted from spelling deviation of two letters, i.e. k into q and i into y. q is not known in the javanese spelling system, and y is used only to represent the semivowel [y] in initial and middle position. spelling deviation in (23) is similar to spelling deviation in (21), but the letter used to substitute s is doubled (forming zz) for emotional emphasis. finally, in (24), the use of a double o (i.e. oo) and ch, which are very common in english orthography to represent [u:] and the voiceless palatal affricate [č] substitutes o and c, even though there are no long vowels or fricative consonants in javanese phonology. italy is a country famous for many things, i.e. fashion, ceramics, sports, and cuisine. with regards to the latter, several foods, including pizza, spaghetti, and macaroni, are notably from this country (jones, 2008). for this reason, several indonesian words are manipulated to resemble italian words, as shown by (2) and (4) above, and in (25) below: (25) rambozeni < ra ‘not’ + mbosen ‘to get bored’ + -i > ra mboseni ‘to make someone never get bored’ rambozeni is a javanese phrase created through spelling deviation. by substituting s with z, and by exploiting the open syllabic pattern of three last syllables [bo. ze.ni], the phrase looks like an italian word. french is also often used as the model for name creation. the articles la and de, together with the contraction d’, are found in great number of cases, as seen in examples (26) through (28) below: (26) la rizo < laris(o) ‘hopefully have good sales’ (bakery) (27) la kusuma (hotel) < kusuma ‘flower’ (hotel) (28) d’teko < teko ‘tea pot’ (restaurant) aside from manipulation of initial javanese syllable la into the french feminine article la, there is also the substitution of s with z. meanwhile, {-a} is a javanese suffix pronounced [ↄ] in this language. in (3), the initial syllable je is contracted to j’, imitating how the french contract their words. j’neus is the name of a stationary shop, which suggests what the consumers expect for the future. words ending in -que are so common in french that the business owner has used it as a model, as seen in the following beauty salon name (29): (29) (serba) cantique < (serba) cantik ‘everything beautiful’ japanese has long had influenced indonesian and malay. the use of japanese loan words could be found in malay when the malay-arabic script (jawi) was used widely throughout this region. in indonesia, japanese loan words became increasingly common during the occupation (1942–1945). at this time, most japanese borrowings were related to military technical terms, newspaper names, and commercial companies (jones, 2008, xxxi). many are no longer in common use. nowadays, japan is famous for its advanced automotive technology. many brands of vehicle, such as suzuki, toyota, honda, yamaha, etc., are widely used in indonesian. in addition, japanese people greatly appreciate their traditional customs, including body care, medicine, cuisine, etc. recently, many japanese foods and traditional healing practices have entered indonesia’s major cities, and yogyakarta is no exception. as a consequence, many indonesian words or phrases are modified in certain ways to resemble japanese ones, as shown by (30) to (32) below: (30) isakuiki < isaku ‘what i can do’ + iki ‘this’ > ‘i can only do this’ (restaurant name) (31) ka ki ku < kaki ‘foot’ + -ku ‘my’ > kakiku ‘my feet’ (reflexology) (32) takashimura > tak kasih ‘i will give’ + murah ‘cheap’ > ‘i will give [you] a cheap price’ (restaurant name) example (30) isakuiki is the name of a restaurant that operated in yogyakarta several years ago. this word is created by omitting the space from a two-part javanese phrase, namely isaku ‘what i can do’ and iki ‘this’. as such, it seems to be a single word, and the open syllabic patterning resembles a japanese word. conversely, the massage parlour name ka ki ku in (31) is created from the indonesian phrase kakiku ‘my foot’ to refer to the body part that is most frequently treated. takashimura in (32) is actually an informal indonesian phrase constructed with the immediate constituents tak kasih ‘i will give you’ and murah ‘cheap’, to indicate that ‘i will give you a cheap price’ for all foods served at the restaurant. the omission of h is intended to create open syllables, because javanese is a vocalic language. occasionally, one part of a name is a foreign i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 48 (35) ben kwat < ben ‘in order to be’ + kuat ‘strong’ > ‘hopefully strong’ (drug store). semiotic explanations of plays on words in enterprise naming leaving behind the language influences, this section serves the semiotic explanations. theoretically, every language is as good as another, and internally none is more difficult than another. however, this does not mean that all languages have the same socio-political status. the language used does not merely imply linguistic factors, but also extra-linguistic ones. for instance, the social status of a language is strongly determined, to some extent, by the social status of its speakers, either economically or politically. accordingly, the languages of speakers of higher social, economic, and political status tend to dominate the languages of persons with lower status. any time such language dominance exists, there will always be resistance, a symbol of the dominated group’s struggle against the dominating one. one expert who has investigated the resistance of dominated languages against the more dominant is james scott (1985), who observes how the peasants of sedarka, a disguised village name in malay, struggle against their masters. in this research, scott finds two kinds of behaviors shown by the farmers, i.e. “on stage” behaviour and “off stage” behaviour. the first refers to the farmers’ behaviour when interacting with their master’s and the local elites, while the second refers to when they interact with other farmers without any local elites nearby. they usually use two different linguistic expressions to perform each behaviour, referring to the same personal referent. in front of the master, a farmer uses haji kadir or haji pak to refer to his master to show his deference, because the master has made the pilgrimage to mecca. however, when the farmer is speaking to other farmers, he calls his master kadir ceti or haji broom. ceti literally means ‘pimp’, while broom an english word that is equivalent to the local expression sapu. these calls are insinuations against the master’s behaviour as a high-interest moneylender, a profession that strongly contradicts islamic teaching and often “cleans out” the poor. scott calls this phenomenon the “weapon of the weak” in other words, reflecting the argument by scott (1985), punning in the naming of public enterprises is a weapon used by the weak against the strong. it is not different from the use of slang borrowing and the other is a javanese word, as shown by (33), which combines the english loan word oke ‘okay’ with the javanese iki ‘this’: (33) okeiki < oke ‘okay’ + iki ‘this’ > this is okay (restaurant name) examples (30), (32), and (33) apply the space omission technique, while in (31) spaces are applied to every syllable. for most indonesians, arabic is a prestigious language because of its use in writing the holy qur’an. indonesian muslims frequently study this language to deepen their understanding of the islamic teachings contained in the holy book. accordingly, many arabic words are borrowed to enrich indonesian vocabularies and to realise various communicative purposes. the use of a glottal stop (represented by q) in the middle position, and the use ul, which is similar to the arabic morph –ul(l) (an allomorph of {-al} for expressing the genitive, such as in (1) baqull hp above. the voiced fricative [z] substituting the voiceless fricative [s] in (34) below is certainly influenced by arabic. (34) ben wazis < ben ‘in order to be’ + wasis ‘clever’ (book shop) ben wazis is a slight modification of javanese ben wasis ‘to be clever’ and is used as the name of a small bookshop. it is a kind of putative expectation offered to persuade customers. finally, mandarin is the language of the world’s most populous country which is common in many aspects of life, such as food and cuisine, martial arts, philosophy, way of life, and traditional medicine. indeed, many indonesians regard traditional medicine to effectively heal various kinds of serious illness, such as hypertension, hepatitis, diabetes, cancer, etc. therefore, it is not surprising that many indonesian people, especially those living in java, prefer chinese medicine over modern medicine. many chinese drug stores are found in yogyakarta, such as sehat jaya, malaya, jamu iboe, thai an tjan, mbah and gembok, raya. only one small chinese medicine shop in yogyakarta is named using a play on words: ben kuat ‘hopefully strong’, which offers a fake chinese name (35) without altering the meaning. ben kuat consists of two elements, namely ben ‘in order (to be)’ and kuat ‘strong’. here, the disyllabic word kuat is spelled kwat, making it monosyllabic to emulate the chinese phonological system. i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 49 and other non-formal linguistic forms to compete with the standard language used by the higher class on formal occasions (oemarjati, 1978, 7–8). halliday (1978, 165–181) uses the term “antilanguage” to refer to specific language used by dominated groups in society (see also mesthrie et al. 2009, 328–329). this anti-language is created by anti-society as a conscious alternative to the language and society that dominate it. as such, at all times a society and its language exists together with an anti-society and its anti-language. relying on research conducted by harman, mallik, and podgorecky, halliday explains the cases of antilanguage found in three different places. in elizabethan england, the counterculture of homeless people—mostly criminals—was realized using a special tongue known as “pelting speech” for fighting against established society. immediately, the lexical expressions are the professional jargon of criminal counterculture. for example, “pelting speech” has many linguistic expressions referring to the vagabonds’ jobs, such as prigger of prancers ‘horse thief’, doxy ‘prostitute’; terms for referring to immoral activities and strategies used for executing them, such as lifting laws ‘stealing packages’, which includes a lift, a marker, and a santer for respectively referring ‘the one who steals, the one to whom it is handed, and the one who carries it off’; tools used to carry out the activities, e.g. wrester ‘tool for picking locks’, snapping and garbage ‘tool for spoiling locks’; various penalty terms, i.e. clying the jerk ‘being whipped’, trining on the chats ‘getting hanged’ (halliday, 1978, 65). as quoted by halliday (1978, 172), mallik, who conducted his research in modern calcutta, found that this underworld language is a full and complete language based on bengali, albeit artificial and mixed with hindi to some extent. this language has its own phonological and morphological system, and is used by criminals, near-criminals, and students. there are significant differences among users in matters of content and expressions. the criminals’ speech is marked by a peculiar intonation, while the students and other cultured people speak normally. this reflects the continuity between language and anti-language, as continuity between society and anti-society. despite functioning to create humour, antilanguage is also used for insults and secrecy. mallik does not only find various lexical variations for expressing something, e.g. 21 words for ‘bomb’, 41 for ‘police’; he also discovers many expressions resulting from phonological and grammatical processes. for example, kodan from dokan ‘shop’, khum from mukh ‘mouth’, and kona from sona ‘gold’ respectively constitute phonological processes of metathesis, back formation, and consonantal substitution. meanwhile, kotni from cotton ‘cotton bag’, bilakhana ‘brothel’, from bila ‘derogatory term’ and kana ‘opium, place for’, are formed through the morphological processes of suffixing and compounding. furthermore, the slang used by the subculture of polish recidivists and inmates is called “grypserka”. it is an anti-language used by anti-society, which is called “the second life”. anti-language use is prominently intended for strengthening the position of the inmates in the social hierarchy by not breaking the rules of verbal contest and not telling secrets to the police. as such, grypserka not only serves to give recidivists a second life with attractive verbal forms, but also serves to maintain the existence of the second life. halliday states that “anti-language” is a metaphor (another way of saying the same thing) for daily language use, which can be divided into several categories, i.e. phonological metaphor, semantic metaphor, and grammatical metaphor. in the enterprise-naming practices found in yogyakarta, only two kinds of metaphors were involved, i.e. orthographic metaphors and phonological metaphors. the first is carried out by spelling indonesian and javanese expressions in such ways that they resembled foreign expressions, even when such expressions do not exist in the target language, such as in kenstity (19), isakuiki (30), j’neus (3), etc. the naming may also invoke homonymic pairing, such as tickle (43), or be gained through collocation, such as josh bush (8), padang jinglang (12), kebelet pepes (13), etc. the second involves various phonological processes, such as sound substitution (starfucks (49), kentucku fried chiken (9), karaoke karoaku (10)), sound addition (hayam wuruk (41)), back formation (lecep elel (17)), and vowel lengthening (yaa, yuuuk (42)), etc. (41) hayam wuruk (42) yaa, yuuuk example (41) is the name of a fried chicken restaurant, in which ayam ‘chicken’ is spelled hayam, referring to a famous majapahit king. in the i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 50 javanese nicknaming tradition, the personal name rahayu is informally shortened to yayuk; as such, the business owner creatively named the business yaa, yuuk (42), which is homonymous with an indonesian inviting expression that means ‘ok, come on’. no semantic or grammatical metaphors were found in the data collected, because the disguised indonesian and javanese names are not something to be hidden from security authorities, nor do they relate to criminal acts or invoke insults. however, these matters still need further investigation. iv. discussion the deployment of ‘plays on words’ was interpreted as the branding strategy from the owners of the enterprises around yogyakarta. the enterprise names suspected as being named through plays on words shows that business owners exploit various ways to name their enterprises in a manner that suggests they are foreign names, rather than indonesian or javanese. these approaches, from the most to the least common, are spelling deviation, homo-phonic and near homo-phonic pairing, acronym, and word to word translation. in short, the play on words strategies aimed at persuading target consumers were by making fun names as jokes and beautiful names to figuratively represent the enterprises. close examination of the data collected, particularly the spelling deviations, clearly shows that naming creations are influenced strongly through intensive linguistic contact with several foreign languages, i.e. english, italian, french, javanese, arabic, and mandarin. these foreign languages have higher prestige and status than indonesian or javanese. from the spelling and phonological structure of the enterprise names, it can be guessed that business owners exploit these five foreign languages as models for their plays on words in creating names. this is in line with foley’s argument (2001, 383) that, in any social contact, the cultural elements (including languages) of more socially and economically powerful communities will likely to be viewed positively by less powerful communities. accordingly, linguistic elements of these six foreign languages are easily found in indonesian, but not vice versa. based on this theory, it can be stated that the plays on words created by business owners by ‘substituting’ less powerful signs with more powerful ones in naming public enterprises in yogyakarta are essentially a reflection of less powerful groups’ struggle against more powerful ones. in this case, this struggle is between local language (javanese)/national language (indonesian) speakers and foreign language (i.e. english, french, italian, japanese, arabic, and mandarin) speakers, even though expressions within the same language may be used, such as in starbucks and starfucks (cafe, supplement 49). further, compared with previous studies, this research tends to strengthen the findings that enterprises naming needs a strategy to persuade target customers. in other words, this research is in line with previous studies in emphasizing that naming businesses or enterprises can bee seen as the branding strategy to make public interested and willing to buy the products or services. the implication of the findings was that plays on words become a branding strategy to persuade target customers for each enterprise. the matters whether the plays on words deployment effectively affected to the increase of customers for the respective enterprise or not remains to be the limitation of this research and hance, advanced research is encouraged to investigate the effectiveness of plays on words in increasing the customers’ enterprises. v. conclusion human beings play with their language to create many kinds of discourses, such as poems, crossword puzzles, advertisements, jocular texts, etc. even more strikingly, they are do so to name their enterprises. because naming activities are usually carried out in a serious manner, this behaviour should be motivated by other factors. this research found that, despite its primary reasons, i.e. to create humour and to lend beauty, the practice of enterprise naming is also exploited to attract consumers to buy or use the products or services being offered. this constitutes a business endeavour conducted to increase the number of customers. previously, this matter has not been clearly explained by experts focusing on plays on words with sociolinguistics and pragmatic approaches. from a semiotic viewpoint, this play is essentially a reflection of the “power of the weak” or “anti-language” created by a dominated group to resist against a stronger group. anti-language, in this case, is essentially daily metaphors that can be classified further into orthographical metaphors and phonological metaphors. there are still many i dewa putu wijana / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 51 kinds of plays on word in texts that can be studied using the pragmatic and semiotic approaches in yogyakarta, such as in food and industrial product names, personal names, places names, etc. all these certainly have different linguistic characteristics and are created based on different social motivations. in the future, to gain more information on everything about the naming and extra linguistic motivations underlying them, more strategic interviewing processes should be carried out. ethics statement the authors confirm to have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement i dewa putu wijana: initially drafting, introduction, theoretical framework, method, data collection and analysis, discussion, and conclusion. adwidya yoga : title, abstract, discussion, conclusion, corresponding, and revising 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a question arises from the aspect of word class, which is the inconsistency in word class labelling for al expression entries; and three questions from the aspect of definition, namely (1) the inaccuracy in the definition of homonymous word variations in kdp, (2) the absence of definition of the al entries in the kdp and (3) the deletion of al entry in the kdp. the results of this study serve as user feedback, which contributed to dbp as the body responsible for improving the compilation of kdp as well as other dictionaries such as kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi), cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary (cald), longman dictionary of contemporary english new edition (ldcene), oxford english dictionaries (oed), and concise oxford english dictionaries (coed). this improvement will in turn be able to provide complete vocabulary information to the user community, both among native speakers and non-native speakers. keywords arabic loanwords, malay language, dewan bahasa dan pustaka, dictionary, etymology, kamus dewan perdana correspondence e-mail: indirawati@um.edu.my article arabic loanwords in kamus dewan perdana: questions of etymology, word class and definition noorazlin abu bakar¹, indirawati zahid2, wan zailan kamaruddin wan ali3 1,2department of language, academy of malay studies, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia. 3department of aqidah & islamic thought, academy of islamic studies, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.3.314-333.2024 i. introduction kamus dewan perdana (kdp) (2021) is the largest and most complete malay language (ml) dictionary produced by the dewan bahasa dan pustaka (dbp) as stated on its blurb. the main target users of this dictionary are native speakers of ml and non-native speakers who are proficient in ml. the blurb of this dictionary also states that there are around 7000 etymological information given in the dictionary. this etymological information is prepared by ml etymology experts based on research findings from theses, essays, journals, dictionaries and books involving around 7000 entries of heritage words and loanwords. in kdp, the source language information of a loanword obtained from the kamus dewan edisi keempat (kde4) is based on labels such as ar (arabic), c (chinese), ing (english), jp (japanese) and tm (tamil) placed at the end entry. kde4 is a ml dictionary published by dbp since 2005 until 2016 noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 315 before the publication of kdp in 2020 until now. dbp is a statutory body in malaysia that is given autonomous authority in the development of language and literature. accordingly, the production of kdp and previous editions of dictionaries such as kde4 (2005), kamus dewan edisi ketiga (kde3) (1994), kamus dewan edisi baharu (kdeb) (1989) and kamus dewan (kd) (1970) are dbp’s efforts in the development of ml by recording ml vocabulary through the dictionary. the compilation of the dictionary is carried out by loading a vocabulary consisting of native ml words as well as loanwords from various source languages that have been absorbed into ml. this effort is based on the fifth goal of its establishment on june 22, 1956, which is to compile and publish a national language dictionary (karim, 2013). arabic loanwords (al) are among the borrowed words included in the ml dictionary produced by dbp. the incorporation of arabic into malay was influenced by various factors, particularly islam. according to karim et al. (2013), islam began to take root concurrently with the rise of the malay melaka sultanate in the 13th century. during that period, malay became a tool for the dissemination of islam, and its vocabulary rapidly expanded due to the need to express new ideas introduced by islamic civilization. islamic teachings and knowledge significantly increased the malay lexicon, which, according to za’ba, may have exceeded the number of sanskrit words (hassan & mohd, 1994). meanwhile, according to al-attas (2022), arabic is the language of islam, and no language spoken by muslims remains unaffected by the profound impact of arabic, whether they have reached a high level of civilisation or not. this directly explains that the ml has been influenced by arabic. research on al in the world’s languages is exhaustive, including phonological, morphological, syntaxis and semantic aspects. the research on al in other languages, such as hausa, bengali, urdu, minangkabau, and indonesian, among others, has been conducted by danzaki (2015), hasan (2015), anwar (2017), maiza (2017), julul et al. (2019), ukhrawiyah (2019), puspita dan yusuf (2020), almarwaey & ahmad (2021), ilmiatun (2022), and hidayati & prindyatno (2023). meanwhile, research on al in ml has been conducted by jumingan dan hasbullah (2002), mansor (2002), jumingan (2005, 2011), yusoff (2006), mansor (2010), abdullah et al. (2011), jalaluddin et al. (2012), toklubok@hajimaming & mezah (2013), lubis (2014), abas et al. (2019, 2021), sarudin (2019), musling (2021), and zahid et al. (2024). nonetheless, in line with the current discussion, this literature review only concentrates on the admission of al in dictionaries. the publication of kdp as the latest ml dictionary in 2020 onwards has been welcomed by language experts as a source for research. thus far, there are four studies carried out on kdp namely by hassan (2023, 2024), collins (2023), and jaafar et al. (2024). since this article underscores al in kdp, this literature review discusses the research discovered from 2023 until 2024 to show the research trends and thus addressing the research gap. hassan (2023) focuses on a linguistic study based on the corpus used in the production of the dictionary (kdp). recently, kdp (2020) has utilised the corpus and websites as data sources to capture the usage of the ml, including dialects and loanwords. accordingly, this study examines the strengths and weaknesses of the corpus as a data source for malay linguistic studies. the findings highlight issues related to the use of the corpus in the production of the kdp, such as the entries ‘tersepakkan’ and ‘tersepak’, which were found to have no difference in meaning and were both incorrectly categorised as transitive verbs according to malay grammar. this is because the prefix and suffix combination ‘ter-...-kan’ is not listed as one that forms derived transitive verbs. therefore, the study suggests that not everything generated from the corpus should be recorded as malay words, especially when their form is unusual and does not represent the logical meaning (as seen with the use of the ‘ter-...-kan’ affix), and such usage should not be encouraged among ml users. furthermore, there is no consistency between the ‘ter-...-kan’ affix and the meanings provided by kdp with any major malay grammar books in malaysia. however, the findings of this study only highlight a few errors in discussing the issue of corpus usage in the kdp. meanwhile, in 2024, hassan focused on the issue of morphology in the kdp, covering word classes, affixes, and the meanings of affixes. the issues identified were discussed using kde4 (2016), tatabahasa dewan edisi ketiga (2010), nahu melayu terakhir (2015), and sintaksis (2006) as the methodology. the findings revealed noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 316 morphological issues with the entries ‘hafalan’, ‘makan’, ‘tersepak’, and ‘tersepakkan’ in the kdp, which were found to be incorrect according to malay grammar in terms of word class, affixes, and the meanings of affixes. additionally, the study also identified errors in the loanword ‘tentatif’ in the kdp, particularly concerning its meaning and word class. all these issues were found to be caused by the use of a corpus containing ungrammatical sentences in the production of the kdp. next, collins (2023) focused on the review of etymological information in kdp. this study highlights issues related to etymological formatting in the kdp by examining four entries of inherited words (api; air; bini; betina) and two entries of loanwords (loji; baluk). the methodology used involves comparing the etymological format in the random house dictionary (1987). the study found that there is no date information provided in the etymological description of each entry, and there is no relevance in using etymological information from proto-malayic or proto-malay-polynesian languages in kdp, as a general dictionary does not require the reconstruction of ancient languages. instead, cognates from languages within the same sub-branch, namely malay-javanic languages, should be presented. additionally, there are errors in the word forms and meanings in the etymological information for the loanword entries. the study also points out that some entries lack etymological information, even though the words have been extensively studied by scholars, such as the entry for ‘api’. therefore, this study emphasises that kdp should adopt a critical and empirical approach in all lexicographical efforts. the study recommends that dbp implement transparent procedures for material preparation, with continuous review by assistant editors and evaluators handling the contributed information. lastly, jaafar et al. (2024) focused on the grammatical aspect of al in kdp. this study aims to categorise al based on their word classes and to explain the factors of borrowing, namely cultural borrowing, and core borrowing. the study found that nouns are the most frequently borrowed into malay, and most borrowed arabic words fall under cultural borrowing, referring to new objects or concepts that did not previously exist in malay culture. additionally, the openness of the ml to borrowing from other languages also shows instances of core borrowing, where al overlaps with existing words in malay. however, the study also identified several al that have been inaccurately categorised by their word class, such as the entries ‘hujah’, ‘muktamad’, and ‘rela’. therefore, the study suggests that the categorisation of word classes should be based on their usage context in sentences. in summary, it can be concluded that the studies by hassan (2023, 2024) and jaafar et al. (2024) focus on grammatical aspects, while collins’ (2023) research deals with the etymological format in the entries of the kdp. the findings from all these studies also reveal errors in linguistic information concerning specific entries (both native words and loanwords), including word formation, word class, and the etymological information provided in the kdp, leading to various issues and questions. however, these studies do not specifically address issues and questions related to the entries of al in the kdp. additionally, earlier studies by jumingan & hasbullah (2002), mansor (2002), jumingan (2005, 2011), yusoff (2006), mansor (2010), toklubok@hajimaming & mezah (2013), lubis (2014), abas et al. (2019, 2021), and musling (2021) were found to have only used earlier dictionaries published before the kdp, such as kde4, kde3, and kd in various editions. as a result, these previous studies did not utilise the latest ml dictionaries, unlike this study, which will be conducted using the kdp. therefore, unlike hassan (2023, 2024), collins (2023), jaafar et al. (2024), and all the other previous research, this study specifically focuses on the entry of al in kdp in relation to the aspects of etymology, word class, and definition from the perspective of users and researchers. therefore, a current study needs to be conducted. this study aims to identify al in kdp and analyse the questions regarding their entry from the aspects of etymology, word class, and definition. this study is due to inconsistency in the entry of al in kdp, which has caused confusion among native and non-native speakers, as mentioned by abas et al. (2019, 2021); generally, it could cause confusion for speakers of the two languages, particularly arabian students who are required to pass the ml to accomplish their studies in malaysia and malay students who are studying in arabian nations. this aligns with the statement by anis & arifuddin (2023) that translation tends to be orientated towards the target language and adopts noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 317 (artis et al., 2019) as shown in figure 1, is based on legewie’s discussion (2013) that includes elements of research question, case study, source, hypothesis, and cross-referencing. figure 1 shows the qca protocol starting with a research question that is the basis of the research to answer the question of how al are introduced in kdp. in the first procedure, al is manually extracted from kdp. this is followed by a second procedure, where the extracted al is crossreferenced with the arabic dictionary, al-muʻjam al-wasīt (mw), for etymological validation. mw is a dictionary published by the arabic language academy in egypt, which arabic language students use at intermediate and advanced levels at universities in egypt. this cross-referencing was done to ensure that al assimilated into ml is all considerably taken into account in the analysis process. this method of cross-referencing using mw has also been found to be employed by previous researchers such as mansor (2002), jumingan (2002), jumingan (2005; 2011), mansor (2010), totlubok@hajimaming & mezah (2013), maiza (2017), almarwaey & ahmad (2021), the ideology of domestication. the findings of this study will directly benefit the dictionary publisher by strengthening the compilation of dictionaries over time, in line with its role as a body dedicated to developing ml. this research will provide a detailed scrutiny of problematic entries that cause confusion for both native and non-native users. ii. method this study adopts a qualitative approach in its methodology, which is analysing text based on three procedures. first, to extract al from kdp that are labelled ar and not labelled ar to obtain comprehensive data; second, to cross-reference al that are not labelled ar to confirm their etymology; and third, to analyse the questions that arise from the al entries in kdp in terms of etymology, word class and definition. these three procedures apply the qualitative comparative analysis (qca) approach adapted from the study of zahid et al. (2024). the qca allows a new summary to be formulated (rihoux, 2006), which in the context of this study is related to the issues that arise from the al entries. the qca methodology framework figure 1. qualitative comparative analysis (qca) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 318 musling (2021), and zahid et al. (2024). crossreferencing was further done against five other authoritative sources to validate the etymology of al entries not labelled ‘ar’ in this study. these five sources are the malay-english dictionary (med) by wilkinson (1959), kamus bahasa melayu (kbm) by winstedt (1960), arabic loan-words in malay (alm) by beg (1979), loan-words in indonesian and malay (lim) by jones (2008), and kde4 (2015) by dbp, all of which recorded etymological sources in the compilation of their respective dictionaries. this was followed by the third procedure: identifying the etymological labelling, word class, and definition of the al obtained from kdp, which led to the analysis based on hypotheses. at the end of the qca protocol, a discussion based on questions from the aspects of etymology, word class, and definition of the al entries is carried out, and the findings of the study are put forward. result and discussion the extraction of al in kdp found a total of 2847 entries including 1886 entries (66%) labelled ar and 961 entries (34%) unlabelled as shown in figure 2. figure 2. the total of al in kdp based on figure 2, al in kdp are divided into two parts, namely words labelled ar which are found to be as much as 66 percent representing 1886 entries, while there are 961 entries which are unlabelled words and this represents 34 percent of the total. in addition, the findings of this study identified questions from the aspect of etymology, word class and definition. there are three questions of etymology namely (1) the inconsistent omission of etymological labelling, (2) the differences in terms of etymological labelling between kdp and kde4, and (3) justification of the information on the source language of the loanword placed at the end of the entry in the kdp; a question from the aspect of word class is about the inconsistency in word class labelling for al expression entries while three questions from the aspect of definition comprises of (1) the inaccuracy in the definition of homonymous word variations in kdp, (2) the absence of definition of the al entries in the kdp, and (3) the deletion of al entry in the kdp. these questions are the subject of this study as presented in the following discussion. findings from the etymological aspect there are three questions from the etymological aspect, namely (1) the inconsistent omission of etymological labelling; (2) the differences in terms of etymological labelling between kdp and kde4; and (3) justification for the source language information of the loanword placed at the end of the entry in the kdp. 1. inconsistent omission of etymological labelling omitting etymological labelling refers to loanword entries in kdp whose source language as etymological information for the words are not labelled. this is based on the statements found in the introduction of kde3 and kde4 as follows: in relation to the labelling of loanwords, some of the ib and ar labels found in the last edition of the kamus dewan have been omitted in this third edition. this was made considering that the words in question have been so widely used in the malay language, especially in malaysia, that they have become integrated and considered a part of the malay language. for this third edition, only arabic loanwords that still display specific meanings, such as in the field of islam, for example allahumma, asar or words whose meaning is not generally known, for example alwah, then the ar label is added or maintained. (kde3, 1994, p. xxiii) kamus dewan edisi keempat has removed some loanword labels that were previously jw (javanese), ib (dutch indonesia), id (indonesian) and ar (arabic) because the word is thought to have been absorbed and established in its usage in malaysia. (kde4, 2005, p. xviii) the statements of kde3 and kde4 clearly state that the omission of the ar etymological label is based on the assumption that the loanwords have been absorbed, established and widely used in ml in malaysia, thus giving implications of integration in ml. on the other hand, loanwords that still display a specific meaning such as in the field of religion or words that are less known to the general public will retain the ar label. noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 319 in this case, the methods used in determining the omission of ar label of loanwords are not specified. therefore, the omission of the label has raised questions when three types of inconsistencies in the ar labelling of al entries in the kdp were found as follows: a. inconsistent ar labelling for all 30 entries of arabic letter this inconsistency refers to the arabic letter entries in the kdp that are not uniform in their etymological labelling, i.e. there are some entries that have an ar label and some that have no labelling as in table 1. based on table 1, only eight of the total 30 arabic letter entries are labelled ar in kdp, namely “alif¹”, “ba¹”, “jim”, “ra”, “ain¹”,”lam”, “nun” and “lam -alif”. this raises the question of whether the eight entries of arabic letters labelled ar are not stable and not integrated into ml like the remaining 22 arabic letters? the inconsistency in the labelling of ar on the entire entry of arabic letters raises questions because all these letters have actually been used in ml. this is evidenced by the jawi writing system that uses arabic letters in many of its letters. table 1. inconsistency in ar labelling for all 30 entries of arabic letter in kdp. no. arabic letter entry in kdp labelled ar page 1 ا alif¹ ✓ 61 2 ب ba¹ ✓ 165 3 ت ta¹ ø 2199 4 ث sa¹ ø 1921 5 ج jim ✓ 904 6 ح ha¹ ø 717 7 خ kha ø 1102 8 د dal ø 470 9 ذ zal ø 2525 10 ر ra ✓ 1792 11 ز zai ø 2524 12 س sin¹ ø 2111 13 ش syin ø 2197 14 ص sad¹ ø 1924 15 ض dad ø 461 16 ط ta² ø 2199 17 ظ za ø 2524 18 ع ain¹ ✓ 27 19 غ ghain ø 684 20 ف fa¹ ø 589 21 ق qaf ø 1790 22 ك kaf ø 935 23 ل lam ✓ 1224 24 م mim ø 1464 25 ن nun³ ✓ 1544 26 ه ha² ø 717 27 ال lam-alif ✓ 1225 28 و wau² ø 2514 29 ء hamzah ø 735 30 ي ya ø 2520 note: ✓ (labelled) ø (unlabelled) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 320 b. inconsistent ar labelling for all 25 entries of the names of messengers and prophets this inconsistency refers to entries of the names of messengers and prophets in the kdp that are not uniform in their etymological labelling, i.e. there are some entries with ar labels and some without the labelling as in table 2. based on table 2, only two of the total 25 entries of the names of messengers and prophets are labelled ar, namely “adam” and “isa”. this raises two questions, the first of which is whether the two entries of the names of messengers and prophets labelled ar are not stable and do not blend in the ml like the remaining 23 entries of the names of messengers and prophets? secondly, do these two entries have meanings that are less known to the general public, so they were given the ar label compared to the other 23 entries that were not labelled ar? the inconsistency in the ar labelling on all 25 entries in table 2 has caused confusion because all 25 names of messengers and prophets have already been widely used in ml, especially in the islamic education syllabus both in secular education schools and religious education as it is compulsory to know and study the 25 messengers and prophets. c. inconsistent ar labelling for homonymous entries from the same arabic word stems this inconsistency refers to the six homonymous entries from arabic word stems in kdp that shows the non-uniformity of etymological labelling, that is, some of them have ar labels and some do not. on the other hand, there are two homonymous entries from arabic word stems in kdp that is consistent in ar labelling and these are shown in tables 3 and 4 respectively. table 2. inconsistency in ar labelling for all 25 entries of the names of messengers and prophets in kdp. no. entries of the names of prophets and messengers labelled ar page 1 adam ✓ 11 2 idris ø 801 3 nuh¹ ø 1543 4 hud¹ ø 785 5 saleh ø 1939 6 ibrahim¹ ø 797 7 lut ø 1371 8 ismail ø 844 9 ishak ø 842 10 yaakub ø 2520 11 yusuf¹ ø 2523 12 syu’ib ø 2197 13 ayub ø 162 14 zulkifli ø 2529 15 musa ø 1502 16 harun ø 748 17 daud ø 487 18 sulaiman ø 2168 19 ilias ø 812 20 iliasaʿ ø 812 21 yunus¹ ø 2523 22 zakaria ø 2524 23 yahya ø 2520 24 isa ✓ 841 25 muhammad¹ ø 1487 note: ✓ (labelled) ø (unlabelled) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 321 based on table 3, the six entries of al that are homonymous in kdp, namely “ahli¹”, “ahli²”, “buruj1”,”buruj²”, “hasab¹” and “hasab²” show the inconsistency in ar labelling even though they are from arabic word stems. the first example, the entry “ahli¹”, does not have ar labelling but the entry “ahli²” has ar labelling while both stem from the word “األَْهل” in ba. the first polyseme in the definition of the entry “ahli¹” is found to be the same as the first polyseme in the definition of “األَْهل” which refers to family or relatives. meanwhile, the two polysemes in the definition of “ahli²” are found to be the same as the third polyseme in the definition of “األَْهل” which refers to a person who is an expert or skilled in a certain field. in the second example, the entry “buruj¹” has no ar labelling but the entry “buruj²” has an ar labelling while both stem from the word “البُْرج” in ba. the definition of the entry “buruj¹” shows similarities with the fourth polyseme in the definition of “البُْرج” which refers to stars. meanwhile, the definition of the “buruj²” entry shows similarities with the first polyseme in the definition of “البُْرج” which refers to a fortress or wall for defence. similarly in the third example, the entry “hasab¹” has ar labelling, but the entry “hasab²” has no labelling while both stem from the same word ”in ba. the definition of the entry “hasab¹ ”الَحَسُب“ shows similarities with the first polyseme in the definition of “الَحَسُب” which refers to estimation or proportion. meanwhile, the definition of the entry “hasab²” also shows similarities with the second polyseme in the definition of “الَحَسُب” which refers to someone of noble descent. all these three examples shown will cause confusion when each homonymous entry is found to have inconsistent etymological labelling even though each one is from the same arabic word stem. in this case, the definition of the entry “ahli²”, “buruj²” and “hasab¹” in ml does not show a meaning that is not well known to the general public so that it is necessary to maintain its ar labelling table 3. inconsistency in ar labelling for homonymous entries from arabic word stems in kdp no. entry and definition in kdp labelled ar page entry and definition in mw 1 ahli¹ 1 individual who are members of a family, community and so on. 2 individuals, associations and others who officially join organisations, institutions and others. ø 25 األَْهل 1 family or relatives. 2 wife. 3 a person who is an expert in something. 4 resident. 5 entitled/deserving. mentioned in the welcome speech: ahlanwasahlan: “your arrival is welcomed like a family member and your presence has been made easy and brings us joy”. 2 ahli² 1 clever or really skilled in a matter or field. 2 people who are skilled or have deep knowledge in a matter or field. ✓ 25 3 buruj¹ astronomy a group of stars that are close to each other in one area of the sky formed into certain formations such as geometry and animals. ø 357 البُْرج 1 fortress or fort. 2 houses built on top of the city wall. 3 corners. 4 the name of one of the twelve constellations (stars) in the sky. 5 tall buildings rising to the sky (towers). 6 houses for pigeons. 4 buruj² classic wall built from stone, earth and so on that surrounds an area to defend against enemy attacks. ✓ 357 5 hasab¹ estimation or calculation; count. ✓ 749 الَحَسُب 1 the value of something, its amount or rate. 2 the glory or superiority of a person from generation to generation.6 hasab² (about a person) of noble descent and good manners. ø 749 note: ✓ (labelled) ø (unlabelled) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 322 table 4. consistency in ar labelling for homonymous entries from arabic word stems in kdp no. entry and definition in kdp labelled ar page entry and definition in mw 1 bab¹ 1 part of a book consisting of several pages, which are usually given numbers or titles. 2 about something. ✓ 165 البَاُب 1 door to enter the house. 2 something made of wood or something else as a cover for the entrance to the house. 3 a part in the book that puts together problem/matter of similar nature.2 bab² door. ✓ 165 note: ✓ (labelled) table 5. inconsistency in ar labelling for arabic expression entries. no. entry in kdp labelled ar page 1 ahlanwasahlan ✓ 25 2 alhamdulillah ✓ 60 3 allahuakbar ✓ 65 4 allahumma ✓ 65 5 ammabakdu ✓ 83 6 assalamualaikum ✓ 146 7 astaghfirullah ✓ 146 8 asyhaduallaillahaillallah ✓ 147 9 auzubillah ✓ 155 10 bismillah ✓ 305 11 bismillahi ø 305 12 bismillahirrahmanirrahim ø 305 13 bissawab ✓ 305 14 insya-allah ✓ 833 15 lailahaillallah ✓ 1215 16 lillah, lillahi ✓ 1324 17 marhaban ✓ 1415 18 masya-allah ✓ 1423 19 minalaidinwalfaizin ✓ 1465 20 nauzubillah, nauzubillahi ✓ 1524 21 radiallahuanha ø 1795 22 radiallahuanhu ✓ 1795 23 rahimahullah ✓ 1799 24 sallallahualaihiwasallam ✓ 1940 25 subhanahuwataala ✓ 2158 26 subhanallah ø 2158 27 waalaikumussalam ø 2501 28 walimatulurus ø 2507 29 wallahi ✓ 2507 30 wallahuaklam ✓ 2507 31 warahmatullahi wabarakatuh ø 2509 32 wassalam ✓ 2513 note: ✓ (labelled) ø (unlabelled) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 323 as the justification stated in the kde3 introduction section. the confusion that occurs becomes more significant when two homonymous entries from arabic word stems show consistent and uniform ar labelling in their entries as in the following table 4. table 4 shows two homonymous entries, namely “bab¹” and “bab²” from the arabic word stem, i.e. “البَاُب” which are both consistently or uniformly labelled ar in kdp. the definition of entry “bab¹” shows similarities with the third polyseme in the definition of “البَاُب”, while the definition of entry “bab²” is found to be the same as the first and second polysemes in the definition of “البَاُب”. this is completely contrary to the homonymous entries in table 3 which portrays the inconsistency in ar labelling despite originating from arabic word stem. this creates confusion to kdp users, whether knowledgeable in arabic or not. d. inconsistent ar labelling of arabic expression entries an expression is a set of words that has a specific meaning used in conversation and writing (kdp, 2021, p. 2475). accordingly, the arabic expression refers to the arabic word order that has a specific meaning used in conversation and writing. this inconsistency refers to the entry of the arabic expression in kdp which is not uniform in its etymological labelling, i.e. there are some entries with ar labels and some without labelling as in table 5. table 5 shows 25 ar labelled entries and seven unlabelled entries out of a total of 32 arabic expression entries in kdp. this finding raises the question, that is, are there only these seven arabic expressions (bismillahi, bismillahirrahmanirrahim, radiallahuanha, subhanallah, waalaikumussalam, walimatulurus and warahmatullahi wabarakatuh) that have been established in ml such that the ar labels are not necessary? a significant confusion can be seen in the entry “assalamualaikum” as shown in example 6 where an ar label is given as its etymological information, while the counter-match of this expression, which is the entry “waalaikumussalam” in example 27 is not given the ar label. in this regard, the entry “assalamualaikum” has also been established in ml and the ar label should also be deleted like the entry “waalaikumussalam”. meanwhile, the next question is whether the 25 entries of the arabic expressions that have the ar label are words that have special meanings or words whose meanings are not well known to the general public such that the etymological labelling is maintained? overall, the issue of the inconsistency in etymological labelling in kdp was also found to occur in the arrangement of loanwords in kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi) (2001). whereas the cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary (cald) (2013) and the longman dictionary of contemporary english new edition (ldcene) (2009) do not provide any etymological labels on loanword entries, making it difficult for dictionary users to find etymological information. although these dictionaries are not specifically etymological dictionaries, this information should still be provided, even if not in detail. as in ml dictionary, this issue needs to be addressed by dbp as the body responsible for the production of kdp which is the latest reference for users. labelling of etymological information is very important because it will affect the effectiveness of using a word. this is because, language users cannot use a word effectively if they do not know its origin as stated in webster’s new world dictionary (1970) quoted from ahmad (2015) below. etymology has been made a strong feature of this dictionary because it is believed that insight into the current usage of a word can be gained from full knowledge of the word history and that a better understanding of language generally can be achieved from knowing how word are related to other word in english and to word in other indo european languages. (webster’s new world dictionary, 1970) this statement in the webster’s new world dictionary describes the importance of etymological information that affects the use of a word which can only be obtained by knowing fully the history of the word. accordingly, in order to ensure that language users can use al effectively, it is best to label the ar etymology of all al entries in the kdp. 2. differences between kdp and kde4 in etymological labelling the analysis of the study also found that there are differences between kdp and kde4 in etymological labelling. the following table 6 displays the difference in etymological labels in the “istima” entries. noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 324 the two “istima” entries in table 6 are sourced from kdp and kde4 respectively, which are the authoritative sources of reference. a question will arise among users when there is a difference in etymological information in kdp and kde4 which are both ml dictionaries published by dbp. in this regard, kdp sets the etymology of the entry “istima” from the portuguese word meaning ‘appreciation, respect’, while kde4 puts the ar label on the entry “istima” as it is arabic word. cross referencing the entry “istima” in mw found the word “استمع” which carries the meaning ‘to hear’ which is derived from the word “سمع” which means ‘hear’. in this case, users of both kdp and kde4 dictionaries will become more confused when they do not find the correct etymological information for the word. cross-referencing the “istima” entry was carried out in lim and found the homonymous “istima¹” and “istima²” entries, each of which has different etymological information as follows. (lim, 2008, p. 130) based on the search in lim, the entry “istima¹” refers to a portuguese loanword, while the entry “istima²” refers to an al. accordingly, it can be concluded that the entry “istima” in kdp and kde4 which has the same definition, that is “consideration, opinion and so on which is good” matches with the entry “istima¹” in lim which is borrowed from a portuguese word as its etymology. therefore, the entry “istima” in kde4 labelled ar is incorrect and needs to be corrected by dbp so that users obtain accurate etymological information. therefore, it is best that dbp provides both source language information for the entry in kdp as presented in lim. the issue of incorrect information regarding the etymology of loanword entries in the etymological notes by dbp has also been identified by collins (2023), specifically in the entry for ‘baluk,’ which does not originate from the word ‘faluca’ in portuguese, but actually comes from the word ‘bark’ in dutch. this justification is explained in terms of the phoneme change from [r] to [l], and the insertion of a vowel between consonants is not surprising when the word ‘bark’ is borrowed into ml and changes to ‘baluk’. conversely, it would be surprising if the word ‘baluk’ were borrowed from ‘faluca’ because typically the phoneme [f] would be adjusted to the malay pronunciation, changing to the phoneme [p]. additionally, loanwords from portuguese that end with the phoneme [a] are usually retained, such as the words mentega, gereja, meja, and kadera. errors in the etymological origins of loanwords in a dictionary have also been found in the oxford english dictionary (oed) of the second edition, as discussed by de la cruzcabanillas (2008), who found that the loanword ‘bonze’ does not originate from the french word but from a chinese word. overall, the errors in the etymological information of the loanword ‘istima’ identified in this study and the loanword ‘baluk’ found in collins (2023) need to be given proper attention by dbp. these two cases highlight dbp’s weakness in not conducting thorough research on the loanword entries included. therefore, it is recommended that dbp cross-reference with authoritative sources as done in the cross-referencing using lim for the validity of the etymology of the word ‘istima’ and also analyse the changes in word formation that typically occur in malay, as collins (2023) did to explain the etymology of the loanword ‘baluk’. 3. justification for the source language information of the loanword placed at the end of the entry in kdp the analysis found that the source language information of the loanword placed at the end of the entry in the kdp will cause confusion among users unlike the kde4. the following table 7 displays the relevant entries. table 6. etymological label differences between kdp and kde4 source entry and definition etymological label kdp (2021, p. 846) istima archaic noun consideration, opinion etc which is good. origin: [from por estima ‘appreciation, respect’] por (portuguese) kde4 (2015, p. 591) istima ar archaic consideration (opinion etc) which is good. ar (arabic) noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 325 table 7. differences between kde4 and kdp in position of etymological labels no. entry and definition in kde4 (2015) entry and definition in kdp (2021) 1 akhbar 1. ar (plural for news) news, gazette; 2. newspapers, daily; ... (p. 24) akhbar noun 1 newspaper: ... 2 company that publishes newspapers: ... 3 news or gazette: ... mengakhbarkan transitive verb [passive: announced, published] publish (news, advertisement etc.) in the newspaper: ... perakhbaran noun matters or activities related to newspapers: ... pengakhbaran noun the act of announcing news, advertisements, etc.: ... origin: [from ar akhbār (plural for khabar ‘news, information’)]. (p. 43) 2 dalal 1. ar middleman, sales representative, agent; ...; 2. a fee (usually a percentage) paid to an agent, a salesperson who runs a business or who provides a service, commission: ... (p. 306) dalal noun 1 payment paid by the seller to the salesperson or agent, usually as much as a certain percentage of the sales value of goods or services; commission: ... 2 people who act as intermediaries between sellers and buyers; sales representative; agent; ... origin: [from ar dallāl] (p. 470) 3 jasad 1. body or torso (human) that exists (as opposed to spirit): ...; 2. ar body or torso that is no longer alive: ...; 3. (physics) something that exists that can be held or seen: ... (p. 612) jasad noun 1 human body or torso that can be held or seen: ... 2 human body or torso that is no longer alive: ... 3 physics something that exists that can be held or seen: ...; berjasad intransitive verb has a body: ... sejasad figurative adjective same as in one body: ... origin: [from ar jasad] (p. 874) table 7 shows examples of three entries, namely, “akhbar”, “dalal” and “jasad” with differences in etymological label positions between kde4 and kdp. kde4 shows the position of the ar label only on certain polysemes that are referred to as borrowings from the source language. this can make it easier for dictionary users to obtain specific borrowing information. however, in kdp, the ar label is located at the end of the entry definition, causing confusion and questions for dictionary users, i.e. are all the polysemes in the definition of the referenced entry from the source language? for example, the ar labelling of the entry “akhbar” in kde4 is only given for the meaning of the first polyseme to refer to a specific borrowing of the definition. meanwhile, the second polysemous meaning that is not given the label ar refers to the semantic changes that occur when borrowed into ml, which is the meaning that has been added by ml based on the corpus. this differs from the ar labelling of the “akhbar” entry in the kdp given at the end of the entry definition. labelling ar at the end of the entry definition in kdp is found to be less helpful for users to obtain specific etymological information as in kde4. this, on the other hand, has raised questions for users, that is, are all the polysemous meanings in the definition of this “akhbar” entry completely borrowed from ba? the same applies to the entries “dalal” and “jasad,” as shown in table 7. however, these kinds of issues are not only found in kdp but also found in concise oxford english dictionary (coed) (2006), which also includes the etymological source information of the word at the end of the entry definition. findings from the aspect of word class there is only one question with regard to word class which is the inconsistency in word class labelling for entries of arabic expression in kdp. 1. inconsistency in word class labelling for entries of arabic expression this inconsistency refers to arabic expression entries in kdp that are not uniformly labelled for their word class, i.e. there are some entries that have word class label and some that have no labelling as in table 8. table 8 shows that 25 entries have specific word class labelling and seven unlabelled entries out of a total of 32 entries of arabic expression in kdp. kdp explains that the labelling of the word class is as follows: noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 326 table 8: inconsistency in word class labelling for ba expression entries no. entry in kdp word class label page 1 ahlanwasahlan noun 25 2 alhamdulillah ø 60 3 allahuakbar noun 65 4 allahumma noun 65 5 ammabakdu conjunction 83 6 assalamualaikum ø 146 7 astaghfirullah noun 146 8 asyhaduallaillahaillallah noun 147 9 auzubillah ø 155 10 bismillah noun 305 11 bismillahi noun 305 12 bismillahirrahmanirrahim noun 305 13 bissawab exclamation 305 14 insya-allah ø 833 15 lailahaillallah noun 1215 16 lillah, lillahi noun 1324 17 marhaban exclamation & noun 1415 18 masya-allah noun 1423 19 minalaidinwalfaizin ø 1465 20 nauzubillah, nauzubillahi ø 1524 21 radiallahuanha noun 1795 22 radiallahuanhu noun 1795 23 rahimahullah noun 1799 24 sallallahualaihiwasallam noun 1940 25 subhanahuwataala noun 2158 26 subhanallah noun 2158 27 waalaikumussalam noun 2501 28 walimatulurus noun 2507 29 wallahi exclamation 2507 30 wallahuaklam exclamation 2507 31 warahmatullahi wabarakatuh ø 2509 32 wassalam noun 2513 note: ø (unlabelled) each division of meaning is given a word class label based on the context of its use and guided by the tatabahasa dewan edisi ketiga. however, some entries, for example to the middle, to the side; social conventions, e.g. hello, sayonara; proper nouns for personality and acronyms, as well as words that carry the meaning of being used as emphasis, for example hurry up, are not given a word class. (kdp, 2021, p. xxiv) in relation to that statement, the entry of the arabic expression along with its definition that is not given word class labelling is shown in the table 9. based on table 9, as many as seven entries of arabic expressions that are not given word class labelling, namely “alhamdulillah”, “assalamualaikum”, “auzubillah”, “insyallah”, “minalaidinwalfaizin”, “nauzubillah, nauzubillahi” and “warahmatullahi wabarakatuh”. the justification by kdp that these entries do not have word class labels is because they are either social convention expression; proper nouns for personality and acronyms; as well as word that is used to show emphasis. however, in the seventh example, which is the entry “warahmatullahi wabarakatuh”, kvs is stated in its definition to refer to social convention. noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 327 table 9. entries of arabic expression in kdp that do not have word class labelling no. entry definition word class label page 1 alhamdulillah all praise to god. this expression is usually uttered to express gratitude to god. ø 60 2 assalamualaikum peace and prosperity to all. this word is usually said by fellow muslims when meeting or parting. ø 146 3 auzubillah i take refuge in god. this phrase is usually said as a prayer for protection from evil, disaster, satanic interference, etc. ø 155 4 insya-allah if god permits. this expression is usually said when someone promises to do something. ø 833 5 minalaidinwalfaizin may you be included in the group of people who return to human nature, that is free from sin, and achieve success. this expression is usually said on hari raya aidilfitri and hari raya aidiladha. ø 1465 6 nauzubillah, nauzubillahi we seek refuge in god. this expression is usually spoken when hearing bad news, witnessing an accident, etc. ø 1524 7 warahmatullahi wabarakatuh kvs and with the grace of god and his blessings. this expression is used after the word assalamualaikum. ø 2509 note: ø (unlabelled) kvs (social convention) this has raised questions from the perspective of dictionary users. firstly, apart from the entry “warahmatullahi wabarakatuh”, the entries “assalamualaikum” and “waalaikumussalam” can also be categorised as social conventions (kvs) such as “hello” and “sayonara”, but why are these two entries not given the kvs label in their definition like the entry “warahmatullahi wabarakatuh”? on the other hand, the entry “waalaikumussalam” is labelled as a noun (refer to example 27, table 8), while the entry “assalamualaikum” is not given any label. secondly, there is no ‘kvs’ label in the definition of the six arabic expressions (alhamdulillah, assalamualaikum, auzubillah, insya-allah, minalaidinwalfaizin, and nauzubillah, nauzubillahi), and this has raised the question of are all these words used as emphasis such that they are not given word class label? according to ahmad (2015), including word class in the compilation of a dictionary is important in describing the meaning of an entry, identifying the change in word class caused by the addition of affixes to an entry and also in determining whether an entry is homonymous or polysemous. ahmad (2015) also asserted that not all language users can understand and recognise word classes, therefore, dictionaries should be able to help dictionary users recognise word classes. as such, it is appropriate to label the entire entry with word class to facilitate users and avoid any confusion. findings from the aspect of definition the question from the aspect of definition consists of three main points, namely (1) the inaccuracy in the definition of homonymous word variations in kdp; (2) the absence of definition for the al entries in the kdp; and (3) the deletion of al entry in the kdp. 1. the inaccuracy in the definition of homonymous word variations in kdp this refers to the entry “gibas” and its variation “kibas” in kdp which are homonymous as in table 10. table 10 shows the entry “gibas” in kdp which only gives its variation as a definition. in this case, the definition of “gibas” should be referred to the word “kibas” on a different page. crossreferencing of the “kibas” entry in the kdp found two homonymous entries, namely, “kibas¹” and “kibas²”. this is even more confusing when both the entries “kibas¹” and “kibas²” referred to do not state “gibas” in their respective definitions as noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 328 table 10. inaccurate variation of “kibas” in the definition of “gibas” for references”kibas¹” and “kibas²” which are homonymous in kdp entry “gibas” variation of entries referred to gibas var kibas (kdp, 2021, p. 685) kibas1 transitive verb see mengibas; berkibas; intransitive verb to move left to right or up down: ... (kdp, 2021, p. 1111) kibas2 noun a kind of sheep in the arab country that has long, thick and curly wool and a big tail; sheep; kibas sheep. (kdp, 2021, p. 1112) shown in table 10. accordingly, the user is unable to ascertain which entry is referred to as a variation of the word “gibas”. therefore, to deal with the uncertainty, the user must refer to a different dictionary, which is kde4, an edition before kdp. the “gibas” entry in kde4 is specified as follows: gibas sheep that has a big tail, sheep (kde4, 2015, p. 472) the “kibas” entry in kde4 is defined directly without specifying the variation to the “kibas” entry as in kdp. this allows users to obtain direct and accurate definition. 2. absence of definition of al entries in kdp the analysis carried out found al in kdp which do not have definitions for their entries. this can be seen in the loanwords “tafahus” and “tahbis” as entries. on the other hand, definitions are found in subentries that have undergone grammatical processes, i.e. addition of affixes to the words as in table 11. based on table 11, the loanword “tafahus” in kdp as an entry is not defined directly, instead table 11. “tafahus” and “tahbis” entries in kdp and kde4 no. kdp (2021) kde4 (2015) 1 tafahus transitive verb see mentafahus; mentafahus transitive verb [passive: ditafahus, tafahus] examine or investigate (something) carefully: ... mentafahusi transitive verb [passive: ditafahusi, tafahusi] mentafahus origin: [from ar tafaḥḥus] (p. 2204) tafahus ar careful research, inspection, search; mentafahus examine carefully, research, search: ...; mentafahusi mentafahus. (p. 1565-1566) 2 tahbis mentahbiskan transitive verb [passive: ditahbiskan, tahbiskan] to sanctify or bless (someone or something) according to the needs of the christian religion: ... pentahbisan noun matter or act of consecrating: ... [origin: from ar taḥbīs ‘pentahbisan, pentaksidan’] (p. 2209) tahbis ar sanctified (for the needs of christianity); mentahbiskan purify or bless (for the needs of christianity): ...; pentahbisan about mentahbiskan. (p. 1569) the definition is only found through the subentry “mentafahus”. similarly with the loanword “tahbis” as an entry in the kdp which is also not directly defined, instead the definition is only found through the sub-entries “mentahbiskan” and “pentahbisan”. this differs from the definition of loanwords “tafahus” and “tahbis” in kde4. this situation should not happen because kdp is the latest and most complete ml dictionary compared to previous editions such that users need not crossreference other dictionaries to obtain the desired information. 3. deletion of al entry in kdp the analysis of the study also found that there is an al entry in kde4 that has been deleted in kdp, which is the “murahik” entry, as follows: murahik ar children who are close to puberty (kde4, 2015, p. 1057) the elimination of the entry “murahik” in the kdp has raised the question, that is, what is the justification for the elimination of this entry in the kdp? technically, each new compilation of the dictionary will increase the number of vocabulary noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 329 words recorded as entries. however, this situation is different in kdp. according to de schryver & prinsloo (2000a), the prevalent factor that a word is removed from a dictionary is due to three things, namely the lack of the number of word frequencies found in the corpus, the limited space available for the dictionary and also the designated target users. in this regard, kdp does not show that its dictionary space is limited because kdp is the largest dictionary and its target users are native and non-native speakers of ml. meanwhile, kdp does not specify any measure for the frequency of a word in the corpus used in its compilation. overall, the issues or questions presented from the aspects of etymology, word class and definition in the discussion of this study should be taken into account by dbp as the body responsible for solving all issues found for improving the compilation of entries in dictionary, especially in the future publication of kdp. this is so because, the implications of the findings of this study are that users will be sceptical and feel less confident about referring to kdp as the largest and most complete ml dictionary at this time. typically, users, both among native and non-native speakers of ml, will look for the latest dictionary, which is kdp as a reference to obtain complete vocabulary information, regardless of whether they are proficient or have yet to master ml. in fact, public users believe that anything contained in the dictionary published by dbp is correct and can be used in academic writing (hassan, 2023), as it is the authority institution of ml. this is in line with viera (2017) who thinks that knowledge of vocabulary of a language is a necessity to provide students with a wider ability to produce structured written texts and also contribute to the understanding of speech. viera (2017) also stated that recent developments in second and foreign language acquisition show the needs of a solid foundation in vocabulary knowledge among non-native speakers as in addition to acquiring grammar and pronunciation as well as to be successful language users in any academic environment regardless of the level of proficiency or skill of students in grammar and pronunciation. finally, dbp should get user feedback during the production process of a dictionary such that it can be produced perfectly. this is as suggested by de schryver & prinsloo (2000b) that feedback from target users is very necessary in the compilation of any dictionary at present times and should be obtained while the compilation of the dictionary is still in process. this can be achieved by launching several small-scale parallel dictionaries that allow informal and formal target user feedback to be fed immediately into the main dictionary compilation process. such simultaneous feedback is not only useful in the organisation of the macrostructure but also provides useful information for improvement at the microstructural level. de schryver & prinsloo (2000b) also asserted that this can avoid feedback being obtained too late and resulting in improvements that can only be made in the next edition. all the issues found in this study likely arise from the initial stages of dictionary compilation, namely, inadequate, and unsystematic planning. this is also, as stated by ibrahim (2004), that the discipline of dictionary compilation involves various processes that require clear work strategies in terms of its philosophy of compilation; comprehensive work procedures; as well as high dedication and skills among its compilers. therefore, obtaining user feedback during the compilation process to produce a dictionary is a good work strategy and a comprehensive procedure in creating an ideal dictionary. additionally, all the issues present in this study may also arise due to a lack of high skills among the compilers or lexicographers. such a situation occurs because one of the macro challenges in malay lexicography in the 21st century is that the profession of dictionary compilers is considered less popular compared to other careers (ibrahim, 2010), which has affected the preparation of highly potential lexicographers. iv. conclusion this study not only found unlabelled al, but also put forward seven questions from the aspect of etymology, word class and definition that were found to confuse kdp users. questions from the etymological aspect are, (1) inconsistent omission of etymological labelling of 30 entries of arabic letters, 25 entries of names of messengers and prophets, six entries of homonyms from arabic word stems and 32 entries of arabic expressions; (2) differences between kdp and kde4 in etymological labelling; and (3) justification for the source language information of the loanword placed at the end of the entry in the kdp. next, there is a question with regards to the word class aspect, which is the inconsistency in word class labelling for arabic expression entries. finally, questions noorazlin abu bakar / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 3 (2024) 330 references abas, n. a., abusahyon, a. s. e, & sahad, m. n. 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(2024). pembangunan prototaip: peluasan makna kata pinjaman bahasa arab dalam bahasa melayu. pertanika journal of social sciences & humanities (s1): 51-85. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.32.s1.03 ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 210 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 31, 2024 final revision: june 02, 2025 accepted: june 05, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 this study aims to shed light on how the combination of cohesive devices (henceforth cds) and narrative elements (nes) contributes to developing the coherence and clarity of administrative texts (ats). while cds and nes were constantly treated as separate elements in previous studies, this research delves into their interaction as complementary strategies within ats. quantitative content analysis was employed to analyze 20 vietnamese ats, the results show that when cds (reference, conjunction, ellipsis, and substitution) are combined with nes (processes, participants, and spatial-situational settings), they occupy a crucial role in constructing textual cohesion, thematic continuity, and systematic transparency. these compound linguistic elements improve reading competence. as a result, readers can retain information more effectively, and the formal tone of administrative texts becomes more reinforced. moreover, the results suggest that merging structural and experiential meanings in ats significantly enhances both clarity and reader engagement. drawing upon systemic functional linguistics as its theoretical framework, this study improves both theoretical interpretation within discourse studies and practical implications for developing ats. building on these findings, this study develops an analytical framework for examining how the combination of nes and cds operates to achieve structural objectives. future research can apply this model to other text types, which are characterized by clarity, integrity, and formal structure. in short, this research demonstrates the roles of cds and nes in the construction of coherent and accessible ats. keywords cohesive devices, narrative elements, administrative texts, textual coherence correspondence *e-mail: lntoan@hcmulaw.edu.vn article enhancing administrative texts through cohesive devices and narrative elements ly ngoc toan department of legal languages ho chi minh city university of law, vietnam under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.210-226.2025 i. introduction ats vary in style because they communicate factual and objective information that readers will access and refer to (bauman & briggs, 1990; espeland, 1993; zinner, 2011). these texts inherently represent an objective and formal style, which give priority clarity over personal engagement. however, this traditional style has increasingly been reconsidered in light of linguistic research. recent studies demonstrate that integrating nes with cds can significantly improve the quality of texts (halliday and hasan, 1976; taufan, 2021; de silva & henderson, 2007; boyd, blackburn, & pennebaker, 2020). in particular, nes comprise temporal sequences, participant roles, and spatialsituational settings, which serve to reframe abstract propositions into textual forms to reflect standard procedures and communicative goal. manoharan and rangarajan (2022) highlight that effective use of nes would create three positive outcomes: it makes information more relevant to readers; allows readers to engages with information on a deeper level during reading; and boost readers’ ability to remember information from long and complex texts. moreover, besides improving referential clarity, this approach promotes interpersonal engagement and simplifies complex content to reduce misunderstanding (chen & meurers, 2016; martin, quiroz, & wang, 2023; kumar, 2022) making sense of the importance of this approach, this study was conducted with two specific purposes. first, it addresses limitations in previous research, in ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 211 which cds and nes have typically been studied as separate, independent elements with little attention paid to how they work together. halliday & hasan (1976) emphasized that cds play a crucial role in constructing textual coherence and logical progression. meanwhile, nes provide effective reading strategies for readers (boyd et al., 2020; law & matthiessen, 2023). therefore, the integration of cds and nes holds potential benefits for both writers and readers of ats. however, in practice, this interaction has received limited scholarly attention. to date, no study has thoroughly examined the combination of these two elements in ats. haim (2023) and megerdoomian et al. (2019) have highlighted this gap by pointing out that, although cds contribute significantly to the structural organization of texts and enhance reader engagement, most studies overlook their interaction with nes. this limitation has led to significant constraints in analyzing and understanding ats, particularly in failing to fully recognize the roles of cds and nes in textual construction. as a result, readers often encounter difficulties in interpreting and accessing complex and dense ats, while writers struggle to produce documents that are as clear and coherent as intended. more specifically, the lack of attention to the interplay between cds and nes has prevented a comprehensive grasp of how these linguistic resources jointly contribute to reader comprehension and the projection of institutional authority (herzog & claunch, 1997; zinner, 2011; hermawan, rohman, & saputra, 2022). as institutional communication increasingly demands clarity, transparency, and engagement, it becomes essential to investigate how these elements operate in tandem rather than in isolation. a second issue lies in the limited recognition of the benefits that may arise from integrating these two elements in institutional writing. first, it is crucial to examine the role of cds, which function as essential tools to maintain cohesive properties among the sentences. in discourse analysis, these cohesive properties are constructed by the means of grammatical and lexical cohesion. the grammatical cohesion comprises reference, conjunction, substitution, and ellipsis, which are used to maintain textual continuity and ensure coherent progression across discourse (halliday & hasan, 1976; alyousef, 2016; jahja, 2021). in contrast, lexical cohesion is associated with repetition, synonymy, antonymy, and collocation, which contribute to semantic consistency and reinforce thematic unity throughout the text. thus, cds have been extensively examined in recent studies, particularly in discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis. rahman, firdaus, and ardiansyah (2023) argue that cds enhance readers’ comprehensibility by improving textual coherence and reducing the mental effort required to decode meaning. extending this perspective, kadhim (2024) emphasized that cds play an important role in shaping thematic progression because they guide the reader’s attention through coherent idea development and ensure continuity across discourse segments. second, given the contributions of cds to enhancing the effectiveness of ats, as discussed above, nes also play a crucial role in guiding readers through the text. jopek-bosiacka (2023) argues that nes, together with narrative strategies, contribute to clarifying complex texts, and enabling readers to grasp the internal logic more easily and effectively. building on this foundation, chen and meurers (2016) assert that when texts exhibit clear structural organization, they facilitate cognitive processing and enhance memory retention, thereby improving readers’ reading comprehension. extending the communicative value of nes, martin, quiroz, and wang (2023) emphasize that nes offer a contextual foundation that readers from the public domain can identify with. this foundation helps shift abstract policy-related information away from inaccessible reasoning and toward practical understanding (hermawan, rohman, & saputra, 2022; kumar, 2022). the theoretical orientation of this study draws upon systemic functional linguistics (halliday & hasan, 1976; martin et al., 2023), which argue that language has two main functions: organizing text and representing experience. building on this theoretical distinction, cds contribute structural meaning by organizing the logical and referring relationships between textual units to ensure coherence and textual integrity. in contrast, nes contribute experiential meaning by encoding participants, processes, and contexts that represent actual actions and situations. these linguistic functions have broader implications in policy discourse. espeland (1993) analyzed how policy texts obscure the social consequences of policy decisions, while fobbe (2021) explored how language in policy texts shapes processes of public opinion formation. the theory of cognitive process (chen & meurers, 2016) further supports this view. it suggests that clear and standard texts reduce mental effort and improve readers’ memory retention. grounded in this theoretical framework, three research objectives are set up in this study. first, this study aims to examine ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 212 how cds and nes interact to frame concepts of clarity, coherence, and engagement in ats. second, it determines the optimal usage of these elements, or the optimal combination of these elements, for text coherence and reader interest. last but not least, it establishes a set of guidelines on how to better the drafting of ats through actual experience. as a result, these goals directly contribute to filling this research gap identified in previous studies that rarely consider the interaction of these two elements. to fulfill these objectives, the study adopts a mixed-methods design, combining quantitative content analysis (de sordi et al., 2016; kreines & kreines, 2020) with qualitative discourse analysis. the data comprise various types of ats, including institutional reports, guidelines, and legal texts. the quantitative analysis identifies the frequency and forms of cds and nes, while the qualitative component explores how these devices enhance reading competence and reader engagement. rather than operating independently, cds and nes function interdependently: cds maintain referential clarity and logical flow, whereas nes structure events and assign roles to institutional actors. such integration of analytical methods not only provides robust findings but supports practical implications as well. this practical application can enhance communication strategies and inform the development of more effective educational materials. ultimately, this study combines theoretical insights with applied analysis. the aim is to bridge the gap between frameworks and implementation, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of audience engagement. ii. method methodological principles both quantitative content and qualitative discourse analysis are employed to examine the role of cds and nes in ats. each method serves a complementary purpose in addressing the multifaceted nature of the research objectives. the quantitative analysis served three goals: (i) locating the recurrence of certain language features, (ii) categorizing them by their functions, such as reference, substitution, or narrative process, and (iii) plotting them in the genres and institutions. the quantitative method was conducted with the view of recovering formal similarities and structural patterns through systematic analysis of the grammatical and narrative aspects of textuality in a language. on the other hand, the quantitative analysis focuses on form and frequency, the qualitative approach aims to: (i) explore how cds and nes operate in real communicative contexts, (ii) analyze how they interact to produce coherence, and (iii) evaluate their rhetorical effectiveness in engaging readers and minimizing ambiguity. data collection the data consist of 20 vietnamese ats, which were collected from legal sources through vietnam’s national legal website (https://thuvienphapluat. vn). they were issued by central and local bodies such as the prime minister, ministries, and provincial committees, including the prime minister (pm), government office (go), ministry of finance (mf), ministry of health (mh), ministry of education and training (met), ministry of transport (mt), provincial people’s committees (ppc), and vietnam social security (vss). these texts selected on the basis of organizational diversity and representativeness, hold legal validity and exemplify current standards of vietnamese ats. each text adopts a formal tone, follows an expository or structured format, and is composed in a monologic and impersonal style. in terms of linguistic features, structural elements include legal openings, third-person impersonal constructions, and a high degree of noun transformation. topics of these texts cover financial plans, infrastructure development, policy execution, organization realignment, and publicservice regulation. these texts were selected due to their authenticity, diversity in content, diversity of issuing bodies, and overall suitability |for analyzing linguistic coherence. moreover, these texts provide a consistent and formal genre suitable for linguistic analysis of cds and nes in vietnamese ats. table 1. classification of administrative texts by issuing authority code issuing authority document titles pm prime minister vb11, vb12, vb13 go government office vb4, vb10, vb14 mf ministry of finance vb1, vb7, vb15 mh ministry of health vb2 met ministry of education and training vb19 mt ministry of transport vb6 vss vietnam social security vb5 ppc provincial people’s committees vb3, vb8, vb16, vb17, vb18, vb20 ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 213 allows the study to examine not only the frequency but also the communicative functions of linguistic features. it provides a comprehensive account of how coherence and communicative clarity are achieved in vietnamese ats. iii. result and discussion cohesive devices in ats this section analyzes the use of cds in ats to understand just how cds underpin the clarity, continuity, and overall comprehensibility of discourse in institutional documents. more particularly, this study adopts a text-based analysis to examine how cds are employed to constructed textual cohesion through the aspects of administrative language. cds are categorized into four types: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. each type will be discussed in terms of its structural form, textual realization pattern, frequency (f), and influence on meaning. types and functions cds occupy a central position in improving continuity and achieving textual coherence. as shown in table 2, the four main types of cohesive devices: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction are investigated in this section, which appear with varying frequency across the twenty texts. conjunctions are the most common (22 instances), followed by reference (15), ellipsis (12), and substitution (8). through this distribution, several noticeable properties and formal style of ats are presented and explored in turn. an elaborate examination of each categories provides in-depth insights into the textual functions to facilitate systematic analysis, these texts are classified based on the issuing agencies. each document is assigned a unique code composed of two capital letters representing the name of the issuing institution. this coding system ensures consistency in referencing and facilitates thematic and structural comparisons across the data. data analysis the data were analyzed on the basis of systemic functional linguistics by halliday and hasan (1976). they divided language into three functions: ideational function, interpersonal function, and textual function. within this theoretical framework, the study concentrates on two major aspects, which are cds to realize textual meaning and nes to reflect experiential ones. the research has conducted through content analysis to identify and categorize four kinds of cds (reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction). then, nes are divided into three groups: processes, participants, and adverbial components. from this categorization, discourse analysis is used to discover how cds and nes are integrated to gain communicative objectives. this analysis considers how cds bind with nes to keep a logical continuity, which helps reduce ambiguity and involve readers emotionally. in addition, the research examines how agents, actions, and temporal or legal conditions connect with cds to make texts clearer. the connections between cds and nes are shed light on through the application of the matrix coding and thematic. particularly, matrix coding serves to organize linguistic patterns, while thematic mapping is used to identify semantic aspects across discourse. this integrated approach table 2. types and functions of cds in ats type purpose linguistic expressions texts f reference maintain continuity, avoid repetition • personal pronouns (he, she, it, they). • demonstratives (this, that, these, those). • comparative references (such as, similarly). vb2-mh, vb6-mt vb9-pm 15 substitution replace noun/verb/clause elements • nominal substitution (one, ones). • verbal substitution (do, does, did). • clausal substitution (so, not). vb9-pm, vb10-go 8 ellipsis omit recoverable elements • nominal ellipsis (omission in noun phrases). • verbal ellipsis (omission in verb phrases). • clausal ellipsis (omission in clauses). vb11-pm, vb12-pm 12 conjunction connect clauses logically • additive (and, furthermore, also). • adversative (but, however, on the other hand). • causal (because, therefore, thus). • temporal (when, before, after). vb3-ppc, vb4-go, vb7-mf 22 ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 214 of cds. to begin with the analysis of reference, the results show that the frequency of cds stands at the second highest across the texts, with 15 instances found in texts such as vb2-mh, vb6-mt, and vb9-pm. there are three types of reference, which were observed, such as personal, demonstrative, and comparative. first, personal reference is recognized through the use of pronoun it in order to replace bộ (the ministry), and to maintain continuity. demonstrative reference occurs in the same document with những chỉ thị này – these, referring to các chỉ thị mới – new directives. in vb9-pm, comparative reference appears through the phrase tương tự như chính sách trước đó – similar to the previous one, which connects new regulations to prior ones for coherence. second, substitution was found with lower frequency, totaling 8 instances, but still present in essential parts of ats, notably in vb9-pm and vb10-go. the results demonstrate that there were three types of substitution, commonly used in ats, including nominal, verbal and clausal substitution. firstly, nominal substitution is illustrated in the use of noun phrase chính sách trước đó (the previous policy), which is used to replace one of other policies that is mentioned previously. second, verbal substitution appears in vb10-go with the verb phrase đã làm (was done), where this verb can replace the whole process of previous action. next, clausal substitution occurs in vb9-pm with the expression nếu không (if not), which stands in for the conditional clause nếu điều kiện được đáp ứng – if the conditions are met. this use of substitution shows the tendency of ats to condense lengthy conditional structures while preserving logical sequencing and procedural clarity. returning to ellipsis which was found 12 times and contributed to benefits in terms of syntax by omitting information recoverable from context. similar to substitution, ellipsis is also divided into three categories. first, nominal ellipsis is found in vb11-pm where báo cáo (report) is omitted in the second clause of a parallel structure. second, verbal ellipsis is present in vb10-go, where đã làm (was done) is omitted and interpreted based on a preceding clause. finally, clausal ellipsis was not directly observed in the corpus. instead, documents such as vb16-ppc often repeat phrases like kế hoạch này (this plan) to maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity. overall, ellipsis demonstrates how vietnamese ats maintain brevity without sacrificing clarity. last but not least, conjunctions were found the most frequent devices, which appear 22 times in vb3-ppc, vb4-go, and vb7-mf. common conjunctions include additive và (and), causal vì (because), temporal trước khi (before), and adversative nhưng (but). these forms consistently contribute to organizing information flow and reinforcing coherence in ats. textual realizations in administrative texts, cds appear in identifiable categories and take form through specific linguistic realizations that serve textlevel functions. these realizations are not random, and reflect the formal, ordered, and regulated style typical of official writing. table 3 shows that how cds are recognized through linguistic elements, which serve to ensure referring clarity, maintain logical relations, and reduce unnecessary repetition. each type manifests through distinctive grammatical forms to reinforce procedural table 3. textual realizations of cohesive devices cohesive device function linguistic expressions f texts reference establish continuity and track entities across clauses and sentences personal pronouns, demonstratives, comparative phrases 15 vb2-mh, vb6-mt, vb9-pm substitution maintain cohesion by replacing previously stated elements nominal (one, ones), verbal (do, does), clausal (so, not) 8 vb9-pm, vb10-go ellipsis promote text economy by omitting recoverable elements nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis, clausal ellipsis 12 vb11-pm, vb12-pm conjunction indicate logical relationships between clauses or sentences additive (and, also), adversative (but, however), causal (because, thus), temporal (before, after) 22 vb3-ppc, vb4-go, vb7-mf, vb14-go, vb16-ppc, vb18-ppc ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 215 meaning in a way that aligns with communicative goals of the documents. as shown in table 3, reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction function within sentence structures to maintain reference clarity, preserve logical connections, and avoid unnecessary repetition. structurally, reference can be realized through three forms: personal pronouns anh ấy, cô ấy, nó, họ (he, she, it, they), demonstrative pronouns đây, đó, những này, những kia (this, that, these, those), and comparative constructions tương tự, bằng (similar to, as… as). in vb2mh, personal reference is exemplified by nó (it), which replaces bộ (the ministry). demonstrative reference is realized through những chỉ thị này (these directives), which refers to các chỉ thị mới (new directives). comparative reference is found in vb9-pm with the phrase tương tự như chính sách trước đó (similar to the previous one), which connects current policy with an earlier one. these realizations help maintain continuity and reinforce organizational cohesion. likewise, ellipsis functions as a cohesive device by omitting elements that are recoverable from context, which enhances textual cohesion. the result shows that ellipsis is observed in three forms: nominal, verbal, and clausal, with 12 occurrences found in the data. in vb11-pm, nominal ellipsis is seen in the omission of báo cáo (report), which can appear before the verb nộp (submitted). in vb12-pm, verbal ellipsis is demonstrated in the omission of phê duyệt (approved) following xem xét (reviewed). clausal ellipsis is cited in vb11-pm through the structure nếu được chấp thuận (if approved), where the main clause is left unstated. however, it is important to note that, this case does not qualify as clausal ellipsis in the strict grammatical sense, as vietnamese lacks auxiliary verbs and clause-recovering devices. the structure instead represents a reduced passive form dependent on contextual interpretation. in addition, conjunction is the most frequently used cohesive device, with 22 instances across the texts. it signals logical relationships through four subtypes: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. in vb4-go, additive cohesion is realized with và (and), which links two coordinated actions. in vb18-ppc, causal connection is expressed through vì (because), connecting the policy outcome to its justification. temporal cohesion is found in vb16-ppc with trước khi (before), which orders actions according to procedural timelines. in vb14-go, adversative relation is realized with nhưng (but), which marks a contrast between expected and actual administrative results. these realizations collectively demonstrate how conjunctions contribute to the structural and argumentative clarity of ats. narrative elements in ats this section investigates nes in vietnamese ats, which focus on how actions, participants, and goals are structured so as to intensify coherence and authority. in this section, narrative components such as sequencing, decision-making, and responsibility assignment are analyzed in terms of functional and lexical patterns. they are not fictional elements, but instead exist to arrange real organizational actions in a more logical and rational manner. by analyzing processes, actors, and settings, the study can further demonstrate how forms of narrative help express policy intent, ensure clarity, and keep track of procedural logic straight. section 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 will explain the structure, frequency, and function of narrative realizations in administrative discourse. narrative elements nes function as discursive mechanisms that encode institutional operations into structured forms. these elements contribute to communicative organization and support the procedural transparency required in formal bureaucratic writing. as shown in table 4, 39 nes were identified, comprising processes (11 cases), participants (15), and circumstantial elements (13). these figures indicate the pervasive role of narrative structures in administrative discourse. notably, temporal expressions appeared in 5 of the circumstantial cases, while government entities and departments were mentioned 10 times among participant references. this highlights the focus on time and institutional agency . these distributions indicate a stable narrative configuration that aligns with institutional norms, ensuring clarity, integrity , and sequential development. the processes identified include decision-making (5 instances), approval (2), implementation (3), and evaluation (1). this sequence reflects a typical administrative pattern: from decision to validation, implementation, and final assessment. processes represent the central sequence ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 216 of institutional activities. these linguistic forms describe the key administrative steps, from initial decisions to final evaluations. decision-making is seen in texts such as vb5-vss and vb15-mf, where verbs like sẽ xem xét (would review) denote administrative initiation. in the case of approval, vb10-go uses the verb thông qua (approve), which conveys formal endorsement by an authorized body. implementation is exemplified in vb17-ppc through phải thực hiện (must implement), conveying obligation and procedural staging. evaluation is found in vb20ppc, in which sẽ được đánh giá (will be evaluated) emphasizes objective outcome assessment through passive construction. participants act as institutional agents within these processes. they represent the entities responsible for enacting, approving, or responding to administrative directives. government agencies are represented in vb13-pm and vb15-mf through phrases like theo nghị định của bộ giáo dục (according to the ministry of education decree), which signal legal authority. departments are featured in vb4-go through phòng công nghệ thông tin (it department) and chịu trách nhiệm thực hiện (is responsible for implementation), assigning operational roles. decision-makers are identified in vb18-ppc with hội đồng phê duyệt (the board approves), which represent centralized authority. in vb3-ppc, stakeholders appear through references to các tổ chức xã hội (social organizations), whose feedback sẽ được tổng hợp (will be incorporated). this construction highlights participatory input while preserving the text’s formal tone. circumstantial elements situate processes in relation to time, location, legal framework, or contextual conditions. they serve to contextualize actions and clarify institutional conditions under which decisions are made. in vb16-ppc, temporal framing appears in the phrase trước khi năm tài chính kết thúc (before the end of the fiscal year), offering a precise timeframe for policy implementation. in vb1-mf with trong phạm vi toàn quốc (nationwide), spatial reference is seen with the view of defining policy scope. legal foundation occurs in vb8-ppc through theo điều 5 nghị định 2021/30 (under article 5 of regulation 2021/30), which lends normative force. as identified in vb5-vss with trong trường hợp khẩn cấp (in case of emergency), situational context can frame procedural flexibility within institutional control. lexical patterns in ats, the lexical patterns used to express narrative elements reveal institutional priorities such as clarity, authority, and procedural precision. these elements are encoded structurally and patterned lexically through deliberate and recurrent choices. as displayed in table 5, the lexical patterns of narrative elements are grouped into two categories: process-related verbs and participantdefining nouns. each category fulfills distinct communicative functions, but they together constitute the narrative structure that is central to ats. process-related verbs are composed of four dominant lexical items: thực thi (implement), table 4. narrative components in ats component subtype function f texts process decision-making direct actions 5 vb5-vss, vb7-mf, vb15-mf approval endorse actions 2 vb10-go implementation carry out decisions 3 vb17-ppc, vb18-ppc evaluation assess outcomes 1 vb20-ppc participants gov. agencies represent authority 5 vb13-pm, vb15-mf departments implement policies 5 vb4-go, vb10-go decision-makers make decisions 3 vb5-vss, vb18-ppc stakeholders provide input 2 vb3-ppc, vb17-ppc circumstances temporal situate time 6 vb5-vss, vb16-ppc location indicate scope 3 vb1-mf legal context frame by law 2 vb16-ppc, vb8-ppc situational define conditions 4 vb5-vss, vb17-ppc ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 217 quyết định (decide), phê duyệt (approve), and đánh giá (evaluate). these verbs form the core of ats. they report institutional actions, express institutional intent, assign responsibility, and sequence procedures over time. the verb triển khai (implement) appears most frequently, with 91 instances across texts such as vb5-vss, vb7-mf, and vb16-ppc. in vb7-mf, the clause các đơn vị trực thuộc triển khai dự toán ngân sách theo hướng dẫn mới – subordinate units implement the budget estimates according to the new guidelines contains the verb triển khai, which signals institutional responsibility and procedural command. this shows how implementation verbs act as formal instructions embedded within the broader structure of administrative sentences. the verb quyết định (decide), which is observed 78 times, functions as a text marker for initiating top-down procedures. in vb1-mf, bộ quyết định phân bổ ngân sách cho các đơn vị dự toán – the ministry decides on budget allocation for dependent units, the verb quyết định establishes institutional authority and opens the procedural chain. similarly, phê duyệt (approve), found 64 times, formalizes prior decisions and prepares for execution. in vb3ppc, the expression ubnd tỉnh phê duyệt đề án xây dựng nông thôn mới – the provincial people’s committee approves the rural development plan uses the verb phê duyệt to signal institutional endorsement and legitimize action. the final verb đánh giá (evaluate), seen with 52 times, marks the closing phase of institutional processes. in vb14go, hiệu quả thực hiện sẽ được đánh giá vào cuối năm tài chính – the effectiveness of implementation will be evaluated at the end of the fiscal year, the passive form sẽ được đánh giá emphasizes the outcome and maintains administrative impartiality. parallel to these verbs, participant-defining nouns also reflect functional roles and institutional positions. these nouns identify who performs or authorizes the actions and how institutional agency is distributed. the term cơ quan (agency) is the most frequent, found 95 times, as seen in expressions such as cơ quan ban hành (issuing agency) and cơ quan quản lý (managing agency), which designate the origin and oversight of policies. in vb1-mf and vb6-mt, the recurrence of cơ quan indicates its centrality in authorizing and supervising administrative action. the noun phòng or đơn vị (department) is also prominent, with 84 instances. in vb12-pm, the clause phòng kế hoạch tài chính hướng dẫn quy trình giải ngân (the finance planning department provides guidance on the disbursement process) positions the department as a mid-level entity responsible for implementation. the lexical pattern các bên liên quan (stakeholders), recorded 56 times, introduces participatory dimensions. in vb6-mt, các bên liên quan đóng góp ý kiến vào quy hoạch giao thông đô thị – stakeholders provide input into the urban transport plan, the phrase các bên liên quan functions as an external contributor, while đóng góp reflects participatory interaction in shaping administrative decisions. lastly, the noun thẩm quyền (authority) appears 48 times. in vb20-ppc, the expression cơ quan có thẩm quyền xem xét và xử lý hồ sơ – the competent authority reviews and processes the dossier includes the phrase có thẩm quyền, which denotes institutional legitimacy. the verb pair xem xét và xử lý (review and process) reflects both evaluation and execution. this dual function shows how institutional authority is compactly expressed in a single verbal structure. functional characteristics of administrative language ats are characterized by their obligation to express institutional authority, procedural clarity, table 5. lexical patterns of narrative elements category lexical item function f texts process verbs implement execute policies 91 vb5-vss, vb7-mf, vb16-ppc decide initiate action 78 vb1-mf, vb7-mf, vb12-pm approve endorse proposals 64 vb3-ppc, vb19-met evaluate measure outcomes 42 vb10-go, vb14-go participants agency policy originator 95 vb1-mf, vb4-go, vb6-mt, vb18-ppc department executor 84 vb3-ppc, vb5-vss, vb7-mf, vb12-pm stakeholder input provider 56 vb6-mt, vb10-go authority regulator 48 vb2-mh, vb11-pm, vb20-ppc ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 218 and formal consistency. as shown in table 6, six key features characterize administrative texts: formal tone, nominalization, modal expressions, sequencing, referring opacity, and information density. these features were identified a total of seventy-eight times, and indicate their central role in structuring how ats are realized. each characteristic serves as a stylistic choice and a functional necessity that ensures the effectiveness of institutional communication. to begin with, a formal tone is maintained throughout administrative writing to reinforce authority and institutional impersonality. this tone is achieved through the use of third-person references, institutional terminology, and fixed expressions. phrases such as theo quy định (according to regulations), căn cứ vào nghị định (based on the decree), and cơ quan có thẩm quyền (authorized agency) exemplify this style. with 18 occurrences found in documents such as vb1mf and vb7-mf, these expressions distance the speaker from the message and construct the text as an objective voice of the institution. by eliminating subjectivity, this tone promotes neutrality, legitimizes policy, and minimizes personal interpretation of administrative directives. by eliminating subjectivity, this tone promotes neutrality, legitimizes policy, and minimizes personal interpretation of administrative directives. closely related to formality is the use of nominalization, which occurs 14 times in texts such as vb11-pm and vb7-mf. this strategy transforms actions into abstract entities, often via phrases like việc thực hiện (implementation), sự điều chỉnh (adjustment), or quy trình phê duyệt (approval process). in vb11-pm, the phrase việc đánh giá hiệu quả (effective assessment) replaces explicit agents with an abstract process. this allows complex information to be condensed and integrated into larger sentence structures. this technique condenses complex information into compact sentence structures, reinforcing the abstract and dense nature of administrative language. as a result, procedures are framed as impersonal systems rather than individual actions. in addition to form and abstraction, modality plays a key role in expressing institutional force. modality markers appear in 10 instances, especially in vb2-mh and vb17-ppc. these include verbs such as phải (must), sẽ (will), and cần (need), which express institutional obligation and legal force. for example, the sentence các đơn vị phải thực hiện đúng tiến độ – units must follow the timeline employs phải to enforce policy compliance. these modal verbs not only express institutional force but also guide the reader toward expected behavior within the administrative framework. their recurrence reflects how obligation is embedded into procedural language to secure consistent implementation across hierarchical levels. another key feature is the explicit structuring of processes through sequencing and hierarchy. in 9 instances, as seen in vb3-ppc and vb7-mf, these patterns help organize content according to institutional procedure. temporal adverbs and connectors such as trước hết (first of all), sau đó (after that), and cuối cùng (finally) are used to break processes into discrete stages. these markers create a procedural roadmap while reflecting the internal logic of institutional workflows. the hierarchical dimension further clarifies the chain of responsibility by indicating who initiates, who validates, and who executes each stepin policy enactment. this contributes to procedural transparency and administrative integrity . another stylistic strategy that reinforces impersonality is referring opacity, identified 11 times in documents such as vb10-go and vb12-pm. this feature is primarily realized through passive constructions such as được ban hành (to be issued) table 6. functional characteristics of administrative language feature function f texts formal tone convey authority through impersonal expressions 18 vb1-mf, vb4-go, vb7-mf nominalization increase abstraction and density 14 vb1-mf, vb7-mf, vb11-pm modality markers express obligation and institutional force 10 vb2-mh, vb4-go, vb17-ppc sequencing & hierarchy indicate procedural order and logic 9 vb3-ppc, vb7-mf referring opacity obscure agency via passive structures 11 vb4-go, vb10-go, vb12-pm dense packaging combine multiple ideas in complex sentences 16 vb5-vss, vb7-mf, vb14-go ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 219 and sẽ được thực hiện (will be implemented). by focusing on actions and outcomes rather than actors, these structures obscure agency by focusing attention on the action or outcome rather than on the actor. this strategy is not stylistically incidental but serves to maintain institutional distance and diffuse individual responsibility. by emphasizing the process, itself, the text sustains a formal tone and promotes objectivity in how actions are described and justified. finally, dense packaging, identified 16 times across documents like vb5-vss and vb14-go, refers to the compression of multiple ideas into single, complex sentences. these constructions often include embedded clauses, conditionals, and justifications, as in the combination of nghĩa vụ, thời hạn và trường hợp ngoại lệ (obligations, deadlines, and exceptions) within one sentence. this compactness permits multiple legal and procedural requirements to coexist within a cohesive structure. although such density may reduce accessibility, it enhances interpretive precision and ensures the completeness of administrative directives. interaction between cds and nes this section examines the interaction between dcs and nes in vietnamese administrative texts, which is involved in how this integration contributes to textual cohesion. cds establish grammatical links and ensure logical consistency. in contrast, nes introduce time structure, clarify roles, and explain causality, thereby making administrative texts more transparent and easier to understand. this analysis involves two layers of organization that coordinate abstract policies and concrete actions. this section explores three key interactions: how reference maintains thematic continuity across sentence boundaries, how conjunctions convey cause and process, and how these cohesive tools help construct institutional actions step by step. furthermore, the combination of these features makes ats easier for laypeople to read in comparison with formal documents, which are designed for government institutionals. textual pattern and matrix coding the interplay between cds and nes in ats reflects a codified discursive strategy rather than a coincidental occurrence. as shown in table 7, this interaction manifests through three interdependent textual configurations: narrative construction, cohesive linking, and matrix coding. each pattern functions at a distinct level of organization. together, they form a coherent system that allows policy texts to regulate agency, organize procedures, and legitimize institutional decisions. to begin with, narrative construction is oriented toward sequencing administrative acts, articulating rationales, projecting intended outcomes, and assigning institutional roles. forty-four occurrences were identified in which policy-related procedures are ordered to reflect organizational logic. a representative case is found in vb5-vss: trước hết, xem xét đề xuất; sau đó, trình phê duyệt; cuối cùng, thực hiện – first, review the proposal; then, submit for approval; finally, implement. in this case, the use of adverbial markers trước hết, sau đó, and cuối cùng frames the action sequence within a canonical progression. this configuration also facilitates explanatory coherence, with seventeen instances in which decision-making is paired with justification. as seen in vb9-pm: do ảnh hưởng dịch bệnh, ngân sách bị điều chỉnh – due to the epidemic, the budget was revised, the clause do ảnh table 7. textual pattern and matrix coding aspect function f texts narrative construction structure actions and highlight intent 44 vb4-go, vb5-vss, vb7-mf, vb15-ppc explain reasons behind decisions 17 vb7-mf, vb9-pm express expected outcomes 11 vb2-mh, vb15-mf assign roles to institutional actors 15 vb4-go, vb17-ppc cohesive linking ensure continuity and coherence 38 vb2-mh, vb4-go, vb6-mt avoid repetition 24 vb10-go, vb12-pm maintain logical progression 40 vb7-mf, vb10-go, vb18-ppc matrix coding link actions to temporal context 98 vb3-ppc, vb6-mt, vb8-ppc clarify referents of institutional actors 123 vb1-btc, vb18-ppc, vb20-ppc ground actions in legal reasoning 87 vb6-mt, vb10-go, vb14-ppc integrate time, actors, and legal conditions 32 vb4-go, vb7-mf ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 220 hưởng dịch bệnh encodes causality. this pattern also expresses intended goals, as seen in vb15mf: nhằm nâng cao hiệu quả quản lý (to improve management efficiency). in this case, the intended outcome is explicitly stated through lexical choice. finally, fifteen occurrences demonstrate role assignment, as in vb17-ppc: bộ chỉ đạo, các đơn vị triển khai, địa phương báo cáo – the ministry directs, departments implement, localities report. this mapping of institutional agents ensures that responsibility and authority are textually distributed along administrative hierarchies. this mapping of institutional agents ensures that responsibility and authority are textually distributed along administrative hierarchies. cohesive linking, as the second pattern, ensures referring continuity, structural economy, and logical sequencing. thirty-eight instances illustrate how cohesion is achieved through referring maintenance, such as in vb2-mh: bộ sẽ triển khai kế hoạch. sau đó, [bộ] sẽ giám sát tiến độ – the ministry will implement the plan. then, it will monitor the progress. the repetition of bộ functions not as redundancy but as referring anchoring across clauses. clausal substitution also reinforces this mechanism. for example, vb9-pm states: nếu điều kiện được đáp ứng thì sẽ duyệt; nếu không thì từ chối (if the conditions are met, approval will be granted; if not, rejection). the phrase nếu không substitutes for the entire conditional clause, preserving syntactic efficiency while ensuring semantic transparency. logical sequencing is the third subfunction, observed forty times. in vb18-ppc, the construction kế hoạch bị hoãn [vì] không đủ ngân sách – the plan was delayed because of insufficient funds employs the causal connector vì to explicitly justify institutional outcomes. such linking ensures that policy texts preserve argumentative cohesion and procedural legitimacy through overt rhetorical coordination. such linking ensures that policy texts preserve argumentative cohesion and procedural legitimacy through overt rhetorical coordination. matrix coding constitutes the third and most complex textual configuration, integrating narrative progression and cohesion within regulatory, temporal, and institutional frameworks. it is primarily realized by anchoring actions in time, specifying agents, and encoding legal grounds. ninety-eight instances involve temporal integration, as in vb8-ppc: sẽ thực hiện trong 30 ngày – will be implemented within 30 days, where temporal expressions define operational timelines. the most frequent function is referent clarification, with 123 cases. in vb1-btc, referents are reiterated through chains such as cơ quan ban hành and cơ quan này chịu trách nhiệm – the issuing agency and this agency is responsible, enabling consistent referent tracking. matrix coding also performs legal grounding, found in eighty-seven cases, as illustrated in vb14-ppc: theo điều 5 của nghị định – according to article 5 of the decree. this alignment embeds textual action within legal frameworks, framing institutional decisions as regulatory obligations. finally, 32 instances show that matrix coding permits the integration of time, actors, and legal justification into unified structures. in vb7-mf, these dimensions co-occur in complex sentence forms that compress institutional assignment, legal reference, and procedural timing, all within a single syntactic unit. this multidimensional encoding achieves high informational density while preserving clarity and interpretive accessibility, which fulfills the communicative demands of formal governance texts. thematic mapping and communicative function thematic mapping in administrative discourse reveals how communicative intent is lexically and structurally distributed across recurring semantic configurations. in vietnamese policy texts, thematic clusters group related propositions and guide readers through institutional priorities, action types, and participation frameworks. table 8 identifies three dominant clusters: authority and decision-making (58), implementation and coordination (71), and stakeholder engagement (41). each cluster performs a distinct communicative function. when employed consistently, these thematic structures serve to legitimize institutional power, operationalize procedures, and incorporate consultative input. this reinforces the multidimensional functionality of ats. the first cluster, authority and decisionmaking, foregrounds institutional control and the articulation of formal mandates. this cluster is observed fifty-eight times in documents such as vb5-vss, vb10-go, and vb15-mf. it is primarily realized through declarative sentence types and performative verbs that convey institutional authority. in vb10-go, the clause thủ ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 221 table 8. thematic clusters in ats thematic cluster function f texts authority and decisionmaking express institutional authority and policy decisions 58 vb5-vss, vb10-go, vb15-mf implementation and coordination direct policy execution and manage inter-departmental actions 71 vb2-mh, vb15-mf, vb18-ppc stakeholder engagement incorporate external input and participatory evaluation 41 vb8-ppc, vb13-mp, vb1-mf tướng quyết định giao dự toán ngân sách cho các bộ, ngành (the prime minister decides to allocate the budget estimates to ministries and sectors) shows how the verb quyết định (decide) performs and legitimizes authority at the same time. these expressions are typically embedded within tightly structured syntactic constructions, which contribute to the formal tone and institutional assertiveness of the text. through such configurations, the cluster encodes the hierarchical positioning of the speaker and reflects the central role of state actors in directing and authorizing public policy. through such configurations, the cluster encodes the hierarchical positioning of the speaker and reflects the central role of state actors in directing and authorizing public policy. building upon this institutional foundation, implementation and coordination represent the most frequent pattern in the data, with 71 occurrences found in texts such as vb2-mh, vb15-mf, and vb18-ppc. this thematic group is marked by directive sentence structures and modal verbs like phải (must) and cần (need), which express institutional requirements and maintain procedural consistency. in vb18-ppc, the clause các đơn vị phải thực hiện phân bổ kinh phí đúng thời hạn – units must carry out the budget allocation on time exemplifies the convergence of command and temporal precision. the combination of modals with institutional actors serves a dual function: it assigns responsibility while simultaneously articulating the expected course of action. this structure prescribes what needs to be done and encodes when it should be executed, by whom, and under what procedural condition. thus, this cluster enhances the enforceability of directives while preserving syntactic clarity and communicative order. extending beyond internal directives, stakeholder engagement highlights participatory orientation within administrative discourse. this pattern appears 41 times in the dataset, notably in vb8-ppc, vb13-mp, and vb1-mf. its primary function is to integrate feedback from nongovernmental or external entities into the policy framework. in vb8-ppc, the sentence ý kiến từ các tổ chức xã hội sẽ được tổng hợp vào báo cáo – feedback from social organizations will be incorporated into the reports demonstrates this function. the use of the passive construction sẽ được tổng hợp (will be incorporated) allows the text to maintain institutional detachment while still signaling openness to input. this passive form reinforces formality, whereas the inclusion of các tổ chức xã hội (social organizations) indexes external involvement. this balance between centralized authority and consultative legitimacy enables the institution to frame participation as a managed, yet acknowledged, dimension of governance. in doing so, stakeholder input is textually recontextualized into a codified part of administrative operations without undermining the formal decision-making hierarchy. iv. discussion linguistic strategies for institutional coherence the analysis of cds in vietnamese ats demonstrates that these devices play an indispensable role in constructing textual unity, procedural order, and institutional authority. these devices, such as referring tracking, conjunctions, and lexical reiteration, do more than serve as surface-level connectors. they also function as systemic strategies that reinforce the hierarchical and procedural nature of policy communication. since vietnamese is not an inflectional language, it lacks morphological agreement. this leads writers to depend more on discourse and pragmatic cues to ensure coherence. halliday and hasan (1976) point out that cohesion is expressed through grammatical and lexical relations that extend beyond the limits of individual sentences. however, the findings challenge this view because they show that cohesion in ats is shaped by ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 222 structure and by context, pragmatic flow, and thematic development. therefore, cohesion needs to be understood as a typological feature and a language-specific phenomenon, which is shaped by functional demands. when examined in light of previous studies, this study both supports and challenges the previous studies. particularly, it partially corresponds to rahman et al. (2023) and kadhim (2024), who underscore the centrality of cohesive devices in enabling comprehension and information retention. meanwhile these studies presuppose morphological richness as a main means of cohesion, but they are entirely appropriate in vietnamese ats. this study demonstrates how analytic languages like vietnamese use repetition and pragmatic signals to achieve cohesion. these insights expand systemic functional linguistics and support rethinking cohesion theory from a cross-linguistic angle. based on the findings, the study recommends that administrative training in vietnam should emphasize awareness of text-level coherence rather than just syntactic accuracy. coherence should be taught as a communicative goal, not merely a structural requirement. nonetheless, certain limitations remain. the study focuses on a narrow range of institutional genres. therefore, it does not account for how cohesive strategies may vary across spoken, informal, or digital forms of communication. as such, future research should examine cohesion in these emerging modes, as well as in cross-linguistic comparisons, in order to assess the theoretical elasticity and practical applicability of cohesion across typologically diverse administrative systems. to bridge these limitations, a comparative approach should be adopted in future research to delve into cds in cross-linguistics ats such as chinese and vietnamese or french and vietnamese. it is widely acknowledged that this approach would enable a more comprehensive understanding of how cohesion functions in typological patterns of different languages, not least administrative styles. furthermore, digital and spoken ats are also essential to explore, particularly in online government websites, in which informalized styles and multimodal features may influence cohesive aspects. therefore, these directions are expected to enhance cross-genre and cross-linguistic applicability and test the adaptability of systemic functional models to the evolving modes of public communication. methodologically, temporal analysis of institutional language change may also shed light on how cohesion evolves in response to policy, technology, and user feedback. structuring policy through narrative framing complementing the cohesive perspective, the examinations of nes in the data reveal that nes are not merely a stylistic supplement, but a core mechanism for organizing systemic reasoning. to be more specific, ats tend to reflect policy implementation as activity rather than abstract regulation through sequential processes, agentive structures, and circumstantial contextualization. the results prove that clause connection and discourse coherence of vietnamese can be expressed through syntactic properties, which give rise to the mechanisms for enabling nes to support process clarity. in this way, the view that nes work against formal procedures is called into question by these results. more accurately, the findings reframe nes as essential linguistic tools to enhance clarity and reinforce regulatory principles. this analysis harmonizes with and expands jopek-bosiacka’s (2024) arguments, which asserts that clarity and social engagement in ats can be bettered by effective use of nes. however, while jopek-bosiacka emphasizes reader relatability, the vietnamese data suggests that narrative structuring also serves epistemic and institutional needs. likewise, the findings confirm martin, quiroz, and wang’s (2023) contention that narrative ordering aids reader cognition, particularly through temporal and causal sequencing. by realizing institutional mandates in action-oriented structures, vietnamese ats demonstrate how narration operates as a scaffolding device that guides both comprehension and execution. these insights extend the theoretical conversation by demonstrating how narrative logic intersects with administrative clarity in a non-indoeuropean linguistic context. despite its contributions, the study remains bounded by the topical limitation of its data, which concentrates on finance and planning documents. this raises questions about whether similar narrative strategies appear across domains such as education, healthcare, or environmental governance. future research should investigate whether institutional narratives adapt to different policy logics and examine how these variations influence public reception and implementation efficacy. further inquiry could deepen our understanding of how ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 223 narrative functions in institutional discourse and extend the relevance of this study’s findings to a broader range of administrative settings. in particular, comparative frameworks should be adopted to examine whether narrative framings differ in urgency, modality, or sequencing across policy areas. these domains might exhibit distinct narrative preferences depending on institutional timelines or audience expectations. a useful approach would be to combine textual analysis with interviews of policy drafters or institutional editors. this would help reveal how narrative strategies are intentionally used to align with policy objectives. a mixed-method approach would help validate the textual findings and clarify whether narrative structuring is intuitive or policy-driven across institutional settings. integrated textual architecture in administrative discourse by combining both types of analysis, the study shows that the interaction between cds and nes in vietnamese ats creates a dynamic system. this system makes a considerable contribution to building structural precision and helping construct institutional meaning. although cds and nes do not work in isolation, they operate interdependently to form cohesive texts when united. particularly, cds ensure clarity and continuity, while nes provide time structure and define institutional roles. vietnamese relies on serial verbs, topiccomment structures, and pragmatic links. these features show how analytic languages can bring cohesion and narrative elements together into a unified structure. this convergence challenges traditional assumptions that treat cohesion and narration as discrete domains and affirms their joint contribution to communicative functionality. this interpretation builds upon and diversifies the theoretical frameworks of haim (2023) and megerdoomian et al. (2019), who advocate for the integration of narrative sequencing and cohesive alignment in administrative and legal texts. while their research centers on indo-european and persian languages, the vietnamese data offers a typologically distinct validation of their propositions. cds and nes can be merged through textual strategies rather than morphosyntactic mechanisms because vietnamese does not belong to a derivational language. these strategies create a combination of formal constraint with interpretive accessibility, and enhance both the legitimacy and intelligibility of institutional communication. these findings support a subtler model of textual competence, which includes the ability to coordinate structural coherence with narrative logic. nevertheless, this analysis is limited to formal written texts and does not consider how such integrations may evolve in spoken interactions, multilingual documents, or digital platforms. future studies should investigate how these cohesive-narrative dynamics function across genres, technologies, and institutional settings. future comparative research could examine how administrative cultures differ in their use of cohesion and narrative. such analysis would clarify how language shapes authority and fosters institutional trust. to go further, future research could compare vietnamese with unrelated languages such as korean, german, or arabic to see whether similar cohesion–narration patterns appear across different grammatical systems. additionally, ethnographic methods including institutional interviews or protocol analysis could uncover the intentional strategies behind textual coordination. in digital contexts, studying administrative discourse on institutional websites or crisis announcements could show whether cohesion and narrative features change when messages are produced under time pressure or using multimedia tools. this would offer a broader, genre-sensitive model for how textual architecture evolves across modes, languages, and policy environments. v. conclusion this study examined how cohesive devices and narrative elements interact to enhance the coherence, clarity, and communicative effectiveness of vietnamese ats. the study finds that cohesive tools like reference, conjunction, and ellipsis help maintain unity in administrative texts. at the same time, narrative elements such as processes, participants, and circumstances ensure logical flow and support institutional responsibility. the integration of these elements results in a robust textual architecture that conveys policy content clearly and reinforces the authority and procedural logic of administrative discourse. the results of this study are significant for both theory and practice. in terms of theoretical ly ngoc toan / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 224 perspective, these findings further bring the light to systemic functional linguistics by illustrating how textual coherence is achieved in an analytic language without morphological marking. also, the results support integrated models of discourse that treat cohesion and narration as mutually reinforcing rather than isolated strategies. practically, the study suggests that administrative writing training should incorporate structural accuracy and narrative awareness to ensure communicative impact and institutional transparency. policy designers and public communicators can benefit from these insights to improve both reading competence and public trust. besides the significant contributions mentioned above, the study still remains potential limitations because it mostly focused on written texts from formal institutional domains without accounting for variation in spoken or digital administrative communication. moreover, the study was mainly conducted on texts that are inherent in requiring high caution in the process of writing. the application of cds and nes should be explored radically in multilingual and multimodal contexts in future research. in addition, more crosslinguistics studies should be across institutional cultures to help evaluate how cds and nes vary across administrative traditions. in conclusion, this study offers a new perspective on how linguistic structures support communication in administrative texts. it provides both a theoretical framework and practical guidance to enhance administrative writing. ethics statement i confirm that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. the research was conducted in accordance with the ethical publication standards of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement ly ngoc toan was solely responsible for the conceptualization, design, data collection, analysis, and writing of the manuscript. all aspects of the research were independently conducted by the author. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or 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(2011). the stories public administrators tell: finding meaning in the ordinary work life. public integrity, 13(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2753/pin1099-9922130406 magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 322 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 25, 2025 final revision: august 27, 2025 accepted: august 30, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 globalization has ushered english language teaching (elt) to a radical shift which results in the incorporation of post-humanist paradigm in elt. ironically, however, this paradigm has not been thoroughly considered in elt in periphery contexts where sociocultural-semiotic symbols as language materiality abound. in this article we consider language materiality as part of cultural materiality and social life which highlights transmodal elements a key concept in parallel localization within communities. the present study examines how the indigenous dayak community in kalimantan, indonesia, utilizes materiality and transmodal production in efl classrooms to facilitate knowledge construction through interactions with diverse objects, symbols, and resources. an instant ethnography was employed to capture transmodal moments, such as from writing to speaking, video to text, or speech to action, which result in dynamic transformations and expansions of meaning in the multimodal discourses classroom to students who have not previously learned english in their primary school. multimodal conversation analysis (mca) was used to analyze the data, which revealed that materiality is a transmodal production that encourages students to create meaning via their own lenses. as the students immersed themselves in the phase-by-phase engagement with semiotic symbols related to their english classes, the result shows that they improved their communication skills, comprehension, and access to knowledge. based on their understanding of english, the knowledge they gain provides them with the opportunities to think critically. furthermore, transmodal through materials can be applied as sources for students to make meaning. keywords language materiality, transmodal production, dayaknese efl classroom, english language teaching and learning, multimodal conversation analysis. correspondence *e-mail: setiono.sugiharto@atmajaya.ac.id article language materiality and transmodal production in efl classroom: the case of dayaknese students magpika handayani1, luciana2, setiono sugiharto3* 1department of english for business and professional communication. polytechnic of tonggak equator, pontianak, indonesia 2,3doctoral program in applied english linguistics, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.322-335.2025 i. introduction in the context of globalization where voices from various english language teaching contexts find their resonances, a shift from a focus on language components per se to an emphasis on practical use and from cognitive understanding to social interaction has established elt fields (canagarajah, 2014). social interaction highlights the significance of cultural context in english language instruction that is demonstrated by suharni et al., (2024) in this journal that one of language and culture are linked since they reflect the values, views, and background of their speakers, making it the primary responsibility of efl teachers to promote intercultural competency and understanding. this shift in focus has made it possible for students to learn about social situations and gain the ability to interpret local semiotic resources as a means of learning. despite the speed at which technology is developing, there are many resources that offer affordances for learning, such as language materiality, especially in peripheral contexts that allow students to gain knowledge through transmodal production. magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 323 language materiality in this writing is used to encompass the actions individuals undertake with and through language across various contexts such as work, play, meaning-making, and value creation (cavanaugh & shankar, 2017). this concept is marked by a focus on practices and processes involving performative and embodied interactions between human and non-human participants. one of the key aspects of language materiality is transmodal production, which explores how language comprises a variety of semiotic resources that are contextually, socially, and attitudinally confined. it allows different modalities influencing one another’s meanings and expressions (nordvall et al., 2016). when a sign is used, its use is believed to imply and presuppose certain things such as things-word giving an iconic indexical delivered to the people (thurlow & jaworski, 2017). the transmodal production of these words connects privilege and status through objectified things or terms. irshad and yousaf (2024) emphasized the intricate connections between the various forms of communication involved in producing multimodal creations. transmodal aspects of language help students to interpret and understand narratives that depict foreign languages, and transmodal communication with visual and verbal modes. this paradigm makes it easier to communicate cultural ideas in a variety of settings which enables students to make a transmodal shift from linguistic to visual-linguistic and from written narrative to multimodal storytelling (govender, 2020). this textual unity and inter-semiotic harmony are keys for the performative production of order, which is, in turn, central to the classification of distinction and (elite) status (thurlow & haudenschild, 2022). language materiality offers significant mediated cognitive and emotional agencies to investigate communication problems and language ability gaps and improve comprehension of language use in peripheral contexts that are not well served by digital technology. however, despite their grounded arguments for materiality roles, they have not explored authentic moments to moments when meaning-making processes are interwoven and navigated through the entanglement between human and non-human agency. this study intends to fill the gap by investigating transmodal production, from things to words, in creating a chain process of meaning making. all available materials work together as a collective to produce meaning, involving various semiotic resources and relationships between human and non-human entities (canagarajah, 2024). as such, this study is an attempt to showcase dynamic interaction of human and non-human agency for english learning affordances and also justice for learning opportunities in a peripheral context, particularly for indigenous dayak students in kalimantan which has wealthily embraced materiality in their lives. this study also investigates material which encompasses not only objects but also bodily elements that serve as tools or resources in the quest for knowledge (sugiharto, 2022b) such as gawai (thanksgiving in dayaknese tradition) serving as a transmodal production signifies human gratitude to god through the integration of physical materials and bodily movements (loi et al., 2023). it indicates that the dayaknese uses various symbolic, visual signs embedded in their traditional motifs to convey specific meanings in communication that might be employed in english language teaching. ii. methods this research adopts an instant ethnography method which concerns how meaning is made and experienced in the present, in the fleeting moments of daily life by exploring local communities and cultures to create relevant learning affordances (weprint, 2016). conducted in a school largely serving the dayak community rooted in ancestral ritual ceremonies (atok et al., 2005; loi et al., 2023), the study involved 64 students who were minimally exposed to english since they did not learn it in their elementary school. dayak students are selected because they have unique communication patterns characterized by the way they communicate themselves, explain things to their society, and convey their meaning. in this writing, the dayak materials like bamboo, rinyuank leaves, dauk manggala, and mandau (the traditional machete) are employed as it is used in their daily lives. these materials have particular meanings and are commonly used in their communication. data collection and procedures the data were gathered from six videotaped and photographed of teacher and students’ interactions during the english class section. video was used to document student involvement throughout class activities, and photographs were used to capture the rich nuances of natural magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 324 settings and activities. furthermore, photographs offer powerful visual images that complement the observation and reinforce the verbal descriptions. in addition, photographs were taken to enhance the documentation of classroom interactions, capturing live actions and recording snapshots. following the recording, assisted by a regular english teacher, the activity was jotted down to enhance the vividness of the activities observed (lodico et al., 2010). data were collected from various interactions, resulting in a final dataset that included several speakers in similar situations (lilja, 2023). data analysis to obtain the data that is relevant with the objective of the study, the data were transcribed and discussed in detail using multimodal conversation analysis (mca). mca is employed to examine the video recordings of classroom interactions involving language materiality by analyzing the video transcripts and pictures using mondada’s framework (tai, 2023; deppermann & haugh, 2022, p. 332). the analysis includes identifying material practices, examining language materiality used in class, and describing the interactions that occur in class. additionally, the authors developed a coding scheme based on objectives of the research and theoretical frameworks which focus on transmodal production of language materiality. the steps in data analysis include identifying and collecting relevant multimodal data from videos and images. then, data were transcribed using a framework that represents multiple modes, including visual descriptions, speech, gestures, spatial arrangements, and other features. iii. results in this section, the writers present the result from the data collection regarding the employment of language materiality and transmodal production as a learning affordance in language learning in dayaknese efl classroom which is presented in 3 topics, “it is nice to meet you”, “it is delicious”, and, “i’ve got thick eyebrows”. these three themes were chosen because they make use of resources in activities that could serve as learning materials. the transmodal production and how it serves as learning affordances is presented below: the first theme employed in this study is related to “it is nice to meet you”. this theme is utilized in view of the dayak uniqueness in welcoming the guest which involved materials such as bamboo, rinyuank leaves (the plants grow in kalimantan), and mandau (the traditional weapon) to cut the bamboo. those materiality plays as a medium for transmodal production in the classroom serves the thing-word process used to convey meanings of the topic. the transmodal production described in table 1 shows that the materiality is present in three phases of learning. table 1 demonstrates three roles of materiality aiming to develop the expression of “it is nice to meet you.” first, the organization of materials consisting of bamboo, and rinyuank leaves reflect the way that the dayak welcome their guests, second, the act of accepting mandau symbolizes readiness to engage in the guestreceiving process, and third, dancing and rinyuank leaves symbolize joyfulness. these practices demonstrate how meaning is interwoven from the students’ lens of materiality and symbolizing their own identities. the table below shows how materiality is applied as a transmodal production and its utilization in the efl classroom. table 1. transmodal production of “bamboo and mandau” used in language learning transmodal production (things-words) utilization of the materials in efl classroom bamboo and rinyuank leave the materials are arranged and organized to demonstrate that the dayak community greets their esteemed guests. mandau and bamboo the mandau used to cut the bamboo, and bamboo are placed horizontally indicating barriers students dancing, rinyunak leaves dancing and rinyuank leave in hand for dancing is the attribute to welcome the guest the table illustrates how materials are organized and used as resources for transmodal production in efl learning opportunities. these materials are structured to motivate students to participate in real-life situations while learning english. the arrangement of mandau, bamboo, and rinyuank leaves indicates a formal environment where specific guest welcoming protocols must be adhered to. these materials encourage students to learn and interact with english in accordance with these welcoming customs. in this setup, accepting the mandau, a traditional sword, symbolizes the guest’s (represented by the teacher) willingness to join the community. conversely, rejecting it signifies a reluctance to become part of the magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 325 environments. they concentrated on the term “dauk mangala” and its transmodal representation. the teacher encouraged the students to ask, “mengapa suka dauk manggala?” to elicit opinions about the dish. student 1 quickly replied with “good,” followed by student 2 who said, “delicious,” and student 3 added, “great.” these responses align with the transmodal indicator, prompting students to connect “dauk manggala” with high quality, enjoyable taste, and exceptional qualities. the process of forming habits through interaction with objects is often viewed as acquiring embodied skills, allowing individuals to perform actions with ease. this illustrates how students and teachers leverage materiality to cultivate their habits, focusing on the term “dauk mangala” and its transmodal representation, which consistently led students to associate “dauk manggala” with superior quality, flavor, and remarkable attributes. the third theme employed in this study is “i’ve got thick eyebrows”. this theme is selected because it is closely related to describing people either physically or characteristics. the materials applied are related to physical and dressing where the teacher aimed to teach the concept of physical appearance through the topic “i’ve got thick eyebrows.” the teacher showcasing the image of a local individual who fits the criteria relevant to the lesson. the presence of this figure illustrates a transmodal representation of how individuals appear in relation to their appearance. these five data points show the transmodal of the thingsword from three topics. based on the data, the main emphasis of the activity was on transforming objects into words using different modes. dayak students employed tangible items as instruments to understand particular objects, actions, processes, and the core of different subjects. this implies that incorporating these culture materials as a means of learning english in the classroom is appropriate. table 3. transmodal production from “local figure and traditional attire” used in language learning transmodal production (things-words) utilization of the materials in efl classroom transmodal production (things-word) (topic 3) local figure presented in the class (bajigur) and traditional attire worn by the figure to display the local figure. this example describes the term used bajigur and the traditional attire he wears. in the dayak community. additionally, using the mandau to cut the bamboo illustrates the guests’ eagerness to integrate into the community. the materials also transition into movement through dancing, with the students’ performances expressing their happiness and warm welcome to the guests, showcasing their delight in meeting newcomers. this sequence involving mandau, bamboo, and dancing creates a transmodal production that helps students grasp the concept of “it is nice to meet you.” the second theme employed in this study is related to “it is delicious”. this theme is considered significant for the classroom activities since the dayaknese also talk about food with its specific characteristics. the transmodal production from the theme of “it is delicious” utilizes dauk manggala and bamboo as materiality that is popular in the community. the materials are displayed in front of the class as the teacher explained and link it with the topic. the table below shows the transmodal and its utilization in the classroom. table 2. transmodal production from “dauk manggala” used in language learning transmodal production (things-words) utilization of the materials in efl classroom transmodal production (thingsword) (topic 2) dauk manggala as the material and bamboo as the medium of cooking it are displayed in front of the class in topic 2, the teacher introduced the idea of deliciousness to the students by using local food items, such as cassava leaves, referred to locally as “dauk manggala’. dauk manggala was used to represent the taste of food, in contrast to other foods that the students might not have been familiar with. the teacher demonstrated embodiment by giving thumbs up to food, indicating a transmodal expression of its taste. in this topic, the teacher incorporated materiality such as dauk manggala and bamboo as the materiality of ethnicity to express deliciousness rather than employing other types of food that were not familiar to them. the teacher started the class by explaining that dauk manggala and bamboo were incorporated as media to describe the topic “it is delicious”. the teacher posed questions while showing the materiality of “dauk manggala” to students to invite them to participate in the class. this section emphasizes how students and teachers engaged with materiality in efl magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 326 kanayatn region, bajigur is described as an energetic and mischievous boy, or the society adopted it as an abbreviation for “bujang penganggur,” which signifies unemployed person. bajigur embodies material manifestations and serves as artistic reimagining (transformation, aesthetic adaptation, and physical expression). additionally, a full range of traditional dayak attire, including headbands, vests, and shields, is presented to enhance students’ understanding of commodification. the teacher and students utilized language in tangible ways in the efl classroom. additional information is also provided to show resources that offer learning affordances for students. the table below shows that organized materials can communicate a sense of hospitality to visitors. the gesture of receiving mandau indicates a willingness to engage in the welcoming ceremony, while dancing implies happiness. a thumbs-up gesture conveys approval or enjoyment, and the term “cool” arises from the interaction between the materials worn by the teacher and their body movements. further details regarding this process are provided below. table 4. meaning making through ethnic materials in language learning transmodal production (things-words) meaning in efl classroom bamboo and rinyuank leaves the arrangement of materials illustrating the dayak community greets their esteemed guests. mandau and bamboo received mandau to cut the bamboo indicate willingness to be friends students and rinyuank leaves dancing shows happiness to welcome a new people dauk manggala the use of dauk manggala indicate the taste of food traditional attire of dayak, and the local figure the students associate the material to the adjective of the word “keren” or “cool” indicating there is a word produced from the figure. the table suggests that the meaning was formed through various combinations of materials. the arrangement of bamboo with local leaves suggests that there is an underlying intention that both teachers and students should follow. this setup serves as a transmodal element that generates specific meanings for students as it relates to their everyday experiences. this information indicates that the teacher was open to accepting mandau, a traditional tool for cutting bamboo. this gesture signified that the newcomer arrived with positive intentions towards the community and was genuinely eager to integrate into it. the aforementioned actions affect how students, who portray local residents, respond to the arrival of guests. to show enthusiasm to host the newcomer warmly, dancing acts as a cheerful way to welcome new members to the community. the sequence of the three actions suggests that the thing is the medium of meaning making, especially in grasping the theme of “it’s nice to meet you” topic. in other instances, the teacher uses a thumbs-up gesture and responding with “keren” or “cool” in topic 2 and 3 respectively shows a shift from physical expressions to verbal communication due to the tangible context. the details suggest that resources centered on daily routines within the community significantly impact english learning in that particular group. when integrated with others, these materials express distinct meanings and inspire students to expand their thinking beyond their mere vocabulary. students can reflect on their ideas, processes, and shapes. iv. discussion to understand how materiality serves as a learning resource and transmodal production (things-words) in providing learning affordances in efl classrooms, we explored the interpretation of materials’ use and function, connecting them to established theories in english language teaching as discussed below. in most situations and facets of daily social life, materials are present and play a crucial role in human interaction and the interaction between people and their surroundings (nevile et al., 2014). figure 1 above displays bamboo shown to visitors in the dayak region based on the topic “it is nice to meet you”. the picture depicts the entire setup of supplies needed to welcome the guest and the host’s greeting procedure. the teacher took on the figure 1. rinyuank leaves and bamboo in the classroom magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 327 role of a guest, while the students served as hosts. in keeping with the tradition of the ceremony, one student took on the role of village chair, while two other students served as dancers. the bamboo arranged horizontally alongside the rinyuang leaves signals that their arrangement is a status-making effort to make meaning (thurlow & haudenschild, 2022). this implies that in this scenario, no outsider is permitted to access the area without prior approval from the residents. the placement of the bamboo and rinyuang leaves serves as a clear signal to the students that unless the outsider has cut the bamboo, they do not belong to the community. conversely, once the newcomer successfully cuts bamboo, they are invited to join the community. this activity, which uses local resources, assists students in grasping the idea of “it is nice to meet you” in their english studies. transmodals include both the interaction of various modes and the connections among these modes, alongside the contextual setting of the communication event. irshad and yousaf (2024) mention this interplay can be complex and influenced by various factors, such as cultural, historical, and situational aspects, that affect how meaning is created through the engagement of different modes. furthermore, the concept of transmodality introduces an angle of examination of how various modalities do more than just enhance one another; they also sequentially overlap and intermingle (nordvall et al., 2016). according to wee (2021), language resources in posthumanism present intriguing problems and difficulties for current understanding of language, requiring a reconsideration of the presumptions. furthermore, sugiharto and handayani (2025) mention that posthuman examines the idea of repertory and argues that transcending humanism notions of person and community might lead to a deeper understanding. in order to improve our comprehension of language, people, things, and agency, it encourages the investigation of distributed linguistic and spatial repertoires. the figure depicts the entire setup of supplies needed to welcome the guest and the host’s greeting procedure. the teacher took on the role of a guest, while the students served as hosts. in keeping with the tradition of the ceremony, one student took on the role of village chair, while two other students served as dancers. the bamboo arranged horizontally alongside the rinyuang leaf signals that their arrangement is a status-making effort to make meaning (thurlow & haudenschild, 2022). this implies that in this scenario, no outsider is permitted to access the area without prior approval from the residents. the placement of the bamboo and rinyuang leaves serves as a clear signal to the students that unless the outsider has cut the bamboo, they do not belong to the community. conversely, once the newcomer successfully cuts bamboo, they are invited to join the community. this activity, which uses local resources, assists students in grasping the idea of “it is nice to meet you” in their english studies. transmodals include both the interaction of various modes and the connections among these modes, alongside the contextual setting of the communication event. irshad and yousaf (2024) mention this interplay can be complex and influenced by various factors, such as cultural, historical, and situational aspects, that affect how meaning is created through the engagement of different modes. furthermore, the concept of transmodality introduces an angle of examination of how various modalities do more than just enhance one another; they also sequentially overlap and intermingle (nordvall et al., 2016). to further explore concepts connected to materiality, the activity depicted in picture 2 above demonstrates transmodal production. in this activity, upon receiving mandau, the guest was required to slice the bamboo to indicate that there were no barriers between him, as a stranger, and the members of the community. if he succeeded in doing so, he was free to proceed. by doing this, the host showed the visitors that they were part of the group and pleasant to encounter. this situation demonstrates that there was a form of transmodal production among the teacher and students that transformed ideas into language. this interaction enabled each participant to act in accordance with a shared understanding of society. they can figure 2. receiving mandau to cut the bamboo magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 328 infer meaning from an object and utilize different symbols and physical resources to generate knowledge (rabbi, 2023; thurlow & jaworski, 2017). the activity shows mutually-informing resources, like body orientation, gaze direction, and object participation are crucial because it makes up a social interaction (richardson & stokoe, 2014). production from the theme two, “it is delicious”, which deals with the english expression of taste. the teacher employed materiality like dauk manggala to be demonstrated with students. excerpt 2. transmodal production from “it is delicious” topic line minutes actors verbatim 01 00:01:42 teacher *--->mengapa suka dauk manggala? (why do you like dauk manggala?) 02 00:01:44 00:01:55 student ++ (1) good ++ (2) delicious ++ (3) great students guest it from the teacher’s thumb for good in order to show what the doer has grasped, how they understand it, and what parts of it have been made important, dauk manggala is employed in this section as a manipulated and shaped object (mondada, 2014, p. 200). this section highlights how students and teacher utilized the materiality in efl settings. they focused on the language term “dauk mangala” and its transmodal representation. in line 01, the teacher prompted the students to ask, “mengapa suka dauk manggala?” or why do you like dauk manggala, to gather thoughts related to the dish. student 1 quickly responded with “good,” after which student 2 added, “delicious,” and student 3 chimed in with “great.” those words align the transmodal indicator and encourage the students to associate “dauk manggala” with top quality, pleasing flavor, and outstanding attributes. bertinetto (2021) mentions that the process of developing habits through interaction with objects is typically seen as acquiring embodied skills, enabling the user to perform actions effortlessly, and it is connected to sensorimotor experiences, social interactions, and repeated everyday routines. it shows how students and teachers utilize materiality to develop their habits. they focused on the language term “dauk mangala” and its transmodal representation. this is consistent with the transmodal signal which caused the students to link “dauk manggala” with high quality, flavor, and excellent characteristics (thurlow & jaworski, 2017). students benefit from transmodal language features as it enables them to communicate both verbally and visually, and interpret including comprehend stories that use foreign languages. this paradigm facilitates the communication of cultural concepts in a range of contexts, allowing students to “transmodal shift” from written narrative to multimodal figure 3. students dance to welcome the guest additionally, while entering the area, the guest was ushered in by dancers going to his place. dancing indexes happiness of meeting new people or a form of transmodal production of dancing to words. bertinetto (2021) mentions that artifacts, such as artworks and various cultural items, are not lifeless, they actively embody the influences and intentions behind their creation and convey their purpose, function, and significance through their physical form. this semiotic resource connects the lesson about “it is nice to meet you.” the dancing conducted by the two dancers shows behavior that highlights their kindness and joy in meeting new people. it is important to note that dancing represents their joy upon seeing the visitors, the dancers also serving as indicators of transmodal expressions to convey their happiness (rabbi, 2023; thurlow & jaworski, 2017). another prominent example depicts how materiality was used as a source of transmodal figure 4. transmodal production from dauk manggala magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 329 storytelling and from language to visual-linguistic (govender, 2020). the performative manufacture of order, which is essential to the categorization of distinction and (elite) status, depends on this textual unity and “inter-semiotic harmonys” (thurlow & haudenschild, 2022). having discussed the previous example, the writers now examine other phenomena of the class interaction from another theme. in this theme, the writers present two pictures regarding the theme i’ve got thick eyebrows to express someone’s appearance. the explanation is presented as follows. to students (thurlow & jaworski, 2017). the teacher acting as a bajigur relies on semiotic and material resources supporting students in creating knowledge and engaging in genuine learning experiences (rabbi, 2023). figure 5. the teacher wearing a full set of dayak traditional attire excerpt 3. transmodal production from topic 3 line minutes actors verbatim 01 00:00:03 00:00:11 teacher …. today..we will learn about bajigur …. do you know bajigur? 02 00:00:15 students bajigur is…. 03 00:00:15 teacher bajigur is…. 04 00:00:18 students ∆∆ keren…keren cool…..cool in the transcript, the teacher informed the students that they would explore bajigur to create transmodal outputs from visual representation. this was aimed at developing semiotic resources to introduce the phrase “i have got thick eyebrows.” the teacher asked, ‘are you familiar with bajigur?’ in line 01, and promptly in line 04, students replied, “keren.. keren or cool…cool as a commentary on the appearance of bajigur. at this point, the students effectively generated meaning by using “keren” to describe the bajigur that was adorned in full dayak ceremony attire, suggesting attractiveness. the term “keren” showcases the students’ comprehension of how to depict individuals within the context of the theme “i have got thick eyebrows.” this shows that bajigur, when exhibited in its elaborate decoration, reflects certain ideas or, in this situation, serves as an iconic index that conveys specific meaning figure 6. the students responded on wrong position of material excerpt 4. students respond to the teacher movement. line minutes actors verbatim 01 00:00:33 teacher ---dia begini kan bajigurnya kan? ----(bajigur like this) 02 00:00:33 student ---iya ----(yes, it is) 13 00:00:50 teacher ∆∆ bagaimana dengan posisi ini? benar atau salah? (is this position correct?) (the shield is on the right and mandau is on the left) 04 00:00:51 students ++ tidak ++ (no, it is not) 05 00:00:51 teacher ++ tidak?...wrong? ++ (no…wrong) 06 00:00:54 students ++ wrong the teacher inquired the positioning of the bajigur to which the students responded “iya” indicating their agreement. however, when the teacher altered the arrangement of the shield and posed the same question again, some students replied “tidak,” which means “no”, while others said “wrong” (noting that the shield was on the right and mandau was on the left). at this point, students were able to challenge the teacher’s actions by pointing out the error by saying “wrong.” this indicates that making appropriate use of different modalities and translating between them in design can facilitate understanding, make information more accessible, improve communication, stimulate critique, and improve the inclusion of people with sensory disabilities (nordvall et al., 2016). this activity demonstrates that the teacher’s falsification of the materials helped students construct transmodal meaning by using objects and transforming them into words. as a magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 330 consequence, it ultimately encourages students to express “wrong” as a sign of disagreement. in this case, materiality of language serves as a demonstration of privilege and status, while social semiotics and transmodalisation play a role in its interpretation. transmodals empower students to engage in knowledge construction and meaningful learning experiences through diverse semiotic and material resources (rabbi, 2023). prior sections indicate that transmodal production of language as a sign aids in deducing and interpreting specific meanings (thurlow & jaworski, 2017). the teacher prompted the students to repeat the words and complied with them individually. each time a student accurately echoed the teacher’s words, they were acknowledged with a thumb up. bertinetto (2021) noted that developing habits through interaction with materials is often viewed as a means of acquiring physical skills, allowing individuals to act with ease, and engagement with materials illustrates how students’ comprehension of language helps them assess and appreciate nuanced cultural contexts and sharpen their awareness (banda & mokwena, 2019; miller, 2017). transmodal approaches enable students to partake in the construction of knowledge and enjoy enriching their learning experiences through various semiotic and material tools (rabbi, 2023). ethnic materiality offers ample room for meaning making process ethnic materiality is considered as material cultural discourse that has communicative function and function as a meaning making source (sugiharto & handayani, 2025). the data reveals that the materiality of particular ethnic groups provides a specific meaning for transmodal production in efl environments. table 2 presents how materiality generates meaning based on the context through the organization of objects, along with other materials and physical actions. materiality generates meaning depending on the context of the activity through the arrangement of objects along with other materials and physical movements. the act of receiving mandau, dancing, a thumbs-up gesture expresses approval or enjoyment, and the term “cool” emerges from the interaction between the materials worn by teachers and their body movements (figure 1). figure 1 shows some materials used to demonstrate welcoming guests’ rituals in the dayak area. the picture shows that specific materials, such as horizontally positioned bamboo alongside rinyuank leaves, enhance the actor’s capacity to express the concept of welcoming guests through nonverbal cues and visuals in their learning repertoire (hall, 2019; roehl, 2012). language acquisition is facilitated by specific materials that play a role in creating meaning (canagarajah, 2024; hall, 2019). wee (2021) noted that signs can have material effects on other signs by initiating an assemblage process. this means that other signs can represent the material world even though the semiotic must make an effort to connect to it. moreover, the position of the rinyuang leaves alongside the bamboo suggests that these symbolic features work together to deliver a strong message regarding an individual being barred from access to another area, indicating that they are not isolated from one another or from humanity but rather form an integrated, cohesive unit (pennycook, 2024). additionally, the students presented mandau to the teacher, which was another form of transmodal expression signaling that the teacher needed to cut bamboo before he could enter the space. finally, it is important to note that dancing represented their joy upon seeing the visitors, with the dancers also serving as indicators of transmodal expressions to convey their happiness (rabbi, 2023; thurlow & jaworski, 2017). in supporting more ideas related to the role of materiality in the efl classroom of dayaknese indigenous students, the transmodal production is shown in figure 2. in this activity, once the guest received mandau, he had to cut off the bamboo; if he succeeded in doing so, he was free to proceed. by doing this, the host showed the visitors that they were part of the group and pleasant to encounter. this situation demonstrates that there was a form of transmodal production between the teacher and students that transformed ideas into language. this interaction enabled participants to act in accordance with a shared understanding of society. they can infer meaning from an object and utilize different symbols and physical resources to generate knowledge (rabbi, 2023; thurlow & jaworski, 2017). another example of the meaning making process from the transmodal production is shown in figure 3 in the discussion section to depict the practice. based on the image, while entering the area, the guest was ushered in by dancers going to magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 331 space provided, and dancing in this case indexes the topic: it is nice to meet new people or a form of transmodal production of things to words or dancing. this semiotic resource connects the lesson between teacher and students with the topic, “it is nice to meet you.’ the topic “it is nice to meet you,” exposes how teachers and students show behavior that highlights their kindness and joy in meeting new individuals during this activity (cavanaugh, 2017). when the students then gave the guest permission by making a hand motion to go along with, it indicated they had allowed the guest to enter, and at the same time dancing followed, signifying that they are hospitable to the distinguished visitors to their region with dancing. this indicates that body movement through dancing signifies knowledge that tells people about their hospitality. this finding is in line with sugiharto (2022) that the soma (living body) functions as the center for the desire to create and recreate knowledge which is presented in the case of the dayaknese people in borneo, exemplifies a somatic society in which the practices related to the physical body are prominently reflected in their educational methods. furthermore, sugiharto (2022a) adds that somaesthetics focus on actions rather than just verbal expressions. from the picture, both hand motions (embodied) and dancing (aesthetic) were ways for individuals to welcome guests and show their happiness based on their shared understanding. the students’ hand motions and dancing show that welcoming guests are related to the topic “it is nice to meet you” (johnson, 2017; kasper & kim, 2015; richardson & stokoe, 2014). while entering the area, the guest was ushered in by dancers going to the space, and dancing indexes the topic regarding to meet new people or a form of transmodal production of things to words or dancing. this semiotic resource connects the lesson between the teacher and students with the topic, “it is nice to meet you.’ the topic “it is nice to meet you”, discusses how teachers and students show behavior that highlights their kindness and joy in meeting new individuals during this activity (cavanaugh, 2017). to provide additional examples of transmodal production involving language materiality in the efl classroom showing transmodal production, a dialogue alongside a picture about “dauk manggala” is outlined below. excerpt 5. the students exploring more words and phrase from the materials line minutes actors verbatim 01 00:02:01 teacher …. so dauk manggala itu gratis, murah atau mahal? (so, is dauk manggala free, cheap or expensive?) 02 00:02:04 students ++ gratissss (free) 03 00:02:06 teacher dauk manggala is…. (pause) 04 00:02:07 student *---> bisa dicari (easily found) 05 00:02:07 students *---> free 06 00:02:10 teacher kalau murah? (what is cheap) 07 00:02:15 students *---> chep..chep …some students pronoun the word wrong…some other said cheap…cheap 08 00:02:18 teacher ya ..cheap murah 09 00:02:19 ok kalau mahal? (what is expensive) 10 00:02:20 students *---> expensive….. this section highlights how students and teachers use materiality. the teacher went on to ask, ‘is dauk manggala free, cheap, or expensive?’ the students answered with “free.” the teacher then clarified again, saying, ‘dauk manggala is...?’ (pause) as a way of prompting students to look up “gratis” in their dictionaries. shortly, one student found it and responded with “free”. next, the teacher asked about the word “murah” or cheap. the students replied with “chep”; some pronounced it as “chep,” while others articulated it as “cheap”. through this dialog, it was found that materiality provides a deep understanding of a concept beyond vocabulary, and students can imagine more than what is expected from learning, like merely vocabulary. this is in line with andrzejewski and heinrich (2021) that artifacts as both tools and entities in intense emotions like love or hatred, feelings that are usually associated with living beings. furthermore, another example of transmodal production for meaning making is shown from figure 7. transmodal production from dauk manggala magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 332 topic 3 through a figure called bajigur (a figure in the dayak community) who is acting as a model to describe his appearance related to “i’ve got a thick eyebrow”. it is an application from the concept proposed by kurkowski and andrzejewski (2021), being physically intertwined with a design piece involves recognizing that our interaction with the object includes assessing not just the object itself but also individual corporeal presence. in simpler terms, it is the combination of the object, observer, and their interaction, which contributes to the aesthetic appreciation of design items. furthermore, the figure of bajigur is incorporated as an alternative effort to incorporate sociolinguistic, sociocognitive, sociocultural, ecological, and complexity theories in second language acquisition (sla), which develops models that prioritize nonverbal resources, mediation, and embodiment (canagarajah, 2018). the use of bajigur is merely a way to use language since ahearn (2017) mentions that various aspects of difference and inequality can influence and be influenced by how language is used. factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, age, regional identification, caste, and profession are examples of social variations that can interact with linguistic behavior often intertwined in a complex manner. the use of the term “bajigur” is also a lively communication habits by blending (informal) indonesian and english to illustrate the implementation of the practice of decolonial rupture and the establishment of a gap to foster ‘interversality of knowledge relationships’ and to clarify ‘one’s specific position of participation and expression (sugiharto, 2023). the writers provide the following dialogue segment accompanied by a picture, showcasing the idea of transmodal production across different subjects and material scenarios in the efl classroom. excerpt 6. the teacher commodifies the language form of “bajigur” line minutes actors verbatim 01 00:00:50 teacher ∆∆ bagaimana dengan posisi ini? benar atau salah? (is this position correct?) (the shield is on the right and mandau is on the left) 02 00:00:51 students ++ tidak ++ (no, it is not) 03 00:00:51 teacher ++ tidak?...wrong? ++ (no…wrong) 04 00:00:54 students ++ wrong this activity shows transmodal production because it is demonstrated by an occurrence where the teacher asked the position of mandau, some students replied “tidak,” while others said “wrong” (noting that the shield was on the right and mandau was on the left). at this point, the students were able to challenge the teacher’s actions by pointing out the error by saying “wrong.” this is in line with irshad and yousaf’s (2024) finding that the concept of transmodalities recognizes the complex interactions and links among various forms of communication that play a role in the creation of multimodal works. this event demonstrates that the teacher’s manipulation of the materials helped the students construct transmodal meanings through objects and transform them into words, ultimately encouraging them to express “wrong” as a sign of disagreement. in this case, the materiality of language serves as a demonstration of privilege and status, while social semiotics and transmodalisation play a role in its interpretation. moreover, transmodals empower students to engage in knowledge construction and meaningful learning experiences through diverse semiotic and material resources (rabbi, 2023). transmodal production is the key to creating meaning. it enhances an individual’s ability to convey concepts using nonverbal signals and visual aids as part of their learning sources (hall, 2019; roehl, 2012). additionally, it provides particular materials essential for meaning-making, as various signs can influence one another by triggering the process of assembly (canagarajah, 2024; hall, 2019; canagarajah, 2024; wee, 2021). the materiality of language, viewed as part of transmodal production which is interconnected with humanity and does not exist in isolation. instead, they work together to form a unified system indicating transmodal expressions that communicate emotions, derive meaning from objects, and involve different symbols and tangible resources to foster knowledge (rabbi, figure 8. transmodal meaning from a movement magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 333 2023; sugiharto, 2022a; thurlow & jaworski, 2017). furthermore, transmodal production enables students to partake in the process of knowledge construction and shifts them towards enriching learning experiences by employing a variety of semiotic and material resources. it means that this approach enriches learning experiences by leveraging both semiotic resources such as language, imagery, sound, and gesture, and material resources. rabbi (2023) mentions that materiality encourages students to visualize their learning beyond traditional expectations for their learning by supporting hands-on experiences that deepen their understanding of subjects and go beyond simple language. the explanation above shows how materials benefit in the meaning making process through the idea of transmodal production; however, educational contexts where flexible or emergent approaches successfully foster multimodal learning without rigid structures should also be considered in the teaching and learning process. moreover, despite concerns about power dynamics limiting student agency, some learning environments should also actively empower students by encouraging them to choose and prioritize semiotic resources themselves. therefore, it is critical that future investigation on the efforts focused on integrating and assessing multimodal outputs and exploring more learner-centered and adaptive methods may offer alternative ways to value diverse modes in education. v. conclusions based on the aforementioned discussion, it can be summarized that language materiality in the classroom can be used as a tool for transmodal production. it is used to generate knowledge by influencing, facilitating, and altering how people engage with facts, experiences, and ideas. it uses a variety of symbols and material resources as instruments to provide meaning to various objects. thus, knowledge is viewed as a dynamic, contextual result that arises from material interactions and practices rather than only from textual communication or mental activity. the organized materials illustrate how the dayak community integrates these resources into their everyday practices, such as greeting honored guests, cooking, and describing people’s appearances. this demonstrates how material interactions become a means of knowledge production, wherein objects are useful tools and living repositories of tradition, law, spirituality and ecological citizenship. such integration helps to ensure the endurance of cultural heritage, though with transformation in response to contemporary conditions. transmodal production through materiality enables students to participate in knowledge-building activities, enriching students’ learning experiences by leveraging diverse semiotic and tangible resources. this hands-on approach encourages practical experiences that deepen the understanding of concepts and motivates students to broaden their thinking beyond conventional academic limits. ethnic group variety, however, may result in a homogenized portrayal that ignores individual experiences and differences in cultural identity. therefore, a cross-cultural comparative study to investigate how various cultural communities use materiality in educational situations and examining more learner-centered and adaptive approaches to integrate and evaluate multimodal outputs may provide different approaches to appreciate various modes in education and future research. comparative research may uncover distinctive methods and materials that improve education across cultural contexts, offering a more comprehensive view of transmodal production by improving the comprehension and use of language materiality and transmodal production in educational contexts by following these research avenues, which eventually result in more inclusive and productive learning environments. ethics statement informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the reasearch fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement magpika handayani conceptualized the study, reviewed the literature, designed the methodology, analyzed data, and edited for the final draft production. luciana verified the data, and reviewed the draft. setiono sugiharto reviewed and edited the draft, proofread, and supervised the writing process. magpika handayani / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 334 declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references ahearn, l. m. 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(2016). instant ethnography – a 5-minute guide to quick ethnography study. https://www. linkedin.com/pulse/instant-ethnography-5-minute-guide-quick-study-matthew-weprin remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 350 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: january 07, 2025 final revision: september 01, 2025 accepted: september 03, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 reading is a core component of standardized tests and a cornerstone of academic success, prompting schools in the basic education to invest in reading programs for elementary learners. this study investigates the reading levels of grades 4 to 6 students, analyzes reading performance trends across grade levels and school districts, and proposes curriculum enhancements in school districts in cebu city, philippines. utilizing a cross-sectional study design, reading proficiency data were analyzed using frequency distribution and chi-square tests. results indicate an overall improvement in reading levels, with a higher percentage of students moving from frustration to instructional reading levels, particularly in the north district. however, ongoing difficulties exist in the south district, where many higher-grade students remain at the frustration level. gender analysis reveals that females tend to demonstrate higher reading levels compared to males, with the difference becoming more pronounced from grade 5 onward. targeted curriculum enhancements like reading intervention programs in grade 4 may support struggling readers, while teachers may benefit from professional development on culturally responsive reading strategies to improve reading instruction and promote literacy outcomes across district schools. keywords curriculum enhancements, reading levels, reading performance, reading proficiency, reading intervention correspondence *e-mail: bacusr@cnu.edu.ph article reading level distribution in school districts: implications for curriculum enhancements remedios bacus1*, rivika alda2, vincent theodore balo3, nestor arandia4 1-3college of teacher education, cebu normal university, cebu, philippines 4department of education, cebu city division, philippines under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.350-367.2025 i. introduction in an increasingly interconnected world, the quality of education serves as a cornerstone for individual success and national development. educational assessments, such as the trends in international mathematics and science study (timss) and programme for international student assessment (pisa), provide valuable insights into the global standing of educational systems, including the philippines. despite efforts to improve educational outcomes, the philippines continues to face challenges, particularly in the domains of reading, science, and math. the country’s performance in pisa 2018 and 2022 indicates a fiveto six-year lag in learning competencies in the country and revealed that the philippines is still among the lowest in math, science, and reading in global student assessment (oecd, 2023). building upon these discussions, the 2019 southeast asia primary learning assessment revealed that merely 10 percent of grade 5 learners in the philippines attained minimum proficiency levels. furthermore, the country’s standing in the 2020 english proficiency index (epi) dropped from 20th to 27th place. in june 2022, the world bank reported staggering statistics: 90 percent of ten-year-old children struggled to comprehend simple texts. these findings spurred extensive online debates and discussions on social media platforms, particularly in light of school closures during the pandemic, which exacerbated the number of students failing to meet minimum reading proficiency standards. these findings underscore the severity of the comprehension challenge we are currently facing. if left unaddressed, learners risk carrying remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 351 this deficit into adulthood, hindering their ability to secure employment where english proficiency is often a prerequisite for effective communication and understanding of instructions. given that many english language learners rely on the language to engage with the global community and workplaces, individuals with low-level reading skills may find themselves increasingly isolated. gunn (2018) highlights the pivotal role of proficiency in english comprehension in enabling grade school learners to achieve their educational objectives and effectively participate in societal interactions. in reality, instructing students to comprehend various genres is a significant objective during the elementary school period, particularly for students in grades 4 and beyond. at this stage, learners read various materials to expand their knowledge and literary exposure (gementiza & alda, 2023). thus, reading instruction stands out as the pivotal phase in elementary education. proficient readers exhibit fluency, strategic thinking, and enthusiasm; furthermore, these individuals are equipped for future endeavors and can thrive throughout their educational journey (slavin et al., 2010). however, research also points out some factors that contribute to students’ reading performance. these factors include socioeconomic status, resources, curriculum implementation, teachers’ qualifications, parents’ educational attainment, and parents’ involvement (bacus & alda, 2023; balnig et al., 2024; howie et al., 2017; sumabong et al., 2023). disparity is also observed between the learners from wealthy and poor schools (spaull, 2017). these factors and the disparities in reading proficiency within and across school districts underscore the need for localized strategies to improve educational outcomes effectively. reading proficiency is a multifaceted issue influenced by cognitive processes, social factors, and cultural aspects. research found a positive relationship among the students’ reading habits, study skills, and academic achievement (abid et al., 2023), and a significant relationship between the students’ reading proficiency and academic performance (kobina, 2018). considerably, the early childhood longitudinal study (ecls) underscores the significance of a nurturing home literacy environment and parental involvement in fostering early reading skills. disparities in students’ reading proficiency within and across regions have caught the attention of school leaders, teachers, researchers, and policymakers in the philippines, and as such, several programs have been launched and implemented. one of these includes the us-funded and multiyear program of deped, the basa pilipinas (read philippines), which aimed to improve the literacy skills of 1 million learners from kindergarten to grade 3. aside from innovative models, the program aimed to improve reading delivery systems, reform reading instruction, and increase access to quality reading materials. fully aware of the multitude of struggling readers who lag behind their expected reading comprehension skills, deped introduced the tara, basa! program, and the project basa (building and advancing students’ ability in reading). miranda (2019) claimed that the reading classes in project basa catered to the needs of the grade 7 students with frustration levels as revealed by their phil-iri results. although several theories can explain students’ reading readiness and reading performance, reading proficiency in a second language could be explained using the lens of literacy theories—cognitive, social, and socio-cultural. these theories explain how children learn to read, write, and communicate effectively using various means. the cognitive theory focuses on the mental processes involved in reading, including decoding, comprehension, and memory, which can aid teachers in designing more effective curriculum enhancements. in contrast, social theory highlights the impact of socioeconomic status, cultural background, and family environment on students’ reading abilities. addressing these social aspects can help reduce disparities in reading proficiency. vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes learning through social interactions and cultural practices, stressing the importance of creating a supportive environment and considering students’ backgrounds when designing reading instruction programs. although various theories explain reading readiness and performance, second language reading proficiency can be framed through cognitive, social, and socio-cultural lenses. cognitive theory focuses on decoding, comprehension, and memory; social theory considers socioeconomic, cultural, and family influences; and vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory emphasizes contextualized learning through interaction. western research supports adaptive, evidence-based approaches: the 2010 ies practice guide (shanahan et al., 2010) recommends remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 352 structured comprehension strategies; shanahan and shanahan (2017) clarify the role of disciplinary literacy as texts become more complex; connor et al. (2013) report gains from individualized, data-driven instruction; and hattie (2023) finds sustained benefits from explicit vocabulary and metacognitive teaching. these findings reinforce the study’s emphasis on tailoring curriculum enhancements to learner needs. furthermore, with over 60% of the world’s adolescents not reaching the minimum reading proficiency levels, schools have invested in various programs to address the factors associated with low reading abilities (lopez & manzanilla, 2021). with every school’s presence of learners who struggle to reach their grade-appropriate reading level, baye et al. (2019) purported the need for an evidence-based recommendation to curriculum enhancements. in the same vein, torgesen (2015) suggested implementing evidence-based reading interventions targeting foundational skills and comprehension strategies, while gallagher and smith (2021) highlighted the potential benefits of culturally relevant and inclusive curricula to engage diverse learners in reading. the assessment conducted by the national assessment of education progress (naep) on student performance in reading at grades 4, 8, and 12 in both public and private schools across the nation revealed a consistent disparity in reading proficiency among different demographic groups. beyond demographics, other factors contribute to disparities in reading proficiency, including instructional practices, teacher qualifications, and home literacy environments. bauer (2022) emphasized the importance of high-quality reading instruction, while caliskan and ulas (2022) discussed the significance of school and family partnerships in fostering literacy development, maintaining that parent-involved reading activities had a positive effect on the students’ attitudes toward reading, reading motivation, and reading comprehension (dhakal, 2024; ho & lau, 2018; husin & rawian, 2025; yulmiati et al., 2025). moreover, proficiency in reading is also influenced by several factors, which include grade level (jones et al., 2016), socio-economic status (romeo et al., 2022; taylor et al., 2023; wu, 2019; ), intrinsic motivation (baharum et al., 2024; li & gan, 2022; miyamoto et al., 2020) duration of school closures (kennedy & strietholt, 2023) additionally, studies by mohammad and hasbi (2021) and martinez et al. (2020) emphasized the impact of language barriers and limited english proficiency on reading achievement. according to the comprehensive national reading panel (nrp) study, effective reading instruction directly impacts students’ comprehension ability and overall literacy levels. the research supports the tenet that different theoretical models of reading—top-down, bottomup, and meta-cognitive—can have varying impacts on the development of students’ reading skills. the report also provides a framework for effective reading instruction. known as the five blocks of the science of reading, it emphasized the importance of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. understanding these models and frameworks could be used to improve reading instruction. according to mehra (2024), proficiency in reading requires students’ fluency and comprehension, which can be addressed in teacher education and reading institutes using educational technological tools. this study aims to investigate reading level distribution in school districts to identify specific areas for curriculum enhancement and address the underlying factors contributing to disparities in reading proficiency. specifically, it addresses the following: 1. what is the current distribution of reading levels across different grade levels within school districts? 2. what are the patterns and trends in reading level distributions, including variations between grade levels, school districts, and sex? 3. what curriculum enhancements may be proposed based on the findings of the study? by investigating the distribution of reading levels in school districts and their implications for curriculum enhancements, this research aims to contribute valuable insights to the ongoing efforts to improve educational outcomes in the philippines. ultimately, this study seeks to inform policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers in their endeavors to create a more equitable and effective educational system that empowers all students to reach their full potential. remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 353 the accuracy and integrity of the secondary data. this process involved several steps, including removing duplicates, handling missing values, correcting errors, and restructuring the data using appropriate techniques. once the data were cleaned, it was analyzed using microsoft excel and spss version 26. these tools provide a robust platform for various statistical analyses, including descriptive and inferential statistics. in this study, the data were summarized using frequency and percentage distributions. inferential statistics, such as the chi-square test, were used to identify differences between groups. in this analysis, any test statistic with a p-value less than the conventional threshold of 0.05 was considered significant. ethical considerations this study upholds the ethical standards under the guidelines reflected in the institution’s guidelines, especially in conducting educational research involving minors. prior to the implementation of the study, ethics clearance was sought. moreover, the study utilized exclusively anonymized secondary data obtained from the department of education (deped) division office, specifically students’ reading scores, with all personally identifiable information removed prior to access. the researchers confirm that the deped division office conducted data collection in compliance with its established consent procedures and data privacy protocols, particularly those safeguarding the rights and welfare of minors. the study protocol was reviewed and acknowledged by the researchers’ institution, and the use of anonymized data was deemed exempt from formal research ethics committee (rec) approval under prevailing ethical standards. strict measures were observed to ensure data security, including secure storage, access limited to authorized research personnel, and transparent reporting of results only in an aggregated and anonymized form. these ethical safeguards emphasize integrity, respect, and beneficence in the responsible use of educational data. iii. results the reading level distributions in various school districts a detailed analysis of reading proficiency levels among students in the eight north districts and eight south districts, focusing on grades ii. methods research design the study utilized a cross-sectional study design, which entails measuring outcomes and exposures among study participants at a single time. the participants were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, independent of their outcome or exposure status. this design is frequently employed for populationbased surveys and to evaluate the prevalence of educational outcomes within particular groups, such as students in various grades or districts in the cebu city division (setia, 2016). given these characteristics, the cross-sectional study design is well-suited for this study’s objectives. research participants the participants in this study are the grades 4-6 students of the department of education (deped), division of cebu city. their reading proficiency levels, among other variables, are the focus of the analysis. the secondary data of these students, obtained from the deped division of cebu city records, allowed the researchers to examine patterns, trends, and relationships among variables across different districts and student populations. research instruments given that the data have already been collected and archived by the department of education, the primary instrument employed in this study is the data collection form. this form serves as the tool for extracting crucial data pertinent to the research questions. although the study benefited from the use of official deped records, it is acknowledged that reliance on secondary data carries inherent limitations, such as the inconsistencies in reporting across schools or districts, or variations in how assessments were administered. additionally, since the researchers had no control over the original data collection process, issues such as misclassification or missing information may have affected the accuracy of the dataset. these limitations were recognized and considered in the interpretation of findings, with the understanding that results represent the best available estimates based on existing data sources. data analysis before conducting the analysis, the researchers undertook data cleaning and preparation to ensure remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 354 4, 5, and 6, is reported in tables 1-16. the data categorizes students’ reading abilities into independent, instructional, and frustration levels, offering a comprehensive view of their literacy development. statistical comparisons across grade levels within each district reveal significant patterns, providing valuable insight into students’ progress and challenges as they advance through the education system. the distribution of reading proficiency levels among students in north district 1 reveals notable differences across grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6. in grade 4, a majority of students (53.99%) are at the frustration level, indicating significant challenges with reading, while only a small percentage (11.88%) are reading independently. as students progress to grade 5 and grade 6, the percentage of those at the independent reading level increases, with grade 6 showing the highest proportion of students at the instructional level (43.82%) and a balanced distribution across all levels. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) and a medium phi coefficient (0.25) suggest that there is a medium significant association between grade level and reading proficiency, with reading skills generally improving as students advance in grade levels. table 2 shows that across all three grade levels in north district 2, a majority of students are at the frustration reading level, with percentages increasing slightly from grade 5 (56.96%) to grade 6 (66.10%). the percentage of students at the independent reading level remains very low across all grades, with minimal variation. the instructional level is relatively consistent but also shows a decrease from grade 5 to grade 6. the test statistic indicates no significant difference in the distribution of reading proficiency across the grade levels (p = 0.462), and the phi coefficient of 0.10 suggests a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. in north district 3, the distribution of reading proficiency levels varies across the different grade levels. in grade 4, more than half of the students (54.99%) are at the frustration level, while the instructional and independent levels account for table 1. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 1, n = 1548 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 70 (11.88) 201 (34.13) 318 (53.99) grade 5 104 (26.46) 135 (34.35) 154 (39.19) grade 6 160 (28.27) 248 (43.82) 158 (27.92) test statistic (p-value) 99.03 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.25 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 2. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 2, n = 363 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 5 (5.75) 31 (35.63) 51 (58.62) grade 5 7 (4.43) 61 (38.61) 90 (56.96) grade 6 7 (5.93) 33 (27.97) 78 (66.10) test statistic (p-value) 3.61 (0.462) phi (description) 0.10 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 3. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 3, n = 2339 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 120 (14.44) 254 (30.57) 457 (54.99) grade 5 175 (24.82) 248 (35.18) 282 (40.00) grade 6 95 (11.83) 324 (40.35) 384 (47.82) test statistic (p-value) 70.80 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.17 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 355 30.57% and 14.44% of the students, respectively. as students progress to grade 5, there is an increase in the proportion of students reading at the independent level (24.82%) and a corresponding decrease in those at the frustration level (40.00%). however, in grade 6, while the instructional level continues to rise (40.35%), the independent level drops back to 11.83%, and the frustration level remains high at 47.82%. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a meaningful difference in reading proficiency distribution across grade levels, while the phi coefficient of 0.17 suggests a small but notable association between grade level and reading proficiency. the reading proficiency levels in north district 4 reveal distinct patterns across the different grade levels. in grade 4, nearly half of the students (45.07%) are at the instructional reading level, while 32.04% are at the frustration level, and 22.89% are reading independently. as students progress to grade 5, the proportion of students at the instructional level decreases to 31.35%, with a corresponding increase in the frustration level (46.70%) and a slight decrease in the independent level (21.95%). by grade 6, the independent and instructional levels rise to 24.15% and 41.78%, respectively, while the frustration level decreases to 34.07%. the test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a significant difference in reading proficiency distribution across the grade levels, and the phi coefficient of 0.14 suggests a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. this pattern indicates fluctuations in reading proficiency as students progress through the grades, with a notable decrease in frustration levels by grade 6. in north district 5, the distribution of reading proficiency levels shows varied trends across grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6. in grade 4, the majority of students are at the instructional reading level (45.12%), followed by independent (24.71%) and frustration levels (30.17%). as students move to grade 5, the percentage of students at the independent level decreases slightly (20.75%), while those at the frustration level increase to 39.00%. by grade 6, there is a notable increase in the percentage of students at the independent level (29.09%), with a table 4. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 4, n = 1849 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 130 (22.89) 256 (45.07) 182 (32.04) grade 5 133 (21.95) 190 (31.35) 283 (46.70) grade 6 163 (24.15) 282 (41.78) 230 (34.07) test statistic (p-value) 36.50 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.14 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 5. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 5, n = 2418 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 190 (24.71) 347 (45.12) 232 (30.17) grade 5 166 (20.75) 322 (40.25) 312 (39.00) grade 6 247 (29.09) 337 (39.69) 265 (31.21) test statistic (p-value) 26.02 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.10 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 6. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 6, n = 1933 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 106 (18.89) 203 (36.19) 252 (44.92) grade 5 147 (22.44) 174 (26.56) 334 (50.99) grade 6 173 (24.13) 288 (40.17) 256 (35.70) test statistic (p-value) 41.83 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.15 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 356 slight decrease in both the instructional (39.69%) and frustration levels (31.21%). the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a meaningful difference in reading proficiency distribution across grade levels, while the phi coefficient of 0.10 suggests a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. this pattern suggests gradual improvement in reading proficiency as students advance to higher grades, with an increase in the independent reading level by grade 6. the distribution of reading proficiency levels in north district 6 demonstrates varied trends across the different grade levels. in grade 4, a significant portion of students are at the frustration level (44.92%), while 36.19% are at the instructional level, and 18.89% are reading independently. in grade 5, the frustration level further increases to 50.99%, with a decrease in the instructional level (26.56%) and a slight increase in the independent level (22.44%). by grade 6, the independent reading level increases to 24.13%, and the instructional level rises to 40.17%, while the frustration level decreases to 35.70%. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a meaningful difference in reading proficiency distribution across grade levels, and the phi coefficient of 0.15 suggests a small but notable association between grade level and reading proficiency. this pattern shows that while the frustration level is highest in grade 5, there is an improvement in reading proficiency by grade 6, with more students reaching the independent and instructional levels. in north district 7, the distribution of reading proficiency levels reveals considerable variation across grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6. in grade 4, a substantial majority of students (64.18%) are at the frustration reading level, with 23.08% at the instructional level, and only 12.74% reading independently. by grade 5, the frustration level decreases to 50.20%, while the instructional level slightly increases to 26.80%, and the independent level rises to 23.00%. in grade 6, the instructional level significantly increases to 44.90%, while the frustration level further decreases to 42.40%, and the independent level remains relatively low at 12.70%. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a meaningful difference in reading proficiency distribution across the grade levels, and the phi coefficient of 0.24 suggests a medium association between grade level and reading proficiency. this pattern highlights a positive shift in reading proficiency as students advance to higher grades, with more students moving from the frustration level to the instructional level, particularly by grade 6. in north district 8, the distribution of reading proficiency levels shows varied trends across grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6. in grade 4, more than half of the students (51.04%) are at the frustration reading level, while 32.29% are at the instructional level, and 16.67% are reading independently. as students progress to grade 5, the frustration level slightly decreases to 49.82%, and the instructional level drops to 29.65%, while the independent level table 7. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 7, n = 1475 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 53 (12.74) 96 (23.08) 267 (64.18) grade 5 115 (23.00) 134 (26.80) 251 (50.20) grade 6 71 (12.70) 251 (44.90) 237 (42.40) test statistic (p-value) 86.49 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.24 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 8. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in north district 8, n = 3162 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 160 (16.67) 310 (32.29) 490 (51.04) grade 5 225 (20.53) 325 (29.65) 546 (49.82) grade 6 137 (12.39) 269 (24.32) 700 (63.29) test statistic (p-value) 56.15 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.13 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 357 increases to 20.53%. however, in grade 6, the frustration level spikes to 63.29%, and both the instructional (24.32%) and independent (12.39%) levels decline. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a meaningful difference in reading proficiency distribution across the grade levels, and the phi coefficient of 0.13 suggests a small but notable association between grade level and reading proficiency. the increase in frustration levels in grade 6 suggests that students face greater reading challenges as they advance, particularly in the final year of elementary school. this trend may indicate the need for targeted interventions to support reading proficiency in higher grades. in south district 1, the distribution of reading proficiency across grades 4 to 6 shows a noticeable shift in levels. in grade 4, nearly half of the students (49.85%) are at the frustration level, with 34.85% at the instructional level, and 15.30% reading independently. moving to grade 5, the percentage of students at the frustration level increases to 53.45%, while those at the instructional and independent levels decrease slightly to 31.97% and 14.59%, respectively. by grade 6, although the frustration level decreases to 43.74%, the instructional level rises to 42.54%, and the independent level drops to 13.72%. the significant test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates a statistically meaningful difference in reading proficiency across the grade levels. the phi coefficient of 0.10 suggests a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. in south district 2, the distribution of reading proficiency across grades 4 to 6 reveals a significant shift in reading levels as students progress through the grades. in grade 4, the majority of students (46.04%) are at the frustration level, with 36.05% at the instructional level and 17.91% reading independently. by grade 5, there is a slight improvement, with the frustration level dropping to 40.88% and the instructional level rising to 39.55%. the independent level also increases slightly to 19.57%. however, a stark contrast is observed in grade 6, where the frustration level dramatically increases to 64.77%, the instructional level decreases to 24.56%, and the independent level drops to 10.68%. this significant change suggests a decline in reading proficiency as students move into grade 6. the test statistic (p < 0.001) table 9. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 1, n = 3298 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 151 (15.30) 344 (34.85) 492 (49.85) grade 5 167 (14.59) 366 (31.97) 612 (53.45) grade 6 160 (13.72) 496 (42.54) 510 (43.74) test statistic (p-value) 31.09 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.10 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 10. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 2, n = 2744 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 226 (17.91) 455 (36.05) 581 (46.04) grade 5 235 (19.57) 475 (39.55) 491 (40.88) grade 6 30 (10.68) 69 (24.56) 182 (64.77) test statistic (p-value) 52.69 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.14 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 11. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 3, n = 1596 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 184 (28.53) 194 (30.08) 267 (41.40) grade 5 212 (39.63) 150 (28.04) 173 (32.34) grade 6 81 (19.47) 194 (46.63) 141 (33.89) test statistic (p-value) 68.29 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.21 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 358 indicates that these differences are statistically significant. the phi coefficient of 0.14 suggests a small but notable association between grade level and reading proficiency. the sharp increase in the frustration level in grade 6 highlights a critical area of concern that may require targeted interventions to support struggling readers. in south district 3, the distribution of reading levels shows significant changes as students move from grade 4 to grade 6. in grade 4, 41.40% of students are at the frustration level, with 30.08% at the instructional level, and 28.53% reading independently. by grade 5, there is a marked improvement, with 39.63% of students achieving independent reading proficiency, while the frustration level drops to 32.34%. however, in grade 6, the trend shifts, with the instructional level rising to 46.63%, the frustration level decreasing slightly to 33.89%, and the independent level dropping significantly to 19.47%. the test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates that the differences in reading proficiency across grade levels are statistically significant. the phi coefficient of 0.21 suggests a medium association between grade level and reading proficiency. this pattern highlights the need for additional support in grade 6 to maintain or improve reading proficiency levels. in south district 4, there is a concerning trend of increasing levels of frustration as students advance in grade levels. in grade 4, 58.71% of students fall into the frustration reading level, which further increases to 65.61% in grade 5 and reaches 66.77% in grade 6. meanwhile, the percentage of students reading at the independent level is low across all grades, with a slight drop from 16.50% in grade 4 to around 12% in grades 5 and 6. the test statistic (p < 0.001) confirms that these differences in reading proficiency across grades are statistically significant. the phi coefficient of 0.10 suggests a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. the data points to an urgent need for targeted interventions, particularly in the upper grades, to reduce the high levels of reading frustration and to support more students in achieving independent reading proficiency. in south district 5, the distribution of reading proficiency shows significant variation across table 12. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 4, n = 3302 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 179 (16.50) 269 (24.79) 637 (58.71) grade 5 120 (12.24) 217 (22.14) 643 (65.61) grade 6 152 (12.29) 259 (20.94) 826 (66.77) test statistic (p-value) 20.08 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.10 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 13. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 5, n = 3893 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 257 (20.20) 452 (35.53) 563 (44.26) grade 5 379 (36.37) 261 (25.05) 402 (38.58) grade 6 229 (14.50) 861 (54.53) 489 (30.97) test statistic (p-value) 318.62 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.29 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 14. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 6, n = 3259 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 136 (14.44) 364 (38.64) 442 (46.92) grade 5 229 (21.42) 339 (31.71) 501 (46.87) grade 6 156 (12.50) 671 (53.77) 421 (33.73) test statistic (p-value) 132.83 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.20 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 359 grade levels. in grade 4, 44.26% of students are at the frustration reading level, but this percentage decreases to 38.58% in grade 5 and further to 30.97% in grade 6. on the other hand, the percentage of students at the independent reading level is highest in grade 5 (36.37%) but drops sharply in grade 6 (14.50%). the test statistic (p < 0.001) indicates that these differences are statistically significant. the phi coefficient of 0.29 suggests a medium association between grade level and reading proficiency. this data implies a noteworthy shift in reading proficiency patterns as students progress through grades, with a notable challenge in maintaining independent reading levels by grade 6. this may indicate the need for interventions focusing on sustaining reading proficiency and reducing frustration levels as students advance. in south district 6, the distribution of reading levels shows notable patterns across grades. the percentage of students at the frustration level remains relatively high across all grades, with 46.92% in grade 4 and 46.87% in grade 5. however, there is a significant improvement in grade 6, where the frustration level drops to 33.73%, coinciding with a rise in the instructional level to 53.77%. the independent reading level remains low across all grades, with a slight increase in grade 5 (21.42%) but a drop in grade 6 (12.50%). the test statistic indicates a significant difference in reading proficiency across grades (p < 0.001), and the phi coefficient of 0.20 suggests a medium association between grade level and reading proficiency. this indicates a gradual shift from frustration to instructional levels as students progress to grade 6, although the overall independent reading level remains concerningly low. these findings highlight the need for targeted strategies to support students in achieving higher reading proficiency, particularly focusing on reducing frustration levels and increasing independent reading proficiency by grade 6. in south district 7, the distribution of reading levels shows a high prevalence of students at the frustration level across all grades. specifically, grade 4 has the highest percentage of students at the frustration level (71.43%), with only slight decreases in grades 5 (65.51%) and 6 (67.00%). the percentage of students at the independent level is notably low across all grades, with a slight increase in grade 5 (13.12%) but a drop in grade 6 (8.28%). the instructional level shows a gradual increase from grade 4 (17.56%) to grade 6 (24.72%). the test statistic reveals a significant difference in reading proficiency across grades (p < 0.001), and the phi coefficient of 0.10 indicates a small association between grade level and reading proficiency. this suggests that while there is a slight improvement in instructional reading levels as students progress, a significant number of students remain at the frustration level, indicating an urgent need for intervention to enhance reading proficiency, particularly focusing on elevating students from the frustration level to the instructional and independent levels. table 15. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 7, n = 2621 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 94 (11.01) 150 (17.56) 610 (71.43) grade 5 113 (13.12) 184 (21.37) 564 (65.51) grade 6 75 (8.28) 224 (24.72) 607 (67.00) test statistic (p-value) 22.70 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.10 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 table 16. the distribution of reading levels across different grade levels in south district 8, n = 1877 grade levels reading proficiency levels independent instructional frustration grade 4 212 (35.69) 212 (35.69) 170 (28.62) grade 5 154 (25.00) 127 (20.62) 335 (54.38) grade 6 103 (15.44) 381 (57.12) 183 (27.44) test statistic (p-value) 243.16 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.36 (medium) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 360 table 16 presents the distribution of reading proficiency levels across grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6 students in south district 8, with a total sample size of 1,877 students. the data reveal that in grade 4, students are evenly split between independent and instructional reading levels, with a notable proportion also in the frustration level. in grade 5, there is a high percentage of students in the frustration level, indicating significant challenges with reading, while grades 4 and 6 have more balanced distributions. grade 6 shows a predominance of students at the instructional level, with fewer at the independent level and a similar proportion in frustration. the test statistic of 243.16 with a p-value less than 0.001 suggests a statistically significant difference in reading proficiency levels across grades. the phi coefficient of 0.36 indicates a medium effect size, signifying a moderate association between grade level and reading proficiency. the reading level distributions across school districts and sexes the data across grades 4, 5, and 6 show varying levels of reading proficiency (independent, instructional, and frustration) among male and female students across different school districts, with notable trends and differences. table 17 reveals a significant but small association between gender and reading proficiency at the independent level (p = 0.006, phi = 0.12) among grade 4 students. however, no significant gender differences were found at the instructional and frustration levels, indicating that while gender influences the independent reading level slightly, it does not substantially impact the other levels across the districts. for grade 5 students (as shown in table 18), the data show statistically significant associations between gender and all three reading proficiency levels (independent, instructional, and frustration), with p-values all below 0.05. despite these significant findings, the effect sizes are small (phi ranging from 0.09 to 0.13), suggesting that while gender differences exist in reading proficiency, they are relatively minor across the school districts. the analysis for grade 6 students (as shown in table 19) also indicates statistically significant associations between gender and reading proficiency levels at all three levels (p-values all below 0.05). the effect sizes remain small (phi ranging from 0.08 to 0.11), similar to grade 5, implying that gender table 17. the distribution of reading levels of grade 4 students across school districts and sexes sdos reading proficiency independent instructional frustration male female male female male female north district 1 29 (41.43) 41 (58.57) 90 (44.78) 111 (55.22) 186 (58.49) 132 (41.51) north district 2 3 (60.00) 2 (40.00) 16 (51.61) 15 (48.39) 32 (62.75) 19 (37.25) north district 3 57 (47.50) 63 (52.50) 136 (53.54) 118 (46.46) 268 (58.64) 189 (41.36) north district 4 73 (56.15) 57 (43.85) 147 (57.42) 109 (42.58) 87 (47.80) 95 (52.20) north district 5 93 (48.95) 97 (51.05) 186 (53.60) 161 (46.40) 129 (55.60) 103 (44.40) north district 6 43 (40.57) 63 (59.43) 100 (49.26) 103 (50.74) 131 (51.98) 121 (48.02) north district 7 23 (43.40) 30 (56.60) 47 (48.96) 49 (51.04) 149 (55.81) 118 (44.19) north district 8 79 (49.38) 81 (50.63) 161 (51.94) 149 (48.06) 287 (58.57) 203 (41.43) south district 1 76 (50.33) 75 (49.67) 173 (50.29) 171 (49.71) 293 (59.55) 199 (40.45) south district 2 75 (33.19) 151 (66.81) 232 (50.99) 223 (49.01) 320 (55.08) 261 (44.92) south district 3 87 (47.28) 97 (52.72) 110 (56.70) 84 (43.30) 147 (55.06) 120 (44.94) south district 4 87 (48.60) 92 (51.40) 141 (52.42) 128 (47.58) 376 (59.03) 261 (40.97) south district 5 112 (43.58) 145 (56.42) 227 (50.22) 225 (49.78) 306 (54.35) 257 (45.65) south district 6 65 (47.79) 71 (52.21) 179 (49.18) 185 (50.82) 234 (52.94) 208 (47.06) south district 7 36 (38.30) 58 (61.70) 70 (46.67) 80 (53.33) 336 (55.08) 274 (44.92) south district 8 111 (52.36) 101 (47.64) 116 (54.72) 96 (45.28) 88 (51.76) 82 (48.24) test statistic (p-value) 32.42 * (0.006) 14.76 (0.469) 19.92 (0.175) phi (description) 0.12 (small) 0.06 (small) 0.06 (small) note: values are presented in frequency (percentage); * significant at 0.05 remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 361 table 18. the distribution of reading levels of grade 5 students across school districts and sexes sdos reading proficiency independent instructional frustration male female male female male female north district 1 43 (41.35) 61 (58.65) 69 (51.11) 66 (48.89) 88 (57.14) 66 (42.86) north district 2 4 (57.14) 3 (42.86) 36 (59.02) 25 (40.98) 41 (45.56) 49 (54.44) north district 3 97 (55.43) 78 (44.57) 138 (55.65) 110 (44.35) 182 (64.54) 100 (35.46) north district 4 68 (51.13) 65 (48.87) 97 (51.05) 93 (48.95) 156 (55.12) 127 (44.88) north district 5 89 (53.61) 77 (46.39) 174 (54.04) 148 (45.96) 170 (54.49) 142 (45.51) north district 6 64 (43.54) 83 (56.46) 91 (52.30) 83 (47.70) 187 (55.99) 147 (44.01) north district 7 42 (36.52) 73 (63.48) 69 (51.49) 65 (48.51) 158 (62.95) 93 (37.05) north district 8 97 (43.11) 128 (56.89) 141 (43.38) 184 (56.62) 308 (56.41) 238 (43.59) south district 1 66 (39.52) 101 (60.48) 181 (49.45) 185 (50.55) 340 (55.56) 272 (44.44) south district 2 117 (49.79) 118 (50.21) 262 (55.16) 213 (44.84) 275 (56.01) 216 (43.99) south district 3 66 (31.13) 146 (68.87) 82 (54.67) 68 (45.33) 96 (55.49) 77 (44.51) south district 4 40 (33.33) 80 (66.67) 100 (46.08) 117 (53.92) 427 (66.41) 216 (33.59) south district 5 169 (44.59) 210 (55.41) 120 (45.98) 141 (54.02) 206 (51.24) 196 (48.76) south district 6 101 (44.10) 128 (55.90) 193 (56.93) 146 (43.07) 275 (54.89) 226 (45.11) south district 7 42 (37.17) 71 (62.83) 75 (40.76) 109 (59.24) 308 (54.61) 256 (45.39) south district 8 68 (44.16) 86 (55.84) 69 (54.33) 58 (45.67) 185 (55.22) 150 (44.78) test statistic (p-value) 48.26 * (<0.001) 34.77 * (0.003) 48.57 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.13 (small) 0.10 (small) 0.09 (small) table 19. the distribution of reading levels of grade 6 students across school districts and sexes sdos reading proficiency independent instructional frustration male female male female male female north district 1 74 (46.25) 86 (53.75) 120 (48.39) 128 (51.61) 94 (59.49) 64 (40.51) north district 2 3 (42.86) 4 (57.14) 15 (45.45) 18 (54.55) 38 (48.72) 40 (51.28) north district 3 48 (50.53) 47 (49.47) 158 (48.77) 166 (51.23) 215 (55.99) 169 (44.01) north district 4 98 (60.12) 65 (39.88) 144 (51.06) 138 (48.94) 128 (55.65) 102 (44.35) north district 5 121 (48.99) 126 (51.01) 166 (49.26) 171 (50.74) 131 (49.43) 134 (50.57) north district 6 71 (41.04) 102 (58.96) 132 (45.83) 156 (54.17) 168 (65.63) 88 (34.38) north district 7 30 (42.25) 41 (57.75) 127 (50.60) 124 (49.40) 135 (56.96) 102 (43.04) north district 8 55 (40.15) 82 (59.85) 122 (45.35) 147 (54.65) 394 (56.29) 306 (43.71) south district 1 71 (44.38) 89 (55.63) 233 (46.98) 263 (53.02) 278 (54.51) 232 (45.49) south district 2 11 (36.67) 19 (63.33) 29 (42.03) 40 (57.97) 112 (61.54) 70 (38.46) south district 3 39 (48.15) 42 (51.85) 102 (52.58) 92 (47.42) 87 (61.70) 54 (38.30) south district 4 62 (40.79) 90 (59.21) 108 (41.70) 151 (58.30) 461 (55.81) 365 (44.19) south district 5 103 (44.98) 126 (55.02) 470 (54.59) 391 (45.41) 349 (71.37) 140 (28.63) south district 6 67 (42.95) 89 (57.05) 325 (48.44) 346 (51.56) 219 (52.02) 202 (47.98) south district 7 30 (40.00) 45 (60.00) 101 (45.09) 123 (54.91) 345 (56.84) 262 (43.16) south district 8 38 (36.89) 65 (63.11) 213 (55.91) 168 (44.09) 95 (51.91) 88 (48.09) test statistic (p-value) 26.55 * (0.033) 31.27 * (0.008) 68.87 * (<0.001) phi (description) 0.11 (small) 0.08 (small) 0.11 (small) remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 362 differences in reading proficiency are present but not strongly pronounced across the school districts. iv. discussion the observed increase of learners (in the north district) from frustration to instructional level reveals clear progression in their reading proficiency, which is supported by chall’s fluency and reading for learning theory. with the instructional support and scaffolding, learners can advance their reading levels. studies by bacus and alda (2023) support this finding, noting that guided practice and an engaging learning environment can enhance the learners’ reading skills. the findings imply that while advancing grade levels contributes to improved reading proficiency, students who are at the frustration level can benefit from reading interventions. these form part of the support in early reading in grade 4 and in subsequent grades. in addition, the progression to higher proficiency levels by grade 6 is supported by rasinski’s fluency studies, where continuous practice and exposure to more complex texts led to students’ improved reading abilities. such data trends underscore the value of a structured literacy curriculum that accommodates learning needs in upper elementary levels. the consistent decrease in the independent reading level across grades and the increase in the instructional and frustration levels, particularly in grade 5, highlight potential challenges in reading development as students progress through school, necessitating interventions to support students at the higher grade levels. the data from the south district revealed a complex pattern of the students’ reading abilities as they progress through grades 4 to 6. the majority of the districts showed considerable challenges in reading with students at the frustration level, yet a significant improvement was noted as they moved to higher grades. the overall progress is uneven, with some districts showing persistent high frustration levels even in grade 6, while others exhibit more balanced distributions in reading proficiency. however, data from the five south districts 1,2,3,5, and 7 shows a concerning trend. rafanan and raymundo( 2024) stressed the importance of early remediation to address students’ reading struggles as they progress to higher levels. this assumption contradicts the results of several studies, which indicate that reading proficiency challenges persist even as students progress to higher levels (conradi et al., 2015; vaughn et al., 2013). this may also imply that as the students progress, they might encounter developmentally complex reading demands (balnig, et al, 2024), which led to reading comprehension difficulty, hence, the need for targeted interventions to support foundational reading skills development. moreover, the findings suggest that while there is some progress in reading proficiency as students advance in grade levels, the challenge of reducing the number of students at the frustration level remains. the observed patterns in south district schools may lead to a widening gap between struggling and proficient readers, with a far-reaching impact on their overall academic success. the reading proficiency levels may be attributed to reading engagements, as students’ motivations and time spent reading outside the classroom can vary due to parental support and modelling (dhakal, 2024; ho & lau, 2018; husin & rawian, 2025). in addition, teacher approaches differ among schools, affecting how reading skills are taught and reinforced, hence the need for the adoption of structured literacy programs that address the students’ current reading levels. furthermore, the data revealed that the significance of gender differences in reading proficiency from grade 4 to grade 6 across districts becomes more consistent. in grade 4, gender differences are only significant at the independent level, while in grades 5 and 6, they are significant across all levels. particularly, it reveals that females generally show higher proficiency compared to males at the independent level. while significant gender differences are noticed in grades 5 and 6, but not in grade 4, this suggests that these differences may become more evident as students progress through grade levels. this could be due to factors such as cognitive development, maturity, teaching strategies, or social expectations influencing reading skills differently for boys and girls as they age. other confounding variables contributing to this trend are the socio-cultural expectations of gender norms, where reading habits and academic engagement vary for boys and girls as they mature (boerma et al., 2015; bouchamma et al., 2014; griva et al., 2012; logan & johnston, 2010). girls may receive more encouragement or model reading remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 363 behaviors from family and teachers. another potential influence is the development trajectory of cognitive and language skills, where girls often exhibit earlier maturation in verbal abilities, which may give them an advantage in reading at intermediate levels. jenina et al. (2019) suggest that values and beliefs, as well as the role of parents, play a role in children’s reading achievement. it was revealed that students’ enjoyment, a factor in proficiency in reading, was found to be stronger in girls than in boys. further, there are considerable variations in gender differences across different school districts at each grade level. some show more pronounced gender gaps, while others have relatively balanced results. this implies that contextual factors like teaching methods and resources may have shaped these trends (chiu, 2018). district-level socioeconomic disparities and resource allocations can interact with gender to influence reading habits and learning environments for boys and girls. while the trends are statistically significant, gender is not a dominant factor influencing reading proficiency. however, the findings still suggest several key actions to address the noted gender differences in reading proficiency. since gender differences become more evident from grade 5 onward, early literacy interventions are essential. there should be more differentiated activities that would engage boys in reading activities while providing targeted interventions and enhancements as they progress in grade level. school districts should revisit their reading programs to ensure they are meeting the specific needs of their students rather than taking a one-size-fits-all approach. this is to address the widening gap in reading proficiency between boys and girls and, simultaneously, lower the percentage of struggling readers as their grade level progresses. building from the deped’s dear (drop everything and read) program, which provides students with dedicated time to read independently, contextualized district-specific strategies may also be implemented, with more assistance given to districts with pronounced gaps. consequently, school districts can focus on curriculum enhancements based on reading level distributions. an example could be a literacy remediation program that provides systematic, intensive english intervention using decoding and fluency-building techniques per grade level to reduce the identified gaps in grade-level reading proficiency. this study underscores the importance of data-driven, differentiated, and gender-responsive approaches to enhance reading curricula and instruction across school districts. with the findings on the students’ varied reading proficiency levels in both south and north districts, schools may focus on early intervention, differentiated instruction, contextualized materials, and teacher training. in the early years, especially in grade 4, early intervention programs involving small-group instruction in phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension can target foundational literacy challenges and help prevent students from falling into the frustration level. through regular assessments and monitoring, school leaders adapt the program delivery and implementation. recognizing the local culture and experiences, reading teachers may use contextualized reading materials to make reading more relevant and engaging for students. in districts with a higher prevalence of struggling readers, involving the community and family in reading projects and activities fosters a supportive learning environment. lastly, an ongoing professional development for teachers on adopting differentiated and culturally responsive reading instruction is beneficial. techniques shall focus on scaffolding, guided reading sessions, and contextualized strategies to engage the students, thus developing their strong literacy skills. v. conclusion this study provides a comprehensive analysis of reading level distribution among grades 4,5, and 6 students across different school districts in cebu city, highlighting opportunities for curriculum enhancements and strategies to address disparities in reading proficiency. the findings reveal variations in reading levels by grade level and school districts, with notable patterns emerging in terms of gender differences. although gender is not a dominant factor influencing reading proficiency, the minor, consistent gender differences noted across proficiency levels and grade levels still provide insights into contextualizing reading programs. additionally, variations among districts reveal that certain areas experience more pronounced challenges in achieving balanced proficiency levels. other than school-based literacy remedios bacus / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 364 programs, access to a mobile library with reading materials across levels may be provided by various stakeholders to assist these schools in promoting and sustaining literacy and educational equity. consequently, targeted curriculum enhancements and interventions are recommended, focusing on identified gaps and gender differences. early intervention starting in grade 4, ongoing monitoring of reading proficiency, and professional development for educators to address subtle gender differences are crucial steps in fostering equitable reading outcomes. while the differences observed are relatively minor, addressing them through these strategies will support improved reading proficiency across all districts and grade levels. future directions and initiatives for policymakers and teacher-practitioners may include policy frameworks on literacy education and early reading intervention starting in grade 4, continuous monitoring of students’ reading proficiency, and sustained professional development for english teachers, including gender-responsive pedagogies. long-term effects of reading interventions may be investigated, exploring the impact of socio-cultural, technological, and cognitive factors influencing reading development. translational studies can also focus on the stakeholders’ perspectives and classroom observations to understand the contextual variables connected to reading proficiency toward designing a responsive curriculum. ethics statement this study was reviewed and approved by the ethics review committee of cebu normal university (cnu erc code: 1163/2024-09 bacus et al.). informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement all authors were involved from the preparation of the manuscript and data collection. dr. bacus and dr. alda conceptualized the research topic and dr. balo was responsible for the data analysis and running the test statistics. acknowledgements the authors gratefully acknowledge the financial and logistical support provided by cebu normal university and the department of educationcebu city division for the successful completion of this research. the contributions were vital in faciliating data collection and ensuring the study’s overall success.. declaration of competing interests the authors declare 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(2025). constructing the validity of a reading assessment model for 21st century education with a focus on self-directed learning. jurnal arbitrer, 12(1), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.96-113.2025 aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 501 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 25, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 final revision: december 11, 2024 accepted: december 14, 2024 the study was conducted with the aim of identifying the possibilities for implementing the informal research method of action research into the educational process of a pedagogical university as a tool for enhancing the research activity of university teachers in kazakhstan. the significance of mastering this method by pedagogical university faculty is grounded in their ability to disseminate their experience, involving students—future teachers—in a cyclical process of continuous research and transformation of their pedagogical practices. as a result of the literature review, the advantages of action research were highlighted, particularly in terms of activating personal, professional, and environmental resources that were previously underutilized in traditional formal research formats. the relevance of the study lies in the necessity to examine global experiences with informal research methods, focusing on the feasibility of their implementation with consideration of the specific context of kazakhstan. the article describes the process of conceptualizing the informal method of action research, diagnosing awareness and demand for this method among young pedagogical university faculty, developing and testing a program for its implementation, evaluating its effectiveness, ensuring post-course support, and determining the prospects for integrating the method on a national scale. methods such as surveys, pilot studies, formative experiments, and action research tools were applied. a pilot implementation of action research was conducted to develop the research activity of young faculty members at abai university, considering their needs within the framework of a modular professional development program titled “action research – the foundation for developing a pedagogue-researcher model.” analysis of the results confirmed the effectiveness of implementing the method in enhancing the research activity of teachers and transforming them into researcher-teachers. based on the review and feedback analysis, the prospects for the expanded integration of informal research methods into the practice of education in kazakhstan were identified. keywords research methods, action research, formal and informal research methods, research activity, research competencies, teacher-researcher correspondence * e-mail: lyaziza_s@mail.ru article leveraging non-formal action research to enhance teacher research activity at a pedagogical university in republic of kazakhstan aiman berikkhanova1, elaine wilson2, lyaziza sarsenbayeva3*, bayan sapargaliyeva4, fatima assilbayeva5, aigul iskakova6 1,4,5,6abai kazakh national pedagogical university, almaty, kazakhstan 2faculty of education, homerton college, university of cambridge, cambridge, united kingdom 3turan university, almaty, kazakhstan under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.501-515.2024 i. introduction the contemporary vision of education as “experience-based” allows for the formation of alternative interpretations of reality based on a felt connection with the world. “learning and creativity are generative, and viewing education through the lens of life values leads to an understanding of what is truly needed to unlock people’s full potential” (howard, 2018). analytics-based science facilitation associations support the need to change teaching approaches due to an intensely evolving landscape aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 502 and scientific technologies that require updated practices, tools, and student thinking (brownell and tanner, 2012). alongside technological developments, new methodologies, methods, and tools are being developed to investigate and evaluate the effectiveness of the learning process, focusing on problems that existing research does not address (sousa et al., 2021). considering these demands, research activity aimed at the development and integration of theory and practice should be a priority in the professional activities of university teachers, determining the transformation of their roles from pedagogical to scientific and pedagogical. the modern stage of post-nonclassical science development is characterized by several trends: freedom of choice in methodology; openness to new experiences and interdisciplinary discourse; the development of the idea of social construction of reality and the unique creativity of subjective experience; situational determinism; and the use of critical self-reflection in changing research contexts. j.f. matos et al. (matos et al., 2023), through a systematic analysis of research in higher education, identified three dominant aspects: methodological knowledge, research competencies, and pedagogical practices in teaching research methods. the authors note that faculty members face difficulties in all these areas and therefore need to rethink their pedagogical approaches and recognize that the quality of educational research directly affects the quality of its outcomes. as the experiences of developed countries show, the success of educational reforms largely depends on the level of training of pedagogical staff and their research competencies. it is no longer sufficient for a modern teacher to simply transmit knowledge to students; they must also transform their pedagogical activities in accordance with contemporary demands, constantly introducing innovations through ongoing pedagogical reflection, scientific analysis, and research of emerging problems. the search for conditions and methods that support the sustainable development of university teachers—allowing them to continuously grow through research-based practice and generate solutions to existing problems—has become increasingly relevant. for a teacher to effectively educate students, they must possess not only a sufficient level of scientific literacy but also an experimental (research) culture of learning, embodying the role of a researcher-practitioner. kinchin, i.m. (2019). introduced the term “pedagogical weakness” concerning university educators. the key areas of this psychological weakness model are the nature of the discourse on teaching and learning, focusing either on the mechanisms and procedures of teaching or the underlying pedagogy (teacher expectations, professional values, approaches to student learning, etc.). it is crucial to consider how the teacher establishes a relationship between pedagogy and the subject being taught and whether teaching provides an authentic understanding of the discipline by linking theory and practice. the author emphasizes that university education does not always follow a linear trajectory; rather, it is an integrative, recursive process where knowledge is subject to continuous modification. therefore, teachers must respond to individual and social factors and consistently investigate teaching weaknesses and problems, which is key to the success of modern universities. to overcome pedagogical weakness, teachers need to strengthen the connection between theory and practice, learn to identify problems, investigate them, and adapt their practices accordingly. one of the current trends is the digitalization of research using gen ai, which presents both new opportunities and prospects on the one hand, and challenges and risks on the other. contemporary research on generative artificial intelligence explores strategies for gaining a competitive advantage, provided it is seamlessly integrated into research based on principles of reliability, transparency, and ethics. educators are tasked with mastering ai technologies to enhance the productivity of their practice and develop their creative potential. an active dialogue is underway to promote open learning (papadakis et al., 2023) which explores the prospects of breakthrough educational technologies and the application of ai in research and education, for intelligent data processing, intuitive exploration of environments, and content. modern researchers highlight the role of gen ai in ensuring educational leadership and the integration of technologies for teachers, as well as in supporting the research process (karakose et al., 2023). the role of digital leadership, which ensures the development of organizations and staff, is also being examined (karakose et al., 2022). this raises the question: what are the ways aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 503 to realize these trends? one approach involves the convergence of formal, non-formal, and informal education, along with corresponding research paradigms in the field of education. formal education occurs in organized environments specifically designed for learning and aims to develop and enhance professional competencies. informal education takes place through planned activities and may include programs for professional skills development, targeting the elimination of professional deficits by acquiring new knowledge and skills. informal education occurs in everyday contexts related to work, family, or leisure and allows students to independently set their goals based on personal and professional interests. in teacher education, informal education holds special significance, enabling teachers to improve their professional practice and address missing competencies by leveraging available resources through their own initiative. this approach is qualitatively different from formal education. traditional methods of supporting teachers’ development, such as infrequent workshops, have faced criticism for failing to enact positive changes in practice. these models often assume that external experts provide knowledge, leaving teachers to implement it independently. however, experience has shown that new research-based professional learning models that position educators as experts themselves have been more effective in fostering continuous growth. additionally, these collaborative models of professional learning demonstrate how teacher-initiated research can support educational reforms. enquiry-based professional learning, delivered within the context of direct practice, has been shown to enhance instructional quality and optimize student learning formats. one effective strategy is to encourage prospective teachers to engage deeply with content specific to their subject matter through inquiry and immersion in academic culture. an inquirybased strategy (ibs) is considered an appropriate methodology for achieving this change (aragón, 2022). the main characteristics and benefits of informal learning can also be applied to informal research methods. one such method is action research, which aligns with global trends and strategies for enhancing teachers’ research capacity. action research encompasses qualitative applied research methods, serving as a legitimate informal approach to conducting research, driven by practical demands and not always confined to predetermined activities and forms of work. this method is systematic, with clearly defined objectives, outcomes, and study duration. while there are other tools available for researchers in professional learning, most focus on episodic and reproductive learning. therefore, it is crucial to explore informal research methods that extend beyond formal research, enabling teachers to systematically integrate science into practice while activating their environment and creative resources. the creation and implementation of educational practices for teachers should be based on conditions that highlight a set of important distinguishing features, such as: creative informal character; the objectification of existing knowledge and competencies; inclusion in productive, socially significant activities; immersion in practice; and mastering pedagogically significant situations in group activities within the professional community. informal practices should closely resemble real professional pedagogical activities that involve unconventional problem-solving (yakushkina, 2020). the global educational practices have accumulated a wealth of experience in the successful implementation of action research throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the studies of american, british, and australian scholars such as k. lewin, j. dewey, j. collier, s. corey, l. stenhouse, w. carr, s. kemmis, j. whitehead, and others. action research gained particular recognition and spread toward the end of the last century in various countries. for example, in great britain during the 1990s, the movement “teacher as researcher” emerged, rooted in a new democratic philosophical paradigm, marking the beginning of active study and implementation of the action research approach. at that time, participatory action research (par) was utilized in universities across australia and new zealand. the essence of par involves collective, group-based self-reflective research that leads to the reconstruction of the pedagogical process. the core principle of par is the cyclic nature of four interdependent processes: analysis, planning, action, and observation (seymourrolls and hughes, 1999). according to aimers (1999), the main characteristics of par include: aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 504 b. rubia-avi notes that while teachers may be experts in their educational disciplines, they often lack experience in research or assessment processes. the author suggests utilizing learning analytics as “the measurement, collection, analysis, and presentation of student data in the context of optimizing learning and the environment in which it occurs.” the need to expand research beyond classical educational methods, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, is emphasized. this approach can help bridge the long-standing gap in the dynamics of innovation, which has been hindered by a lack of robust research that influences processes and people (rubia-avi, 2023). hattie & zierer identifies attitudes of passionate faculty members that align with the mission of action research: “i seek challenges, not just ‘doing my best’”; “i build relationships and trust so that learning can take place in an environment where it is safe to make mistakes and learn from others”; “i provide students with feedback and help them understand, interpret, and act on it”; “i collaborate with other faculty” (hattie and zierer, 2018). shah & bhattarai highlight experience, teaching strategies, and student engagement as factors that enhance teachers’ self-efficacy. teachers act as active agents for students, ensuring engagement and maintaining attention during learning activities while organizing effective teamwork. regular inquiry into the educational process, fair monitoring, and evaluation of teachers’ progress can contribute to improving teachers’ selfefficacy (shah and bhattarai, 2023). k. tirri points out the need for further research on teachers’ values, beliefs, and attitudes, which influence their cognitive and social skills and their motivation to learn and develop professionally (tirri, 2021) r. sanchez-cabrero, j.l. estrada-chichón, and colleagues conducted an extensive analysis of contemporary scientific literature on pedagogical issues, identifying five primary models of teaching effectiveness: based on theoretical conceptualization and meta-analysis of scientific literature; based on quantitative assessments of teaching effectiveness excluding teacher input; based on systematic observation of the process under the guidance of an effective teacher; based on macro-analysis, comparing teaching across different countries equal emphasis on action and research; unlocking the developmental potential of research; cyclicality of the process (creating a basis for developing relationships among participants as co-investigators; collecting and analyzing data; monitoring; adjusting; and evaluating results); and involving stakeholders in all aspects of the research process. research-based teaching and learning is one of the primary goals of finnish teacher education, where teachers are recognized as researchers. this focus on preparing reflective educators who are committed to ongoing professional development has led to significant positive changes, positioning finland as a leader in global education (furuhagen et al., 2019). integration of pedagogical practice with educational theory is achieved through a threestage supervision process that fosters collaboration among university faculty, school faculty, and student teachers (wolff et al., 2017; wilson, 2017). in canada, professional communities are being established for educators implementing action research. newman (1999). is recognized as an active promoter of this approach, viewing it as a meaningful means of improving pedagogical practices. newman emphasizes that the point of action research is not to “prove” something but to reevaluate one’s work, identify problems, and recognize needs. educational action researchers ask questions such as: “how can i improve what i do? are values clarified and justified as they emerge in practice? does the explanation incorporate an evaluation of past practices and an intention to create something better in the future?” in the twenty-first century, there is a growing demand for action research, which can dynamically investigate a wide range of determinant influences on the process of training professionals at universities and enhance their competitiveness in an exploratory manner (john, 2023). modern representatives of the swedish scientific community, edwards-groves & rönnerman (2022), identify seven fundamental principles, or “cornerstones,” of action research: contextuality, commitment, communication, collaboration, criticality, collegiality, and community, which ensure coherence in educators’ activities in educational research. the search continues for informal methods of enhancing teacher research that remain underappreciated and underutilized yet effective. aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 505 using authentic educational literature; and based on studies of teaching effectiveness in various countries. the authors conclude that any research approach can focus on both micro and macro aspects of teaching effectiveness to create a model that appropriately assesses the teacher and their professional performance (sánchez-cabrero, et.al. (2021) research skills grounded in the scientific method contribute to solving “pedagogical difficulties in general and teaching-learning problems in particular” (vázquez-villegas, et al., 2023). from the perspective of action research, research activity can be viewed as a type of collaborative analytical and methodological work focused on systematically studying a research question related to an actual pedagogical problem within the context of real educational activity. this process ultimately leads to the transformation of the educational process at a specific stage, with the potential for predicting further development. action research brings together teachers committed to ensuring the quality of their professional activities through their own research efforts directly at their workplace, which serves as a research platform. the research problem lies in justifying the possibilities of integrating informal research into the professional practice of pedagogical university faculty in the republic of kazakhstan to enhance their research activity. this area remains insufficiently studied and highly relevant: there is a need for the conceptualization of the informal method of action research within the context of pedagogical education, justification of its advantages in the development of university teachers’ research activity, and its implementation in practice to overcome professional deficits and ensure the sustainable development of teacher education. ii. method research design the aim of this study was to explore the possibilities of integrating the informal research method action research into the activities of pedagogical university faculty to enhance their research activity. to achieve this goal, specific research questions were formulated: (1) what are the gaps in the research activities and the needs of young scholars and teachers for mastering the informal method of action research? (2) is the implementation of the action research training program in the form of professional development courses effective in increasing the research activity of pedagogical university faculty? in accordance with the research objectives, a flexible research design was applied, which included diagnosing the problem, organizing a formative experiment, and identifying further prospects for implementing the informal method of action research. participants the respondents were participants in professional development courses for young faculty members at the pedagogical university, enrolled in the modular training program “action research – the foundation for forming the model of a pedagogue-researcher.” the sample consisted of 119 young teachers and researchers from the faculty of pedagogy and psychology at abai kazakh national pedagogical university. among the respondents, 47.3% were young scholars, and 52.6% were young faculty members. the sample was representative, as it was limited to teachers with less than 5 years of experience. informed consent from the survey participants was obtained through familiarization with a document that described the conditions for participation in the study, voluntary participation, and the research procedure. based on this, the respondents accepted the conditions and confirmed their consent to participate in the survey. instruments and procedure to address the first research question, a survey method was used. a questionnaire was developed that included questions regarding the degree of awareness about informal research methods, the action research method itself, motivation, and the willingness to master the method to improve their own practice, challenges in conducting research, and the types of support needed for integrating the method into professional pedagogical practice. the initial survey was conducted to assess awareness of the informal method of action research and readiness to master it. the selection of question content was based on a model of research activity for faculty members. the questionnaire included 10 closed-ended questions, offering multiple-choice answers. the questions were designed using both single and aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 506 multiple-choice formats based on a likert scale (yes/no, frequency of occurrence). respondents answered in an online format via google forms. expert validation and pilot testing of the questionnaire were conducted, demonstrating its good construct validity and internal reliability. an expert group of 3 phd doctors evaluated the relevance, clarity, simplicity, and ambiguity of each question on a scale from 1 to 4. questions with item-discrimination scores (ids) between 0.60 and 0.79 were adjusted. the reliability index calculation showed a value greater than 0.80. the survey was conducted both at the beginning and at the end of the training program. to address the second research question, a pilot study was conducted to test the implementation of the informal method of action research within the context of professional development courses for young faculty and researchers at a pedagogical university. to assess the effectiveness of the formative experiment, the g-sign criterion and the spearman’s rank correlation coefficient were applied. the formative experiment was carried out as part of the implementation of the modular training program “action research – the foundation for forming the model of a pedagogue-researcher”. the participants included 119 young educators from abai kazakh national pedagogical university. the selection of participants was based on their needs for mastering informal research methods. the courses were offered at no cost to the participants, with funding provided by the grant project of the ministry of science and higher education of the republic of kazakhstan. the trainers consisted of certified educators from abai kazakh national pedagogical university and the faculty of education at the university of cambridge. the training modular programme (80 hours) was carried out in the period 5.02-15.02 2024. 5.02 course opening, entrance questionnaire; 6.02. module 1; 7.02 8.02. module 2; 8.02-9.02. module 3; 10.02 -12.02. module 4; 13.02.-14.02. module 5; 15.02. module 6. closing feedback, exit questionnaire, development and uploading of action research design by trainees in class room, checking of projects, evaluation. the course program was developed considering the requests and identified problems of the educators, aiming to enhance their methodological culture, research competence, and activity through the systemic integration of practical research into their professional practice based on the informal method of action research. during the implementation of the educational program, trainers employed interactive teaching forms and methods that ensured the cognitive engagement of participants: methodological seminars, training sessions, lectures, practical work, webinars, online conferences, online consultations, independent work, group work, project assignments, presentation defenses, online feedback, round tables, and formative assessments. interactive online tools such as kahoot, quizizz, padlet, canvas lms, virtual board miro, and others were used throughout the course. methodological and informational support, as well as feedback, were provided on a specially created online platform for participants and trainers of the professional development courses. to control and assess participants’ knowledge, incoming and outgoing online questionnaires, independent work, intermediate testing on theoretical and content modules, reflective essays, and presentation defenses for project assignments were included. to ensure a systematic and continuous learning process, post-course support was organized for participants, who were grouped into targeted teams to implement action research in their professional practice with students. this stage aimed to address the following tasks: to provide psychological and pedagogical conditions for supporting educators in defining the problem, goals, tasks, and hypotheses of their research within groups; to assist in selecting research strategies and methods; to offer consulting help in writing reflective essays and formatting research results and scientific articles; and to enhance the professional development of educators by engaging them in self-reflective research. post-course support was conducted in stages: stage 1: the trainer held online consultations on platforms such as google meet, classroom, and others, as well as via email, whatsapp, instagram, youtube channels, and other social networks. stage 2: psychological and pedagogical support for conducting action research, guidance in selecting necessary literature, choosing appropriate research methods and strategies, finding a critical friend, external experts, and providing participants with the required digital resources. stage 3:monitoring the development of aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 507 participants’ research activity through informal research organization forms like action research. stage 4: mentoring in writing reflective essays, formatting research results as scientific articles, and publishing in pedagogical journals and conference materials. stage 5: facilitating experience exchange among colleagues and disseminating positive action research results in professional communities. after the completion of the targeted groups’ work, a festival of ideas was organized on the theme “concept and overview of best practices in action research,” where a team of creative young scholars from abai kazakh national pedagogical university presented their research insights on action research in a poster gallery. they shared valuable experiences from informal research conducted within their teaching disciplines, integrating pedagogical science and practice with optimal solutions and outcomes. at the end of the festival, constructive feedback from participants was shared, certificates were awarded to speakers, and the prospects for further collaboration in creating a network research community for action research were discussed. iii. results results of the initial survey the first question concerned respondents’ assessment of their motivation level for research activity: 32.8% rated it as very high; 40.3% rated it as high; 23.5% as medium; and 3.4% as low (see table 1). for the second question, “what informal research methods do you know and use?” 37.6% of respondents found it difficult to answer but expressed a desire to master these methods during the courses. 20.8% mentioned the informal method lesson study, which was noted by respondents with school experience. focus groups were cited by 7.2%; forums by 7.2%; training sessions by 7.2%; projects by 3.2%; case studies by 3.2%; and self-study by 1.6%. the remaining 12% of respondents mentioned methods used in both formal and informal research, such as experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and others (see figure 1). the third question aimed to assess respondents’ knowledge of the action research method: 38.7% indicated a low level; 52.9% indicated a medium level; 7.6% indicated a high level; and 0.8% indicated high level (see table 2). table 1. distribution of respondents by motivation levels for research activity (in %) very high high average low 32.8 40.3 23.5 3.4 fig. 1. use of informal research methods by young researches of pedagogical university table 2. distribution of respondents by levels of knowledge of the action research method (in %) very high high average low 0.8 7.6 52.9 38.7 the fours question concerned the experience of using action research. 63.9% responded that they have not used it but want to master this method; 30.3% said they lack experience in using it; only 5.9% have used this method and consider it effective (see figure 2). aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 508 fig. 2. experience of using the action research by young researchers and teachers of a pedagogical university table 3 advantages of action research according to respondents (in %) improvement of professional practice group research development in the research environment change of practice dissertation defense development of reflective practice 35.9 24.4 14.3 10.9 6.7 4.2 table 4. indicators of knowledge of methodological approaches and principles of informal research (in %) well-informed insufficiently informed found it difficult to answer 42.0 23.2 28.8 table 5. types of support for implementing action research in the professional practice of young scholars and educators at the pedagogical university (in %) training seminars and courses availability of literature and information resources support from a research mentor provision of benefits for educators 42.0 22.7 20.0 15.2 for the fifth question, “what are the advantages of action research?” 39.5% of respondents stated that it allows for the improvement of professional practice; 24.4% noted the possibilities of group research and solving pedagogical problems; 14.3% pointed to the potential for development within a professional research environment; 10.9% mentioned the opportunity for practice change; 6.7% see it as a means for dissertation defense; and 4.2% believe that mastering action research allows one to become a reflective practitioner (see table 3 ). for the sixth question, “what methodological approaches and principles of informal pedagogical research do you know?” 28.8% found it difficult to answer. 42% of respondents were aware of the main approaches. the remaining 23.2% provided inaccurate answers, naming methods rather than approaches and principles (see table 4) among the mentioned methodological approaches were the systemic approach, personal approach, activity-based approach, and sociocultural approach. the principles of action research identified included the principles of collaboration, immersion, freedom of choice, selfmanagement, and feedback. the seventh question, “what support do you need for engaging in action research?” revealed that 42% of respondents stated the need for organizing training seminars and courses; 22.7% highlighted the availability of necessary literature and information resources; 20% required support from a research mentor; and 15.2% considered it important to provide benefits for educators engaged in informal research, such as incorporating this type of activity into their workload or reducing their teaching load, as well as organizing free training, providing grants and funding for research projects, and creating ongoing online forums with access to materials (see table 5) the eighth question addressed the difficulties faced by young scholars and educators in applying action research in their professional practice. 43.7% of respondents identified the correct selection and use of research methods; 33.6% noted aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 509 the proper definition of the research topic; 29.4% referred to the mathematical and statistical analysis of research results; 23.5% highlighted the correct selection and analysis of literature on the research topic; 20.2% mentioned challenges in publishing results as scientific articles; 17.6% cited insufficient research environments and scientific networking communities; 14.3% pointed to difficulties in generalizing results in accordance with the goal and hypothesis; 13.4% indicated challenges in correctly defining the stages of research; and 9.2% noted difficulties in reflecting on the research (see table 6). for the ninth question, “would you like to improve your teaching practice and increase research activity based on action research?” 77.3% responded positively, 10.4% stated they are already engaged and ready to share their experience; 10.4% said they are unfamiliar with the method and showed no readiness; and 1.6% expressed willingness contingent upon the provision of benefits. (figure 3). the tenth question explored the goals of young scholars and educators participating in professional development courses. 32.8% of respondents aimed to master the theory and technology of action research; 30.3% aimed to increase research activity; 24.4% aimed to change and improve professional practice; 10.1% aimed to obtain a certificate; and 2.4% aimed to enhance their research competence (see table 7). the survey analysis revealed that the majority of young scholars and educators (over 70%) are highly motivated for research activities. the main motivational factors include the opportunity for group research and solving pedagogical problems to change practice, the potential for development within a professional research environment, and the facilitation of productive communication within the educational community. it was found that only half of the educators have an understanding of the informal method of action research, and only a small portion are familiar with it at a high level (8.4%) and can share their experience (5.9%). at the same time, educators highly appreciate the benefits and opportunities that action research provides for changing and improving teaching and selfdevelopment. there was also a noted weak grasp table 6. difficulties in applying the action research method by young scholars and educators at the pedagogical university (in %) selection and use of research methods definition of the research topic statistical analysis of research results proper selection and analysis of literature challenges in publishing results lack of a research environment difficulties in generalizing results definition of research stages difficulties in reflecting on the research 43.7 36.6 29.4 23.5 20.2 17.6 14.3 13.4 9.2 table 7. goals of participation by young scholars and educators in professional development courses on mastering action research (in %) mastering the theory and technology of action research increasing research activity improving professional practice obtaining a certificate enhancing research competence 32.8 30.3 24.4 10.1 2.4 fig. 3. willingness to improve teaching practice and increase research activity based on action research aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 510 of the methodology of informal research, along with challenges at all stages of conducting research in practice. most young researchers and educators need support of an organizational, financial, informational, and methodological nature. thus, a contradiction was identified between the demand for a pedagogical university educator focused on active research and the transformation of their practice through the acquisition of the informal method of action research and the lack of experience in implementing it within the pedagogical university context. survey results post-training after completing the training, the analysis of the post-training survey data indicated an increase in the level of motivation for research activities: the number of respondents with a high level rose by 11.6%. as a result of the conducted work, a positive shift in the level of motivation for research activities was observed, as confirmed by the g-sign criterion: shift p = 0.002, p ≤ 0.05. additionally, the number of faculty members with a high level of knowledge of the action research method increased by 32.1%, p = 0.000, p ≤ 0.05. to identify the correlation between research activity indicators, the spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was applied. a positive relationship was found between: a high level of motivation for research activities and knowledge of the methodological approaches and principles of informal research, r = 0.608, p = 0.000; a high level of motivation for research activities and a high level of knowledge of the action research method, r = 0.398, p = 0.029; experience in applying the action research method and a high level of knowledge of the action research method, r = 0.776, p = 0.000. the overwhelming majority of respondents (92.2%) expressed their intention to implement action research in their professional practice. knowledge about the research methodology based on action research significantly expanded, particularly regarding the main methodological approaches, principles, and methods for implementing this informal method. according to the educators, mastering this method will enhance professional practice, facilitate knowledge application in dissertation writing, enable group research in solving pedagogical problems, change practices, and foster the development of reflective practitioners and teacher-researchers. iv. discussion achievements and opportunities for increasing research activity among educators using action research in the republic of kazakhstan in the kazakhstani periodical scientific and pedagogical literature, although there is a focus on the implementation of informal research methods in the higher education system, the number of studies is quite limited. an analysis of research related to educational issues in kazakhstani scientific publications showed that the main research directions are: the integration of proven effective research methods; the modification of professional training for students and young educators towards enhancing research competence; and the study of psychological mechanisms and components of research competence reflective, communicative, organizational, and project competencies. there is a noted potential to reduce the gap between theory and practice in professional training through the systematic integration of the action research approach and its types into the education system (rizakhodjaeva et al., 2022; maigeldieva et al., 2021). the necessity to enhance the research skills of future teachers (sherimova, 2023; kariev, et al., 2023), the research culture of future specialists in the field of education (mamytbaeva et al., 2021; toktarbekova, 2021; sholpankulova & zhalgasova, 2020; shavalieva et al., 2022; buribaev et al., 2023), and the improvement of reflective practice uzakbayeva s. is emphasized. although scientific research identifies the need for practice-oriented informal forms of learning, the term “informal education” was officially used for the first time in the regulatory documents of pedagogical education in the concept for the development of higher education and science in the republic of kazakhstan for 2023-2029. this document justifies the potential for recognizing the outcomes of informal education based on competencies, ensuring the validation of educational results. their maintenance and further development may be directly related to ongoing informal learning. this document provides a boost for expanding pedagogical knowledge regarding the improvement of the research process in education and the use of informal research forms to change and enhance the professional practice of educators. in this concept, the primary focus is on pedagogical education and the preparation of educators for a new era by strengthening scientific aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 511 potential and developing research competencies through the integration of courses such as “action research” and “research methods and data analysis in education” into educational programs. however, the insufficient level of understanding of action research theory and other informal research methods in the context of kazakhstani pedagogical education, along with the need for the generalization and classification of research methods aimed at transforming professional practice, highlights the necessity for systematic research on the integration of research methods within the context of university pedagogical education, taking into account the best global practices. the analysis of the experience of integrating informal research methods into the educational system of the republic of kazakhstan has shown that the priority in recent years has been given to the secondary education system, where the nazarbayev intellectual schools teacher training center (nis ttc) has collaborated with the university of cambridge’s department of education to train school teachers in action research techniques, lesson study, and self-directed learning. however, there are strong arguments in favor of initiating action research at universities: firstly, university educators are closer to the scientific community than school teachers; they understand the methodology of pedagogical research, hold academic degrees, conduct research alongside teaching, participate in research projects, publish articles in peer-reviewed journals, and organize scientific conferences, among other activities. secondly, there is an opportunity to integrate action research into the content of the professional training of future educators and to engage students in a new practice-oriented research methodology. thirdly, involving future educators, young scholars, and teachers in collaborative action research with experienced researcher-scientists offers undeniable advantages, ensuring sustainable development and a focus on long-term results. given the high potential of this method in developing the research activity of all participants in the educational process, it becomes essential to seek flexible specialized forms of training for educators based on the needs and intentions to address professional deficiencies within the organizational framework of pedagogical universities and utilizing their resources. in the scientific ecosystem of pedagogical universities in kazakhstan, there is a pressing need to enhance the research activity of educators based not only on formal but also on informal research, to strengthen the integration of scientific results into teaching practices, and to involve students in research activities. efforts in this direction, among other initiatives, are being carried out within the framework of the grant project “theory and technology for developing research activity of university educators based on the integration of informal research forms like action research” (ar14872311), funded by the ministry of science and higher education of the republic of kazakhstan, with the goal of developing the theory and technology for enhancing the research activity of university educators through informal research methods such as action research. the success and quality of practice-oriented research require comprehensive scientific “equipping” of educators with research methods and technologies as essential tools for addressing research challenges. despite university educators’ awareness of action research as an informal research method, the decision to participate is associated with certain risks: resistance from some educators towards integrating action research into their practices due to insufficient motivation to improve their methods; reluctance to change established traditions and step out of their comfort zones; cognitive dissonance; lack of time for conducting informal research; and fear of accountability for their decisions and their consequences. overcoming these risks is facilitated by embracing the values of research, which carry hope for future changes based on democratic and humanistic principles and advanced social theories; recognizing their role in transforming existing practices; focusing on conducting action research to become true scientific mentors and facilitators of active student research; and involving students in collaborative research to enhance the quality of pedagogical education, understanding that students are the vital link between schools and universities. from the perspective of developing higher education pedagogy in kazakhstan, several arguments can be made in favor of action research: 1. the action research concept reveals new research directions through the convergence of evidence-based practice and practiceoriented science. 2. action research provides a deeper understanding of pedagogical issues through teachers’ own practical investigations. aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 512 3. the terminological framework of higher education pedagogy is enriched by the introduction of new definitions, methods, and research forms. 4. the issue of transitioning university educators into the status of researcher-teachers is brought to the forefront. action research facilitates the transformation of a teacher’s role from purely pedagogical to scientific-pedagogical, significantly enhancing their research activity through the mastery of constructive research practices, the development of social and professional methodological competencies, reflective practices, increased motivation for research activities, activation of creative abilities, teamwork, and the establishment of a professional community of educators. criteria for the effectiveness of the informal action research method can include: 1. the quality of transformations, reflected in the correlation between the actual outcomes of higher education activities and the objectives set in educational policy. 2. the economic criterion reflects the relationship between achieved results and the time, effort, and other resources expended. 3. the motivation criterion. 4. the criterion of personal growth and selfdevelopment of educators. 5. the criterion for enhancing competencies that ensure productive teaching. 6. the criterion for the advancement of scientific knowledge during the research process. at the same time, several issues hinder the implementation of informal research, as well as any innovations in higher education: 1. a specific method is not always a universal solution for current problems. 2. the method is applied in specific contexts and aimed at solving particular issues, which requires contextual consideration. 3. a new method must undergo experimental validation before broad integration into the educational landscape. 4. the introduction of a new research method has two aspects: a technological one (related to the specifics of its use) and a personal one, tied to the human factor. action research aims for transformative changes through the integration of practice and research, restructuring the educational process within organizations. it is expected that a new generation of teachers and future educators, having mastered the theoretical and methodological foundations as well as practical skills for applying informal research methods, will systematically utilize them in their professional activities. experience from conducting training seminars and professional development courses on integrating action research has demonstrated their demand and effectiveness. an important condition is the qualification improvement directly within the educational organization, which allows for interventions “here and now,” addressing existing problems using available resources and interested colleagues, including student involvement. the formation of a new generation of university educators is based on the model of a teacher-researcher, a reflective practitioner with high research activity, who can confidently apply both formal and informal research methods in the context of their own practice. critical evaluation of their practice, awareness of the need to step out of their comfort zones, ongoing diagnostics, analysis, and problem-solving, collaboration with like-minded colleagues, and student engagement will enhance the level of research activity and competence among educators, reduce formalism in their work, and increase their creative synergetic potential based on the application of the action research methodology. in the future, it is necessary to involve educators with varying scientific and pedagogical experience in the research, expand the scope of the study to include pedagogical universities across the country. the experience gained will facilitate the validation of achieved results, assigning qualifications based on informal education and work experience. the study sample is limited to young scholars and educators, which does not allow for the generalization of results to university teachers with more extensive pedagogical experience. the research was conducted at the kazakh national pedagogical university, a leading pedagogical institution in the country with a unique local educational environment, which necessitates comparative studies with regional pedagogical universities. this research was pilot in nature, aiman berikkhanova / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 513 yielding preliminary results regarding the demand for the method and its significance in enhancing research activity, indicating that further comprehensive studies in this area are needed. v. conclusion the subject of the study was the modern trend of enhancing research activity among university educators—namely, the informal method of action research, its possibilities, advantages, and prospects for implementation within the higher pedagogical education system of the republic of kazakhstan. a significant indicator and driver for increasing research activity and competence within higher education is the shift in how activities are conducted and the content of those activities— not merely updating knowledge, but engaging in continuous investigation of one’s own practice and transforming it accordingly. the novelty of this study lies in describing the new experience of integrating the research method into the training of young scholars and educators in pedagogical universities, which had previously been primarily applied at the school education level. ethics statement the study was conducted in accordance with the declaration of helsinki and was approved by the research ethics board of the abai kazakh national pedagogical university for research involving people. informed consent was obtained from all subjects participating in the study. credit author statement aiman berikkhanova, conceptualization, methodologies, data curation, formal analysis, supervision, project administration, fundraising. elaine wilson: conceptualization, methodologies, data curation, formal analysis, supervision. lyaziza sarsenbayeva: conceptualization, methodologies, data curation, formal analysis, initial draft preparation, writing, reviewing and editing. bayan sapargaliyeva: writing, reviewing and editing, fundraising. fatima assilbayeva: data curation. aigul iskakova: data curation. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. acknowledgements this research work is conducted under a grant project (ar14872311) funded by the ministry of science and higher education of the republic of kazakhstan. declaration of competing interests the authors state that they possess no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that may have influenced the work presented in this paper. references aimers j. 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(2020). informal educational practices in the space of continuing education of teachers. chio. no. 1 (62) – pp. 9-15. https://doi.org/10.54884/s181570410020818-4 prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 274 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 11, 2025 final revision: august 1, 2025 accepted: august 14, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 there is a growing body of research in using ai for corrective feedback in foreign language teaching. however, few studies have specifically addressed the accuracy of ai analysis in learner corpus research. this study aims to create an ai-annotated corpus whose data were obtained from learners of japanese as a foreign language (jfl) in indonesia with human supervision; branded it as dico-jalf v.1.0. the aim is to measure to what extent chatgpt accurately annotates errors. a task was first administered to collect corpus data and metadata to build the corpus. the corpus was error-annotated using chatgpt 4.0. human annotators manually supervised the accuracy of ai-generated annotations. regarding errors committed by learners, it is observed that incorrect lexical choices and forms dominate the cause of errors, while underuse and overuse are minimal. it can be concluded that chatgpt demonstrated an average accuracy of 70% correct identification of errors. regarding error rate, the verb is the category where errors are most frequent, which maybe driven by its conjugation, a feature absent in indonesian, the l1 of the students. this suggests that indonesian learners’ acquisition of japanese verbs needs greater emphasis. as compared to other similar studies, this is relatively low. however, it can be argued that one factor determining the accuracy of chatgpt annotations, or any other llm-based tool, is the complexity of the annotation scheme they adhere to. the corpus have been made available for download. the annotations shall be readable by a corpus query system that reads xml tags. this corpus serves as a foundational resource for future research on ai-assisted error analysis in jfl learning contexts in indonesia. keywords corpus linguistics, error annotation, ai, chatgpt, indonesia, jfl correspondence *e-mail: prihantoro@live.undip.ac.id article dico-jalf v.1.0: diponegoro corpus of japanese learners as a foreign language in indonesia with ai error annotation and human supervision prihantoro1*, shin’ichiro ishikawa2, tanjun liu3, zaki ainul fadli4, elizabeth ika hesti aprilia nindia rini5, catur kepirianto6 1,4,5,6faculty of humanities, universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia 2iphe/graduate school of intercultural studies, kobe university, kobe, japan 3department of applied linguistics, xi’an jiaotong-liverpool university, suzhou, china under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.274-288.2025 i. introduction learner corpus is one of the resources to study how to tackle language learners’ challenges. learner corpora have the potential to describe learners’ linguistic development and errors, as attested in perez-paredez and mark (2022), and forti (2023), among others. however, the creation of error-annotated learner corpora is usually performed manually because an automatic error tagger is absent. llms (large language models), which power various ai (artificial intelligence) tools, provide an alternative to automating the annotation process, which allows for less human intervention and a faster process. however, the accuracy and reliability of ai tools in the area still need to be assessed. this project describes a learner corpus creation, whose error annotations were conducted automatically by an ai tool, prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 275 with an assessment of the ai’s performance. this background translates to the following objectives and potential contributions. the first objective 1) was to create dicojalf v.1.0, a grammatically error-annotated corpus from indonesian students learning japanese as a foreign language at various proficiency levels. this corpus will offer a comprehensive data set of learners’ performance. the second objective 2) was to describe how accurately chatgpt 4.0 (openai, 2024) annotated errors in essays written in japanese. this will allow chatgpt’s performance to be assessed when analysing non-english data. in indonesia, in addition to english, japanese is another popular foreign language to learn1. among other purposes, japan attracts many indonesian migrant workers and students to work, pursue higher education, or a combination thereof, as shown in umoro (2023) and budianto (2023). note that japanese as a foreign language (jfl) is popular not only in indonesia, as shown in table 1. table 1. number of learners of jfl across the world2 no countries number of learners 1 china 1057318 2 indonesia 711732 3 korea 470334 4 australia 415348 5 thailand 183957 numerous studies have been conducted in the context of indonesian students learning japanese, such as safama and diner (2022), barus and pujiono (2021), among many others. these studies focus on analysing errors committed by learners of japanese as a foreign language in indonesia, but unlike this project, they focus on certain linguistic unit such as particle or sentence structure. however, some handicaps were observed. first, none of these studies were corpus-based. second, if their data is considered japanese learner corpora, none of these corpora are publicly accessible. such a corpus would be helpful for replication studies, cross-validation, and comparison purposes, among many others. third, the analytic schemes used in the aforementioned studies targeted specific errors, such as passive voice and particles, instead of overall errors at different level of linguistic structures. 1 https://www.qiteplanguage.org/detail/news/seaqil-dan-upi-teliti-preferensi-bahasa-siswa-di-asia-tenggara 2 https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/japanese/survey/result/dl/survey2021/all_contents_r2.pdf using their analytic scheme for the annotation can leave loopholes, as it does not match the purpose of fully annotating errors in a japanese learner corpus. hasibuan and arfianty (2019) conducted a similar study, but their tagset is incomprehensive. for instance, it includes an analysis of ‘incorrect word use’ without giving further details. so far, three comprehensive error type tagsets (koyama et al., 2023; pavlovič, 2020; yang and akahori, 2013) have been identified, which may suit the purpose. compared to pavlovic (2020), koyama et al.’s (2023) tagset is better regarding tagset documentation. for example, pavlovic’s tagset provides references, but no labels or examples. conversely, labels, references/ descriptions, and examples in koyama’s tagset can be observed. in addition, pavlovic’s tagset adopts more technical linguistic terms. for this current study, it is aimed to use a tagset that would allow us to reach a more general audience; thus, koyama’s full tagset, which can be observed in table 2, was preferred. yang and akahori’s (2013) tagset was not considered. this tagset is a subset of tags presenting the aforementioned tags but is not as comprehensive as the other two. while koyama’s tagset is comprehensive, there is no tag to identify the absence of a required item. this is a common mistake made by learners, which should be tagged. for example, in (1), the verb shimashita をしました ‘do (past and polite)’ is absent, thus causing an error to occur. the support verb should be immediately after sakka サッカー ‘soccer’, as it must surface at the sentence-final position to allow the sentence to be grammatically correct. (1) こどものときまいにちともだちといっしょにサッカ ー()3。 kodomo-no-toki-mainichi-tomodachi-to-issho-nisakkaa() kid-gen-time-everyday-friend-com-together-locsoccer() ‘when i was a child, every day, together with my friends, we (played) soccer’ a slight adjustment to koyama et al.’s tagset was commited by incorporating pavlovic’s error cause tagset as the second layer tagset, whose categories are shown in table 3. pavlovic’s error type tagset consists of labels, without descriptions or examples. to complement this, some examples and labels were added. this 3 the empty brackets with zero element () refers to missing item. prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 276 tag description example {incorrect form → correct form} adj adjective selection error そんなことは一番｛大切→重大な｝欠点だと思うでしょう。 sonna koto wa ichiban {taisetsu → juudaina} ketten da to omou deshou. you might think that it is a {serious} weakness adv adverb selection error そして、自分の開発とテストの仕事を｛よく→しっかり｝完遂しました。 soshite, jibun no kaihatsu to tesuto no shigoto o {yoku → shikkari} kansui shimashita. and i have {thoughtfully}completed my development and testing works aux auxilliary selection error 私は日本語が大好き｛ます→です｝。 watashi wa nihongo ga daisuki {masu → desu}. i {like} japanese very much conj conjunction selection error ｛しかし→そして｝、私の一番の夢はタイへ行って、タイ語で現地の人と交 流することです。 {shikashi → soshite}, watashi no ichiban no yume wa thai e itte, thai go o genchi no hito to kouryuu suru koto desu. {and} my biggest dream is to go to thailand and interact with local people in thai. det determiner selection error ｛あの→その｝化学会社の名前はチッソ株式会社だった。 {ano → sono} kagaku no kaisha no namae wa chisso kabushiki gaisha datta. {that} chemical substance factory is called chico incorporated company noun noun selection error その人はソフトウェア｛権力→権利｝を持っている。 sono hito wa sofuto wea {kenryoku→ kenri } o motte iru. the person has the {posession right} of the software part particle selection error 今日、雷の音｛に→で｝起きました。 kyou, kaminari no oto {ni → de} okimashita. i woke up {because} of thunder pron pronoun selection error まあ、今回の話は｛そこ→ここ｝までにします。 maa, konkai no hanashi wa {soko → koko} madeni shimasu. x alright, we {here} cease our conversation punct punctuation selection error 一緒に歌を歌いました｛、→。｝ご飯を食べて、買い物をしました。 isshoni uta o utaimashita {, → . } gohan o tabete, kaimono o shimashita. we sang together {. → ,} then went shopping verb verb selection error 朝ご飯を｛飲み→食べ｝ました。 i {ate} breakfast asa gohan o {nomi → tabe} mashita. i {eat} breakfast adj : infl adjective conjugation error 突然とても｛寂しい→寂しく｝感じ始めました。 totsuzen totemo {sabishii → sabishiku} kanjihajimemashita. suddenly, i felt very {lonely} aux : infl auxilliary conjugation error しゅくだいはとてもつまら｛ない→なく｝てとてもむずかしいです。 shukudai wa totemo tsumara {nai → naku } te totemo muzukashii desu. the homework is extremely {boring} and difficult verb : infl verb conjugation error しかし、ネットで探すと、ぜんぜん｛見つかれ→見つから｝ないでしょ！ shikashi, netto de sagasu to, zensen {mitsukare → mitsukara} nai desho ! {but, if you search on the internet, it is completely {not found} right? spell spelling error 国内の｛メデイア→メディア｝も管理されて過激な言論はいっさい禁止され ています。 kokunai no {medeia→ media} mo kanri sarete kagekina genron wa issai kinshi sarete imasu. domestic {media} has been regulated, and all extreme speech is completely forbidden verb : tense tense usage error 知っ｛た→ている｝人気ウェブがあるから、ぜひお知らせください。 shit {ta→ te iru} ninki webbu ga aru kara, zehi oshirase kudasai. if you {know} any popular website, please inform me wo word order error 日本語｛四級検定→検定四級｝合格！ nihongo {shikyuu kentei → kentei shikyuu} goukaku ! i just passed {level 4 of japanese proficiency test} other other error 数秒後、ベランダーは｛見えるような速度を立て→見る見るうちに立って｝ いきます。 suubyougo, berandaa wa {mieru youna sakudo o tate → miru miru uchi ni tatte} ikimasu. in the next few seconds, the {veranda} swiftly stood before me table 2. error type tagset (modified from koyama (2023) prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 277 a review shows that the error analysis schemes proposed by other scholars are insufficient, as the study aims to annotate multiple errors instead of certain ones. koyama et al.’s error types tagset and pavlovic’s error cause tagset were then combined into a two-layer error tagset,. artificial intelligence (ai) is a generic cover term for systems that can implement human intelligence tasks. a recent trend in ai is the use of large language models (llms), language models trained on a large amount of data to interact using human instead of machine language (e.g. programming languages). in addition to producing texts (creative writing, translation, proofread texts), llms can also generate images, voices, and video, among others. while studies on the use of ai in foreign language education are numerous (e.g. karataş et al., 2024; pan et al., 2024), its application in corpus linguistics, particularly in corpus building, is understudied. among the few that exist, i first highlighted yu et al. (2024) who assessed the potential of llm for corpus pragmatic annotation, comparing chatgpt 3.5 and 4.0. they argue that chatgpt 4.0 is better, and its performance (precision-recall and f1 score) is impressively above 90% for all speech acts. based on this finding, chatgpt 4 is used, whose performance is better. however, yu et al.’s (2024) study is different from this project in at least two respects. first, yu et al.’s (2024) study targeted english instead of japanese. the size and availability of llm’s training data sets for english and japanese are not comparable. second, this project does not aim to apply ai to conduct pragmatic annotations, as yu et al. did. compared to yu et al.’s study, poole and coss’ (2024) study is more similar to ours. pool and coss (2024) studied how chatgpt to apply a writing rubric to essay correction tasks and evaluated is performance. while poole and coss (2024) argue that chatgpt can serve as a valuable tool for l2 is one modification. second, ‘redundancy’ is replaced with an ‘overuse’ category. it is assumed that overuse can include redundancy, but not vice versa, because the latter is restricted to repeating one item (with another identical one), which causes the sentence to be ill-formed. to clarify label 1 and 3 ‘wrong choice’ means that the form is correct in isolation, but contextually erroneous. meanwhile, ‘form_error’ means that the learner attempted to use a correct item, but used the wrong form (e.g., wrong inflection, conjugation, incomplete word, among others). overall, this tagset complements the previous tagset, which mixes form and pos segment errors. the tagset focus on explaining the cause of errors, neutral from pos segment where the errors are commited. compare (2) and (3). in sentence (2), it is observed that the repetition of toki follows sono. the latter is unnecessary and can therefore be categorised as either redundancy or overuse. while the two concepts are interchangeable in (2), in (3), only ‘overuse’ fits. this is because the erroneous segment の no (genitive marker) is not repeated from any segment. its use is unnecessary because, without it, the sentence is already acceptable. (2) 高校生でコロナウイルスがあった時その時人々はみ んな家にいました。１６５ koukousei-de-korona-virusu-ga-atta-toki-sono-toki-hitobito-wa-minna-ie-ni-imashita student.high-school-conj-covid19-subj.caseext-time-that-people-top-all-house-loc-ext ‘when i was in high school and there was a coronavirus pandemic, everyone stayed at home’ (3) ()littlemixのが一番好きです。 ()lttlemix-no-ga-ichiban-suki-desu. ()littlemix-gen-ps-most-like-cop. ‘(i) really like little mix’ for the first aim, the literature review can be concluded as follows. first, the need to construct the corpus targeted in this project is justified by the absence of a japanese essay corpus written by learners of jfl whose l1 is indonesian. second, table 3 error cause tagset (modified from pavlovic (2020) cc-by) no tag label example {incorrect form → correct form} 1 wrong choice wrong_choice ゲーム｛を→が｝好きです。 2 lack of use lack_use ゲーム｛ø→が｝好きです。 3 form error form_error この考えはもう忘れて｛しました→しまいました｝。 4 overuse overuse あの時からよく「hyannanatsu」のスピードペイント動画を見 て、hyanna先生の描き方、線画の描きとか、ペイントする｛の →ø｝方法などを勉強してました。 prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 278 writing assessment, it fails to reach a desirable threshold. the objective of the study and this study is similar: applying some kind of rubric to l2 writing assessment. the difference is that, this project is more specific in that an annotated error analysis scheme, not writing in general is applied. another difference is the target language, which is not english but japanese. in a different language, the analytic scheme may differ due to the language typology. for instance, ‘merge’ and ‘split’ are categories4 of errors present in arabic, as shown in alrehli and alhotahli’s (2025) ai-assisted error analysis, but not in english. the aforementioned critical reviews translate to the novelty of this project. this is the first learner corpus whose data is purely obtained from indonesian students learning japanese. the architecture of the corpus and the data collection procedure are transparent. the corpus is free to access. this allows for replicability, reproducibility, and data expansion under the same protocol. error annotations and existing metadata can lead to corpus-based learner profiling. in terms of studies using ai, many studies have focused on using ai tools, while very few studies have specifically addressed the accuracy of ai tools in conducting error annotation. the results of this study may be useful for improving automated language assessment tools. ii. methods corpus data were collected from respondents 4 note that the remaining categories, however, are quite generic such as semantics, morphology, syntax or punctuation in the department of japanese language universitas diponegoro (undip) for several reasons. first, undip is one of the few universities whose japanese language departments are nationally accredited as a-grade. while the data only cover students from one university, it is argued that this is a sensible starting point before improving representativeness in subsequent studies. starting with relatively small data is one of the approaches to solidifying the data collection and analysis protocol before expanding to a larger data set. approximately 300 students in years 1–3 (year 2021-2023), were asked to write a short essay ranging from 300–600 characters (katakana, hiragana, kanji, or a combination thereof) on a single topic, ‘my hobby’ a single topic, ‘my hobby’ (from june-july 2024). while obvously expandable, and this is considered to be sufficient as a starting point. it shall be addressed in future studies by eliciting and collecting essays on various topics. the consideration for a range of short essays is that the majority of students in year one started as absolute beginners (e.g. minimum proficiency in writing any japanese characters at all), even though by the time data were collected, they had already learned japanese for almost one semester. the students were asked to write an essay in 75 minutes and were not allowed to use any ai writing assistance software or dictionaries. upon completing their essays, they were requested to complete a questionnaire. this is aimed to obtain their metalinguistic information (year of study, jlpt score, sex, among others). the results were saved in spreadsheet files, as shown in figure 1. fig 1. sample results: respondent code, essay, jlpt score, year of study prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 279 the essays and questionnaires were carefully checked to ensure that all essays complied with the character limit, all required metadata information was supplied, and the respondents clearly expressed giving consent for data access and publication. data that did not meet these requirements ( 3 essays) were excluded from the sample. the returned essays were randomly sampled, and stratified by year of study: 30% from each year (see table 4). the sample comprised 107 essays (around 33% of the population), which would form the corpus. table 4. quick summary of the sample5 no information year 1 year 2 year 3 1 essay 35 36 36 2 average characters 372 410 522 3 jlpt/no-jlpt 5/30 15/20 30/5 4 male/female 15/20 13/22 9/26 5 studied japanese before college (y/n) 6/29 2/33 20/10 ai analysis and supervised corpus data creation an assessment was implemented on these essays with help from chatgpt 4.0, which was reported to perform better than its predecessor, chatgpt 3.5, as shown by holland (2023) and massey et al. (2023). the prompts requested chatgpt to identify each incorrect segment and assign error types and cause tags. the prompts were installed on chatgpt’s interface (see japanese essay analyser in fig. 2) and applied them to each essay. unlike park (2019) who compared chatgpt and human works for error analysis, in this study, the results of chatgpt analysis were reviewed by human reviewers. the human reviewers6 reviewed chatgpt responses using a 4-parameter metric, namely, correct segment7 (cs), incorrect segment (is), error type (et), and error cause (ec), as shown in table 5. the human reviewers validated whether or not the values given for these four parameters were accurate, using boolean values (t=true, f=false), as shown in table 5. once the evaluation was concluded, each 5 the slash in each year column correspond to the information. for instance 5/30 in line 4 year 1 means that of 35 students sampled in year 1, 5 have jlpt certificates while the other 30 do not have any jlpt certificate. 6 japanese lecturers/tutors, 2.5 years or more teaching experience, minimum proficiency jplt n2 7 questions asked to reviewers => cs: is there any error in this segment? is:is there any error in this segment? et: is the assigned error tag correct? ec: is the error correction accurate? if yes, write t, if not write f. essay was converted , and its corresponding metadata information, into an xml document to be readable in the user’s preferred corpus query system. the raw corpus in case users do not need error annotation attributes is also provided. the corpus is named dico-jalf8 v 1.0. this procedure helped to fulfil the first objective of this study. for this paper’s visualisation and analysis purposes in this paper, sketch engine was used to index the xml-annotated corpus. the preference for sketch engine is because it includes a japanese pos tagger by default. the information from the corpus was used to measure the accuracy of chatgpt’s annotation for each parameter in the metric and also overall accuracy. accuracy is operationally defined in 8 dico-jalf = diponegoro corpus of japanese learners as a foreign language fig 2. chatgpt’s installed prompt [japanese essay analyzer] and its output sample prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 280 this project as the proportion of true values compared to all values (true+false). the reference was made to the average value of all four parameters for overall accuracy (cf. table 5, and tabel 7). in addition, the likelihood of each error type label assigned by chatgpt being correct was also measured. this technically translates to the proportion of each error type label assigned by chatgpt evaluated as ‘true’ by human annotators. the accuracy of each error type was then measured. the annotators assigned the correct error type label for each mistake made by students following koyama’s modified tagset. the proportion of matching error-type labels given by chatgpt was calculated. this helped to fulfil the second objective of this study. unlike prihantoro (2022), this project does not use precisionrecall as an evaluation measure because the tags are unambiguous, while precision-recall is an evaluative measure typically used in information retrieval systems, beyond this study’s coverage. for unambiguous tags, accuracy is a better fit, as commonly used on other projects such as prihantoro (2025), pandey (2002), or thewissen (2013). iii. results objective 1 architecture the first research objective, to create dicojalf v.1.0, has been fulfilled. here, two xml versions of dico-jalf were created: raw and annotated. the raw version includes all essays (325), while the annotated version includes a sample (1079), as shown in table 6. the latter was enhanced with chatgpt error annotation and human evaluation. these versions are freely available for download10 and use in users’ preferred corpus query systems. regardless, all essays with their corresponding metadata were indexed in se. as pos tags and metadata are present, users can perform pos-based searches with metadata restrictions, as shown in figure 3. it shows adjectives used by female students ranked by frequency. the corpus created corpus fulfils the first aim of this research, which is to create an errorannotated corpus from indonesian students learning japanese as a foreign language at various levels. unlike imamura et al.’s (2012) experiment in which pseudo data were used, in this study the data used were obtained authentically from human learners of japanese as a foreign language whose native or dominant language is indonesian. if specifically compared to other learner corpora in japanese, such as the international corpus of japanese as a second language (ijas), natsume (nishina et al., 2014), the learner corpus created for imamura et al.’s (imamura et al., 2014) experiment, or naist lang 8 (kasahara et al., 2011), this corpus is smaller. while this may be considered a handicap, it is argued to be a sensible starting point. 9this is around 30% of all essays, a manageable amount considering the time and financial constraints. the commitment is to expand this once more finance and time resources are available. 10 https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/11qrejurmjarfkoei5mlppvubjkhqmiar?usp=drive_link table 5. sample evaluation metric no cs ev cs is ev is et ev et ec ev ec 1 この趣味は子供の時から今 まで t 続きます。 t verb_infl t form error t 2 それから私のしゅみはホラー オンラインマンガを t よみます。 t verb f form error t 3 たくさんオンラインゲームを t あそびま す。 t verb t form error f table 6. quick summary of the corpus no cs full eval 1 token 70070 19223 2 text (essay) 325 107 3 metadata attribute yes yes 4 pos-tagged (mecab) yes yes 5 gpt 4.0-error-annotated no yes 6 human evaluation no yes prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 281 in terms of the contribution in the context of japanese learners whose l1 is indonesian, the data were specifically obtained from native speakers of indonesian, an aspect missing from other learner corpora of japanese. there is indeed a small subset of ijas data that came from indonesian students. however, the number of students for the experiment was just 50. in contrasts, for this project, data from 325 students (107 error annotated) was collected , far outweighing ijas respondents. also ijas collect data of students from various countries. conversely, the focus of this study is on indonesian students. thus, this corpus can characterise errors generated by japanese learners as a foreign language in indonesia better. in future years, the plan is to expand the corpus size by covering all the universities in indonesia in which japanese study programmes are offered. corpus search based on error tags users can search the corpus based on error type or cause tags using the following cql format <er_type tag=“verb”/> (to search for verb category errors) or <er_cause tag=“wc”/> (to search for wrong choice errors). note that, in aim 2, it is argued that chatgpt is not entirely accurate. thus, users can also incorporate human evaluation information. an example is <er_type eval=“verb”> with restriction to true in the er_type text types. this means that it restricts the search for verb errors that have been evaluated as true by human evaluators. this increases the likelihood that users will get the desired outcome (see fig. 4). the figure below shows concordance lines whose nodes are error-tagged with ‘verb’ and evaluated true by human annotators, presented alongside their left and right contexts. in some situations, users might want to perform a more underspecified search, such as showing all erroneous segments, error types, and causes (and, in some cases, human evaluation). while, by default, the segment that fits the query is visible in concordances, tags will only be visible based on users’ actions. their visibility might be helpful to users wishing to identify types of errors and causes of errors (as well as their evaluation). figure 6 shows that users can checkmark the attributes they want to show, while figure 5 shows how these elements are visually presented in fig 3. frequency of adjectives used by female students in dico-jalf’s se (generated by word list tool) fig 4. concordance lines from <er_type eval=”true”/> with verb restriction in er_type text types in dico-jalf’s se (generated by concordance tool) prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 282 fig 5. setting the visibility of xml attribute-values in dico-jalf’s se (generated by concordance tool) fig 6. concordance lines from <er_type> with visible error type in dico-jalf’s se (generated by concordance tool) concordances. compare this with figure 4 above, in which no attribute or value is present. objective 2 this subsection demonstrates that the second aim of this present study has also been fulfilled: to measure the accuracy of chatgpt annotation. it is argued that chatgpt can annotate errors in approximately 70.31% of the cases. using a human evaluation procedure, it can be established that chatgpt is not completely accurate and makes mistakes. see (4). chatgpt marked できます dekimasu ‘able to’ as an erroneous segment, but this is not accurate as this segment should not be marked as erroneous. the use of dekimasu is indeed correct. regardless, it was marked as an erroneous segment by chatgpt. therefore, the human evaluation is false. (4) 私は描くことが<is eval_hum=”false”>できます <is> watashi-wa-kaku koto-ga-dekimasu 1-top-draw-subj-able ‘i can draw’ note that, in many cases, chatgpt’s analyses were accurate. for instance, in (5), it correctly marked 続きます tsuzukimasu ‘to resume’ as an erroneous segment. it also successfully identified verb_infl and form_error as a correct error type and with correct error cause labels. the correct form of the verb should be 続いてい ます tsuzuite imasu ‘to resume’. hence, human evaluators marked them as true, as all evaluations are accurate. (5) この趣味は子供の時から今まで<is eval_ hum=”true”><er_type tag=”verb_infl” eval_hum=”true”><er_cause tag=”form_error” eval_hum=”true”>続きます</er_type></er_ cause></is>。 この趣味は子供の時から今まで続きます。 kono-shumi-wa-kodomo no toki-kara-ima-madeprihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 283 tsuzukimasu dem-hobby-top-childhood-from-now-until-continue ‘(i) resume this childhood hobby up to now.’ table 7 shows that chatgpt was 60.44% accurate in error identification. in terms of error types, accuracy was measured at 65.69%. this means that more than 30% of the error labels were incorrectly assigned. for instance, in (6), chatgpt assigned adj_infl. however, the correct label should be spell, because the erroneous segment is missing い i at the end. table 7. accuracy for chatgpt performance no segment accuracy (%) 1 correct segment 84.76 2 erroneous segment 60.44 3 error type tags 65.69 3 error cause tags 70.33 4 mean value accuracy 70.31 (6) あのマンガは本当に<er_type tag=”adj_infl” eval_hum=”false”>かっこい </er_type>です。 あのマンガは本当にかっこいです。 ano-manga-wa-hontou ni-kakkoi-desu dem-comic-top-really-cool-cop ‘that comic is really cool’ in terms of error-cause labels, the accuracy is slightly better at 70.33 %. this means that only less than 30% of the data were misanalysed (see (7)). in this example, セリス serisu ‘serial’ was categorised by chatgpt as a wrong_choice in terms of error cause. this is, however, inaccurate because the inaccuracy lies in its form. セリス should be replaced by シリーズ shiriizu “serial”, as the former is not listed as valid japanese vocabulary. the correct label is, therefore, form_error, instead of wrong_choice. (7) 私の趣味はドラマ、アニメ、映画<er_cause tag=”wrong_choice” eval_hum=”false”> セリス</er_cause>を見るこ とです。 watashi-no–shumi-wa-dorama,-anime,-eiga,serisu-omiru koto-desu 1-gen–hobby-top-drama-anime-filmserial-objwatch-cop ‘my hobby is watching dramas, animes, movies, and series’ it may be concluded that, in this project, chatgpt performed with 70.31 % accuracy, averaging across the four parameters (sd= 9.07 mdn = 68.01, iqr=14.48). this is low compared to the findings of yu et al. (2024), whose accuracy rate could exceed 90%. one possible reason is that more training data for chatgpt is available in english instead of japanese. this data paucity leads to worse system performance when errors in english are identified. as for the likelihood of error-type labels being valid, an operational question would be: ‘if chatgpt says this is a particle (part) error, how accurate is this analysis?’ it can be observed that the error rate for part (particle) error type labels is the lowest (23.26%), as shown in table 8. this means the chance of this label being correct is 76.74%. that means the less the error likelihood, the more chances for a label to be correctly annotated. table 8. likelihood of error type labels given by chatgpt error type label error likelihood (%) pron 84.21 aux 83.58 wo 78.95 adj 71.7 adv 70.83 verb 66.92 conj 68.18 other 65.52 verb(infl) 51.92 noun 51.55 adj(infl) 48.65 verb(tense) 46.67 spell 39.08 punct 30.43 det 28.57 part 23.26 as for the accurate annotations, i.e., all chatgpt error annotations validated as true by human evaluators, as shown in figure 7, two of the top-three error tags are related to verbs (verb and verb_infl) with a relatively larger proportion than other errors. this result shows that the acquisition of japanese verbs for the learners of japanese in the sample is an area where improvements may be prioritised. looking closely at the error cause of these categories (all verbs), as shown in figure 8, the reasons for the verb errors are the use of wrong forms (58%) or the use of incorrect verb choice (38%). verb overuse accounts for only 21%. this result means that the prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 284 acquisition of japanese morphology and semantics for verbs still needs to be improved. these finding aligns with hayashishita and ueyama (2020), yusuf et al. (2024), putri (2020), and reina and lee (2023), who studied verbal errors committed by the learners of japanese as a foreign language. in some cases, chatgpt still assigned tags beyond the required tagset. for instance, it marked the cause of an error as ‘punctuation_ error’ or ‘spelling_error’. while the prompts to chatgpt clearly instructed it not to include categories beyond the required tagsets, this still happened. this may be driven by chatgpt’s temperature. as argued by poole and coss (2024), the temperature set (between 0–1) may affect chatgpt’s ‘creativity’. as for this research, the default chatgpt temperature is preserved to experiment how regular users would chatgpt, which does not require certain technical knowledge. advanced users can usually implement temperature changes by accessing chatgpt’s api. iv. discussion the results of the study presented earlier can be interpreted as follows. first, regarding error rates, it can be observed that ‘verb’ is the most problematic area. this, whilst an empirical finding, is anticipated as japanese has a complex verb conjugation system (hayashishita and ueyama, 2020), a feature absent in indonesian, the l1 of all the respondents in this study. this is substantiated by form errors, as a negative transfer, whose error frequency is quite large. another substantial cause of mistakes is lexical choice. the difference in the verb semantics arguably causes this. for instance, as shown in aror et al (2024), the verb ‘to wear (outfit)’ in japanese may be realised in different lexical choices depending on the position (as in fig 7. distribution of error tags fig 8. distribution of error tags for all verbs errors prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 285 head, hand, body, feet). and due to the absence of the corresponding lexical choices in indonesian, they resorted to the wrong verb choice. in terms of chatgpt accuracy (70% of correct identification of errors), this may be driven by the complexity of the annotation scheme adhered in this study. in a similar study discussing chatgpt’s accuracy (yu et al., 2024), it may be noticed that the annotation scheme used is different from ours. another possible factor is chatgpt ‘temperature’ (the extent to which chatgpt can be creative or deterministic) can be applied as shown in poole and coss (2024). the findings show how the gap in corpusbased research on error analysis of japanese as a foreign language in indonesia has been filled. previous studies whose subjects share similarities in their characteristics with ours (aror et al., 2024; putri, 2020; barus and pujiono, 2021) are not corpus-based. in terms of error annotation scheme and methodology, this study offers some advancements. most studies study particular errors, while overall error analysis in this study is implemented. methodologically, previous studies or error analyses of japanese learners in indonesia did not use ai tools to identify errors. instead, errors were directly identified by human teachers. while methodologically different from sanosi (2022) and heintz et al. (2022), the study shares similar findings in that, in terms of accuracy, there are some areas in which ai-based applications can still be improved. regardless of its shortcomings, as shown by tyson (2023) in the case of chatgpt, ai is still arguably helpful in providing grammatical feedback. however, it still needs to be overseen by human evaluation to improve its accuracy. regarding implications, dico-jalf v.1.0 (the created corpus) may serve as an empirical database for interlanguage studies. for language pedagogy, the findings may be used as a stepping stone to improve japanese teaching materials or techniques in, but not limited to, indonesia. it can also be used for data-driven learning by supplying authentic errors and their corrections. for natural language processing (nlp), the corpus may be used as training data for developing error correction systems. for future studies, it is also possible to compare chatgpt with another llm-based system, such as deepseek or gemini, to compare their performance. in terms of population, the learner group can also be expanded to represent japanese learners as a foreign language in indonesia by recruiting subjects from different universities and regions in indonesian. v. conclusion as shown in the earlier section, dico-jalf v.1.0 has been created, and it is now publicly available (objective 1). this is the first errorannotated learner corpus of japanese obtained from indonesian students. this corpus can already be used to support open and distributed learning. students also have the option to use their preferred systems to access it. the representativeness of the corpus may be improved by incorproating more data from diverse universities in indonesia. the use of ai to create error annotations in dico-jalf has been demonstrated. however, the post-annotation evaluation suggests that the overall annotation accuracy (70%), i.e. the proportion of chatgpt correctly annotates errors, can still be improved (objective 2). using this, japanese language teachers and lecturers can identify errors in different metadata categories and devise datadriven teaching materials, allowing them to target specific areas of weakness. this research is an essential contribution to ai-based japanese language assessment tools. in this paper, ai assistance into dicojalf to automatically annotate errors has been implemented. in addition, the capability of automated systems to detect and classify common errors in japanese made by indonesian students has been demonstrated. this may contribute to the better performance of ai-based language tools. acknowledgement this research was funded by the faculty of humanities, universitas diponegoro, through the 2024 research grant, international joint research scheme (no: 106/un7.f6/hk/iii), with prihantoro, s.s., m.a., ph.d., as the principal investigator, and with dr. tanjun liu (xi’an jiaotong–liverpool university, china) and prof. shin’ichiro ishikawa (kobe university, japan) as international research partners. the authors express their sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their insightful feedback and constructive comments, which have greatly contributed to the refinement of this work. appreciation is also extended to the editors for their professional support throughout the prihantoro / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 286 references alrehili, a., & alhothali, a. 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(2024). an analysis of japanese verb conjugation errors among students at universitas harapan medan. humanities & language, 1(3), 183–190. https://doi. org/10.32734/w2gj8r54 lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 401 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 17, 2025 final revision: september 19, 2025 accepted: september 21, 2025 available online: september 28, 2025 morocco’s sociolinguistic landscape has been shaped by enduring historical, political, and ideological forces that continue to structure public discourse on language policy. moroccan language policy has fluctuated between the unassailable dominance of french in economic, educational and political domains and arabisation initiatives to reinstate arabic as the language of national identity. recently, online campaigns, particularly on social media platforms like twitter, called for the displacement of french in favour of english as the primary foreign language in the country. drawing on a corpus of tweets posted between 1 september 2021 and march 2023, this paper uses corpus-assisted discourse studies to examine language ideologies articulated in arabic, english, french, and tamazight posts. findings reveal that english, on one hand, is framed as a language of global opportunity, related to scientific advancement, professional mobility, and cultural modernity. on the other hand, french is portrayed as a colonial remnant, indicative of restricted economic horizons and historical inequality. concurrently, arabic and tamazight emerge in the data not only as symbols of national identity but also as ideological anchors, invoked by some users to advocate for linguistic sovereignty. however, these official languages remain discursively marginal concerning science, technology, and international communication. this paper sheds light on the digital negotiation of morocco’s linguistic future, where public discourse blurs the boundaries between language policy, colonial past, economic aspirations, and globalisation. by tracing these discursive struggles, this study adds substantially to the understanding of the evolving role of social media in shaping language planning and language ideologies. keywords language policy, anglophonism, social media, linguistic identity, language ideologies, hashtags correspondence *e-mail: elbourkhissi.lhou@usmba.ac.ma article language policy and the pursuit of a new linguistic identity in morocco: a critical analysis of pro-english discourse on twitter lhou elbourkhissi1, khalid houssaini2 1department of english studies, faculty of letters and human sciences dhar el mahraz, sidi mohamed ben abdellah university, fes, morocco 2national school of commerce and management (encgf), sidi mohamed ben abdellah university, fes, morocco under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.401-423.2025 i. introduction the common use of english has gained notable prominence recently, mirroring its global status as a crucial instrument for international communication in commerce, research, and technology. long theorised as a powerful ‘language of wider communication’ (edwards, 1994), english gained official language status in various regions, making it an ever more compelling choice for learners worldwide. the widespread use of the internet has further reinforced its worldwide ubiquity (thành et al., 2023). language policy in morocco is influenced by socio-political and economic factors, notably shaped by its colonial past, which made french the dominant language (boutieri, 2016; ennaji, 2005). the neoliberal economic policies and globalisation have, nevertheless, triggered a steady change by increasing the belief that the mastery of english is required to integrate into the global lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 402 market (commission spéciale sur le modèle de développement [csmd], 2021; duchêne & heller, 2012). emerging conditions and the evolving landscape of technology breakthroughs progressively influence these macro-level language policies. due to these conditions, internet usage has markedly increased in morocco, further influencing linguistic practices. in 2023, approximately 21 million individuals, 56.6% of the population, utilised social media, while an estimated 88.1% of the population had internet access. this increased young exposure to multilingual content and english in particular. (datareportal, 2023; high commission for planning [hcp], 2014; world bank, 2015; united nations, 2015). digital media have emerged as important platforms for language learning (hikmah, 2019; khazhgaliyeva et al., 2023; wang et al., 2023), social networking (onwuchekwa, 2014), and the diffusion of linguistic trends across various demographics (dimaggio et al., 2001; kim, 2011; morris & ogan, 1996), reinforcing and accelerating ongoing shifts in morocco’s linguistic landscape (bouziane & saoudi, 2021; zakhir, 2018). existing scholarship has highlighted that morocco’s evolving linguistic landscape, particularly the increased visibility of moroccan arabic, as a battlefield of language ideologies (zakhir & o’brien, 2019), in urban areas like hamriya (meknès), reflects shifting sociolinguistic hierarchies (moustaoui, 2019, 2022). following morocco’s independence in 1956 (laâbi, 2013), many advocates of arabisation challenged the dominance of french (zakhir & o’brien, 2017). however, modernists position french as the gateway to international communication (vetchinova, 2022). in recent years, morocco’s linguistic landscape has evolved to recognise the importance of its native languages while promoting multilingualism and cultural diversity (ennaji, 2005; daniel & ball, 2009). since the late 1990s and early 2000s, economic liberalisation, including structural adjustments (promoted by institutions like the world bank and imf) and deeper market integration, has further elevated the perceived necessity of english for trade, investment, and tourism, and has legitimised its profile as a lingua franca for international business communication (boutieri, 2016; ennaji, 2005). morocco’s 2021 new development model further expedited this change by placing a clear priority on digitalisation, human capital development, and integration into global value chains (commission spéciale sur le modèle de développement [csmd], 2021). within a neoliberal frame that commodifies linguistic skills, english fluency is regarded as a need for entering competitive global markets (duchêne & heller, 2012; elkhayma & ezzaidi, 2024; laaguid, 2024). more recently, the debate has shifted towards advocating for english. from september 2021 to march 2023, a social media-driven movement has emerged to challenge the legitimacy of french and promote english as a preferable alternative for international communication, turning microblogging sites into sites of language planning “from below”. this surge in “digital activism” (fuentes, 2025) is linked to rising morocco-france political tensions (atalayar, 2023; ghoulidi, 2024; mckenna, 2022) and to ministerial initiatives to introduce english at the middle-school level (billings, 2023; dahbi, 2023). in these debates, advocacy for english frequently questions the inherited hierarchy that privileges french. linked to this framing is a narrative of french’s declining symbolic capital, particularly in higher education. dissatisfaction with frenchmedium instruction has grown, driven by the sense that french is insufficient for the anglophone knowledge economy and that it narrows international visibility for students and scholars (loutfi & noamane, 2020). as morocco attempts to internationalise its universities and connect with global economic shifts that favour english, the historically attached capital to french has started to decline. these dynamics have contributed to the emergence of new bottom-up shifts in language policy (lp), wherein individual actors, educational institutions, and civil society mobilise discursively and practically in favour of english. true to form, issues of language policy and planning arise both locally (liddicoat & jr, 2008; wiley & garcía, 2016; civico, 2021) and globally (hanna, 2011; jr, 2012; chua, 2017), as government institutions decide which languages can be used (cardinal & léger, 2018; fishman, 2017; spolsky & shohamy, 2008; van els, 2001), taught (spolsky, 2004; kaplan & baldauf, 2005), or promoted (bertrand, 2003; ngcobo, 2009; lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 403 romaine, 2017; roy-campbell, 2005; williams, 2013). whilst making these choices, language planners may empower some languages at the expense of others (fishman, 1994), consequently, affecting how languages are acquired, developed, and utilised in society. from the establishment of the french protectorate in 1912 until morocco’s independence in 1956, the french language was imposed as the principal medium of administration and public life (bahij, 2013; boulahnane, 2018; lawson, 1957; segalla, 2009; shahu, 2014; wyrtzen, 2009). even after independence, the french language retained a strong presence in economic, financial, and political spheres. boukous (2013) observes that “the presence of the french language weighs heavily on the linguistic market” (p. 13), underscoring france’s enduring role as morocco’s leading economic partner and foreign investor. the broader framework of francophonie has often been criticised for privileging elite reproduction over mass education (barclay, 2006) and for constraining linguistic equity while reinforcing a stratified social order (blommaert, 1999). after gaining its independence, morocco adopted a new language policy commonly known as arabisation (ennaji, 1988, 2013; errihani, 2024; loutfi, 2020; marley, 2004; moustaoui, 2017; strengholt, 2009; tomaštík, 2010; zakhir & o’brien, 2017; zouhir, 2008). early works in this area noted that policymakers meant to preserve the country’s arab-islamic heritage by reinstating the arabic language in education (ennaji, 2005; moatassime, 1974), media (zaid, 2009), and administration (yacine, 2015). despite its efforts to strengthen national identity and cultural cohesion within the country, this policy drew criticism for implicitly marginalising amazigh communities (crawford, 2002; spaulding, 2023). observers note that the emphasis on arabic risked overlooking morocco’s diverse historical and cultural references (miller, 2013), thereby undermining national unity rather than reinforcing it (dines, 2021; elboubekri, 2013; lounnas & messari, 2018; naguib, 2020; qasmi, 2023). the state also has invested in amazigh recognition and standardisation. the royal speech of ajdir (2001) and the establishment of the royal institute of amazigh culture (ircam) marked a major symbolic and institutional shift toward valorising indigenous language and heritage, with subsequent proposals for an organic law to implement tamazight’s official character across education and priority public domains (ennaji, 2005; errihani, 2023; kruse iii, 2013; redouane & sabiri, 2024). as the implementation lags., amazigh organisations continue to decry the slow pace and unevenness of institutionalisation (bourhrous, 2013; ghilani, 2022). scholars describe a pattern of fragmentation across ministries, weak regulatory enforcement, and regional disparities that keep ambitious provisions aspirational (boukous, 2013; ennaji, 2005). in bamgbose’s (1991) terms, policy can appear as a “do-nothing” stance that rhetorically supports mother tongues while underdelivering on concrete measures. overall, language policy in morocco is laden with paradoxes. in essence, these policies often fail to establish cohesive, sustainable frameworks for equitable implementation across sectors. against this background, english was introduced in a noticeable way during world war ii with military presence (conway, 2019; dworak, 2011). english is widely perceived – even among french-educated elitesas the language of science, technology, business, and cyberspace (sadiqi, 1991, 2006; elbiad, 1985). in addition, the youth increasingly rely on english for online research and social media use (putra & nopember, 2020). these perceptions go hand in hand with critical research that views the spread of english as a part of enduring and historical structures of political and economic hegemony (phillipson, 1992), a perspective that is necessary to keep in analytical tension with accounts that emphasise agency, aspiration, and strategic choice (ennaji, 2005; salomone & salomone, 2022; belhiah, 2020; belhiah et al., 2020; kachoub, 2021). these changes bear the possibility of english serving as morocco’s new primary gateway to the modern world. however, english remains largely absent from moroccan television (ennaji, 2005, p. 119). concerning education, morocco’s recent educational reforms have introduced a multilingual program known as “language alternation” (la), which promotes the use of french, english, and spanish as mediums of instruction for science subjects at the secondary level. in spite of the ambition for plurilingualism, teachers highlight a policy gap in classrooms (ben hammou & kesbi, 2024). lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 404 linguistic markers that foster social affiliation, as if saying: “search for me and affiliate with my value!” (p. 2). in this way, twitter users create microdiscourses around shared interests, ideologies, or language movements. prior research shows that twitter’s relational patterns are shaped by offline spatial proximity and across social geographies (quercia, capra, & crowcroft, 2021; takhteyev, gruzd, & wellman, 2012). we therefore frame the platform as polymedia one choice within a communicative ecology which guides our sampling and interpretation (madianou & miller, 2013). collection proceeded by tracking predefined hashtags/keywords associated with english advocacy and french decline in morocco; results were deduplicated and anonymised. we used keyhole (https://keyhole.co) to retrieve historical data and real-time snapshots, distinguishing original tweets from retweets to avoid amplification bias, and applying language and geolocation filters where available (bruns & stieglitz, 2013; graham et al., 2014). we followed ethical norms for public-data research and platform terms (boyd & crawford, 2012; kwak et al., 2010), while remaining attentive to retrieval biases (e.g., bots, algorithmic surfacing) noted in the literature (morstatter et al., 2021). posts were taken into consideration if they (a) were in arabic, english, french, or tamazight and (b) had at least one of the relevant hashtags: #oui_ pour_anglais_au_lieu_du_français_au_maroc, _نعم _or #yes_for ,#لإلنجليزية_بدل_الفرنسية_بالمغرب english_instead_of_french_in_morocco. we included originals and quote-posts and excluded retweets without added text. as zappavinga (2011) observes, hashtags are searchable features that increase a tweet’s “loudness,” making online texts more “bondable” through shared topics or communities. posts were labelled multilingual when at least two languages appeared within the same post, based on mixed scripts from a second language; for example: “#yes_for_english_ instead_of_french_in_morocco تعتمد خاصها الجامعة → ”[’universities should adopt english‘] اإلنجليزية en + ar. the final linguistic corpus comprises 540 public tweets and retweets, with a total of over 10,000 words, posted on twitter during the same period. data analysis in this present study, we adopt a corpusalthough there is a global demand, english still does not enjoy its rightful status, reflecting broader tensions in morocco’s evolving linguistic landscape, particularly with french’s deeply rooted position. to further explore these developments, this paper addresses the following research questions: 1. in what ways are english and french discursively represented within twitter discourse related to language policy in morocco? 2. what discursive roles do morocco’s official languages—arabic and tamazight—play within the broader linguistic movement observed on twitter? ii. methods study design this study adopts a qualitative corpusassisted discourse studies (cads) design (baker, 2006; baker et al., 2008; partington et al., 2013; putri & mardiah, 2024) to examine how language ideologies are articulated, contested, and reimagined in moroccan social-media discourse, focusing on campaigns advocating english as a replacement for french as the primary foreign language. source of data the data for this study were drawn primarily from social media posts. twitter served as a social media platform that reflects language ideologies circulating in morocco’s digital discourse. the dataset consists of user-generated twitter posts produced between 1 september 2021 and march 2023, a period of heightened online activism around language choice in morocco, particularly for the adoption of english and the decline of french as morocco’s primary foreign language. data collection we chose to study the discourse of anglophonism advocates on twitter for two main reasons. first, twitter’s brevity-constrained format (140, later 280 characters) affords compact ideological positioning and rapid exchange (rosen & ikuhiro, 2017); second, its public/semi-public interaction facilitates observation across diverse users. platform conventions like @-mentions and hashtags function as organisational devices and affiliative markers that assemble issue publics. zappavinga (2011) notes that hashtags function as lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 405 based discourse studies approach (baker, 2006) to analyse these tweets. in corpus linguistics, researchers often begin with frequency analysis, assuming that words used or avoided with notable frequency may indicate particular functions within a community (mcenery & hardie, 2011). however, meaning does not stem from isolated words alone, but rather from their repeated usage and broader textual patterns. as baker (2006) notes, analysing multiple texts (or a large corpus) allows discourse analysts to identify intertextual and contextual cues that shape meaning. although discourse theory underlies our research, the focus here lies predominantly on how corpus-linguistic methods and findings reveal key facets of language ideologies within the collected tweets. prior to analysis, tweets were minimally cleaned (and user mentions) while preserving hashtags verbatim; in this corpus, users consistently preserve word boundaries in hashtags with underscores, which we retained during processing (e.g., #yes_for_ english_instead_of_french_in_morocco). we operationalised cads through a staged workflow: (1) frequency profiling and keyword clouding (via keyhole) to surface high-salience lexical items (rayson & mariani, 2009); (2) collocation and concordance key word in context (kwic) reading to trace recurrent patterns; and (3) interpretive discourse analysis linking lexicogrammatical patterning to language-ideological stances (baker, 2006; baker et al., 2008; partington et al., 2013; mcenery & hardie, 2011). while exploratory frequency outputs were obtained with keyhole, the co-occurrence network was computed independently in google colab (https:// colab.research.google.com/) using python, with networkx to build an undirected graph (nodes = keywords, sized by term frequency; edges = within-tweet co-occurrences, optionally weighted by pair counts) and to compute node positions via the spring_layout fruchterman–reingold forcedirected algorithm; the figure was rendered and exported at publication quality with matplotlib (savefig, jpeg). in this study, ipa transcription was chosen to maintain consistency and uphold an academic approach throughout the paper. rather than presenting the original tweets in arabic or tamazight, which might introduce inconsistencies in script usage and formatting, ipa transcription offers a standardised representation of the text (wei & moyer, 2008). this method ensures that the linguistic data is systematically recorded while allowing for precise analysis. additionally, a translated version in english is provided alongside the transcription to ease interpretation and accessibility. tweets originally in french were retained in standard orthography, given adequate intelligibility for the study audience. following best practice, transcription was treated as an analytic, non-neutral act, and decisions were documented through reflexive memos and an audit trail (roberts, 1997). iii. results frequency and distribution of hashtags one of the most immediate findings to emerge from the data pertained to frequency. the most frequently occurring lexical items are english, french, language, francophonie, morocco, and official languages. these items indicate that the dominant themes centre on language policy issues in morocco. this aligns with earlier studies on digital discourse, where frequently used lexical items reflect key thematic concerns in online activism (baker, 2006). however, among the most frequently occurring terms, words like “https,” “com,” “www,” “org,” and “ma” appear disproportionately. these terms are typically associated with urls, suggesting a significant presence of external links in the tweets. the findings reveal that the frequency of “com” and “ma” (150 occurrences) indicates that over onethird of all tweets contain at least one website link. this finding is consistent with previous research on digital activism and information-sharing behaviours, where external links are often used to confirm claims or provide further context (bonilla & rosa, 2015). similarly, frequently occurring clusters such as facebook (21), youtube (24), and tiktok (15) highlight the role of other social media platforms in disseminating and popularising this linguistic movement, supporting findings by zappavigna (2011), who argued that social media affordances amplify collective discourses. the use of polling as a technique for interactive participation is a remarkable finding. the term “polling” appeared twice, but was crucial in encouraging public involvement in twitter polls. in addition to allowing users to vote for the languages they preferred, these polls promoted conversations regarding linguistic ideology and lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 406 policy. twitter polling serves as an engagement strategy that surfaces viewpoints and mobilises collective opinion (zappavigna, 2011). this highlights the role social media as a discursive platform of active participation rather than passive consumption (graham et al., 2014). the frequency analysis also revealed that tweets were written in a variety of languages, with arabic and english being the most commonly used languages. not unexpectedly, these two languages were used to create the majority of these hashtags. nonetheless, a number of functional terms were present in both french and tamazight, indicating that multilingualism influenced discourse. multilingual hashtags align with findings that multilingualism enhances the interpretability and reach of digital activism (bruns & stieglitz, 2013). in tamazight, either in tifinagh script or romanised letters, words such as “awal” (speech, 27), “berber” (10), and “tifinagh” (36) appeared. in french, notable clusters included “l’anglais” (15), “oui” (10), “au lieu” (10), and “non” (15 occurrences).. the patterns indicate the movement drew linguistically diverse users and that multilingual practices coconstructed meaning in the discourse, consistent with work showing social-media language indexes cultural positioning and ideological stance (boyd & crawford, 2012). as we relied on using keyhole and google colab for key clouds, figure 1 represents the most co-occurring words that emerged from the analysis. as shown in figure 1, the co-occurrence network reveals the complex and ideologically charged discursive landscape of moroccan twitter concerning language and identity. english emerges as the most frequent and centrally connected node, discursively associated with themes of modernity, education, science, and globalisation. this centrality underscores english’s symbolic function as a language of progress and international engagement, potentially aligned with grassroots calls for linguistic shift (zouhir, 2013). in contrast, french is clustered with terms like colonial, francisation, and imperialism, reflecting its contested status as a remnant of colonial hegemony and a target of postcolonial resistance (youssi, 1995). meanwhile, tamazight’s co-occurrence with concepts such as culture, multilingualism, and identity points to ongoing assertions of indigenous linguistic rights and symbolic inclusion within moroccan national identity. the associations between language, policy, and power further highlight awareness of institutional language planning and its sociopolitical ramifications (tollefson, 2006). thus, the visualisation not only captures lexical proximities but also maps the ideological terrain in which figure 1. co-occurrence network of language discourse keywords lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 407 languages are imbued with historical, cultural, and political meaning. the hashtags in this study were grouped into four major thematic groups. the first two groups consist of hashtags advocating for the integration of english and those devaluing french and the francophonie ideology in morocco. the role of the remaining two groups will be elaborated upon in the subsequent sections. the hashtags (table 1) represent different expressions of preference for english over french in morocco. the most frequently used hashtag was #yes_to_english_no_to_french (25 occurrences, 4.6%), followed by #yes_to_english (20 occurrences, 3.7%). the hashtag #yes_ for_english_instead_of_french_in_morocco appeared 16 times (3.0%). other hashtags with notable frequency include #no_to_french (14 occurrences, 2.6%) and #english_instead_of_ french (10 occurrences, 1.9%). the hashtag #oui_pour_anglais_au_lieu_du_ français_au_maroc appeared the least frequently in this dataset, with 5 occurrences (0.9%), the same frequency as #english_time. other hashtags with relatively lower frequencies include #no_to_ french_yes_to_english (6 occurrences, 1.1%) and #morocco_instead_of_maroc (8 occurrences, 1.5%). these hashtags (table 2) include different expressions related to english advocacy and opposition to french in morocco. the most frequently used hashtag was #ال_للفرنسية (no to french) (106 occurrences, 19.63%), followed by ,101 occurrences) (no to francisation) ال_للفرنسة# 18.70%). the hashtag #_نعم_لإلنجليزية_بدل_الفرنسية yes to english instead of french in) بالمغرب morocco) appeared 96 times (17.78%). other hashtags with notable frequency include #نعم نعم_لإلنجليزية_# occurrences, 4.4%) and لإلنجليزية (24 14) (yes to english, no to french) ال_للفرنسية occurrences, 2.59%). the hashtag #ال_للفرنكفونية (no to francophonie) appeared the least frequently in this dataset, with 13 occurrences (2.4%). the first group of hashtags shows that arabic-language hashtags advocating for english accounted for 65.5% of the total tweets, a higher proportion than tweets using english or french hashtags to advocate for the same language. table 1. frequent hashtags in english and french hashtag translation frequency percentage (%) #yes_to_english 20 3.7 #yes_to_english_no_to_french 25 4.6 #no_to_french_yes_to_english 6 1.1 #no_to_french 14 2.6 #english_instead_of_french 10 1.9 #morocco_instead_of_maroc 8 1.5 #yes_to_english_no_to_french_language 9 1.7 #oui_pour_anglais_au_lieu_du_français_au_maroc yes to english instead of french in morocco 5 0.9 #english_time 5 0.9 #yes_for_english_instead_of_french_in_morocco 16 3 table 2. most repeated hashtags in arabic hashtag translation frequency percentage (%) نعم لإلنجليزية# yes to english 24 4.4 نعم_لإلنجليزية_بدل_الفرنسية_بالمغرب# yes to english instead of french in morocco 96 17.78 ال_للفرنسة# no to francisation 101 18.70 ال_للفرنسية# no to french 106 19.63 ال_للفرنكفونية# no to francophonie 13 2.4 نعم_لإلنجليزية_ال_للفرنسية# yes to english, no to french 14 2.59 lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 408 the second group of hashtags (table 3) was related to geographical locations . morocco was the most frequently mentioned location across three languages: arabic, french, and english. other moroccan cosmopolitan cities were also present, along with international locations such as france and guinea-bissau. additionally, ghana was mentioned in some tweets. the third group of hashtags shown in table 4 was related to media outlets, particularly news sources. in addition to moroccan news sources, mentions included middle eastern, american, and british media outlets. a variety of news outlets appeared in the dataset, including the moroccan english-language e-newspaper mwn, which was frequently referenced. another significant group of hashtags (table 5) was associated with politics, social movements, and international events. in reference to politics, the hashtags #parti_rni (rni party) and #rni were linked to the moroccan political party rassemblement national des indépendants (rni). additionally, individual politicians’ accounts, such as @chefgov_ma and @aziz_akhnnouch, were mentioned alongside these hashtags. furthermore, some hashtags in this group referred to economic concerns, such as #7dh_gazoil (7 dirhams diesel) and #8dh_essance (8 dirhams gasoline), which appeared in the dataset alongside other politically oriented hashtags. other hashtags referenced national and international events, including #moroccan_sahara and #world_cup. all the hashtags amplifying this linguistic movement appeared in multiple languages, with arabic, english, french, and tamazight being the most prominent. notably, users across both tweets and retweets frequently employed the same hashtags across different languages, reinforcing the multilingual nature of the discourse. overall, all tweets (450) were either: (a) promoting the adoption of english, (b) critiquing the dominance of french, or (c) advocating for the protection of official or national languages. analysing the tweets: qualitative insights in the qualitative analysis of the study, several users expressed support for making english the first foreign language in the country. to better understand the ideological underpinnings of the tweets, the analysis is restructured around three key axes: (i) internationalisation, (ii) the market economy, and (iii) the colonial legacy of the french. these leitmotifs frequently recur in users’ arguments and function as discursive strategies that legitimise the preference for english. internationalisation in the first example, the tweeter advocates for wider english usage to provide new opportunities for the current generation. this reflects the view of english as a tool of power, where those proficient table 3. frequent geography hashtags hashtag #morocco #maroc المغرب# المغرب_اوال# #france #ghana #casablanca #guinea-bissau translation morocco morocco morocco first frequency 48 34 33 25 6 3 6 2 table 4. common repeated news outlets hashtags hashtag #cnn #al-jazeera #ajenglish #bbc arabic #hespress #2m #mwn frequency 5 4 2 4 7 6 12 table 5. political, social and international hashtags hashtag translation frequency #parti_rni rni party 15 #rni rni (abbreviation for rassemblement national des indépendants) 7 #7dh_gazoil 7 dirhams diesel 13 #8dh_essance 8 dirhams gasoline 13 #moroccan_sahara 23 #world_cup 12 lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 409 in it have greater access to opportunities than those who are not. example 1: it is time to officially include english language as a 1st foreign language in education & other fields to develop the horizons of this generation and make it able to open up to the world, armed with a language that crosses all borders. this tweet (example 1) advocates for the formal prioritisation of english as morocco’s primary foreign language in education and other institutional domains. it constructs english as a developmental asset, symbolically linked to opportunity, openness, and global mobility. the phrase ‘a language that crosses all borders’ casts english as a universally accessible medium, implying ideological neutrality and global dominance. this framing naturalises english’s prominence while obscuring the geopolitical and historical power relations that sustain it. the tweet adheres to the instrumentalist ideology of language in which linguistic value is determined by perceived economic and global utility. it draws on militaristic imagery (“armed”) to imply empowerment and readiness, while simultaneously invoking the global hegemony of english, a language constructed here as neutral, universal, and unbounded by political or cultural barriers. simultaneously, the appeal to “develop the horizons of this generation” embeds a temporal contrast between a past limited by current policies and a future enabled by english, thereby indexing a narrative of modernisation and transformation. the absence of any reference to french or other languages reflects a strategic silence that indirectly critiques existing francophone dominance in morocco. french becomes the unstated opponent, its status implicitly challenged without being named. there is also a monoglossic tendency that ignores morocco’s multilingual reality, since arabic and tamazight are completely left out of the anticipated linguistic future. moreover, the tweet uses a macro-level development frame to link language policy to “open up to the world.” this reflects an ideological alignment with neoliberal globalisation, where english is not merely a medium of communication, but a gateway to economic opportunity, international legitimacy, and modernity. the rhetorical structure—beginning with “it is time”—invokes a call to action rooted in temporal urgency and policy reform. this forward-looking stance, framed around youth empowerment and national progress, aligns english with modernity and advancement, while positioning alternative linguistic choices as barriers to global integration. a number of twitter users expressed support for english while also voicing dissatisfaction with french. example 2, while deceptively brief, encapsulates a rich ideological orientation that constructs a stark symbolic dichotomy between english and french. it operates through a binary alignment strategy, in which english is positively valorised and french is openly rejected. the tweet’s minimalism amplifies its rhetorical impact, distilling sociohistorical and political tensions into a pitchy, emotionally charged formulation. example 2: yes to english, ugh to french. the interjection “ugh” is especially salient. as a paralinguistic marker, it conveys embodied affect that indexes a visceral rejection of french that transcends logical criticism by expressing embodied feelings such as disgust, annoyance, or fatigue. here, the affective stance does ideological work: it delegitimises french not by argument but by emotional dismissal. this linguistic choice importantly presupposes a shared cultural schema wherein the referential and symbolic weight of french and english are already understood by the intended audience. furthermore, the tweet also performs a kind of indexical reversal: historically, french has indexed prestige, education, and modernity in moroccan public life. this utterance inverts that indexical chain—french now signals alienation, frustration, and obsolescence, while english inherits the symbolic capital of cosmopolitanism and future potential. of note, the exclusion of arabic and tamazight from this binary implies a foreign-language-centric framing of linguistic legitimacy. example 3: imagine our country dropping french as number one foreign language and replacing it with english, that would be a dream come true not only for me but for so many people like me. the user imagines a cultural and linguistic change in morocco in example 3, where english takes the place of french as the most dominant foreign language. the phrase “a dream come true” lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 410 conveys emotional investment, while “so many people like me” implies a shared sentiment among moroccan users who support this change. the tweet casts english as a symbol of international integration and national advancement. “imagine” invites readers into an envisioned future, aligning them with the user’s stance. it opens a space of counter-hegemonic imagination, wherein the current linguistic order, anchored in french, is seen as outdated or misaligned with the speaker’s aspirations. english is portrayed as a sign of rebirth, global connectedness, and national advancement, whereas french is portrayed as a holdover from colonial rule. this implicit binary logic is performed by the juxtaposition of “dropping french” and “replacing it with english.” the speaker’s position is extended to a community imagined group by the use of the phrase “not only for me but for so many people like me.” this use of affiliative stance-taking (du bois, 2007) constructs a collective subjectivity around linguistic aspiration, suggesting support for english is not an isolated opinion but a growing ideological current among moroccans. therefore, this tweet functions not only as personal testimony but rather as an implicit mobilisation towards this linguistic vision. in this dataset, the linguistic and social backgrounds of users are unclear because twitter does not usually give demographic information. the themes that appear often in these instances, however, imply that english is seen as a sign of modernity and advancement in addition to being a language of opportunity and movement. this tweet in example 4 advances a statistical and oppositional framing of linguistic legitimacy, positioning english as the hegemonic global language and french as its diminished rival. the tweet draws on quantitative data, such as, “1.35 billion people” and “67 different countries”, as a rhetorical strategy of legitimisation. by citing numerical scope, the speaker constructs english as globally ubiquitous and, by implication, universally valuable. the phrase “all together against ‘french language’” conveys a sense of alignment among english supporters, invoking a collectivist stance, while the preposition “against” is especially ideologically charged. it injects a combative tone into the tweet, implying that the global proliferation of english entails the marginalisation, if not replacement, of french.. the tweet also leverages enumeration as an argumentative strategy. the quantitative precision gives the appearance of objectivity, yet it is mobilised in the service of a clearly ideological position. it implies that linguistic superiority is measurable and that french falls short on a global scale. example 4: there are 1.35 billion people and 67 different countries who speak english around the world, all together against “french language”. the structure of this statement consists of three declarative sentences, with the final sentence summarising the previous points to reinforce the perceived global dominance of english. in example 5, the user adopts a direct and assertive tone, suggesting a shift from francophonie to anglophonism: example 5: sorry dear, it’s time for anglophones now. the expression “sorry dear” introduces a tone of mock politeness or ironic courtesy, which functions as a mitigating device to soften the force of the assertive declaration that follows. however, this politeness does not undermine the speaker’s ideological stance; rather, it renders the utterance more rhetorically strategic, implying that the shift being proposed is self-evident or inevitable, and thus no longer open to debate. the phrase “it’s time for anglophones now” explicitly signals a temporal and ideological rupture, positioning english—or more precisely, english speakers—as the new locus of linguistic authority and prestige. this phrasing may indicate a broader discourse on shifting language policies, implying that english should now take precedence in morocco. the speaker’s use of “anglophones” is particularly notable. it shifts the focus from language to identity, suggesting that the linguistic shift involves more than the adoption of english as a communicative tool. in other words, it entails a symbolic realignment of cultural and ideological belonging. a significant number of tweets (357) were written in arabic, highlighting the prevalence of the language in discussions about english language advocacy. in example 6, the tweet emphasises the importance of english for moroccan students, presenting it as a language that facilitates learning, lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 411 knowledge acquisition, and career growth. the phrase “providing them with self-learning opportunities beyond description” conveys a strong endorsement of english as a means of academic and professional advancement. example 6: ɪtqɑːn əllɑcːɣə ləɪɡləzɪː mən tæɹɑf ə tələbæ əlməɣɑːbæ kəfiːl bən jə tɪjɪːh ləhom fuɹɑːs tɑʕləm ɖæːtɪ lɑː tʊsæf, wən jə fteh ləhom ɑːfɑːqɑː məstəqbəlijæ w məʕɾəfijæ kəbɾɑː sʊɑː ɑːlə ælməstʊwiː əl ʃxsiː ʔəw əlmihɑːniː [mastering the english language by moroccan students is instrumental in providing them with self-learning opportunities beyond description and opening up great knowledge and future horizons for them, both on a personal and professional level.] the tweet’s structure employs collective referentiality—using third-person pronouns such as “them” and “their” to speak of moroccan students as a unified category. this collective positioning constructs a national subjectivity, whereby the advancement of students is framed not simply as personal development but as a matter of broader societal progress. the tweet thus contributes to a nationalist educational discourse, wherein mastery of english becomes a vehicle for producing modern, globally integrated moroccan citizens. the use of hyperbolic language, “opportunities beyond description”, is also rhetorically significant. it suggests that english possesses almost limitless potential, portraying it as a transformative force capable of opening “great knowledge and future horizons. in example 7, the user presents english as the dominant global language, arguing that it has surpassed french in relevance. the phrase “french has lost its place as an international language!” suggests a declining status for french, positioning english as more relevant in science, commerce, and global communication. example 7: əs.təɣərɛbə mə.man ju:sɛ.ruːn ʕa.laː tʕa.liː.mət ʔæt. fɑ.ˈlɑː.həm əl.ˈlɑ.ɣɑt ər.ʔej.siː.jə əl.ʔaʤ.nə.biː əl.ʔuːl. ˈlɑ əl.fər.nɑn.siː ʕu ˈliːs əl.ʔin.kəl.ˈiː.ziː ˈnɑ.ʕɑm ˈləl ʔin. d͡ʒəl.ˈiː.ziː bə.dɑl əl.fər.nɑn.siːə ʕæf ʕæn hæˈzəm.mən kəl.ˈɣɑt ʕɑ.ləm.j əl.ʔin.kəl.ˈiː.ziə ˈʕu məs.tɛʕ.bə.ˈlæn əl.se.niəː ˈluː.ɣɑt əl.ʕu.lɑʊm ˈwə t͡ iʒɑ.ˈrɑ ˈwə di.ˈrɑː.sə ˈwə se.ˈjɑː.hə ˈwəl məs.tɛq.bə.ˈlə [i find those who insist on teaching their children the first foreign language as french instead of english so astonishing! french has lost its place as an international language! english and, in the future, chinese, are the languages of science, commerce, study, tourism and the future.] the use of adjectives such as “international” and “future” highlights english as a forwardlooking language, while the mention of chinese as an emerging language acknowledges global linguistic trends. the user expresses astonishment at the continued preference for french, framing it as an irrational and outdated choice in an era where english dominates the domains of science, commerce, education, and tourism. the tone is not only evaluative but also normative, prescribing a new linguistic order in which english (and eventually chinese) should supplant french as the default foreign language in morocco. once again, the tweet is silent on arabic and tamazight, reflecting a broader pattern of erasure of national and indigenous languages from discourses about economic advancement and global integration. the perceived competition is framed exclusively between foreign languages, revealing the extent to which global language ideologies overshadow local sociolinguistic realities. in example 8, the tweet supports english over french while advocating for the preservation of arabic and tamazight as morocco’s national languages. example 8: don’t speak french ✘ speak english ✔ …arabic and tamazight and nothing else baby. this statement prioritises arabic and tamazight as core components of moroccan identity. the use of imperatives (“don’t speak” / “speak”) conveys a strong rejection of french, reinforcing the user’s preference for english alongside national languages. following other tweets that advocate for english in scientific and academic contexts while critiquing arabisation and french linguistic dominance. these examples illustrate attitudes towards linguistic hierarchy, research accessibility, and language policy discussions in morocco. in example 9, the tweet challenges arabisation policies in moroccan universities, questioning the extent to which research is produced in arabic. the phrase “but the shock comes when you know the number of research and discoveries presented in arabic language” conveys a sense of surprise regarding the limited availability of arabiclanguage academic research. the statement contrasts support for arabisation in education with a critique of its effectiveness in producing scientific lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 412 contributions, reinforcing the argument that english is better suited for research and higher education. example 9: jadʕun litaʕriːb aldʒaːmiʕaːt, jadaːfʕuwn ʕan siːsaːt attaʕriːb ħatta an-nihaːja, lakin aṣ-ṣadma ħiːn tʕrif ʕadad albaħuwθi wal-iktishaafaat almuqaddama billuɣa-ti-lʕarabiːa. [they call for arabisation of universities, defending arabisation policy until the end, but the shock comes when you know the number of research and discoveries presented in arabic language.] lexically, the tweet (example 9) deploys language associated with scientific output (“research,” “discoveries”), embedding the discussion within discourses of higher education and epistemic productivity. the rhetorical strategy juxtaposes ideological persistence (“until the end”) with evidence-based surprise (“the shock comes”), producing a dissonant stance. the tweet omits reference to any alternative language, but the contrast between ideology and academic productivity implies a hierarchisation of languages based on epistemic utility. the absence of arabic’s presence in scientific knowledge domains is foregrounded as the basis for challenging its appropriateness as the main medium of instruction in moroccan universities. the tweet also suggests implicitly that shifting gears towards using english language at universities would be of great use. the market economy the second axis concentrates on the market economy to support the internationalisation dimension. in this regard, french is presented as being out of step with the needs of the market, whereas english is usually presented as the language of economic opportunity, employment, and access to international enterprises. tweets invoking this axis often reflect a utilitarian view of language, where linguistic value is determined by its capacity to generate socioeconomic mobility and facilitate integration into competitive labour markets. in example 10, this tweet captures a discursive negotiation between ideological aspiration and structural or institutionalised constraint. on the one hand, the user acknowledges the practical and desirability of english, but this enthusiasm is tempered by an awareness of the institutional dominance of french, particularly in the labour market. interestingly, the statement “labour market imposes french as a priority” uses the verb “imposes” to frame the relationship between the individual and the job market as coercive rather than elective. this lexical choice implies that language choices are subject to external regulation, revealing a system of institutional language planning driven more by market pressures than by governmental or educational regulations. in this case, french maintains its symbolic and commercial significance despite its ideological contestation in public discourse because it is positioned here as a necessary requirement for employment rather than a cultural choice. example 10: i think that is a good idea, but labor market in morocco imposes french as a priority think of it, at all we have to say that english is to learned [sic] in morocco. in example 11, the user highlights english as an essential language for economic and scientific advancement: example 11: il est temps de se projeter vers l’anglais comme 2ème langue, même si ça va prendre bcp de temps mais c mtn, les français même apprennent l›anglais pr avoir plus d’opportunités c la langue de science et d commerce mondial. [it is time to project towards english as the second language, even if it will take a lot of time, but it’s now, the french even learn english to have more opportunities and the language of science and world trade.] the phrase “se projeter vers l’anglais” (to project ourselves towards english) suggests a forward-looking perspective, reinforcing the notion of english as a language of future growth. the use of “même si” (even if) and “c mtn” (it’s now) conveys a sense of urgency, while “les français même apprennent l’anglais” (even the french are learning english) implies that english has become a necessity rather than a choice in global markets. this statement performs reversal and irony: the former colonial power, historically associated with linguistic prestige, is now portrayed as subordinating itself to english. this inversion serves to delegitimise french indirectly, while bolstering the symbolic authority of english through the perceived actions of the french themselves. it suggests that if the centre of francophonie is shifting towards english, then morocco’s continued prioritisation of french is both irrational and anachronistic. this tweet aligns with broader economic narratives that associate english with employment, commerce, and science. lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 413 in example 12, the tweet explicitly supports english as the preferred language for scientific and academic fields while simultaneously expressing a reluctance to alter the official language policy. the phrase “we want english to be the language of science, engineering, medicine, and economics” conveys a clear preference for english in technical and professional fields, reinforcing its perceived role as the language of modernity and progress. however, the tweet also includes “but i don’t support changing the official language”, which suggests a desire to maintain the status quo regarding national language policies. example 12: nɑriːd əl lusɣə ælˌɪnʤəliːzɪə kæləɡə ʌlwəm wɛn ̩ hɛndəsː wɛn tæb wɛn ɪˌkɛtʃɑːsɑːd lɑː ɑː dɛːʤəm təˈɣiːr əl luɣə rɛsˈmiəː [we want english to be the language of science, engineering, medicine, and economics, but i don’t support changing the official language.] the tweet’s structure reflects both linguistic advocacy and policy conservatism, suggesting that while english is seen as a necessary tool for academic advancement, it does not need to replace existing official languages. the colonial legacy of the french the third axis centres on the colonial legacy of the french, which emerges as a recurrent theme in users’ critiques. in this discourse, french is not merely a language but a symbol of historical domination, elitism, and postcolonial dependency. in example 13, the user explicitly articulates a forceful rejection of french as a legitimate linguistic resource in morocco, deploying a range of ideological, rhetorical, and affective strategies to construct a postcolonial critique of the francophone legacy. the first clause foregrounds a historical framing, where french is explicitly cast as a colonial remnant, thereby delegitimising its contemporary institutional presence. french as a colonial language and argues that its continued use in morocco hinders progress. the statement “french is not an international language” introduces a strategic devaluation of french by contrasting it with the presumed universality and functional superiority of english. while the empirical claim is debatable, its ideological function is clear: to reposition french as parochial, declining, and geographically limited (“only people in france speak it”). the tweet also utilises affective and rhetorical devices to mobilise support for linguistic reform. the phrase “you know what has to be done!” carries an imperative tone, inviting the reader to share in a presumed collective awareness and urgency. this tactic establishes solidarity through presupposition, implying that the only rational and progressive course of action is to abandon french in favour of english. the ellipsis (“…”) and informal structure amplify the emotive and conversational register, which aligns the speaker with a grassroots and populist stance rather than institutional discourse. the rhetorical question conveys urgency and a call for linguistic reform. the mention that “even the french people admit the importance of english” is a particularly notable reference to the idea that the symbolic authority of the former coloniser is reversed and repurposed to validate the argument for english. the concluding rhetorical question, “why don’t we just move on?”, operates as a discourse marker of closure and impatience. it suggests coercion under the guise of commonsense reasoning, presupposing that “moving on” necessarily entails linguistic realignment towards english and away from french. example 13: sticking to the colonial language is not gonna get us anywhere since french is not an international language. because only people in france speak it because if we wanted to accomplish something you know what has to be done! ….even the french people admit the importance of english so why don’t we just move on ? in example 14, the user references shakespeare and molière, juxtaposing english and french linguistic traditions. shakespeare symbolises the anglophone world and, by extension, globalisation, innovation, and modernity; molière, in contrast, evokes the francophone legacy, historical ties to france, and the cultural weight of “la francophonie”. example 14: shakespeare versus molière : a mesure que le fossé se creuse avec la france et les pays de la francophonie, cet intérêt pour la langue anglaise au maroc évolue vers une autre réflexion qui gagne du terrain… [shakespeare versus molière: as the gap with france and the countries of the francophonie deepens, this interest for the english language in morocco evolves towards another reflection that is gaining ground...] the phrase (example 14) “le fossé se creuse avec la france” (the gap with france is widening) suggests a perceived shift in morocco’s relationship lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 414 with the francophone world, while “cet intérêt pour la langue anglaise… évolue” (this interest in the english language is evolving) indicates a gradual movement towards english. by contrasting shakespeare with molière, the user presents a symbolic comparison between english and french cultural legacies. this framing may contribute to wider discussions on language preferences in morocco, particularly regarding the cultural and educational implications of linguistic change. the statement “cet intérêt pour la langue anglaise... évolue vers une autre réflexion” constructs the rise of english as a gradual and reflective process, rather than a reactive or oppositional one. this signals that the increasing preference for english is not merely a rejection of french, but rather the emergence of a new cultural orientation, underpinned by reconfigured linguistic ideologies. the phrase “gagne du terrain” (gaining ground) underscores the idea that this shift is expanding in scope and influence, suggesting the gradual institutionalisation or normalisation of english in moroccan society. in example 15, the tweet, written in tamazight (using tifinagh script), questions the necessity of french in moroccan education, arguing that english has become the dominant global language for knowledge production. the use of tamazight (written in tifinagh script) is itself a politically meaningful act, indexing both linguistic identity and discursive resistance to the historical marginalisation of indigenous languages in morocco. by making this argument in tamazight, the user implicitly asserts linguistic sovereignty, repositioning the amazigh voice within debates often dominated by arabic-french or french-english binaries. the rhetorical question “why do we need french?” implies that french no longer holds the same relevance in moroccan academia. it does not seek information but rather challenges the continued institutional prominence of french by presupposing its functional obsolescence. additionally, the phrase “the world speaks english” presents english as the universal language of communication. it constructs english as a de facto global lingua franca, naturalising its role in international communication, science, and education. moreover, the tweet critiques french universities for teaching knowledge in english, suggesting a contradiction in their linguistic policies. example 15: mæ nræ tʌfrænsɪst? ʌmædæn ər isæwʌl tɪŋglɪzɛyt...... tɪsdʌwɪːn n frænsæ ʌr sqræn tuːsnæ sə tɪŋglɪzɛyt. [why do we need french? the world speaks english. french universities teach knowledge using english.] the linguistic data also reveals that hashtags in arabic, english, french, and tamazight, among other languages, were used to resist arabisation, protect english advocacy, and criticise french domination. the analysis shows that a large number of users reproduced the same hashtags in many languages, illustrating the multilingual nature of language policy conversation. the tweets commonly frame english as a gateway to global mobility and modernity (axis i), as a vehicle for economic competitiveness and individual advancement (axis ii), and as a linguistically and politically neutral alternative to french, whose status remains tied to morocco’s colonial past (axis iii). out of the 450 tweets analysed, most either: • advocated for english as the primary foreign language, • criticised french linguistic dominance, or • emphasised the importance of preserving arabic and tamazight as national languages. multilingual engagement indicates that morocco’s language-policy debates span diverse communities and mirror wider discussions about linguistic identity and education reform. iv. discussion interestingly, the findings of this study show a notable change in linguistic attitudes on moroccan twitter, with english being the most popular foreign language and french encountering opposition since it is frequently presented as a colonial artefact rather than a requirement. although they still have a minor role in the academic and commercial spheres, arabic and tamazight are nevertheless recognised as identity markers. one important digital tool for expressing, amplifying, and arguing these language preferences and ideological arguments is throughout hashtags. this discussion will explore the implications of english advocacy, the rejection of french, the positioning of arabic and tamazight, and broader sociopolitical dimensions of linguistic activism. the corpus shows strong advocacy for english over french, framing english as a global language lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 415 of technological development, professional opportunity, and economic mobility. hashtags such as #yes_to_english_no_to_french and #english_instead_of_french present english as an instrument of empowerment rather than a mere linguistic preference. this aligns with phillipson’s (2009) claim that english operates as the dominant global lingua franca within a system of linguistic imperialism. the findings also go hand in hand with conclusions offered by kirkpatrick’s (2007) work on english as a global asset, highlighting how non-anglophone countries more and more favour english in education, business, and diplomacy. however, french seems to be framed as an outdated or imposed language, particularly through hashtags such as #no_to_french and #ال_للفرنسية (no to french). users critique the continued dominance of french in moroccan education and the labour market, attributing it more to historical colonial ties than to practical necessity. these findings confirm those of earlier studies, such as calvet’s (1998) findings on postcolonial francophonie, where french is often maintained not for its inherent value but due to political and institutional inertia. contrary to what has been reported by djité (2008), these results indicate in francophone africa, where french remains deeply embedded in political and educational structures (djité, 2008), moroccan twitter discourse signals a clear preference for english as an alternative. given that a large proportion of these posts expressed strong disapproval of french’s status, this may indicate that a loosely coherent set of language ideologies is shaping public discourse (vessey, 2016) furthermore, the rejection of french is not merely linguistic but political, as seen in the frequent use of #no_to_francophonie, reflecting a broader discourse of detachment from the francophone sphere. our findings support sadiqi’s (1991) claim that english is perceived as a neutral language, unburdened by morocco’s colonial history with france. these findings suggest that moroccan digital discourse is contributing to a sociolinguistic shift, where public sentiment is increasingly challenging the institutional dominance of french. beyond the english vs. french debate, our study interestingly finds a strong commitment to arabic and tamazight as national identity markers. hashtags and tweets indicate that language activism is not only about promoting english but also about reaffirming national linguistic identity. these findings are consistent with ait laaguid and khaloufi’s (2023) study, which reports that moroccans view amazigh use on social networking sites as an effective means of promoting and improving the language. the collected data are consistent with ennaji’s (1999) concept of “official discourse,” where arabic and tamazight serve as ideological pillars of national unity. however, despite this strong ideological attachment to arabic and tamazight, the dataset suggests that they are not positioned as practical alternatives to french in scientific or economic domains. this is consistent exactly with ennaji’s (2005) argument that language policy in north africa is seemingly paradoxical, where national languages are mainly celebrated in rhetoric but remain secondary in professional and academic settings. the findings suggest that while arabic and tamazight are valued for identity preservation, english is favoured for economic and educational advancement. one interesting aspect that emerged from the analysis is the emerging discourse on mandarin chinese, though it remains marginal in the dataset. a small number of users acknowledge that china’s economic presence in north africa could lead to increased interest in mandarin. while this does not currently represent a significant linguistic shift, it reflects a growing awareness of china’s role in global economic realignments (djité, 2008). the hashtag analysis largely confirms that digital discourse on twitter is not just about communication but also about activism and policy critique. hashtags are used as performative speech acts (austin, 1962), where their mere usage signals ideological alignment. the multilingual replication of hashtags—appearing in arabic, tamazight, french, and english —suggests that language activism is not constrained to one linguistic group but rather spans diverse user bases. comparable insights emerge from zappavigna’s (2011) examination of hashtags as digital affordances, showing how they operate as searchable discursive markers that bring digital communities together around shared ideological stances. the widespread use of hashtags opposing french linguistic hegemony indicates that moroccan twitter users are actively participating lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 416 in a larger sociopolitical debate, rather than merely expressing passive opinions. moreover, the dataset reveals that linguistic debates are entangled with political and economic grievances. the presence of hashtags such as #parti_rni (rni party) (15 occurrences) and #7dh_gazoil (7 dirhams diesel) (13 occurrences) suggests that language is not an isolated issue but intersects with broader concerns about governance and economic reform. this is consistent with maly’s (2020) analysis of digital activism, wherein linguistic discussions frequently intersect with economic and political tensions, producing interconnected discursive movements. the increasing preference for english over french suggests that moroccan language policies may need to evolve to align with public sentiment. currently, moroccan institutions continue to favour in scientific and technical disciplines, despite growing calls for english-medium instruction. the findings indicate that if public demand for english persists, policymakers may need to consider expanding english-language education in different institutions and professional training. this situation contrasts with rwanda’s linguistic transition, where french was officially replaced by english in 2008 (samuelson & freedman, 2010). while morocco has not enacted similar legislative changes, the digital discourse signals a social shift towards english that may eventually influence policy decisions. the increasing critique of french also suggests that the role of francophonie in morocco may weaken in the coming decades, requiring policymakers to reevaluate linguistic frameworks in governance, diplomacy, and education. additionally, the findings reinforce that arabic and tamazight remain essential components of linguistic nationalism, suggesting that language planning should balance globalisation with the protection of national languages. if policymakers fail to address these shifting linguistic attitudes, public discourse may continue to outpace institutional policies, creating further tensions between linguistic identity and economic pragmatism. furthermore, the emergence of these linguistic movements on twitter posits a rising public dialogue on morocco’s language policy, namely about the role of english and the declining use of french. as morocco deepens its global economic and diplomatic engagements, these findings highlight potential emerging changes in linguistic preferences that might, eventually, affect official language policies. nevertheless, it remains uncertain whether these digital discourses will translate into institutional changes or remain confined to online activism. even though this paper provides new valuable insights into linguistic activism on twitter, it was limited in several ways. first, twitter users stand for a specific demographic—young, educated, and digitally literate individuals—which may not necessarily reflect broader linguistic attitudes across moroccan society. future studies should incorporate surveys and interviews to compare online discourse with offline perspectives. second, twitter’s algorithmic biases may have exacerbated specific perspectives, complicating the evaluation of their representativeness among various socioeconomic groups (ye et al., 202). the present study has only examined hashtags and their associated tweets. therefore, a broader dataset incorporating facebook, youtube, and other social media platforms would provide a more comprehensive picture of language attitudes in morocco. v. conclusion this study has investigated language ideologies on twitter, with an emphasis on the representations of english and french and the positioning of arabic and tamazight in morocco’s digital linguistic landscape. in reference to the first research question, english is all the time more perceived as a language of international prestige, economic opportunity, and modernisation, whilst french is often portrayed as a colonial remnant that hinders moroccans’ linguistic and economic mobility. the findings also imply that twitter users who support anglophonism over francophonie emphasise english as a worldwide language for commerce, education, and communication, underpinning the language’s increasing instrumental importance in language planning debates in morocco. regarding the second research question, many twitter users support the preservation and promotion of arabic and tamazight, which continue to be essential components of national identity. however, despite this symbolic importance, neither arabic nor tamazight is frequently positioned as a reasonably lhou elbourkhissi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 417 viable alternative for professional, scientific, or international communication. rather, the tweets advocates english as the preferred foreign language, which reflects a pragmatic approach to linguistic and economic adaptation in a globalising world. studying language ideology in digital contexts eventually yields important insights into shifting linguistic views and societal changes. the findings contribute to our knowledge of digital activism, postcolonial language change, and language-policy debates while highlighting social media as a key space for negotiating and contesting changing language-identity-power relations. future study should take into account the possibility of longitudinal studies in order to evaluate how digital discourse on english and french changes over time. furthermore, the findings are promising and ought to be confirmed by a bigger sample size. last but not least, we suggest that comparative studies with other francophone countries undergoing linguistic shift could provide valuable insights into whether these trends are specific to morocco or indicative of a wider regional pattern. ethical statement this study adheres to ethical standards for social media research by focusing on publicly available tweets, ensuring no private or sensitive data is collected. user anonymity is maintained, and no identifying information is disclosed. while some tweets referenced public figures and official political accounts, such as the account of the prime minister, these mentions are treated as part of the public discourse relevant to the study’s focus on language ideologies and policy debates. the analysis respects the original context of the tweets, avoiding misrepresentation. additionally, the research ensures transparency in data collection and analysis, aligning with ethical guidelines for digital discourse studies. credit author statement elbourkhissi: conceptualisation, literature review, study design, data collection, data analysis, manuscript writing, translation, and editing, houssaini: study design, methodology, supervision, critical revisions, manuscript writing, proofreading, and editing. acknowledgements this research paper did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or 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(2013). language situation and conflict in morocco. selected proceedings of the 43rd annual conference on african linguistics: linguistic interfaces in african languages, 271–277. http:// www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/43/abstract2975.html alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 535 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 6, 2024 final revision: december 7, 2024 accepted: december 10, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 this study examines the formation of serial verbs in the bugis bone language utilizing a qualitative descriptive approach and typological analysis. data were collected by observation, including audio recordings of bugis speakers’ direct talk, and supplemented by interviews for contextual comprehension. the assessment focused on language structures, and identifying patterns and distributions of lexemes and phrases. the results demonstrate that bugis serial verbs align with the worldwide typology of serial verbs, consisting of four syntactic categories and six semantic categories: movement, directional, manner, cause-effect, comitative, modality, and aspect. this work is significant for its contribution to linguistic typology, providing insights into the universal elements of serial verb formations and the distinct qualities of the bugis bone language. the results have ramifications for the comprehensive understanding of austronesian languages, establishing a basis for comparative analyses and contributing to the preservation of linguistic variety. moreover, the study enhances understanding of the functioning of serial verb formulations within a particular linguistic and cultural framework, hence advancing theoretical knowledge in syntax and semantics. future research may explore bugis sentence forms through other theoretical frameworks to enhance the understanding of bugis language typology. keywords serial verb, bugis, typology, semantic categories correspondence e-mail: alinkurnia15@borneo.ac.id article verb-verb construction in bugis language: a linguistic typology approach alien kurnia warya selia1, achmad dicky romadhan 1,2faculty of teacher training and education, universitas borneo tarakan, tarakan, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.535-546.2024 i. introduction the bugis language serves as the regional means of communication for the inhabitants of bone (sua et al., 2020). the bugis language serves as a cohesive inter-technical language, proficiently utilized by all community members for cultural communication. the bugis bone language is a source of pride for its ethnic community, reflecting their cultural heritage. the bugis language, originating from the inhabitants of bone, embodies the indigenous culture of bone. the inhabitants of bone consistently engage with their surroundings through a customary system that operates continually and is anchored in a collective identity within their social group. the bone people’s unique characteristic in their interpersonal relations is their consistent humility, gentleness, and politeness, as evidenced by their expressions (kusuma, 2018). the bugis bone language possesses distinct characteristics, akin to other languages (makkawaru & hendrokumoro, 2022; rizqi et al., 2023). the distinctiveness lies not only in accent but also in word structure. numerous aspects of bugis bone are distinctive in comparison to other indonesian languages (rahmawati et al., 2023) the distinctiveness of the bugis bone language has mostly been overlooked by linguistic experts. the topic of serial verbs has received limited discussion in the bugis bone language (tahir et al., 2018). serial verbs can be understood as two verbs that function in tandem inside a clause or sentence structure. aikhenvald (2006) demonstrated that verb serialization constitutes the formation of several verbs. all verbs constituting verb serialization alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 536 are singular predicates that do not permit any grammatical dependency indicators among their components. clauses including serialized verbs possess intonational richness akin to those with singular verbs, thus obviating the necessity for intonational distinctions among their elements (haspelmath, 2016; maghfiroh & subiyanto, 2021; putri & subiyanto, 2023) verb serialization structures possess a singular tense, aspect, mood, modality, and voice that convey a unified event. crowley (2002) indicated that verb serialization is a composition including multiple verbs that collectively convey a singular occurrence, articulated sequentially by the constituent verbs. serial verb constructions (svcs) involve two or more verbs in a sequence that function as a single predicate within a clause (hutami, 2021; maulidan, 2020; sari & subiyanto, 2023; siallagan et al., 2024). these constructions, where all verbs are core elements, behave as a unified predicate without auxiliary roles. svcs can integrate with grammatical elements like tense, aspect, and mood, and share characteristics such as a single subject and the absence of conjunctions or subordination markers. as demonstrated by kroeger (2005), indrawati (2022) and durie (1988), examples like “kofi hit amba to death” in sranan or “the american troops shot down the iraqi fighter” in indonesian illustrate svcs where verbs like “hit” and “kill” or “shot” and “down” operate independently yet form fig. 1. the bugis people of south sulawesi a cohesive semantic unit. svcs are distinct from other constructions through syntactic, semantic, and phonological features (indrawati et al., 2018). syntactically, svcs involve a single clause, a unified subject, and obligatory non-coreference, with no coordination or subordination markers (oktaviana & mukhlish, 2015; romadhan, 2020). semantically, they are conceptualized as representing a single event. phonologically, they exhibit a single intonation contour. these features distinguish svcs from argument-adjunct configurations seen in nonserializing languages, such as the use of prepositions in english for instrumental meanings (e.g., “she scraped the pawpaw with a knife”) (baker, 1989) the primary defining trait of svcs is their syntactic unification, with no grammatical or intonational separation between verbs. unlike other multi-verb constructions, svcs lack markers indicating coordination or subordination and feature a singular subject, ensuring coherence as a unified predicative structure (romadhan et al., 2023; sembiring & mulyadi, 2019). these criteria position svcs as a unique phenomenon in linguistic typology, highlighting their syntactic and semantic integration (herliana, 2018; siallagan et al., 2024). the issue of serial verbs presents a compelling subject in the bugis bone language. serial verbs are among the most extensively examined subjects in linguistics. the issue of serial verbs in bugis bone has not been examined regarding their formation characteristics or the classifications of serial verbs within the bugis bone language. this study selected the issue of serial verbs in the bugis bone language as its focus of investigation. linguistic typology is a theoretical framework in linguistics that focuses on the classification of languages based on structural and grammatical systems, using natural language data (artawa & jufrizal, 2018; muflikhatin, 2017). this field emphasizes descriptive studies and cross-language comparisons to identify patterns and typologies. early studies, such as greenberg’s work in 1963, explored word order typology, grouping languages based on subject, object, and verb arrangements (e.g., svo, vos) (artawa & purnawati, 2020; comrie, 2017). these findings encouraged further research into other grammatical features, highlighting the similarities and differences among the world’s alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 537 languages. linguistic typology aims to classify languages while addressing universal structural traits and variations. the terms linguistic typology and language typology are related but distinct (putra et al., 2022; saragih & mulyadi, 2022). linguistic typology refers to the theoretical approach and methods used to study language structures, while language typology refers to the groupings of languages sharing similar grammatical characteristics (artawa & purnawati, 2020). linguistic typology seeks to uncover universal properties and variations across languages by analyzing structural features (artawa & purnawati, 2020). this study assumes that all languages are comparable based on their structures and that shared fundamental traits unify them as human languages. ultimately, linguistic typology seeks to answer the question: “what is language x like?” while exploring both the diversity and commonalities of human language (harahap, 2019; selia & romadhan, 2023). investigations into verb-verb constructions are associated with typological linguistics. this is due to the fact that verb-verb constructions exhibit many forms and differ between languages. typological linguistics can detect bugis verb-verb constructions, allowing for their categorization based on parallels with universal verb-verb construction characteristics. this work is also pertinent to several prior investigations. previous relevance studies extensively examined the phenomenon of serial verbs. this is substantiated by numerous prior investigations about the topic and grammatical relationships. one study pertinent to this topic is maulidan’s (2020) investigation titled “serial verb construction in bima language: a typological study.” this study differs from maulidan’s research (2020)in that it exclusively examines syntactic aspects and semantic types of serial verb constructions, whereas maulidan’s research (2020) addresses the grammatical patterns associated with serial verb constructions. muflikhatin’s research (2017) is titled “construction of movement type serial verbs in sundanese: typological studies and x-bar theory.” this study differs from muflikhatin’s (2017) research in that muflikhatin (2017) exclusively examines serial verbs of movement through typological and x-bar analyses. several studies in the bugis language have been carried out. one of the studies in the bugis language was conducted by laskowske (2016). the research discusses voice in the bugis language. this is a research gap in this research. laskowske’s (2016) research only discusses voice forms inthe bugis language, while this research focuses on serial verb forms in the bugis language. this research also provides a new perspective regarding linguistic phenomena in the bugis language, especially from a linguistic typology perspective. laskowske’s (2016) research does not address verb-verb formation but rather analyzes the structure of bugis voice. this research aims to elucidate the formation of verb-verb constructions and their semantic categories through a linguistic typology framework. the objective is anticipated to be achieved by modifying the bugis verb-verb construction in accordance with the verb-verb construction forms of other languages based on linguistic typology. the findings are anticipated to enhance the understanding of the bugis language, particularly with verb-verb constructions, a topic that has not been explored by linguists. the findings of this study are anticipated to serve as a foundation for research on the bugis language across several themes. ii. methods research design this research uses a qualitative approach. this design aims to explore and understand the meanings that arise from social problems or human behavior in a particular situation. this approach produces narrative reports and focuses on data collection through observation and interviews to analyze serial verb construction in bugis bone language. this study included native bugis speakers. this study had five informants. three speakers served as informants, and two others as validators. they were chosen based on many criteria, including being at least 18 years old, and having a good articulation tool. the bugis native speakers serving as informants possess diverse educational backgrounds, spanning from high school diplomas to university degrees. their professions include farmers, fisherman, and educators. these criteria ensured that the data obtained reflected the natural use of bugis. alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 538 and types of serial verbs in bone bugis. this explanation provides a comprehensive picture of the linguistic phenomenon in the context of bugis language and culture. iii. result this presents the discussion of the results gathered. using the distributional analysis technique, the recorded utterances of the representatives of serial verbs in bugis language were analysed. characteristics of serial verbs in the bugis language serial verb construction possesses multiple features, as delineated by aikhenvald (2006) and durie (1988). characteristics of serial verbs applicable to serial verb forms in the bone language include (a). serial verbs unimpeded by a conjunction, (b). serial verbs consist of two or more primary verbs. serial verbs share a common argument, (d). serial verbs share identical aspect indicators, modality, and negation within their forms. a comprehensive elucidation of the features of serial verbs in the bone language is as follows. serial verb without interrupted by connector the primary property of serial verbs is that they are constructed from verbs without the use of conjunctions. in the creation of serial verbs in the bone language, verbs serial verb forms appear side by side without being interrupted by connectors or conjunctions. most of the participants involved in the study were between 24 and 35 years old. they came from diverse occupational backgrounds, with the majority working as fishermen. bugis being the first language (l1) they speak on a daily basis, they were considered representative to reveal linguistic phenomena related to serial verb constructions in the language. instruments this study used 50 utterances as the main material, which were taken directly from the research participants. each selected utterance meets certain criteria, namely having complete elements such as subject, object, and predicate in the form of verbs. this data became the basis for analyzing linguistic phenomena related to serial verb construction in bugis. for data collection, two main instruments were used. the recording technique was used to record the participants’ pronunciation based on the prepared word list. in addition, unstructured interviews were also conducted to obtain additional information related to participants’ opinions, beliefs and feelings. this method aims to enrich the research data with relevant subjective views from the participants. data analysis data collection in this study was conducted through two main methods, namely observation and unstructured interviews. observation was used to directly observe and record participants’ utterances containing serial verb constructions. meanwhile, unstructured interviews were used as a supporting method to explore additional information that could not be obtained through observation and also served to verify the observed data. the collected data were then analyzed based on serial verb constructions in bugis language by using linguistic typology approach. the data analysis process is carried out using the distributional method(sudaryanto, 2018). this analysis starts with the basic direct element technique, which is then continued with the permutation technique. the linguistic typology approach became the main foundation in this research, by comparing the characteristics of serial verbs universally with serial verbs found in bugis language. the results of the analysis are then explained in detail to identify the characteristics the examples above demonstrate that the verb construction in the bone language’s deep series lacks any connection or conjunction between the two forming verbs. sentence 1 contains multiple grammatical components. the topic element is represented by the amure component. in the noun category, the predicate element consists of two alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 539 unique constituents: the lokka component, which is classified as a verb and serves as predicate 1, and the mammeng component, which is likewise a verb and serves as predicate 2. sentence 2 contains a variety of grammatical components. the kaka constituent is the subject of the noun category, whereas the predicate element is made up of two separate elements. the ma’guru element, which is classified as a verb, serves as predicate 1, whereas the mannasu constituent, which is likewise classified as a verb, fills predicate 2. the terrung constituent, which is classified as a noun, represents the object element, and the ko kiteng’e constituent serves as an adverbial complement. in sentence 3, the structure includes multiple grammatical components. the indo constituent serves as the subject element in the noun category, whereas the predicate element is made up of two independent constituents: the jokka constituent, which is categorized as a verb and serves as predicate 1, and the lalo constituent, which is likewise classified as a verb and functions as predicate 2. ko galung’e, an adverb, represents the complimentary element. the ko galung’e element is classified as an adverb because the two predicates that make up the serial verb construction in sentence 3 are intransitive verbs that do not require an object. according to the three example sentences above, serial verb formulations in the bone language do not contain any linking words or conjunctions between the two forming verbs. in sentence 1 the verbs acting as predicate 1 (lokka) and predicate 2 (mammeng) appear sequentially without being connected by a conjunction. in sentence (2), the verbs that serve as predicate 1 (ma’guru) and predicate 2 (mannasu) come side by side with no connecting element or conjunction. similarly, sentence (3) has two parallel verbs, (jokka) and (lalo), followed by an adverb. these three examples show that serial verbs in the bugis bone language are formed using parallel verbs separated by conjunctions. serial verbs are built from two or more core verbs the second aspect aikhenvald (2006) postulated is that serial verb formations are created from two or more core verbs. in bone language serial verb construction, the forming verb comprises of two or more parts. the preceding examples show that serial verb formulations in the bone language do not include conjunctions between two verbs. sentence 4 has multiple grammatical components. the subject element is represented by the noun ambo’, while the predicate element is made up of two unique constituents: maccue, a verb that serves as predicate 1, and lokka, which serves as predicate 2. both predicates are accompanied by an adverb and the constituent ko dare’e, which serve as a prepositional phrase. sentence 5 also contains several grammatical components. the subject element is filled by anri, a noun. the predicate element is made up of two separate constituents: lokka, a verb that serves as predicate 1, and maccule, another word that acts as predicate 2. both predicates are followed by an adverbial element, the constituent ko salo’e, which is categorized as an adverb. the bone language’s serial verb formation consists of two or more core verbs, as demonstrated in the two sentences above. in sentence 4, the verbs serving as predicate 1 (maccue) and predicate 2 (lokka) exhibit this structure by including two or more verbs. similarly, sentence 5 has the verbs that operate as predicate 1 (lokka) and predicate 2 (maccule), which are formed from two or more core verbs. serial verbs share the same arguments serial verb construction is characterized by the sharing of the same argument among the verbs involved. this adheres to aikhenvald (2006). this third feature is present in the bone language as well. in bone language, serial verb constructions consist of verbs that share the same argument. the same argument is typically examined. alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 540 serial verb forms in the bone language indicate shared arguments. sentence 6 has numerous grammatical components. the subject element is represented by the indo ingredient, which is a noun. the predicate element is made up of two separate constituents: maccaik (predicate 1) and mangkelingai (predicate 2), both of which are verbs. following the predicates comes the object element, which is represented by the noun caritana nene. sentence 7 also contains several grammatical components. anana’e, a noun, represents the subject element. the predicate element consists of two separate constituents: ma’guru, a verb that serves as predicate 1, and ma’gambara, another word that functions as predicate 2. the form is also reinforced by the adverbial element ko bok’e. serial verb forms in bone demonstrate shared arguments, as shown in these two sentences. in sentence 6, the verbs maccai (predicate 1) and mangkelingai (predicate 2) have the same argument. this shared argument occurrence is also visible in sentence 7, where the verbs ma’guru (predicate 1) and ma’gambara (predicate 2) have the same argument. serial verbs have the same aspect, modality and negation markers the final characteristic of bone language serial verbs is their uniformity in aspect, modality, and negation markers. this resembles the characteristics of serial verbs as outlined by durie (1988). in bone language, serial verb construction, aspect, modality, and negation precede the verb that constitutes the serial verb construction. the examples supplied show that serial verb formulations in the bone language consistently use the same markers for aspect, modality, and negation. sentence 8 contains numerous grammatical components. the subject element is represented by baco, a noun. the predicate element consists of two separate constituents: ma’guru, a verb that serves as predicate 1, and mebbu, another verb that functions as predicate 2. these predicates are accompanied by the object element, which is represented by the constituent pasajang, a noun. sentence 8 depicts how the perfective aspect impacts the syntax of serial verb construction, as indicated by the element purai, which comes before the subject. sentence 9 also contains multiple grammatical components. the subject element is provided by alena, a noun. the predicate consists of two separate constituents: maccue, which serves as predicate 1 and is classed as a verb, and lokka, which serves as predicate 2, likewise classified as a verb. sentence 9 demonstrates how a negation marker, de’na, is positioned before the subject to specify the syntax of the serial verb form. sentence 10 contains numerous grammatical components. the subject element consists of the constituent indo, which is a noun. the predicate consists of two different constituents: maccue (predicate 1) and mannasu (predicate 2). these predicates are associated with an object element represented by the constituent bale, which is categorized as a noun. sentence 10 demonstrates how a modality marker effects the syntax of a serial verb construction, as evidenced by the element loi, which comes before the subject. finally, the three examples show that serial verb formulations in the bone language use uniform markers for aspect, modality, and negation. in sentence 8, the verbs ma’guru (predicate 1) and mebbu (predicate 2) appear together, as indicated by the perfective aspect purai. the negation sign de’na is used with the verbs maccue (predicate 1) and lokka (predicate 2) in sentence 9. similarly, in sentence 10, the verbs maccue (predicate 1) and mannasu (predicate 2) use the modality marker loi. semantic type of serial verb in the bugis language this study examines six categories of serial verb constructions in bone language, as outlined by klamer (2008), who classified serial verbs into distinct components. the categories include alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 541 movement, directional, manner, cause-effect, commitative, modality, and aspect. movement type the construction of serial verbs of motion is comprised of an initial verb indicating movement and a subsequent verb denoting action or movement. the data on the bone bugis language illustrates multiple instances of movement-type serial verbs, as demonstrated in the following examples. the example sentences illustrate that serial verb constructions in bone bugis encompass directional-type serial verbs. this structure involves the combination of a directional verb with an action or movement verb, in accordance with the semantic categories outlined by klamer (2008). in sentence 13, predicate 1 includes the constituent jokka, whereas predicate 2 is occupied by the constituent messu pole. amure’ fulfills the subject role, while the complementary element is represented by kamara’e. in sentence 14, the verb mattama represents predicate 1, while predicate 2 is filled by the verb lalo. the two verbs have a common subject and object, with ambo’ acting as the subject and bolana bali bolae as the object. these two examples demonstrate the application of directional meanings in serial verb constructions, in which the second verb is semantically connected to the first. in sentence (13), messu serves as the directional verb, whereas sentence (14) employs mattama. both sentences illustrate the directional-type verbs that define this kind of serial verb construction in bone bugis. manner type the manner-type serial verb composition is created by combining verbs that describe a manner and verbs that imply movement. the bugis bone language contains multiple examples of manner type serial verbs, as shown in the examples below. the example sentences demonstrate that serial verb constructions in bone bugis include movement-type serial verbs. in this structure, the first verb is a movement verb serving as predicate 1, while the second verb is either an action or movement-type verb functioning as predicate 2. this aligns with the semantic categories described by klamer (2008). in sentence 11, predicate 1 is represented by the verb lokka, while predicate 2 is filled by the verb mellau. the subject position is occupied by the constituent alena, and the object position by the constituent nanre. in sentence 12, predicate 1 is filled by the verb lokka, and predicate 2 by the verb melli. both verbs share the same subject and object, with indo functioning as the subject and bale serving as the object. these two example sentences illustrate the concept of movement in serial verb constructions, where the second verb is semantically related to the first. sentence 11 exemplifies this with engkai as the movement verb, while sentence 12 uses lokka in the same role. both sentences highlight the use of movement-type verbs in their serial verb constructions. directional type the directional-type serial verb construction consists of directional-type verbs combined with movement-type verbs. in the bone bugis language data, several instances of directional-type serial verbs are observed, as illustrated in the following examples. the preceding sentences show that bone bugis serial verb formations contain manner-type serial verbs. these constructs have two verbs: a manner verb and an action or movement verb. this alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 542 is consistent with the semantic categories suggested by klamer (2008). the ingredient matinro represents predicate 1, while the constituent titti fills predicate 2. the element indo’ serves as the subject, whereas ko kamara’e serves as the adverb. the ingredient tudang occupies predicate 1, whereas the constituent sulekka represents predicate 2. both verbs use the same subject and adverbial complement, with ambo’ as the subject and ko watampolae as the adverb. these examples demonstrate the notion of method in serial verb formations, in which the second verb semantically complements the first. the way verb in sentence (15) is titti, but in sentence (16) it is sulekka. both examples emphasize the usage of manner verbs in bone bugis serial verb formations. cause and effect type the cause-effect serial verb construction consists of cause-effect verbs combined with movement verbs. in the data of the bugis bone language, numerous instances of cause-effect type serial verbs are present, as illustrated in the following examples. these two instances demonstrate a cause and-effect link in serial verb formulations, with the second verb semantically related to the first. matterri is the cause-and-effect verb in sentence 17, while macawai is the same in sentence 18. both sentences demonstrate the usage of cause-effect verbs in bone bugis serial verb formations. modality and aspect type serial verb constructions involving modality and aspect types consist of modality verbs, aspect types, and movement types. in the bone bugis language data, numerous instances of serial verbs demonstrating modality and aspect types are present, as illustrated in the following examples. the example sentences show how serial verb formations in bone bugis incorporate cause-and effect serial verbs. in this construction, predicate 1 describes a cause-and-effect relationship, while predicate 2 indicates an activity or movement. this is consistent with the semantic categories given by klamer (2008). in sentence 17, the constituent matterri represents predicate 1, whereas the constituent iccalai fills predicate 2. the element indo’na fulfills the oblique function, while anana’e plays the subject role. in sentence 18, the constituent macawai occupies predicate 1, and the constituent mitai represents predicate 2. both verbs use the identical subject and object: ambo’ as the subject, kakaku as the object. the example sentences show that serial verb formations in the bugis bone language include both modality and aspect-type serial verbs. these constructions use two verbs: modality or aspect verbs serve as predicate 1, while action or movement verbs serve as predicate 2. this is consistent with the semantic kinds identified by klamer (2008). in sentence 19, predicate 1 includes the constituent purani as an aspect marker, while predicate 1 includes the ingredient tudang and predicate 2 include the inggredient nabaca. the constituent lato’ serves as the subject, while the constituent yaro sure’e symbolizes the object. in sentence 20, the modality marker loi, predicate 1 contains lokka, and predicate 2 contains melli. in both verbs, indo represents the subject while tello denotes the object. these examples demonstrate the relationship of modality and aspect, with secondary verbs semantically related to the primary verb. each sentence’s constituent pieces indicate modality and aspect-type verbs, with purani (19) and loi (20) functioning as modality and aspect markers, respectively. commitative type commutative serial verbs consist of a combination of commutative-type verbs alongside alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 543 movement-type verbs. the data on the bone bugis language features several instances of commutative-type serial verbs, as demonstrated in the following examples. bugis serial verb construction features include the absence of conjunctions between serial verbs, the use of two or more core verbs, shared arguments, and consistent aspect, modality, and negation markers, which are also shared by durie (1988) and aikhenvald (2006). these four types are the key characteristics that determine whether a sentence structure is a continuous verb or not. that is because if any of the four kinds is not met, a construction cannot be classified as a continuous verb construction. this study corroborates and extends earlier research on serial verbs in other languages. for instance, klamer (2008) identified nine universal semantic types of serial verbs, many of which are present in bugis bone. unlike maulidan’s (2020) study on bima, which focused on grammatical patterns, this research emphasizes syntactic and semantic features, offering a more typological perspective. additionally, while muflikhatin (2017) concentrated on movement types in sundanese, the bugis bone study explores a broader range of semantic categories, enriching the understanding of austronesian serial verbs. according to the findings of the study, the formation of serial verbs in bugis language has a strong correlation with other austronesian languages, such as the construction of serial verbs in dayak kenya lepo tau language by romadhan (2020) and the construction of serial verbs in bima language by maulidan (2020). this study differs from previous studies on serial verbs by romadhan (2020) and maulidan (2020) in that it examines the semantic type of serial verbs. the study contributes significantly to linguistic typology by positioning bugis bone language within the global framework of serial verb constructions. it highlights the universality and variation of syntactic and semantic features in serial verb constructions, demonstrating how lesser-studied languages like bugis bone enrich typological theory. furthermore, this research enhances the documentation of bugis bone, an austronesian language, supporting linguistic preservation and providing a resource for comparative studies within the family. despite its contributions, the study has limitations. the analysis focuses solely on syntactic and semantic features, leaving phonological and pragmatic aspects unexplored. the data set is the preceding sentences show that the bone bugis language uses commutative serial verb formations. these constructs have two components: a commutative verb (predicate 1) and an action or movement verb (predicate 2). this structure is consistent with the semantic kinds identified by klamer (2008). in sentence 21, predicate 1 contains the constituent maccue, and predicate 2 is represented by the constituent maccule. ambo fills the subject role, while golo represents the complimentary aspect. in sentence 22, predicate 1 includes maccue, while lokka serves as predicate 2. both predicates have the same subject, nene’, and the constituent ko pasa’e is an adverb in the adverbial word class. these sentences express a commutative meaning based on the link between the first and second verbs. they are examples of commutative type serial verb formations, with maccue indicating commutative verbs in both cases. iv. discussion the research findings reveal that the serial verb construction in the bugis bone language aligns with linguistic typology in both syntactic and semantic dimensions. of the six universal syntactic features of serial verb constructions, the bugis bone language exhibits four: the absence of conjunctions between serial verbs, the use of two or more core verbs, shared arguments, and consistent aspect, modality, and negation markers. semantically, bugis bone serial verbs encompass seven types: motion, manner, direction, comitative, aspect, mood, and cause-effect. these findings underscore the typological conformity of bugis bone serial verb constructions and provide a robust understanding of their structural and functional attributes. alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 544 restricted to 50 utterances, which may not fully represent the diversity of serial verb usage in natural contexts. moreover, the study examines a single dialect, potentially overlooking regional variations within the bugis language. future research should expand the dataset to include a larger corpus and investigate other dialects of bugis to capture linguistic diversity. exploring phonological and pragmatic dimensions could provide a more comprehensive understanding of serial verb constructions. cross-linguistic comparisons, particularly with other austronesian languages, may uncover shared features and unique characteristics, deepening insights into verb serialization across languages. this study advances the understanding of serial verb constructions in bugis bone language, aligning them with universal typological principles. by documenting and analyzing these constructions, the research not only contributes to linguistic theory but also underscores the cultural and linguistic richness of the bugis community. future exploration of this topic promises to reveal further complexities and enrich the field of linguistic typology. this research is anticipated to serve as foundational inquiry into consecutive verbs, particularly within the bugis language, which can be further explored across many research dimensions. investigating consecutive verbs applicable to future contexts can be conducted using diverse syntactic frameworks, including lfg, rrg, and other theories that elucidate the features of consecutive verbs in the bugis language more comprehensively. v. conclusion the study identified two critical aspects of serial verb constructions in the bugis bone language: syntactic characteristics and semantic types. four syntactic features align with the typological criteria for serial verb constructions: (a) the absence of conjunctions between verbs, (b) the use of two or more core verbs, (c) shared arguments across the verbs, and (d) consistent markers for aspect, modality, and negation. additionally, seven semantic types were identified in bugis bone serial verbs, including motion, manner, direction, comitative, aspect, mood, and cause-effect. these findings confirm that the serial verb construction in bugis bone language adheres to typological frameworks of serial verbs. this research broadens the understanding of linguistic typology by demonstrating how the bugis bone language fits into the universal framework of serial verb construction. it contributes to the documentation and analysis of lesser-studied languages, highlighting their alignment with broader linguistic patterns. furthermore, the study underscores the importance of considering both syntactic and semantic dimensions when analyzing language structures, offering a comprehensive perspective on verb serialization. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement alien kurnia warya selia: conceptualization, collecting information, formal evaluation, funding procurement, inquiry, methodology, original draft production, and reviewing and editing; achmad dicky romadhan: the process of conceptualization, gathering data, formal evaluation, funding procurement, investigation, methodology, project administration, initial draft production, and reviewing and editing; acknowledgements this study did not obtain any specific funding from public, commercial, or non-profit agencies. we would like to thank the university of borneo tarakan for providing the authors with the chance to finish this research. thank you to everyone who helped with the completion of this research. thank you to all of the informants who volunteered and truly contributed data on the verb-verb formation in the bugis language: a linguistic typology approach. declaration of competing interests the authors state that they possess no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that may have influenced the work presented in this paper. alien kurnia warya selia / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 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(2018). the ttudy of buginese reciprocal verb in the boegineesche chrestomathies manuscript. am. j. humanit. soc. sci. res, 2(08), 48–54. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 174 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 161, 2025 final revision: may 27, 2025 accepted: may 30, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 the production and consumption of subtitled content in the kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa) have undergone various developments, experiencing periods of both progress and decline. however, this topic is largely ignored and insufficiently researched. consequently, this paper addresses this lack of detailed socio-historical research into the cultural production of subtitling in ksa. it therefore traces the trajectories of subtitling as a social practice, examining the external and internal factors that (re) shape its dynamics since the 1950s. inspired by technological and sociocultural developments, subtitling is analysed in this paper as a social field, inhabited by various agents who deploy different strategies to accumulate capital. adopting a qualitative approach and building on the sociology of pierre bourdieu, this paper analysed the subtitling field according to three historical periods. following this thematic and periodisation analysis, each period documents the external factors influencing the development of the field and identifies the main agents along with their motivations and positiontakings. to ensure the reliability and validity of research, triangulation of data sources and methods is adopted. data are collected from archival sources, observation, published reports, audiovisual content and previous studies. the application of this sociological analysis provides an in-depth understanding of the evolving nature of the subtitling field concerning the concept of power. more importantly, the study of this social field assesses the influence of saudi vision 2030 (sv2030) on the cultural production in ksa, including subtitling. this paper concludes that the socio-cultural developments promoted by sv2030 have been crucial in restructuring the field’s dynamics, leading to significant changes in audiovisual production and consumption. the analysis suggests that 2016 marked a distinctive era for subtitling in ksa, compared to previous periods and developments. the paper contributes to the ongoing discussion on sociological approaches in translation studies by focusing on the application of bourdieu’s theory to audiovisual translation. it extends the application of this theory to the digital forms of translation, emphasising the usefulness of bourdieu’s sociology to digital fields. keywords audiovisual production, techno-digital developments, subtitling, the field’s trajectory, capital, saudi vision 2030 correspondence *e-mail: bhabshan@kku.edu.sa article mapping subtitling in ksa in relation to saudi vision 2030: a sociological and historical analysis bandar altalidi1*, abdullah alqarni2, yousef sahari3 1department of translation, college of languages and translation, king khalid university, abha, saudi arabia 2-3department of english language and literature, college of arts and letters, university of bisha, bisha, saudi arabia. under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.174-191.2025 i. introduction audiovisual production and distribution in the kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa) have been influenced by numerous developments and factors. since the introduction of the first television in the 1950s, subtitling has been an integral part of the broadcasting, distribution, and consumption of audiovisual content in ksa (al-dawsary, 2005; alsobaihi, 2011). the proliferation of subtitling has faced various challenges and has been (re)shaped by multiple national, regional, and international developments. several ecopolitical, socio-cultural and religious factors have influenced the progress of audiovisual production bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 175 in ksa, including subtitling. more importantly, the influence of technological advancements on subtitling has significantly raised the consumption of subtitled content and supported the involvement of various agents producing and broadcasting this content. it is essential to clarify that ksa has been a conservative nation, upholding islamic values, cultural traditions, and translation norms (doxa, as discussed below). the broadcasting, distribution, and consumption of audiovisual materials have had to adhere to the country’s religious and cultural norms, imposed and monitored through dedicated official institutions such as the ministry of media, the ministry of culture, and the general commission for audiovisual media. the reception and engagement of the saudi audience with media developments have witnessed diverse viewpoints and changes, mostly (re)shaped by the religious and social stance of the field of power, specifically the field of religion (al-garni, 2000; campbell, 2007; al-khudair, 2019). the development of audiovisual translation (avt) in ksa has remained largely understudied, except by a few scholars who have examined the status of avt in the arab world as a whole. although there has been growing interest in avt in the arab world, this interest remains superficial and scattered. gamal (2019) highlights how avt is still marginal in academic programmes and research agendas across the region. similarly, al-adwan (2019) points to the slow and uneven development of avt research, which often focuses narrowly on linguistic or cultural challenges. studies that explore subtitling in particular (e.g., khuddro, 2000; gamal, 2008; thawabteh, 2013; al-adwan, 2015; al-adwan and yahiaoui, 2018) tend to prioritise issues of language transfer, humour translation, and audience reception, while neglecting the broader sociological dimensions of subtitling as a cultural practice. in the saudi context, a noticeable absence remains in the studies that investigate the historical development, institutional dynamics, or power relations underlying subtitling production and consumption. moreover, other avt modes such as dubbing, sdh, and audio description are similarly underexplored. this paper addresses that gap by offering a socio-historical analysis of subtitling in ksa through the lens of bourdieu’s field theory, thereby contributing a new dimension to the limited body of avt scholarship in the region. mapping the history of subtitling in ksa necessitates an examination of its early stages, considering the numerous developments that have led to its progress and evolution. such sociological inquiry is needed to understand the external factors influencing the subtitling field in ksa, which have not been comprehensively documented. although a number of studies have examined the broader different fields of translation as cultural production in saudi arabia—often from institutional, ideological, or socio-cultural perspectives (alkhamis, 2012, 2019; alsairy, 2016; alshehri, 2019, 2020)—none have focused specifically on subtitling as a structured and historically evolving field. in parallel, the development of saudi cinema, television, and audiovisual production more generally has been well documented (e.g., almakaty, 1995; al-dawsary, 2005; alsobaihi, 2011; alastaa, 2013; al-dhuwaihy, 2014; almadi, 2015; alsayed, 2020; al-madani, 2022), yet the role of subtitling within this ecosystem remains curiously absent from scholarly attention. this is particularly striking given that subtitling is the most widely used form of audiovisual translation in the arab world, including in ksa (gamal, 2020). by foregrounding subtitling as a social field, this study addresses that scholarly omission and situates it within the wider socio-historical dynamics of audiovisual production in saudi arabia. to map the history of subtitling in ksa, this study employs a sociological inquiry into subtitling practice in ksa. it adopts bourdieu’s theorisation of social fields which requires tracing their existence and historical trajectory and identifying their dynamics and structure. many scholars have written extensively on the sociology of translation, addressing different sociological approaches including bourdieu’s theory of social practice (see for example, hanna, 2005, 2006; wolf and fukari, 2007; buzelin, 2011, 2013; angelelli, 2014; khalifa, 2017, sapiro, 2014, among others). a field, in bourdieu’s sociology, refers to socially structured spaces that have specific boundaries, and varying degrees of autonomy and homology (bourdieu, 1991). in other words, a field is ‘a network, or a configuration, of objective relations between positions’ (bourdieu and wacquant, 1992, p. 97). thus, fields are bounded social spaces whose autonomy is (re)shaped by external factors such as the field of power (i.e., politics, religion, or economy). a field is relatively autonomous and shares homologous relations with other fields bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 176 (bourdieu 1988). the field of translation in ksa, for example, has homologous relations with the fields of publishing and of cultural production, and is influenced by the field of power. a social field is a field of ‘forces but also a field of struggles’ which shape the objective relation between the field members (i.e., agents) and inform their strategies considering their positions in the field (bourdieu, 1993, p. 30, italics in original). in a given field, there are positions (vacant roles), which the field agents strive to occupy using their position-takings (forms of strategies) to secure central or peripheral positions in the field. the outcome of this competition and struggle informs the internal structure of the field, rendering it dynamic and amenable to change. the competition over different forms of capital results in dominant or dominated agents in the field that try to preserve or change their positions based on their positiontakings and habitus. both capital and habitus are integral components for the field’s operation and activity. the position-takings are significantly influenced by agents’ habitus, dispositions and social experiences. consequently, agents are motivated to accumulate, expand, or preserve certain forms of capital, or forms of resources. bourdieu (1986, p. 241) emphasised that capital is ‘accumulated labour’, highlighting its historical merit and the need for long competition and struggle to gain capital, which are necessary elements for the field operation and dynamic structure. bourdieu refers to three main forms of capital: economic, cultural, and social. he speaks of symbolic capital which other forms ultimately adopt, and which can conditionally provide economic returns (bourdieu, 1987, 1993). under certain circumstances, any form of capital is transferable in the long run into economic capital. in social fields, there is an important element called doxa, which could be defined as ‘generally accepted opinions or commonly shared beliefs and knowledge’ (khalifa, 2017, p. 64). bourdieu emphasises the importance of the doxa in any field referring to it as ‘system of presuppositions inherent in membership in a field’ (bourdieu, 2005, p. 37). doxa represent the implicit ‘rules of the game’ (maton, 2008, p. 54) that agents follow (un)consciously. doxa could be explained as ‘fundamental beliefs’ that do not require explicit assertion as ‘self-conscious dogma’ (bourdieu, 1977, p. 166). it refers therefore to the process of naturalising of everything in a field which social agents do not question or express (bourdieu, 1977, p. 166). therefore, this paper traces the historical trajectory of the emergence and evolution of subtitling in ksa since the 1950s. it portrays subtitling as a social practice that has demonstrated a shifting structure and that has been occupied by various social agents. thus, this paper recognises subtitling in ksa as a social field, (re)shaped by numerous external factors leading to its change and development and informing its internal dynamics and relations with other social fields. the subtitling field in ksa is therefore examined and analysed following a sociological framework which helps in understanding the field’s dynamics and structure over designated periods. the significance of this paper lies in the documentation of a less studied topic, and in the analysis of the field considering the impacts of sv2030, a national transformational policy, on the field’s development. the following sections will explain the theoretical framework and methodology implemented and provide in-depth analysis of the field’s dynamics before and after 2015, which marks the announcement of sv2030 and the beginning of a new era in ksa. ii. methods study design this study implements a qualitative approach to map and trace the trajectory of the studied social field. in particular, it adopts a sociological and historical mapping and tracing of the subtitling field through the lens of sociological inquiry and observation. the sociology of bourdieu and his notion of ‘field’ guides and inspires the analysis and discussion of the collected data. sources of data this study derives its data from qualitative and observational sources. it is designed to answer sociological phenomena and provide interpretation to the practice of the subtitling in ksa. following the theoretical framework, this paper adopts bourdieusian sociology as a methodological and analytical tool. in particular, the main foci of this study are the analysis of the field of subtitling in ksa and the identification of its main agents and dynamics. thus, the studied subjects are the field, as a structure, and its members or agents. the bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 177 iii. results the first period (1950s-1980s) since the unification of ksa in 1932, local cultural production experienced various turns and has been influenced by numerous factors. the production of avt in ksa has always been interlinked with audiovisual production in other arab countries such as egypt and lebanon (gamal, 2007, 2013, 2020). however, avt in ksa has been (re)shaped by different external factors which influenced its process and dynamics. the first of these factors was the country’s economic progress, starting with the discovery of oil in the late 1930s. becoming a global oil producer was undoubtedly a significant factor in fostering cultural production in ksa. the indirect outcomes of oil production on audiovisual production were important. first, the california arabian standard oil company (changed later to saudi aramco in the 1980s) was the company in charge of oil surveying and production, and became an integral part of saudi society in the eastern region, where the company headquarters was based. the second outcome of oil production was the socio-cultural change that saudi aramco inspired by being an effective member of saudi society. in 1957, the first arabic-language tv station was launched in ksa, aramco tv. it was ‘the second oldest arabic-language television station in the middle east’ (baghdad tv was the first arabic-language tv in the middle east, aired in 1956), which broadcasted daily educational and recreational programmes ‘for its 100,000 viewers in saudi arabia’ (aramco world, 1963, p. 2). this station provided arabic, english, and subtitled shows and was the main source of entertainment in the covered areas, given the restricted nature of terrestrial tv and broadcasting technologies at that time. according to al-dawsary (2005), aramco tv broadcasted english shows only in response to the launch of saudi tv. it is unknown whether these english shows were subtitled, but the social role played by aramco tv was prominent in introducing and promoting audiovisual production and avt in ksa. by analysing some of the programmes made available by aramco tv, there appear two important contributions of the station to audiovisual production in ksa, as shown in table 1. first, aramco tv promoted nonarabic content, including american shows, films, and trace of the field facilitates the identification of the observed agents, as participants. it is important to note that the agents operate in the field and therefore have a direct relation to the cultural production in ksa. in other words, they are (re)shaped by the saudi culture and social norms. in discussing the field, it is necessary to discuss the forms of capital observed and accumulated by its agents. this paper emphasises the importance of presenting a detailed and comprehensive sociological analysis of the field of subtitling in ksa. however, due to the spatial constraints and scope of the study, this paper will focus primarily on the main characteristics of the field and the critical developments that (re) shaped its trajectory and structure. therefore, it is essential to foreground the boundaries of the field and the scope of analysis. this study asserts that the 1950s marked the emergence of the subtitling field in ksa in line with the introduction of tv and cinema and other forms of audiovisual production in subsequent years. to validate the data and to develop a comprehensive understanding of the subtitling field in ksa, this study triangulates data from different resources and in various forms, as shown in the previous section. data collection the boundaries of the field under discussion are therefore from the 1950s until 2023, as per the data collection timeframe and the received grant. the collected data were composed of published works and historical accounts on audiovisual production in ksa, online articles on the sociocultural developments in ksa and posted blogs, videos or posts on social media. online resources were important as a result of the lack of sufficient published writings on the subject. observation and sociological enquiry were the two main tools of collecting data. periodical and historical analysis to facilitate the field analysis, three periods were identified, with each one drawing on relevant developments, primarily technological, eco-political, and socio-cultural. each period examined the external (i.e., the socio-cultural and eco-political factors) and internal (i.e., the agents) dynamics of the field. the analysis follows a thematic and periodical structure, inspired by the theoretical framework and sociological studies. finally, the whole dynamics of the field will be discussed, compared and analysed in section four. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 178 series. even though it was an important tool for cultural exchange, the station was aware of ksa’s religious and cultural norms (aramco world, 1963). second, aramco tv encouraged, or rather pushed, the saudi government to establish its own tv and invest in audiovisual production and broadcasting. while these early positive developments were critical, it is important to clarify the relevance of religion and culture on audiovisual and cultural production in ksa. as observed by nevo (1998), ksa has been one of the most conservative nations in the world, which upholds firm religious and cultural values, inspired by islamic and social norms. religious opinion is respected by most saudis and supported by institutional orders and laws (almaglooth, 2013). therefore, when religious discourse was against the introduction of tv (or other forms of audiovisual production), the majority of saudi society was expected to follow this stance. thus, saudi society has experienced a complex and ‘fascinated process of negotiation related to technology’ and audiovisual production (campbell, 2007, p. 201). to clarify, the religious opinion was often based on the argument that tools of audiovisual production and dissemination (i.e., tv, cinema, video cassette, dvds, etc) were ‘western tools’ (alghannam, 2020, p. 122) for americanisation and promotion of immorality (almadani, 2022). thus, aramco tv was presumably viewed as one such tool, leading to the necessary establishment of a local tv station according to the prevalent religious and socio-cultural norms in ksa. saudi tv was therefore launched in 1965, as a form of ‘innocent entertainment’, a platform for supervised and censored content that adhered to the local laws of audiovisual production and religious regulations (alsobaihi, 2011, p. 103). saudi tv has become an important source of entertainment and broadcasting of foreign content, particularly considering the closure of cinemas in 1979 following certain local incidents and strong religious and socio-cultural views (alsayed, 2008; alyosef, 2020). cinema was opened during the 1960s-1970s. they were introduced by foreign embassies (alastaa, 2013), but were primarily limited to elite, foreign companies, or home-based cinema. as part of the developmental plans of the saudi broadcasting authority and the wider broadcasting sector in ksa, saudi tv 2 (stv2) was launched in 1983, among other channels in different years, to communicate initially with the growing number of non-arabic speakers residing and working in ksa (al-garni, 2000). it was an english-language channel that broadcasted various shows, films, and news until 2017. while there have been little data available on the history of stv2, it offered subtitled and dubbed programmes. as a stategoverned tv station, it was strictly (re)shaped by table 1: a summary of aramco tv’s programmes. programme type/ purpose examples culture-oriented programmes • quran recitations • local news • sport coverage (e.g., telesport digest) films & series (english language, mostly american) • checkmate (1935) • the adventure of ozzie and harriet (1952) • i search for adventure (1954) • perry mason (1957) • whirlybirds (1957) • sea hunt (1958) • rawhide (1959) educational (tailored to saudis and produced by aramco) • channel 2 bookshelf • your home • auto school • your health • agricultural show • science classroom • modern biology (an american tv series) recreational (arabic shows) • three district quiz • a cup of coffee specials • arab world men of the letters • the island of arabia (historical documentary) bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 179 religious and political discourse in ksa, or the field of power. stv2 had to adhere to the regulations imposed on broadcasting and media. these regulations emphasised the importance of not broadcasting audiovisual content showing sexual scenes, violence, or immodest women. al-garni (2000) and alsobaihi (2011) discuss these regulations which include upholding religious, cultural, and social norms, and censoring scenes that did not agree with these norms. the era of terrestrial tv, such as aramco tv and stv2, was important as these two agents paved the way for developing audiovisual broadcasting, promoting avt, and importing more foreign content. subtitling was present in the products of these two agents. however, these agents were still largely restricted by the governmental regulations and the spatiotemporal perspectives in that time. given the arrival of new technologies, home video entertainment became an integral part of the subtitling field in ksa in the 1980s-1990s. the introduction of recording devices and video players such as vhs, videotapes, and later versions (e.g., vcr, cds, dvds) were vital for providing accessible, easy-to-use, less censored, and alternative means of entertainment. saudis were able to enjoy and share copies of films or loan cassettes from rental stores, given the expensive price of vhs during that period (al-dhuwaihy, 2014). according to basfar (2007), people in ksa watched more recorded content (i.e., on vhs, dvd, etc.) than tv, due to the lack of diverse and abundant programmes to suit all tastes and ages. the relative success of home video entertainment in a conservative country such as ksa was potentially a result of what hegghammer and lacroix (2007, p. 103) called ‘a limited liberalization’ during the late 1990s. the proliferation of home video entertainment could be ascribed to the inclusion of subtitling at a later stage due to customers’ demands (al-dhuwaihy, 2014). although the subtitling process is undocumented in this period, american movies were among the most favourable genre featuring subtitling. this first period represented the emergence and developments of the homologous and interlinked fields of both audiovisual production and subtitling in ksa. the dynamics of the subtitling field were (re)shaped and restructured according to several eco-political, socio-cultural, and religious factors. as a result, three agents (i.e., aramco tv, stv2 and video rental agencies) were apparent and active during the 1950s-1980s. aramco tv (19571989) was a product of the economic plan in ksa, but contributed to introducing tv and avt to the country, leading to the later establishment of saudi tv. aramco tv was aware of the doxa of the audiovisual production and subtitling fields. therefore, the station seemed to pursue social and symbolic capital, which was clear from their broadcasting of quran recitations. aramco world (1963, p. 5) states that aramco tv attempted to ‘avoid all program material that might offend custom or religious tradition’. following a vast economic boom from 1974-1985, many development plans were introduced leading to the launch of stv2 (1983-2017). it is important to emphasise the impacts of globalisation, modernity, and global ideologies on cultural production in ksa. according to alghathami (2005), conservatism and modernity were two competing ideologies, with the former strongly dominant. he contends that ksa experienced a ‘heated’ religious and socio-cultural ideological debate in the 1980s. all of these factors were critical in (re)shaping the progress and dynamics of subtitling in ksa. censorship, (dis)allowing certain programmes to be shown, or opposing audiovisual and film production entirely were but examples of this prolonged debate. however, subtitling was a powerful positiontaking strategy for aramco tv and stv2 to expand, maintain, or improve their positions and forms of capital in the subtitling field (as well as in other fields). unlike aramco tv and stv2, rental table 2: a simplified list of stv2 english programmes genre number of programme cartoons 140 drama 50 comedy 43 children shows 37 game shows 9 documentary 6 education 3 sports 3 reality shows 2 sci-fi 2 anthologies 1 cooking shows 1 crime/horror 1 magic 1 soap opera 1 total 300 programmes. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 180 agencies (for videotapes and dvds) were primarily pursuing an economic capital. their importance for the field of subtitling was their competition with these two agents who pursued social and symbolic capital. the internal structure of the subtitling field was influenced by the position-takings of these three agents during the first period. it was largely heteronomous, being dependant on the field of audiovisual production and the field of media, and widely impacted by the field of power (the external factors). each agent dominated for specific periods, but stv2 and rental agencies continued to be present, although less significant, in the following period. the appearance of new technological advancements in the late 1990s and 2000s altered competition in the field and introduced new agents and dynamics. the second period: 1990s-early 2010s the late 1990s and the beginning of the 21st century introduced significant technological tools and (re)shaped the process of producing, consuming, and distributing audiovisual content. regarding ksa, three important technological developments influenced the dynamics of the subtitling field and introduced new agents to it. the first development was access to the internet. it was initially allowed for governmental purposes in 1993, then approved for public usage in 1998-1999 (al-tawil, 2001; al-hajery, 2004). according to alshahrani (2016), the saudi government was hesitant to allow public usage of the internet, which caused this long delay in comparison to other countries. as illustrated in figure 1, the number of internet users increased significantly in the following eleven years, reaching approximately 11.4 million users in 2010 (citc, 2010). one of the main reasons for this vast growth was that the internet became an essential source of entertainment and content consumption. discussion forums were prominent during the 2000s where their users engaged with various topics, reaching around 2,500 forums in 2004 (alzaid, 2020). given the closure of cinemas and limited film production and consumption in ksa, film-based forums were created to discuss cinema and films. according to almutairy (2016), this absence of active audiovisual production led to the emergence of a community of fans, and inspired many to be film directors, scenario writers, and similar. with the development of web 2.0, online users were able to upload videos. among the many features presented by web 2.0, it enables creating online communities (i.e., via blogs, forums, social media, etc), providing them with tools to create and share content. user-generated content (ugc), video hosting websites, wikis, web applications and improved user experience in sharing information and advertising products are all but a few examples of techniques presented by web 2.0. thus, fansubbing websites started to become an important resource for watching new films and series from different cultures and languages. ugc and usergenerated translation (ugt) became achievable with web 2.0 as movie fansubbers started to build their own dedicated websites for fans of films. while this area is still widely unstudied in the arabic context, there are many arabic-based fansubbing websites that became visible and available to most users. for example, egybest (بست has been one of the most active (إيجي websitesand has seen multiple versions and names to avoid censorship and blocking in ksa and elsewhere. in ksa, the saudi authority for intellectual property has started strongly tracing and blocking these websites (alarab, 2021; saipspokesman, 2021). however, it is figure 1: internet users in ksa in the 2000s according to citc. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 181 argued that fansubbing websites have been an important source of subtitled content in ksa, and have competed with other media platforms to obtain a wider audience and more users. movie fansubbing has promoted ugt in ksa and led to the emergence of other forms of fansubbing, such as social media fansubbing, which is discussed later. while the internet was inspiring ugc and shifting people’s behaviours of production and consumption, the second development in the subtitling field emerged. the expansion and renovation of satellite tv in the arab world during the 2000s encouraged private tv stations to expand and appeal to people’s needs (see al-grani, 2000; asbu, 2016; gaboor, 2017 on satellite tv in ksa and the arab world). moreover, al-garni (2000) argues that saudi tv (as a public state outlet), including stv2, was disinterested in changing its programmes and considering people’s tastes, which may have allowed the proliferation of online content and private tv. by 2010, there were 37 private channels in comparison to five public channels. among those private channels was mbc group, the middle east broadcasting company. it was launched in 1991 in london before moving to the united arab emirates in 2002 and opening its new headquarters in saudi arabia in 2022. it advertises its service as ‘the largest and leading media company in the middle east and north africa’ (as shown on its website). it has 13 free-to-air channels, and an arabic streaming platform called shahid. mbc group dedicates four channels to subtitled content from english to arabic, accessible to the arabic audience. mbc2, mbc4, mbc action, and mbc max have been broadcasting subtitled shows since 2003. the prominence of mbc group is multifaceted, but part of its visibility was the support, endorsement, and indirect funding that it has received from the saudi royal family (alterman, 1998; mbc roots, 2017). another reason was the relatively unorthodox approach that the mbc group has adopted, becoming an example of liberal values and frequently opposing the prevailing norms of the subtitling and audiovisual fields in ksa. the mbc group has faced criticism from many educators and scholars in ksa, being accused of intentionally promoting moral degeneracy and corrupting the youth in islamic-based countries, such as ksa (see alredwani, 2003; lafi, 2013; zafran, 2015). however, mbc group has become one of the leading platforms for subtitled content in ksa, since its launch as the ‘first private non-encrypted arabic satellite channel’ (media ownership monitor egypt, 2019). to compete with other agents, mbc group claims to be ‘the best venue for arab viewers’ by providing the latest regional and international releases and exclusives, including a wide range of subtitled genres (mbc no date). in doing so, the mbc group has been attempting to accumulate objectified cultural capital and symbolic capital by subtitling award-winning films, featuring oscar-winning actors, and presenting itself as the home of exclusives, as frequently showcased on its websites and commercials. following the spread of satellite tv and private channels, another form of ugc proliferated, influencing the dynamics of audiovisual production and subtitling in ksa. video-sharing platforms became a virtual cinema for saudi content producers, fans, and consumers. youtube, in particular, was a prominent example in the early 2010s, which saudi users utilised to create short films, talk shows, or comic episodes, tackling various sociocultural topics in ksa (alastaa, 2013). youtube gained wide usage in ksa, becoming the country’s most visited platform in 2012 and providing figure 2: new public vs private satellite channels in ksa in the 2000s. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 182 social and economic capital for saudi youtubers (aleqtesadiah, 2012). while most saudi shows made on youtube were in arabic, a few shows included subtitles. more importantly, youtube enabled community members to add subtitles, resulting in a new wave of fansubbing by individuals and teams. for example, altalidi (2017) analyses the subtitling activity of a saudi voluntary team, called autrjim (مجرتأ), which added subtitles to selected youtube videos using the subtitling tools offered on the platform. arguably, youtube has been a starting point for social media fansubbing, which has since expanded to social media, promoting new dynamics and paratexts. both private tv and ugc producers on youtube have continued to be the primary agents of the subtitling field after the mid-2010s. however, several developments have (re)shaped the field’s dynamics since 2015, leading to the appearance of new agents and diverse competition. the dynamics of the subtitling field were significantly restructured by the introduction of sv2030, along with its economic and sociocultural initiatives and projects. the third period: post-2015 and saudi vision 2030 aiming to transform the economy of ksa, sv2030 was announced in 2016, marking a crucial new era in the modern history of ksa on all levels. this vision aims to produce ‘a vibrant society, thriving economy and ambitious nation’ through the implementation of various projects and objectives (vision 2030, no date). geopolitically, sv2030 emphasises the importance of ksa’s central position within the islamic and arab worlds, as well as its global role in facilitating trade between asia, africa, and europe. the term ‘great ksa’ was frequently used by saudi journalists to promote and assert the assumed role of ksa regionally and globally. socio-culturally, it could be said that ksa has started to embrace unexpressed liberal modernism while strictly monitoring conservative religious discourse. more importantly, one of the vital outcomes of the vision was the reopening of cinemas in 2018, as well as the funding and promotion of film production and distribution in ksa. many socio-cultural events and initiatives were sponsored and organised by the saudi general entertainment authority, despite being opposed and criticised socially (deutsche welle arabic, 2017; bbc news arabic, 2021). social media have been the leading platform for discussing, debating, and expressing opinions for or against any topics or events related to ksa. in line with the changes promoted by sv2030, ksa has witnessed a significant increase in the use of social media, consumption of audiovisual content, and expenditure on entertainment and leisure (see, for example, alarabiya, 2020; alramani, 2016; alkhalidi, 2020; citc, 2020). the digital transformation promoted by sv2030 has led to the active adoption of digital means for using, consuming, and producing media content. according to trend (2022), 59% of saudis use the internet for streaming and consuming audiovisual content online. (see figure 3 for saudi preference in watching movies in 2019) figure 3: platform-wise movie watching preferences in ksa in 2019. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 183 since 2016, the subtitling field has witnessed the participation or re-engagement of various subtitling providers. by 2023, six cinema providers had offered subtitling content across 20 cities through 63 cinema halls (alghabri, 2023). the display of films in cinema has rarely been censored or withdrawn, illustrating the shift in religious discourse imposed by sv2030 and subsequently the change of the field of power and the field’s doxa. on the other hand, streaming services began to grow and expand, benefiting from the large number of digital users in ksa. netflix and amazon prime are two prominent agents of on-demand services available to saudi audiences since 2016, competing to obtain a wider audience and offer affordable subscriptions and deals. while netflix has notably dominated the subtitling market, according to ovum media center (2018), other agents have had to react and deploy new strategies. for example, mbc group rebranded its streaming service, shahid, in 2020 to offer original arabic shows, foreign films and series. mbc group promoted shahid as an alternative to netflix, with slogans such as ‘it’s our time’, aiming to reach five million subscribers by 2024 (vivarelli, 2020). in terms of content, netflix offers more than both shahid and amazon prime, considering its diverse audiovisual library. another factor was that netflix’s basic subscription (32 sar) was cheaper than shahid’s (40.79 sar). while cinema and streaming services competed for economic and social capital, movie fansubbers attempted to utilise similar positiontakings to obtain economic capital. for instance, some fansubbing websites announced subscription rates, costing around 15 sar per month, allowing users to stream, download, and enjoy films or series with no ads, and introduced dedicated mobile applications. therefore, the dynamics of the subtitling field were reshaped by the membership of those agents, internal competition and struggle among them over capital, and by the various positions they took to dominate and ‘make a name for themselves’ (bourdieu, 1993, p. 58). as a result of this internal competition, stv2 stopped broadcasting in 2018. the industry of renting and selling video players, cassettes, and dvds has nearly vanished in ksa, with the dominance of digital entertainment (see, for example, ekhbariyatv, 2018). more importantly, the continuous influence of the field of power (politics and religion), critical technological and socio-cultural developments in ksa, and the incessant competition among various agents have all (re)shaped the dynamics of the country’s subtitling field since the 1950s, as summarised in the following section. iv. discussion as an ever-expanding social field, the trajectory of the subtitling field has been (re) structured by various external and internal factors and different agents since its emergence in the 1950s, as shown in figure 7 below. in the first period, the subtitling field was specifically circumscribed by the development of audiovisual broadcasting in ksa. the early developments in tv broadcasting were crucial factors in structuring the field, leading to its largely heteronomous nature. in other words, during the 1950s to 1980s, the subtitling field was heavily dependent on the development of various fields (see figure 2). it was informed by the doxa and dynamics of intersecting fields, such as media and audiovisual production. therefore, it displayed a homologous structure in this period, and an interrelationship with relevant and influential fields, as expressed by bourdieu (1991). more importantly, the influence of the field of power was explicit. external religious and political factors, as well as changing doxa, significantly influenced the production of subtitled content on tv and other media, despite the spread of arab nationalism and modernity during this initial period. censorship and regulatory laws were imposed on the broadcasting and distribution of audiovisual content. aside from these external factors, internal competition and struggle over dominance and capital were observable. empowered by technological advances, aramco tv and stv2 competed over social and symbolic capital until the arrival of video distribution agencies in the 1990s (in all formats: cassettes, vcrs, cds, dvds, etc.). the historical analysis of the first period complements al-dawasry’s (2005), alsobaihi’s (2011), and aldhuwaihy’s (2014) accounts of aramco tv and stv2. however, the sociological analysis adopted in this study provided an in-depth mapping and discussion of subtitling practice as a field, as well as the position-taking assumed by these two agents, which previous studies have overlooked. the adoption of bourdieu’s theory interprets the competition among agents over capital as a crucial aspect of the subtitling field. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 184 figure 4: the heteronomy of the subtitling field during the 1950s-1980s. in the second period (2000s-early 2010s), the advent of the internet was a pivotal factor in audiovisual production, content creation, and entertainment in ksa. it promoted globalisation, modernity, and cross-cultural exchange, challenging the country’s conservative values and norms. it also allowed more access to content, which has made it more challenging for regulatory organisations to censor or monitor the flow of information and content. consequently, the subtitling field was (re) shaped and developed by the internet, leading to the appearance of new agents who competed and challenged the existing doxa of the field. driven by technical advances in the broadcasting industry, mbc group entered the field seeking dominance and competition over vacant positions. individual agents also attempted to compete and accumulate social capital, benefiting from the tools offered by the internet to create, produce, and consume subtitled content. movie fansubbers became essential agents of the field during this second period. the active usage of youtube in ksa, as a virtual cinema, led to the expansion of competition and the provision of digital tools for users to subtitle and share self-created content. digital and social capital were among the main motives for the field’s agents. this internal competition between mbc group, movie fansubbers, and youtube users over social capital led to a change in the structure of the subtitling field. during this second period, the subtitling field became semi-autonomous, gaining relative independence but maintaining homology with other neighbouring fields. although there was an observable tendency towards liberal thinking during this period, religious discourse and sociocultural norms continued to regulate, intervene, and monitor the audiovisual production of subtitling in ksa. social media platforms were practical tools in the 2010s for expressing and sharing opinions towards audiovisual production in ksa, as were newspapers and social events. the outcome of this second period emphasises what gamal (2019, 2020) highlighted in these publications, namely the lack of sufficient research in fansubbing in the arabic context. in addition, the analysis of the internet’s development in ksa aligns with the findings reported by almutairy (2016) and alshahrani (2016). nevertheless, this study furthered the discussion of digital developments and their influence on content creation, ugc and the competition between satellite tv and digital communities. figure 5: the heteronomy of the subtitling field during the 2000s-2010s. lastly, the third period marked the beginning of a significantly unorthodox approach to audiovisual production in ksa, promoted by the eco-political and socio-cultural objectives of sv2030. aiming to transform the country culturally and digitally, numerous events have (re)shaped the subtitling field in ksa since the announcement of sv2030 in 2016. many agents joined the field for various reasons, shaping its internal structure. after being permitted and reopened in 2018, cinema agencies became essential providers of subtitled content, deploying various position-takings, and seeking economic capital. digitally speaking, streaming bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 185 services were introduced to ksa after 2016, allowing users to access a wide range of subtitled content. netflix, amazon prime, and shahid were three platforms that continued to compete with other agents in the field to accumulate economic and symbolic capital. they applied various positiontakings to dominate and secure central positions in the field. in this third period, non-saudi streaming services, such as netflix, were the dominant agents, as noted by ovum media center (2018). however, this study demonstrates how local saudi agents, such as mbc and saudi cinema, were competitive, frequently reshaping the field dynamics. additionally, driven by an increase in the number of users (as shown in figure 6), social media platforms, particularly twitter, have promoted a figure 6: year-wise internet and social media users in ksa (in million). form of social media fansubbing, wherein short clips are produced and (re)circulated by twitter users to discuss various socio-cultural and political topics. all of these new emerging agents competed with the existing ones, seeking to dominate, secure positions, and accumulate social, economic and symbolic capital. as a result, the subtitling field was driven by these interactions to be relatively autonomous and to intersect with other fields such as film production. while the outcomes of some developments are yet to affect its structure in the long term, the subtitling field is expected to secure relative autonomy and maintain strong homology with other social fields in ksa. subfields may emerge given the digital ramifications on audiovisual production and consumption in ksa. figure 7: a summary of agents’ positions and competition bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 186 finally, the application of bourdieu’s theory to an arabic and islamic context, as demonstrated, for example, by hanna (2005, 2006) and khalifa (2017), among others, has proven relevant and valuable. however, the sociological study of the saudi context has illustrated important sociocultural and eco-political aspects, which differ from those in the mentioned studies. this resonates with the assertion by gamal (2007) and jacquemond and selim (2015) that research on avt tends to be ‘west-centred’ or ‘eurocentric’, highlighting the lack of arabic research. in addition, previous studies on the linguistic and cultural perspectives of arabic subtitling were useful. still, they cannot be fully understood without a detailed and inclusive sociological and historical analysis. thus, this study explains the development of subtitling in ksa and presents critical interpretations that can be combined with the findings of arabic researchers (e.g., al-adwan, 2015; thawabteh, 2013, and others). v. conclusion notwithstanding the lack of socio-historical documentation and analysis of subtitling production in ksa, this study provides valuable and significant results. first, it draws the boundaries of the subtitling field in ksa, identifying its primary stages and linking these with early developments in the audiovisual and media sectors. it subsequently divides the trajectory of the field into three phases, tracing the emergence and evolution of social practices that reshaped the field’s structure. secondly, the study analyses the external factors that led to the evolution and progress of the subtitling field, focusing on the most relevant technological and socio-cultural factors. it showcases the influence of the field of power on the dynamics of the subtitling field, whereby religious and political discourse and practices have regulated and affected audiovisual production in ksa. thirdly, the analysis of the subtitling field identifies the leading agents and the position-taking strategies that they applied to accumulate capital and secure dominance in the field. as a result, this detailed examination of the internal dynamics of the field reveals the importance of internal struggle and competition for its development and continuity. the continual entry and ongoing membership of new agents to the field have contributed to the transformation of the field from relatively heteronomous in the 1950s-1980s to relatively autonomous by the beginning of the 2020s. lastly, this historical study enables the close analysis of a significant event in ksa, sv2030, and determines its influence on the subtitling field since 2016. this paper aims to pave the way for further research in the subtitling field in ksa, considering anticipated changes and developments, as well as for a detailed investigation of the social practices of yet unstudied agents and institutions. this paper recommends a detailed and specific study of the emerging field of avt and subtitling in the arab world and the kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa), as well as an in-depth analysis of subtitling producers and streaming services, including the mbc group and netflix. it also suggests continuing to examine the influence of sv2030 on the cultural production of avt and subtitling in ksa, as well as analysing its changing dynamics. finally, it recommends a linguistic analysis of subtitling in ksa, examining the relationships between the linguistic features of subtitles and their social and cultural implications for the subtitling field. ethics statement the authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer. the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement bandar altalidi conceptualised the study, conducted the research, and wrote the manuscript. abdullah alqarni and yousef sahari assisted with data verification and provided feedback on the final manuscript. acknowledgements this research received grant no. (122/2023) from the arab observatory for translation (an affiliate of alecso), which is supported by the literature, publishing and translation commission in saudi arabia. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. bandar altalidi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 187 references alarab (2021, february 4) ‘ighlāq almʼāt min al-mawāqiʻ al-iliktrūnīyah lānthākhā ḥuqūq al-nashr fī al-saʻūdīyah’ [saudi arabia blocking hundreds of illegal websites]. available at: https://bit. ly/3hwarzp (accessed: 3 january 2025). alarabiya (2020, june 28) ‘istihlāk al-saʻūdīyīn lil-intirnit 3 aḍʻāf al-muʻaddal al-ʻālamī’ [internet usage in saudi arabi tripled the international rate]. available at: https://bit.ly/3uugpml (accessed: 3 february 2025). alastaa, f. 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(2015) ‘al-makhāṭir al-ʻaqadīyah fī qanawāt al-aṭfāl al-ʻarabīyah’ [the doctrinal ramifications of arab tvs kids’ shows]. albayan center for research and studies. r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 54 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 21, 2024 final revision: february 3, 2025 accepted: february 10, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 the rapid advancement of technology has significantly influenced the field of linguistics, particularly pragmatics, by expanding its scope from traditional intra-linguistic factors to encompass extralinguistic contexts such as social, cultural, situational, and cyber dimensions. this shift has ushered in functionalistic and post-functionalistic approaches in indonesia, broadening the field to include semantic, cultural, cognitive, and cyber pragmatics. this study investigates how visual multimodal cybertext contexts in indonesian digital media affect the interpretation of speech intent. this research draws on five selected visual, multimodal text excerpts from social media collected through free-flowing listening and note-taking, and it employs distributional and extralinguistic analysis methods. the findings reveal three primary roles of visual elements in cybertext: (1) typographic visuals that clarify background context for intended meaning, (2) visual icons that aid in contextual explanation, and (3) illustrative visuals that enhance understanding of the communicated message. these visual components are essential in facilitating accurate interpretation and engagement with speech acts in digital spaces. addressing the gaps in understanding these elements can enhance communication strategies in indonesian digital media, supporting clearer interaction and comprehension in a multicultural digital environment. this research contributes to the evolving field of cyber pragmatics by demonstrating the need for effective multimodal approaches to digital communication, especially in diverse sociocultural settings. keywords cybertext context, context features, multimodal visual, determining intent, media correspondence e-mail: kunjana@usd.ac.id article the power of visual communication: analyzing visual multimodal cybertext contexts in indonesian cyber pragmatics r. kunjana rahardi1*, wahyudi rahmat2, yuliana setyaningsih3, handoko4 1,3indonesian language education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia 2indonesian language and literature education, universitas pgri sumatera barat, padang, indonesia 4english department, faculty of humanities, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.54-68.2025 i. introduction post-functional linguistic development demands the study of linguistics and its related fields as pragmatically different from previous studies. rather than focusing on social, societal, cultural, and situational contexts as manifestations of conventional extralinguistic contexts, postfunctional pragmatic studies demand new contexts of a virtual nature (rahardi, 2020b; wälti et al., 2019). the virtual context has a cybertext dimension and a multimodal perspective. therefore, such a context is also called a cybertext context (rahardi et al., 2024). it is a virtual dimension in that aspects not yet present in a conventional extra-linguistic context must be reached in this study (vedantam et al., 2017; widdowson, 2006). aspects of social, societal, cultural, and situational contexts have shifted due to technological developments. the speaker and partner aspect and the other side aspect of the speaker are not always visible in a virtual cybertext-based context. similarly, the dimension of space and time, one of the main considerations of pragmatic studies based on conventional contexts, is now becoming borderless (streeck, 1984). the context aspect of the so-called supreme meaning r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 55 or purpose is now shifting into an aspect that is no longer monofascient but multifaceted. in one instance, today’s communication deals with a communication component that is no longer one-on-one, as in linguistic formalism and linguistic functionalism. thus, it is clear that context studies in linguistics are shifting due to the changing times and technological developments. the conventional context that was originally used as a fundamental tool in understanding the speaker’s meaning in communicating, involving social, societal, cultural, and situational aspects, is no longer sufficient to express the meaning in social media texts (barbulet, 2013; rahardi, 2020a; shubhra & krishna, 2024). for example, the speech of social-political hatred that has been spreading lately would be too complicated and complex if the conception of the meaning were to be replaced only by the conventional context (kartika et al., 2023). in other words, substituting conventional contexts must be accompanied by a new type of context:ultimodality-dimensional cybertext and virtual (guo, 2017; rowsell, 2013; (rahardi, 2022; rahardi et al., 2024a ). forcing the application of conventional contexts alone to embody the texts in social media, studying the substance of cyber pragmatics will present a downturn in digestion (perumal et al., 2024; laaguid, 2023). the social-political conflict that has recently been present in many political events in indonesia, particularly in the context of media reporting and public discourse, is indeed the result of the exaggeration of the conventional context that is not mixed with the virtual context of the cybertext as mentioned earlier (wodak, 1995). based on that fact, this research question is formulated as follows: (1) what are the features of the visual, multimodal cybertext context as the backbone of meaning determination in cyber pragmatism? (2) what is the role of each feature of the visual, multimodal cybertext context in cyber pragmatics? in line with the problem formula, this study aims to describe the nature and role of the features of the context of visual, multimodal cybertext as the backbone of meaning determination in cyber pragmatics. this research will be very useful in providing a theoretical reference to linguistic-pragmatic researchers, especially those focusing on the latest field of pragmatics called cyber pragmatics. understanding these dynamics is crucial for effectively navigating the evolving landscape of digital communication, particularly in indonesia, where media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and political discourse (rahardi et al., 2024b ). as a theoretical framework, it is necessary to submit that cyber pragmatics is understood as the study of the speaker’s meaning with the object of language study on the internet (faisol & rahmat, 2021). hence, the source of the data and the data for this research is the internet. cyberpragmatics, as a new branch of pragmatism, overlaps with the relevance theory in communication developed by wilson & sperber. there was general pragmatism before cyber pragmatics evolved due to the advances in information technology, digital technology, and ai. general pragmatism studies pragmatic phenomena of universal normative dimensions (leech, 2007; onwuegbuzie & leech, 2005; rahardi, 2019). essentially, general pragmatism develops principles based on western pragmatic studies. this is because the language, culture, and societies underlying the compression of these theories are all western-based. however, the western language and culture base in expressing the speaker’s meaning does not immediately apply to all societies. indonesian society, for example, is a very large society with many tribes, languages, and cultures, and it has principles and norms of communication that are not the same as those commonly used by western societies. more specifically, the principle of cooperation and linguistic excentricity, with all kinds of maxims, are not immediately applicable in indonesian society (rahardi, 2017, 2022). in other words, the universality of these western theories has proved to conflict with the realities of indonesian society (nugroho et al., 2024). in the context of indonesian media, this disparity becomes particularly evident. indonesian media often navigates a complex landscape of diverse cultural norms and communication styles, which can challenge the applicability of westernbased pragmatic theories. the indonesian media’s approach to reporting, audience engagement, and interpretation of speech acts must consider these unique cultural and linguistic nuances (rahardi, 2019, 2023). thus, the study of cyber pragmatics in indonesia must adapt to these distinct characteristics to effectively understand and interpret communication within the country’s diverse digital landscape. something similar happens in some other societies. theories, norms, r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 56 and laws in the western world do not automatically apply equally in societies with specific cultures. based on that fact, eastern countries such as china, japan, korea, and indonesia have undertaken culturally-specific pragmatic studies to examine meaning. based on that fact, around the early 2000s, a lot of culturally specific pragmatic research was carried out in academic studies and research projects. in short, increasingly culturally specific pragmatic studies began the development of pragmatics towards cyber pragmatics (yus, 2011; rahardi et al., 2023). the evolving study perspective is bimodality, which in turn shifts to multimodality. from the perspective of bimodality, there are two major dimensions to consider in language research: the language itself and its social aspects, horizontal and vertical (rahardi, 2020). the involvement of social aspects is what, in the future, gives rise to many theories of language functions. the theory of language functions also shifts backward, focusing on communicative functions, then shifts to functions that initiate and strengthen interaction and functions that strengthen the harmony of relationships. in defining linguistic pragmatism’s functions, context’s role is enormous. the conventional context that has shifted into the virtual context is manifested in the multi-modalityperspective cybertext context. the multimodal theory affirms that there are five aspects that speakers, speaker partners, and other speaker followers should consider in embracing texts on social media. these five aspects are presented sequentially: visual, spatial, aural, gestural, and linguistic (kress, 2009, 2015). the visual aspect occupies the most dominant and central role among the five aspects of multimodality. other aspects of multimodality also play an important role, but not as high as the visual aspect. in studies that have been conducted, visual aspects in the context of cybertexts are increasingly detailed in various forms, such as colors, shapes, graphics, emoji symbols, or emoticons. within multimodality, color is crucial as it significantly influences how information is communicated and interpreted (bezemer & kress, 2016; rosdiana et al., 2023). in the context of indonesian media, these multimodal aspects are vital. indonesian media must navigate a diverse cultural and linguistic landscape, which requires a more nuanced approach to multimodal communication. visual elements such as colors and symbols can carry different connotations across various indonesian cultures, making it essential for media practitioners to understand and apply these elements thoughtfully. such an understanding can help reduce miscommunication and enhance the clarity and impact of messages in indonesia’s multicultural society. moreover, the growing use of social media in indonesia underscores the importance of cyber pragmatics in analyzing and interpreting digital communication, especially in light of the country’s diverse and complex cultural landscape. kress and van leeuwen (2006) discuss several facets of color within multimodal communication: (1) color perception refers to how viewers understand and interpret specific colors. in multimodal contexts, colors can carry emotional significance or serve as cultural representations within a society (mujiyanto & fitriati, 2019). for instance, red often signals urgency or passion in many cultures, while blue conveys tranquility or trust. this is just one layer of the complex role color plays in multimodality. (2) color symbolism examines the cultural meanings attributed to colors in specific communities. for example, white symbolizes purity in western societies but represents mourning in certain eastern traditions. while related to color perception, this aspect explores how colors act as cultural symbols in different contexts. (3) color contrast and harmony affect readability and user engagement within multimodal texts. by contrasting or harmonizing colors, designers can highlight key information or direct the audience’s attention (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). a deep understanding of how visual elements and colors function in the cultural context of indonesia is crucial for content creators, especially in social media. with the rapid growth of technology and the ways we communicate digitally, understanding the nuances of colors and symbols in multimodal communication will be increasingly significant in determining how effectively messages are received by the diverse society (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). additionally, graphic layout plays a major role in multimodality, aiding information organization and clarity. effective layout arranges visual elements like text, images, and graphics to create a coherent visual structure, facilitating comprehension (chen & wang, 2016; harwath et al., 2016). furthermore, as the theoretical framework in this study, it is necessary to explain that the virtual r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 57 the study period. the data collection method is succinct, particularly utilizing concise discourse and a recording technique to capture significant information from each text fragment. the data analysis process employs distribution methods to infer the linguistic dimensions embedded within the texts, drawing on methodologies outlined by kate beeching (2015) and pflaeging et al. (2021). furthermore, extra-linguistic methods are applied to elucidate the pragmatic meaning dimensions implied within the text. the analytical measures include identification, classification, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of results, alongside systematic data interpretation. through a meticulous and comprehensive approach, the study aims to provide a deeper understanding of how visual multimodal cybertext context’s features shape the text’s meaning and syntactical background. iii. results this study has identified several functions of visual cybertext context elements in determining the background alignment of meaning, albeit with limited research data. the roles of implicit visual text context elements are delineated as follows: visual typographical elements emphasize the covert delivery of meaning. visual typography acts as a tool to clarify the delivery of significance subtly. visual typography serves as a preview of the purpose behind the text. visual icons function as condensed representations of reasoning. visual illustrations affirm the intent behind the text discreetly. in the indonesian media landscape, these findings may shed light on the strategic use of visual elements in digital content creation, especially considering the prevalence of visualbased communication platforms such as instagram and tiktok. understanding the nuanced roles of visual elements can aid content creators in crafting messages that resonate effectively with their target audience, considering indonesia’s diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. visual typography as an emphasizing role of the background of conveying intent the context of cybertext cannot be separated from the dimensions of multimodality studies. the dimensions of multimodality include visual, aural, gestural, spatial, and environmental aspects. from the author’s research, the multimodality aspect in context of the cybertexts has five dimensions of the context, namely the visual, spatial, aural, gestural, and linguistic contexts. among the various aspects of communication mentioned above, the visual aspect plays the most dominant role in interpreting meaning. the other aspects do not dominate the visual aspects as the means of meaning in texts. even the linguistic aspects, which played the most predominant role in the era of formalism, now, in the age of post-functionalism, occupy only one-fifth of the total element of communication to be observed. this reality differs from the era of functionalism, which considers language as half of the overall aspect of communication. the change not only occurred in the contextual aspects as mentioned earlier, but the perspective of multimodality also brought about a change from the revision of language as a social semiotic characterized by the emergence of “functional grammar” by halliday and in the era of post-functionalism that change towards the “visual grammar”, as proposed by kress & leeuwen. (leeuwen, 2005). in the postfunctionalism era, languages were seen as social semiotic symbols and visual devices. in the past, non-human dimensions were primarily ruled out, but in today’s era of linguistic post-functionalism, the absolute non-humane dimensions must be involved in communication. linguistics-pragmatics in the era of post-functional linguistics cannot rule out the dimensions of information technology, digital technology, and cybersecurity; even recently, there has been much artificial interaction between languages and ai. (higgins, 2014; rahardi, 2021). all the concepts and theories presented in front are placed based on a reference framework and a knife analysis in research. ii. methods this study employs a descriptive-qualitative research methodology, focusing on analyzing the influence of visual, multimodal cybertext features on the contextual background of textual meaning. the primary data comprises carefully selected text excerpts from the internet, representing various relevant visual, multimodal cybertext contexts (gall, gall, & borg, 2006). the study deliberately limits the data set to 5 visual multimedia texts to facilitate a thorough analysis. in indonesia’s media landscape, the primary data sources are drawn from various social media platforms, ensuring diversity and relevance in content selection throughout r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 58 the context of cybertext is dominant in conveying the intention of speech through text, which is the visual aspect. the replacement of the visual aspect cannot be separated from the linguistic dimension because even though the aspect only occupies 1/5 of the total dimension in multimodality, the main substance of the meaning of a speech is always conveyed through the device of human natural language. the typographic element in the visual aspect plays a significant role in determining the meaning of speech. inclusivity, common persuasive strategies used in political communication, especially during campaign periods. by employing these strategies, the campaign seeks to engage a broad audience by emphasizing shared values and a sense of connection. the consistent use of imagery— particularly anies baswedan’s illustration, where he is portrayed with a smile—further strengthens this connection. the smile is a visual cue portraying anies as approachable, trustworthy, and likable. these subtle visual cues are strategically designed to influence the viewer’s perception, making the candidate appear more relatable and in tune with the audience’s sentiments. an interesting layer is added through the inclusion of playful or mocking emoticons scattered throughout the text. these emoticons serve a dual purpose: first, they inject a sense of irony or ambiguity into the message, and second, they invite the audience to question the sincerity of the political message. the emoticons suggest that there might be a satirical undercurrent in the message, prompting the audience to consider the possibility of a more nuanced or even critical viewpoint. this approach appeals to a subset of the audience that might be more politically skeptical or cynical, allowing the campaign to subtly engage with viewers who might question the intentions behind the message. these visual and typographic choices are not unusual in the broader context of indonesian media. political campaigns frequently use these strategies to shape public opinion, and elements like color schemes, visual emphasis, and inclusivity are often employed to appeal to voters. the deliberate use of these visual cues reflects the deep connection between media design and the cultural context in which the message is communicated. in this case, shared cultural symbols, familiar imagery, and emotional appeals are leveraged to strengthen the political narrative. the socio-political context is essential to understanding the impact of this rhetoric. viewers interpret these visual elements through their own cultural and political lenses, which can significantly alter how the message is received. those who align with the presented political stance may perceive these elements as reinforcing their values. at the same time, those who are more skeptical may interpret the message with a sense of irony or critique. ultimately, this strategy underscores the power of visual rhetoric in political communication. by fig. 1. data1/vgpm1: typography visuals that emphasize the role of background (source: https://www.instagram.com/reel/c3teby_ ohyr/?igsh=dwhxchlhdniwmduy) in the provided data, the visual element of typography takes center stage, showcasing a specific message attributed to anies baswedan, framed within a red background with white typography. this content of the text itself, “bener apa kata anies, mari terlibat..., mari kita tentukan pilihan..., mari kita pastikan..., kita memilih nomor 2” (what exactly did anies say, let’s get involved..., let’s make a choice..., let’s make sure..., we voted number 2”), invokes a call-toaction structure. this message aims to establish a shared identity and a communal resolve among the audience. by using first-person plural pronouns like “kita” (we), it positions the reader as part of a larger collective effort, reinforcing a sense of unity and shared purpose. the rhetorical structure in this context relies heavily on familiarity and r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 59 combining iconic imagery, typographic emphasis, and culturally resonant cues, political campaigns can communicate complex ideas efficiently and persuasively, influencing how voters view the candidate and the political narrative. it’s worth noting that misunderstandings and misinterpretations are not uncommon, particularly due to variations in contextual comprehension, as evidenced by historical socio-political incidents. therefore, recognizing the contextual intricacies embedded within visual and textual elements is imperative for accurate interpretation and comprehension, especially within the indonesian media milieu. with the rapid proliferation of digital media platforms and the advent of social media, disseminating such visual messages has become more prevalent, necessitating a critical eye and an acute awareness of the socio-political landscape to navigate the complexities of modern media communication effectively. visual typography as an explanation of the role of background conveying intent as explained earlier, the visual aspect of multimodality holds the most central role as part of the cybertext context in cyber pragmatics (rahardi., 2022). visual aspects can manifest in various forms, such as colors, shapes, graphics, and typography. in this second data set, denoted as vttm1, typography is again central to conveying a message, but it plays a more deceptive role here. the text prominently reads, “tangkapan layar status gibran di akun x nya saat pelantikan ahy!!!” (“screenshot of gibran’s account on his x account during the inauguration of ahy!!”). this typographic element presents itself as an authentic snapshot of a statement from gibran rakabuming, a notable public figure. yet, closer inspection reveals that the account tagged, @gibranrakabumi, is not gibran’s official twitter account. his verified account is, in fact, @gibran_tweet, and this alleged statement does not appear there. this disparity signals a classic instance of misinformation, where typography is used to lend a misleading sense of legitimacy to a fabricated claim. this approach to disinformation is especially prevalent in indonesia’s media landscape, particularly in the context of political discourse and public figures, where unauthorized accounts or fabricated content can swiftly gain traction. typography is manipulated here to craft a semblance of authority and to promote false narratives, often tapping into the audience’s familiarity with digital layouts that resemble authentic social media posts. in this instance, the credibility of typography as a visual tool for information dissemination is exploited, illustrating how it can become a vehicle for fake news. such uses of typography are not merely aesthetic but strategic, guiding the audience’s perception by embedding misleading cues in the design. accompanying the typographic element is an additional phrase, “masak si sekji ini, etika cawapres ri” (“this heinous period, the ethics of the vice president of the republic of indonesia.”). this statement builds upon the primary typographic misdirection, creating a layered message that fig. 2. data 2/ vttm1: visual typography clarifying the role of background facilitators (source: https://www.instagram.com/reel/c3us4t3pqdo/?igsh=ajq2ntrkzgz0zhyw) r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 60 criticizes the ethical standards of high-ranking political figures. here, the typographic emphasis shifts the focus toward a critical commentary on ethics, likely intended to provoke strong reactions from the audience, further reinforcing the narrative constructed by the preceding misleading element. this supplementary statement illustrates how loaded language is effectively employed in political media, aiming to strike an emotional chord with the reader while subtly influencing public opinion. loaded language, often crafted with care, taps into the audience’s emotions, biases, and beliefs, ensuring that the message resonates deeply and encourages alignment with a particular political narrative. this method is especially effective in shaping perceptions, as it works on an emotional level rather than a purely rational one. a deeper analysis of vttm1 reveals the central role of typography in shaping not just the aesthetic appeal of the message but its power to influence perception and frame the narrative context. typography, often seen simply as a design element, now plays a more strategic role in the digital age, where visual content can be swiftly produced and disseminated. in this case, the typography is bold and visually striking, potentially leading readers to accept the statement at face value. the design elements, such as font size, weight, and placement, guide the reader’s eye and influence how the information is processed. this makes it all the more crucial for readers to engage in critical thinking and fact-checking, especially when the typography may lend an unwarranted sense of credibility to the statement. the case of vttm1 emphasizes the growing need for digital literacy in the modern media landscape. misinformation is often presented with a veneer of legitimacy, made all the more convincing by polished design and effective typographic choices. this phenomenon underscores the importance of vigilance and skepticism when interacting with digital content. as consumers of online information, we must be aware of the potential manipulation within typographic elements. what may initially appear to be a reliable or authoritative source could be a carefully crafted illusion. this incident reminds us of how powerful typography can be in shaping the credibility of information. a seemingly simple typographic choice can turn an unverified claim into something that appears factual and trustworthy. therefore, understanding the subtle interplay between design and content is essential to responsibly navigating today’s media landscape. as consumers, we are responsible for looking beyond the surface and engaging with media content critically to avoid being misled by deceptive, visually compelling messages. visual typography as an interpreter of the role of background conveying intent the role of cybertext context as a background for conveying intent is proven to be carried out by examining the visual aspect of typography, as seen in data 3: vtpmk1 below. the statement exemplifies the integration of typographic elements with linguistic content, “sekedar informasi, untuk 2 hari ke depan d usahakan jgn keluar malam2 pake motor, klu pun ada keperluan keluar mlm d hrapakan pakai mobil jauh lebih aman dari pada pake motor (just for information, for the next 2 days try to go out at night using a motorcycle, you also have a need to go out and hope that using a car is much safer than using a motorcycle...)” this amalgamation of typographic and linguistic components serves as an elaborator or decomposer, effectively contextualizing the intended message. the elongated typographic format facilitates immediate comprehension and offers a detailed breakdown of the information, enhancing clarity and understanding. this method of conveying intent proves particularly apt as it elucidates the underlying context, making the fig. 3. data 3/vtpmk: visual typography of background role interpreters (source: https://www.instagram.com/p/kqmohllweb/?igsh=bm9mmxl2zwjzdzn3) r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 61 message more transparent. the significance of this typographic aspect in delineating the background of speech intent becomes evident when considering the divergent personal and communal assumptions related to specific intentions. variances in individual and collective interpretations can significantly alter the perceived meaning of an intention. hence, the visual typographic context plays a pivotal role in elucidating and describing the underlying background of speech delivery. as this contextual aspect is unraveled further, its significance and role in shaping interpretation become increasingly apparent. visual typography manifests in diverse forms, encompassing various shapes, colors, and fonts, strengthening its role within the cybertext context. this observation holds in socio-political and commercial posters on roadsides and in pragmatic discussions, particularly within cyber pragmatics. indeed, the content of such posters serves as a tangible manifestation of the visual cybertext context, exerting significant influence on the conveyed meaning of speech. in indonesia’s media landscape, this phenomenon is observable in various forms of digital content, ranging from social media posts to online advertisements. the strategic use of visual typography underscores its efficacy in conveying nuanced messages and shaping public discourse. data 3: vtpmk1 offers further insights into the role and impact of typographic visual elements within the broader context of communication dynamics, emphasizing the continued relevance and importance of understanding visual cues in contemporary media environments. iconic visuals as emphasizing the role of the background for conveying intent fake news lately seems to be spreading on various social media platforms. many people are very fond of pranks that sometimes convey untrue news and can be misleading. concerning the function of language, such a statement violates the essential function of language. the fact of violation and deviation of the essential function of language is called language functioning. fake news is a fact of language supervision. likewise, the spread of hate speech is concrete evidence that human language has been subsided by certain parties in the daily practice of language. some of these functions are intended, but some are not motivated by specific goals and intentions. in the author’s research, the context aspect of iconic visual cybertext has a significant function in conveying the meaning of speech (rahardi, 2017). the visual aspect of an iconic is an imitation of a certain shape, a certain sound, or maybe other things that have been prevalent before. thus, it can be affirmed that the context aspect of the iconic visual cybertext falsifies the authenticity of certain facts. an announcement from the management of a particular company or perhaps the board of directors of a particular institution, such as hospital management as in data 4: vipmpi1, can be imitated if its aspects resemble the original form for certain purposes. forgery typically serves ulterior motives and intentions, often with deceptive aims. instances such as warnings against fraud, exemplified by statements like “...hati-hati penipuan yang mengatasnamakan manajemen dan direksi fig. 4. data 4/vipmpi1: iconic visuals that reinforce the role of the backdrop (source: https://www.instagram.com/p/cazxlucp9iz/?igsh=ohrzagtrmxznmm5q) r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 62 rsupn (….beware of fraud on behalf of the management and directors of rsupn...)”, serve as tangible evidence of past instances where both the management and directors of the hospital were implicated in fraudulent activities. consequently, it becomes apparent that the presence of iconic or icon cybertext elements serves to reinforce the underlying context of conveying intent. the prevalence of counterfeit goods and fraudulent activities underscores the role of iconic visual aspects within the cybertext context. the elements discussed in the statement serve as crucial markers of authenticity in media, as powerful tools for conveying meaning and intent. when used effectively, these visual markers can significantly shape how information is perceived and whether the audience trusts it. in indonesia, a country facing challenges related to counterfeit products and fraudulent schemes, the role of these visual cues becomes even more important. they act as mechanisms for distinguishing legitimate content from misleading or deceptive information, essential in an era where misinformation can spread rapidly.data 4:v ipmpi1 offers valuable insights into how iconic visual elements interact with broader communication dynamics, providing a lens through which one can better understand how media content is consumed and interpreted. the analysis of the text snippet reveals how certain visual cues, such as logos, colors, and other design elements, influence the reader’s perception of the message. these elements can either enhance credibility or raise doubts, depending on how they are perceived within indonesia’s cultural and socio-political context. in this case, the visual components—such as graphic symbols or iconic representations—serve as determining factors in assessing the authenticity and credibility of the message. in a media environment rife with misinformation and manipulation, relying on these visual cues is crucial as part of a broader strategy to evaluate content critically. the presence of iconic cybertext elements in the message acts as both a signal and a safeguard for identifying legitimate information from dubious sources. this phenomenon highlights a broader issue within indonesia’s media landscape: the need for vigilance and discernment when navigating digital content. in a society where counterfeit products and fake news are rampant, recognizing and understanding the role of visual elements in shaping public perception becomes essential for information consumers. as digital media continues to grow and evolve, these visual cues will only become more sophisticated, necessitating a more discerning and educated public to navigate the media environment effectively (handoko et al., 2024). illustrative visual as an emphasiser of the role of the background of conveying intent the illustrative visual cybertext context conveyed in data 5: vipmm1 reads, “wah ada bendera china bro..??? berarti pemilu 2024 ada intervensi dari tiongkok ya…???... (wow, there is a chinese flag...??? it means that in the 2024 election, there will be chinese intervention, yes....???”) the information was accompanied by a photo of the president in the background, accompanied by many people depicting that the chinese people were behind him. fig. 5. data 5/vipmm1: illustrative visuals emphasizing the role of background (source: https://www.facebook.com/ reel/729210065667883) the unfolding narrative surrounding the circulation of the video on facebook, depicting president jokowi dancing to the ‘oke gas’ campaign song associated with prabowo-gibran’s campaign, illustrates a powerful intersection of visual and textual communication in the digital age. the video, with the provocative inclusion of a chinese flag, r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 63 iv. discussion diverse interpretations of visual multimodal texts: influence of age, education, cultural background, and digital media familiarity understanding how diverse audiences interpret visual multimodal texts requires a careful and thoughtful approach, especially considering factors like age, education level, cultural background, and digital media literacy. these elements all play a crucial role in shaping how different groups perceive and respond to visual communication, especially in cybertexts, where the intent is often to influence public opinion or behavior. how these visual elements are interpreted can vary greatly, and this variance highlights the importance of ethical and strategic design when crafting messages for a wide audience. age is a critical factor in determining how individuals interpret visual texts. younger audiences who have grown up in the digital age often have a higher exposure to digital media and are accustomed to the nuanced multimodal communication on social media platforms. they are generally more attuned to visual cues such as emoticons, color contrasts, and specific font styles, all of which can convey layers of meaning. for example, emojis or playful visuals can communicate sarcasm, irony, or hidden emotions that may not immediately appear in the text. these audiences are often able to decode these cues intuitively, responding to the embedded nuances without much difficulty. in contrast, older audiences may approach the same visuals more literally. due to their potentially lower exposure to the rapid evolution of digital communication, they might not pick up on subtle cues such as irony or playful undertones embedded in visual elements. this demographic may interpret visual texts more straightforwardly, missing the implied meanings that younger viewers would quickly grasp. a message that resonates well with a younger audience could result in confusion or unintended interpretations among older viewers. this underscores the need for age-sensitive design in digital communication—visuals should be clear and appropriately tailored to ensure broad comprehension. education level plays an equally significant role in visual interpretation. audiences with formal training in media studies, communication, or critical theory are more likely to be aware of the persuasive ignites speculation about the potential involvement of china in indonesia’s 2024 election. this visual element—the chinese flag is a symbolic cue that reinforces certain political narratives and invokes specific interpretations despite the lack of direct evidence of such intervention. it highlights how visual illustrations within digital content can affirm or challenge the intended message, influencing how the viewer interprets the underlying meaning. in this case, the visual illustration does more than add aesthetic value; it reinforces the message conveyed by the video, guiding the viewer toward a particular interpretation. visual elements in this context play an essential role in shaping the viewer’s perception and response, especially within the framework of indonesia’s media landscape, where visual cues frequently influence political discourse. the power of illustrations, images, and symbols is particularly pronounced in indonesia’s political environment, where posters and other graphic materials adorn urban and rural areas, underscoring the potency of visual communication. in many instances, such illustrations take precedence over purely typographic or linguistic elements, highlighting the multifaceted nature of communication in the digital age. as multimodal communication practices become more prominent, language itself is often complemented or even overshadowed by visual elements that communicate meaning and intent. using visuals such as the chinese flag in the video exemplifies how images and symbols can carry political weight, becoming integral to the narrative construction and manipulation of public opinion. in an era where information is shared and consumed rapidly through social media, these visual cues often form the backbone of political messaging, evoking strong emotional responses or reinforcing specific ideologies. further analysis of data 5: vipmm1 reveals the deeper dynamics between visual illustrations and the broader communication process. when examining the content, it becomes clear that visual elements are crucial in constructing and framing political narratives. they play an instrumental role in attracting attention and shaping the public’s interpretation of political events and figures. in political discourse and electoral campaigns, these visual tools are used strategically to evoke certain emotions, reinforce political alliances, and sway public opinion. r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 64 and manipulative tactics often embedded in visual texts. these individuals can quickly recognize strategies like color psychology, font choices, and the layout of images—all elements designed to evoke specific emotional responses or influence perceptions. they are more likely to question overly simplistic or manipulative visuals, and they may actively deconstruct the design elements to understand the underlying message. on the other hand, audiences without formal education in media or critical analysis may interpret visuals at face value. they might focus primarily on the content, missing out on the persuasive or manipulative aspects embedded in the design. this discrepancy in interpretive ability highlights the importance of transparent and accessible design in digital communication. visual elements should be straightforward and clear for those without advanced media literacy to ensure that the message is not lost or misunderstood. the cultural background profoundly influences how individuals interpret visual, multimodal texts. visual symbols, colors, and imagery often carry culturally specific meanings that may resonate differently with local versus global audiences (rodrigues dos santos, 2024). for example, certain colors in indonesia might evoke national pride or signify particular political affiliations. red and white, for instance, are deeply associated with indonesian identity, often invoking feelings of patriotism and unity. conversely, the same colors might carry different connotations in other cultural contexts, where they may symbolize something entirely unrelated to national identity. this cultural variance underscores the importance of culturally sensitive design in visual communication. designers must carefully consider the symbolic meanings of different visual elements and ensure they resonate with the target audience. what may seem like a simple color choice or image in one cultural context could be deeply loaded with meaning in another, potentially altering the message’s impact. for global or multicultural campaigns, incorporating culturally relevant elements can foster a stronger connection with local audiences while mitigating the risk of misinterpretation among international viewers. finally, familiarity with digital media platforms plays a crucial role in interpreting visual multimodal texts. frequent digital and social media users have developed an intuitive understanding of how information is presented online. they are adept at recognizing rhetorical strategies, such as framing, juxtaposition, and selective emphasis, influencing how a message is perceived. these individuals are more likely to detect underlying agendas or implied meanings within visual texts and can navigate complex messages more critically. in contrast, less experienced digital users may approach visuals more literally, focusing primarily on surface-level content. they might overlook the subtlety of visual rhetoric or fail to recognize the layered meanings conveyed through design. this gap in digital literacy highlights the importance of designing visuals that are easily interpretable by digital natives and those less familiar with online communication norms (satriyo, 2023). a welldesigned visual message should be accessible and engaging for a wide audience, regardless of their digital literacy. ethical implications of visual manipulation in cybertext the ethical implications of using visual elements in cybertext, particularly in political messaging, are centered around the potential for manipulation and greater transparency in design choices. visual elements—such as color schemes, typography, and iconography, can deeply influence how a message is perceived. in the political sphere, these choices are often strategically used to evoke strong emotional responses, align viewers with particular ideologies, or create a sense of unity around a political candidate or movement. while such tactics can be highly engaging and effective in fostering audience connection, they also risk blurring the line between genuine information and propaganda, potentially fostering the spread of misinformation. for instance, color schemes designed to invoke national pride or typography that emphasizes urgency can subconsciously encourage viewers to identify with a particular viewpoint or political stance. these visual cues can subtly nudge the audience into a certain way of thinking without realizing it. a particularly concerning aspect of visual manipulation involves using emoticons or subtle typographic choices that suggest irony or sarcasm. such elements can mislead viewers, prompting some to perceive a message as lighthearted or satirical while others may interpret it as serious or genuine. this ambiguity creates an environment ripe for polarized interpretations, r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 65 especially in places like indonesia, where media literacy varies significantly across different demographics. the result is that the public may form opinions based on skewed perceptions of a message rather than on objective facts, making the need for ethical design and clarity in visual communication all the more urgent. to address these ethical concerns, transparency in visual design becomes a critical consideration, especially when dealing with politically charged content. content creators and media practitioners must prioritize clarifying their intentions and avoid design choices that may mislead or bias their audience. one practical approach is clearly labeling opinion pieces and political advertisements, distinguishing them from objective reporting. additionally, creators should minimize using visuals that imply unwarranted authority or authenticity, which can give a misleading impression of credibility or objectivity. by adopting ethical media practices, content producers can foster an environment that encourages informed decision-making and enhances public trust. however, transparency alone is insufficient—promoting media literacy is equally crucial in combating visual manipulation. as digital engagement continues to grow, it is essential to equip audiences with the tools to assess the intent behind visual elements in digital media critically. media literacy initiatives that educate consumers on the persuasive power of visual design and encourage critical thinking can help individuals discern manipulation from factual reporting. in an increasingly complex media landscape, such awareness enables consumers to navigate digital content more discerningly, ultimately contributing to a more ethically conscious and resilient society. by fostering both transparency in content creation and critical media literacy among consumers, we can mitigate the risks of manipulation and promote a fairer and more responsible public discourse. v. conclusion while the research provides valuable insights into the role of visual elements in cybertexts, the study’s conclusions could be strengthened through a more critical reflection on its chosen methodology’s inherent biases and limitations. specifically, the reliance on free-flowing listening and note-taking techniques introduces a level of subjectivity that the article does not adequately address. while these methods can capture spontaneous and nuanced insights, they also run the risk of selective attention or the omission of key details. this is particularly true when a researcher’s personal perspectives or preconceptions influence their interpretation of the data. in qualitative research, such biases are often unavoidable, but they can compromise the objectivity of the findings and limit their broader applicability. in the context of this research, where the visual elements of cybertext are being analyzed, the subjective nature of free-flowing listening and note-taking becomes especially significant. visual multimodal elements, such as color schemes, typography, and graphic design, require a high level of interpretive skill and careful attention to detail. without a more systematic and structured approach to data collection, the research risks overemphasizing certain visual elements while potentially downplaying others that may be equally crucial in shaping the message’s intended meaning. additionally, individual interpretation of visuals is highly dependent on the researcher’s own background, experiences, and biases, making it essential to implement methods that account for these variations and ensure a more objective analysis. moreover, the study’s limited dataset further exacerbates the potential for bias. a more expansive and diverse dataset would improve the robustness of the findings and provide a more accurate and representative understanding of how visual elements in cybertexts are interpreted across different contexts. the article acknowledges this limitation but does not offer a detailed strategy for addressing it. broadening the scope of the data set, for example, by incorporating visual content from various digital platforms, different types of visual formats, and a wider range of audience demographics, would help mitigate these biases and lead to more comprehensive conclusions. this would allow for a fuller exploration of how visual communication in cybertexts is understood by different groups, potentially revealing how cultural, social, and political factors influence the interpretation of visual elements. expanding the dataset this way would also enhance the study’s generalizability, providing a clearer understanding of the dynamics in the broader digital communication landscape. thus, while the research offers valuable contributions to the field, a more critical approach to methodology and a broader data sample could r. kunjana rahardi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 66 references barbulet, g. 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(2011). cyberpragmatics, internet-mediated communication in context (a. fetzer, ed.; 1st ed.). john benjamin publishing company. https://benjamins.com nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 125 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: december 01, 2024 final revision: june 05, 2025 accepted: june 07, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 the traces of the minangkabau language in negeri sembilan are evidence that the minangkabau people not only migrated to the coastal areas of sumatra but also to the malay peninsula. despite historical evidence linking the tanjong ipoh isolect to minangkabau, the extent of phonological change in this isolect remains undocumented. this study seeks to bridge this gap by systematically analyzing phonological evolution. this study aims to describe the forms and types of phonological changes observed in the tanjong ipoh isolect, located in kuala pilah, negeri sembilan, malaysia. data were collected through observation and interviews. we interviewed three native speakers of the tanjong ipoh isolect, selected through purposive sampling based on linguistic competence and community recognition, who participated in this study. additionally, we also interview various speakers to help validate the data. we documented the data using both note-taking and recording techniques. we conducted the analysis using a top-down approach by identifying minangkabau protolanguage (pbm) reflexes in the tanjong ipoh isolect. the results are that the vowels that have changed in tanjong ipoh isolect are *i, *u, *ə, *e, and *a, while pbm consonants that have changed in tanjong ipoh isolect are *t, *k, *s, *r, and *l. pbm consonant changes in the tanjong ipoh isolect consistently occur in environments where pbm vowels also change. the study concludes that all sound changes observed in the tanjong ipoh isolect are conditioned. among the types of changes, lenition (weakening) is the most prevalent, with additional changes including assimilation, dissimilation, fortition, diphthongization, splitting, merging, and elimination. the findings align with established phonological theories and contribute to understanding language evolution in migrant communities. keywords change, phoneme, protolanguage, reflex, tanjong ipoh isolect correspondence *e-mail: nadra@hum.unand.ac.id article phonological change of minangkabau protolanguage in tanjong ipoh isolect, negeri sembilan nadra nadra1*, aslinda aslinda2, ahmad zikri3 1,2department of linguistics, universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 3undergraduate student of indonesian study program, universitas andalas under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.125-137.2025 i. introduction the tanjong ipoh isolect, spoken in kuala pilah, negeri sembilan, malaysia, is one of the interesting subjects for diachronic study. the study of this isolect is closely connected to the minangkabau language, introduced by minangkabau migrants who settled in the region. this connection is supported by historical accounts, that minangkabau migrants had settled in negeri sembilan by the 17th century (adelaar, 2004; aman et al., 2018; atan et al., 2015; jaafar et al., 2017). de jong (1980) and siregar et al. (2022) further suggest that this migration may have begun as early as the 15th century, with minangkabau migrants occupying areas in negeri sembilan and melaka. this migration is evidenced by clans in negeri sembilan tracing their origins to minangkabau regions such as limapuluh kota and tanah datar regencies. additionally, researchers highlighted that the minangkabau language spoken in west sumatra and in negeri sembilan are closely related (aman et al., 2018; atan et al., 2015; suhada et al., 2023). jaafar et al., (2017) further mentioned that one of the most significant influences brought by the minangkabau people to negeri sembilan is their language. nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 126 the historical reports mentioned above suggest that the language spoken in the area is still connected to its ancestral language, minangkabau. over time, however, this language has naturally changed, leading to differences from the language used in its original region. this evidence provides the basis for examining the reflexes of the minangkabau protolanguage within the tanjong ipoh isolect (hereinafter referred to as the tanjong ipoh isolect). this study aims to explain how the sounds of the minangkabau protolanguage appear in the tanjong ipoh isolect, focusing on the specific changes in sounds that have happened there and identifying what kinds of sound changes have taken place. language changes can be identified by examining the reflexes of a protolanguage within the language being studied or in other related languages. a protolanguage reflex represents the characteristics of an ancestral language as they appear in a modern language or isolect. the term “isolect” was taken by adelaar (1992) from hudson (1970), which is used to refer to a language form without considering its status as a language or as a dialect. according to fox (1995), a reflex is a derived form of a language that reflects an earlier protolanguage form. therefore, this type of study inherently involves examining language development across at least two times. nadra (2023) classifies such research within diachronic linguistics, a field that focuses on the historical development of language over time. diachronic linguistics, also referred to as comparative historical linguistics, compares languages from different periods. sometimes, during the development process, certain elements undergo changes, while at other times, they remain inherited. the most basic and significant type of change in comparative historical linguistics is phonological change (fernandez, 1996). masrukhi (2002) and santoso (2005) describe this phonological change as occurring at the earliest stage. languages or isolects within the same group share a familial relationship, with the degree of closeness or distance depending on the changes each language or isolect has undergone. this relationship can be demonstrated through various linguistic levels, including phonology, lexicon, grammar, and semantics. we can conduct this analysis by examining the reflexes of protolanguage reconstructions in the derived languages or isolects. there are several studies conducted by previous researchers related to this research. among them is the work of atmawati (2014), who studied the reflexes of proto-malayo-polynesian (pmp) phonemes in the rejang language, covering consonants, vowels, semivowels, and diphthongs. these sounds include (1) reflexes of pmp vowel phonemes of /*e/ > /e/, /ê/, /o/, /êa/, /oa/, /ø/; /*i/ > /i/, /e/, /ê/, /ea/, /êy/; /*u/ > /u/, /ê/, /o/, /oa/, /êw/; (2) reflexes of pmp consonant phonemes of /*b/ > /b/, /o/; /*d/ > /t/; /*d/ > /d/, /ø/; /*g/ > /g/; /*h/ > /ø/; /*j/ > /g/, /k/, /t/; /*k/ >/ k/, /?/; /*l/ > /l/, /ø/; /*m/ > /m/, /ø/; /*n/ > /n/, /ñ/; /*ñ/ > /ñ/, /n/; /*ŋ/ > /ŋ/, /ø/; /*p/ > /p/; /*q/ > /?/, /ø/; /*r/ > /r/, /ø/; /*r/ > /l/, /?/, /ø/; /*s/ > /s/; /*s/ > /ø/; /*t/ > /t/, /ø/; /*t/ > /t/; /*z/ > /j/, /y/; /*z/ > /d/, /j/; (3) reflexes of pmp semivowel phonemes of /*w/ > /b/, /w/, /a/, /ø/; /*y/ > /y/, /e/;and (4) the reflex of pmp diphthong phoneme /*aw/ > /oa/. toha (2016) looked at how proto-malayic sounds have changed and been kept in tamiang malay and found that most of the original protomalayic consonants and vowels are still present in tamiang malay (bmt). adhiti (2019) analyzed the sound change patterns in the kabola, hamap, and klon languages on alor island and identified several types of sound changes, including merger, split, monophonemization, diphonemization, phonemic loss, phoneme addition, and metathesis. phonemic loss happened at the beginning (aphaeresis), middle (syncope), and end (apocope) of words, while phoneme addition took place at the beginning (prothesis), middle (epenthesis), and end (paragoge) of words. ubaidillah & norlaili (2020) explored phonological innovations and retentions of protomalay in the coastal dialect of riau malay. they noted innovation rules classified as primary and secondary. the three types of primary innovations are substitution, split, and merger, while secondary innovations include lenition, fortition, metathesis, syncope, prothesis, and paragoge. the sakai language, described as a malay variation, was studied by burhanuddin (2021). his research found that the sakai language (bs) keeps some sounds from proto-malay (pm) while also showing new changes, both in regular patterns and in unusual forms. the retention of the lexicon further supports bs as a malay variant. comparisons nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 127 between bs and the pm show that both have relatively large correspondences and variations, suggesting that the two isolects are variants of the same language despite some differences. such evidence supports the classification of bs as a malay variant. djawa & sampe (2021) examined the symptoms of proto-austronesian (pan) language change in the loli language spoken in the west sumba district. in this language, researchers noted sound changes involving the removal of sounds at the beginning of words through apheresis, as in hatay changing to ate ‘heart’ and qina to ina ‘mother’. syncope, or the omission of sounds in the middle of words, was observed in examples like mari becoming mai ‘let’ and buwaq changing to wua ‘fruit’. also, apocope (the removal of sounds at the end of words) was seen in cases, again, such as hatay becoming ate ‘heart’ and salaq changing to jala ‘wrong’. next, additions of sounds also occurred, including prothesis (adding sounds at the beginning of words), like tuma changing to katuma ‘tuma’ and ikur changing to kiku ‘tail’, as well as paragoge (adding sounds at the end), as seen in paqit becoming paita ‘bitter’ and udan changing to urangu ‘rain’. siregar et al. (2022) studied how sounds change of the proto-austronesian (pan) language across the karo, toba, pakpak, simalungun, mandailing, and angkola languages. they found nine kinds of sound changes, such as metathesis, apheresis, syncope, apocope, prothesis, epenthesis, and paragoge, along with the repeating and adding of sounds in the middle and at the end of words. their findings led them to conclude that the languages within the batak family share a common origin, descending from the same protolanguage, proto-austronesian (pan). novrizal et al. (2022) conducted a study titled ‘reflection of minangkabau protophonemes in the batu payuang isolect (ibp)’. they identified lenition (weakening) sound changes in ibp, where */t/, */k/, */p/ in final positions shift to /ɂ/; apocope changes in */h/, */r/, and */r/; monophthongization in the diphthong */au/ > /w/; and diphthongization in the protophonemes */u/ and */i/. the types of sound changes observed in ibp include linear inheritance, deletion, transformation, splitting, and merging. rahmi et al. (2023) published an article entitled ‘phonological changes of minangkabau protolanguage in the koto tinggi isolect’ and identified sound change types such as lenition, fortition, apheresis, syncope, apocope, prothesis, paragoge, nasal changes, and diphthongization. the specific types of phonological changes found include: (1) modifications such as lenition, fortition, and diphthongization; (2) deletions including apheresis, syncope, apocope, and haplology; (3) additions such as prothesis and paragoge; (4) mergers of *p, *t, *k, *ɂ into [ɂ] at word-final positions; and (5) splits of protophonemes, such as *i separating into ɪ, e, ia, and ie. suparno (2018) also studied phonological variations in egyptian and saudi arabic phonemes. his findings indicated language sound changes in the borrowing of saudi arabian vocabulary into egyptian arabic, specifically (1) lenition or sound change, (2) prothesis or sound addition at the beginning, middle, and end, and (3) the occurrence of diphthongization. reniwati et al. (2016) conducted a study on the minangkabau language spoken in negeri sembilan. their findings showed that there were differences in speech between two test points in the migrant areas, while differences in the areas where people originally came from were seen at the subdialect level. using the dialectometry method, they calculated that the highest degree of language variation occurred at the subdialect level. in the following year, reniwati et al. (2017) published an article that focused on the minangkabau language spoken in the negeri sembilan dialect area of malaysia. this study compared the minangkabau language in the area of origin, particularly in 50 kota and tanah datar districts, with the minangkabau language in the migrant areas covering negeri sembilan, melaka, and pahang. similar to the previous study, the study found no variation at the language or dialect levels but at the subdialect and speech levels. the studies above share common ground with the present study, as they investigate sound changes of the minangkabau protolanguage, similar to the analyses by rahmi et al. (2023) and novrizal et al. (2022). however, the differences between the studies lie in their examination of reflexes across various languages. toha (2016), burhanuddin (2021), and ubaidillah & norlaili (2020) looked at how proto-malay/malayic sounds are kept or changed in tamiang malay (bmt), sakai malay, and the coastal dialects of riau malay, respectively. atmawati (2014) looked at how sounds from proto-malayo-polynesian (pmp) nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 128 eighteen consonant phonemes, namely /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ñ/, /ɣ/, /s/, /h/, /j/, /c/, /l/, /w/, and /y/; and four diphthong phonemes, namely /aw/, /ay/, /uy/, and /oy/. among them, these are both complete and incomplete distributions. ii. method this study constitutes field research conducted in tanjong ipoh. it adopted a top-down approach, focusing on identifying reflexes of the minangkabau protolanguage within the isolect of tanjong ipoh. we collected data through observation and interviews, adhering to sudaryanto’s (2018) framework. the observation method involved close observation of utterances from native speakers and other speakers of the isolect, conducted discreetly to ensure naturalistic data collection. we interviewed three native speakers of the tanjong ipoh isolect, selected through purposive sampling based on linguistic competence and community recognition (both male and female) who met specific, predefined criteria outlined by nadra & reniwati (2023): 1) aged 40–60 years, 2) not highly educated, 3) originating from the research area, 4) born, raised, and married to someone from the research area, and 5) possessing fully functional speech organs. a questionnaire was developed to guide the participants’ responses in alignment with the research questions. we adapted this questionnaire from nadra & reniwati (2023) to better align with our study’s objectives. to reduce the potential for misunderstandings, we also presented images related to the questions. interviews were conducted with the participants at the customary leaders’ gathering house in tanjong ipoh. additional interviews with other speakers were carried out to ensure data accuracy, and we used telephone and video conversations on whatsapp for further interviews to address data gaps and clarify ambiguous information. observations and interviews were supplemented with note-taking and audio recording. the data were transcribed phonetically using the international phonetic alphabet (ipa). we conducted the analysis using a topdown approach by identifying minangkabau protolanguage (pbm) reflexes in the tanjong ipoh isolect. we analyzed the data using the identity method, which relies on external criteria not inherent to the language under examination (sudaryanto, 2018). we specifically applied the appear in the rejang language, while siregar et al. (2022) studied changes from proto-austronesian (pan) in the batak and javanese languages. djawa & sampe (2021) also studied pan changes within the loli language, and suparno (2018) examined sound changes between egyptian and saudi arabic. adhiti (2019), however, did not specify the protolanguage used in the research. unlike these previous studies, our research focuses on phoneme changes of the minangkabau protolanguage within the minangkabau migrant community, which lives particularly in tanjong ipoh, kuala pilah, negeri sembilan, malaysia. the present study differs from the research conducted by reniwati et al. (2016; 2017) in terms of approach, location, and objectives. while reniwati et al.’s studies are synchronic, this study adopts a diachronic perspective. in terms of location, their research was conducted in seremban, rembau, melaka, pahang, and simpang tiga gombak, whereas this study specifically focuses on tanjong ipoh, kuala pilah. the current study aims to show how the sounds of the minangkabau protolanguage appear in the tanjong ipoh area by looking at the specific changes in sounds that have happened there and identifying what types of sound changes have occurred. this endeavor contrasts with the objectives of reniwati et al. (2016; 2017), which explore the similarities and differences between the minangkabau language in negeri sembilan and its region of origin. while prior studies have explored minangkabau phonological changes across various regions, no focused research has examined these changes in the tanjong ipoh isolect. despite historical evidence linking the tanjong ipoh isolect to minangkabau, the extent of phonemic change in this isolect remains undocumented. this study seeks to bridge this gap by systematically analyzing phonological evolution. the phonological system of tanjong ipoh isolect, according to zikri (2024), consists of thirty-two sounds: nine vocoids, namely [a], [i], [ɪ], [u], [ʊ], [e], [ɛ], [o], and [ɔ]; nineteen contoids, namely [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [ʔ], [m], [n], [ŋ], [ñ], [ɣ], [s], [h], [j], [c], [l], [w], and [y]; and four diphthong sounds, namely [aw], [ay], [uy], and [oy]. meanwhile, twenty-seven phonemes were found in the tanjong ipoh isolect, consisting of five vowel phonemes, namely /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/; nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 129 articulatory phonetic (identity) method to analyze the sounds produced by the speaker’s speech organs, which facilitated the distinction between different sounds. this method also helped us compare forms of the minangkabau protolanguage (pbm), based on the reconstruction created by nadra (2006), with their reflexes in the tanjong ipoh isolect. if a protolanguage form was similar to its reflex in the isolect, it was considered a retention form, indicating preservation of the original structure. in contrast, if the protolanguage form was different, altered, absent, or unidentified, it was classified as an innovation form. the forms presented in this paper are only those that have undergone changes or innovations in the tanjong ipoh isolect. the results of the data analysis are presented both formally and informally sudaryanto (2018). the formal presentation uses standardized symbols, including phonetic notation for data transcription, asterisks (*) to denote protolanguage forms, greaterthan symbols (>) to indicate linguistic changes, hashtags (#) to mark word boundaries, underscores (_) to specify the position of sounds or phonemes, blank symbols (ø) to represent missing forms, and single quotation marks (‘…’) to indicate meaning. informally, the results were described in ordinary verbal language. iii. results this section describes the changes of protominangkabau (pbm) phonemes as they appear in the isolect of tanjong ipoh, kuala pilah, negeri sembilan, malaysia (abbreviated here as iti). the changes of pbm phonemes in iti can be classified into vowel changes and consonant changes. vowel changes in iti (1) pbm *i a. pbm *i / _*t# > iti ɪ the pbm *i in the final position before *t becomes ɪ in iti. in this case, there is a change from a strong sound (*i) to a weak sound (ɪ), which is called lenition. for examples: pbm *sədikit ‘a little’ > iti sikɪt pbm *pahit ‘bitter’ > iti payɪt pbm “tumit ‘heel’ > iti tumɪt pbm *kulit ‘skin’ > iti kulɪɂ pbm *sakit ‘sick’ > iti sakɪɂ b. pbm *i / _*k# > iti ɪ pbm *i in the final position before *k becomes ɪ in iti. as above, there is a change from a strong sound (*i) to a weak sound (ɪ), or lenition. for examples: pbm *itik ‘duck’ > iti itɪɂ pbm *sisik ‘scale’ > iti sisɪɂ pbm *balik ‘return’ > iti balɪɂ pbm *tarik ‘pull’ > iti naɣɪɂ in addition, there is also a change in the pbm *i to ɛ in the word *adik ‘younger sibling’ in iti, which is caused by adapting the sound to the previous phoneme or what is called progressive assimilation. here, two sounds that are not the same transform into sounds that are almost the same. the sounds *a and *i in pbm change to a and ɛ in iti. the pbm form *adik ‘younger sibling’ changes to adɛʔ in iti (pbm *adik ‘ younger sibling’ > iti adɛʔ. c. pbm *i / _*s# > iti ɪ the pbm *i in the final position before *s becomes ɪ in iti. again, there is a change from a strong sound (*i) to a weak sound (ɪ), or lenition. for examples: pbm *manis ‘sweet’ > iti manɪh pbm *tipis ‘thin’ > iti nipɪh pbm *bətis ‘calf’ > iti botɪh pbm *baris ‘line’ > iti baɣɪh d. pbm *i / _*r# > iti e; ɛ in iti, the pbm *i in the final position before *r changes to e or ɛ. this shift is influenced by the preceding vowel sound, occurring as either assimilation or dissimilation. for example, in pbm *banir ‘buttress’, the form changes to banɛh in iti due to assimilation, where the different sounds *a_*i become the more similar a_ɛ. this change also involves a shift from the strong sound *i to the weaker sound ɛ. similarly, in pbm *lihir ‘neck,’ the form becomes lehe, showing a transition from the strong sound *i to the weaker sound e. in the case of pbm *bibir ‘lip,’ which becomes bibe, dissimilation occurs as the identical sounds *i_*i shift to i_e. such transformation also reflects the weakening of *i to e. for examples: pbm *banir ‘buttress’ > banɛh pbm *lihir ‘neck’ > lehe pbm *bibir ‘lip’ > bibe e. pbm *i / _*h# > iti ɪ, ɛ the pbm *i in the final position before *h changes to ɪ and ɛ in iti. the shift of pbm *i to ɪ in the final position before *h occurs in pbm *barəsih nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 130 ‘clean’ and pbm *putih ‘white’, becoming bosɪh and putɪh, respectively. in contrast, the shift of pbm *i to ɛ occurs in pbm *jənih ‘clear’, which changes to jonɛh. the change also involves a shift from the strong sound *i to the weaker sound ɛ (lenition). for examples: pbm *barəsih ‘clean’ > iti bosɪh pbm *putih ‘white’ > putɪh pbm *jənih ‘clear’ > jonɛh (2) pbm *u a. pbm *u/_*h# > iti ʊ the pbm *u in the final position before *h changes to ʊ in iti. the change involves a shift from the strong sound *u to the weaker ʊ or lenition. for examples: pbm *kəruh ‘murky’ > iti kowʊh pbm *tujuh ‘seven’ > iti tujʊh pbm *jatuh ‘fall’ > iti jatʊh pbm *sa-puluh ‘ten’ > iti sepulʊh in addition, a sound change occurs through dissimilation, where the same sound shifts to a different sound. this can be seen in pbm *bunuh ‘kill,’ which becomes bunoh in iti. thus, the pbm *u_*u changes to u_o in iti. b. pbm *u / _*s# > iti uy the *u in the final position before *s changes to diphthong uy in iti. in this case, a monophthong sound changes to a diphthong. for examples: pbm *lurus ‘straight’ > iti luɣuyh pbm *bagus ‘good’ > iti baguyh pbm *saratus ‘a hundred’ > iti saɣatuyh pbm *tiga ratus ‘three hundred’ > iti tigo ɣatuyh c. pbm *u / _*k# > iti ʊ the pbm *u in the final position before *k becomes ʊ in iti. here, a stronger sound is shifted into a weaker one. the sound change occurs with the shift of pbm *k, which becomes ʔ in iti simultaneously. for examples: pbm *tanduk ‘horn’ > iti tandʊʔ pbm *busuk “rotten’ > iti busʊʔ pbm *duduk ‘sit’ > iti dudʊʔ pbm *tunjuk ‘index finger’ > iti tolunjʊʔ pbm *buruk ‘bad’ > iti buɣʊʔ d. pbm *u / _*r# > iti o the pbm *u in the final position before *r changes to o in iti. this change from *u to o can also be classified as a weakening process, where a strong sound shifts to a weaker one. additionally, this change occurs alongside the loss of the pbm *r in the final position of the word in iti. for examples: pbm *təlur ‘egg’ > iti tolu pbm *ukur ‘measure’ > iti uko pbm *umur ‘age’ > iti umo pbm *kəndur ‘loose’ > iti kundo in spite of this, it was also found that pbm *u / *r# remains the same in iti. for example, pbm *sayur ‘vegetable’ in iti corresponds with sayu. in this case, pbm *u is still reflected as u in iti. e. pbm *u / _*l# > iti o the pbm *u in the final position before *l becomes o in iti. the shift of pbm *u to o in iti, as previously explained, represents a change from a strong sound to a weak sound. this shift also occurs together with the loss of pbm *l in the final position of words in iti. for examples: pbm *caŋkul ‘hoe’ > iti caŋko pbm *pukul ‘hit’ > iti puko pbm *tumpul ‘dull’ > iti tumpo pbm * bətul ‘correct’ > iti boto (3) pbm *ə a. pbm *ə / penultimate > iti o the pbm *ə in the penultimate position shifts to o in iti. this alteration involves a transition from a mid-central vowel to a back vowel. for examples: pbm *bərat ‘heavy’ > iti boɣɛʔ pbm *ənəm ‘six’ > iti onam pbm *kəniŋ ‘forehead’ > iti koniŋ pbm *ləbah ‘bee’ > iti loba pbm *təraŋ ‘bright’ > iti toɣaŋ pbm *bəŋkak ‘swollen’ > iti boŋka? b. pbm *ə / _*m# > iti a the pbm *ə in the final position before *m becomes a in iti. this alteration involves a change from a weak sound to a strong one, which is called fortition. for examples: pbm *maləm ‘evening’ > iti malam pbm *itəm ‘black’ > iti itam pbm *ənəm ‘six’ > iti onam pbm *daləm ‘in’ > iti dalam pbm *tajəm ‘sharp’ > iti tajam c. pbm *ə / _*p# > iti a the pbm *ə in the final position before *p nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 131 becomes a in iti. this sound alteration is also called fortition. for examples: pbm *atəp ‘roof’ > iti atap pbm *isəp ‘suck’ > iti isap d. pbm *ə / _*r# > iti a in pbm, *ə in the final position before *r changes to a in iti. this shift from pbm *ə to a represents a fortition process involving a transition from a weaker sound to a stronger one. this sound change is also accompanied by the loss of pbm *r in the final position of the word. for examples: pbm *ulər ‘snake’ > iti ula pbm *lapər ‘hungry’ > iti lapa pbm *dəŋər ‘hear’ > iti doŋa pbm *pagər ‘fence’ > iti paga (4) pbm *e a. pbm *e / _*t# > iti ɛ in pbm, *e in the final position before *t becomes ɛ in iti. this change involves a shift from a stronger to a weaker sound or from a higher to a lower sound. typically, this sound change is also accompanied by the transformation of pbm *t to ʔ. for examples: pbm *ulet ‘maggot’ > iti ulɛʔ pbm *puset ‘central’ > iti pusɛʔ pbm *uret ‘vein’ > iti uɣɛɂ pbm *aŋket ‘lift’ > iti aŋkɛʔ b. pbm *e / _*h# > iti ɛ the pbm *e in the final position before *h changes to ɛ in iti. this represents the sound alteration of lenition. for examples: pbm *kəreh ‘hard’ > iti koɣɛh pbm *bəreh ‘rice’ > iti bɔɣɛh pbm *ləmeh ‘suffocating’ > iti lomɛh (5) pbm *a a. pbm *a /_# > iti o the pbm *a in the final position changes to o in iti. here, the front sound a change to the back sound o. for examples: pbm *lada ‘chile’ > iti lado pbm *buta ‘blind’ > iti buto pbm *buŋa ‘flower’ > iti buŋo pbm *luka ‘wound’ > iti luko pbm *bara ‘embers’ > iti baɣo table 1. the rules of vowel changes no. pbm iti 1. *i ɪ / _*t#; _*k#; _*s# e; ɛ / _*r# ɪ; ɛ / _*h# 2. *u ʊ / _*h# _*k# uy / _*s# o; u /_*r# o / _*l# 3. *ə o / penultima a / _*m# _*p# _*r# 4. *e ɛ / _*t# _*h# 5. *a o / __# table 1 displays the rules for vowel changes. not only did pbm vowel reflexes shift in iti, but we also found changes in pbm consonant reflexes. interestingly, the environments where pbm consonant changes in iti occur consistently involve pbm vowels that also change. consonant changes in iti (1) pbm *t pbm *t / *i_# > ʔ; t the pbm *t in the final position following *i partially shifts to ʔ in iti, while some instances are retained (inherited). this shift of pbm *t is categorized as a weakening process. for examples: pbm *kulit ‘skin’ > iti kulɪʔ pbm *sakit ‘sick’ > iti sakɪʔ pbm *tumit ‘heel’ > iti tumɪt pbm *gigit ‘bite’ > iti gigɪt (2) pbm *k a. pbm *k /*i_# > iti ʔ the pbm *k in the final position following*i changes to ʔ in iti. this kind of shift (*k to ʔ) also represents a weakening process. for examples: pbm *itik ‘duck’ > itɪʔ pbm *sisik ‘scale’ > iti sisɪɂ pbm *balik ‘return’ > iti balɪɂ b. pbm *k / *u_# > iti ʔ nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 132 the final pbm *k after *u changes to ʔ in iti, representing a type of weakening change, as explained earlier. this shift occurs simultaneously with the change of the final pbm *u to ʊ in iti. for examples: pbm *tunjuk ‘index finger’ > iti tolunjʊʔ pbm *buruk ‘bad’ > iti buɣʊʔ pbm *duduk ‘sit’ > iti dudʊʔ (3) pbm *s a. pbm *s / *i_# > iti h the pbm *s in the final position following *i changes to h in iti. the shift of the pbm *s to h in iti involves a weakening process. this shift occurs simultaneously with the change of the pbm *i to ɪ in iti. for examples: pbm *manis ‘sweet’ > iti manɪh pbm *tipis ‘thin’ > iti nipɪh pbm *bətis ‘calf’ > iti botɪh b. pbm *s / *u_# > iti h the pbm *s in final position following *u changes to h in iti, a type of weakening as previously noted. this shift happens simultaneously with the change of pbm *u to uy in iti. for examples: pbm *lurus ‘straight’ > iti luɣuyh pbm *bagus ‘good’ > iti baguyh pbm *saratus ‘a hundred’ > iti saɣatuyh (4) pbm *r pbm *r / *i_# > h; ø the pbm *r in the final position after *i changes to h or ø in iti. thus, some instances of pbm *r following pbm *i are lost in iti, while others shift to h. this change occurs concurrently with the shift of pbm *i to ɛ. for examples: pbm *banir ‘buttress’ > banɛh pbm *lihir ‘neck’ > lehe pbm *bibir ‘lip’ > bibe b. pbm *r / *u_# > ø the final pbm *r after *u becomes ø in iti. in other words, all final pbm *r after the pbm *u is lost in iti. this change usually occurs simultaneously as the pbm *u changes to o in iti. for examples: pbm *ukur ‘measure’ > iti uko pbm *umur ‘age’ > iti umo pbm *ikur ‘tail’ > eko c. pbm *r / *ə_# > ø the final pbm *r after *ə becomes ø in iti. the change of pbm *r to ø occurred simultaneously with the change of pbm *ə to a in iti. for examples: pbm *lapər ‘hungry’ > iti lapa pbm *dəŋər ‘hear’ > iti doŋa pbm *pagər ‘fence’ > iti paga d. pbm *r / *a_# > ø the pbm *r in the final position following *a becomes ø in iti. in other words, the pbm *r in the final position after *a is lost in iti. for examples: pbm *kasar ‘rough’ > kasa pbm *kabar ‘news’ > kaba pbm *cakar ‘claw’ > caka (5) pbm *l a. pbm *l / *u_# > ø the pbm *l in the final position after *u becomes ø in iti. pbm *l is deleted in iti if pbm *u changes to o. for examples: pbm *pukul ‘hit’ > iti puko pbm *tumpul ‘dull’ > iti tumpo pbm *bətul ‘right’ > iti bↄto b. pbm *l / *a_# > ø the pbm *l in the final position following *a also changes to ø in iti. for examples: pbm *təbal ‘thick’ > toba pbm *akal ‘logic’ > aka pbm *bantal ‘pillow’ > banta table 2 displays the rules for consonant changes. table 2. the rules of consonant changes no. pbm iti 1. *t ʔ; t / *i_# 2. *k ʔ / *i_# *u_# 3. *s h / *i_# *u_# 4. *r h; ø / *i_# ø / *u_# *ə_# *a_# 5. *l ø / *u_# *a_# nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 133 iv. discussion the pbm vowels that change in iti include i, u, ə, e, and a, while the consonants that undergo changes in iti are t, k, s, r, and l. these changes are conditioned and occur only in specific environments. for instance, pbm i will change in iti if it appears in the final position before t, k, s, r, and h. similarly, pbm u will change in iti if it is in the final position before h, s, k, r, and l. pbm ə undergoes changes in iti when it is in the penultimate position (second-to-last syllable) or in the final position before m, p, and r. pbm e changes in iti if it is in the final position before t and h, while pbm a changes in iti only when it is in the final position of the word. the shift of pbm *i to ɪ in the final position before *t, *k, and *s indicates a tendency toward vowel weakening in iti. lenition, a process of sound weakening, is observed in the transformation of pbm i to ɪ in iti. this aligns with patterns seen in other minangkabau-derived dialects, supporting the idea of systematic lenition in malayic languages. likewise, the change of pbm *i to e and ɛ in the final position before *r in iti is also a type of lenition, influenced by the preceding vowel sound *a. this influence aligns with progressive assimilation, where a preceding sound affects the following one, resulting in a shift from the combination *a_*i to a more similar sequence, a_ɛ. an example of this progressive assimilation is seen in the transformation of pbm *banir (‘banir’) to banɛh in iti. however, when pbm *i in the final position before *r changes to e in iti, this process is due to dissimilation rather than assimilation. here, the identical sounds *i_*i in sequence shift to become dissimilar, as in the example where pbm *bibir (‘lip’) changes to bibe in iti. additionally, the lenition process also applies to the shift of pbm *i to ɪ and ɛ in the final position before *h, as discussed earlier. therefore, the changes involving pbm *i in iti can be categorized into three primary patterns: 1) pbm *i / _*t#, _*k#, _*s# > iti ɪ; 2) pbm *i /_*r# > iti e and ɛ; 3) pbm *i /_*h# > iti ɪ and ɛ. the alteration of pbm u in the final position before h and k to ʊ in iti represents a form of lenition characterized by a transition from a strong sound to a weaker one. for instance, pbm tujuh ‘seven’ transforms into tujʊh in iti. conversely, pbm u in the final position preceding s transforms the diphthong uy in iti, indicating a process of diphthongization. subsequently, pbm u in the final position before r and l change to o in iti, signifying a shift from a high sound to a medium sound. this alteration also exemplifies a type of lenition change. for example, pbm ukur ‘measure’ becomes uko, and pbm pukul ‘beat’ becomes puko in iti. in light of this, the changes affecting pbm u in iti can be outlined into three rules: 1) pbm u / h#, *k# > iti ʊ; 2) pbm u / s# > iti uy; and 3) pbm u / r#, _*l# > iti o.subsequently, pbm *ə in the penultimate position changes to o in iti. this alteration represents a form of lenition. in contrast, the reflex of pbm *ə in the final position preceding _*m#, _*p#, and _r# is realized as a in iti, indicating a fortition. two rules governing the changes of pbm *ə in iti can be made as follows: 1) pbm *ə / penultimate > iti o; and 2) pbm *ə / _*m#, _*p#, _r# > iti a. the pbm *e undergoes a transformation to ɛ in iti if it occurs in the final position before *t and *h. this modification is classified as a form of lenition. the governing rule for this change is: pbm *e / _*t#, _*h# > iti ɛ. another vowel, pbm *a, also experiences a change, shifting to o in iti when in the final position of a word. we categorize this alteration as lenition, and it follows the rule: pbm *a / _# > iti o. the pbm consonants that undergo changes in iti include the pbm *t, *k, *s, *r, and *l. all of these occur in the final position of the word. this change represents a conditioned sound change, as it only manifests after certain vowels and typically follows a transformation of the vowel sound itself. pbm *t experienced a split in iti, with some remaining retained (inherited) and some changing to ʔ. this change takes place in the final position after *i, which then also transforms to ɪ. we classify this alteration as a type of lenition. for example, pbm *kulit ‘skin’ changed to kulɪʔ in iti. pbm *k also underwent a split in iti, with some retaining the inherited form as k and some changing to ʔ. this alteration occurs solely in the final position following pbm *i and *u, with the corresponding vowel weakening to ɪ and ʊ. a split also occurs in the pbm *s, which is retained (inherited) as s and changes to h in the final position after pbm *i and pbm *u. in this context, pbm *i weakens to ɪ, and pbm *u change to the diphthong uy. furthermore, the pbm *r disappears (deleted), or there is an nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 134 abolition in the final position after pbm *i, *u, *ə, and *a, while it remains inherited as r in other positions within iti. finally, pbm *l is missing in the final position of the word after pbm *u and *a. the last two changes can be classified as a type of sound deletion, which includes a specific kind of deletion occurring at the end of a word known as apocope. several changes also demonstrate similarities with the contemporary minangkabau isolects, such as pbm *k at the end of a word transforming into a glottal stop (*k / _# > ʔ), pbm *s at the end of a word changing to h (*s / _# > h), pbm *r at the end of a word becoming empty (*r / _# > ø), and pbm *l at the end of a word also becoming empty (*l / _# > ø). additionally, pbm *t at the end of a word following *e changes to ʔ (*t / e_# > ʔ), while *t at the end of a word after *i similarly becomes ʔ (*t / i_# > ʔ). furthermore, pbm *u at the end of a word before pbm *s shifts to uy (*u / *_s > uy), pbm *ə at the end of a word before *m transforms into a (*ə / *_m# > a), pbm *ə at the end of a word before *r also becomes a (*ə / *_r# > a), pbm *a at the end of a word changes to o (*a / _# > o), pbm *u at the end of a word before pbm *l shifts to o (*u / *_l# > o), and pbm *u at the end of a word before pbm *r similarly becomes o (*u / *_r# > o). apart from splitting, mergers also take place. for instance, there is the pbm *a that transforms into o in iti, as well as pbm *ə, which also becomes o, and pbm *u, which similarly changes to o in iti. consequently, there is a merger of pbm *a, pbm *ə, pbm *u, and pbm *o itself into o in iti. in other words, the o sound in iti is derived from pbm *a, pbm *ə, pbm *u, and pbm *o. a merger also occurs between pbm *t and pbm *k, resulting in both becoming ʔ. similarly, pbm *r and pbm *s undergos a merger to form h in iti. the observed phonetic changes in iti align with broader trends in austronesian diachronic phonology, particularly in malayic languages, where lenition and vowel shifts reflex the natural phonological evolution of isolated speech communities (blust, 1982; blevins, 2004; smith, 2022). similar vowel weakening processes have been observed in proto-malayic derivations in riau malay (toha, 2016), supporting the hypothesis that phonological drift in isolated malayic communities follows predictable lenition patterns (jaworski, 2009; krulikowska et al., 2020; lynch, 2003). this study, when compared to previous research, clearly contributes to our understanding of linguistic adaptation in migrant areas and the types of sound changes that occur in malayic languages. unlike previous studies, such as those conducted by toha (2016), burhanuddin (2021), and ubaidillah & norlaili (2020), who studied changes of pm phonemes in tamiang malay (bmt), sakai malay (bs), and riau malay coastal dialects, this study uses pbm to see the changes that occur in iti, as conducted by novrizal et al. (2022) in the batu payuang isolect (ibp) and rahim et al. (2023) in the koto tinggi isolect (ikt). this is not the same as the study of atmawati (2014) that looked at the evolution of proto-malayo-polynesian (pmp) in rejang. when compared with the findings of research conducted by reniwati et al. (2016; 2017), it is clear that this study also reveals distinctive differences. the research by reniwati and her teams shows that the minangkabau language spoken in negeri sembilan, especially in places like seremban, rembau, melaka, pahang, and simpang tiga gombak, has different subdialects and ways of speaking compared to the minangkabau language from its original area (lima puluh kota). the evolution of the minangkabau language highlights the impact of migration, geographical factors, and social factors on linguistic development. as a result, the variations observed in these subdialects reflex local identities and demonstrate the dynamic nature of language as it adapts to new contexts and influences. however, those variations do not go beyond dialect boundaries. on the other hand, this study is diachronic and focuses on the phonological changes that occur in the tanjong ipoh isolect, kuala pilah, negeri sembilan. this study also contributes new empirical evidence on sound changes in minangkabau-derived languages, filling a gap in diachronic phonology research. while this study offers valuable insights, a more extensive dataset is necessary to confirm phonetic changes among various speaker, generations, and social groups. this study concentrated on phonological shifts; subsequent research could investigate lexical borrowing patterns or syntactic variation in iti to achieve a more thorough comprehension of its linguistic evolution. v. conclusion nadra nadra / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 135 this study concludes that all sound changes occurring in iti consist of conditioned sound changes. these changes take place in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables. the pbm consonants that undergo changes are those in the final position of the word, specifically *t, *k, *s, *r, and *l. in contrast, the vowels that experience changes are located in the final position of the word, the final position before the consonants *t, *k, *s, *r, and *l, as well as in the penultimate position. the pbm vowels subject to change include *i, *u, *ə, *e, and *a. notably, in the final position of the word, the vowel *a is the one that changes, while in the penultimate position, only pbm *ə is affected. the context in which the changes to pbm consonants occur is consistently associated with the pbm vowels that also undergo alterations. when categorized by the type of sound change, lenition is the most frequently observed change. additionally, the study identifies instances of assimilation, dissimilation, fortition, diphthongization, splitting, merging, and elimination. based on the observed changes, it is evident that the isolects of tanjong ipoh, kuala pilah, in negeri sembilan historically retain numerous similarities with the changes that have taken place. these findings reinforce the role of phonetic drift in migrant communities, contributing to our understanding of linguistic adaptation and sound change mechanisms in malayic languages. although this study offers valuable insights, a larger dataset is required to confirm phonetic changes across various speaker generations. so, future studies should look into how grammar and word choices affect iti to better understand its language history and the social groups involved. ethics statement this study was reviewed and approved by the faculty of humanities, universitas andalas research committee. informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities have been kept strictly anonymous to ensure confidentiality. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer. credit author statement nadra nadra has conceptualised, studied literature, formal evaluation, funding approval, inquiry, methodology, analyzed data, and edited for final draft production. aslinda aslinda verified subjectivity, checked data, and reviewed. ahmad zikri collected data, processed the concept, and verified data. acknowledgements the corresponding author would like to thank the faculty of humanities, universitas andalas for providing support for the research project with contract number 1/un16.07.d/kpt/xi/2024. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references adelaar, k. a. 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(2024). sistem fonem isolek tanjong ipoh negeri sembilan malaysia. skripsi fakultas ilmu budaya universitas andalas. otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 14 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 21, 2024 final revision: february 3, 2025 accepted: february 10, 2025 available online: march 25, 2025 metacognitive awareness plays a facilitative role for students to regulate, monitor, and evaluate their cognitive processes. while plethora of studies has been conducted in l2 writing context, yet little research has delved into the interconnectedness between metacognitive strategy use, gender as mediating factor, and writing performance in english as a third language (l3) context. to fill this research gap, the present study tackled the relationship between students’ awareness of metacognitive writing strategies and argumentative writing performance. it also sought to determine the role of gender in moderating this relationship. using convenience sampling, eighty-two second-year university students were assigned an argumentative essay test and were administered an adapted version of a questionnaire to measure their awareness of metacognitive writing strategies during the writing process. data were analyzed using various statistical tools, including multiple linear regression and ancova analyses. results indicated that although students demonstrating moderate levels of awareness of metacognitive writing strategies, this awareness did not strongly correlate (r=0.192) with their academic writing performance. despite students’ awareness of metacognitive strategies, they still lacked active implementation of these strategies. gender analysis revealed the existence of slight gender differences in metacognitive awareness of writing strategies and writing outcomes, with females slightly outscoring their male counterparts on both metacognitive and writing achievement. to this end, we recommend implementing targeted explicit instruction and scaffolded support to aid students in applying these strategies effectively in their academic writing tasks. by fostering metacognitive awareness and emphasizing ongoing practice, students cannot only translate their metacognitive awareness into improved performance but also acquire the essential tools for academic success. keywords metacognition, metacognitive writing strategies, academic writing performance, correlational design, moroccan university efl learners correspondence e-mail: elhosayny.otmane@ucd.ac.ma article metacognition in academic writing: analyzing strategies and gender differences among moroccan university efl learners otmane el hosayny1, hassane razkane2, mohamed yeou3 1-3faculty of letters and humanities, chouaib doukkali university, el jadida, morocco under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.1.14-26.2025 i. introduction more than any other language skill, writing is a heavily demanding linguistic and cognitive activity. trilingual learners often face significant challenges to develop writing skills across various languages. hence, to carry out a writing task in a multilingual and diglossic context such as morocco (sayeh & razkane, 2022), metacognitive strategies are of higher utility for organizing, monitoring, and evaluating cognitive strategies to effectively fulfill objectives of a writing task (amalia et al., 2023; han, 2024). it is believed that metacognitive strategies help students become more proficient language learners (flavell, 1976; haukås, 2018) and aid participants to improve their academic writing skills (alfaifi, 2022; basaffar & bukhari, 2023; khan & kumar, 2023; razzaq & hamzah, 2024; razkane et al., 2024; teng & zhang, 2024). other researchers (razkane & diouny, 2024, razkane et al., 2023; sumarno, 2020; nabilla, 2022) found otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 15 that high achieving students use significantly more metacognitive strategies compared to low achievers. in the same vein, khan and kumar (2023) believed metacognitive strategies are essential in maintaining consistency and cohesion, enhancing critical thinking, and systematizing the writing process. a significant proportion of english as a foriegn language (efl) university students continue to struggle with different writing tasks (abouabdelkader, 2018; h. abouabdelkader & bouziane, 2016; chi et al., 2024; elkhayma, 2020; mallahi, 2024). within the multilingual moroccan context, with english being the third language (l3), the performance of moroccan efl university demonstrates weak composition skills (abouabdelkader, 2018). moreover, oubadi (2024) reported that students’ writings demonstrated multiple deficiencies ranging from structural aspects and language issues to language interference from ll. accordingly, elkhayma (2020) indicated that students frequently utilized reference and lexical ties, while rarely employing ellipsis and substation techniques. however, their use of these reference ties and linking was not significantly correlated with writing scores. that is, although students employed a significant number of cohesive devices, their performance remained below average. in addition to the linguistic challenges in writing, other studies have attributed l2 writing issues to lack of metacognitive strategies (negretti & mcgrath, 2018; teng, 2021). hence, an increasing trend of research about the critical importance of investigating metacognitive strategies in efl writing has recently emerged (el madani et al., 2024, teng and qin, 2024; wang et al., 2024). these studies have been conducted to investigate the role of metacognitive strategies in shaping writing and reported that these strategies were found to improve writing performance. more specifically, research has highlighted that metacognitive awareness not only help students exploit their cognitive skills, but also raise their writing proficiency levels by making their writing more systematic (razkane et al., 2024). in short, a good writing quality can depend on applying both cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies (mcws). metacognition constitutes an indispensable part in the creation of high-quality written content. that is, learners necessitate the development of metacognitive implementation to produce superior-quality work (rofiqoh et al., 2022). for instance, basaffar and bukhari (2023) found a significant positive association between learners’ metacognitive knowledge and writing performance. similar findings were reported by han (2024) who demonstrated that writing achievement and motivation significantly elevated after using metacognitive strategies. while wang et al. (2024) observed that metacognitive implementation boosted lexical variation and accuracy, teng and huang (2021) indicated that metacognitive strategies positively influenced writing accuracy but had no effect on fluency or complexity. contrary to the above findings, oussou et al., (2024) reported non-significant relationship between argumentative writing and metacognitive awareness. this absence of significant relationship was justified by lack of appropriate understanding of metacognitive writing strategies. additionally, qin et al. (2022) found that the participants’ metacognitive knowledge correlated significantly with their writing performance and reported that more proficient efl students demonstrated better metacognitive knowledge in the three metacognitive writing processes compared to the less proficient counterparts. confirmatory results were reported by hartina et al. (2018), who indicated a significant correlation between students’ use of metacognitive strategy and their essay writing performance. in other words, the researchers concluded that mcws made a substantial contribution to students’ performance, accounting for 70.7% of the variance. despite the benefits of metacognitive strategies, students continue to experience difficulty in writing because they still need to gain an awareness of metacognitive knowledge (ramadhanti & yanda, 2021). they do not possess neither conceptual (declarative) knowledge to develop ideas, nor pragmatic (conditional) knowledge, so they are unable to apply the right strategy due to lack of procedural knowledge. consequently, students do not execute the proper steps in writing and are not aware of the importance of metacognitive strategies (ramadhanti et al., 2019). thus, metacognitive knowledge serves a guiding path throughout the writing process to ensure a well-designed and organized piece of writing. overall, the three metacognitive processes otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 16 discussed in this section are distinct in the role played and the order of occurrence within writing. each process occupies a unique position within metacognition and contributes and complements to create a self-regulated learning and performance improvement. in short, metacognitive strategies in writing can enable students to properly select the best strategies that can guide the writing process and consistently regulate their performance to spot gaps and pitfalls to perform effectively (rosdiana et al., 2023; teng & zhang, 2020). studies also examined gender differences in the use of mcws. for instance, moqabali et al. (2020) reported findings in which they concluded that students reported a high level of using metacognitive writing strategies. moreover, female students were found to have more use compared to male counterparts. these findings were further supported in a study by maharani et al. (2018) on the use of writing strategies in relation to gender and linguistic proficiency, who reported gender differences, in which female students employed various metacognitive strategies, while males were found to highly use memory strategy. similarly, mutar and nimehchisalem (2017) demonstrated a significant gender disparity, revealing that female students employed writing strategies more frequently than their male counterparts. in summary, the majority of studies stress on the importance metacognitive strategies for university students in navigating the challenges of academic writing. the latter involves three key stages of metacognitive engagement: planning, monitoring, and evaluating. however, despite the significance of these strategies, students often lack the necessary metacognitive knowledge, leading to challenges in idea development, strategy selection, and execution during writing. some studies demonstrated high use of metacognitive strategies among learners, others pointed to a lack of awareness regarding their benefits. research suggests a positive correlation between metacognitive strategy use and writing performance, with higher proficiency groups demonstrating greater metacognitive knowledge. moreover, to our knowledge very few studies have addressed the correlation between university students’use of mcws and writing performance in the moroccan context (el madani, 2024). little to no study has considered other factors, such as gender, that could have a possible effect on the interplay between mcws and writing performance among moroccan learners. in other words, whether gender affects metacognitive strategy utilization is still under-investigated. moreover, gaps in the literature persist, including the need for more representative samples and further exploration of the link between metacognitive strategy use and writing performance in different contexts with different age groups. theoretically confined within human cognitive development (zhang & qin, 2018), the present study addressed the aforementioned gaps by investigating moroccan undergraduates’ level of awareness regarding mcws and how this awareness relates to writing performance. by determining the extent to which students are aware of planning, monitoring, and evaluating processes, this study can help create autonomous learners able to orchestrate, plan, control, and evaluate their writing process, which can help them yield good-quality essays. besides, understanding this relationship can offer great insights into which metacognitive strategy leads to successful writing. thus, the current study also examined the extent to which gender mediates the link between the mcws and writing. to that end, three main questions were developed: 1. to what extent are moroccan undergraduate efl students aware of mcws? 2. is there a significant relationship between students’ knowledge of mcws and their writing performance? 3. to what extent does gender mediate the association between students’ metacognitive awareness and writing performance? overall, while reviewing national and international research, it was noticed that the amount of research has dealt with either the direct association between metacognitive awareness and writing performance (handayani et al., 2023; ramadhanti & yanda, 2021; rosdiana et al., 2023) or descriptive studies regarding awareness of metacognitive writing strategies (frendi & pulungan, 2022; pramesti et al., 2023). meanwhile in the moroccan context, there is a dearth of evidence pertaining to the association between metacognitive awareness and writing performance (el madani et al., 2024; oussou et al., 2024; razkane et al., 2024). there is a limited number of research which examined moroccan efl learners’ otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 17 choice of this grade is warranted because students should have developed and acquired the necessary argumentative writing skills. the sample had an age range of 18-21 (m=21.91). materials and instruments the data was collected through a questionnaire and a writing test. the writing achievement test assessed university students’ proficiency based on three metacognitive writing strategies, while the questionnaire elucidated extensive information about students’ awareness of metacognitive writing strategies. the writing test to evaluate students’ writing performance, a writing task was distributed before questionnaire. students were asked to write an argumentative essay. the latter is a piece of writing designed to encourage students in developing their analytical capacities. argumentative essays engage students in detecting flaws, assessing the credibility and suitability of their arguments, and expressing themselves succinctly and logically (ma & li, 2022). the rationale behind the choice of this type of writing emanates from the high cognitive effort that it requires. students will also have to rely on high order thinking skills (metacognitive) to construct the essay. in addition, based on some of the findings from the literature, students tended to have more difficulties in organization and logical connection of ideas, which are some of the key features of an argumentative essay. the test was given as part of regular classroom task rather than under strict examination condition. the participants were given the freedom to choose between three different topics. topics: (1) “is it fair that people who have no special skills or good educational background get rich and famous through social media?” (2) “are standardized tests an effective way to assess someone’s knowledge?”and (3) “will the death penalty be effective in lowering crime rates?” students were asked to write the essay in no more than 250 words, which equals four paragraphs. the purpose of the latter was to assess the participants’ writing performance and compare their writing scores to their use of mcws. afterward, the test was graded by three raters, including the researcher and two high school teachers of english, using an analytical scoring rubric. the inter-rater reliability of the three judges knowledge of mcws when dealing with l3 writing tasks. only razkane et al. (2024) examined the effects of mcws on writing outcomes among high school students. hence, this current study not only investigates the relationship between metacognitive awareness and writing performance in l3, but also examines gender as a covariant in the interaction between mcws and writing achievement. ii. methods this section discusses the methodology employed in the current research. it presents the research design and proceeds with a description of the context of the study, including the setting, participants, sampling procedures, data collection tools, and data collection procedures. study design the current research delved into the awareness of mcws among moroccan efl students in their fourth semester within the doukkala region. employing a quantitative approach and opting for a correlational research design, our aim was to elucidate the associations between mcws awareness and writing proficiency, facilitating a deeper understanding of the factors influencing writing performance among efl learners in this context. through this methodological approach, we aimed to yield insights that contribute to the enhancement of writing instruction and support strategies tailored to the needs of moroccan efl students. participants the study was conducted in a higher education institution, namely chouaib doukkali university, faculty of letters and humanities in el jadida. the participants were second-year university (semester 4) from el jadida province, morocco. these students study standard arabic as l1, french as l2, and english as l3. using convenience sampling, the original number of participants was 100 semesterfour students. however, the sample ended up with 82 fourth semester undergraduates from the english department due to 18 participants not fully completing all the questionnaire items. the sample included 56 female (68,3%) and 26 male (31,7%) participants. despite the inequality of distribution of gender, we conducted regression and ancova analysis to control for gender and see its impact on both writing and awareness of mcws. the otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 18 was found to be remarkably high, with cronbach’s alpha coefficients of .997 for both the original and standardized items. such high values near 1.0 suggest strong reliability, demonstrating high accuracy and precision in the assessment process. an adapted version of questionnaire on metacognitive awareness following writing an academic essay, the participants were administered an adapted version by razkane et al. (2024), which is based on the questionnaire on language learners’ metacognitive writing strategies in multimedia environments (llmwsime) (zhang & qin, 2018). based on a six-point likert scale, the participants were required to state their level of agreement on the items presented, ranging from 1 to 6, with 1 indicating strongly disagree and 6 indicating strongly disagree. the rationale behind using a 6-point likert scale was to prevent the participants from selecting the midpoint (neither disagree nor agree). the llmwsime was selected based on two reasons. first, it tackles the metacognitive writing strategies and assesses the amount of awareness that learners have of them. second, the questionnaire also contains the major metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating, which were the prime focus of this study. besides, questionnaires have been widely used in metacognition research, which explains why it is regarded as the primary data collection instrument. the first seven questions are specifically designed to assess planning strategies, followed by twelve questions focusing on monitoring strategies, and then four questions dedicated to evaluating strategies. since the data collection process was not conducted in one fell swoop and despite the instrument being validated in numerous studies, it was cross-checked for reliability with 20 participants to see if needed to modify some items from the questionnaire for the upcoming phases. the reliability of all the items in the questionnaire was assessed by cronbach alpha. all three sections of the questionnaire showed significant index of reliability with (monitoring: α=0.91; evaluating: α=0.89; planning: α= 0.82) respectively, which are all high values since α>0.70. procedures all the professors were contacted prior to data collection to get their informed consent. during the questionnaire administration, some participants were skeptical about the nature of the topic and hesitant to fill in the questionnaire. consequently, we informed all the participants that the writing test and questionnaire were part of an academic research project. we also highlighted that while their participation was highly valued and appreciated, it remained confidential and optional to reassure them and alleviate their worries. we also sought to involve and motivate as many students as possible by offering individual feedback on their essay production upon request. professors were also informed about devoting a time frame of 1 hour and 10 minutes from their respective sessions. the students were provided with a paper-based test and a questionnaire. the first hour was devoted to the writing performance test, and right after the completion of the test, they filled in the questionnaire within a 15-minute time frame. this order was chosen because the metacognitive writing processes that framed the questionnaire accounted for an essential part of the student’s writing test. apart from measuring the students’ metacognitive awareness, the writing test helped to prepare the way for some items in the questionnaire and provided them with concrete examples of questions assessing each metacognitive writing strategy. it is essential to mention that during the questionnaire completion, students were offered guidance and explanations regarding all the items. data analysis the data obtained were analyzed using spss version 25. the data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. more specifically, descriptive statistics presented the distribution of the investigated variables by using means, standard deviation, percentages, and percentiles. furthermore, multiple linear regression analysis was employed to predict the writing scores, accounting for the usage of metacognitive strategies when doing the writing task. finally, the ancova test was run to examine gender as a potential covariate in the association between mcws and writing performance. it is important to highlight that prior to running the ancova test, all assumptions, including data normality and homogeneity of variance, have been met. to analyze the writing test, an analytical scoring rubric was employed to assess the performance of otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 19 students. the rubric was composed of two levels: the macro-level and the micro-level. the former encompassed three different components, including organization, content, and development of ideas. the organization item referred to the extent to which students comprehended the overall meaning of the task. they were also graded for their degree of use of connectors to establish coherence and develop ideas to guarantee cohesion. as far as the micro-level is concerned, it includes a combination of language mastery. starting with grammar, which was evaluated based on how many mistakes students would make in their essays. second, the degree of mastery in the use of lexical items and how their understanding of the jargon was also taken into consideration. moreover, students were graded based on their punctuation and spelling accuracy. all these items were put on a scale ranging from below expectations (0-8), needs improvement (911), satisfactory (12-14), and excellent (15-20). iii. results this section unveils the results obtained from the current research. the findings deal with different constructs associated with students’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies. the findings are presented in accordance with the order of the research questions. the participants’ awareness of mcws the current study explored the relationship between metacognitive awareness and writing performance. results obtained from the llmwsime indicated that the students demonstrated moderate level of awareness of mcws. students’ knowledge of planning (m= 4.30, sd= 0.96), monitoring (m= 4.56, sd= 0.78), and evaluating (m= 4.69, sd=1.114) were relatively high. these results suggested that fourth-semester students exhibit diverse levels of awareness regarding mcws. when considering planning, monitoring, and evaluating strategies collectively, students demonstrated a notably stronger grasp of evaluating strategies compared to planning and monitoring. scores of standard deviation implies that certain students may possess a more heightened level of awareness of these strategies than their peers. table 1 illustrates the participants’ mean scores with regard to planning, monitoring, and evaluating strategies. the participants’ writing scores results also revealed that the mean score for fourth-semester students’ writing performance was m = 8.64. this indicates that, on average, the students achieved a writing score of approximately 8.64 in their fourth semester. on this basis, the present analysis also reported the distribution of writing performance at ranges or benchmarks: below expectations range (0-8), needs improvement range (9-11), satisfactory (12-14), and excellent (15-20). the purpose was to conduct a detailed scale anchoring analysis to describe writing performance at these benchmarks. descriptive statistics offered an overview of the judges’ performance and variability in their evaluations. the mean scores indicate the average performance of each judge on the writing test. judge 1 achieved a mean score of 8.68 with a standard deviation of 3.84, judge 2 obtained (m=8.80, sd=3.72), and judge 3 had (m=8.42, sd=3.80) as illustrated in table 2. table 1. descriptive statistics of the participants’ awareness of mcws strategy mean std. deviation planning 4.3031 .96588 monitoring 4.5640 .78254 evaluating 4.6951 1.11459 table 2. means and standard deviations of the three judges on the writing test (n=82) mean std. deviation n judge1 8.6829 3.84279 82 judge2 8.8079 3.72456 82 judge3 8.4299 3.80206 82 in other terms, the results demonstrated that 47 students who scored below expectations (08) constitute 57.3% of the grades. this number represented more than half of the students who took the writing test. the second benchmark, needs improvement, contained 16 students, who account for 18.3% of the grades. the third range, satisfactory, encompassed only eight students with a corresponding percentage of 18.3%. lastly, among the proportion of students investigated in this study, only seven students reached the advanced benchmark, which was an excellent performance, with a percentage of 7.3%. in short, the findings revealed that students performed slightly below the average at the below-expectation benchmark, with a m=8.64 and sd= 3.77. otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 20 metacognitive writing strategies and writing performance as stated throughout the paper, we also investigated whether there is a relationship between students’ awareness of the three metacognitive strategies and their writing performance. a multiple linear regression analysis was run to assess the effect of the three independent variables simultaneously and determine their relative contribution to the prediction of writing performance. table 3 below provides the model summary statistics for the multiple linear regression analysis, examining the relationship between writing performance (dependent variable) and the predictors (evaluating, planning, monitoring). final model, with all three independent variables inserted into the regression equation based on the theoretical considerations. planning was entered first, followed by monitoring and evaluation at the end. the outcomes showed that the three predictors did not have an effect on writing performance. the coefficient for planning was negative (b = -0.152, se = 0.691, β = -.039, t = -0.220, p = .82) but not statistically significant; this suggests that changes in planning scores have minimal or no impact on the writing performance scores. similarly, the coefficient for monitoring was positive but not statistically significant (b = 0.29, se = 0.93, β= .062, t = 0.320, p = .749), indicating that variations in monitoring scores are not associated with significant changes in writing performance. the coefficient for evaluating was positive (b= 0.57, se=0.64, β = 0.168, t= 0.98, p= .37) but not statistically significant. in summary, the three metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring, and evaluating) did not predict writing performance. judging by the results of the multiple linear regression analysis, the lack of significance means that these variables do not play a substantial role in explaining the disparities in writing performance. gender, students’ awareness of mcws, and writing performance the study also examined the extent to which gender mediates the relationship between students’ awareness of metacognitive writing strategies and writing performance. the ancova test showed that the interaction between metacognitive awareness and gender did not have a statistically significant effect on writing performance, f (3, 5) = 0.060, p = .979. the partial eta squared (η^2 = .03) suggested that the interaction between mcws and gender accounted for a small proportion of the variances in writing performance. that is, students writing achievements were partially explained by table 3. regression analysis results for predictors of writing performance model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .192a .037 .000 3.77846 a. predictors: (constant), evaluating, planning, monitoring b. dependent variable: writing performance in the above model (table 3), the r-value is 0.192, suggesting a weak positive correlation between the predictors and writing performance. in this analysis, the r square value is 0.037, indicating that approximately 3.7% of the variance in writing performance is accounted for by the variables of evaluating, planning, and monitoring. in short, the correlation tests revealed a weak positive correlation between the participants’ awareness of metacognitive writing strategies and writing performance. to determine the relative contribution of the metacognitive writing strategies on participants’ writing performance, initially building on the correlations, the stepwise method was used to insert the variables in the regression equation, but no variable was entered. this is due to the weak correlations obtained. table 4 below shows the table 4. regression analysis of the independent variables on writing performance model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 5.255 2.499 2.103 .039 planning -.152 .691 -.039 -.220 .826 monitoring .299 .933 .062 .320 .749 evaluating .570 .641 .168 .890 .376 otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 21 classification of the mean scores of strategy use. building on the classification and since our study used a six-point likert scale questionnaire, we adapted the range of items the following: high level of awareness (ranging from 4.5 to 6), medium (ranging from 3.5 to 4.4), and low (ranging from 1.0 to 3.4). our findings pertaining to metacognitive awareness corroborate the outcomes of several studies including those of khan and kumar (2023), handayani et al. (2023), moqbali et al. (2020), alamri (2019), and cer (2019), in which their participants had a moderate to high level of awareness regarding these strategies. the findings obtained in the current study perfectly matched the outcome of alamri (2019) concerning students frequently employing the three metacognitive strategies, where evaluating was the most frequent strategy, followed by monitoring and planning. in short, all the studies demonstrated moderate to high level of awareness pertaining to students regarding metacognitive writing strategies and their importance in the writing process. however, the findings of the current study also contradict those of other studies regarding the level of awareness, as seen in studies such as goctu (2017), ramadhanti and yanda (2021), as well as the classification of the strategies combined in studies such as frendi and pulungan (2022), and azizi et al. (2017). gotu (2017) discovered that the majority of students did not employ mcws. these contradictory findings can be attributed to the type of population targeted in that study, including computer technology students, which differs from the humanities and social sciences context. even though in the current study, students reported perceived awareness of metacognitive strategies and their significance, they still lacked active implementation. particularly, through their table 5. ancova results: writing performance across metacognitive strategies (controlling for gender) dependent variable: writing performance source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared model 7109.066a 77 92.326 2.738 .129 .977 metacognitive awareness * gender 6.079 3 2.026 .060 .979 .035 metacognitive awareness 90.185 4 22.546 .669 .641 .348 gender .313 1 .313 .009 .927 .002 error 168.615 5 33.723 total 7277.681 82 a. r squared = .977 (adjusted r squared = .620) the relationship between metacognitive awareness and gender (see table 5 below for more details). in support of the findings from the regression analysis, the effect of metacognitive awareness on writing performance was not statistically significant, f (4, 5) = 0.66, p = .641. this means that metacognitive awareness did not have a significant impact on writing performance. however, it is important to acknowledge that the effect size was relatively small. these findings suggest that while metacognitive awareness may have some influence on writing performance, its overall impact may be limited. additionally, the main effect of gender on writing performance was not statistically significant, f (1, 5) = 0.009, p= .92. this indicates that there are no significant gender disparities in writing performance. overall, there was no observed effect of gender as a mediating variable on the relationship between the awareness of metacognitive strategies and writing performance. iv. discussion the main findings reported, in this study, are second-year university students showed a moderate level of awareness regarding mcws, with planning being the lowest and evaluating being the highest. unexpectedly, the number of students who reached the excellent writing benchmark was drastically lower than those in the previous ranges. secondly, weak positive relations were identified between the use of mcws and writing performance, with evaluating having the highest coefficient and planning having the lowest. lastly, ancova revealed that both the interaction between metacognitive awareness and gender, as well as the main effects of metacognitive awareness and gender alone, were also not statistically significant. as stated earlier, students exhibited moderate knowledge of mcws based on oxford’s (1990) otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 22 our study declared a positive one. this could be explained by the different grade levels recruited for the study. our study had university students, while theirs had high school participants. contrary to our findings, azizi et al. (2017) and el madani et al., (2024), who discovered a significant relationship between writing performance and all the three metacognitive writing strategies. the latter was in line with other studies in the literature (basaffar & bukhari, 2023; aljarrah et al., 2019; qin & zhang, 2019). they all reported a statically significant positive correlation between the awareness of metacognitive strategies and writing performance. in other words, students with higher awareness tend to be high achievers or effective writers. although the participants in our study demonstrated a moderate level of metacognitive awareness, the reason for the absence of significant correlation can be explained by the gap between declarative and procedural knowledge. this implies that students possess the knowledge but still need to gain the active and precise implementation of these strategies. gender as a mediator between mcws and writing performance the ancova results showed that the effect of gender on writing performance was also slightly statistically significant. this implied that gender differences did not lead to significant variations in writing performance among the participants. that is, males and females performed equally in the writing. accordingly, surat et al. (2014) discovered no significant differences in using metacognitive strategies based on gender. these findings echoed other research that has also found comparable patterns regarding the use of strategies by the two genders. other studies that unveiled gender differences included moqbali (2020) and maharani et al. (2018). they all confirmed that female students employed more metacognitive strategies than their males. these findings indicated gender disparities in the use and effectiveness of writing strategies. to sum up, these inconclusive findings highlighted that there could be variations regarding the equation of gender, the use of mcws across different contexts and cultural backgrounds. while some studies found no significant gender differences, others indicated that females may exhibit more frequent and effective use of these academic essays, students demonstrated lack of planning ideas because of poor organizational skills as well as significant writing issues due to ineffective evaluation strategies. our explanations of the findings are supported from both literature and theory. as in oussou et al., (2024), who revealed a weak positive correlation and concluded that there was gap between the knowledge and implementation of mcws. drawing explanations from metacognition theory, although students possessed declarative knowledge (being aware of mcws), they still lacked procedural knowledge (performing mcws). this disparity between awareness and effective utilization of metacognitive strategies can also stem from students lacking prior knowledge and exposure regarding these strategies. besides, ramadhanti (2021) found that more than half had a low level of metacognitive awareness; this decrease in the level of understanding can be explained by the type of essay adopted in the study. while our research used an argumentative essay, the former used an exploratory one. regarding the classification of these strategies based on level of knowledge, frendi and pulungan (2022) claimed that planning was the more dominant aspect used by students, which is inconsistent with our classification due to differences in the type of essay and the statistical techniques employed. overall, we can conclude that the type of essay can influence students’ level of metacognitive awareness. that is, different essay types can elicit different levels of use of mcws. students’ metacognitive awareness of strategies and writing performance initially, the results of the current study showed weak positive relationship between metacognitive writing strategies and writing performance. increasing their metacognitive awareness may positively affect their argumentative text-writing skills. the weak positive correlations can be interpreted by students’ lack of implementation of metacognitive writing strategies. this finding was endorsed by studies of balta (2018) and oussou et al. (2024), who found a weak positive correlation between students’ metacognitive knowledge of strategies and their writing performance. moqbali et al. (2020) agreed with our aspect of the absence of a significant relationship. however, there was a disagreement with the type of relations in which they reported a weak negative association while otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 23 objective is to create a program of metacognitive writing instruction which would enhance students’ writing skills and raise their understanding and implementation of metacognitive practices. in light of the obtained findings, one of the most prominent implication is explicitly teaching and fostering metacognitive skills can be beneficial in developing proficient writers and confident writers. despite of the current study having several strengths including a multilevel analysis that included both regression analysis and ancova test, no research is perfect. one of the limitations of this study is the focus on a single population within the moroccan context. while the participants represent the study’s context and population, the results may not be applicable to other groups or settings. thus, future studies should be conducted in other parts of the moroccan context to provide insights from other academic contexts. regarding avenues for future research, further studies exploring different dimensions and measures of metacognitive awareness could shed more light on its potential impact on writing performance. while differences in metacognitive awareness might exist in other domains, their impact on writing performance may be mitigated by other factors, such as individual writing abilities, motivation, anxiety, gender, or instructional practices. exploring these factors in future research may provide a holistic picture regarding the influence of different constructs on writing performance. ethics statement this study confirms that the relevant informed consent was obtained from the participants. credit author statement all authors contributed equally to the manuscript. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. strategies. thus, we should carefully consider these contrasting findings when interpreting the role of gender in strategy utilization among university students. v. conclusion the results examining the distribution of students’ metacognitive awareness across three strategies demonstrated that students reported a moderate level of awareness regarding mcws. the regression analysis revealed a weak positive correlation between students’ awareness of mcws and their writing performance. highand lowachievers may differ based on their awareness of these strategies. thus, to account for this lack of use, it is crucial for instructors to emphasize and teach these strategies explicitly, foster metacognitive awareness and nurture students with the essential techniques for academic success. the analysis of covariance revealed that two genders did not significantly differ in terms of metacognitive awareness and writing performance. specifically, gender did not influence the relationship between the two constructs. thus, we call for more quantitative studies to further examine gender differences in awareness of metacognitive strategies and writing performance. in addition, we also call for the implementation of qualitative studies to uncover other factors which contribute to our comprehensive understanding of metacognition. to account for the outcomes related to awareness and performance, several recommendations are directed toward policymakers, educators, and the educational institutions. although the current study showed a weak correlation, it was a positive one. thus, future experimental studies are called for to test metacognitive interventions and its impact on writing achievement in different learning contexts. we believe training students how to create goals, control their progress, and adopt effective writing strategies can help them become more independent and effective writers. besides, metacognitive awareness of strategies in writing can facilitate the transferability to different writing tasks and contexts (razkane et al., 2024). students can apply the metacognitive strategies in different writing tasks to cope with various academic genres. the ultimate otmane el hosayny / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 1 (2025) 24 references abouabdelkader, h., & bouziane, a. 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(2018). validating a questionnaire on efl writers’ metacognitive awareness of writing strategies in multimedia environments. metacognition in language learning and teaching, 9(2), 157–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019842681 burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 238 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 09, 2024 final revision: june 22, 2025 accepted: june 23, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 the sasak language spoken by the sasak ethnic group in lombok, indonesia is one of the many austronesian languages. as a descendant of protoaustronesian (pan), sasak is assumed to retain traces of its austronesian heritage. this research explains the phonological characteristics of pan in sasak language by using the working principle in historical linguistic studies. etymon data from proto-austronesian were gathered through literature review, while 200 basic vocabulary and 500 culturally vocabulary were collected through interviews. the interviews involved native speakers of four distinct sasak dialects, with each dialect represented by three carefully selected informants based on predefined linguistic criteria. employing a comparative method with a top-down approach, the study identified 343 pan etyma in sasak, of which 190 (55.39%) were determined to be inherited lexicons. among these inherited items, 25 retained their original forms, while the remaining underwent phonological innovations. the other 153 etyma (44.61%) showed no evidence of direct inheritance. retained austronesian phonemes include *p, *t, *d, *m, *n, *ɲ, *s, *l, and *r —9 out of the 28 pan phonemes—where most were regularly retained except for *r and *ɲ, which showed irregularities. innovations were observed in *c, *c, *z, *j, *n, *s, *h, *r, *ay, *aw, and *uy. additionally, certain phonemes, such as *k, *?, *w, *g, *ŋ, *y, *i, *u, *ə, and *a, exhibited both retention and innovation. the retention and innovation in sasak followed four distinct types: (1) regular retention and regular innovation; (2) regular retention and irregular innovation; (3) irregular retention and regular innovation; (4) irregular retention and irregular innovation. the high degree of innovation and non-inherited lexicon indicate that sasak has been separated from its austronesian ancestors for a long time. this study plays a crucial role in classifying languages within indonesia, identifying the center of sasak ethnic distribution on lombok island, and exploring the etymology of the sasak language. keywords austronesian, historical linguistics, innovation, retention, proto-austronesia correspondence *e-mail: burhanuddin.fkip@unram.ac.id article austronesian’s traces in sasak: historical linguistics study burhanuddin1*, boniesta zulandha melani2, saharudin3 1-3department language and art, universitas mataram, lombok, indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.238-258.2025 introduction along with bima and sumbawa, sasak is one of the dominant languages spoken by the sasak ethnic group on the island of lombok, west nusa tenggara, indonesia. as of 2025, the number of sasak speakers is estimated to exceed three million (blust, 1984 & 2013; bellwood, 1991 & 2024; klamer, 2019). genetically, sasak belongs to the austronesian language family, specifically within the west malayo-polynesian group. sasak is classified alongside malay, javanese, sundanese, madurese, balinese, sumbawanese, and various languages spoken in sulawesi, sumatra, and kalimantan, as well as languages found in the philippines, malaysia, and even as far as madagascar (blust, 1978, 1993, 2013; meacham, 1995; adelaar, 2005a; bellwood, 1996; bellwood & dizon, 2008; stephen, 1990; smith, 2017; holton, 2017; himmelmann, 2018; klamer, 2019; mcwhorter, 2019; corner, 2020). linguistically, sasak shares a close relationship with sumbawa and bali, forming what mbete (1990) termed burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 239 proto-balinese-sasak-sumbawa. adelaar (2005b) later proposed the proto-malayo-sumbawa hypothesis, arguing, based on both quantitative (lexicostatistics) and qualitative (exclusively shared innovation) evidence, that sasak, sumbawa, and bali are closely related to malay. this hypothesis challenges nothofer’s (1975) earlier classification, which suggested that malay is more closely related to javanese, sundanese, and madurese—a grouping he referred to as proto-malayo-javanese. through a project funded by the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia, herusantosa et.al (1987) classified the sasak language into four dialects: pujut, selong, suralaga, and praya. mahsun (2006), a dialectologist, proposed a different classification, dividing sasak into the pujut dialect (a-e dialect), the pejanggik dialect (e-e dialect), the aibukaq dialect (a-o dialect), and the bayan dialect (a-a dialect). thoir et.al. (1983) also identified four dialects: ngeno-ngene, ngeto-ngete, keto-kete, and meriak-meriku. however, thoir et al.’s (1983) classification is considered inadequate because it lacks a dialectological framework. their classification is based solely on variations of the phrase meaning ‘so-so,’ which is not a recognized criterion in dialectology. additionally, previous studies have primarily focused on dialectology, identifying the number and characteristics of sasak dialects and their prelanguage. while these studies provide valuable insights, they do not explain sasak’s status as a descendant of austronesian from a historical linguistic perspective. a comprehensive understanding of a language’s genetic lineage requires examining both its horizontal relationships with related languages and its vertical relationship with its proto-language. this genetic connection must be established through historical linguistic analysis, specifically by tracing the inheritance of linguistic elements from the parent language. by applying this approach, the study of sasak within historical linguistics can achieve greater clarity and depth, offering a more complete understanding of its linguistic development. if sasak is hypothesized to be a descendant of austronesian (an), linguistic evidence is needed to substantiate this claim. this is because a language that descends from a protolanguage is expected to retain traces of that ancestral language (bynon, 1979; crowley & bowern, 2010; campbell, 2013; luraghi, 2017; blust, 2013 & 2017; mcwhorter, 2019). in this study, the presence of proto-austronesian (pan) elements in sasak is conceptualized as austronesian traces. as is well established, linguistic inheritance from ancient protolanguages to modern languages occurs through two primary processes: retention and innovation (jeffers & lehiste, 1979; mahsun, 1995; keraf, 1991; fernandez, 1996; ross & durie, 1996; crowley & bowern, 2010; campbell, 2013). therefore, this study aims to analyze the transmission of proto-austronesian features in sasak, examining both retained elements and linguistic innovations. the inheritance of protoaustronesian (pan) elements of phonology in sasak, as discussed in this study, is evident in the retention and innovation of phonological features (sound changes). tracing the linguistic lineage from figure 1. locations of sasak language use burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 240 austronesian to sasak reveals several important aspects. first, there has been no vertical study that presents direct linguistic evidence confirming sasak as a descendant of austronesian. existing historical linguistic studies have been horizontal in nature, focusing on comparisons between sasak and neighboring languages such as sumbawa, balinese, and malay (nothofer, 1975; mbete, 1990). second, historical linguistic research on sasak remains incomplete, particularly due to the absence of studies on its dispersal center. as is well known, identifying a language’s center of dispersal is a core objective of historical linguistics. this study was conducted to support that objective and thus carries implications for understanding the dispersal center of the sasak ethnic group on lombok island. third, this research contributes linguistic evidence to broader, more comprehensive studies on the identity of the sasak people as part of the austronesian ethnolinguistic family. fourth, it holds significance for etymological studies and the development of a sasak etymological dictionary, as it explains the lexical changes from original pan forms to their modern reflexes in sasak several relevant diachronic studies relate to this research. austin (2000) investigated verbs, valence and voice in sasak. mahsun (2006) conducted a dialectological study of the sasak language, classifying it into four dialects, pujut, pejanggik, aibukaq, and bayan. adelaar (2005) provided quantitative and qualitative evidence of the relationship between sasak and malay. in addition, mahsun (2006) reconstructed the ancient sasak language, while sarwadi et.al. (2019) examined sasak dialect variations in north lombok, focusing on phonological and lexical differences. austin & nothofer (2012) examined he history of speech levels in sasak. austin (2014) documented aksara sasak, an endangered script and scribal practice. other studies have explored linguistic inheritance and classification. paramarta et.al (2019) investigated numeral traces in old balinese inscription and their genetic relationship within the malayo-polynesian language family. sumarlam et.al (2017) analyzed pan reflexes in buru to determine its linguistic position. hadi et.al (2020) examined pan inheritance in the maya language of raja ampat, west papua. burhanuddin (2020) examined pan retention and innovation in the sula language. burhanuddin (2021) applied a top-down approach to analyze whether sakai is a malay variety. sugianto & hasby (2023) explored patterns of language variations used among speakers of sasak lombok. burhanuddin et al. (2024) examined the origins and migration of the sasak ethnic group in lombok from a historical linguistic perspective. based on heterogeneity theory, they hypothesized that the sasak people first settled in central and eastern lombok—in areas such as kopang, terara, kotaraja, pringgasela, masbagik, selong, and pringgabaya. from this homeland, a portion migrated southward, leading to the emergence of the pujut dialect, followed by subsequent migrations that formed the bayan, pejanggik, and aibukaq dialects. other related studies include burhanuddin and mahsun (2025), which reviewed the migration of south halmahera speakers in north maluku, and burhanuddin et al. (2025), which investigated the origins of the sumbawa ethnic group in west nusa tenggara. despite their historical linguistic approach, these studies do not examine austronesian traces in the sasak language. research on austronesian heritage in indonesia is more commonly approached from archaeological perspectives. for example, apriadi et al. (2018) analyzed austronesian cultural traces on the east coast of south sumatera, and handini et al. (2018) studied the lambanapu site to document the austronesian diaspora in east sumba. moreover, hidayah (2017) examined austronesian traces in gede cave, nusa penida island, bali, while hartatik (2019) explored the kaharingan religion as an austronesian influence among the dayak people. klamer (2019) traced the historical distribution of 650 languages across malaysia, indonesia, the philippines, and timor-leste, noting that austronesian historical linguistics has not fully mapped the temporal and spatial relationships between these languages. yondri (2020) analyzed prehistoric austronesian traces in subang regency, west java. recently, mukramah (2024) examined sound changes from proto-austronesian to minangkabau. these archaeological studies rely primarily on material evidence to track austronesian influence, whereas the current study approaches austronesian traces through linguistic evidence. language is inherently dynamic, evolving in response to its speakers’ and environmental changes. as speakers seek to adapt and innovate, language naturally transforms to accommodate their needs (mahsun, 2006). these transformations burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 241 end (apocope) of a word. for example, in malay, the pan *h is lost and turns into malay: /ø/, as in *hubi becoming ubi ‘sweet potatoes’. ii. methods this study adopts a descriptive qualitative approach, which involves explaining observed phenomena using non-numerical data presented in narrative form. specifically, the study applies a descriptive qualitative approach within the framework of historical linguistics. the historical linguistic approach utilizes the comparative method to analyze the inheritance of protolanguage features in modern languages. in historical linguistic studies, two primary approaches—top-down and bottomup—are used to trace linguistic evolution vertically (crowley & bowern, 2010; ). before discussing the specific methods used in this research, it is essential to first outline the types and sources of data. a clear description of the data types provides insight into the nature of the linguistic material analyzed, while an explanation of data sources clarifies the types of methods employed in this study. the data in this study consist of the realization of 200 basic vocabulary swadesh words and 500 cultural vocabulary words in the sasak language (across its dialects, including pujut, selaparang, aibukaq, and bayan), as well as protoaustronesian (pan) etymons—ancient linguistic elements—found in the austronesian comparative dictionary compiled by blust & trussel (2020). the dictionary contains 1772 of pan etymons, which serve as a key reference for austronesian language classification. the vocabulary data (200 basic vocabulary and 500 cultural vocabulary) were collected directly from the field, with informants from 4 observation areas. each area was selected based on the sasak dialect classification by mahsun (2006), which identifies four dialects. thus, the sample of this study is four areas of sasak language dialect speakers to collect basic vocabulary and cultural vocabulary. a minimum of three qualified informants were chosen for each observation area. meanwhile, the pan etymon data were sourced from online literary references, including the austronesian comparative dictionary (blust & trussel, 2020), which austronesian linguists for language classification. according to sudaryanto (2015) and mahsun (2019), language research has three stages, namely data collection, data analysis, and presentation of occur due to personal and environmental factors, as well as broader influences such as geography, economy, and politics (anttila, 1972; arlotto, 1972; campbell, 2013). according to lyons (1981), diachronic language change is a gradual process rather than an instantaneous shift. it involves the transition from a proto-language to its modern derivatives, beginning with sound changes that eventually influence word forms. bynon (1979) and robins (2014) assert that these changes do not occur uniformly across all words but rather affect individual words over time, with some words remaining unchanged. consequently, every word in a language has its own historical trajectory (lehmann, 1973; lass, 1984). sound changes from a proto-language to its modern descendants—such as the transition from proto-austronesian (pan) to sasak—can be classified into two primary types: retention and innovation (anttila, 1972; palmer, 1978; crowley & bowern, 2010). retention refers to sounds that remain unchanged from the ancestral language. for example, pan *acay ‘eyes’ remains largely intact in sumbawa: mata. innovation occurs when a sound in the protolanguage undergoes modification, deletion, or addition in the descendant language. for instance, proto-malay-polynesian (pmp) *u/-#k transforms into sumbawa: /e/, as seen in pmp: *pukul ‘attack’ → sumbawa: pukel. innovations can be regular or irregular (bynon, 1979; hock, 1986; mahsun, 2006; campbell, 2013). regular innovations occur across a broad range of words, while irregular innovations are limited, affecting only a limited set of words. according to lehmann (1973), hock (1986), keraf (1991), mahsun (1995), crowley and bowern (2010), campbell (2013), both regular and irregular linguistic innovations can take various forms, including phoneme change, phoneme loss, phoneme addition, split, merger, assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis, and contraction. phoneme change refers to the transformation of a phoneme from the parent language into another phoneme in a more modern language. for instance, proto-austronesian (pan) *i changes to malay /e/, as seen in *ikur becoming ekɔr ‘tail’. phoneme loss occurs when a phoneme from the parent language is lost in its descendant languages. this can happen at the beginning (apheresis), middle (syncope), or burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 242 data analysis results. these three stages are taken in this study. considering the research objectives and the type of data to be collected, this study employs two data collection methods, namely the interview method (balal, 2025) and the literature method (khan, 2014, hoda, 2024, adeyinka-ojo, 2025, noble, et.al, 2025). the interview method is used to collect 700 vocabulary items across 4 dialects of the sasak language. the interviews involve presenting a glossary of 700 vocabulary items in indonesian. additionally, this method gathers information on regional identity, boundaries, population, education, and labor. to ensure linguistic data validity, each session involves three informants simultaneously, selected based on the following criteria (sudaryanto, 2015; mahsun, 2019): (1) male or female; (2) aged between 25 and 65 years (not senile); (3) parents and spouse born and raised in the village, with minimal or no migration history; (4) maximum education level of basic schooling; (5) middle social status (neither low nor high) to ensure limited mobility; (6) agricultural or laborer occupation; (7) having pride in their dialect; (8) ability to speak indonesian; and (9) physically and mentally healthy. the literature method is used to collect pan etymons, which are available in the austronesian comparative dictionary by blust and trussell (2020). pan etymons that have undergone linguistic change within the sasak language are recorded and analyzed. this method is also used to collect sasak language data from written sources, including the sasak-indonesian dictionary published by the language center of west nusa tenggara province. data analysis in this study employs a comparative method with a top-down approach, comparing elements of the ancient language (etymones) with linguistic elements found in sasak dialects (fernandez, 1996; crowley & bowern, 2010, campbell, 2013; ross & greenhill, 2024). the comparison aims to identify pattern of change in the transition from pan etymons to the sasak language. a comparison was conducted between proto-austronesian (pan) etyma and a dataset of 700 sasak lexical items to determine inherited elements. sasak words identified as non-inherited (loanwords or innovations unrelated to pan) were excluded from further analysis. the remaining inherited elements were then examined and classified into two categories, retention (elements preserved from pan) and innovation (newly developed or altered linguistic forms). further classification of innovation patterns is conducted to determine the type of change, which may include: extracting (removal of elements), addition (introduction of new elements), assimilation (sound changes to become more similar), dismimilated (sound changes to become more distinct), metathesis (rearrangement of sounds), mergers (combining linguistic elements), split (division of one element into multiple forms), or contraction (shortening of words or sounds). each type of change is further examined to determine whether it follows a regular or irregular pattern. iii. results before describing linguistic traces in the sasak language, it is important to first examine the phonemes of both sasak and proto-austronesian (pan) to ensure a clearer and more systematic analysis. according to blust (2013) and blust & trussel (2020), proto-austronesian (pan) consists of 28 phonemes, including 24 consonants (/p, t, c, c, k, ?, b, d, z, j, g, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, n, s, s, h, l, r, r, w, y/), 4 vowels (/i, u, ə, a/), and 4 diphthongs (/ay, aw, uy, iw/). in contrast, analysis of the sasak language, as identified by mahsun (2006) and thoir et.al (1983), reveals a total of 25 phonemes, comprising 8 vowels and 17 consonants. the vowel system in sasak includes /i, u, e, ə, e, o, ɔ, a/, while its consonant inventory consists of /p, b, t, d, c, j, k, g, ?, s, h, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, l, r, w, y/. the presence and distinction of these sasak vowels can be further examined through minimal pair analysis. a. /i/ : pari ‘stingray’ /e/ : pare ‘pariah’ b. /a/ : bəla? ‘split’ /e/ : bəle? ‘big’ c. /a/ : lalo ‘go’ /o : lolo ‘tree’ /u/ : lalu ‘sasak men’s title’ d. /a/ : balo? ‘his son’s grandchild’ /ə/ : bəlo? ‘palm water’ e. /e/ : bədɔk ‘goit’ /ɔ/ : bɔdɔk ‘cat’ the presence of 17 sasak consonants is demontrated in the minimal pair analysis as follows. a. /p/ : pait ‘bitter’ /b/ : bait ‘take’ b. /t/ : ituŋ ‘count’ /d/ : iduŋ ‘nose’ burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 243 c. /s/ : sai ‘who’ /t/ : tai ‘peces’ d. /l/ : elaq ‘tongue’ /r/ : eraq ‘later’ e. /c/ : kɔcɔr ‘kettle’ /j/ : kɔjɔr ‘rigid’ f. /k/ : taŋkel ‘shell (coconut)’ /g/ : taŋgel ‘attack, hit’ g. /?/ : bara? ‘swollen’ /k/ : barak ‘live coals’ h. /h/ : tipah ‘mat’ /?/ : tipa? ‘to’ i. /m/ : tumə ‘white lice’ /n/ : tunə ‘tuna fish’ j. /ŋ/ : peŋɔt ‘mozzle’ /ɲ/ : peɲɔt ‘dented’ the data analysis identified 343 protoaustronesian (pan) etymons that have corresponding forms in sasak. this means that out of the 700 basic vocabulary and cultural terms examined, only 343 were suitable for analysis. the influence of austronesian heritage can be observed in sasak vocabulary that directly traces back to pan. however, sasak lexicon that does not originate from the same pan etymon (referred to as lexical differences) is not considered part of this linguistic inheritance. thus, the inherited elements in sasak fall into two categories: retention and innovation. retention of pan to sasak among the phonological elements inherited from proto-austronesian (pan) into sasak, several instances of retention have been identified, as outlined in the following data sets (b) through (ee). prior to this, examples of pan lexicons that have remained unchanged (retentions) in sasak are presented in data set (a). (a) unchanged lexicons gloss pan sasak lift *aŋkat aŋkat what *apa apa chicken *manuk manuk return *balik balik cough *batuk batuk split *bəla? bəla? fruit *bua? bua?, etc. (b) pan *p gloss pan sasak rice *pajay pa(d,r)e (b1) bitter *pa?i pait arrow *pana? pana? loft *paraw səmpare stingray *pari pari paria *paria? paria turtle *pəɲu pəɲu squeeze *pərəs pərəs flat *pipih pipi banana *punti punti? white *puni puti? what *apa apa (b2) fire *hapuy api grandfather *apu papuq? thin *tipis tipis kapok *kapua kapuk roof *?atəp atap (b3) life *?udip i(d,r)up stay *?inap enap blow *tiyup tiup data (b1) (b3) show that pan: *p in initial, middle, and final position is retained (unchanged) in sasak. c. pan *t gloss pan sasak thin *tipis tipis (c1) blow *tiyup tiyup burn *tunuh tunuh afraid *takut takut sugarcane *təbu təbu swallow *tilən tələn stone *batu batu (c2) roof *qatəp atəp cough *batuk batuk flat *datar rata lice *gutu kutu ask *kutaɲa katuan egg *?atəlur təlɔ? cucumber *?atimun timu lift *aŋkat aŋkat (c3) four *əmpat əmpat sea *lahut lut data (c1) (c3) show that in the initial, middle, and final positions, pan: *t is retained (unchanged) in sasak. (d) pan *k gloss pan sasak dig *kalih kali? (d1) right *kawanan kawan kapok *kapua kapuk wood *kasiw kayu you *kasu kamu left *kawiri kiri ask *kutaɲa katuan burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 244 afraid *takut takut (d2) root *akar akah lift *aŋkat aŋkat child *anak anak (d3) stab *tusuk tusuk chicken *manuk manuk cough *batuk batuk pan sound: *k in data (d1) (d3) in the initial, middle, and final positions is retained (unchanged) in sasak. (e) pan *? gloss pan sasak wet *basa? basa? split *bəla? bəla? swollen *barə? bara? fruit *bua? bua? open *huka? buka? blood *dara? dara? mother *inaq ina? far *jaə? jaɔ? *pan retention: ʔ in final position. the glottal stop *ʔ from proto-austronesian (pan) is retained in sasak primarily in word-final positions. this phonological retention is observed in several lexical items with the following meanings: ‘lick’, ‘pee’, ‘young’, ‘vomit’, ‘arrow’, ‘turtle’, ‘wrong’, ‘index finger’, and ‘tongue’. the corresponding pan reconstructions and their reflexes in sasak are as follows: *dila?, *mi?mi?, *muda?, *uta?, *pana?, *pəɲu?, *sala?, *cuzu?, *dila? > sasak: dela?, mene?, ɔda?, uta?, pana?, pəɲu, sala?, tuju?, ela?. (f) pan *b gloss pan sasak return *balik balik (f1) live coal *barah barak new *ba?əru baru wet *basa? basa? stone *batu batu cough *batuk batuk split *bəla? bəla? swollen *barə? bara? rice *bəras bəras weight *berə?at *bərat give *bəray beŋ calf *bətiəs bətis lips *birbir biwih fruit *bua? bua? trap *bubu bubu moon *bulan bulan hair *bulu bulu blind *buca buta hair *bukes bukes house *balay bale star fruit *baliŋbiŋ bəlimbiŋ star fruit *baliŋbiŋ bəlimbiŋ (f2) afternoon *rabian kabian sugarcane *təbu təbu pig *babuy babi porridge *burbur bubur data (f1) and (f2) show that pan: *b is retained in sasak only in initial and middle positions. (g) pan *d gloss pan sasak hear *dəŋər deŋer (g1) two *dusa dua chest *dasdas dada forehead *da?is dahi blood *dara? dara? in *daləm daləm lick *dila? dela? life *?udip idup (g2) young *muda? ɔda? shrimp *?udaŋ udaŋ burn *cidu sədut data (g1) and (g2) show that pan: *g is retained in sasak only in initial and final positions. (h) pan *g gloss pan sasak handful *gəŋgəm *əŋgəm the sound pan: *g only has irregular retention in middle position in sasak, in data (h) (i) pan *m gloss pan sasak pee *mi?mi? mene? (i1) eyes *maca mata chicken *manuk manuk five *lima lima (i2) father *amax ama? cucumber *?atimun timun drink *inum inəm (i3) in *daləm daləm six *ənəm ənəm handful *gəŋgəm əŋgəm needle *zarəm jaum sharp *tazəm tajəm data (i1) (i3) show that pan: *m in sasak is retained in all positions (initial, middle, and final). burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 245 (j) pan *n gloss pan sasak chicken *manuk manuk (j1) burn *tunuh tunu? drink *inum inəm arrow *pana? pana? six *ənəm ənəm mother *ina? ina? stay *?inəp enap this *ini ini name *ŋajan aran (j2) road *zalan jalan right *kawanan kawan weaving *tənun tənun cucumber *qatimun timun data (j1) and (j2) show that pan: *n in sasak is retained only in middle and final position. (k) pan *ŋ dan *ɲ gloss pan sasak lift *aŋkat aŋkat (k1) sky *laŋic laŋit ridgepole *bubuŋan buwuŋ ear *caliŋa təliŋa nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ (k2) star fruit *baliŋbiŋ bəlimbiŋ mortar *lusuŋ lisuŋ shrimp *?udaŋ udaŋ coconut *ɲiur ɲiur (k3) turtle *pəɲu pəɲu data (k1) and (k2) show that pan: *ŋ in sasak is retained only in middle and final position, while pan: *ɲ (in data (k3)) experiences irregular retention in the initial and middle positions. (l) pan *s gloss pan sasak sink *sələm sələm (l1) elbow *sikux siku dog *asu basɔŋ (l2) salt *?asira sia one *isa sai? son/daughter-in-law ?asawa sawa wet basa? basa? stab *tusuk tusuk (l3) clean *kərsik bərsi suck *hisəp hisəp calf *bətiəs bətis (l4) crying *caŋis taŋis on *acas atas thin *tipis tipis rice *bəras bəras data (l1), (l2), and (l3) show that pan: *s in sasak is retained in all positions (initial, middle, and final). (m) pan *l dan *r gloss pan sasak five *lima lima (m1) sky *laŋic laŋit run *lariw pəlai sea *lahut laut sail *layar layar neck *liqər lir mortar *lusuŋ lisuŋ lice *lisə?əs lisa? return *balik balik (m2) split *bəla? bəla? moon *bulan bulan hair *bulu bulu in *daləm daləm eight *walu balu? dig *kalih kali? soft *dalis alus tie *calis tali? road *zalan jalan lick *dila? dela? head *?uluh ulu tongue *dila? ela? house *balay bale wrong *sala? sala? rope *calis tali swallow *tilən tələn ear *caliŋa təliŋa egg *?itəlur *?itəlur sink *sələm kələm three *təlu təlu snake *sular ular caterpillar *kulay ulət pariah *paria? paria (m3) scrath *garut karɔk data (m1) and (m2) show that pan: *l in sasak experiences retention only in the initial and middle positions, while in data (m3) pan: *r has irregular retention in the middle position (n) pan *w dan *y gloss pan sasak right *kawanan kawan (n1) nine *siwa siwa? son/daughter-in-law ?asawa sawa sail *layar layar (n2) the sound pan: *w in data (n1) is retained only in middle position in sasak, while pan: *y in data (n2) only experiences irregular retention in middle position. burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 246 (o) pan *i gloss pan sasak he *ia ia (o1) nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ mother *ina? ina? this *ini ini we *ita ita they *ida ia drink *inum inem one *isa sai return *balik balik (o2) star fruit *balimbiŋ bəlimbiŋ calf *bətiəs bətis lips *birbir bibir dig *kalih kali? salt *?asira sia octopus *?urica kərita? life *?udip irup shark *?isu hiu nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ ear *caliŋa təliŋa lice eggs *lisə?əs lisa? thin *tipis tipis coconut *ɲiur ɲiur left *kawiri kiri sew *ca?is jait sky *laɲic laɲit neck *li?er lir five *lima lima pariah *paria? paria stomach *tian tian flat *pipih pipi nine *siwa siwa? cry *caŋis təŋis afternoon *rabian kəbian water *wasir ai? banana *punti puntiq (o3) white *puni puti a little *kədi səkədi? now *dani nani afternoon *wari təŋari feces *ca?i tai wife *binahi səbinian dream *sipi impi younger brother *suaji adi? bitter *pa?i pait stingray *pari pari data (o1) (o3) show that pan: *i is regularly retained in all positions in sasak. (p) pan *u gloss pan sasak shrimp *?udaŋ udaŋ (p1) snake *sular ular caterpillar *kulay ulət fruit *buaq bua? trap *bubu buwuh open *huka? buka? two *dusa dua rain *?uzan ujan moon *bulan bulan blind *buca buta burn *tunu tunu? nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ life *?udip irup scabies *kudis gudes white *puni puti? head *?uluh ulu? mortar *lusuŋ lisuŋ rattan *?uay uwe ask *kutaɲa katuan hair *bulu bulu index finger *cuzu? tuju? ridgepole *bubuŋan buwuŋ coconut *ɲiur ɲiur (p2) horn *tanduk taŋge? banana *punti punti? flow *?alur arus chicken *manuk manuk new *ba?əruh baru weaving *tənun tənun cucumbers *?atimun timun blow *tiyup tiup porridge *burbur bubur cough *batuk batuk hair *bulu bulu (p3) grandchildren *apu əmpu eight *walu balu? shark *?isu hiu stone *batu batu you *kasu kamu lice *kutu gutu person *cau tau turtle *pəɲu pəɲu i *aku aku elbow *siku siku milk *susu susu know *ca?u taɔ? sugar cane *təbu təbu three *təlu təlu ash *?abu awu data (p1) (p3) show that pan: *u is regularly retained in all positions in sasak. (q) pan *ə gloss pan sasak four *əmpat əmpat (q1) six *ənəm ənəm burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 247 rice *bəras bəras (q2) heavy *bərəqa bərat turtle *pəɲu pəɲu sugarcane *təbu təbu eggs *?icəlur təlɔ? weaving *tənun tənun three *təlu təlu roof *?atəp atəp (q3) clean *kərsik bərsi in *daləm daləm hear * dəŋər dəŋər handheld *gəŋggəm əŋggəm squeeze *pərəs pərəs navel *pujək pɔsət sharp *tazəm tajəm swallow *tilən tələn data (q1) shows that pan: *ə retains irregularly in initial position, while data (q2) and (q3) show regular retention in middle and final position in sasak. (r) pan *a gloss pan sasak dog *asu acɔŋ (r1) root *akar akar child *anak anak lift *aŋkat aŋkat what *apa apa up *acas atas father *amax amaq dead *acay mate i *aku aku ash *?abu awu (r2) flow *?alur arus water *wasir ai? swollen *barə? bara? feces *ca?i tai fire *hapuy api roof *atəp atəp chicken *manuk manuk return *balik balik live coals *barah barak new *ba?əruh baru wet *basa? basa? stone *batu batu cough *batuk batuk eyebrows *dalis alis blood *dara? dara? flat *datar rata in *daləm daləm eight *walu balu? dig *kalih kali? road *zalan jalan needle *zarəm jaum far *zau? jaɔ? wood *kasiw kayu? you *kasu kamu right *kawanan kawan sky *laŋic laŋit run *lariw pəlai sail *layar layar climb *dakis taek name *ŋajan aran person *cau tau rice *pajay pade bitter *pa?i pait arrow *pana? pana? loft *para? səmpara pariah *paria? parie know *ca?u taɔ? year *cawin taun sharp *tazəm *tajəm afraid *takut takut rope *calis tali cry *caŋis taŋis cucumber *?atimun timun hundred *ratus ratus wrong *sala? sala? now *dani nani old *tu?as tɔa? stingray *pari pari afternoon *wari təŋari scratch *garut karɔk wife *binah səbinian brother *suaji adi? stomacth *tian tian (r3) horn *tanduk taŋge? bamboo *?aur aur shrimp *?udaŋ udaŋ snake *?ular ular rain *?uzan ujan mother *ina? ina? lick *dila? dela? tie *calis tali? tongue *dila? ela? young *muda? ɔda? vomit *uta? uta? split *bəla? bəla? rice *bəras bəras heavy *bərə?at bərat fruit *bua? bua? open *huka? buka? moon *bulan bulan four *əmpat əmpat right *kawanan kawan ridgepole *bubuŋan buwuŋ correct *kəna kəna? (r4) blind *buca buta two *dusa dua burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 248 salt *?asira sia octopus *kurica kərita? he, she *ia ia we *ita ita five *lima lim(a,e) eye *maca mata they *ida sita one *isa sai? nine *siwa siwa son/doughter-in-law ear *caliŋa təliŋa data (r1) (r3) show that pan: *a is regularly retained in all positions (initial, middle, and final) in sasak. innovation of pan to sasak the data analysis identified several pan elements that have been retained in sasak, as shown in the following data. (s) pan *k gloss pan sasak lice *kutu gutu clean *kərsi? bərsih caterpillar *kulay ulət data (s) shows that pan: *k undergoes irregular innovation into sasak: g, b, ø in the initial position. (t) pan *c dan *c gloss pan sasak person *cau tau (t1) know *ca?u tahu year *cawin taun rope *calis tali cry *caŋis taŋis ear *caliŋa təliŋa index finger *cuzu? tunjuk burn *cunuh tunu? up *acas atas (t2) kill *acay mate? blind *buca buta octopus *?urica kərita? heart *?acay ate that *icu eto eye *maca mata dead *acay mate egg *?icelur təlɔ? sky *laŋic *laŋit (t3) feces *ca?i tai (t4) data (t1) and (t2) show that pan: *c undergoes regular innovation into sasak: t in the initial and middle positions, while in the final position it occurs irregularly (data (c3). the data (t4) shows that pan: *c experienced irregular innovation into sasak: t in the initial position. (u) pan *? gloss pan sasak ash *?abu awu (u1) flow *?alur arus roof *?atəp atəp bamboo *aur aur salt *qasira sia heart *?acay ate life *?udip i(d,r)up shark *?isu hiu rain ?ujan ujan stay *?inəp enap this *?ani ini head *?uluh ulu rattan *?uay uwe son/daughter-in-law ?asawa sawa egg *?itəlur təlɔq cucumber *?atimun timun shrimp *?udaŋ udaŋ new *ba?əruh baru (u2) sewing *ca?is jait neck *li?er lir bitter *pa?i pait know *ta?u taɔ? feces *ca?i tai lice eggs *lisə?əs lisa? (u3) eyebrows *da?is alis pariah *paria? paria (u4) data (u1) and (u2) show that pan: *? undergoes regular innovation into sasak: ø in the initial and middle positions, while in the final position it occurs irregularly (data (u3)). (v) pan *b dan *d gloss pan sasak ridgepole *bubuŋan buwuŋ (v1) ash *?abu awu climb *dakis taek (v2) flat *datar rata (v3) soft *dalis alus (v4) data (v1) shows that pan: *b undergoes irregular innovation to sasak:w in middle position. data (v2), (v3), and (v4) each show the irregular innovation of pan: *d to sasak: d, r, and ø in initial position. (w) pan *z, *j, dan *g gloss pan sasak road *zalan jalan (w1) needle *zarəm jaum far *zau? jaɔ? burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 249 sharp *tazəm tajəm (w2) rain *quzan ujan younger brother *suaji adi? (w3) nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ rice *pajay pad(i,e) name *ŋajan aran (w4) navel *pujək pɔsət handful *gəŋgəm əŋgəm (w5) data sets (w1) and (w2) indicate that the proto-austronesian (pan) phoneme *z regularly changes to /j/ in sasak when it occurs in initial position. however, in medial position, the change is irregular. if data set (w2) is expanded, it is possible that a more regular pattern may emerge. similarly, in data sets (w3) and (w4), pan *j in the penultimate syllable consistently shifts to /r/ in sasak, while in the final syllable, it changes to /r/ or /s/ irregularly. in data set (w5), pan *g in initial position disappears irregularly in sasak. (x) pan *ŋ dan *n gloss pan sasak name *ŋajan aran (x1) child *anak anak (x2) now *dani nani banana *puni punti? stomach *tian tian (x3) moon *bulan bulan rain *?uzan ujan year *cawin taun data set (x1) shows that the proto-austronesian (pan) phoneme *ŋ disappears irregularly in initial position in sasak. in contrast, data sets (x2) and (x3) indicate that the pan nasal phoneme *n consistently undergoes a regular sound change to /n/ in sasak, both in medial and final positions. (y) pan *s dan *h gloss pan sasak nine *siwa siwa? (y1) younger brother *suaji adi? dream *sipi impi you *kasu kamu (y2) two *dusa dua shark *?isu hiu chest *dasdas dada (y3) nail *kuskus kuku? water *wasir ai? nose *ijusuŋ iduŋ old *tu?as tɔa? (y4) tie *calis tali? rope *calis tali lice egg *lisə?əs lisa? sewing *ca?is jait (y5) eyebrows *dalis alis (y6) up *daks taek (y7) fire *hapuy api (y8) suck *hisəp isəp new *ba?əruh baru (y9) head *?uluh ulu cheek *pipih pipi dig *kalih kali? (y10) data set (y1) shows that the proto-austronesian (pan) phoneme *s underwent irregular innovation (in the form of a split) into sasak /s/ and zero (ø). in data set (y2), *s in the penultimate syllable also splits irregularly, resulting in /m/ and ø in sasak. in contrast, in the ultimate syllable (see data (y3)), *s regularly disappears in sasak. data set (y4) shows a regular innovation of *s into glottal stop /ʔ/ in sasak, while in data sets (y5) to (y7), *s irregularly changes into /t/, /s/, and ø, respectively. in data set (y8), pan *h disappears irregularly in wordinitial position in sasak—though if the dataset is expanded, the change may prove to be regular. in final position (data (y9)), *h regularly disappears. however, in some cases, *h may also undergo irregular innovation into /ʔ/ in final position, as shown in data set (y10). (z) pan *r gloss pan sasak hundred *ratus ratus (z1) salt *?asira sia (z2) octopus *kurita kərita? left *kawiri kiri stingray *pari pari afternoon *wari təŋari live coals *barah barak (z3) new *baqəruh baru swollen *barew bara? rice *bəras bəras heavy *bərə?at bərat blood *dara? dara? squeeze *pərəs pərəs needle *zarəm jaum lips *birbir biwir (z4) porridge *burbur bubur listen *dəŋər dəŋər snake *sular ular bamboo *?aur aur sail *layar layar neck *liqər lir water *wasir ai? (z5) egg *?itəlur təlɔ? give *bəray beŋ (z6) run *lariw pəlai (z7) burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 250 data set (z1) shows that the proto-austronesian (pan) phoneme *r undergoes irregular innovation into /r/ in sasak. in data sets (z2) and (z3), *r regularly changes into /r/ in both penultimate and ultimate syllables. in data set (z4), *r consistently becomes /r/, while in data set (z5), it irregularly changes into a glottal stop /ʔ/. meanwhile, in data sets (z6) and (z7), the *r phoneme disappears irregularly in sasak. (aa) pan *w and *y gloss pan sasak water *wasir ai? (aa1) root *wakar akar afternoon *wari təŋari eight *walu balu? (aa2) honey *wanu lani left *kawiri kiri (aa3) year *cawin taun blow *tiyup tiup (aa3) data (aa1) indicates that the pan phoneme *w in initial position either disappears regularly or changes into sasak /b/ or /l/ (see data (aa2)). in penultimate syllables (data aa3), *w disappears irregularly. data (aa4) shows that pan *y also disappears irregularly in sasak. (bb) pan *i gloss pan sasak lick *dila? dela? (bb1) tongue *dilaq ela? swallow *tilən təlan (bb2) egg *qicəlur təlɔ? scabies *kudis gudes (bb3) climb *dakis taek soft *dalis alus (bb4) year *cawin taun (bb5) data (bb1) shows that pan *i in penultimate syllables innovates into sasak /e/, while in data (bb2), it changes to /ə/—both occurring irregularly. in data sets (bb3) to (bb5), *i in ultimate syllables undergoes irregular innovations, becoming /e/, /e/, and /u/, respectively. (cc) pan *u gloss pan sasak old *tu?as tɔa? (cc1) navel *pujək pɔsət young *muda? ɔda? dog *asu acɔŋ that *icu etɔ younger brother *suaji adi? (cc2) octopus *?urica kərita? (cc3) egg *?icəlur təlɔ? (cc4) far *zau? jaɔ? sleep *tudur tindu? (cc5) drink *inum inəm (cc6) data (cc1) shows that pan *u in penultimate syllables regularly innovates into sasak /ɔ/. however, in some cases, it either disappears (data cc2) or changes to /ə/ irregularly (data cc3). in ultimate syllables, *u undergoes irregular innovations, becoming /ɔ/, /o/, and /ə/ in data (cc4), (cc5), and (cc6), respectively. (dd) pan *ə dan *a gloss pan sasak new *ba?əruh baru (dd1) swollen *barə? bara? (dd2) needle *zarəm jaum data (dd1) and (dd2) indicate that pan *ə in penultimate syllables irregularly innovates into sasak /a/, while in ultimate syllables it also becomes /a/. (ee) pan *ay, *aw, dan *uy gloss pan sasak kill *acay mate? (ee1) dead *acay mate rattan *?uay uwe foot *qaqay nae rice *səmay mi (ee2) rice *pajay padi give *bəray beŋ (ee3) caterpillar *kulay ulat (ee4) scratch *karaw karɔk (ee5) wood *kasaw kayu (ee6) fire *hapuy api (ee7) pig *babuy babi data (ee1) shows that pan *ay in final position regularly changes to sasak /e/. however, in data (ee2), it changes irregularly to /i/. in data (ee3) and (ee4), it irregularly becomes /e/ and /a/, respectively, in final position. pan *aw, as seen in data (ee5) and (ee6), undergoes irregular innovation to sasak /ɔ/ and /u/ in final position. similarly, pan *uy in final position irregularly changes to sasak /i/. iv. discussion as previously noted, of the 343 protoaustronesian (pan) etymons identified in the sasak language, 190 lexical items (55.39%) were classified as inherited, while the remaining 153 items (44.61%) were not. among the 190 inherited burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 251 lexicons, two types of phonological traces of austronesian origin were observed in sasak: retentions and innovations. an traces in the form of retention retention elements refer to linguistic features that have remained unchanged from their parent language, proto-austronesian (pan). among the 190 inherited lexical items in sasak—comprising both phonological retentions and innovations—25 items (13.16%) exhibit complete phonological retention. in these cases, all constituent sounds have been fully preserved without any modification from the original pan forms (see data set (a)). additional examples of retained lexicons in sasak include words with meanings such as ‘feather/fur,’ ‘four,’ ‘six,’ ‘five,’ ‘vomit,’ ‘arrow,’ ‘turtle,’ ‘wrong,’ ‘me,’ ‘milk,’ ‘scared,’ ‘sugar,’ ‘three,’ ‘blowing,’ and ‘stab.’ the relatively low proportion of fully retained forms suggests that sasak has been separated from its proto-language for a considerable duration, resulting in extensive lexical and phonological innovation. according to estimates by austronesian linguists, the ancestors of austronesian languages began migrating from their original homeland around 4,200 to 1,500 bce. (blust, 1984, 1995, & 2013; bellwood, 1991, 2017, 2024; ross, 2017; klamer, 2019; ross & greenhill, 2024). the retained elements can be categorized into numerals (‘three,’ ‘four,’ ‘five,’ ‘six’), nouns, question words, and pronouns (‘fruit,’ ‘chicken,’ ‘feather,’ ‘turtle,’ ‘sugarcane,’ ‘milk,’ ‘i,’ and ‘what’), as well as verbs (‘lift,’ ‘turn,’ ‘cough,’ ‘split,’ ‘arrow,’ ‘blow,’ and ‘stab’). phonologically, retention is observed in pan phonemes such as *p, *t, *k, *ʔ, *b, *d, *g, *m, *n, *ŋ, *ɲ, *s, *l, *r, *w, *y, *i, *u, *e, and *a. however, while these phonemes are retained, they often appear in etymons that have undergone phonological changes due to shifts in other sounds. despite experiencing retention, these sounds appear in etymons that have undergone innovation. this means that the pan etymon where phonological retention occurs has undergone innovation due to changes in other sounds. data (b) demonstrates the regular retention of pan *p in initial, medial, and final positions, as observed in data (b1), (b2), and (b3) respectively. this retention occurs regularly. the etymon pan: *pajay ‘rice’ > sasak: pa(d,r)e, underwent changes following the process: *pajay > *paje > pa(d,r) e. this transformation indicates that innovation occurred due to the shift of pan *ay to sasak /e/, and pan *j to sasak /d/, rather than any modification of pan *p. the change of pan: *ay > sasak: /e/ in the final position is a regular occurrence (see data (ee1)), as is the change in pan: *j > sasak: /d/ in the middle position (see data (w3)). furthermore the change of pan: *paraw ‘loft’, into sasak: səmpare followed the process: *paraw > *pare > *mpare > sasak: səmpare. data (c) demonstrates the regular retention of pan: *t in initial, medial, and final positions. the change of pan: *tilən ‘swallow’ into sasak: tələn, occurred due to the assimilation of *ə in the ultima syllable environment to *i in the penultimate syllable. likewise, pan: *?itəlur ‘egg’ changed into sasak: təlɔ?, through the deletion of the initial syllable *?iresulting in *təlur. this was followed by the lowering of the vowel *u > /ɔ/, producing *təlɔr, which then became sasak: təlɔ?. the change of pan: *r to sasak /?/ is also observed in pan: *wasir ‘water’, which became sasak: ai?. additionally, data (d) indicates the retention of pan *k in all positions within sasak. for instance, pan: *kawanan ‘right’ likely changed into: *kawaan following the deletion of /n/, which was then followed by the deletion of the vowel /a/), ultimately resulting in sasak: kawan. for pan *s, data (l) indicates regular retention in medial and final positions but irregular retention in the initial position. data (m) shows that pan *l is consistently retained in initial and medial positions, whereas *r displays irregular retention in the medial position. finally, data (n) reveals that pan *w is regularly retained in the medial position, while *y undergoes irregular retention. data (e) shows the regular retention of pan: *? in the final position. pan: *cuzu? is hypothesized to have first changed to *tuzu?, as the shift from pan: *c to sasak: /t/ occurs regularly (see data (t1), (t2), and (t3)). this was followed bt the change of pan *z to sasak /j/, another regular change (see data (w1), (w2), and (w3)), ultimately resulting in sasak: tujuq ‘index finger’.. data (f) and (g) confirm the regular retention of pan: *b and *d in initial and medial positions, respectively. however, data (h) indicates an irregular retention of pan: *g in medial position. data (i) shows that pan: *m is consistntly retained across all positions. similarly, data (j) reveals that pan: *n experienced burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 252 regular retention in medial and final positions. nasal pan: *ŋ is also consistntly retained in initial and medial positions (see data (k1) and (k2)), while pan *ɲ exhibits irregular retention in both initial and medial positions (see data (k3)). for pan: *s in data (l) indicates regular retention in medial and final positions, but irregular retention in the initial position. data (m) shows that pan: *l consistently retained in initial and medial positions, whereas *r displays irregular retention in the medial position. finally, data (n) reveals that pan: *w is regularly retained in the medial position, while *y underwent irregular retention. the pan vowels *i, *u, and *a exhibit regular retention in initial position, penultimate syllables, ultimate syllables, and final position, as shown in data (o), (p), and (r), respectively. pan *e, as seen in data (q2) and (q3), is also regularly retained in both penultimate and ultimate syllables, but its retention in the initial position is irregular (see data (q1)). the change of pan *ijusuŋ ‘nose’ into sasak: iduŋ follows a systematic process: *ijusuŋ > *ijuuŋ > *ijuŋ > iduŋ. the deletion of pan *s in medial position occurs regularly in sasak, as illustrated by pan *wasir > *wair > *air > sasak ai? ‘water’, as well as in pan *dusa ‘two’ > sasak dua. similarly, the retention of pan *u is evident in *ba?əruh ‘new’ > *baəruh > *baruh > *baruh > sasak baru. the deletion of the glottal stop *? in medial position is a common feature in sasak (see data (u2)), as seen in pan *li?er, *pa?i, *ca?i, which become sasak lir ‘neck,’ pait ‘bitter,’ and tai ‘feces’ respectively. likewise, the change of pan *r to sasak /r/ in medial position follows a regular pattern. for example, the words for ‘give,’ ‘needle,’ and ‘run’ derive from pan *beray, *jarum, and *lariw, resulting in sasak beŋ, jaum, and pəlai. the likely stages of transformation are pan *beray > *beri > *beri > *bei > *be > *beŋ > sasak beŋ; pan *jarum > sasak jaum; and pan *lariw > *lari > *lari > *lai > sasak pəlai. finally, the regular retention of pan *a in the ultimate syllable is demonstrated by pan *bərə?at ‘heavy,’ which undergoes the following changes: *bərə?at > *bərəat (with the regular deletion of *?) > *bərat > sasak bərat. the pan vowels *i, u, and *a exhibit regular retention in initial position, penultimate syllables, ultimate syllables, and final position, as seen in data (o), (p), and (r), respectively. pan *e, as shown in data (q2) and (q3), is also regularly retained in penultimate and ultimate syllables, but its retention in the initial position is irregular (see data (q1)). the transformation of pan *ijusuŋ ‘nose’ into sasak iduŋ follows a systematic process: *ijusuŋ > *ijuuŋ > *ijuŋ > iduŋ. the deletion of pan *s in medial position occurs regularly in sasak, as illustrated by pan *wasir > *wair > *air > sasak ai? ‘water’, and by pan *dusa ‘two’ > sasak dua. similarly, pan *u is retained in *ba?əruh ‘new’ through the stages: *baəruh > *baruh > *baruh > sasak baru. the deletion of the glottal stop *? in medial position is a common feature in sasak (see data (u2)). for instance, pan *li?er, *pa?i, and *ca?i become sasak lir ‘neck,’ pait ‘bitter,’ and tai ‘feces,’ respectively. similarly, the change of pan *r to sasak /r/ in medial position follows a regular pattern. the words for ‘give,’ ‘needle,’ and ‘run’ derive from pan *beray, *jarum, and *lariw, resulting in sasak beŋ, jaum, and pəlai respectively. the likely stages of transformation are pan *beray > *beri > *beri > *bei > *be > *beŋ > sasak beŋ; pan *jarum > sasak jaum; and pan *lariw > *lari > *lari > *lai > sasak pəlai. finally, pan *a is regularly retained in the ultimate syllable, as demonstrated by pan *bərə?at ‘heavy,’ which follows the process: *bərə?at > *bərəat (with the regular deletion of *?) > *bərat > sasak bərat. the traces of an in the form of innovation innovative elements in language refer to features that have changes from their ancestral form in proto-austronesian (pan) to sasak. of the 190 lexical items classified as inherited, 165 etymons (86.84%) exhibit phonological innovation. analysis of these items reveals a range of phonological changes, as illustrated in data sets (s) through (ee). the high proportion of pan etymons that have undergone innovation highlights the significant degree of linguistic evolution that sasak has experienced since diverging from its ancestral roots. (blust, 2013; bellwood, 2017; ross, 2017; klamer, 2019; ross & greenhill, 2024). data (s) highlights irregular innovations where pan *k changes into sasak /g/, /b/, or (/ø/) in the initial position. data (t) shows a regular innovation pattern in which pan *c changes to sasak /t/ in initial and medial positions (see data (c1) and (c2)), while in the final position, the innovation is irregular, also resulting in /t/ (see data (c3)). the transformation of pan *c into sasak /t/ in the initial position occurs irregularly (see data (t5)). burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 253 data (u) demonstrates that pan *? is regularly lost (/ø/) in initial and medial positions (see data (u1) and (u2)), whereas in final position, its disappearance is irregular (see data (u3)). for example, pan *?udip ‘life’ undergoes innovation through the stages: *?udip > *?urip > *urip > sasak i(r,d)up, where metathesis shifts *u-i to i-u. data (v1) shows irregular innovation where pan *b changes to sasak /w/ in medial position, as seen in pan *?abu > *?awu > sasak awu ‘ash’ (where the deletion of pan *? in initial position is a common feature in sasak). data (v2) reveals an irregular transformation of pan *d to sasak /t/ in the initial position, while in data (v3), pan *d disappears entirely in an irregular pattern. the word expressing ‘flat’ is thought to have evolved through the process: *datar > *atar > *atar > sasak rata. the innovation of pan *z to sasak /j/ occurs regularly in the initial position (see data (w1)) but irregularly in the medial position (see data (w2)). data (w3) shows a regular innovation where pan *j becomes sasak /d/ in the medial position, though some instances change irregularly to /r/ and /s/ (see data (w4)). pan *g disappears irregularly in the initial position (see data (w5)). data (x1) demonstrates that pan *ŋ is lost irregularly in the initial position, while data (x2) and (x3) show a regular innovation of pan *n to sasak /n/ in medial and final positions. data (y1) presents a regular innovation where pan *s becomes sasak /s/ or is lost (/ø/) in the initial position. in the penultimate syllable, pan *s disappears and changes to /h/ (see data (y2)). in the final position of the initial syllable, pan *s disappears regularly (see data (y3)). in final positions, pan *s either disappears regularly (see data (y4)) or changes irregularly to /t/, /?/, or /k/ (see data (y5), (y6), and (y7)). in data (y8), pan *h disappears irregularly in the initial position. in the final position, it either disappears regularly (see data (y9)) or changes irregularly to /?/ (see data (y10)). data (z) illustrates a regular innovation where pan *r becomes sasak /r/ in medial and final positions (see data (z2) and (z4)). additionally, in the medial position, *r is regularly lost (/ø/), while in the final position, it changes irregularly to /?/ (see data (z5)). in the initial position, *r undergoes irregular innovation to become /r/ (see data (z1)). an example of phonological change can be observed in the transformation of pan *wari > *wari > *ŋari > sasak təŋari ‘afternoon’. data (aa) shows the regular deletion of pan *w in the initial position, while in the medial position, its deletion is irregular (see data (aa1) and (aa3)). in addition to being deleted, *w in the initial position can also change to /b/ or /l/ (see data (aa2)). meanwhile, pan *y disappears irregularly in the medial position (see data (aa4)). data (bb) presents an irregular innovation where pan *i changes to sasak /e/ and /ə/ in the penultimate syllable. in the ultimate syllable, pan *i undergoes irregular changes to /e/, /e/, and /u/ (see data (bb3), (bb4), and (bb5)). data (cc) demonstrates a regular innovation where pan *u becomes sasak /ɔ/ in the penultimate syllable (see data (cc1)). additionally, *u can disappear irregularly (see data (cc2)) or change to /ə/ in an irregular manner (see data (cc3)). in the ultimate syllable, pan: *u changes to /ɔ/, /o/, and /ə/, each of which is irregular (see data (cc4), (cc5), and (cc6)). data (dd) shows that pan *ə undergoes irregular innovation in the penultimate syllable, changing to ø or /e/ (see data (dd1)). in the ultimate syllable, *ə changes irregularly to /a/, /u/, and /ø/ (see data (dd2)). data (ee) highlights the innovation of pan diphthongs *ay, *aw, and *uy in the final position. in the initial position, pan *ay regularly changes to /e/ in sasak (see data (ee1)), but it also undergoes irregular changes to /i/, /e/, or /a/ (see data (ee2), (ee3), and (ee4)). pan *aw changes irregularly into sasak /ɔ/ and /u/ (see data (ee5) and (ee6)). similarly, the diphthong pan *uy changes irregularly to sasak /i/ (see data (ee7)). an’s traces in sasak the austronesian (an) traces in sasak can be summarized as follows. first, an traces in sasak consist of both retention and innovation. the number of pan etymons that underwent retention is smaller than those that experienced innovation. this is likely due to the long period of separation between sasak and its ancestral language. second, retention occurs in the sounds *p, *t, *d, *m, *n, *ɲ, *s, *l, and *r, which represent 9 out of 28 pan phonemes. the retention of these sounds is generally regular, except for *r and *ɲ, which show irregular retention. third, several sounds exhibit both retention and innovation, including *k, *?, *w, *g, *ŋ, *y, *i, *u, *ə, and *a. fourth, innovation occurs in the sounds *c, *c, *z, *j, *n, *s, *h, *r, *ay, *aw, and *uy (see figure 2). fifth, the patterns of retention and innovation can be categorized into four types: regular retention and regular innovation; burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 254 regular retention and irregular innovation; irregular retention and regular innovation; and, irregular retention and irregular innovation. a closer examination of sound changes in austronesian (an) traces within sasak reveals several distinct types. the first type involves the changes of one sound into another, such as pan *c > sasak /t/ in initial and medial positions (see data (t1)). similar cases are found in data (w1), (w2), (w3), (x), (y), (z), (bb), and (cc). the second type is deletion, exemplified by pan *? > sasak /ø/ (data (u)) and pan *s > sasak /ø/ (data (y)). the third type consists of additions, where a new sound appears in the sasak form. for instance, pan *ø > sasak /?/ in the final position of words meaning ‘kill’ (e.g., pan *acay > sasak mate?), or the addition of /t/ after diphthong changes, as seen in pan *kulay ‘caterpillar’ > *kula > *ula > sasak ulat. the fourth type is splitting, where a single pan sound develops into multiple sounds in sasak, such as pan *ay > sasak /e/ and /i/ (see data (ee1) and (ee2)). the fifth type involves merging, where two or more pan sounds collapse into one, such as pan *ay and *uy both becoming sasak /i/ (data (ee2) and (ee7)). another example is pan *c and *c, which merge into sasak /t/ in the initial position, as in pan *cau ‘person’ > sasak tau and *ca?i ‘feces’ > sasak tai. the sixth type is assimilation, where one sound influences another. this occurs in pan *tilən > sasak tələn ‘swallow’ through regressive or total assimilation (*i assimilated by *e). similar patterns appear in pan *bare? ‘swollen’ > sasak bara? and *deŋar ‘hear’ > sasak dəŋgər. the seventh type, dissimilation, occurs when similar sounds change to become more distinct. examples include pan *bubu ‘fish trap,’ *bubuŋan ‘ridgepole,’ and *lusung ‘mortar,’ which become sasak buwu(ŋ), and lisung, respectively, due to dissimilation of /b-b/ to /b-w/ and /u-u/ to /i-u/. the eighth type, metathesis, involves the rearrangement of sounds, as seen in pan *?udip ‘life’ > sasak idup (u-i > i-u), *isa ‘one’ > sasak sai (i-a > a-i), and *datar ‘flat’ > sasak rata (t-r > r-t). finally, the ninth type is contraction, where vowels or syllables are reduced. this is evident in pan *beray ‘give’ > *beri, which undergoes a series of contractions (*semay > *semi > *smi > sasak mi ‘rice’ and *pajay > *paday > padi ‘rice’), ultimately leading to *bei > *be > sasak beŋ. these diverse patterns of phonological change highlight the complex linguistic evolution of sasak from its austronesian roots. v. conclusion the research findings indicate that traces of austronesian (an) influence in sasak can be observed through two main processes: retention and innovation. however, the retention of an elements in sasak is relatively limited, with only 44.61% of the 343 examined etymons showing traces of an, and just 13.16% (25 etymons) remaining unchanged. this suggests that sasak has been separated from its austronesian ancestors for a significant period. although some an phonemes (nine in total) exhibit retention in sasak, they have undergone innovation due to changes in other sounds. the study also identifies phonological innovation in sasak, with 10 phonemes exhibiting both retention and innovation, while 11 phonemes have undergone complete innovation. the changes observed in an phonemes within sasak can be classified as either regular or irregular. notably, 19 out of 28 pan phonemes have experienced innovation, a relatively high number. thus, the types of phonological changes identified include sound shifts, deletions, additions, assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis, and contractions, indicating that all known types of phonological transformations are present in sasak. these linguistic findings reinforce the classification of sasak as an austronesian language. furthermore, a vertical (top-down and bottomup) approach to sasak’s linguistic features helps establish its genetic position within the austronesian language family. this study contributes to historical linguistic research in indonesia by supporting the classification of languages based on phonological evolution. in addition, the evidence of an traces figure 2. an phonological trace pattern in sasak burhanuddin / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 255 in sasak plays a crucial role in understanding the origins of the sasak ethnic group on lombok island. to further substantiate these linguistic findings, interdisciplinary studies—such as archaeology and anthropology—are necessary to explore the historical connections between sasak and its austronesian ancestors. the evidence presented in this study enriches and opens new opportunities for comprehensive interdisciplinary research on the history of the sasak ethnic group in lombok. in addition, this linguistic study provides a valuable foundation for future etymological research, particularly in the development of an etymological dictionary of the sasak language. ethics statement the authors declare that the data and descriptions in this paper do not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or were collected from social media platforms. credit author statement burhanuddin: compiling the main framework of the manuscript which includes introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion, and perfecting the manuscript; boniesta zulandha melani: editing the manuscript regarding grammar, template suitability, and order of presentation of the manuscript; saharudin: enriching each part of the manuscript with data and adding descriptions of each part. acknowledgements thank you to the directorate general of higher education, directorate of research, technology and community service, ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia for funding this research through the fundamental research scheme in the 2024 fiscal year. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing financial interests or personal relationships that that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references adelaar, a. 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(2020). menguak jejak tinggalan prasejarah di kawasan kabupaten subang. prosiding balai arkeologi jawa barat. mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 289 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 18, 2025 final revision: august 17, 2025 accepted: august 20, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 writing a research article for a reputable journal is not easy especially for new authors or postgraduate students in social sciences and humanities including language related fields but they can write and publish a book review paper (henceforth brp) in a high impact journal to practice writing in english at an advanced level. this study is aimed at analyzing the discourse structure and argument style of brps in language related fields published in high impact journals. sixty brps were chosen from six different journals published in several countries analyzed in this research. the four move brp discourse pattern model as suggested by bezerra (2001) was used in this study. the results show that, in terms of the appearance of moves: move 1 or introducing the book and move 4 or addressing a final idea about the book are categorized as conventional while move 2 or outlining the book content and move 3 or examining the book are obligatory. however, only one step (move 2-step b or highlighting the topic of the book) out of 16 steps in all moves is obligatory; 7 steps are classified as conventional and the other 8 are optional. in other words, in each move, there is at least one obligatory or conventional step. this implies that only a half or 50% of the steps are obligatory or conventional while the other half are optional. the optional steps are possibly used by the brp authors to provide additional important information about the book being reviewed to attract readers to read and/or own the book. keywords discourse study, book review paper, language related journal, evaluate, high impact journals correspondence *e-mail: safnil@unib.ac.id article book review papers in language related journals: how authors evaluate and promote the books under review mardi juansyah1, safnil arsyad2*, dian eka chandra whardana3, yusri fajri annur4 1,2,3doctoral program of applied linguistics, faculty of education, bengkulu university, bengkulu indonesia 4english education postgraduate program, faculty of education, bengkulu university, bengkulu indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.289-303.2025 i. introduction publishing an article in a reputable journal is hard for almost every one particularly in the fields of social sciences and humanities and therefore, many authors are unsuccessful in doing it (adnan, 2014; arono & arsyad, 2019 and arsyad & adila, 2018). however, apart from publishing research articles authors can also publish book review papers in reputable journals. therefore, they can practice writing academic texts at an advance level and publish it in a high-ranking journal. in indonesian context, reputable journal publication is dominated by scholars from the fields of sciences, medicine, computer, agriculture and engineering (kemristekdikti, 2016). according to the report, the contribution of scholars from social sciences and humanities is only 5.65% of the whole publication. this is considered to be very low given the large number of researchers in these fields, such as education, social and political sciences, economics, languages, arts, etc. faculty members and postgraduate students can also write a brp which can also be published in reputable or indexed journals. bal-gezegin (2015) defines a book review as an assessment that includes both an explanation and an analysis of a fictional or nonpartisan work. similarly, according to lindholm-romantschuk (1998), a brp is written to introduce and review the scientific work of a peer in the literary community. brp is also defined as a mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 290 type of scholarly article that describes and critically evaluates the structure, content, quality, and contribution of a book to the field for an interested audience (hyland, 2000). according to hyland, brps are meant to be interpretations and critical assessments of newly published literature and contribute to scholarship, support for knowledge production and social cohesion in professional environments. therefore, no description of the book would be complete without describing how it was reviewed in a brp. a brp is also viewed as a form of assessment from a critical perspective; the general purpose of reviewing newly published books is to evaluate the publication of knowledge (motha-roth, 1995). according to babaei and ansari (2005), if we accept that the main purpose of book reviews at the end of most academic journals is to review the knowledge produced, it can be argued that these are helpful in acquiring literacy. however, since reading and writing brps in english and published in reputable journals require an advanced english ability, new authors or postgraduate students need to practice reading and writing this genre to improve their english ability before they can read and write high quality journal articles. this is because, according to nodoushan & montazeran (2012), a brp is much shorter than a normal journal article; a brp is usually less than 2000 words in long and consists of only four moves. thus, reading and writing a brp is easier than reading and writing a research article. however, although very important discourse studies about brps are rare in the literature and this is why this study is necessary. this study is aimed at answering the following questions. 1. what moves are often found in the brps published in reputable journals in language related field? 2. what steps are often found in the brps published in reputable journals in language related field? and 3. what linguistic resources are often used by the authors in evaluating the book under review? studies on the rhetorical structure of brp are very rare in literature; this is probably because not all journals publish a brp and therefore, they are not as popular as research articles. one of the rare studies on this subject was carried out by motta-roth (1995), who looked into book reviews in three distinct academic disciplines: chemistry, economics, and linguistics. using four move model (i.e., move 1: introduction, move 2: outlining the book, move 3: highlighting parts of the book, and move 4: providing closing evaluation of the book), he found that, despite adhering to strict guidelines regarding content, purpose, and setting, book reviews do occasionally deviate. motta-roth further explains that compared to economics and languages, chemistry’s brps are less judgmental, shorter descriptive objective writings. it is suggested by motta-roth that distinct configurations of text features can result from distinct epistemic organizations in the disciplines of chemistry, languages, business and finance. a different study was conducted by babaii and ansari (2005) who attempted to systematically define book reviews as a scholarly text in relation to their equivalent system. they examined variations of brps in three different disciplines (physics, sociology, and literature) and used this information to analyze book reviews in their second phase of research. they found that there were differences in semantic structure in each discipline’s book reviews. for example, brps in physics journals seem to contain a higher percentage of passive construction, non-human concrete participants, and existential and relational processes than their counterparts in sociology and literature journals. this, in turn, appears to be accompanied by a lower percentage of specific human participants, resulting in texts that are heavily symbolic and impersonal. similarly, nodoushan & montazeran (2012) found that the language origins of writers (i.e., native and nonnative english authors in applied linguistics) have a statistically significant impact on the moves and structures they choose for brps. additionally, it was discovered that reviews of books can be classified as either informative or evaluative, with the distinction between the two being whether or not the writers provide a detailed analysis of the benefits and/or drawbacks of the books they are reviewing. native writers consistently either strongly suggested or disqualified the books they were reviewing, or they just suggested the book in spite of any flaws that were pointed up, but nonnative authors did not succeed in doing so. the rhetorical structure of brps published in english newspapers in pakistan was investigated by shahnaz (2018). using motta-roth’s 1995 model, she found that all four moves (i.e., m1mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 291 introducing the book, m2-outlining the book, m3highlighting parts of the book and m4-final closing evaluation of the book) are obligatory since they occur in more than 50% of the brps. however, not all brps included in shahnaz’s corpus were written by faculty members; some of them were written by the staff reporters of the newspapers. a more recent study on brps was conducted by carvalho (2020) who analyzed 45 papers in linguistics published in three periods of time: 1) from 1953-1970, 2) from 1971-2000, and 3) from 2001-2015. following the rhetorical models suggested by motta-roth (1995), araújo (1996) and bezerra (2001 cited in carvalho, 2020). carvalho found that the majority of the brps have all four moves: 1) introducing the publication, 2) outlining the content, 3) examining the book, and 4) addressing a final idea particularly in brps published in the third period (from 2001-2015). however, in terms of the frequency of steps carvalho found variations between each move and among the periods of publication time. according to carvalho, in terms of the frequency of move the brps are rather stable over times but in terms of the frequency of steps, the brps significantly change; some steps gradually decrease while some others gradually increase. studies on the rhetorical structure of brps are still very limited in literature although this is important for new authors or postgraduate students to know how authors published in high impact journals write a brp. if they know the typical rhetorical and linguistic characteristic of brp, they can learn or be taught how to produce high quality brps publishable in high impact journals, such as those indexed by scopus and web of science (wos). also, in the studies discussed above, the authors did not mention whether or not the corpus of their study were taken from high-ranking journals. this is important because the rhetorical structure and linguistics features of journal articles published in different quality journals are different (arsyad et al., 2024; arsyad & zainil, 2023; martin, 2022; & kurniawan et al., 2019). linguistic resources often used by the authors in evaluating the books under review are also important to investigate because different communicative units have been found to use different linguistic resources (bal-gezegin, 2015). these are the rationals of this study. ii. methods the study employed a mixed method approach, which combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, as suggested by carvalho (2020). in a single study, mixed methods research employs two data formats and a range of designs that incorporate various theoretical frameworks and philosophical presumptions, according to creswell (2009). the brps included in this research six separate language-related fields (lrf) journals yielded 60 brps for this investigation. even though this study only contained 60 articles, it is thought to be adequate to represent the linguistic qualities, argument style, and rhetorical structure of brps in language-related domains. for instance, sandova’s (2018) study comparing brps in czech and english only included only 40 brps in linguistics. in a similar vein, carvalho (2020) looked for a common rhetorical pattern across brps produced between the 20th and 21st centuries, in the subject of linguistics, using only 45 brps. the distribution of the brps in the data of this research is presented in table 1. in choosing the journals, we consider the following factors: 1) the journals publish book review papers in language related field; 2) the table 1: the corpus of the study no. journals code quartile value number of papers country of publisher 1. journal of asia tefl jat q1 10 south korea 2. 3l: language, linguistic and literature lll q1 10 malaysia 3. discourse and interaction dai q2 10 czech republic 4. studies in second language learning and teaching ssllt q1 10 poland 5. teaching english as second or foreign language: electronic journal tesl-ej q1 10 usa 6. mextesol journal mtesol q2 10 mexico mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 292 table 3: the rhetorical model of book review papers moves steps and descriptions move 1 (introducing the book) step 1: delineating the general topic of the book step 2: advising potential readership step 3: notifying the author/s step 4: making topic generalization step 5: entering book in the field move 2 (outlining the book) step 6: providing general view of the organization of the book step 7: announcing the topic of each chapter step 8: citing extra-text material move 3 (highlighting parts of the book) step 9: giving focused evaluation move 4 (final closing evaluation of the book) step 10: definitely recommending/ disqualifying the book step 11: recommending the book despite indicated short comings as can be seen in table 3, the rhetorical pattern of a brp in motta-roth’s model also contains of four moves but bezerra’s model has more steps in each move. this implies that bezerra’s model is more detailed than that of motta-roth. then, in accordance with arsyad and zainil (2023), linguistic realizations like discourse markers, text-specific terminology, and textual inference were used to analyze the units and subunits of communicative purposes in the brps. the frequency and proportion of each motion and step in the brps were finally calculated. by examining the precise words, phrases, or sentences that the authors employ to address the motions and phases in the book under examination, the last research question was addressed. lexical, syntactic, and coherence are the three primary categories of language characteristics that writing researchers usually examine (mcnamara et al., 2010). when promoting a book, authors may use phrases like “this is an exceptional book,” “this is a stimulating book,” or “the book has an essential contribution,” according to motta-roth (1995). motta-roth does not, however, provide instances of the words or sentences that the authors used to disqualify the work in question. lexical, syntactic, and coherence are the three primary categories of language characteristics that writing researchers usually examine (mcnamara et al., 2010). journals are high impact or reputable journals indexed by scopus or web of science; 3) the papers can be written by native or nonnative writer of english, 4) the papers are written in english, and 5) the journals are open access in which the brps published in the journals can be downloaded for free. data collection procedure to answer the first and second research questions, we used the four move-step model as suggested by bezerra (2001) as presented in table 2 below. table 2: discourse pattern model of the brps moves & steps description move 1 step a step b step c step d step e step f introducing the book making topic generalizations defining the general topic of the book informing about the author informing about potential readership informing the origin of the book inserting book in the field move 2 step a step b step c step d step e outlining the book content describing the overall organization displaying the key points of the book discussing the content of the book reporting the methodology citing extra-text material move 3 step a step b step c examining the book evaluating the book providing focus assessment highlighting suggestions for improvement move 4 step a step b addressing a final idea recommending/disqualifying the book expressing wishes for future publication the examples of each move and step taken from carvalho (2020) are given in appendix. we used bezerra’s model in this study because this is the most recent one to use in one of the latest study on brps. compared to motta-roth’s model, this model is very similar; the main difference is that in motta-roth’s model, the evaluation of the book under review is in move 4 (final closing evaluation of the book), containing two steps (definitely recommending/disqualifying the book or recommending the book despite indicated shortcomings). the model suggested by mottaroth (1995) is presented below. mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 293 data analysis procedure the following steps were part of the data collection processes for this investigation. we began by compiling a corpus of brps from the chosen journals, as shown in table 1. second, in order to have a comprehensive comprehension of the subject, the papers were read at least twice. third, every possible move in the papers was found and coded using the method proposed by bezerra (2001). after that, each paper was read through a second time with the aim of identifying and classifying each phrase and/or clause that could be regarded as the rhetorical effort for a move and step. after that, linguistic realizations like discourse markers, text-specific terminology, and textual inference were used to identify the moves and steps. the frequency of moves in the brps were divided into three categories based on how often they appear in the papers. following rasmeenin (2012), a move is categorized as obligatory if it appears in 100% of the papers, conventional if it appears in 66% to 99% of the papers, and optional if it appears in less than 66% of the papers. according to kanoksilapatham (2005), the main objective of classifying the moves into three frequencies is to determine which moves and techniques are more regular than the others. inter-coder reliability analysis to assess the inter-coder reliability of the moves detected in the brps, we employed cohen’s kappa coefficient analysis, given that the identification and coding of the moves may involve subjective judgment. a lecturer who holds a master’s degree in applied linguistics was the independent coder. initially, she received instruction on identifying and categorizing moves and steps in a brp. she was then given 20% or 12 randomly chosen brps from the research corpus to examine with the same research instrument. ultimately, a comparison was made between the examiner’s and co-coder’s analytical results. the researcher and the independent coder compared their analytic results, and the results are shown in table 5 along with the kappa coefficient score. cohen’s kappa statistical analysis has a maximum score of 1.00 and a minimum score of 0.00 (corder and foreman, 2014). according to kanoksilapatham (2005), the score of below 0.40 was categorized as poor, 0.40-0.59 moderate, 0.600.74 adequate, and 0.75 or higher extraordinary (kanoksilapatham, 2005). as can be seen in table 5, the obtained cohen kappa’s mean score is 0.87 or 87% showing an extraordinary total inter-coder reliability. iii. results frequency of moves in the brps the initial query addressed in this research is what moves are often found in the brps published in the language-related field. the analysis results are displayed in table 3. table 6 shows that two moves (move 1 and 4) appear in 40 brps or 80% and categorized conventional and two moves (move 2 and 3) in 100 brps and categorized as obligatory. it is interesting to know that all moves appear very frequently in the brps in the corpus of this study revealing that table 5: inter-coder reliability results no. moves cohen’s kappa score scorescore 1. move 1: introducing the book 0.83 2. move 2: outlining the book content 0.91 3. move 3: examining the book 0.75 4. move 4: addressing a final idea 1 mean 0.87 table 6: frequency of moves in the brps move frequency percentage category move 1: introducing the book 40 80 conventional move 2: outlining the book content 50 100 obligatory move 3: examining the book 50 100 obligatory move 4: addressing a final idea 40 80 conventional mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 294 the framework is very effective in capturing the core moves in the investigated discourse. frequency of steps in the brps move 1: introducing the book the results show that the two most frequent steps in move 1 are step a (making topic generalizations) and step b (defining the general topic of the book). the occurrences of steps are presented in the figure 1. steps a and b of move 1 appear prominently because they provide readers with a foundation for understanding the reviewed book. step a (making topic generalizations) occurred 40 times or 80% across all articles. it allows the authors to set a broad context for the book by relating it to larger issues or trends in the field. below is an example taken from the data of the study. excerpt 1 in recent years, historical scholarship on british malaya has moved beyond the conventional emphasis on the four largest racial categories within the polity – the malays, the chinese, the indians, and the british – to present a more complex and granular understanding of its pluralism. (3l-1) step b (defining the general topic of the book), appears 23 times offering a concise summary of the book’s focus, highlighting its main subject and scope. this step is important as it introduces the book’s main topic, giving readers an immediate understanding of what the book addresses. below is an example taken from the corpus of the study. excerpt 2 scientific communication is an essential part of research as it provides the public with access to findings outside the traditional specialized platforms like journals and conferences. (dai-2) move 2: outlining the book content the results also show that the most frequent steps of move 2 are step b (highlighting the topics of the book) and step c (discussing the content of the book), each appearing 50 and 42 times, respectively. the occurrences of steps are presented in the figure 2. step b (highlighting the key points of the book) is common because it allows authors to break down figure 1. frequency of steps in move 1 figure 2. frequency of steps in move 2 mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 295 the book’s contents by chapter or section, making it easier for readers to grasp the overall structure and range of subjects covered. this step gives a clear overview of how the book is structured, helping readers understand its layout. an example taken from the data is given below. excerpt 3 in the first three chapters, nutta focuses on the challenges and particular needs of very young learners by presenting the stories of a pre-k student, a kindergarten student, and a third grader. (teslej-7) step c (discussing the content of the book) follows naturally, providing a more detailed discussion of key topics, methodology, and arguments presented in the book. by discussing the content in more depth, this step helps evaluate the book’s contribution to the field. excerpt 4 although most of the previous studies had reported similar and positive findings on students’ perception of using l1 in english language classrooms, a sparing number of studies refuted this position. (ssllt-10) move 3: examining the book the most frequent steps in move 3 are step a (evaluating the book) and step b (providing focused assessment), both appearing 40 times can be seen in the figure 3. in step a (evaluating the book), authors typically offer a general evaluation of the book’s strengths and weaknesses. this general evaluation gives readers an understanding of the overall quality and reliability of the book. excerpt 5 notably, the book chapters are grounded in the personal experience of their authors, adding credibility to their suggestions. (teslej-9) in step b (providing focused assessment), authors address a more detailed critique, focusing on specific chapters or sections that stood out, either positively or negatively. focused assessment helps readers grasp the book’s specific strengths and areas that may need improvement. excerpt 6 while the book offers many enriching opportunities to better understand the phenomenon in question, a few limitations can be observed in part 3. (sslt-8) move 4: addressing a final idea in move 4, step a (recommending/ disqualifying the book) appears most frequently, with 36 instances. the occurrences of steps are presented in the figure 4. step a (recommending/disqualifying the book): this step is where authors provide a final verdict on the book, either recommending it for certain readers or suggesting it could be improved. excerpt 7 i therefore recommend the book for everyone interested in the intersection between media and academic discourse. (dai-4) this recommendation helps readers decide if the book is worth their time and provides closure to the review. these steps are the most common because they directly address the core goals of book reviews: to summarize, evaluate, and offer recommendations, ensuring both an overview of the book’s content and a critical assessment of its value. figure 3. frequency of steps in move 3 mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 296 common linguistic features in brps the third research question addressed in this study is what linguistic features are often used by the authors in evaluating the book under review. the analysis results show that authors evaluate the book consistently using several linguistic resources to emphasize both positive and negative aspects of the reviewed work; these are hedging expressions, positive reinforcement, contrastive conjunctions, and evaluative adjective and adverbs. hedging expressions hedging devises were frequently used by authors to deliver their criticisms in a fair and courteous way. to soften negative evaluations, common expressions like “seems to,” “appears to,” or “might be” were commonly employed. for example, an author may comment in certain evaluations, “although the book makes a valuable contribution, it would benefit from a more thorough examination of the main subjects” (p7:s49,s50sslt8). this kind of wording lessens the impact of the criticism by being more tactful and indirect. positive reinforcement another linguistic device commonly employed by authors to highlight the book’s strengths is positive reinforcement or appreciation vocabulary. this frequently contained statements such as “this volume makes a significant contribution to...” or “the author has done a great job in...” these affirmations are purposefully positioned to create a fair review and draw attention to the book’s strengths, particularly prior to offering any criticism. “notably, the book chapters are anchored in human experience, providing credibility to their proposals,” for instance, is what an author would remark (p7:s38,s39-tesl ej9). before any restrictions are specified, this provides a strong endorsement. contrastive conjunctions in order to contrast the book’s advantages and disadvantages, the authors additionally used contrastive conjunctions and phrases like “however,” “despite,” “although,” and “while.” this pattern enables authors to point out areas for development while also acknowledging the book’s good contributions. “despite the many benefits supplied from this book, it has some small faults that need attention,” is an example of a typical statement. (p8:s1 tesl ej1). this pattern, which is frequently used as a rhetorical tactic in academic assessments, successfully strikes a balance between praise and criticism. evaluative adjectives and adverbs lastly, authors frequently highlight both positive and negative assessments by using evaluative adjectives and adverbs. words like “important,” “insightful,” “difficult,” or “limited” were commonly employed to convey thoughts on the content’s quality. an author may say that a certain piece is “very perceptive,” or on the other hand, “somewhat restricting in scope.” by using these evocative words, the reviewer can express particular advantages or disadvantages and provide a more nuanced evaluation. we can draw the conclusion that the evaluation portions of brps commonly use contrastive language to balance positive and negative evaluations, positive reinforcement to highlight strengths, and hedging terms to soften critique. these characteristics help to provide a thorough, impartial, and expert evaluation of the book being reviewed. figure 4. frequency of steps in move 4 mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 297 iv. discussion this study’s initial research question focuses on motions that are frequently seen in brps that have been published in respectable publications in language-related subjects. the findings indicate that moves 1 and 4 appear frequently and fall under the category of conventional moves, whereas moves 2 and 3 are found in every brp and fall under the category of mandatory moves. this suggests that each of the four brp moves (i.e., move 1 or introducing the book, move 2 or outlining the book’s content, move 3 or examining the book, and move 4 or addressing a last idea about the book) are significant. these actions are significant because they satisfy the scholarly book review requirements (carvalho, 2020). this also suggests that bezerra’s (2001) four-move model is a good way to capture the key communication units in a brp. a study by carvalho (2020) on brps in the field of linguistics found similar results in which the four moves of brps from bezerra (2001) are frequently found in their data. according to carvalho, although there have been changes in the rhetorical pattern of brps in the last 70 years or so (1953-2015) but in the last period of 15 years (2001-2015), there have been a stable rhetorical pattern with the four core moves. carvalho also used the other two frameworks as suggested by motta-roth (1995) and araujo (1996) to analyse the 45 brps in his corpus but the results are slightly different particularly about the frequency of moves 3 (examining the book) and move 4 (addressing a final idea) that are not as consistent as the results when he used bezerra’s model. the second research question is about the appearance of steps in the brps published in reputable journals in language related field. the results reveal that out of 16 possible steps in the four moves in bezerra’s model, there is only one obligatory step, 7 conventional steps and 8 optional steps. this shows that a half of the steps are either obligatory or conventional and in each move there is at least one conventional or obligatory step revealing that the move and step framework suggesting that some steps in each move are important steps particularly at the beginning steps in each move while the other steps are only additional steps to add extra promotional force for readers about the book being reviewed. apart from investigating the frequency and status of moves, carvalho (2020) also analyzed the frequency of steps in the brps he included in his corpus but found only 3 steps are conventional (steps 2 & 3 of move 2 and step 1 of move 4) while none is obligatory. this finding is different from the finding in this study where 7 steps are categorized as conventional and 1 step is obligatory. this different finding may be caused by the different fields of brps analyzed in these two studies: linguistics and applied linguistics consecutively. according to lu et al. (2021), the way academic writers from various disciplines linguistically present their research can vary depending on the epistemological orientations and discourse practices of their respective disciplinary communities. similarly, liu and zhu (2023) discovered that journal article abstracts from hard and soft disciplines used different amounts of positive language, with the hard disciplines using more positive language than the soft disciplines. the study’s final query concerns the linguistic tools that the brp authors frequently employ while assessing the book they are reviewing. the findings indicate that the writers frequently employ four categories of language resources: evaluative adjectives and adverbs, contrastive conjunctions, positive reinforcement, and hedging expressions. the authors use these linguistic resources to address the crucial communicative units (conventional and mandatory procedures) in the brps. the authors use these linguistic repertoires to strengthen the logic, coherence, and cohesiveness of their brps. crossley (2020) asserts that linguistic resources— such as claims, arguments, theses, and rhetorical devices—are essential for identifying discourse structures, which are elements that predict writing quality. in order to enhance the quality of academic writings, such as journal articles that contain brps, the selection of linguistic resources is crucial. according to awagu (2021), a research manuscript’s language quality determines its admissibility for academic publication; linguistic variations among different national and cultural traditions have an impact on the use of scholarly language in academic research. to put it another way, the linguistic resources utilized in a brp must meet the expectations of all readers, including journal editors and reviewers; if they don’t, a journal editor or reviewer may reject the brp article. mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 298 similar finding was obtained by balgezegin (2015) when they compared the usage of language resources, such as meta-discourse markers, adjectives and adverbs in brps and research articles; they found that brps are more evaluative than research articles and this is marked by the frequent use of attitude interactional markers, adjectives and adverbs. according to balgezegin, it is anticipated that book reviews would incorporate more attitude indicators since they must express their opinions, make their presence known, and advise readers about the book they are reviewing. adjectives and adverbs are heavily employed by the authors to evaluate and show their remarks about the book under review which serves the underlying purpose of the genre (jalilifar et al., 2018). thus, because reviewing a book necessitates evaluation, the reviewer’s attitudes are in line with the evaluative nature of brps. the findings of this study have some important pedagogical implications. first, this study provides further evidence about the effectiveness of the fourmove model for brps to analyse the communicative units in brps in the field of language related fields. in addition, our findings indicate that although all moves are obligatory or conventional but only a half of the possible steps are obligatory or conventional. this suggests, when writing a brp, new authors or postgraduate students should initially focus on the obligatory or conventional steps before considering to address the additional or extra steps to add extra flavour to the brp. finally, since different disciplines may have different rhetorical structures and language resources, authors should be familiar with the specific discourse structure and features of brps in a particular field before beginning to draft a new manuscript. this is important to anticipate and match readers’ expectation about the style and quality of brp draft to be published in a targeted journal. this will help increase the potential of the brp draft to be accepted and published by n reputable journal. this study is not without limitations. first, this study only analyzed 60 brps in language related fields which might be considered small in sample size since there are many journals publishing brps. therefore, future studies should include more papers taken from more journals in the same field to be more representative. first, the brps included in this study are only from language related fields (i.e., linguistics and english language teaching) which can not represent other fields in humanities. therefore, it is suggested that the future studies include brps from other fields in humanities, such as visual and performing arts, philosophy, literature, religion, history, art history, classics, anthropology, and cultural and gender studies. second, this study used a descriptive approach; a future study should use a comparative approach to search for the similarities and differences of rhetorical structure and language resources used in brps of different disciplines or those written by different groups of authors. v. conclusion from the research findings, it can be summarized that 1) from the move frequency and percentage point of view all moves are categorized as obligatory and conventional and none is optional, 2) from the frequency appearance of steps, a half of the steps are classified as conventional or obligatory while another half are optional, and 3) there are three frequent linguistics resources are used by the brp authors: hedging expressions, positive reinforcement, contrastive conjunctions, and evaluative adjective and adverbs. thus, it can be concluded that the four-move model of brps as suggested by bezerra (2001) is effective in capturing the important communicative units of brps at a macro level or moves and less effective in capturing the communicative units at the micro level or steps. ethics statement we have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement mardi juansyah collected the book review articles from the chosen journals and identified and coded the moves and steps in the papers. he also categorized the frequency of the moves and steps and put them into tables. juansyah also helped edit the article drafts. safnil arsyad wrote the article draft using the data already identified by the other writers. as the corresponding author, he submitted the manuscript to jurnal arbiter, revised and edited the article mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 299 drafts following reviewers’ comments, corrections and suggestions. dian eka chandra whardana helped edit the article draft particularly about the data display; these are the frequency and percentage of moves and steps and helped edit the text samples or excerpts taken from the papers to be used in the results section of the article. yusri fajri annur analysed the brps on the linguistic features often used by the authors in addressing the moves and steps in the papers. yusri also helped edit the final version of the article draft. acknowledgements this study was financially supported by the doctoral program of applied linguistics of faculty of teacher training and education of bengkulu university with contract number: 3884/un30.07/ pp/2024. therefore, we thank them very much. declaration of competing interests we declare that there is no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references adnan, z. 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(2018). rhetorical structure of english and czech academic book reviews. skase journal of theoretical linguistics (online), 15(3), 202-2016. available on web page http://www. skase.sk/volumes/jtl38/pdf_doc/13.pdf. issn 1336-782x. shahnaz, a. (2018). rhetorical structure of the book reviews published in pakistani english newspapers: a study in genre analysis. numl journal of critical inquiry, 16(2), 75-99. retrieved in august mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 301 2025 fromhttps://www.numl.edu.pk/ journals/subjects/1613292793vol%2016(ii)-atteya%20 shahnaz-75-99.pdf list of brps cited in the body of the article 1. 3l-1 (french memories of malaysia: literary excursions & fortuitous encounters reviewed by: augustine chay). 2. dai-2 (mur-dueñas, p. & lorés, r. (2022) scientific and parascientific communication reviewed by: marina ivanova). 3. teslej-7 (dexter, t. (2022), english learners at home and at school: stories and strategies, joyce w. nutta (2021). teaching english as a second language electronic journal). 4. ssllt-10 (teacher development for immersion and content-based instruction, reviewed by: katarzyna papaja university of silesia, katowice, poland) 5. teslej-9 (qualitative research topics in language teacher education may 2020 – volume 24, number 1, reviewed by: elise brittain the university of texas at san antonio, usa. 6. sslt-8 (understanding formulaic language: a second language acquisition perspective, reviewed by: ella alhudithi, iowa state university, ames, usa). 7. dai-4 (dontcheva-navratilova, o., adam, m., povolná, r. and vogel, r. (2020) persuasion in specialized discourses. reviewed by: josef sch mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 302 appendix research instrument (from carvalho, 2020) moves steps examples notes move 1: introducing the book step a (making topic generalizations) unfortunately, publications in the north and northeast of the country do not reach us easily, … step b (defining the general topic of the book) it is a book that should teach the basic notions of portuguese needed for those who wish to take action, with solid foundations, a fruitful secondary course step c (informing about the author) a contribution in this regard is the work translated into portuguese and recently launched in brazil called the linguistic policies, by louis-jean calvet, professor of sociolinguistics at the university of provence, france step d (informing about potential readership) saying that the pretensions of his book were modest, gladstone chaves de melo intended it for portuguese teachers who could not have a college degree (...). step e (informing the origin of the book) the linguistic lessons from professor câmara júnior were first published in the revista de cultura8, from rio, in 1939-1941, and later improved and expanded, they were present in the issue with the same title above, edited by f. briguiet & cia., rio, 1942. step f (inserting book in the field) the importance of this work, in the field of applied linguistics, can be attributed to the fact that it is the first work published in brazil’s editorial market … move 2 (summarizing the book content) step a (describing the overall organization) the book has the following disposition: chapter i — origins of the language, pp. 1-51; chapter ii — old high german, pp. 52132; chapter iii —middle high german, pp. 133-227; chapter iv — transitional period, pp. 228257; chapter v — modern german, pp. 258-315; chapter vi — word formation, pp. 316334; chapter vii — syntax in modern german pp. 335-425; bibliography, pp. 426-434. step b (highlighting the topics of the book) in chapter i, in the origins of the linguistic policy, calvet exposed the emergence and evolution of the binomial policy and linguistics planning in the second half of the 20th century, seeking to correlate with some political challenges of that time. step c (discussing the content of the book) one of the points highlighted by calvet (attribution) is that there must be a language equipment, in the sense that they are equipped with necessary and sufficient resources to fulfill certain functions assigned by the state. step d (reporting the methodology) to arrive at this reconstitution, he applied the only viable method in similar research: the historical-comparative one ... step e (citing extra-text material) the outline of the work is presented in the preface. [...]. an explicative note justifies this subdivision. … move 3 (examing the book) step a (evaluating the book) what most impresses, undoubtedly, in professor bahamani’s work, is the effort to be clear and exhaustive… step b (providing focused assessment) this chapter and the first of the work in question, although of great linguistic interest, are the ones with the least original contribution, since they disseminate widespread ideas in general linguistics, as well as in previous works by the author step c (highlighting suggestions for improvement) some aspects could deserve additions or modifications in a possible reissue [...] a list of suggested parallel readings – that is, a brief list of commented bibliographic references – would further contribute to the didactic value of the work. mardi juansyah / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 303 move 4 (addressing a final idea) step a (recommending/ disqualifying the book) in our view, the work reviewed here presents a valuable contribution and can be considered a must-read for both teachers and students of language teaching practice. step b (expressing wishes for future publication) i submit these considerations to herculano de carvalho as a modest contribution to his valuable study, and i close this review with the hope that we will soon have the following volumes, which together will give the scientifically modern version of the curious language of miranda’s land. chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 304 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: april 15, 2025 final revision: august 28, 2025 accepted: august 30, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 the malaysian chinese independent secondary schools (mciss) strive to develop students proficient in three languages: chinese, english, and malay. despite the national status of the malay language, learners in these schools consistently demonstrate low proficiency in it. a key reason for this shortfall is the students’ limited interest in learning the language. this study explores the underlying factors contributing to this phenomenon, including students’ attitudes toward the language, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition. employing a quantitative survey design, data were collected from 4,602 senior ii mciss students through convenience sampling. pearson correlation analysis indicated positive relationships between language learning interest and variables such as language attitude, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, and national education policy and uec recognition. multiple regression analysis revealed that motivation, attitude, classroom learning, family engagement, the national education policy, and uec recognition collectively accounted for 32.2% of the variance in students’ interest in learning malay. the study’s implications extend to policymakers, educators, and curriculum designers, suggesting the integration of culturally relevant and engaging teaching strategies, stronger home–school partnerships, and policy adjustments to strengthen malay language learning motivation among mciss students. keywords attitude, family engagement, motivation, malay language, malaysian chinese independent secondary schools, national education policy, united examination certificate correspondence *e-mail: fpchew@um.edu.my article factors influencing malay language learning among malaysian chinese independent secondary school students chew fong peng faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.304-321.2025 introduction language is a fundamental tool for communication, cultural exchange, and national unity. in malaysia, the malay language functions as both the official and national language, serving as a key medium to bridge interaction among its ethnically diverse population (chew, 2020). proficiency in the malay language is therefore not only an academic requirement but also a critical skill for social integration, economic participation, and civic engagement (othman, ahmad, & esa, 2022). the malaysian chinese independent secondary schools (mciss) form an alternative education system established in 1954 by the united chinese school committees association of malaysia (dong zong) to safeguard and advance chinese-medium education (mciss, 2021). within this framework, chinese is the primary language of instruction, while malay is taught as a compulsory subject under a multilingual education policy (tannenbaum, michalovich, & shonamy, 2020). however, the limited use of malay beyond the classroom in predominantly monolingual environments may reduce opportunities for authentic language practice, influencing students’ interest, motivation, and overall proficiency (mahamod, et al., 2016). in a multilingual nation where language competence is linked to academic success, career chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 305 opportunities, and social cohesion, understanding the factors affecting malay language learning in mciss is both relevant and necessary. insights from such research can enhance language acquisition, ultimately supporting malaysia’s broader goals of unity and intercultural understanding (chew, 2020). for decades, dong zong and individual mciss institutions have strived to nurture students with strong trilingual proficiency in chinese, english, and malay. despite considerable initiatives by mciss administrators and dong zong to enhance malay language instruction, students’ mastery of the language continues to fall short (ibrahim, 2021; wang, et al., 2018). according to the results released by dong zong in the malaysian certificate of education (mce) or sijil pelajaran malaysia (spm) year 2021, 414 (6.1%) candidates failed, and 4,229 (61.88%) out of 6,834 candidates gained grades c+, c, d, and e in the malay language. this indicated that the achievement of the mciss in the malay language is low on average. research by scholars like mohd isa (2014) also confirms that malay language achievement among these students is generally unsatisfactory. their study evident problems in mastering the malay language in students’ speech, particularly through frequent grammatical errors especially prefix and suffix. furthermore, the teaching techniques employed by teachers indicate that students also face challenges in writing. this situation arises because some students perceive the malay language as not particularly important, considering its use relevant only for casual communication in informal settings. they also regard malay as a language that does not need to be mastered in daily life. consequently, they believe that lacking proficiency in the language will not cause any significant problems. furthermore, there is a view that mastering malay language skills is necessary solely for the purpose of passing examination. one of the core reasons for this underachievement is the students’ limited interest in learning malay. this lack of enthusiasm stems from multiple intertwined factors. this study explores these contributing dimensions and proposes strategies to overcome the learning barriers. these factors include student-specific elements (such as attitude and motivation) (gardner, 1985), schoolrelated aspects (e.g., pedagogical approaches and school environment), sociocultural influences (e.g., the impact of l1, community norms, religion) (alrabai, 2016), and family support (lu, 2021). national frameworks — such as language and education policies—may also affect student learning outcomes (hunt, 2015). the study focuses on mciss students’ persistent struggle in acquiring proficiency in the malay language, with specific emphasis on learning interest. despite efforts by dong zong and mciss institutions to promote trilingual proficiency, students exhibit low performance in malay language assessments, reflecting a lack of interest and motivation toward learning the language. factors contributing to this include negative attitudes, limited family support, challenges in teaching techniques, and overarching influences of language policies. this study aims to investigate these factors to enhance students’ interest and success in mastering the malay language. language attitudes are evaluative reactions— encompassing beliefs, emotions, and behavioral intentions—toward language varieties and their speakers (dragojevic, 2016). these attitudes manifest as positive, negative, or neutral assessments. students’ attitudes significantly influence their willingness to learn new languages (alshihry, 2023; baharum, et al., 2024; orfan, 2020; xin & yap, 2025; yuan et al., 2023). for example, yuan et al. (2023) found a strong correlation between learners’ positive attitudes and their preference for english-medium instruction due to both instrumental and integrative motivation. in addition, they indicated that the socialising effects of english-medium instruction strengthened the students’ positive attitudes. similarly, alshihry (2023) observed that youth today tend to view globally dominant languages more favorably. students at mciss are often perceived as having negative attitudes toward the malay language (enanyang, 10 january 2023; enanyang, 19 september 2022). similar findings were reported by konaen, abd rahman, and roslan (2019), who observed that felda students displayed disinterest and a lack of motivation in learning their language. in contrast, studies by mahad, magesvaran, and hamzah (2021) and ujai and wan mohamad (2017) reported opposite results, indicating that the studied students exhibited positive attitudes toward learning malay. there is only one research chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 306 has been done on the mciss’s students’ attitudes, which is zubir et al. (2018), who found that all respondents in the junior satu loyalty class in a mciss have a positive attitude toward learning the malay language. according to gardner (1985), motivation is a goal-oriented construct that involves not only the effort to learn but also a strong desire and a positive disposition toward the target language. guerin et al. (2011) further describe motivation as the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction, driving actions ranging from satisfying basic needs to acquiring knowledge. scholars and educators alike recognize motivation as a crucial component that shapes how effectively and enjoyably a language is learned (dewaele & meftah, 2024). it is widely accepted in the literature that motivation significantly influences both the rate and the success of second or foreign language acquisition (azar & tanggaraju, 2020; curle et al., 2024). most theoretical perspectives agree that without motivation, other elements of language acquisition may fall short (dörnyei, 1998; wang & liu, 2024; ). in the malaysian context, several studies have shown that students are generally motivated to learn the malay language in classroom settings (ganesan & wan muhammad, 2021; rahmad & mahamod, 2021; ujai & wan mohamad, 2017). however, zubir, kamaruddin, and sha’ri (2018) found that the motivation of mciss students was low, as evidenced by their lack of interest in reading books in the malay language. this contrast suggests a gap in understanding the factors contributing to the comparatively low motivation levels among mciss students, despite evidence of generally positive motivation trends in other malaysian student populations. instructional methods refer to the structured strategies, techniques, and procedures that educators employ to facilitate student learning. they represent the practical application of pedagogical principles, encompassing how content is delivered, how learners are engaged, and how understanding is assessed (killen, 2023). research by oga-baldwin and nakata (2017) emphasized that learner engagement during class activities is a key variable in the long-term development of language skills. enjoyable and interactive instruction tends to increase students’ interest in the subject. findings from mohd salleh and othman’s (2024) study revealed the importance of teachers’ good use of verbal and non-verbal language in influencing student motivation to learn the malay language. yamirudeng and osman (2019); yamirudeng and osman (2018); abdul radzak and mohamed noh (2016) found that the students in their study favoured the teaching and learning conducted by their malay language teachers, thus motivating them to learn and master the language. conversely, when teachers adopt rigid or authoritarian teaching styles, it can adversely impact learners’ drive and interest. pedagogical strategies that are overly teacher-centered often discourage active participation and diminish students’ enthusiasm (abbas, ehsan, & ul haq, 2023). gan et al. (2021) also highlighted the indirect effects of instructor feedback on students’ satisfaction and exam performance. although students may enter the classroom with a high level of enthusiasm, frequent exposure to traditional assessment formats—such as constant questioning, test-taking, and performance evaluations—can result in academic stress. this may explain the lack of enthusiasm observed among many mciss learners during malay language classes. for this reason, this study seeks to examine how senior ii students perceive the teaching and learning of malay in their classrooms. another factor influencing students’ difficulties in acquiring the malay language is family engagement. according to u.s. department of health and human services (2016), family engagement refers to the intentional and systematic involvement of families in activities and programs that support children’s development, learning, and well-being. when parents provide a supportive learning environment—such as engaging in reading activities, discussing school matters, and maintaining high academic expectations— students are more likely to perform well (turhan, 2022). choi et al. (2024) further emphasized that emotional support and access to learning resources from parents contribute to more robust motivational profiles in learners. in contrast, findings from kolancali et al. (2021) showed that parents from underprivileged backgrounds are less involved in language and literacy activities and tend to use their mother tongue, such as turkish, in family interactions, which limits exposure to the national language. chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 307 certificate of education (mce). these two subjects are seen as fundamental to strengthening patriotism and national identity (halid, 2022). furthermore, not all mciss include the mce in their curriculum, creating further misalignment with the ministry’s expectations. the heavy reliance of the uec on the taiwanese educational framework has also generated criticism for its possible effects on social cohesion (khalid, 2022; siti hafidah, 2021). as imran and natsir (2024) caution, language policies that promote exclusivity may intensify divisions in education and society, thus warranting deeper examination of their influence on students’ language acquisition. despite the intensity of these policy debates, little empirical evidence exists on how the national education policy and the unresolved status of uec recognition affect mciss students’ interest and proficiency in learning malay. this lack of research underscores the need for systematic studies on how language policy outcomes shape educational experiences and linguistic integration within malaysia’s multilingual context. most existing studies on challenges in learning the malay language have concentrated on students in government primary and secondary schools. while such research offers important insights, it does not adequately capture the situation of malaysian chinese independent secondary schools (mciss), which follow an alternative curriculum outside the national education system. learners in these schools encounter distinct linguistic, cultural, and motivational contexts, as opportunities to use malay are limited both in classroom settings and in daily life. the lack of focused research on mciss students has resulted in an incomplete picture of the factors influencing their interest in learning malay. these factors may include learner attitudes, motivation, teaching strategies, learning strategies, family engagement, as well as broader policy issues such as the national education policy and the recognition status of the uec. addressing this gap is crucial to developing more effective approaches that can promote interest in malay language learning across diverse educational settings. from the aims of study, the research objectives are: 1. to find out the levels of students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, nevertheless, some studies indicate that parents are not always actively involved in supporting their children’s efforts to learn the malay language (ansit et al., 2024; ismail & zakaria, 2019). a lack of learning resources and limited malay-language materials at home often correlates with decreased learner motivation. this underscores the significance of parental support in language learning. consequently, this study aims to investigate how family engagement influence malay language learning interest among senior ii mciss students. language policy can be understood as the collectively determined decisions regarding the choice and use of specific language forms or varieties within a community, together with the ideologies that underpin such choices. it is reflected both in daily communicative practices and in official measures such as laws, regulations, and institutional directives (shohamy, 2006). in the education sector, language policy usually regulates the allocation of instructional time across languages and determines whether subjects are taught in one or multiple languages (gorter & cenoz, 2017). while certain bilingual education models are intended to shift learners toward monolingual proficiency as they advance through the school system, others aim to maintain and strengthen bilingual or multilingual abilities, as demonstrated in malaysian chinese independent secondary schools (mciss) (baker, 2011; cummins, 2018). under malaysia’s national education policy, mciss are classified as private institutions because they do not fully comply with the education act 1996 or the government’s prescribed language policies (ministry of education malaysia, 2017). these schools primarily adopt chinese as the language of instruction, diverging from the state requirement that prioritizes malay. as a result, many of their students sit for the unified examination certificate (uec), a qualification that has yet to gain official government approval. for more than a decade, dong zong has actively campaigned for uec recognition, asserting that it would provide mciss graduates with equal standing to those from public schools in terms of credentials and opportunities. nevertheless, the uec remains unrecognized mainly because it does not fulfill key conditions, particularly the requirement for students to pass malay language and history in the malaysian chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 308 national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests. 2. to examine the relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests. 3. to investigate the factors (language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, and the national education policy, and uec recognition) that influence the learning interests of students in the malay language. from the research objectives, two null hypotheses have been developed. ho1: there are no significant relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy, and uec recognition, and learning interests. ho2: students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy, and uec recognition are not predictors of students’ learning interests in the malay language. methods samples the population in the study is 12,723 senior ii students throughout the country (dong zong information and archives bureau, 2021). the researcher selected the senior ii students by using a purposive sampling method. those who fulfilled the four criteria were required to answer the questionnaire. the criteria were that they must be malaysian citizens, chinese ethnic, senior ii students in mciss, and have sat for malay language in both the malaysia certificate of education examination (mce) and unified examination of certificate (uec). the researcher managed to collect 4,602 respondents or 36.17% of the population in the study, which exceeds the g-power and sample size set by krejcie and morgan (1970), and the relevant informed consent was obtained from those respondents. instrument the instrument of study is a questionnaire that is divided into two parts: part i and part ii which is subdivided into six subsections. part i of the instrument focused on respondents’ demographic background and included five items: gender, father’s educational level, mother’s educational level, household monthly income, and interest in learning malay. part ii consisted of items adapted from previously validated scales. subsections a and b drew upon gardner’s (2004) attitude/motivation test battery (amtb), with modifications made to suit the objectives of this study. examples of items measuring language attitudes include “i feel comfortable when i have to speak malay” and “studying malay is important because it helps me interact more easily with malay speakers.” sample items for motivation include “i really enjoy learning malay every day” and “if i had the choice, i would spend most of my time learning malay.” subsection c consisted of 10 items on instructional methods adapted from mohamed zohomi and mahamod (2023), such as “my teacher uses a variety of teaching strategies in teaching malay” and “the teacher frequently integrates information and communication technology (ict) during malay lessons.” in subsection d, 10 items related to learning strategies in listening, speaking, reading, and writing were adapted from mahamod, ab. ghani, and wan mohammad (2016). sample items include “i like to speak in malay with my classmates” and “i enjoy reading malay books.” for family engagement (subsection e), 12 items were adapted from palaniappen (2009) to assess parental involvement, for example, “my parents buy malay reference materials for me” and “my parents reward me when i achieve good results in malay.” finally, 10 items addressing the national education policy and uec recognition (subsection g) were adapted from muslim and samian (2012), such as “the national education policy that designates malay as the medium of instruction in schools is a fair policy” and “it is important for the malaysian government to recognize the uec.” all the subsections applied five-point likert scale from 1 to 5 indicating the disagreement to agreement. the instrument of the study has been reviewed by three education experts from dong zong who gave some insights and comments on the items and scale. to gain the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test has been carried out at an mciss in kuala lumpur among 50 senior ii students. chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 309 analysis showed the alpha cronbach value at 0.921, indicating the instrument is reliable and can be used in the real study. research procedure with the cooperation of dong zong, the researcher collected the data from 63 mciss across the country ranged from july to september 2023 which were the second terms of the mciss’ schooling session. no summative assessment was carried out during the period. the researcher distributed the questionnaire via google forms to all senior ii students through the school administrators. before answering the questionnaire, they need to submit their consent letter and meet four criteria. this will disqualify those were not citizens and not sat for mce and uec. figure 1 below reveals the research process. a total of 4,834 responses were collected for this study. following data cleaning, cases with the variables, while inferential analyses addressed two research questions. normality testing confirmed the data met parametric assumptions. pearson’s correlation was applied to explore associations between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies, family involvement, the national education policy with uec recognition, and learning interest. this analysis measured the strength and direction of relationships but did not infer causality. multiple regression was subsequently conducted to identify predictors of mciss students’ interest in learning malay, modelling the combined influence of several independent variables on a single dependent variable. profile of respondents the survey involved a total of 4,602 respondents. the number of females (2544, 55.3%) was higher than that of males (2058, 44.7%)。in terms of educational levels, majority student fathers (1,646人, 35.8%) received higher secondary with mce or o level qualification, followed by lower secondary with srp in national secondary schools or junior uec in mciss (617, 13.4%), while diploma or higher senior of education (hsc) or senior uec holders were 617 fathers (13.4%); those graduated with bachelor’s degree were 588 fathers (12.8%), but there were 95 students (2.1%) did not provide their fathers’ educational levels. on the other hand, nearly half of the student’s mothers (2016, 43.8%) are holders of the secondary school levels with mce, followed by srp or junior uecqualificationn (632, 13.7%), next was hsc or senior uec or diploma holders (804, 17.5%); the number of graduates was 613 (13.3%), but 61 students (1.3%) did not provide their mother’s academic qualifications. in terms of family income, more than half (2,513, 54.6%) of the parents of the students have a monthly income ranging from rm5,001 to rm7,500; followed by families with an income of rm2,500 to rm5,000; on the contrary, the lowest income is less than rm2,500 (95 families, 2.1%). when asked about their learning interest in the malay language, the majority (1,889, 41%) of students were uncertain about their interest, 1,329 (28.9%) students are not interested, and only 81 students (1.8%) are very interested. result figure 1: research process missing or incomplete responses were removed. data normality was then assessed using skewness and kurtosis values generated through spss. the results indicated the skewness of 0.537 and a kurtosis of 1.68, demonstrating that the data were normally distributed. outliers were also identified and removed (n = 20), resulting in a final dataset suitable for further analysis. the final sample size is 4,602 students or 36.17% of the population in the study, which exceeds the g-power and sample size set by krejcie and morgan (1970), and the relevant informed consent was obtained from those respondents. data analysis the researcher analyses the data by using the spss software. descriptive statistics were utilised to profile respondents’ demographics and levels of chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 310 table 1. demography of respondents demography (n=4,602) descriptive f % gender males 2058 44.7 females 2544 55.3 educational level of fathers primary schools 598 13.0 srp/junior uec 836 18.2 mce 1646 35.8 hsc senior uec/ diploma 617 13.4 bachelor’s degree 588 12.8 master degree 198 4.3 doctorate 25 0.4 no answer 95 2.1 educational level of mothers primary schools 332 7.2 srp/junior uec 632 13.7 mce 2016 43.8 hsc senior uec/ diploma 804 17.5 bachelor’s degree 613 13.3 master degree 134 2.9 doctorate 10 0.2 no answer 61 1.3 household monthly income < rm2,500 95 2.1 rm2,500 – rm5,000 801 17.4 rm5,001 – rm7,500 2513 54.6 rm7,501 – rm10,000 680 14.8 > rm10,000 513 11.1 learning interest very uninterested 330 7.2 uninterested 1329 28.9 uncertain 1889 41.0 interested 973 21.1 very interested 81 1.8 table 2 shows that two items recorded the highest mean scores, namely national education policies and uec recognition (m = 3.700, sd = 0.468) and teachers’ instructional methods (m = 3.546, sd = 0.536). these findings indicate that students generally hold positive perceptions of these aspects. the remaining five items were rated at a moderate level, ranked as follows: motivation (m = 3.368, sd = 0.562), learning strategies (m = 3.097, sd = 0.330), family engagement (m = 2.879, sd = 0.394), learning interest in malay (m = 2.814, sd = 0.904), and language attitude (m = 2.779, sd = 0.401). overall, malay language learning among mciss students was assessed at a moderate level (m = 3.172, sd = 0.514). however, the comparatively low score for language attitude suggests an area that requires particular attention. rq1: are there any relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests? through the analysis of pearson correlation, table 3 showed that students ‘language attitude, motivation, teachers’ instructional methods, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition have relationships with students’ learning interest in the malay language. there are weak positive relationships between variables, but r value in the range of 4 to 6 represents a medium positive relationship between the two variables, that is, relationships between students’ motivation to learn malay language and their language attitude (r = chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 311 table 2. levels of students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional method, learning strategies, family engagement, national educational policy, and learning interests variables m sd levels language attitude 2.799 .401 medium motivation 3.368 .562 medium instructional method 3.546 .536 high learning strategies 3.097 .330 medium family engagement 2.879 .394 medium national education policy & uec recognition 3.700 .468 high learning interest 2.814 .904 medium average score 3.172 0.514 medium table 3. relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests n=4602 language attitude intrinsic motivation teachers’ teaching learning strategies family engagement nep & uec recognition learning interest language attitude pearson-r sig. 1 motivation pearson-r sig. .555 .000** 1 teachers’ teaching pearson-r sig. .328 .000** .422 .000** 1 learning strategies pearson-r sig. .468 .000** .412 .000** .389 .000** 1 family engagement pearson-r sig. .345 .000** .234 .000** .236 .000** .433 .000** 1 national education policy & uec recognition pearson-r sig. .201 .000** .306 .000** .303 .000** .306 .000** .169 .000** 1 learning interest pearson-r sig. .457 .000** .516 .000** .203 .000** .186 .000** .086 .000** .117 .000** 1 ** p < 0.01 level (2-tailed) .555, p = 0.000), teacher’s teaching and students’ motivation to learn malay language (r = .422, p = 0.000), students’ learning strategies and their language attitude (r = .468, p = 0.000), students’ learning strategies and their motivation to learn malay language (r = .412, p = 0.000), the family engagement and students’ learning strategies (r = .433, p = 0.000), students’ learning interest in the malay language and language attitude (r = .457, p = 0.000), motivations and learning interest in the malay language (r = .516, p = 0.000). therefore, ho1 reads as “there are no significant relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests” is rejected. rq2: do students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition predict the learning interests of students in the malay language? several key assumptions guided the use of multiple linear regression analysis in this study. first, a linear relationship was assumed to exist between the independent variables and the dependent variable. second, each regression model involved a single dependent variable. accordingly, the research hypotheses were organized into five models, with learning interest as the dependent variable while language attitude, motivation, instructional method, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition serving as the independent variables. third, the assumption of normally distributed residuals was examined using normal p–p plots of standardized residuals. as shown in figure 2, the residuals were approximately normally distributed. finally, the assumption of no multicollinearity among independent variables was assessed using the variance inflation factor (vif). chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 312 figure 2. normal p–p plots of regression standardized residuals notes. sb_sum – language attitude, mo_sum – motivation, sppa_sum – instructional method, sppb_sum – learning strategies, pk_sum – family engagement, dpk_sum – national education policy & uec recognition chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 313 the researchers applied stepwise linear regression to evaluate whether students’ language attitudes, motivation to learn malay, teachers’ teaching, students’ learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition predicted their learning interest in the malay language. table 4 shows the model summary of students’ learning interest in the malay language. around 32.2% of the total variance of students’ learning interest in the malay language is explained by the factors of students’ language attitude, motivation to learn the malay language, teacher’s teaching, student’s learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition (r2 = 0.322, f(5,4596)=5.852, p<.05]. in table 4, the f value of model 1 is 1669.556, which is significant at the level of p < 0.05 (sig. = 0.000), which means that there is a significant relationship between students’ learning motivation and their learning interest in the malay language, while the model 2 indicated the f value is 279.277, which is significant at the level of p < 0.05 (sig. = 0.000), which means that there is a significant relationship between students’ motivation, language attitude and their learning interest in the malay language. next, the f value of model 3 is 65.225, which is significant at the level of p < 0.05 (sig. = 0.000), which means that there are significant relationships between students’ motivation, language attitude, and learning strategies in classrooms and their learning interest in the malay language. the f value of model 4 is 29.167, which is significant at the level of p < 0.05 (sig. = 0.000), which means that students’ motivation, language attitude, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, and learning interest in the malay language revealed significant relationships. finally, the f value of model 5 is 5.852, which is significant at the level of p < 0.05 (sig. = 0.000), which means that students’ motivation, language attitude, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition showed significant relationships with their learning interest in the malay language. table 5 estimates the measure of each variable’s contribution to the model from the beta values of each independent variable. larger values indicate that a unit change in the independent variable has a greater effect on the dependent variable. overall, the beta values of students’ motivation was the highest among all the models at 0.516 (model 1), 0.379 (model 2), 0.404 (model 3), 0.403 (model 4), and 0.410 (model 5), on the contrary, the beta value of national education policy and uec recognition was only -0.032 (model 5). therefore, students’ motivation contributed the most to students’ learning interest in the malay language. the fitted regression model of the student learning strategies is si= mot.410 + la.298 – lp.081 – fe .073 – nep.032. this means that when students’ motivation and language attitude increase by one unit, students’ learning interest in the malay language is expected to increase by 0.410 and 0.298, respectively. on the contrary, when students increase one unit in the learning strategies in the classroom, the family engagement, table 4. regression models for predictors model r r square adjusted r square se r square change f change sig. f change 1. motivation .516a .266 .266 .77725 .266 1669.556 0.000** 2. motivation and language attitude .555b .308 .308 .75475 .042 279.277 0.000** 3. motivation, language attitude, and learning strategies .564c .318 .318 .74954 .010 65.225 0.000** 4. motivation, language attitude, learning strategies, and family engagement .568d .322 .322 .74725 .004 29.167 0.000** 5. motivation, language attitude, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy & uec recognition .568e .323 .322 .74686 .001 5.852 0.016* ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05 chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 314 national education policy and uec recognition, and students’ learning interest in the malay language are expected to decrease by 0.081, 0.073, and 0.032, respectively. in conclusion, linear multiple regression showed that students’ motivation, language attitude, the learning strategies in class, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition contributed 32.2% to their learning interest in the malay language. therefore, h02 reads as “students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition are not predictors of students’ learning interests in the malay language” was rejected, except instructional methods. iv. discussion the analysis revealed that factors such as students’ attitudes toward language learning, motivation, teachers’ instructional methods, student learning strategies, family engagement, national education policies and the uec recognition exhibited weak to moderate positive correlations with students’ interest in learning the malay language. these findings align with previous studies emphasizing the significance of attitudes and motivation in language acquisition (dewaele et al., 2020; dörnyei, 2009; pham, 2021; wang & liu, 2024). for instance, dewaele et al. (2020) identified positive correlations between foreign language enjoyment and learners’ attitudes and motivation, while wang and liu (2024) reported a positive relationship between language attitudes and extrinsic motivation family involvement emerged as a pertinent factor influencing the teaching and learning of the malay language. turhan (2022) found that parental engagement, including activities like reading to children, offering learning support, and maintaining high educational expectations, is positively related to children’s academic performance. smith (2020) also noted that parental participation has become a focal point in educational policies across various countries, reshaping the dynamics between families and educational institutions. the study further indicated a relationship between national education policies, uec recognition, and the teaching and learning of the malay language among mciss students. gorter table 5. coefficients of models model unstandardized standardized b se beta p 1 (constant) .011 .070 .879 motivation .833 .020 .516 .000** 2 (constant) -.805 .083 .000** motivation .612 .024 .379 .000** language attitude .557 .033 .246 .000** 3 (constant) -.222 .110 .043* motivation .652 .024 .404 .000** language attitude .646 .035 .286 .000** learning strategies -.312 .039 -.114 .000** 4 (constant) -.035 .115 .761 motivation .650 .024 .403 .000** language attitude .677 .035 .300 .000** learning strategies -.241 .041 -.088 .000** family engagement -.170 .032 -.074 .000** 5 (constant) .095 .127 .455 motivation .662 .025 .410 .000** language attitude .675 .035 .298 .000** learning strategies -.223 .041 -.081 .000** family engagement -.168 .032 -.073 .000** national education policy & uec recognition -.061 .025 -.032 .016* ** p<0.01. *p<0.05 chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 315 and cenoz (2017) highlighted the direct influence of language policies on curriculum implementation and assessment in multilingual settings. decisions regarding the medium of instruction significantly affect language learning outcomes, including the duration and intensity of language exposure. research on parental involvement in multilingual families underscores effective educational practices such as culturally responsive communication between families and educators (salinas, 2024), diverse participation in schoolrelated activities such as attendance in parentteacher conferences to family culture fairs to home literacy events (coady, 2019), and support for children’s learning at home to strengthen family bonds (choi, et al., 2024). multiple regression analysis indicated that students’ motivation, language attitudes, learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition collectively accounted for 32.2% of the variance in students’ interest in learning the malay language. among these, motivation and language attitudes were the most significant contributors, accounting for 41% and 29.8%, respectively. conversely, learning strategies, family engagement, and national education policies, along with uec recognition, contributed negatively, with 8.1%, 7.3%, and 3.2%, respectively. these findings corroborate the perspectives of scholars who identify individual, familial, institutional, and environmental factors as pivotal to academic achievement. the individual dimension encompasses learning attitudes (alshihry, 2023; gardner, 1985; mahad et al., 2021; orfan, 2020; ujai & wan mohamad, 2017; yuan et al., 2023) and motivation (azar & tanggaraju, 2020; curle et al., 2024; gardner, 1985; mohd salleh & othman, 2024; yamirudeng & osman, 2018; yamirudeng & osman, 2019). the familial aspect involves resources provided by parents, including extracurricular educational opportunities and nurturing environments (cheng, wang, & liu, 2019; choi, jung, & no, 2024; lu, 2021; turhan, 2022). the institutional component pertains to the quality of education and facilities offered by schools, including teacher-student interactions (mohd salleh & othman, 2024; yamirudeng & osman, 2018; yamirudeng & osman, 2019). the environmental factor relates to external influences such as national education and language policies (gorter & cenoz, 2017), exemplified by the national education policy and uec recognition. this study revealed that motivation influenced the mciss students’ learning interest in the second language acquisition, as stated by gardner (1985). it fosters positive energy and enhances students’ determination to succeed in their studies (noviana & ayu, 2022). the finding is parallel to peng and fu (2021), who found that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation both positively correlate with learning outcomes, fostering english proficiency and psychological growth. notably, motivation exerts a greater influence than extrinsic motivation. therefore, the students may increase their motivation to learn the malay language, as it enhances learners’ interest and engagement by arising from personal enjoyment, curiosity, and the pursuit of self-improvement rather than external incentives. this internal drive promotes sustained engagement, persistence, and greater success in language acquisition. language attitude, in this study, is the second predictor that influences students’ interest in the malay language. positive attitudes—marked by enthusiasm and recognition of a language’s value—enhance motivation, increase effort, and improve learning outcomes. this study is similar to the findings of rizmadana and milal (2022), wang & liu (2024), and pham (2021). for instance, rizmadana and milal (2022) revealed the language attitudes of korean culture enthusiasts in surabaya and their motivations for learning english and korean, aligning with the growing interest among youth. numerous studies have established that attitude and motivation are deeply connected in the context of language acquisition (dörnyei, 2009; pham, 2021; wang & liu, 2024). when students possess a favorable view of a language and its cultural context, they are more likely to be motivated, which in turn enhances their performance and reinforces their positive engagement with the learning strategies (tódor & dégi, 2016; yuan et al., 2023).therefore, educators who foster positive attitudes in students can design engaging classroom activities, thereby increasing students’ success in learning the malay language. a significant challenge identified is the limited opportunities for mciss students to practice speaking the malay language, contributing chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 316 to negative attitudes toward language learning. on the contrary, this study found that the learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy, and uec recognition negatively predict mciss students’ interest in learning the malay language. contributing factors include teacher-centred pedagogy in schools (chew, 2024), limited exposure to malay at home (chew, 2016; wang et al., 2018), lack of parental support for learning malay (ansit et al., 2024; ismail & zakaria, 2019), and the issue of uec recognition (khalid, 2022; siti hafidah, 2021), which further diminishes students’ interest. salinas et al. (2024) emphasized that affirming students’ and families’ identities within school curricula and activities is essential for the academic success of multilingual students. implementing family-centered pedagogy allows students to integrate familial and ancestral knowledge into their learning experiences. educator practices that validate students’ linguistic backgrounds include leveraging multiple language repertoires (garcía & kleyn, 2016), promoting active bilingualism (cummins, 2018), and facilitating cross-language transfer (coady & ariza, 2019; cummins, 2018; xin & yap, 2025). creating inclusive school environments, such as by displaying multilingual signage and representing community diversity on social media platforms, can foster welcoming spaces. establishing mentoring relationships among teachers, parents, and community advocates can further support students’ educational journeys. interestingly, the study found that teachers’ instructional methods did not significantly predict students’ interest in learning the malay language. this may be attributed to the educational backgrounds of malay language teachers in mciss. according to the dong zong information and archives bureau (2022), a total of 2,067 (43%) teachers had not undergone formal teacher training, and some lacked specialization in the malay language. this disparity potentially affects teaching efficacy and student engagement. previous research has identified inadequate teacher training and limited teaching experience as barriers to effective language instruction. komorowska and krajka (2024) observed that novice teachers often possess lower language proficiency and limited pedagogical knowledge. similarly, tulyakul, omar-fauzee, and hussin (2018) reported that inexperienced teachers face challenges in classroom management and instructional delivery. walsh et al. (2021) noted that untrained educators are more likely to encounter difficulties related to student behavior and engagement in the classroom. in this context, untrained or non-specialist teachers in mciss may struggle with classroom management, instructional competence, and assessment strategies, hindering the achievement of learning objectives in malay language education. therefore, implementing comprehensive training programs and involving experienced educators is crucial for enhancing teaching preparedness and pedagogical effectiveness. employing age-appropriate teaching methodologies and considering cognitive, emotional, and contextual factors can further improve language instruction outcomes (komorowska & krajka, 2024). v. conclusion in summary, this study identified significant relationships between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, student learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and their interest in learning the malay language. multiple regression analysis revealed that motivation and language attitudes were the primary predictors of students’ interest, while students’ learning strategies, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition also played contributory roles. to enhance students’ interest in learning the malay language, mciss administrators and teachers must collaborate with parents in creating an engaging and supportive learning environment. mastery of the national language is a shared responsibility among all malaysian students, including those in mciss. in a nutshell, this study demonstrated that relationships exist between students’ language attitudes, motivation, instructional methods, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition, and learning interests. multiple regression indicated that mciss students’ motivation, language attitude, learning strategies in the classroom, family engagement, national education policy and uec recognition are the predictors of the mciss students’ learning interest in the malay language. therefore, it is suggested that chew fong peng / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 317 references abbas, s.g., ehsan, m., & ul haq, a. 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(2018). motivasi dan sikap terhadap pembelajaran bahasa melayu murid tingkatan satu (junior one loyalty), sekolah menengah persendirian kwang hua. jurnal kesidang, 3(1), 82-91. ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 424 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: june 30, 2025 final revision: september 22, 2025 accepted: september 24, 2025 available online: september 28, 2025 writing a thesis in english as a medium of instruction (emi), particularly by non-native english authors, does not merely involve overcoming linguistic difficulties but also requires negotiating academic identity. although much of the existing research on l2 thesis writing has emphasized lexis, grammar, and genre features, limited empirical attention has been given to how postgraduate students construct their autobiographical, discoursal, and authorial selves in multilingual, postcolonial contexts such as pakistan. after conducting a qualitative narrative inquiry with fifteen ma tesol graduates, drawing on semi-structured interviews, written narratives, observations, and thesis introduction chapters, this study revealed how students’ identity construction was shaped by both institutional expectations and personal agency. the results indicate that students frequently aligned with academic conventions to secure legitimacy, while at the same time attempting to assert individuality, often oscillating between cautious compliance and authorial presence. moreover, supervisory practices and institutional gatekeeping were found to strongly influence the scope of identity options available to writers, limiting some while enabling others. unlike prior studies that narrowly frame l2 writing as a linguistic challenge, this article combines narrative inquiry with rhetorical analysis of thesis texts in the pakistani context. the study provides pedagogical implications for designing culturally responsive writing instruction and supervision practices. keywords thesis writing, pakistani l2 learners, narrative inquiry, textual analysis, writer identity correspondence *e-mail: zaidah75@um.edu.my under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.424-436.2025 i. introduction writing a thesis in english as a second language involves more than mastering grammar and vocabulary; it requires the development of an authoritative scholarly voice through which students present themselves as members of the academic community (hyland, 2002; belcher, 2013). in multilingual and postcolonial contexts such as pakistan, this process is shaped not only by individual linguistic repertoires but also by institutional expectations, disciplinary conventions, and socio-cultural pressures that together influence how novice researchers negotiate credibility and voice (ivanič, 1998; canagarajah, 2004). research on l2 thesis writing has frequently emphasised language-level difficulties like lexis, syntax, and genre features, yet scholarship that foregrounds identity formation and the subjective experience of becoming an academic writer remains comparatively limited (sükan & mohammadzadeh, 2022; tardy, 2017). where studies have considered identity, they show that writer identity is a multidimensional construct involving autobiographical history, discoursal practices, and authorial positioning, all of which interact with the possibilities institutions make available to writers (ivanič, 1998; li & deng, 2019). discussions on academic writer identity normally extend to academic voice, where students share their perceptions on who they are as scholars within the academic community as well as how this aspect would influence the way they present their arguments and negotiate authority. article writer identity in transition: a narrative study of pakistani ma tesol students’ academic writing ambreen siddique1, siti zaidah binti zainuddin2, cheong huey fen3 1,2,3department of english language, universiti malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia 1department of tesol, lahore college for women university, lahore, pakistan ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 425 empirical work on academic voice indicates how textual choices like self-mentions, stance markers, hedging, and citation practices, mediate the author’s presence and authority in writing (hyland, 2001; kashiha, 2024, kurniasih et al., 2020). for l2 writers, the demand to adopt disciplinary conventions can produce tensions between performing conformity and asserting originality: first-person pronouns and other markers of authorial presence may be strategically deployed or avoided as writers weigh credibility against institutional gatekeeping (sun, kuzborska, & soden, 2022). the uneven provision of explicit academic writing instruction in many south asian higher-education settings further complicates this negotiation; pedagogic traditions that prioritise rote learning and hierarchical teacher–student relationships often leave students with limited opportunities to experiment with authorial claims and rhetorical risk-taking (anbreen, 2015; mansoor, 2005). studies from pakistan and neighbouring contexts report that perceived language shortcomings and prescriptive assessment cultures contribute to selfdoubt and constrained authorial agency among postgraduate writers (sattar, 2017; ahsan, 2023). although l2 writers often struggle with disciplinary expectations, research points to adaptive strategies that l2 writers use to manage these pressures. strategic accommodation, modeling expert texts, staged lexical enhancement, and metacognitive self-editing, enables many writers to meet formal requirements while attempting to preserve some sense of voice (hyland, 2004; zhang & wang, 2024; el hosayny et al., 2025). intertextual learning and the purposeful use of citations can function as mechanisms for constructing authority, particularly when novice writers are guided to read and imitate disciplinary argumentation (geng & wharton, 2019; sun et al., 2022). yet such surface-level tactics do not automatically secure deeper rhetorical competence; without targeted pedagogical support, l2 writers may focus on correctness and referencing at the expense of argumentative depth and original contribution (hyland, 2007; paltridge & starfield, 2007; akki et al., 2023). despite these insights, there is a pressing gap in the literature on how writer identity formation unfolds specifically for ma tesol students in pakistan. global studies of multilingual academic writing increasingly call for placesensitive analyses that account for postcolonial legacies, local academic cultures, and unequal access to writing resources (lillis & curry, 2010; canagarajah, 2022). pakistani postgraduate writers inhabit an academic ecology shaped by historical language hierarchies and contemporary global standards. historical language hierarchies in the pakistani context is very much associated with colonial legacy which place english at the top of the hierarchy and the national language politics which promoted urdu as the national language over other regional languages such as pashto and punjabi. students therefore need to navigate between the country’s language hierarchy and at the same time, conform to the demands of contemporary global standards. pressures to conform to the international academic standard while negotiating the local linguistics ecology and socio-cultural dynamics to some extent, create struggles for the writers. therefore, understanding how they negotiate autobiographical, discoursal, and authorial selves within this ecology will illuminate both personal strategies and systemic constraints (khan, majoka, & fazal, 2016; ramzan, mushtaq, & ashraf, 2023). narrative inquiry approaches, which foreground lived experience and temporal development, are well placed to capture these dynamic processes and the emotional and cognitive labour involved in thesis writing (clandinin & connelly, 2000; matsuda, 2003). guided by this theoretical and empirical background, the present study asks: (1) how do ma tesol students describe their identity negotiation strategies within institutional and linguistic constraints? and (2) how do their narratives reflect the challenges and accommodations involved in constructing autobiographical, discoursal, and authorial selves in academic writing? to address these questions, the study uses a narrative inquiry design with triangulated data sources of semi-structured interviews, written narratives, and rhetorical analysis of thesis introduction chapters, situating findings within ivanič’s (1998) multidimensional model of writer identity. by combining textual analysis with participants’ accounts, the research aims to show how strategic adaptation, supervision practices, and institutional gatekeeping jointly shape the trajectories by which pakistani l2 writers attempt to claim scholarly membership while negotiating the limits placed on their authorial presence. the study therefore ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 426 contributes to scholarship on multilingual academic writing by providing an empirically grounded, context-sensitive account of writer identity formation among postgraduate l2 writers in the global south. ii. methods research design the research uses a qualitative research design, with narrative inquiry used to study how pakistanbased ma tesol students build their writer identity using writing strategies. narrative inquiry is especially appropriate in understanding lived experiences and facilitates in-depth knowledge of identity construction across time (clandinin & connelly, 2000). in contrast to text-based analysis alone, narrative inquiry captures students’ selfperceptions, decision-making processes, and contemplations regarding institutional constraints and thus is well suited to explore the complex dynamics of writer identity (ivanič, 1998). the emphasis on narratives allows the study to show how students read and make sense of their academic spaces, providing insights into the difficulties they encounter and the moves they make to establish their academic voice. by making the students’ experience central, the study reveals not just their writing practices but also their negotiations of identity in the academic discourse community. participants the study involved fifteen ma tesol graduates from a university in pakistan. fifteen participants were deemed sufficient based on narrative inquiry principles, which prioritize depth over breadth (clandinin & connelly, 2000). the sample enabled rich, diverse accounts while ensuring manageable data for iterative, themebased coding. purposive sampling was employed to ensure the recruitment of a diverse set of participants along the dimensions of language background, academic writing skills, and institutional support. the selection was guided by specific criteria: all participants had completed their ma tesol theses in the previous academic year; they represented different levels of academic writing proficiency, as reflected in the supervisor feedback and final thesis grades; they came from multilingual backgrounds; and they had unequal access to academic writing resources, such as coaching centres and mentoring services. ma tesol postgraduates were chosen because they are engaged in the high-stakes task of thesis writing while still developing a scholarly voice. this stage makes them particularly informative for examining how writer identity takes shape during the writing process, rather than for assessing final proficiency. to further illustrate the composition of the participant group, particularly with respect to linguistic diversity—a factor closely tied to their identity negotiation—a graphical representation is presented in figure 1. figure 1. linguistic background of the participants figure 1 is showing the linguistic background of the participants. the majority are urdu-english bilinguals, followed by smaller groups of punjabienglish, pashto-english, and sindhi-english bilinguals. data set and instruments the distinguishing feature of this methodological design lies in its triangulated approach across multiple data sources that are rarely combined in studies of writer identity. while previous research has often relied either on interviews or on textual analysis alone (e.g., hyland, 2001; ivanič & camps, 2001), this study incorporates students’ reflective interviews, their written narratives, and the rhetorical analysis of their introduction chapters. drawing on approaches similar to those used by lillis (2001) and street (2005), the interviews utilized a life history or writing history framework. the interviews were conducted primarily in english, as this was the medium of instruction of the ma tesol program. however, participants were also allowed to shift to urdu when they felt it enabled clearer or more authentic expression of their experiences. the interviews included prompts that encouraged participants to reflect on their significant writing ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 427 participants negotiated their writer identities within institutional and socio-cultural constraints. manual coding using color-coded tables enabled detailed engagement with the data. to ensure the credibility of the findings, member checking was conducted. member checking during interviews ensured that the interpretations remained faithful to participants’ intended meanings, contributing to the validity and credibility of the findings. iii. results how do ma tesol students describe their identity negotiation strategies within institutional and linguistic constraints? claiming a space in the academic community: continuity, conflict, and contrasts this section examines how pakistani ma tesol students construct their academic identities while attempting to claim legitimacy within the scholarly community. the narrative inquiry framework emphasizes continuity (past influencing present), interaction (individuals in social contexts), and situatedness (identity as contextually formed) (clandinin & connelly, 2000). these lenses allow us to situate writer identity as not only shaped by textual practices but also deeply embedded in participants’ evolving self-understandings. participant-1’s reflections offered one clear trajectory of this struggle. viewing academic writing as an aspirational practice, she stated: “we are undeniably academic english writers… i might be at the periphery, still grappling with its vast expanse, but it’s vital to embody the essence of the community you’re part of.” (participant-1, written narrative) participant-1’s account also reflects limitations in the possibilities for selfhood she perceives. while she aspires to sound “academic,” her emotional reaction to feedback and her struggle with voice suggest that she views authoritative academic identity as something distant or conditional. in contrast, participant-2 perceived academic authorship as within reach, partly due to encouraging feedback during her undergraduate years, which broadened her imagined subject positions (ivanič, 1998). “i started seeing myself as a good writer when i got that amazing feedback in bs. it gave me the confidence that i have this caliber in me, and i can write something on my own.” (participant-2, written narrative) participant-2’s narrative reflects the continuity experiences, challenges, and the influences shaping their perceptions of themselves as writers. this approach provided a space for participants to articulate their past, present, and future orientations toward writing, offering valuable insights into how they constructed their identities within academic settings. the written narratives provided a platform for participants to communicate how they grappled with identity construction in academic contexts, offering a personal perspective on the external and internal factors influencing their writer identities. to observe the non-verbal cues including body language, tone, and expressions that might not be fully captured in the audio recordings and video recordings were taken during each interview. focusing on the introduction is particularly novel, as this section of the thesis is where students most strongly present their scholarly positioning, authority, and alignment with institutional expectations. in addition, the integration of observational insights regarding institutional resources and gatekeeping mechanisms broadens the scope beyond individual texts or voices, allowing the study to capture how writer identity emerges within a specific socio-institutional ecology. this methodological triangulation provides a more holistic account of identity construction than textonly or interview-only approaches, making it particularly innovative in the context of pakistani l2 postgraduate writing. data analysis procedures the data were analysed through a rigorous thematic analysis, drawing on ivanič’s (1998) framework of writer identity, including autobiographical self, discoursal self, and authorial self. following saldaña’s (2009) dual-cycle coding methodology, the analysis began with open coding of interviews, thesis analysis, and written narratives. this initial phase identified recurrent elements related to personal history, writing strategies, and academic positioning. codes were then organized into preliminary categories aligned with the research focus. the second coding cycle involved axial and pattern coding, refining categories and synthesizing them into cohesive themes. both semantic and latent codes were used to capture surface-level meanings and deeper ideological constructs within participants’ accounts. themes were systematically connected to ivanič’s identity dimensions to trace how ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 428 this dual positioning—of being both expressive and restrained—reflects what narrative inquiry terms as the tension between personal meaning and public form (clandinin & connelly, 2000). taken together, these narratives construct a dialogic space where writer identity is neither fixed nor uniformly shaped by institutional norms. while participant-1 and participant-3 exhibit narratives of struggle, participant-2 and participant-4 highlight negotiation and partial resolution. these different perspectives point to the multidimensional nature of identity construction among pakistani ma tesol students. by reading these accounts narratively, one sees how identity is continuously constructed across time, shaped by educational experiences, institutional power, and personal convictions. the student writer struggling with authority this section explores how institutional authority, rote-based pedagogies, and limited academic writing training influence students’ struggles to assert their authorial voice, drawing on ivanič’s (1998) concept of the discoursal self— how writers position themselves within academic discourse. participant-5’s reflections highlight the tension between institutional expectations and the pursuit of originality in academic writing. she expressed frustration over the rigid nature of academic tasks: “innovation means to increase the brand-new knowledge in human history. it is not that our coursework does not involve creative thinking, but it has no innovation... you are delivering it to others, contributing to the world... [the purpose of course essays] is reviewing.” (participant-5, interview) her comments reflect the rote-learning pedagogies prevalent in pakistan’s education system, where academic writing is often reduced to summarization and reproduction rather than knowledge creation (anbreen, 2015). the discoursal self in participant-5’s writing appears constrained—she reproduces academic conventions but struggles to insert her own voice or critical perspective. participant-5 also articulated her deference to authority, a reflection of socio-cultural hierarchies that position teachers as the ultimate knowledge holders. she remarked: “... i am a student, so my teacher’s writing must be better than mine... when i know he is a teacher, i would be influenced by his authority, thinking that he must write better than i do.” (participant-5, interview) element in narrative inquiry, her prior experiences of rote memorization in school created an initial detachment from academic writing, but supportive feedback at the bs level shifted her orientation. unlike participant-1, whose tone is cautious and aspirational, participant-2 presents her academic identity as more grounded in affirmative experiences. this contrast illustrates that writer identity is not a linear progression; rather, it develops unevenly, shaped by educational feedback and prior histories. participant-3, however, revealed a form of strategic compliance with academic expectations, indicating discomfort with the perceived constraints: “sometimes i want to say something bold, but then i think, what if my supervisor doesn’t like it? so, i rewrite it to sound more neutral.” (participant-3, written narrative) participant-3’s comment reflects ivanič’s (1998) concept of self-censorship within the discoursal self, where students moderate their voice to accommodate hierarchical authority. unlike participant-2, who viewed feedback as empowering, participant-3 perceived institutional authority as limiting her authorial agency. her narrative shows the interactional tension between self-expression and institutional regulation—key to narrative inquiry’s attention to power-laden contexts. participant-3’s recurring self-censorship reflects a narrowed field of possibilities for selfhood—where boldness is internally restrained in anticipation of institutional disapproval. her narrative shows how institutional feedback does not merely shape text, but reconfigures the imagined boundaries of what kind of writer one can be. meanwhile, participant-4 offered a more emotionally blended account of her identity construction. she explained: “when i write... from 50 to 80 percent totally comprises my thoughts and feelings. that is how i present myself.” (participant-4, written narrative) her emphasis on affect and reflection suggests a stronger connection to the autobiographical self (ivanič, 1998), wherein personal history, values, and emotions are not side effects but central to meaning-making. yet, she too noted the institutional demand for impersonal tone: “you can’t totally depend on personal experiences; you have to keep in mind the norms and conventions as well.” (participant-4, written narrative) ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 429 this deference limits students’ agency, leading to a compliant discoursal self that focuses on replicating perceived academic standards rather than developing an independent authorial voice (canagarajah, 2004). such dynamics are exacerbated in emi contexts, where linguistic insecurity further undermines students’ confidence in asserting original ideas (manan et al., 2016). a recurring theme in these narratives is the performativity of citation practices. participant5’s frustration with referencing underscores how citation is viewed more as an academic ritual than a tool for argumentation: “i found the citation style was quite annoying. when i started to get restless in the later stage of writing, i was even less in the mood to adjust. i probably would not have written the references if the teacher did not ask us to list them.” (participant-5, interview) here, citation becomes a performative act, disconnected from critical engagement with sources (hyland, 2007). this reflects how academic writing conventions are perceived more as gatekeeping rituals than as tools for inquiry. her disengagement suggests a discoursal self that complies with surface norms but lacks ownership over scholarly reasoning. participant-6’s narrative further highlights the systemic gaps in academic writing instruction: “i think our teacher hopes that we write academically, but because i never had systematic academic writing training, my writing is not so professional or academic.” (participant-6, interview) the lack of explicit instruction leaves students like participant-6 to navigate academic writing through trial and error, often replicating surface features without understanding deeper rhetorical structures. this results in a fragile discoursal self, where students attempt to mimic academic writing without feeling a sense of ownership. participant-3 also expressed her struggle with authority, particularly in balancing her ideas with the expectations of her supervisor: “sometimes i want to say something bold, but then i think, what if my supervisor doesn’t like it? so, i rewrite it to sound more neutral. it feels like i’m censoring myself to fit in.” (participant-3, interview) participant-3’s experience illustrates the selfcensorship that many students adopt to conform to institutional expectations. this tension between selfexpression and compliance results in a fragmented discoursal self, where students constantly negotiate between their voice and academic norms (ivanič, 1998). negotiating the tension: becoming an academic while remaining a student many ma tesol students in pakistan’s academic system manage the difficult dual roles of students and up-and-coming scholars. it is especially difficult to strike a balance between following institutional norms and creating a unique authorial voice in english as a medium of instruction (emi) settings. there are conflicts between claiming their scholarly identities and adhering to strict academic norms for students like participant-7, participant-3, participant-4, participant-8, and others. this section examines how these students construct their authorial selves while striking a balance between self-regulation, strategic adaptation, and external validation (ivanič, 1998). participant-7 explained her methodical approach to academic writing, which emphasizes clarity and grammatical accuracy. she frequently uses self-editing tools like grammarly. she clarified: “i will use ‘grammarly’ to check and see if there are any grammatical mistakes. this is a necessary step. after that, i will also read through it and see if all the sentences are clear... maybe sometimes i will find that i have repeatedly used some words... then i will replace them with their synonyms while checking to increase the richness of vocabulary.” (participant-7, interview) participant-7’s strategy reflects common metacognitive regulation practices among l2 writers (sun et al., 2022). her focus on clarity and lexical variety highlights how students selfregulate to align their writing with perceived academic standards. however, while these tools help refine surface features, they often do little to support the development of deeper rhetorical skills, leading to an overemphasis on correctness rather than critical engagement. participant-3 similarly engaged in intertextual learning, analyzing expert academic texts to understand rhetorical structures and argumentation styles. she shared: “i feel that their writings are different. to be specific, the argumentation is cunning, using proper examples, without any redundant words... if you read the sentences, you will find that there are not many clauses, and many words used are cunning.” (participant-3, interview) participant-3’s observation reflects her focus on conciseness and rhetorical precision, echoing findings that l2 writers often model expert texts to refine their argumentative skills (zhang & wang, 2024). her strategic adaptation shows an evolving ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 430 understanding of academic discourse conventions but also reveals the challenges of developing an authentic voice while mimicking expert styles. participant-4 spoke about her struggle to incorporate field-specific terminology, which she saw as essential to establishing credibility in academic writing: “i think the use of terminology is a symbol of standard and professional writing... i may not be able to find appropriate terminologies when i am drafting the essays, but i will add them after i finish the writing.” (participant-4, interview) participant-4’s practice of delayed lexical enhancement mirrors common strategies among l2 writers who refine technical vocabulary in later stages of writing (sun et al., 2022). this highlights how students prioritize content creation initially but later adjust their texts to meet disciplinary expectations, often perceiving the integration of terminology as a marker of academic legitimacy. despite these efforts, institutional pressures heavily influenced students’ writing decisions. participant-8 emphasized how the need for external validation shaped her approach to academic work: “first of all, it is a habit of an academic practitioner. i will add a reference list whenever i prepare for a presentation or a report, no matter whether it is required... this is because of my reverence and respect for knowledge. i want to make my writings more rigorous and express my gratitude to the authors providing insightful ideas... i have spent so much time looking for literature. our teachers will give me more scores when they see my efforts.” (participant-8, written narrative) participant-8’s focus on citation practices reflects how many l2 writers equate scholarly rigor with detailed referencing, often viewing citations as performative acts necessary for academic validation (kashiha, 2024). this aligns with ivanič’s (1998) authorial self, where writers attempt to assert authority through adherence to formal conventions rather than through original argumentation. however, institutional constraints often limited students’ ability to fully develop their arguments. participant-2 expressed frustration with word limits and rigid structures that hindered her expression: “because of the word limit, we have deleted something in our draft... and these requirements have somewhat made us delete something in our writing. this deletion may not make the writing more concise, but it makes your argumentation feel like defective goods.” (participant-2, written narrative) participant-2’s experience highlights the tension between authorial autonomy and institutional constraints, where students must balance creativity with rigid academic structures (tardy, 2017). these constraints often lead to self-censorship, as students compromise the depth of their arguments to meet formal requirements. participant-9 discussed the emotional toll of receiving critical feedback from her supervisor, which affected her confidence in asserting her ideas: “i tried to make a strong claim in one section, but my supervisor marked it as ‘too subjective’. it made me feel like i wasn’t allowed to take risks in my writing. after that, i started playing it safe.” (participant-9, interview) participant-9’s reflection illustrates how peer and supervisor feedback can lead to self-doubt and hinder the development of a confident authorial voice (ivanič, 1998). the fear of negative evaluation often results in students choosing safer, more neutral arguments, reinforcing compliance over originality. despite these challenges, students also found moments of empowerment. participant-10 reflected on her gradual growth as an academic writer: “at first, i was too focused on meeting all the rules, but over time, i started to see where i could insert my own ideas. it felt good when i realized i could still follow the structure but make it my own.” (participant-10, interview) participant-10’s experience highlights the evolving nature of writer identity, where students gradually gain the confidence to balance academic conventions with personal voice. her narrative reflects the delicate negotiation between adhering to institutional norms and developing authorial autonomy. these tactics align with what hyland (2004) terms “strategic accommodation”—a process where l2 writers conform to expected norms while attempting to preserve some sense of agency and individuality in academic voice. how do their narratives reflect challenges in constructing autobiographical, discoursal, and authorial selves? agency vs. compliance: atrategic adaptation and passive conformity the conflict between agency and compliance is among the most prominent themes in the data. ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 431 students frequently fail to fully engage with the deeper rhetorical purposes of academic discourse as they alternate between actively modifying their writing to meet academic expectations and passively adhering to institutional norms. participant-3’s narrative illustrates this oscillation. during her interview, she described her strategic use of writing tools to meet academic standards: “i use grammarly to check my grammar and sentence structure. it helps me avoid silly mistakes. but sometimes, i feel like i’m just fixing surface errors, not improving the ideas.” (participant-3, interview) her assertion draws attention to a prevalent trend in which students use metacognitive techniques to improve the technical elements of their writing but find it difficult to interact critically with the subject matter. this trend is indicative of a larger problem in l2 academic writing, where strategic adaptation frequently prioritizes compliance at the surface level over deeper engagement (sun et al., 2022). the introduction chapters from several theses also reveal this duality. for example, in nimra’s thesis, the introduction section followed a textbook structure, presenting background, research gaps, and objectives, but lacked a strong argumentative stance. observation notes from a supervision session highlighted that her supervisor encouraged her to “follow the standard structure” without emphasizing the importance of argumentation. this guidance reinforced compliance over critical engagement, leading nimra to conform rather than assert her voice. similarly, participant-2 reflected on her struggle to balance originality and compliance: “i wanted to include more examples from my teaching experience, but i was told to focus on the literature review and keep it formal. it felt like my ideas didn’t fit into the academic mold.” (participant-2, interview) participant-2’s story demonstrates how students frequently repress their distinct viewpoints in order to conform to disciplinary norms, which results in a type of passive compliance that diminishes their agency. this is in line with ivanič’s (1998) idea of the discoursal self, which holds that authors may find it difficult to express themselves independently while positioning themselves within scholarly discourse. institutional gatekeeping: power dynamics and academic access the influence of institutional gatekeeping on students’ writing habits is another recurrent theme. academic structures frequently perpetuate power dynamics that restrict students’ authorial agency through strict assessment standards, supervisor expectations, and linguistic hierarchies. participant-9 recounted a disheartening interaction with her supervisor: “i submitted my draft, and my supervisor said it was too informal. i thought i was making a strong argument, but apparently, i wasn’t ‘academic’ enough. it made me question whether i understood academic writing at all.” (participant-9, interview) this exchange demonstrates how supervisors frequently act as gatekeepers, imposing particular discourse norms that marginalize alternative styles or rhetorical devices with cultural influences (shamim, 2008). additionally, observation notes from a thesis workshop showed that form— grammar, structure, and citation style—was the main focus of feedback rather than the quality of the argument or the content. this focus on outward appearances restricts students’ capacity to participate critically in scholarly discourse and maintains hierarchical power dynamics (manan et al., 2016). participant-11’s thesis introduction chapter reflected this influence. while her research focused on gender identity in english textbooks, her writing lacked a critical stance, instead summarizing existing literature without engaging deeply with her findings. in her interview, she admitted: “i was worried about being too critical. i thought it might not be accepted, so i stuck to summarizing the sources.” (participant-11, interview) this example shows how academic writing becomes safer and less critical as a result of institutional gatekeeping that deters students from taking intellectual risks. in l2 contexts, where students from non-dominant linguistic and cultural backgrounds are frequently marginalized, it also reflects larger concerns about academic gatekeeping (canagarajah, 2004). cultural identity and academic discourse: negotiating multilingualism and voice the way in which students negotiated their cultural identities while participating in scholarly discourse emerged as a major theme. many participants talked about the conflicts they face between embracing their cultural heritage and following academic standards that are primarily western-centric. ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 432 participant-8 considered how difficult it was to include her cultural viewpoint in her thesis on gender roles in english language instruction: “i wanted to include examples from local classrooms, but i was told to focus on international studies to make my thesis more credible. it felt like my own experiences weren’t valuable enough.” (participant-8, interview) this statement highlights how institutional expectations often privilege western academic norms, leading students to suppress culturally rooted insights. observation notes from a peer review session revealed similar concerns, with several students expressing reluctance to use local examples for fear they wouldn’t be seen as “academic.” conversely, participant-4 successfully integrated her cultural identity into her thesis, though not without challenges. her study on socio-cultural factors in english learning included narratives from local students, which she framed within existing academic discourse. she explained: “i wanted to show how cultural background affects learning, so i included personal stories from my students. it was tricky to make it ‘academic,’ but i think it added depth.” (participant-4, interview) participant-4’s approach demonstrates the possibility of integrating cultural identity into academic discourse through strategic framing. her success reflects ivanič’s (1998) concept of the autobiographical self, where personal experiences and cultural backgrounds shape writer identity. emotional and psychological negotiations: confidence, marginalization, and empowerment other important themes that surfaced were the psychological and emotional components of academic writing. in negotiating institutional expectations, students often reported experiencing feelings of self-doubt, marginalization, and, on occasion, empowerment. participant-7 described how she battled feelings of inadequacy: “every time i submitted a draft, i felt nervous. i kept wondering if i was good enough. when i got my thesis approved, i was relieved, but it didn’t feel like my work— it felt like something i made to pass.” (participant-7, interview) her story illustrates the emotional toll that l2 academic writing requires, as linguistic and cultural barriers frequently cause students to internalize feelings of inadequacy (hyland, 2015). the pressure to meet academic standards adds to this emotional toll, causing a gap between students’ academic writing and their personal voices. however, as she grew more assured of her academic skills, participant-10 talked about moments of empowerment: “in the beginning, i was scared to make strong claims. but as i got more feedback and revised my work, i started feeling more confident. by the end, i felt like i had something important to say.” (participant-10, interview) participant-10’s story demonstrates how students can develop and become more empowered during the academic writing process, especially when they receive helpful criticism that promotes critical thinking. similar trends were found in observation notes from thesis defense sessions: students who got encouraging supervision were more comfortable defending their work, whereas those who got critical or contemptuous feedback frequently seemed unsure and hesitant. iv. discussion the findings demonstrate that pakistani ma tesol students construct their writer identities through a complex negotiation of agency and compliance. participants relied on metacognitive strategies, citation practices, and intertextual modelling to align with institutional expectations, yet often self-censored when confronted with supervisory authority. this reflects ivanič’s (1998) model, where autobiographical, discoursal, and authorial selves are continuously reshaped by institutional constraints. the emphasis on surface correctness and cautious stance-taking mirrors hyland’s (2001, 2002, 2007) observations on metadiscourse and genre pedagogy, while the strategic use of citations as a proxy for authorial presence resonates with sun, kuzborska, and soden’s (2022) longitudinal study of l2 postgraduate writers. the strong influence of supervisors and institutional norms in shaping authorial choices aligns with earlier analyses of gatekeeping in multilingual academic contexts (canagarajah, 2004; lillis & curry, 2010). participants’ accounts of self-censorship and deference to supervisory feedback replicate patterns where feedback prioritises form and compliance over argumentation, narrowing the available forms of authorial agency (paltridge & starfield, 2007). these findings reinforce critiques that academic supervision in south asian higher education often ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 433 functions as a regulatory mechanism, shaping what counts as legitimate writing and discouraging risktaking. the study also highlights how citation practices become performative acts rather than tools for constructing argumentation. participants frequently equated academic credibility with extensive reference lists, reflecting concerns raised by hyland (2007) and geng and wharton (2019) that novice writers often imitate surface features of disciplinary writing without fully engaging with sources. while citations provided symbolic legitimacy, they were seldom mobilised to build epistemic authority. this pattern aligns with sun, kuzborska, and soden’s (2022) observation that l2 writers must be explicitly guided to use citations dialogically to claim a voice within disciplinary conversations. without such guidance, students risk producing formally correct but rhetorically weak texts. another central issue concerns the tension between local cultural knowledge and global academic norms. students’ reluctance to include locally grounded examples, despite their relevance, illustrates how postcolonial hierarchies continue to privilege western academic models (canagarajah, 2022; khan, majoka, & fazal, 2016). while some participants found ways to frame personal or cultural narratives within accepted academic discourse, many others suppressed such contributions for fear they would be judged as insufficiently academic. these findings highlight the symbolic power of international standards in shaping what counts as knowledge, often marginalising voices rooted in local ecologies. the emotional dimension of identity negotiation further complicates these dynamics. students frequently reported feelings of self-doubt, marginalisation, and hesitancy in asserting their ideas, particularly when feedback framed their writing as “too informal” or “too subjective.” such responses echo hyland’s (2015) account of how academic publishing and supervision can reproduce exclusionary norms, leaving writers uncertain about their legitimacy. at the same time, some participants described gradual empowerment through iterative feedback and revision, reflecting pajares’ (2003) argument that self-efficacy in writing is built through sustained practice and validation. this suggests that institutional practices that emphasise supportive, dialogic supervision and scaffolded genre pedagogy could enable writers to balance conformity with the development of an authentic scholarly voice (tardy, 2017). v. conclusion this study examined how pakistani ma tesol students negotiate their writer identities during thesis writing, focusing on the strategies they adopt and the challenges they encounter. the findings show that students used metacognitive regulation, intertextual modelling, and delayed lexical enhancement to align with institutional expectations, while also searching for opportunities to assert individuality. yet these strategies often functioned as strategic accommodation, reflecting the constraints imposed by supervisory authority and institutional gatekeeping. narratives revealed the fragile nature of the discoursal self, where students oscillated between personal expression and self-censorship, shaped by linguistic insecurity and hierarchical relationships. beyond documenting these struggles, the study contributes to scholarship on multilingual academic writing by situating identity construction within pakistan’s postcolonial higher education context. it demonstrates the value of narrative inquiry in capturing the temporal, emotional, and contextual dimensions of thesis writing, offering insights that text-based analyses alone cannot provide. by showing how individual trajectories intersect with broader institutional pressures, the research highlights the need for supervisory practices and pedagogical approaches that move beyond surface-level compliance, enabling l2 writers to cultivate confident and authoritative scholarly voices. ethics statement this study was approved by the universiti malaya research ethics committee (reference number: um.tnc2/umrec_1064. informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. anonymity and confidentiality were maintained, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. credit author statement ambreen siddique drafted the manuscript. siti zaidah binti zainuddin and cheong huey fen reviewed and revised the manuscript for intellectual content and clarity. ambreen siddique / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 434 acknowledgements we would like to express sincere gratitude to the higher education commission pakistan and lahore college for women university, lahore, pakistan, for their invaluable support and cooperation throughout this research. we would also like to thank the students whose insights have enriched the findings of this study. we, the authors, are confident that this collaborative spirit has significantly contributed to the successful completion of this work. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references ahsan, m. 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(2024). to be like a “scholar”: a study on the construction of authorial identity of chinese efl learners in academic writing: an intertextuality perspective. frontiers in psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1297557 mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 470 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: october 15, 2024 final revision: december 13, 2024 accepted: december 15, 2024 available online: december 20, 2024 in today’s globalized world, the effective translation of promotional tourism materials plays a crucial role in bridging cultural and linguistic gaps, thereby enhancing tourist experiences and supporting the growth of the tourism sector. within this line, this study investigated the translator trainees’ performance on bidirectional translation of tourism-related texts. a sample of 24 saudi postgraduates specializing in translation participated in the study. they were tasked with translating two promotional tourism texts—one from the visitsaudi website and the other from the visittheusa website—representing typical features of both arabic and english tourist discourse. the trainees’ translations were assessed quantitively and qualitatively in two scenarios: (a) translating from english to arabic, and (b) the reverse based on three criteria: accuracy, style and clarity. the findings revealed significant challenges in both translation directions, particularly in maintaining style and clarity. the wilcoxon signed-rank test identified statistically significant differences between the two translation directions, underscoring the inherent challenges in l1 to l2 translation (z = -2.372, p = .018, r = 0.48). the qualitative analysis further indicated that the trainees predominantly employed source-text (st) oriented strategies, impacting negatively the style, clarity, and accuracy of the target texts (tts). the trainees’ reliance on source-text (st) oriented strategies resulted in translations that did not adapt to the linguistic and cultural nuances of the target language, which negatively impacted the quality of the target texts (tts). the study concludes with recommendations for improving the trainees’ bidirectional translation skills in tourism translation. keywords direct translation, inverse translation, tourism, performance, accuracy, style, clarity correspondence e-mail: mutaharnahari@yahoo.com article bidirectional translation of promotional tourism materials: challenges and strategies mutahar qassem1,yousef sahari2 1department of translation, najran university, najran, kingdom of saudi arabia 2department of english and literature, university of bisha, bisha, kingdom of saudi arabia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.470-487.2024 i. introduction the united nations world tourism organization (unwto1) defines tourism as the activity of individuals traveling to and spending time in places outside their usual environment for leisure, business, or other purposes. the term also encompasses the management of visitors through various services, including travel agencies, passenger transportation, vehicle rental, lodging, food and beverage, entertainment, and conferences (woodward-smith,2019). promotional tourism materials, a critical tool for tourism agencies, aim to attract international visitors by showcasing the 1 https://www.unwto.org/ unique features and attractions of a place, such as its culture, history, and natural beauty. translating these materials effectively require translators who can not only navigate the linguistic nuances of the source and target languages (sl and tl), but also possess a thorough understanding of the audience, genre, and product (sulaiman 2020; sulaiman and wilson, 2019).the promotional tourist discourse serves informative, persuasive, and argumentative functions, aiming to present essential facts creatively and influence the audience (muñoz, 2011, 2007; munday, 2018). this study explores english-arabic-english tourism translation, focusing on the landscape of mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 471 the kingdom of saudi arabia. the importance of the tourism sector has recently increased, as highlighted by the saudi vision 2030 (qassem and sahari, 2023). this initiative plays a vital role in diversifying the country’s income sources (alangari, 2022). in this context, the ministry of tourism and tourism agencies have developed websites to promote the kingdom’s tourist products. the translation quality of these websites depends on the translators’ skills. typically, tourism agencies hire graduates from translation training programs due to their relevant specialization and expertise. several saudi universities offer programs that prepare trainees to translate several types of texts between english and arabic, meeting the needs of the labour market (qassem and sahari, 2023). against this backdrop, this study seeks to assess the translator trainees’ performance on bi-directional translation of tourist texts, aiming to uncover their strengths and weaknesses in both direct translation (l2 to l1) and inverse translation (l1 to l2). by undertaking this analysis, the study contributes to assessment of understanding the dynamics of performance inherent in these bi-directional translation tasks. translation bidirectionality refers to the transfer of content between languages in two directions: from l1 to l2, known as inverse translation (it), and from l2 to l1, known as direct translation (dt) (beeby, 1998). this concept is central to various models of translation competencies, as underscored by scholars such as horcas-rufián and kelly (2020) and (pacte, 2017, 2011, 2003). its significance becomes particularly evident in the context of tourism translation, where the process involves not only rendering linguistic elements, but also cultural, traditional, geographical, and marketing features of a destination. tourism translation, categorized under language for specific purposes (lsp), is influenced by factors like knowledge of the product, place, and audience. moreover, the practice of tourism translation is crucial for transforming this knowledge into a skill (vandepitte, 2008). bidirectionality has been a research area in translation studies across various genres and topics, including general, political, and postediting (wang, 2021; pavlović and jensen, 2009; whyatt et al., 2021; heeb, 2016; alves et al., 2009). these studies have reported conflicting results regarding the problematic nature of direct and inverse translation. the field of tourism translation is inherently interdisciplinary, extending beyond linguistics to incorporate insights from geography, history, economics, and marketing (agorni, 2012).while some research indicates that inverse translation poses more challenges than direct translation, other studies claim the opposite or suggest that they are equally difficult (alves et al., 2009; heeb, 2016).the perceived difficulty may hinge on factors such as the translators’ linguistic and cultural competence and their familiarity with the text type. in the realm of tourism translation, certain studies highlight the problematic nature of translation without differentiating between direct and inverse translation (carvalho et al., 2023; qassem et al., 2021; turzynski-azimi, 2020; linčir, 2019; sulaiman and wilson, 2019; malenkina and ivanov, 2018; albir and pavani, 2018; sulaiman, 2018; napu, 2016; hogg et al., 2014). to date, no study has specifically addressed the differences between direct and inverse translation in tourism translation, particularly regarding the textual complexity faced by trainees. given the conflicting findings in studies on translation metaphors, the use of online sources, and translation processes, this study aims to provide empirical data on bidirectionality in translation of promotional tourist materials, measuring trainees’ performance on both direct and inverse translations. in tourism translation, there is a significant demand for a comprehensive theoretical framework capable of addressing the complexities involved in translating tourist texts. tourism texts exhibit a wide array of features, making it insufficient to rely on a single translation theory, as each tends to focus narrowly on specific aspects of the translation process. by adopting an integrated approach that synthesizes multiple relevant theories, the intricate nature of these texts can be more thoroughly addressed (qassem and sahari, 2023). linguistic approaches, while assist at the lexical and phraseological levels, often fail to capture important textual subtleties in promotional content. this gap is addressed by text-linguistic methods, such as reiss’s text-type classification, which considers both internal and external features of the text (reiss, 2000). meanwhile, functionalist approaches like skopos theory emphasize the purpose of the translation, guiding translators to align their strategies with the text’s communicative function (reiss and vermeer, 1984). however, these theories, despite their effectiveness, remain mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 472 incomplete for addressing the multifaceted nature of tourist texts. such texts require attention not only to text type and function, but also to cultural sensitivity, politeness, and marketability. cultural mediation, therefore, becomes essential, with translators acting as vital intermediaries between languages and cultures. this role demands more than linguistic equivalence; it requires selecting language that resonates with the target audience culturally and emotionally (baker, 2011). given the interdisciplinary nature of tourism translation, insights from fields like marketing and tourism should be incorporated to form a more comprehensive framework (fennell, 2021). theories of tourist communication stress the need for clear, accessible language to engage tourists effectively, while brown and levinson’s politeness theory highlights the importance of creating a welcoming and friendly tone (brown and levinson, 1987). integrating these theories into translator training is critical, as it equips future translators with the skills needed to convey messages, cultural nuances, and immersive experiences effectively, ensuring successful communication in the tourism translation. (figure 1). building on these theoretical foundations, numerous studies have explored various facets of tourism translation, contributing to a richer understanding of the field. these studies have examined translation strategies, interdisciplinary collaborations, cultural considerations, knowledge translation frameworks, pedagogical approaches, translation quality, and stylistic variations in tourist genres across languages. turzynskiazimi (2020), linčir (2019), and malenkina and ivanov (2018) examined translation strategies specific to tourism, emphasizing the need for effective conveyance of persuasive elements in official tourism materials. valdeón (2009,2015) underscored the interdisciplinary nature of tourism translation, calling for collaborative efforts among specialists from various fields. sulaiman and wilsons’ extensive research (2019,2018) explored the cultural dimensions of tourism translation, proposing models that aim to shape positive perceptions of destinations by including cultural nuances. fennell (2021) proposed a knowledge translation framework tailored to tourism, known as the “knowledge creation and action cycle,” which offered a structured method for disseminating knowledge effectively within the tourism industry. zhang and yang (2020), qassem et al. (2021), and tang-taye and standing (2016) emphasized the importance of maintaining high-quality translation standards in tourism discourse. sulaiman (2020) discussed the stylistic differences between tourist genres in various languages, highlighting the need for translators to adapt their styles accordingly. finally, albir and pavani (2018) explored the design of educational modules on tourism translation that prepare future translators to tackle the unique challenges of tourism materials effectively. the issue of translation quality is debatable among translation theorists. the debate often centres on whether st approaches or tt approaches should be prioritized. recently, there has been a shift in translation quality assessment (tqa) towards ensuring that translations meet predefined specifications (karoubi, 2016). it is recognized that each text demands a unique type of assessment influenced by various factors fig. 1. an integrated approach for tourism translation (adapted qassem and sahari, 2023) mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 473 translation. borrowing is the process of directly transferring a word from the source language (sl) to the target language (tl) to compensate for a semantic gap in the tl. the second procedure, calque, involves borrowing an expression from the sl and translating it literally into the tl, which can result in either a lexical or structural calque. literal translation, in contrast, is a word-for-word rendering of the sl text into the tl while ensuring that the translation remains grammatically correct and idiomatically appropriate (munday, 2018). the oblique translation strategy takes a nuanced approach that allows for flexibility in conveying meaning while considering the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language (sl) and the target language (tl). this strategy comprises four key translation procedures: transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. transposition involves replacing a word class in the sl with another in the tl without altering the original message’s meaning. modulation goes a step further by changing the viewpoint or perspective of the sl, introducing variation in the message’s form. equivalence aims to create a similar situation or effect in the tl through different stylistic or structural means. lastly, adaptation is used when a situation type in the sl has no direct equivalent in the tl culture, which requires substantial adjustments to ensure that the message fits appropriately within the target context (munday, 2018). by reviewing both theoretical and empirical literature of bidirectional translation and translation of tourist texts, this study aims to examine the translator trainees’ performance on bidirectional translation of tourist texts, which are manifested in the following research questions: 1. to what degree could the translator trainees translate tourist texts from english to arabic and vice versa? 2. is there a measurable difference in the performance of translator trainees when doing direct translation (from l2 to l1) compared to inverse translation (from l1 to l2), and if so, is this difference statistically significant? 3. which strategies do the translator trainees predominantly employ when translating tourist texts from english to arabic and vice versa? such as the context, text type, text function, and the client’s requirements. several studies have attempted to offer evaluation criteria for tourism translation (sanning, 2010; pierini, 2007; sulaiman and wilson, 2019). sulaiman and wilson (2018) underscore the significance of selecting language, cultural references, idiomatic expressions, technical terminology, and industryspecific jargon that are aligned with the target audience’s expectations, while ensuring fidelity to the original message. sanning (2010) emphasizes the importance of adopting a tone, style, and register that are appropriate for the target audience, alongside structuring sentences in a manner that is both grammatically correct and appropriately concise. pierini (2007) stresses the need for clear and precise communication, ensuring that the intended message, tone, and style of the original text are faithfully conveyed in the target language. based on these studies, the authors have elicited precise criteria to assess translator trainees’ performance on translating tourist texts. the assessment focuses on three main dimensions: accuracy, style, clarity. the assessment of tourist text translations hinges on three critical dimensions: accuracy, style, and clarity. accuracy ensures the translation remains faithful to the original, preserving factual details and cultural nuances without distortion. style assesses the translation’s ability to replicate the original text’s tone, register, and emotional resonance, aiming to engage the target audience with appropriate cultural references and stylistic choices. clarity is essential for effective communication, particularly in tourist texts designed to inform and guide readers. this dimension evaluates the translation’s ability to convey the original message in a clear, coherent, and accessible manner. it involves examining sentence structure, terminology, and the overall organization of the text to ensure that readers can easily understand and follow the information presented. see appendix 1 for details. drawing from vinay and darbelnet’s classification of translation strategies, the authors evaluated how translator trainees applied these strategies to translate text 1 and text 2 from and to english and arabic (1995). they outlined two translation strategies: direct and oblique. they further classified these strategies into specific procedures. this strategy includes three procedures: borrowing, calque, and literal mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 474 ii. methods research design this study employed a comparative observational design, requiring each participant to complete a bidirectional translation task to assess their performance on l1-to l2 and l2-to-l1 translations. the authors aimed to determine whether there were statistically significant differences in participants’ performance when doing direct versus inverse tourism translation. specifically, the performance of a single group of participants was measured under two conditions: (a) arabic-english translation and (b) english-arabic translation of tourist texts. the authors conducted a dual-mode analysis of the data, employing both quantitative and qualitative methods, with the qualitative data serving to supplement the quantitative data. the quantitative data were assessed based on three performance indicators: accuracy, clarity, and style. given the small sample size and data skewness, the nonparametric wilcoxon signed-rank test was employed (mellinger and hanson, 2017). the qualitative data, i.e., the participants’ translations, were analysed, using vinay and darbelnet’s model of translation strategy classification (1995). settings and participants this study utilized purposive sampling, a nonprobability sampling technique, to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. 24 participants with a mean age of 27 (sd=4.3) were recruited from saudi universities based on specific characteristics that aligned with the study’s objectives. the authors established the following selection criteria to identify suitable candidates: (a) a minimum ielts score of 6, in accordance with the enrolment requirements for master’s programs at saudi universities; (b) enrolment in the final year of the ma program; (c) provision of informed consent to participate in the experiment; and (d) being native speakers of arabic. the task involved translating two texts—one from english to arabic and the other from arabic to english. these criteria ensured that participants possessed advanced translation skills, which are essential for translating tourist texts. participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. after this assurance, they provided their consent to participate. to ensure confidentiality, anonymity was upheld. furthermore, the participants were informed that the collected data would be used exclusively for research purposes. based on wright (2005), the translation task was developed using google forms, which allows for the creation of both open-ended and closed-ended questions. in the google form, we introduced the participants to the study, outlined the criteria for their selection, and detailed the research ethics adhered to by the authors. the link to the form was then sent to postgraduates across various locations in the kingdom of saudi arabia via emails, telegram, and whatsapp, facilitating the targeting of participants at saudi universities. data collection and analysis this study involved two translation tasks, each comprising a distinct text. one text was presented in english (l2), while the other was in arabic (l1). the first text was on abha as tourist destination, a picturesque region in saudi arabia. the text was sourced from the website of the ministry of tourism (visitsaudi—an official multilingual platform). this passage acquaints readers with historical landmarks, scenic vistas, and tourism services throughout the country. the text contains several linguistic features commonly associated with arabic promotional translation materials, characterized by their formal tone, lengthy sentence structures, incorporation of figurative language, coordination clauses, and complex structures (qassem and sahari, 2023). the second text was taken from visitusa, the official tourism website in the usa. the text comprises five sentences totalling 79 words and 464 characters, including spaces. it has characteristics typical of english promotional tourism materials: informality, concise sentences, imperativeness, explicitness, and indulgence. the authors developed rubrics based on some relevant studiers (qassem and sahari, 2023; sulaiman and wilson, 2018; sanning, 2010, pierini, 2007; muñoz, 2011) for evaluating the translations of arabic and english tourist texts, focusing on accuracy, style, and clarity. each dimension had specific sub-indicators for detailed assessment, with participants receiving scores for their performance on each. a score of zero was given for any unmet sub-indicator criteria. the rubrics and scoring system were rigorously reviewed by two translation studies experts. the study emphasized the importance of appropriateness in using these metrics for evaluation. see appendix 1. mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 475 two expert raters assessed the participants’ translations of the arabic tourist text into english and the english text into arabic, using a rubric consisting of three criteria: accuracy, style, and clarity. both raters hold phd degrees—one in translation studies and the other in applied linguistics—and are professional translators with experience in both fields. furthermore, they are native arabic speakers with extensive work in us and uk english, given their roles as freelance translators and academics. the raters were instructed to evaluate the appropriateness of the students’ bidirectional translations, considering the genre of the text (promotional tourist materials), the target audience, and the cultural nuances of both english and arabic. to assess the level of agreement between the raters’ evaluations, the intraclass correlation coefficient (icc) was calculated. the analysis showed a high degree of agreement between the first and second raters for text 1 (icc = .949, 95% confidence interval = .891 to .976, p < .001) and for text 2 (icc = .972, 95% confidence interval = .926 to .990, p < .01). the authors applied the wilcoxon signed-rank test, a nonparametric statistical method, to compare each translator’s performance in both english-toarabic and arabic-to-english translations. this test is particularly appropriate for small sample sizes and non-normal data distributions, as it evaluates differences in performance and translation processes in direct translation (dt) and inverse translation (it) (mellinger and hanson, 2017). a shapiro-wilk test was conducted to assess data normality, revealing significant deviations for both direct translation (w = .833, p < .001) and inverse translation (w = .903, p < .025). in addition to the quantitative analysis, qualitative data were also incorporated, examining the students’ translation strategies, thereby providing a holistic evaluation of their performance in translating tourist texts. iii. results the findings in this section are organized according to quantitative and qualitative data. trainees’ performance on direct and inverse translation the first question investigated the extent of postgraduates’ performance on translating tourism promotional texts in direct translation (english to arabic) and inverse translation (arabic to english) table 1. trainees’ performance on direct and inverse translation direct translation inverse translation median median cumulative performance 7.0000 6.0000 accuracy 3.0000 3.0000 style 2.0000 1.0000 clarity 2.0000 2.0000 translation. the analysis revealed that performance was low in both directions, with median scores of 7.0000 for direct translation and 6.0000 for inverse translation, out of a maximum score of 10. further examination into specific performance indicators— style and clarity—underscored the challenges faced, where style achieved median scores of 2.0000 in direct translation and 1.0000 in inverse translation. similarly, clarity in both translation directions recorded median scores of 2.0000, indicating a consistent trend of lower performance levels. see table 1. the second question ‘is there a measurable difference in the performance of translator trainees when conducting direct translation (from l2 tol1) compared to inverse translation (from l1 to l2), and if so, is this difference statistically significant?’ consists of two parts. the first part of the second question examined the variance in performance between direct and reverse translations. the wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed that the participants generally performed better in direct translation (dt) compared to inverse translation (it) across key metrics like cumulative performance, style, and clarity. most trainees showed improved outcomes in dt, with many scoring the same in dt and it for accuracy, suggesting direct translation might leverage native language proficiency more effectively. however, the high number of identical scores in accuracy indicates that translation direction may not significantly impact quality, highlighting the complex influence of individual skills and task challenges on translation performance. see table 2. the second part of the second inquiry examined if there are statistically significant differences between direct and inverse translations. utilizing the wilcoxon signed-rank test, statistically significant differences were observed, indicating that inverse translation requires more effort than direct translation, particularly in cumulative mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 476 table 2. negative and positive ranks n mean rank sum of ranks dt – it cumulative performance negative ranks 4 6.88 27.50 positive ranks 13 9.65 125.50 ties 7 total 24 dt – it accuracy negative ranks 3 3.00 9.00 positive ranks 2 3.00 6.00 ties 19 total 24 dt-it style negative ranks 2 6.50 13.00 positive ranks 11 7.09 78.00 ties 11 total 24 dt-it clarity negative ranks 1 5.50 5.50 positive ranks 10 6.05 60.50 ties 13 total 24 table 3. trainees’ performance differences between dt and it translation performance z p-value r cumulative performance in dt and it -2.372 .018 0.48 accuracy in dt and it -.447 .655 0.09 style in dt and it -2.500 .012 0.5 clarity in dt and it -2.673 .008 0.5 performance (z = -2.372, p < .05, r = 0.48), showcasing a considerable effect size. regarding performance metrics, significant differences were found in favor of inverse translation for both style (z = -2.500, p < .05, r = 0.5) and clarity (z = -2.673, p < .05, r = 0.5), each with a large effect size. nevertheless, the accuracy component did not exhibit any statistically significant disparities (z = -.447, p > .05, r = 0.09). refer to table 4 for detailed information. see table 3. bidirectional translations strategies this section answers the third question ‘which strategies do the postgraduates predominantly employ when translating tourist from and to english and arabic?’ it was found that most participants followed st-translation strategies, which vinay and darbelnet (1995) refer to as ‘direct’ translation’. the section below describes in detail the translators’ use of translation strategies. the results are organized according to the bidirectionality (l1 to l2 and l2 to l1). reverse translation (l1 to l2) the analysis of the participants’ translations indicated that they predominantly utilized direct translation, which was particularly evident in their rendition of lengthy arabic sentences into english. they did not conform to the english sentence structure when translating the arabic tourist text into english, which can lead to the creation of what is known as a “run-on sentence.” the st comprised three sentences, which were translated into english exactly as they appeared in the original. when translating the title ‘بحواسك أبها اكتشف most translators opted for a literal translation ,’الخمس procedure, rendering the title without making any adjustments to conform to the stylistic norms of english tourism texts. at a phraseological level, the translators’ use of translation procedures ranged from literal to calque, borrowing, etc. it was found that the translators preferred to use direct translation procedures such as borrowing, calque, and literal translation vinay and darbelnet (1995). see table 4. mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 477 figure 2. outlines the decision-making process for selecting a translation procedure when translating the arabic text into english. it highlights various strategies, including literal translation (word-for-word), modulation (perspective shift), transposition (grammar changes), equivalence (idiomatic expressions), calque (exact phrases), and borrowing (foreign words with literal translation). literal translation literal translation is one of the most frequent translation procedures in translating text 1 from arabic to english. the procedure retains the original structure and meaning, though it can lead to awkwardness in the translated expressions. the trainees relied heavily on literal translation, as seen in phrases such as ‘تمتلك,‘ ’معانقة السحاب,’ and ‘المسكون معانقة‘ for example, translating the phrase ’.بالفنون ,as “embracing the clouds” can be evocative ’السحاب but it may sound odd if not properly contextualized. this translation preserved the metaphorical style of the source text (st) in the target text (tt) without considering the stylistic differences between english and arabic. the translation of “مسكون table 4. students’ use of translation procedures for l1 to l2 translation procedure lexical unit students’ translations literal translation تمتلك has/possess معانقة السحاب embracing the clouds تنتقل عبر أزمنة travels through times مشاهدة القالع والقصور المشيدة witnessing the castles and palaces constructed المسكون بالفنون inhabited by arts استخالص األلوان الزاهية من األشجار والحجارة extract bright colors from trees and stones تعبر عن اإلنسان والمكان expresses the human being and the place transposition + literal التجول بين قممها الجبلية wander among its mountain peaks modulation + literal مترًعا بالدهشة واالنبهار filled with amazement and fascination equivalence (idiomatic expression) بيئتها البكر pristine environment وتنوعها الثري rich diversity الفنون التجريدية abstract arts calque مناورات الضباب maneuvers of fog borrowing + literal translation بفن القَّط العسيري with the art of al-qatt al-asiri أيقونة عالمية global icon fig. 2. translation procedures in inverse translation (arabic to english) mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 478 into “inhibited by arts” fails to convey the ”بالفنون connotative meaning of the term ‘مسكون’ in the target text. modulation the arabic phrase ‘مترعا بالدهشة واالنبهار’ carries a certain emotional weight and imagery that does not exist in english, so the students changed its imagery and, therefore, its emotive impact. the choice of words like “filled” or “overgrown” in english captures similar emotions but uses different imagery that is more familiar and impactful in english. while “مترعا”is directly translated to “filled,” and “overgrown” in the second translation, it adds a different nuance, suggesting something more organic and lush. the words “wonder” and “awe” or “amazement” and “fascination” in english are chosen because they resonate well with englishspeaking audiences. these words are commonly used to describe a state of being profoundly impressed or moved, which aligns with the sentiment expressed in the original arabic. transposition the translation of the arabic phrase “التجول بين ”as “wander among its mountain peaks ”قممها الجبلية or “roaming between its mountains tops,” is a clear example of the strategy of changing grammatical structure for the sake of fluency in the target language. this strategy is crucial in translation as it ensures that the translated sentence not only retains the original meaning but also aligns with the syntactical norms and natural flow of the target language. in this case, the original arabic phrase is structured in a way that is typical of the arabic language, but a direct translation might sound awkward or unnatural in english. by translating it as “wander among its mountain peaks”, the sentence is adjusted to fit english linguistic patterns. this adjustment includes the choice of verbs and the prepositions which ensure that the sense of casually walking or moving around in a mountainous area is effectively captured. similarly, the alternative translation “roaming between its mountain tops” also conveys the same meaning but with a slightly different emphasis, providing another example of how translation can subtly shift structures and word choices to maintain meaning while considering the linguistic characteristics of the tl. both translations exemplify how the adept handling of grammatical structures can result in a smooth, natural-sounding english sentence that faithfully reflects the original arabic sentiment. calque (loan translation) the translation of “الضباب as ”مناورات “maneuvers of fog” or “tactics of fog” is an interesting example of using calques in translation. a calque is a procedure where each element of a phrase is directly translated, often introducing new expressions in the target language that closely mirror the structure of the source language. in this instance, the arabic phrase is translated quite literally into english. while “maneuvers of fog” and “tactics of fog” are direct translations, they retain the arabic syntax, which might sound somewhat unusual or poetic in english. this procedure, while preserving the original structure, can sometimes result in phrases that sound less natural in the target language. however, it can also add a certain charm or uniqueness to the translation, offering an expression that is not typically found in the target language but is still intriguing and evocative. the choice between a more naturalsounding translation and a calque can depend on the context and the desired impact of the translation. in this case, while the direct translation might sound unconventional in english, it also lends a certain creativity to the phrase, reflecting the often nuanced and artistic nature of translation. borrowing in translation, borrowing is a procedure where specific words or phrases from the source language are directly used in the target language, which is particularly effective for culturally unique terms or proper nouns without direct equivalents. this approach ensures the preservation of the cultural essence of the original text. an example is the translation of “بفن القَّط العسيري” into english as “with the art of al-qatt al-asiri” or “using al-qatt art”. in this instance, “al-qatt al-asiri”, a term denoting a specific traditional art form, is directly borrowed, maintaining the cultural specificity and richness of the original arabic phrase. this technique not only ensures a faithful translation, but also enriches the target language, fostering a deeper cultural understanding between diverse audiences. direct translation (l2 to l1) in translating from english to arabic, the translators adhered to a direct translation strategy. at the syntactic level, they preserved the english sentence pattern in arabic. the st includes four mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 479 table 5. students’ use of translation procedures for l2 to l1 translation procedures lexical unit students’ translations equivalence spoil yourself دلل نفسك literal translation + borrowing beverly hills’ boutiques مجموعة بيفرلي هيلز south coast plaza costa mesa ساوث كوست التجاري michelin-starred chefs الطهاة الحاصلون على نجمة ميشالن modulation escape into bliss يهبك التمتع بالهدوء slip into haute couture styles انغمس في موضة األزياء الراقية transposition+ adaptation slip into haute couture styles اكتشاف أنماط األزياء الراقية luxurious spa or a serene wellness بزيارة منتجع صحي فاخر أو مكان استجمام هادئ borrowing + adaptation beverly hills’ boutiques في إحدى بوتيكات بيفرلي هيلز التي تقدم آخر وأرقى صيحات الموضة borrowing thomas keller at the french laundry توماس كيلير في مطعم فرينش الندري في يونتفيل wolfgang puck at spago ولفجانج باك في سباج thomas keller at the french laundry توماس كيلر في المصبغة الفرنسية adaptation take a vip tour تجربة راقية فريدة من نوعها لكبار الشخصيات spoil yourself كافئ نفسك، رفه نفسك تجارب ال تضاهى وغير متوقعة في مجال الترويح fig. 3. translation procedures in direct translation (english to arabic) sentences that are retained in arabic with the same number and structure. however, when translating the title “indulgence”, most participants omitted the translation. however, there were creative translations such as “كسفن للد” and “ةيهافرلا” that captured the core meaning of the title. at a phraseological level, the translators tended to use st translation strategies, referred to as ‘direct translation’ by vinay and darbelnet (1995). see table 5. figure. 4 highlights procedures for translating english tourist texts into arabic with cultural and linguistic accuracy. equivalence ensures clarity for common phrases, while literal translation with borrowing works for straightforward content but may require modulation for cultural relevance. grammar adjustments like transposition ensure natural flow in arabic. borrowing and adaptation are vital for culture-specific terms, balancing fidelity to the original text with cultural sensitivity. these mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 480 strategies make the translated material appealing and engaging for arabic-speaking audiences. equivalence the translation of “spoil yourself” to “دلل in arabic is a good example (pamper yourself) ”نفسك of how equivalence can effectively convey clear and direct messages, as often needed in commands or slogans. the phrase “نفسك conveys the ”دلل indulgent and luxurious connotations of the english phrase, especially in a marketing or tourism context. modulation the translation of “escape into bliss” as “يهبك بالهدوء grants you the enjoyment of) ”التمتع tranquility) in arabic is an example of the modulation procedure. this procedure involves changing the perspective or tone of the original phrase to make it more culturally relevant to the target audience. in this example, the translation shifts from the original’s imperative tone to a more descriptive and inviting expression. this approach is particularly effective in resonating with arabicspeaking audiences, as it aligns more closely with the language’s stylistic and cultural preferences. in the case of “escape into bliss”, while the translated phrase elegantly conveys a sense of tranquility, it might lose some of the active, dynamic quality of the original english phrase. this highlights the nuanced art of translation, where achieving the right balance between cultural adaptation and fidelity to the original is key. transposition in the translation of “slip into haute couture styles” to “تجول وجرب متعة التسوق الخيالية ألرقى الماركات wander and try the fantastic shopping) ”العالمية pleasure of the finest international brands), we see an example of transposition procedure. transposition involves adjusting the grammatical structure to better suit the norms of the target language. in this case, the translation not only adapts the structure, but also introduces new action and experiential elements such as wandering and trying, which are not explicitly present in the original phrase. this procedure enhances engagement and makes the translation more appealing and contextually appropriate for the target audience. however, it also carries a risk. by adding elements and nuances that are absent in the original, the translation may inadvertently alter the message or tone and introduce redundancy. borrowing and literal translation borrowing, on the other hand, keeps specific words or phrases unchanged, as seen in the translation of “thomas keller at the french laundry in yountville” to “توماس كيلر في مطعم فرينش like thomas keller at the french) ”الندري في يونتفيل laundry in yountville). this procedure is often used for proper nouns, brand names, or terms lacking direct translations, ensuring that cultural or factual specificity is respected. however, the overuse of borrowing can make a text feel disjointed or less culturally integrated, especially if the audience is not familiar with the borrowed terms. adaptation adaptation tailors content to fit the cultural context of the target audience. for instance, “take a vip tour” becomes “تجربة راقية فريدة من نوعها لكبار ,(a unique upscale experience for vips) ”الشخصيات adding a touch of luxury and exclusivity more resonant in the arabic context. while adaptation can make a phrase more appealing, it requires a delicate balance to avoid straying too far from the original message. over-adaptation risks losing the essence of the original content. iv. discussion this research evaluates quantitatively and qualitatively the participants’ performance on translating tourism-related content, encompassing both direct and reverse translation exercises. a group of translator trainees undertook these tasks, with their translations evaluated on accuracy, clarity, and style. the outcomes indicated a notable deficiency in the translators’ ability to accurately translate tourism texts in both directions. however, the challenge was more pronounced in reverse translations, with lower scores in accuracy, style, and clarity. the qualitative data revealed that the participants tended to use direct translation strategy, which may have a negative effect on the accuracy, style and clarity of the tt. comparing this study with previous research revealed that bidirectionality in tourism translation has not been addressed in earlier studies, making this study the first to investigate the subject according to the authors’ knowledge. the studies by wang (2021), pavlović and jensen (2009), whyatt, et al. (2021), heeb (2016) and alves, et al. (2009) have explored the cognitive and behavioral processes mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 481 of translators, focusing particularly on the effects of translation directionality—whether translating into one’s native language or a second language— on cognitive patterns and performance. these works employ various methodologies, including eye-tracking, keylogging, and retrospective protocols, to examine how translators engage with online resources, manage cognitive load, and form professional self-concepts. together, they contribute to a growing understanding of how translation directionality influences decisionmaking and the overall translation process within professional contexts. as for the studiers on tourism translation, most studies focus on analyzing translation strategies, translators’ performance, and the assessment of accuracy, style, and clarity (wang, 2021; pavlović and jensen, 2009; whyatt et al., 2021; heeb, 2016; alves et al., 2009). the main findings are analyzed further below. the data analysis revealed that both the direct and inverse translation of tourism-related texts is challenging for postgraduates, evident in the median scores. when translating the arabic text into english, the participants had difficulty maintaining the style and tone appropriate to the target audience. the students translated the sentences without any attempt to adhere to the features of the english language, which occurred when conveying the original messages to the tl readership. similarly, in the english text about california, the students faced problems in translating several terms related to the place. the tt appears to be a descriptive text with no vocative functions. the translators made no attempt to modify the tt to incorporate the structure of arabic tourism text. these results align with those of zhang and yang (2020), tangtaye and standing (2016), malenkina and ivanov (2018 ), and qassem, et al. (2021), who found low translation quality in the translations of tourism materials. zhang and yang (2020) attributed this low translation quality to translators’ lack of proficiency in the language and little or no crosscultural awareness. tang-taye and standing (2016) attributed low quality to translators’ ignorance of the differences between the peculiarities of sl and tl cultures. qassem and sahari (2023) attributed the low quality of translation to the lack of training in tourism translation. malenkina and ivanov (2018) attributed problems to translators’ negligence of tourists’ pre-trip expectations and knowledge. hogg et al. (2014) argue that the norms of the target community should not be ignored in the translation of tourism promotional materials. in translations of tourism texts, cultural sensitivity may be more important than linguistic accuracy (hogg et al. (2014). the translators’ performance exhibited deficiencies in their competence, specifically in strategic and extralinguistic competence in pacte’s terminology 2017), as well as in language proficiency and intercultural understanding according to emt’s framework (wang,2021). deficiencies in language proficiency and intercultural understanding were manifested in differences in performance when translating from arabic to english and from english to arabic. deficiencies in strategic competence are evidenced by the participants’ use of translation strategies, which showed a lack of awareness of the syntactic and stylistic differences between english and arabic. the study proposed an integrated approach to tourism translation by developing a comprehensive framework that incorporates several key theories: equivalence theory (newmark, 1988), text type theory (reiss, 2000), skopos theory (reiss and vermeer, 1984), tourism communication theory (sulaiman & wilson, 2018), politeness theory (brown & levinson, 1987), and cultural mediation (baker, 2011). this framework addresses the diverse features of tourist texts, which possess unique contexts, cultures, functions, and linguistic characteristics. when translating these texts into the target language, translators must consider the differences in linguistic features, context, culture, and function between the source and target languages. sulaiman and wilson (2018) introduced the cultural-conceptual translation (cct) model, which underscores the importance of a culturally oriented functional approach for effective advertising translation. the cct model focuses on two key factors—translation purpose and cultural conceptualization—essential for reconstructing favorable destination images in readers’ minds, ultimately converting them into tourists. additionally, hogg et al. (2014) suggest a multidimensional translation approach in tourism consumption to cater to the various features of tourist texts. results revealed statistically significant differences between direct and inverse translations mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 482 of tourism-related texts. it was found that inverse translation is more challenging than direct translation, manifested in cumulative performance on the two indicators: style and clarity. although, against the accuracy criterion, there are some differences between the participants’ performance on the two types of translation, these differences are not statistically significant. this is a novel finding since, to the best of authors’ knowledge, in regard to directionality, this is the first study to investigate tourism-related translation. in contexts other than tourism, several studies investigated bidirectionality, reporting conflicting results (wang, 2021; pavlović and jensen, 2009; whyatt et al., 2021; heeb, 2016; alves et al., 2009). results showed that some found inverse translation more challenging than direct translation, while others find the opposite. heeb (2016) found that the students perceived direct translation and inverse translation as having the same level of difficulty. in the current study, the postgraduates found direct translation difficult, but inverse translation was even more challenging. sayaheen and darwish (2020) argue that the difficulty in bidirectionality may depend on the translator’s competence in both languages and his/her cultural knowledge. what can be said here is that the level of difficulty depends on a trainee’s competence and training, and the text type. the findings showed that the postgraduates displayed comparable levels of accuracy in both english to arabic and arabic to english, as reflected by their median scores. despite this similarity, challenges in maintaining accuracy persisted in both types of translations, especially concerning the correct application of technical terminology and industry-specific language. this issue could stem from an insufficient understanding of the marketed product. suleiman and wilson (2019) pointed out that translators working within the tourism sector need to possess three distinct kinds of knowledge: understanding of the product, awareness of the target audience, and familiarity with the genre. the data analysis revealed that, against the style criterion, the students’ performance was lower on the arabic to english translation than on english to arabic translation, which might be due to the features of the arabic tourism text that needs modifications in order to adhere to the norms of english tourism texts. according to the results, the participants did not attempt to change the arabic st into english; most of their focus was not on the linguistics. in english to arabic translation, the students’ task might be easier since the vocative function of the english text is clear. besides, the students know the features of their mother tongue and the expectations of an arabic readership, which may make the students’ direct-translation task less difficult than an inverse translation. similarly, maintaining clarity is more challenging in inverse translation than in direct translation, as evidenced by the statistically significant differences observed between the two in terms of the clarity criterion. the difficulty arises in conveying both the original message and the intended tone and style of the target text (tt) in both directions. however, the issue of clarity presents a considerable challenge in inverse translation. based on existing literature and our study’s findings, the course design on tourism translation should prioritize bi-directional translation competence (l1 to l2 and l2 to l1). this ensures that future translators are well-prepared for the common industry practice requiring bi-directional translation. furthermore, the design of these courses should be informed by multiple translation theories (e.g., linguistic theory, text linguistic theory, function theory, marketing theory, and politeness theory). by incorporating these fundamental frameworks in the course design, a strong foundation can be established for understanding the intricacies of translation. in addition, the course design should extend beyond translation studies and integrate theories from the field of tourism. this holistic approach is essential for creating a comprehensive curriculum that reflects the interdisciplinary nature of tourism translation. in short, the proposal for bi-directional translation competence, the integration of diverse translation theories, and the incorporation of principles from tourism necessitate a comprehensive redesign of tourism translation courses. this redesign could better equip future translators with the necessary skills to address the challenges of the industry. muñoz (2011) emphasized the importance of including tourist translation in university curricula to ensure that translators are properly qualified to work in this specialized field. the translators opted generally for direct translation strategy, which could lead to the loss of stylistic effect on tl readers and the clarity of meaning. as for translation procedures, the translators employed a range of procedures, mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 483 including literal translation, modulation, transposition, calque, borrowing, and adaptation, with a noticeable preference for literal translation. this source text (st)-oriented approach, particularly evident in retaining the original structure in the target text (tt), ensured a high degree of fidelity but restricted the use of creative and culturally nuanced procedures. many translators demonstrated strong skills at the phraseological level, achieving accuracy, clarity, and stylistic appropriateness. they carefully considered both the st’s meaning and the expectations of the tt audience, effectively using procedures like adaptation, modulation, and transposition. adaptation allowed the translation to align with the cultural and contextual expectations of the tt audience, while modulation provided a thoughtful reinterpretation of the st. transposition enhanced readability and engagement, reflecting the translators’ understanding of the complexities involved in translation and their ability to balance accuracy with cultural relevance. at the textual level, the translators do not consider the structural and stylistic differences between the english arabic, as evidenced on their reliance on direct translation strategy. the results of this study align with turzynski-azimi’s (2020) findings of a predominant tendency toward source languageoriented procedures in japanese tourism texts. both studies suggest that while a strict adherence to the st can ensure accuracy, but it limits the creative potential necessary for cultural adaptation. qassem, et al. (2021) found that translator trainees faced difficulties in rending the promotional tourist texts into the tl, among them are: formulating the main ideas of the st, composing tt and communicating the tt to the target language. muñoz (2011) found that cultural references and pragmatic features are among the difficulties of translating tourist texts. she concluded that professionalizing translation in this field is essential for improving quality and effectiveness. v. conclusion this study compares trainees’ performance on direct and inverse tourism translation tasks, offering both quantitative and qualitative data on their performance. the novelty of this research lies in its specific focus on tourism translation, incorporating bidirectional translation into its scope. by examining both direct translations (english to arabic) and inverse translations (arabic to english), this study aims to highlight the challenges faced by trainees in the translation training programs. to assess the translations, three performance criteria were employed: accuracy, style, and clarity. these criteria were selected to ensure a comprehensive evaluation of how well the trainees captured the intended meaning, maintained the original tone, and conveyed the message clearly to the target audience. the study reported low performance on english-to-arabic and arabic -to-english translation tasks, especially against the criteria of style and clarity. furthermore, the translators’ performance on inverse translation is lower than in direct translation, indicating that it is more challenging than direct translation. some of this study’s findings aligned with those of researchers studying bidirectionality in different contexts. regarding course design and training, tourism-related translation is a particular type of translation that needs to be given attention in translation training programs. furthermore, it is expected that better-quality translations will create a noticeable improvement in the tourism industry. one of the limitations of this study is the small sample; hence, the study could be replicated using a larger sample of participants to validate the findings. additionally, the study examined only a specific type of tourist texts, so the findings might not apply to all types of tourism-related content. therefore, further research is required to examine the translation of tourist texts using a broader range of tourist texts and a larger sample of both student and professional translators. such studies are essential to identify the specific challenges these translators encounter in the translation process. by analysing a diverse array of tourist texts, future investigations could provide insights into whether the difficulties faced are primarily due to gaps in translation training programs or a lack of professional experience. ethics statement the authors received the ethical approval from the university of bisha (58/44/11700) in compliance with the university’s ethics committee requirements, credit author statement mutahar qassem: conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, writing, original draft, mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 484 writing, review, editing, and visualization. yousef sahari: conceptualization, methodology, validation, writing, review, editing. acknowledgements this research received grant no. (8/2023) from the arab observatory for translation (an affiliate of alecso), which is supported by the literature, publishing & translation commission in saudi arabia. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references agorni, m. (2012). tourism communication: the translator’s responsibility in the translation of cultural difference. pasos: revista de turismo y patrimonio cultural, 10(4), 5–11. alangari, e. (2022). cultural mediation in tourism translation: saudi arabia as a case study. awej for translation & literary studies, 6(3), 82–98. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/wcy3s. albir, a., & pavani, s. 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(2020). a study on the english translation of public signs in chinese destinations. journal of china tourism research, 16(2), 248–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388160.2019.1629 367. mutahar qassem / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 487 appendix 1 rubric for the assessment of the students’ translation indicator definition score 0 score 1 score 2 score 3 score 4 accuracy use of language, cultural references, idioms, technical terms, and industry jargon suitable for the target audience. fidelity to the original message. not conveyed partially conveyed moderately conveyed almost conveyed precisely conveyed style adoption of tone, style, and register appropriate for the target audience. appropriate sentence structure and length. not conveyed partially conveyed almost conveyed precisely conveyed clarity clear communication of the original message and intended tone and style. not conveyed partially conveyed almost conveyed precisely conveyed jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 516 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: september 27, 2024 final revision: december 16, 2024 accepted: december 18, 2024 available online: december 25, 2024 modo is an endangered austronesian language mainly spoken on the islands of komodo and rinca in east nusa tenggara province of indonesia. despite its status as an endangered language, modo remains under-documented and understudied. this paper presents a phonological sketch of modo based on primary data collected from native speakers in our 30-day fieldwork on the two islands. through careful analysis of recordings from an elicited wordlist and transcription of naturalistic speech, this description covers modo’s consonant and vowel inventories, syllable structure, stress assignment, and morphophonological analysis. modo exhibits 31 consonants, including eight prenasalized stops, two implosives /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, the dental plosive /d̪/, the labio-dental approximant /ʋ/, and the loan palatal approximant /j/ and labio-dental fricative /f/. additionally, modo has six oral vowels, including the mid-central vowel /ə/, and five nasal vowels. the syllable structure of modo is predominantly open, though it permits the consonants /h/ and /ʔ/ in word-final positions. stress in modo is generally assigned to the penultimate syllable, though shifts can occur in more complex phrases and sentences, indicating a nuanced prosodic system. modo exhibits limited morphophonological processes, with only deletion and assimilation found in compounding. furthermore, this study includes a brief discussion on practical orthography to enhance the accessibility of modo’s unique phonemic units. we suggest the representation of distinctive phonemes, such as the implosives /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, voiced dental /d̪/, labio-dental approximant /ʋ/, and nasal vowels. this phonological sketch not only contributes to the documentation of an endangered language but also clarifies some phonological issues found in previous works and underscores the intricate linguistic features that characterize the modo language, paving the way for future research and revitalization efforts. keywords modo, austronesian, phonology, nasal vowel, consonant cluster correspondence e-mail: regina.yanti@atmajaya.ac.id article a phonological sketch of modo: an endangered language in eastern indonesia jermy i. balukh1, dewi khairiah2, yanti3, ryen maerina4 1nusa cendana university, kupang, indonesia 1,2,4the national research and innovation agency (brin), indonesia 3atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.4.516-531.2024 i. introduction modo (iso: 693-3 [kvh]) is an endangered language spoken by approximately 2,000 people, mainly on komodo island, located in the western part of the main flores island, west manggarai regency, indonesia (see the map in figure 1). a small number of modo speakers are also found on the island of rinca and some other smaller islands around the region. the well-known name of the island, language, and culture, including the large reptile of the varanus komodoensis (komodo dragon), is komodo. however, the indigenous people self-identify as ata modo, meaning ‘people of modo’, and refer to the language as wana modo, meaning ‘modo language’. on the other hand, the komodo dragon is called ora. while the historical origin of the name is still unclear, informal accounts suggest that the island’s name is modo, and the appending of the form ko is due to the possessive marker in modo, resulting in the word komodo, which literally means that the island belongs to the jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 517 modo people. in this paper, the term modo refers to the language, culture, and people, while the term komodo refers to the island or place. modo is one of the smallest austronesian languages of the lesser sunda islands (blust, 2013, p. 86), genetically classified within the bima-lembata subgroup of the central eastern malayo-polynesian of the austronesian family (fricke, 2019, pp. 229–300). the languages most closely related to modo are bima and manggarai (fernandez, 1990, 1996; verheijen, 1987). the modo people are generally multilingual, speaking modo and indonesian, and some are also proficient in manggarai, bima, or bajo. while modo remains the language of everyday communication, code-mixing with indonesian, bima, and bajo is inevitable on many occasions. indonesian is the preferred language in formal settings such as schools, wedding ceremonies, and formal meetings at the mosque and village offices. the multilingual situation on komodo island is due to the fact that komodo and its surrounding smaller islands are part of the komodo national park, a conservation area for the komodo dragon and a popular tourist destination (brandt, 2003). many young people work as tourist guides and have learned some english. while the komodo dragon has been studied for centuries (brandt, 2003), the modo people and their native language remain understudied. some aspects of modo grammar have been reported by margono et al. (1987), troeboes et al. (1987), and verheijen (1987). however, modo is still considered an under-documented and under-described language. no significant linguistic-related research on modo has been conducted within the last three decades. moreover, there are no written materials for the community to learn how to read and write in their own language, no indigenous language programs in schools, and no literacy resources. such a situation worsens the language transmission and language learning in the modo community, which results in the status of modo as a “threatened” language by ethnologue (https://www.ethnologue.com/ language/kvh/). this paper, as part of a language documentation project, is a response to modo’s language endangerment situation and the lack of language description. the previous linguistic works focusing on modo are found in four publications: verheijen (1987), troeboes et al. (1987), margono et al. (1987), and sugita & mus (2019). first, verheijen (1987) presents an ethnographic report of his 1977 fieldwork, which describes the sounds and the basic sentence structure of modo, as well as its sociolinguistic situation and some historical background related to the people and language of modo. verheijen also provides some transcribed folktale texts with their respective indonesian translation, modo-indonesia-english, indonesianmodo, and english-modo wordlists. both the texts and wordlists are written in an orthographic figure 1. map of languages of east nusa tenggara (ubb gmit, 2018) jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 518 script. in his report, verheijen (1987, p. 59) states that only 26.7% of the words are typical modo, whereas other words are attested as originating from the related proto-language (34.3%), bima (16.9%), manggarai (10.8%), malay/indonesian (8.2%), and others (3.1%), including bugis and bajo (see also nuraini, 2010). second, margono et al. (1987) present a brief linguistic report, which includes basic descriptions of modo’s phonology, morphology, and syntax. in that report, they also include a practical orthography of modo. third, troeboes et al. (1987) also provide a short linguistic report focusing on the morphology and syntax of modo. there is no phonological description in this report, not even in the introduction to the language. as they mainly focus on morphology and syntax, they present a brief description of the basic structure of phrases and sentences, similar to the one presented in margono et al. (1987). fourth, sugita & mus (2019) describe the patterns of antonyms in modo based on interviews with modo native speakers. however, their analysis focuses only on the semantic level. although the three first-mentioned previous works shed light on some aspects of modo phonology and morphosyntax, additional works are still needed as some issues remain inevitable. some discrepancies are found in those works, such as the phonemic inventory and sound patterns. verheijen (1987) identifies 29 consonants in modo, whereas margono et al. (1987) find only 18. while verheijen (1987) believes that implosive sounds in modo emerged because of mispronunciation, margono et al. (1987) claim that implosives are allophones of their stop counterparts, where vowels precede implosives. furthermore, brief descriptions of the syllable structure and other morphological-related issues are presented without detailed analysis. the superficial analyses and descriptions of modo phonology, for example, by verheijen (1987), are basically due to the fact that the sounds are analyzed based on indonesian pronunciation heard on radio broadcasting (verheijen, 1987), but not based on a detailed phonetic/phonemic analysis of sounds in modo itself. such phonologically analytical gaps trigger us to explore the synchronic phonological features of modo. this paper aims to provide a more detailed analysis of the sound system and the phonotactics of modo based on the synchronic data collected from our fieldwork. it mainly covers the phonemic analysis of the consonants and vowels, syllable structure, and the phonotactic aspects and proposes a practical orthography. several phonological/ phonetic features unique to modo are highlighted in this paper. this paper begins by outlining the data collection and analysis methods, followed by a description of consonants, vowels, and syllable structure. a brief discussion of the morphophonology is also provided. subsequently, the notes on the practical orthography are presented. finally, the discussion, direction for further resesarch, and concluding remarks are presented. ii. methods this research is descriptive in nature, in which the data collection, processing, and analysis were conducted based on the language documentation and descriptive linguistic principles explained in austin (2021), chelliah & de reuse (2011), dixon (2010), and himmelmann (2006). the data used in this phonological sketch are based on our short fieldwork on the islands of komodo and rinca between july and august 2023. the fieldwork was part of a documentation project with the support of the national research and innovation agency (brin), indonesia, in 2023. data collection focused on the primary data of various genres recorded from native speakers who were available during our fieldwork. a total of 25 modo native speakers, both male and female, were involved in this documentation project. three persons were below 20 years old, six were between 20 and 39, eleven were between 40 and 60, and five were older than 60. the language consultants were eight fishermen, six tour guides, three gardeners, and the rest had other professions. their levels of education ranged from elementary school to vocational school. the data were collected with the speakers’ consent and willingness. we spent approximately 30 days in the field collecting roughly 18 hours of digital audio and/ or video recordings, i.e., spontaneous speaking of different stories and procedural texts, a wordlist of 400 words (200 words from the swadesh list (appendix 1) and 200 words from the languagemapping questionnaire developed by the agency for language development and cultivation of ministry of education, culture, research, and technology of the republic of indonesia), elicited phrases and short sentences, pictures and video stimuli descriptions. the audio recordings, saved jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 519 in wav format with 24bit and 96khz, are of good quality for digital archiving and phonological/ phonetic analysis. about four hours of the recorded data have been transcribed and translated into indonesian in the elan program to produce eaf files. furthermore, the eaf files were exported to flex for detailed annotation/interlinearization of the texts and lexical database management. we also provide phonetic transcriptions of the recorded wordlist and elicited phrases for phonological and phonetic analysis. some data have been archived at language documentation of indonesia (ladin) and can be accessed at https://data.brin.go.id/ dataverse/modo. the data were analyzed using the descriptive methods in chelliah & de reuse (2011, pp. 257– 273). we identified minimal pairs, the distribution of the sounds, the environments of the sounds, and the variation of the sounds for phonemic analysis. for further analysis, we purposively recorded both rapid and careful speech sounds from a selected native speaker. to support our analysis, we also conducted basic acoustic analyses using the praat software, especially to identify the unique phonetic features shown by the waveforms and spectrograms in praat. iii. results consonant inventory modo has 31 consonants, including eight prenasalized stops, one denti-alveolar plosive, two implosives, and two loan phonemes /j/ and /f/, as presented in table 1. of the 31 consonants, modo has two marginal phonemes: the voiced denti-alveolar plosive /d̪/ and the voiced palatal prenasal /ⁿɟ/. the /d̪/ only occurs in three words and the /ⁿɟ/ in two words, table 1. modo consonants respectively, in our lexical database, as shown in (1). the denti-alveolar plosive /d̪/ is analyzed as a distinct phoneme because it contrasts with the plain voiced alveolar /d/, as shown by the examples of contrast in (2) below. similarly, the prenasalized voiced palatal stop /ⁿɟ/ contrasts with the plain palatal /ɟ/. although /ⁿɟ/ occurs infrequently, it is considered a phoneme because it fits into the pattern of prenasalized stops, where the voiceless prenasalized palatal stop /ⁿc/ is already attested as a phoneme. consonant contrasts in this section, we first present consonant contrasts of the plain consonants, followed by the prenasalized consonants, compared to the plain consonants. the examples of (near) minimal pairs in (2) below show the plain consonant contrasts. (2) identified (near) minimal pairs of consonants jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 520 no contrasts are found between /b/ and /ɓ/, or between /w/ and /ʋ/. however, these phonemes can occur in initial and medial positions and be preceded as well as followed by various vowels. this suggests that they are unpredictable, and thus, they are distinct phonemes. examples of /b/ versus /ɓ/ and /w/ versus /ʋ/ are presented in table 2 and table 3, respectively. examples of the prenasalized consonants contrasted with the plain consonants are shown in (3). table 2ː examples with /b/ and /ɓ/ /b/ /ɓ/ /bae/ [bae] ‘to know’ /ɓale/ [ɓale] ‘to throw’ /bohõ/ [bohõ] ‘to spill’ /ɓokaʔ/ [ɓokaʔ] ‘neck’ /beŋke/ [beŋke] ‘naughty’ /ɓəɟũ/ [ɓəɟːũ] ‘vessel’ /bike/ [bike] ‘cracked’ /ɓuri/ [ɓuri] ‘take a bath’ /leba/ [leba] ‘shoulder’ /liɓa/ [liˀɓa] ‘wide’ /laba/ [laba] ‘distance’ /kaɓã/ [kaɓã] ‘provide for’ table 3ː examples of /w/ and /ʋ/ /w/ /ʋ/ /waca/ [waca] ‘to wash’ /ʋita/ [ʋita] neg /welaʔ/ [welaʔ] ‘flower’ /ʋod̪o/ [ʋod̪o] ‘many’ /wise/ [wise] ‘to widen’ /ʋiⁿco/ [ʋiⁿco] ‘to stab’ /ⁿcawa/ [ⁿcawa] ‘sister of wife/husband’ /leʋa/ [leʋa] ‘long’ /bəlawo/ [blawo] ‘mouse’ /teʋu/ [tǝʋːu] ‘dust’ /ʔawã/ [ʔawã] ‘sky’ /wəʋiã/ [wəʋːiã] ‘night’ (3) prenasalized and plain consonant contrasts plain consonant distributions almost all plain consonants occur only in initial and medial onset positions, as shown in table 4. modo does not allow codas in medial positions. in the word-final position, modo only permits the glottal stop /ʔ/ and the glottal fricative /h/ (more details in the following section). the glottal stop sound [ʔ] typically occurs before isolated or initial vowels. however, in word-initial position, it is considered a reflex of strengthened voicing (garellek, 2012), resulting in an automatic voiced onset rather than being assigned phonemic status. table 4 below presents the distribution of the consonants. jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 521 the word-final consonant sounds [ʔ] and [h] are typically omitted in phrase-medial positions, except in careful speech. for example, in (7), the final glottal stop [ʔ] in the word [bokaʔ] ‘neck’ is omitted when it is followed by the word [kuhu] ‘1sg.poss’, resulting in a possessive phrase. the realization of the two consonants in phrase-medial position is illustrated in (7). final consonants /h/ and /ʔ/ in modo, only two consonant phonemes can occur in word-final positions: the glottal fricative /h/ and the glottal stop /ʔ/. the contrasts between these two final consonants are presented in (4), with more examples of word-final consonants in (5) and (6). table 4ː plain consonant distributions phoneme initial medial onset medial coda final /p/ √ √ /b/ √ √ /ɓ/ √ √ /d/ √ √ /d̪/ √ √ /ɗ/ √ √ /t/ √ √ /c/ √ √ /ɟ/ √ √ /k/ √ √ /g/ √ √ /ʔ/ √ √ /m/ √ √ n/ √ √ /ŋ/ √ √ /r/ √ √ /f/ √ √ /s/ √ √ /h/ √ √ √ /l/ √ √ /w/ √ √ /ʋ/ √ √ (4) contrasts of final consonants (5) occurrence of /ʔ/ in word-final position (6) occurrence of /h/ in word-final position (7) realization of final consonants in the phrasemedial position prenasalized consonants and their distributions modo exhibits eight prenasalized consonants, whose distributions are shown in table 5. as indicated, the prenasalized consonants /ⁿɟ/ and /ᵑk/ are restricted to medial onset positions. table 5ː prenasalized consonant distributions phoneme initial medial onset medial coda final /ᵐb/ √ √ /ᵐp/ √ √ /ⁿd/ √ √ /ⁿt/ √ √ /ⁿc/ √ √ /ⁿɟ/ √ /ᵑg/ √ √ /ᵑk/ √ the eight prenasalized consonants presented in this paper are identical to those reported by verheijen (1987, p. 64). in contrast, margono et al. (1987, p. 23) analyze these consonant sequences as consonant clusters rather than prenasals. margono et al. (1987) further categorize these clusters into two types: optional clusters, which allow for schwa [ə] epenthesis, and obligatory clusters, which do not permit epenthetic [ə]. we analyze what margono et al. (1987) label “obligatory clusters” as prenasalized consonants for two reasons. first, the sequence of nasal and the obstruent is pronounced as a single sound. figures 2, 3, and 4 display the duration of the prenasalized stop [nd], plain nasal [n], and plain alveolar stop /d/, jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 522 respectively. the duration of the prenasalized stop [ⁿd] is 0.096 seconds, which is slightly longer than the plain nasal [n] (0.092 seconds) and the plain stop [d] (0.091 seconds). the longer duration of the prenasalized consonants due to the brief nasal onset (cohn & riehl, 2016). maximum of two consonants, as shown in (8) below. these consonant clusters are driven by phonological processes in which the mid-central vowel (schwa) [ə] and the mid-low vowel [a] are deleted. consequently, the clusters phonotactically create a heavy ccv onset pattern (to be discussed further below). in such a case, we analyze these clusters as underlyingly having vowels, and the vowels get deleted, resulting in consonant clusters. in careful speech, the vowels are still pronounced, making these clusters optional. the clusters are permitted only in the word-initial position, except for /ks/ and /ᵐbl/, which can also occur in wordmedial positions. in each sequence, the first consonant may be one of two voiced and four voiceless consonants /b, g, k, p, t, s/, while the second consonant may be one of three voiceless and four voiced consonants /k, l, s, r, n, m, ᵐb/. additionally, in loanwords from indonesian, such as proyek ‘project’ and stok ‘stock’, the speakers insert an epenthetic schwa, pronouncing them as [pəroyɛʔ] and [sətːɔʔ]. second, the reason for analyzing the sequence of a nasal followed by a stop as prenasalized consonants instead of consonant clusters is that no underlying schwa is present between the nasal and the consonant. in the following section, we show consonant clusters are formed due to the deletion of an underlying schwa. a more careful experimental study examining more tokens is needed. consonant clusters and their distributions consonant clusters in modo consist of a figure 2. prenasalized stop /ⁿd/ figure 3. plain nasal /n/ figure 4. plain alveolar stop /d/ table 6. modo vowels vowel inventory six basic phonemic vowels are attested in modo, including a mid-central vowel /ə/. in addition, modo has five nasal vowels. table 6 below shows all vowels in modo. jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 523 the vowel /e/ can be realized as [ɛ] and [e], and the vowel /o/ can be realized as [ɔ] and [o]. the lower vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ] tend to appear before a word-final consonant, as illustrated in the examples in (9). examples in (10) show cases of /e/ and /o/ occurring in open syllables. the phonetic evidence of a nasal vowel [ṽ] in the word-final position is acoustically shown by the absence of the velar pinch. an example is provided with the word-final nasal vowel [ã] in [ŋarã] ‘name’ in figure 5 below. velar pinch is a typical feature of a velar sound (ladefoged & johnson, 2015, p. 209). the absence of a velar pinch on the spectrogram strongly indicates that no velar feature is present when the vowel is released, indicating a nasal vowel with no following velar nasal. vowel contrasts the oral vowel contrasts are shown by the (near) minimal pairs in (11). nasal vowels modo has five nasal vowels (ṽ) that contrast with the corresponding oral vowels. the distribution of nasal vowels is restricted to the word-final position. the mid-central vowel /ə/ does not have a corresponding nasal form (fernandez, 1990; karjo, 2021; kroon, 2016, pp. 42–43; nagaya, 2011, pp. 65–68). the contrasts of oral vowels and their nasalized counterparts in modo are shown in (12). figure 5. spectrogram of final nasal vowel [ã] vowel distributions all vowels have a full distribution except for the mid-central vowel /ə/, which occurs only in word-medial positions, and the nasal vowels, which occur exclusively in word-final positions. of all the vowels, /e/ and /o/ are marginal in word-initial positions, as they appear in only a few lexical items in the database. the vowel distribution is shown in table 7, with examples in table 8. table 7ː vowel distributions initial medial nuclei final /i/ √ √ √ /e/ √ √ √ /ə/ √ /a/ √ √ √ /o/ √ √ √ /u/ √ √ √ ṽ √ jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 524 vowel sequences table 9 shows the possible sequences of vowels in modo. all vowels may occur in a sequence, except for the mid-central vowel /ə/. these sequences are not diphthongs since each vowel belongs to a different syllable unit. this is evident when speakers are asked to pronounce words containing such a sequence in a careful speech. of all the possible sequences, no instances of /oe/ and /uo/ have been identified so far (see also verheijen, 1987). the reason for the absence of these two vowel sequences is still unknown. examples of vowel sequences are presented in table 10. as shown, the sequence of /iu/ alternates with /eu/, as in /mi.u/~/me.u/ ‘2pl’ and /di.u/~/de.u/ ‘far’. syllable structures the maximum syllable structure in modo is (c)v(c). the onset is not always present, but when it is, it can be filled by any single consonant, prenasalized consonants, or consonant clusters. vowel-initial words always occur with an initial glottal, resulting in the #ʔv_ sequence at the beginning of a word. however, as stated earlier, this glottalization is considered a phonetic phenomenon rather than a phonemic one because there are no contrasts between a glottalized vowel and an oral vowel in the word-initial position. the possible cv patterns are presented in (13) through (15). most words in modo are disyllabic, with some being trisyllabic. monosyllabic words are rare in modo, which are mostly particles and very few content table 8ː examples of oral vowel distributions table 9. vowel sequences table 10. examples of vowel sequences jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 525 words. a few quadri-syllabic words have been identified, which may be derived from compounds, as shown in (16). for example, the word mucikali ‘all’ is derived from two different wordsː muci ‘all’ and kali ‘times’, so mucikali means ‘all of…’. however, this interpretation needs more data and further detailed analysis. the mid-central vowel [ə] is a lax vowel, which is light in this case and therefore, has only one mora. for the vowel to be heavy (i.e., have two morae) in a stressed syllable, the following consonant should be lengthened. the lengthened consonants should be considered ambisyllabic and bimoraic; they belong to two syllables simultaneously. this syllabification analysis is also identical to dhao, an austronesian language spoken on ndao island (balukh, 2020, pp. 61–62). the syllable template with lengthened consonants is shown in (18) below. it should be noted that in trisyllabic words, the [ə] in the antepenultimate syllable, which is an unstressed syllable, is subject to reduction, resulting in the formation of a consonant cluster onset. mono-syllabic words di-syllabic words tri-syllabic words quadri-syllablic words in terms of syllabification, two phonotactic issues need to be accounted for, i.e., (1) lengthened consonants due to the short duration of schwa [ə] and (2) consonant clusters resulting from vowel deletion. regarding the first issue, modo has a mid-central vowel /ə/ (schwa), which is extremely short and never occurs in word-initial or word-final positions. as it lacks length in the nucleus position, when stressed, the following consonants get lengthened to fulfill the syllable weight, as shown by the examples in (17). this lengthening affects the syllabification, suggesting that the analysis should be based on mora rather than a simple cv structure. to account for this case, we adopt the weight-stress principle (wsp) theory, which posits that (a) stressed syllables should be heavy and (b) unstressed syllables should be light (duanmu, 2008, p. 59). in light of this, we assume that vowels in stressed syllables have two morae, whereas vowels in unstressed syllables have one mora. as for the second case, it has been explicated earlier that the deletion of the vowels [ə] and [a] results in consonant clusters. in the word-initial position, both consonants in the sequence are placed at the onset, as this is the only available slot, as shown in (19a). for the word-medial position, we adopt the law of finals theory, which posits that “word-final rhymes and word-medial rhymes should resemble each other” (duanmu, 2008, p. 55). in modo, the consonant sequence, such as [ks] in [ⁿtaksã] ‘chin’, cannot be syllabified as *[ⁿtak. sã] or *[ⁿtaks.ã] because neither the [k] nor the sequence [ks] can appear in the word-final (coda) position. to account for this, the sequence [ks] must be treated as a cluster in the onset position, as shown in (19b). this syllabification strategy is possible because the sequence of consonants [k] and [s] is allowed in modo. note that although modo allows the consonants [h] and [ʔ] wordfinally, these two consonants never occur in any consonant clusters or medial coda positions. this indicates that modo does not phonotactically jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 526 allow medial coda. therefore, any consonant that appears in the medial coda position is considered unlicensed, as illustrated in (19c) below. the penultimate of the disyllabic root, leaving the clitic stressless. in (23), compounding results in four-syllable strings, but the primary stress remains on the penultimate, while the first syllable carries the secondary stress. however, the examples in (24) and (25) show that the stress may shift at the phrasal or sentence levels. this shift could be related to the characteristics of the phonological words or the phrasal accents. notice that instead of word stress, phrasal accent is a widespread feature found in languages of the malayo-polynesian area (goedemans & zanten, 2014). however, further study on the suprasegmental features in modo is needed to fully understand this phenomenon. for example, stress falls on the final syllable [wã] of the word [lo.ˈwã] ‘hut’ in (24) and on the final syllable [ᵐba] of the word [suᵐba] ‘sumba’ in (26), while still maintaining penultimate stress on other words. (19) syllable template with consonant clusters stress assignment stress in modo is signaled by intensity and pitch (see marlett, 2019, pp. 229–233), although in some cases, the pitch may not always be consistent. stress assignment is independent of the number of syllables in the base. the primary stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable, as shown in (20) and (21) below. morphophonology modo lacks morphological affixation, with the exception of subject pronominal clitics, such as =i ‘3sg’ and possessors like =ne ‘3sg.poss’, and the prefix ke-, which is attached to cardinal number to form ordinal numbers. the pronominal clitic paradigm is presented in table 11 below (margono et al., 1987; verheijen, 1987). the subject clitics are attached to verbs to agree with the nominal or pronominal subject. verheijen (1987, pp. 48–49) and margono et al. (1987, p. 34) report that the third-person singular clitic =i has the variant =e, which occurs when the preceding vowel of the verb is /i/ or /u/. however, this clitic is currently no longer productive. it almost never appears in our recorded naturalistic data. furthermore, only very few elicited phrases show this clitic. the possessive clitic for the first-person singular pronoun has two variants: =ŋu and =ku. the distinction between clitics are stressless, so they do not affect stress assignment. in (22) below, the clitics =mu ‘2sg’ and =ne ‘3sg.poss’ create trisyllabic words, but the stress remains on the first syllable, which is jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 527 the two forms is currently unclear, particularly regarding whether =ku is a loan from indonesian or an internal innovation. notes on orthography to date, modo still lacks an established orthography. previous works on modo (margono et al., 1987; troeboes et al., 1987; verheijen, 1987) did not develop a practical writing system. native speakers typically write the language using the indonesian orthographic system, which does not adequately represent the unique sounds of modo. developing an orthography specific to the modo phonological system would be beneficial for creating literacy materials and revitalization efforts. given the phonological analysis presented above, some phonemes need to be highlighted. to differentiate the marginal voiced dental stop / d̪/ from the other two alveolar stop sounds (the plain /d/ and the implosive /ɗ/), we propose using <dh> for the dental sound [d̪] and the grapheme <d’> with an apostrophe for the implosive [ɗ]. to maintain consistency with using apostrophes for the implosives, we represent the bilabial implosive /ɓ/ with <b’>. as for the prenasalized stops /ᵐp/, / ᵐb/, /ⁿt/, /ⁿd/, /ⁿc/, /ⁿɟ/, /ᵑk/, /ᵑg/, we propose to use <mp>, <mb>, <nt>, <nd>, <nc>, <nj>, <ngk>, and <ngg>, respectively. another issue is the glottal stop /ʔ/. it is not represented in word-initial positions since its occurrence is phonetically predictable. in medial and final positions, two options exist: the apostrophe <’> or the grapheme <q>, as used by verheijen (1987) in his ethnographic report. for this case, we suggest using the apostrophe in both word-medial and final positions. although the use of apostrophe word-medially is common in the languages of this region, it is not typically used word-finally, since the final glottal stop [ʔ] in most languages in the area is a phonetic variation of the velar stop /k/, not phonemic. it is important to note that this apostrophe will not conflict with the one used for implosive sounds because implosives never occur in the word-final position. moreover, we need to distinguish between the voiced labio-dental approximant /ʋ/ and the bilabial approximant /w/. to differentiate between the two, we recommend using the grapheme <v> for labio-dental approximant /ʋ/. for nasal vowels, we suggest that a diacritic is used, such as < ē> and <ō>, to distinguish them from non-nasal vowels, like <e> and <o>. finally, the mid-central vowel /ə/ is represented by the plain mid vowel plus the low tone diacritic, thus <è>. the practical orthography as previously mentioned, clitics do not affect stress assignments. when the possessive marker ko is followed by pronominal pronouns or clitics, the vowel [o] changes to [ə], [e] or [u]. as shown in (26) below, the vowel [o] changes to [ə] when followed by the possessive clitic =mu ‘2sg.poss’. the vowel [o] becomes [e] when followed by [h], and undergoes a vowel harmony when followed by the pronoun ahu ‘1sg’. table 11. modo pronominal clitics other morphophonological processes in modo include deletion and assimilation in compounding. deletion is shown by the examples in (27). the vowel [a] in the final syllable of the word /ama/ ‘father’ and /ina/ ‘mother’ is deleted when the following word in the phrase begins with the voiceless velar stop [k] in kia ‘small/young’. the resulting compound word forms a disyllabic word, and the first syllable ends with a nasal consonant, which is generally unacceptable in modo. this could have been an influence from indonesian. in the second example in (27), ina + kia, the alveolar nasal [n] gets a velar feature from the following velar stop, changing it into the velar nasal [ŋ]. additional studies are needed to investigate this phenomenon further. jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 528 of all the phonemes in modo is presented in table 12. /ɓ/, and /ɗ/ are also not treated as phonemes by margono et al. (1987). typologically, modo, with 29 native consonants, constitutes a language with the most extensive consonant system in the nusa tenggara timur (ntt) region. the consonants are relatively symmetrical, except for the dental plosive, where there is no voiceless dental plosive /t̪/. modo has a four-way consonant contrast in which it has the voiceless /p, t, c, k/, voiced plosive /b, d, ɟ, g/, and prenasalized voiced stops /ᵐb, ⁿd, ⁿc, ᵑg/. although the contrast is symmetrical, modo only exhibits two implosive phonemes, /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, typical of austronesian languages in the ntt region (balukh, 2024; hajek, 2010). previous studies consider the implosives to be allophonic variations of their plain stop counterparts; however, this study proposes that they are two distinct phonemic sets as they can occur word-initially and word-medially and cooccur with various vowels. in addition, this study also reveals that modo exhibits the labio-dental approximant /ʋ/, a typical sound in the western flores area but rarely described in the literature. the unique phoneme to modo is the denti-alveolar plosive /d̪/. no language in the ntt region is reported to have such a sound thus far. this sound is analyzed as phonemic because it is contrastive /d/, as shown in example (2). the analysis of vowels in the presented previous section indicates that modo has 11 vowels: six oral and five nasal vowels. the nasal vowels are considered unique because very few languages throughout the ntt region exhibit nasal vowels. beside modo, lamaholot and adonara, languages in the easter part of flores island are reported to constitute nasal in their vowels phonemically (see balukh, 2024; kroon, 2016, pp. 42–43; nagaya, 2011, pp. 65–68). nasal vowels are not found in languages in the western part of flores, such as manggarai (karjo, 2021) and rembong (fernandez, 1990). all vowels have complete distributions, except for the mid-central vowel /ə/, which only occurs word-medially, and nasal vowels, which are only found word-finally. the nasal vowels in modo were analyzed as a sequence of a vowel and the velar nasal /ŋ/ in previous works. however, this study shows they are nasal vowels, as supported by the acoustic feature. by positing nasal vowels as phonemes, this study suggests that only two consonants are allowed in word-final position, namely /h/ and /ʔ/, in contrast to the previous studies table 12. practical orthography phoneme orthography phoneme orthography /p/ <p> /i/ <i> /b/ <b> /e/ <e> /ɓ/ <b’> /ə/ <è> /d/ <d> /a/ <a> /d̪/ <dh> /o/ <o> /ɗ/ <d’> /u/ <u> /t/ <t> /ĩ/ <ī> /c/ <c> /ẽ/ <ē> /ɟ/ <j’> /ã/ <ā> /k/ <k’> /õ/ <ō> /ɡ/ <g> /ũ/ <ū> /ʔ/ <’> /m/ <m> /n/ <n> /ŋ/ <ng> /r/ <r> /f/ <f> /s/ <s> /h/ <h> /l/ <l> /w/ <w> /j/ <j> /ʋ/ <v> /ᵐp/ <mp> /ᵐb/ <mb> /ⁿt/ <nt> /ⁿd/ <nd> /ⁿc/ <nc> /ⁿɟ/ <nj> /ᵑk/ <ngk> /ᵑg/ <ngg> iv. discussion verheijen (1987) lists 29 consonants in modo, whereas margono et al. (1987) find 18 consonants, including a loan consonant /f/. the analysis presented before shows that modo exhibits 31 consonant phonemes, comprising 29 native phonemes and two loan phonemes, /f/ and /j/. the three sounds that are not listed in verheijen’s (1987) consonant inventory are /ɗ/, /ɟ/, and /ʋ/. meanwhile, margono et al. (1987) treat prenasalized consonants as consonant clusters, and thus, all eight prenasalized stops are not listed in the consonant inventory. in addition, /ɗ/, /ɟ/, /ʋ/, jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 529 proposing that modo has three final consonants /ŋ/, /ʔ/, and /h/ (margono et al., 1987, p. 21; verheijen, 1987, p. 42). the findings of this research can contribute to the development of an orthography of modo that, in turn, will be useful for the community to write their language or produce written materials that can help language learning and transmission in the community. this phonological sketch describes the main phonological aspects of modo, such as consonant and vowel inventories, syllable structure, and phonotactic aspects. these descriptions constitute a basis for a more comprehensive description of modo grammar. this paper presents findings that are unidentified in prior studies, such as nasalized vowels (/ã/, /ĩ/, /ũ/, /ẽ/, /õ/) and consonants /ɓ/, /ɗ/, /ɟ/, and /ʋ/. nonetheless, the fieldwork conducted for this study only obtained a limited amount of data for an in-depth analysis. furthermore, the native speakers were not always available to be language consultants during the fieldwork due to their daily activities or fluency in speaking modo. the phonological features of modo have been disclosed in this paper; however, there remain unanswered issues nonetheless. questions arising involve the formation of quadri-syllabic words, the stress shift in phrase and sentence domain, and the phonological constraints that influence the final vowels of verbs when they take pronominal or possessive clitics. more phonological evidence and further investigation are necessary to resolve these problems. v. conclusion despite its status as an endangered language, modo, a language of the bima-lembata subgroup of the central eastern malayo-polynesian of the austronesian family, spoken on the islands of komodo and rinca, is understudied. this paper describes modo’s synchronic phonology and provides a more detailed analysis of the sound system, including the phonotactic aspects of the language. modo has a moderately large consonant inventory, consisting of 29 native phonemes and two loans: /j/ and /f/. the consonant segments are symmetrical, except for the dental plosive, which has only one member, /d̪/. modo has two implosive consonants and eight prenasalized consonantal phonemes. additionally, the labiodental approximant /ʋ/ should be mentioned, as it was not distinguished in the previous literature. only two consonants are allowed in the final coda position: /h/ and /ʔ/. concerning vowels, modo has six oral and five nasal vowels. among the oral vowels, there is a mid-central vowel /ə/. this vowel is short, so the following consonants are lengthened in order to fulfill the syllable weight, resulting in an ambisyllabic consonant. additionally, this vowel is easily deleted, which results in consonant clusters. however, these clusters are optional and should be placed in the onset of the syllable structure, either as an initial or medial onset since modo does not allow codas in word medial positions. primary stress falls on the penultimate syllable, although it may shift to the final syllable when occurs in phrases or sentences. modo has limited morphophonological processes; only deletion and assimilation are observed in compounds. this current study provides a snapshot of the linguistic situation on the komodo and rinca islands and the synchronic phonological properties of modo, including the phonemic inventories and the syllable structures. it also clarifies some phonological issues in previous research, such as plain plosive-implosive pairs and nasal vowels. while previous studies consider the implosives to be allophonic variations of their plain stop counterparts, this study demonstrates that they are two distinct phonemic sets. in addition, none of the previous works lists nasal vowels as phonemes; however, our data show significant occurrences of nasal vowels, which are contrastive. this study also develops an orthography for modo, which could be useful for literacy, language preservation, and revitalization. list of abbreviations 1 = first person 2 = second person 3 = third person c = consonant class = classifier excl = exclusive incl = inclusive k.o. = kind of neg = negation poss = possessive prog = progressive pl = plural jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 530 sg = singular v = vowel credit author statement jermy i. balukh: conceptualization, methodology, resources, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, writing-original draft; dewi khairiah: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, data curation, formal analysis, resources, project administration, funding acquisition; yanti: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, writing-reviewing and editing; ryen maerina: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, resources, project administration acknowledgements this project is funded by a research grant from the agency of national research and innovation (brin) of the republic of indonesia for the year 2023. we would like to express our gratitude to balai taman nasional komodo (the komodo national park office) under the ministry of environment and forestry for allowing us to conduct research in the komodo national park conservation area. we also thank pak haji aksan, the village head of komodo village and pak nurdin, the village head of pasir panjang village on rinca island, and our language consultants: pak salahuddin, haji amin, pak magu, haji samang, siti haja, imel, astuti, pak mahfud, pak sebabung, and other consultants for their generous help. finally, we thank selly rizki yanita, satwiko budiono, and dwi wahyuni for doing the fieldwork with us. we thank okki kurniawan and tamisha tan for commenting on our initial draft. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references austin, p. k. (2021). corpora and archiving in language documentation, description, and revitalization [powerpoint presentation]. fieldling seminar. paris, september 9, 2021. balukh, j. (2020). a grammar of dhao, an endangered austronesian language in eastern indonesia. lot school. balukh, j. (2024). documenting unique sounds of indigenous languages and its implications for language education: a case study of dhao and modo in east nusa tenggara. nusa cendana university. blust, r. (2013). the austronesian language (p. sidwell, i. w. arka, m. donohue, b. evans, n. evans, g. hyslop, d. nash, b. palmer, a. pawley, m. ross, p. sidwell, & j. simpson (eds.); revised ed). asia-pacific linguistics research school of pacific and asian studies the australian national university. brandt, k. (2003). mengapa kebudayaan masyarakat kampung komodo terancam. chelliah, s. l., & willem j. de reuse. (2011). handbook of descriptive linguistic fieldwork. springer. cohn, a. c., & riehl, a. k. (2016). are there post-stopped nasals in austronesia? nusa: studies in language typology and change, 60, 29–57. https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/1395 dixon, r. m. w. (2010). basic linguistic theory: methodology (issue 1). oxford university press. https:// global.oup.com/academic/product/basic-linguistic-theory-volume-1-9780199571062 duanmu, s. (2008). syllable structure: the limits of variation. oxford university press. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199267590.001.0001 fernandez, i. y. (1990). posisi bahasa komodo, rembong, dan paluqe dalam kelompok bahasa flores. linguistik indonesia, 8, 25–60. fernandez, i. y. (1996). relasi historis kekerabatan bahasa flores. nusa indah. fricke, h. (2019). traces of language contact: the flores-lembata languages in eastern indonesia [leiden university]. https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/research/research-output/humanities/ traces-of-language-contact jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 531 garellek, m. (2012). glottal stop before initial vowel in english: distribution and acoustic characteristics. ucla working papers in phonetics, 110, 1–23. goedemans, r., & zanten, e. van. (2014). no stress typology. in j. caspers, y. chen, w. heeren, n. o. schiller, & e. van zanten (eds.), above and beyond the segments: experimental linguistics and phonetics (pp. 83–95). john benjamins. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/z.189.07goe hajek, j. (2010). towards a phonological overview of the vowel and consonant systems of east nusantara. in m. klamer & m. ewing (eds.), east nusantara: typological and areal analyses (pp. 22–46). pacific linguistics, school of culture, history and language college of asia and the pacific the australian national university. himmelmann, n. p. (2006). language documentation: what is it and what is it good for? in j. gippert, n. himmelmann, & u. mosel (eds.), essentials of language documentation (pp. 1–30). mouton de gruyter. karjo, c. h. (2021). phonetic and phonotactic analysis of manggarai language. proceedings of the international congress of indonesian linguistics society (kimli 2021), 79–83. https://doi. org/10.2991/assehr.k.211226.018 kroon, y. b. (2016). a grammar of solor lamaholot: a language of flores, eastern indonesia [university of adelaide]. https://doi.org/https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/102380 ladefoged, p., & johnson, k. (2015). a course in phonetics (7th edn). cengage learning. margono, sutjaja, i. g. m., yadnya, i. b. p., santoso, y., & sudipa, n. (1987). struktur bahasa komodo. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. marlett, s. a. (2019). phonology from the ground up: the basics. sil international. nagaya, n. (2011). the lamaholot language of eastern indonesia [rice university]. https://core.ac.uk/ download/pdf/10180216.pdf nuraini, c. (2010). lexicon and word formation in indonesian bajo. wacana, 12(2), 322–344. https:// doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17510/wjhi.v12i2.120 sugita, a., & mus, a. h. (2019). bentuk antonim bahasa modo pada masyarakat pulau komodo (the antonyms in modo spoken on the komodo island). jurnal ilmiah telaah, iv(2), 36–40. https://doi. org/https://doi.org/10.31764/telaah.v4i2.1224 troeboes, maryanto, s., gampar, a., porat, a., & hana, a. (1987). morfologi dan sintaksis bahasa komodo. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. verheijen, j. a. j. (1987). pulau komodo: tanah, rakyat, dan bahasanya. balai pustaka. jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 532 no phonemic phonetic english gloss 1 /ahã/ [ʔahã] ‘to eat’ 2 /ahu/ [ʔahu] ‘1sg’ 3 /aiba/ [ʔaiba] ‘when’ 4 /amaʔ/ [ʔamaʔ] ‘father’ 5 /anaʔ/ [ʔanaʔ] ‘child’ 6 /aⁿte/ [ʔaⁿte] ‘seed’ 7 /aŋĩ/ [ʔaŋĩ] ‘wind’ 8 /apa/ [ʔapa] ‘what’ 9 /api/ [ʔapi] ‘fire’ 10 /ata/ [ʔata] ‘person’ 11 /ate/ [ʔate] ‘liver’ 12 /awa/ [ʔawa] ‘if’ 13 /awã/ [ʔawã] ‘cloud’ 14 /awã/ [ʔawã] ‘sky’ 15 /ba/ [ba] ‘to swell’ 16 /bae/ [bae] ‘know (fact)’ 17 /balae/ [balaɛ] ‘snake’ 18 /bale/ [bale] ‘to throw’ 19 /ɓanũ/ [ɓanũ] ‘water’ 20 /baraʔ/ [baraʔ] ‘belly’ 21 /basaʔ/ [basaʔ] ‘wet’ 22 /bɔlã/ [bɔlã] ‘star’ 23 /binatã/ [binatã] ‘animal’ 24 /ɓokaʔ/ [ɓokaʔ] ‘neck’ 25 /buᵑga/ [buᵑga] ‘dog’ 26 /dae/ [dae] ‘to sew’ 27 /ɗaʔ/ [ɗaʔ] ‘bad’ 28 /dǝŋi/ [dǝŋːi] ‘to hear’ 29 /dinĩ/ [dinĩ] ‘near’ 30 /diu/ [diu] ‘far’ 31 /ɗuaʔ/ [ɗuʷaʔ] ‘to hunt’ 32 /d̪ud̪u/ [d̪ud̪u] ‘dull (knife)’ 33 /duᵐpeʔ/ [duᵐpɛʔ] ‘short’ 34 /duⁿdu/ [duⁿdu] ‘to push’ 35 /ede/ [ʔede] ‘this’ 36 /guᵐpu/ [guᵐpu] ‘thick’ 37 /haɔ/ [haɔ] ‘scratch’ 38 /hami/; /hete/ [hami]; [hete] ‘1pl.ex’; ‘1pl.in’ 39 /hənã/ [hənːã] ‘right (correct)’ 40 /hene/ [hene] ‘that’ 41 /həre/ [hərːe] ‘to stand’ 42 /hia/ [hiʲa] ‘3sg’ 43 /miu/ [miu] ‘2pl’ 44 /hou/ [hou] ‘2sg’ 45 /hutu/ [hutu] ‘louse’ no phonemic phonetic english gloss 46 /ihã/ [ʔihã] ‘fish’ 47 /ikoʔ/ [ʔikɔʔ] ‘tail’ 48 /ilu/ [ʔilu] ‘to spit’ 49 /ina/ [ʔina] ‘mother’ 50 /inũ/ [ʔinũ] ‘to drink’ 51 /isi/ [ʔisi] ‘meat (flesh)’ 52 /ɟao/ [ɟao] ‘green’ 53 /kaka/ [kaka] ‘bird’ 54 /kako/ [kako] ‘to play’ 55 /kaləbe/ [kalbe] ‘wing’ 56 /kɔdã/ [kɔdã] ‘big’ 57 /kəlaĩ/ [klaĩ] ‘sand’ 58 /kǝliŋa/ [kǝliŋa] ‘ear’ 59 /kəmoɟo/ [kəmːoɟo] ‘to suck’ 60 /kənai/ [knai] ‘to breathe’ 61 /kənanu/ [knanu] ‘to think’ 62 /kəraʋo/ [kraʋo] ‘ashes’ 63 /kere/ [kere] ‘to dig’ 64 /kǝteʔ/ [kǝtːɛʔ] ‘to cut’ 65 /ki/ [ki] ‘foot’ 66 /kideʔ/ [kidɛʔ] ‘small’ 67 /kini/ [kini] ‘other’ 68 /kolo/ [kolo] ‘head’ 69 /komõ/ [komõ] ‘mouth’ 70 /kuni/ [kuni] ‘back (body part)’ 71 /laho/ [laho] ‘to walk’ 72 /lahi/ [lahi] ‘husband’ 73 /laho/ [laho] ‘to walk’ 74 /lale ede/ [lale ʔede] ‘here’ 75 /lale ŋǝde/ [lalɛ ŋǝdːe] ‘in’ 76 /leba/ [leba] ‘where’ 77 /lǝku/ [lǝkːu] ‘to sleep’ 78 /lela/ [lela] ‘to fly’ 79 /ləmaʔ/ [ləmːaʔ] ‘tongue’ 80 /leⁿtẽ/ [leⁿtẽ] ‘to float’ 81 /leʋa/ [leʋa] ‘long’ 82 /lima/ [lima] ‘five’ 83 /lima/ [lima] ‘hand’ 84 /liu/ [liw] ‘left (hand)’ 85 /lo səne/ [lo sənːe] ‘there’ 86 /lo/ [lo] ‘at’ 87 /luki/ [luki] ‘skin (of person)’ 88 /maba/ [maba] ‘to hit’ 89 /mai/ [mai] ‘to come’ 90 /maleʔ/ [malɛʔ] ‘to laugh’ appendix 1: swadesh wordlist jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 533 no phonemic phonetic english gloss 91 /mara/ [mara] ‘dry’ 92 /masu/ [masu] ‘to smell’ 93 /mata ro/ [mata ro] ‘sun’ 94 /mata/ [mata] ‘eye’ 95 /mateʔ/ [mateʔ] ‘to die’ 96 /ᵐbã/ [ᵐbã] ‘to flow’ 97 /mədeh/ [mədːɛh] ‘heavy’ 98 /mina/ [mina] ‘fat (substance)’ 99 /mĩ/ [mĩ] ‘how’ 100 /moⁿca/ [moⁿca] ‘yellow’ 101 /mone/ [mone] ‘man (male)’ 102 /mucikali/ [mucikali] ‘all’ 103 /munu/ [munu] ‘to fall (drop)’ 104 /murẽ/ [murẽ] ‘black’ 105 /muta/ [muta] ‘to vomit’ 106 /nahã/ [nahã] ‘sharp (knife)’ 107 /naᵐbo/ [naᵐbo] ‘lake’ 108 /nani/ [nani] ‘and’ 109 /nani/ [nani] ‘with (accompanying)’ 110 /naŋĩ/ [naŋĩ] ‘to swim’ 111 /napu/ [napu] ‘brushwood’ 112 /ⁿcao/ [ⁿcao] ‘to fight’ 113 /ⁿdaho/ [ⁿdaho] ‘to fear/be afraid’ 114 /ⁿdore/ [ⁿdore] ‘to lie down’ 115 /nipis/ [nipis] ‘thin’ 116 /ⁿtaũ/ [ⁿtaʷũ] ‘year’ 117 /ⁿtodoh/ [ⁿtɔdɔh] ‘mountain’ 118 /nu/ [nu] ‘smoke’ 119 /nuⁿdoʔ/ [nuⁿdɔʔ] ‘to say’ 120 /ŋarã/ [ŋarã] ‘name’ 121 /ŋɔ/ [ŋɔ] ‘to see’ 122 /ŋoɗoʔ/ [ŋɔɗɔʔ] ‘to sit’ 123 /ŋǝⁿte/ [ŋǝⁿtːe] ‘cold (weather)’ 124 /ŋəⁿtu/ [ŋəⁿtːu] ‘tooth’ 125 /ᵑgəleʔ/ [ᵑgəlːɛʔ] ‘smooth’ 126 /ŋirũ/ [ŋirũ] ‘nose’ 127 /ŋolo/ [ŋolo] ‘leaf’ 128 /pa/ [pa] ‘four’ 129 /paɟaʔ/ [paɟaʔ] ‘wide’ 130 /pana/ [pana] ‘warm’ 131 /pərate/ [prate] ‘to kill’ 132 /pila-pila/ [pila-pila] ‘some’ 133 /popo/ [popo] ‘to wash’ 134 /popo/ [popo] ‘white’ 135 /posa/ [posa] ‘wipe’ 136 /pu/ [pu] ‘tree’ 137 /puh/ [puh] ‘to blow (wind)’ no phonemic phonetic english gloss 138 /pui/ [pui] ‘to tie’ 139 /puse/ [puse] ‘navel’ 140 /pusi/ [pusi] ‘to live’ 141 /pusu/ [pusu] ‘heart’ 142 /ranu/ [ranu] ‘to squeeze’ 143 /rara/ [rara] ‘red’ 144 /raʔ/ [raʔ] ‘blood’ 145 /rehẽ/ [rɛhɛ]̃ ‘good’ 146 /rekẽ/ [rɛkɛ]̃ ‘to count’ 147 /rǝwũ/ [rǝwːũ] ‘fog’ 148 /riⁿdo/ [riⁿdo] ‘to sing’ 149 /ro/ [ro] ‘day (not night)’ 150 /roᵐbo/ [roᵐbo] ‘straight’ 151 /rua/ [ruʷa] ‘two’ 152 /sa/ [sa] ‘one’ 153 /saᵐpu/ [saᵐpu] ‘dirty’ 154 /satah/ [satah] ‘grass’ 155 /sei/ [sei] ‘who’ 156 /sekio/ [sekio] ‘few’ 157 /sia/ [siʲa] ‘salt’ 158 /sire/ [sire] ‘they’ 159 /susɔ/ [susɔ] ‘rub’ 160 /susu/ [susu] ‘breast’ 161 /tali/ [tali] ‘rope’s 162 /tana/ [tana] ‘earth (soil)’ 163 /tase/ [tase] ‘sea (ocean)’ 164 /tau beke/ [tau beke] ‘to split’ 165 /tǝlɔ/ [tǝlɔ] ‘egg’ 166 /tǝlu/ [tǝlːu] ‘three’ 167 /teⁿtẽ/ [teⁿtːẽ] ‘hold (in hand)’ 168 /tǝʋu/ [tǝʋːu] ‘dust’ 169 /toko/ [toko] ‘bone’ 170 /tu/ [tu] ‘knee’ 171 /tuka/ [tuka] ‘narrow’ 172 /tuki/ [tuki] ‘stick (of wood)’ 173 /tunu/ [tunu] ‘to burn’ 174 /tuʷa/ [tuʷa] ‘old’ 175 /uleh/ [ulɛh] ‘worm’ 176 /urã/ [ʔurã] ‘to rain’ 177 /usu/ [ʔusu] ‘guts’ 178 /ʋei/ [ʋei] ‘wife’ 179 /ʋiã/ [ʋiʲã] ‘to give’ 180 /ʋod̪o/ [ʋod̪o] ‘many’ 181 /ʋou/ [ʋou] ‘new’ 182 /ʋoʔ/ [ʋoʔ] ‘hair’ 183 /ʋuah/ [ʋuʷah] ‘fruit’ 184 /ʋunu/ [ʋunu] ‘feather (large)’ jermy i. balukh / jurnal arbitrer vol. 11 no. 4 (2024) 534 no phonemic phonetic english gloss 185 /wadi/ [wadi] ‘because’ 186 /wake/ [wake] ‘root’ 187 /wakeʔ/ [wakɛʔ] ‘to bite’ 188 /waleʔ/ [walɛʔ] ‘to turn (veer)’ 189 /walu/ [walu] ‘river’ 190 /wana/ [wana] ‘right (hand)’ 191 /watu/ [watu] ‘stone’ 192 /weh/ [wɛh] ‘rotten (log)’ 193 /welaʔ/ [welaʔ] ‘flower’ 194 /wəwiã/ [wəwːiʲã] ‘night’ 195 /wiⁿco/ [wiⁿco] ‘to stab (or stick)’ 196 /wine/ [wine] ‘woman’ 197 /wiⁿtã/ [wiⁿtã] ‘to pull’ 198 /wita/ [wita] ‘not’ 199 /wuku/ [wuku] ‘nail’ 200 /wulã/ [wulã] ‘moon’ nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 368 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 23, 2025 final revision: august 30, 2025 accepted: september 02, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 this study examines the impact of gender and academic levels on using both traditional and ai-integrated learning strategies among efl omani students. this quantitative study utilized a questionnaire with a fivepoint likert scale based on oxford’s strategy inventory for language learning (sill) and other ai-related items adapted from current studies, including 152 students from a public omani university. the research instrument was expert-reviewed, followed by a pilot study, and the main data were analyzed using spss, namely t-tests and anova. out of 35 question items related to traditional learning strategies, omani female learners outperformed male students in 26 items, significantly in writing new words (f= 4.00, m= 3.63), online english classes (f= 3.36, m= 2.99), practice grammar (f= 3.56, m= 3.01), and learn pronunciation (f= 4.44, m= 3.78). similarly, omani female learners outperformed male learners in all nine ai-based strategies, namely ai tools to enhance speaking (f= 3.44, m= 3.15), learn pronunciation (f= 3.54, m= 3.19), and improve writing (f= 3.43, m= 3.25). students’ academic levels also affected some strategies like listening, speaking, and pronunciation; higher-level students preferred interactive approaches related to ai compared with lower-level students. however, ai tools for learning grammar and writing were less commonly used. these findings suggest that integrating traditional and aiassisted strategies could support learning foreign languages. consequently, educators should encourage active engagement in ai-based learning while addressing students’ dependence on traditional strategies. keywords language learning strategies, ai, gender, academic levels, omani students correspondence *e-mail: nayef.jomaa@utas.edu.om article traditional strategies and ai-integrated strategies in learning english among efl omani students nayef jomaa1*, badri abdulhakim mudhsh2, khalid alghafri3 1-3preparatory studies center, university of technology and applied sciences-salalah, dhofar, sultanate of oman under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.368-382.2025 i. introduction learning english could be achieved through language learning strategies (jomaa, attamimi, & alghafri, 2025b; oxford, 1990; rahimi & katal, 2012). in this regard, various factors can affect these strategies, such as gender, proficiency levels, and areas of studying (šafranj, 2013; tamimi & razeq, 2020). higher-achieving students utilize more strategies, namely metacognitive ones, in comparison with lower-achieving students (jomaa et al., 2025b; santihastuti & wahjuningsih, 2019). however, though some studies have suggested that gender significantly influences these strategies (zeynali, 2012; montero-saizaja, 2021), others, such as behforouz and al ghaithi (2022), have found no relationship. similarly, studies that have examined the influence of age and levels of study have yielded contrasting results (rahimi & katal, 2012; jomaa, attamimi, & al mahri, 2024). for instance, some studies have revealed that the level of proficiency affects the use of strategies; in other words, highly proficient learners prefer metacognitive and cognitive strategies (ping & luan, 2017; park, 1997), whereas other studies argue that external factors, including teaching methods and motivation, have a decisive role in language learning (ghafournia, 2014; jomaa, attamimi, & al mahri, 2025a; tahriri & divsar, 2011). these inconsistencies in the results imply a need for more examinations among efl arab students, particularly in omani public universities, to obtain further insights into their llss (alrashidi, nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 369 2022; tamimi & razeq, 2020). in oman, english is learned as a third language after acquiring various omani local languages, followed by arabic, and then english (alkathiri, jomaa, mudhsh, al saqr, & ali, 2025). investigating these strategies could enable teachers, educators, and university management to adopt more effective teaching methods and policies as well as enhance students’ learning experiences (mahayanti, putro, widodo, & alonzo, 2022; susanto, 2022). in this complicated process, multiple issues have been shown to influence using llss and their possible effectiveness, including age, gender, proficiency levels, and the possible influence of artificial intelligence (ai) (al-raimi et al., 2024; al-saiari et al., 2024; jomaa et al., 2024, 2025a, 2025b). for instance, younger learners tend to be more proficient due to greater brain plasticity (dey et al., 2024), whereas older learners may face more challenges but often exhibit higher motivation (chen, 2014; dey et al., 2024). in other words, different age groups prefer distinct strategies, with compensation strategies being more common among older students (sepasdar & soori, 2014; chen, 2014). social and affective strategies are also frequently used by university students (sepasdar & soori, 2014; chen, 2014). additionally, the relationship between llss and course grades is stronger in younger students (tragant & victori, 2012). cognitive strategy use increases with age, whereas social and contextual strategy use decreases (riazi et al., 2005). other influencing factors include the nature of tasks, course methodology, and parental support (suesca torres & torres pérez, 2017). these findings underscore the need for age-specific language teaching methods (dey et al., 2024; tanjung, 2018). further, research on gender differences in llss use has yielded mixed results (alhaysony, 2017; aliakbari & hayatzadeh, 2008; zeynali, 2012; montero-saizaja, 2021). the most commonly used strategies among both genders are cognitive, metacognitive, and compensation strategies (alhaysony, 2017; ariyani et al., 2018). although some studies have found gender differences in strategy use, others have not found such differences (kashefian-naeeini & maarof, 2016; tahriri & divsar, 2011). furthermore, the proficiency level affects strategy use, with more successful learners employing strategies more frequently (green & oxford, 1995). research has also shown a positive correlation between llss use and productive vocabulary acquisition (montero-saizaja, 2021). despite these findings, strategy use among learners typically ranges from low to medium (alhaysony, 2017). overall, learners across different studies have been found to be medium strategy users, with metacognitive strategies being the most frequently employed (tahriri & divsar, 2011). these inconsistencies highlight the need for further research into how gender influences llss use in different learning contexts. the level of study also significantly impacts llss use. to demonstrate, higher proficiency learners tend to employ more cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies (khosravi, 2012; ghafournia, 2014; sulthan et al., 2018), with metacognitive strategies being particularly favored by advanced learners (sulthan et al., 2018; rahimi et al., 2008). additionally, the year of study plays a role, as first-year students use more metacognitive and indirect strategies (kashefian-naeeini & maarof, 2016), whereas seniors employ a broader range of strategies (alrashidi, 2022; sedighi & zarafshan, 2006). motivation also influences strategy use, with integrative motivated students utilizing more strategies (sedighi & zarafshan, 2006; rahimi et al., 2008). however, in their study, jomaa, attamimi, and alghafri (2025b) revealed that levels of study have no effect on vlss among omani efl students. the integration of ai in language learning has introduced new dimensions to llss use (lavidas et al., 2024). that is, learning languages is no longer associated only with the classroom as it was in the past. nowadays, learners can use varied applications and ai tools to learn any language at any time outside the classroom. more specifically, recent studies have indicated that ai tools are commonly used for vocabulary learning strategies (al-raimi et al., 2024; jomaa et al., 2024, 2025a). the most frequently used ai-based strategy is translating the meaning of new words, followed by acquiring new vocabulary, translating entire sentences, and mastering pronunciation (jomaa, attamimi, & al mahri, 2024). however, strategies related to grammar learning, writing, and reading skills are less frequently used. this suggests that while ai is beneficial in some areas, its role in overall language acquisition strategies requires further exploration. additionally, jomaa et al. (2024) found that age, gender, and levels of study nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 370 do not significantly affect efl omani students’ use of ai tools for english vocabulary learning. these findings highlight the growing influence of ai in language education and suggest a need for further research to maximize its potential in improving llss use. these insights emphasize the significance of modified education approaches to improve foreign language learning. therefore, this study aims to address two research questions: 1. what are the perspectives of efl omani students on using both traditional and aiintegrated methods in learning the english language? 2. to what extent do gender and levels of study affect the use of traditional methods and ai-integrated methods in learning english among efl omani students? ii. methods this study adopted a quantitative research design to gain an efficient understanding of the language learning strategies employed by efl omani students in learning english in the omani context. this approach facilitates the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data. the questionnaire consists of 44 items adopted from the strategy inventory for language learning (sill) established by oxford (1990), which is a widely recognized instrument in language learning research. more specifically, items from 1 to 35 were adopted from the sill, since they are related to traditional methods of learning english. meanwhile, items from 36 to 44 were recently developed based on the results of several studies (jomaa, attamimi, & al mahri, 2024; al-raimi, mudhsh, al-yafaei, al-maashani, 2024) to measure ai-integrated language learning strategies, thus revealing emerging trends related to the possible effect of artificial intelligence on foreign language learning. the research instrument was expert-reviewed, followed by a pilot study. to effectively gauge students’ responses, the questionnaire employed a five-point likert scale: 1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always. this scale provided a structured framework to measure the frequency and extent of strategy use among the respondents. respondents the survey was randomly disseminated online through google forms to efl omani students enrolled in the general foundation program (gfp) at the preparatory studies center of a public university in oman. out of 500 students, a total of 153 students completed the questionnaire, and after a validation process, 152 responses were deemed suitable for the analysis. the respondents exhibited diversity in terms of gender (72 male students, 80 female students) and proficiency levels (level one: 30, level two: 29, level three: 36, level four: 57). table 1. number of respondents based on gender and levels of study category number of students gender male 72 female 80 level of study level one 30 level two 29 level three 36 level four 57 total 152 the respondents were enrolled in one of four levels (levels 1 to 4), each corresponding to an academic semester lasting four months. upon university admission, students undertook an english placement test, which determined whether they needed to enroll in the foundation program and at which level they should begin. the majority of the respondents fell within the 17-21 age range, with only one student classified within the 22-26 age category; therefore, this student was excluded from the sampling, since age is a significant variable, and respondents with different ages may use varied strategies. data analysis the collected data were analyzed using spss version 26, ensuring accuracy and precision in statistical assessment. the internal consistency of the questionnaire was evaluated using cronbach’s alpha, yielding a high-reliability score of 0.949, thereby signifying excellent reliability. key statistical measures, such as means, standard deviations, frequencies, and the highest and lowest mean values, were reported to summarize students’ responses. nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 371 this analysis examines the differences and similarities between male and female students in their use of traditional methods in learning english. concerning writing and vocabulary strategies, female students are significantly more likely to write new english words in a notebook (mean: 4.29 vs. 3.96, p = 0.044). both genders frequently translate new words into their native language, with little difference (mean: 4.33 for females, 4.25 for males). however, females are slightly more inclined to use new english words in sentences (mean: 3.75 vs. 3.40). regarding grammar and practice exercises, females engage significantly more in grammar exercises (mean: 3.56 vs. 3.01, p = 0.002). they also follow online english lessons for grammar more frequently (mean: 3.36 vs. 2.99). further, the use of mental visualization for remembering grammar rules is slightly more common among females (mean: 3.40 vs. 3.14). as for listening and pronunciation practices, female students listen to word pronunciations using google translate at a significantly higher rate than male students (mean: 4.44 vs. 3.78). listening to english texts to learn grammar is also slightly more frequent among females (mean: 3.48 vs. 3.15). both genders exhibit a similar tendency to listen to english songs (mean: 3.23 for females, 3.03 for males) and watch movies or tv shows in english (mean: 3.74 for females, 3.81 for males). regarding table 2. reliability statistics of the main study reliability statistics cronbach’s alpha cronbach’s alpha based on standardized items no of items .949 .949 44 inferential statistical analyses were conducted, including two types of tests. first, an independent sample t-test was conducted to examine potential differences in english learning strategies based on gender. second, a one-way anova was performed to assess the potential impact of students’ academic level (four levels were examined) on their choice of english learning strategies. iii. results in table 3, the effect of gender on using traditional methods of learning english is illustrated. overall, female learners consistently outperformed male students in most english learning strategies, particularly in grammar practice, writing, and structured study habits. the largest gender variations were in employing google translate for pronunciation, grammar exercises, and maintaining study schedules; all of which were favored by female students. in contrast, male learners showed only slight advantages in a few areas (e.g., watching movies, group discussions, chatting with people), but the differences were minimal. table 3. the effect of gender on traditional methods of english language learning question items gender n mean std. deviation std. error mean 1use new english words in a sentence. male 72 3.40 .914 .108 female 80 3.75 .948 .106 2write the new words on paper or in a notebook. male 72 3.96 1.067 .126 female 80 4.29 .903 .101 3repeat the new words to myself. male 72 3.54 .978 .115 female 80 3.66 .967 .108 4translate the new words into my native language. male 72 4.25 .946 .111 female 80 4.33 .978 .109 5follow online english lessons to learn grammar. male 72 2.99 1.216 .143 female 80 3.36 1.022 .114 6visualize mental images to remember grammar rules. male 72 3.14 1.202 .142 female 80 3.40 1.109 .124 7observe my mistakes and use the information to improve. male 72 3.82 1.053 .124 female 80 3.98 1.043 .117 8practice grammar exercises. male 72 3.01 1.028 .121 female 80 3.56 1.089 .122 9read english texts to learn grammar. male 72 3.18 1.142 .135 female 80 3.39 1.119 .125 10listen to english texts to learn grammar. male 72 3.15 1.134 .134 female 80 3.48 1.211 .135 11listen to word pronunciations on google translate. male 72 3.78 .982 .116 female 80 4.44 .898 .100 nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 372 12try to speak with native english speakers. male 72 3.36 1.271 .150 female 80 3.50 1.091 .122 13practice pronunciation with english speakers or other learners. male 72 3.35 1.140 .134 female 80 3.29 1.127 .126 14read newspapers, stories, or books in english. male 72 2.58 1.110 .131 female 80 2.78 1.113 .124 15read for enjoyment in english. male 72 2.82 1.226 .144 female 80 3.05 1.301 .146 16skim the english text quickly first, then reread it carefully. male 72 3.43 1.243 .146 female 80 3.61 1.288 .144 17focus on main headings and subheadings in english texts. male 72 3.54 1.138 .134 female 80 3.53 1.169 .131 18listen to english songs. male 72 3.03 1.529 .180 female 80 3.23 1.501 .168 19watch movies or tv shows in english. male 72 3.81 1.182 .139 female 80 3.74 1.199 .134 20pay attention to people speaking english. male 72 3.90 .981 .116 female 80 4.03 1.006 .112 21chat with people online in english. male 72 2.92 1.230 .145 female 80 2.78 1.158 .129 22discuss english learning materials and information with others. male 72 3.28 1.141 .134 female 80 3.11 1.125 .126 23participate in group discussions in english. male 72 3.10 1.153 .136 female 80 3.00 1.114 .125 24write essays and short stories in english in my free time. male 72 2.43 1.254 .148 female 80 2.05 1.113 .124 25write notes, text messages, and reports in english. male 72 2.74 1.175 .138 female 80 2.93 1.123 .126 26write simple, uncomplicated words in meaningful sentences. male 72 3.63 1.080 .127 female 80 4.00 1.091 .122 27try to finish english homework before the deadline. male 72 4.04 1.131 .133 female 80 4.26 .990 .111 28set a specific study schedule for exams. male 72 3.68 1.287 .152 female 80 4.03 1.091 .122 29try various methods for studying english. male 72 3.82 .954 .112 female 80 3.89 1.031 .115 30maintain a balance between my life and learning english. male 72 3.63 1.027 .121 female 80 3.65 1.092 .122 31motivate myself with positive self-talk. male 72 4.03 1.138 .134 female 80 4.13 1.036 .116 32seek help from experienced individuals to correct my english mistakes. male 72 4.01 1.028 .121 female 80 4.04 1.061 .119 33record my progress in learning english in a notebook. male 72 3.24 1.369 .161 female 80 3.23 1.312 .147 34compare my english learning progress with my prior knowledge. male 72 3.56 1.099 .130 female 80 3.55 1.157 .129 35evaluate myself through tests. male 72 3.65 1.115 .131 female 80 3.75 1.185 .133 speaking and interaction strategies, both genders show comparable engagement in speaking with native english speakers (mean: 3.50 for females, 3.36 for males). they also practice pronunciation with peers at nearly the same level (mean: 3.29 for females, 3.35 for males). further, participating in group discussions in english is equally common (mean: 3.00 for females, 3.10 for males). as for reading and writing practices, females are slightly more engaged in reading for enjoyment in english (mean: 3.05 vs. 2.82 for males). further, both genders read newspapers, stories, or books in english at a similar rate (mean: 2.78 for females, 2.58 for males). however, writing essays and short stories in free time is more common among males, but this difference is not statistically significant (mean: 2.43 vs. 2.05, p = 0.053). other strategies related to study habits and selfnayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 373 regulation showed both variations and similarities. to demonstrate, female students tend to set a study schedule for exams more frequently than males (mean: 4.03 vs. 3.68), though this difference is not statistically significant (p = 0.076). both genders show similar levels of motivation through positive self-talk (mean: 4.13 for females, 4.03 for males). besides, comparing english learning progress with prior knowledge is almost identical across genders (mean: 3.55 for females, 3.56 for males). keeping track of learning progress in a notebook is also equally common (mean: 3.23 for both). these results show that female students are more likely to engage in structured learning methods, such as writing new words in a notebook, practicing grammar exercises, and using pronunciation tools (p-values < 0.05). in contrast, male students show slightly higher engagement in freewriting activities, but the difference is not significant. this insight can help educators tailor teaching methods to accommodate different learning preferences. female students have a slightly higher mean score (3.5639) than male students (3.4222) in using traditional methods. however, the difference is small, and standard deviations are similar, indicating some overlap in behavior. the f-value is 1.917, and the p-value (sig.) is 0.168, which is greater than 0.05. this indicates no statistically significant difference between male and female students in their use of traditional learning methods. in table 4, the effect of gender on ai-integrated language learning strategies is explained. the data reveal that both male and female students use ai applications for learning english, with mean scores generally ranging between 3.13 and 3.88 on a 5-point scale. this suggests that ai is moderately utilized in language learning but has not yet become the dominant approach. while students engage with ai across different language skills, their usage varies based on specific learning needs. a notable trend is the slight gender difference in ai usage, with female students consistently reporting higher mean scores than male students across all categories. the most significant differences appear in ai use for strengthening speaking skills (male: 3.15, female: 3.44) and enhancing pronunciation accuracy (male: 3.19, female: 3.54). this suggests that female learners may be more inclined to use ai for oral communication and pronunciation improvement, possibly indicating greater confidence or willingness to engage with technology for interactive language learning. when examining the most and least used ai applications, the data show that ai for translating new words is the most widely adopted strategy (male: 3.85, female: 3.88). this suggests that learners primarily use ai as a translation tool rather than for productive language skills like writing or speaking. conversely, ai for learning grammar had the lowest mean scores (male: 3.13, female: 3.24), implying that students may still prefer traditional grammar-learning methods over ai-based tools, possibly due to the structured nature of grammar table 4. the effect of gender on ai-integrated language learning strategies questionnaire items gender n mean std. deviation std. error mean 36use language ai applications to learn english. male 72 3.26 1.332 .157 female 80 3.43 1.357 .152 37use ai applications to acquire new vocabulary. male 72 3.40 1.296 .153 female 80 3.55 1.292 .144 38use language ai applications to improve writing skills. male 72 3.25 1.264 .149 female 80 3.43 1.290 .144 39use language ai applications to strengthen speaking skills. male 72 3.15 1.218 .144 female 80 3.44 1.221 .136 40use language ai applications to enhance reading skills. male 72 3.21 1.321 .156 female 80 3.31 1.279 .143 41use language ai applications to improve listening skills. male 72 3.36 1.259 .148 female 80 3.38 1.226 .137 42use language ai applications to learn english grammar. male 72 3.13 1.310 .154 female 80 3.24 1.324 .148 43use language ai applications to enhance pronunciation accuracy. male 72 3.19 1.263 .149 female 80 3.54 1.242 .139 44use language ai applications to translate the meanings of new words. male 72 3.85 1.218 .144 female 80 3.88 1.335 .149 nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 374 instruction. looking at ai usage across different language skills, the findings indicate that ai applications are well-used for vocabulary learning (male: 3.40, female: 3.55), showing that students find ai helpful in expanding their word bank. aiassisted writing improvement is also moderately used (male: 3.25, female: 3.43), suggesting that while students turn to ai for writing support, it is not their primary resource. in contrast, ai use for reading (male: 3.21, female: 3.31) and listening (male: 3.36, female: 3.38) suggests a moderate reliance on ai for comprehension-based skills. the analysis of results shows that the significance (sig.) values for all the variables are above 0.05, indicating no statistically significant differences between genders in the use of ai applications for learning english. the eta squared values, which measure the strength of association, are all quite low (ranging from 0.000 to 0.019). this suggests that gender explains little to no variation in ai usage patterns. since all p-values (sig.) exceed 0.05, there is no statistically significant genderbased difference in ai-assisted english learning. table 5. the effect of the level of study on traditional methods of learning english sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1use new english words in a sentence. between groups (combined) 4.004 3 1.335 1.509 .215 within groups 130.884 148 .884 total 134.888 151 2write the new words on paper or in a notebook. between groups (combined) 7.800 3 2.600 2.718 .047 within groups 141.569 148 .957 total 149.368 151 3repeat the new words to myself. between groups (combined) 8.193 3 2.731 3.014 .032 within groups 134.123 148 .906 total 142.316 151 4translate the new words into my native language. between groups (combined) .433 3 .144 .154 .927 within groups 138.830 148 .938 total 139.263 151 5follow online english lessons to learn grammar. between groups (combined) 4.008 3 1.336 1.047 .374 within groups 188.834 148 1.276 total 192.842 151 6visualize mental images to remember grammar rules. between groups (combined) 4.405 3 1.468 1.098 .352 within groups 197.990 148 1.338 total 202.395 151 7observe my mistakes and use the information to improve. between groups (combined) 6.178 3 2.059 1.913 .130 within groups 159.341 148 1.077 total 165.520 151 8practice grammar exercises. between groups (combined) 4.602 3 1.534 1.294 .279 within groups 175.477 148 1.186 total 180.079 151 9read english texts to learn grammar. between groups (combined) 4.606 3 1.535 1.205 .310 within groups 188.657 148 1.275 total 193.263 151 table 5 reveals the effect of levels of study on learning english following the traditional methods. this analysis examines the traditional methods of learning english among efl omani students across four academic levels (level 1, level 2, level 3, and level 4) using an anova test. the key findings are grouped into several categories based on their strategy. first, regarding writing and memorization strategies, using new words in a sentence based on the anova result show f(3,148) = 1.509, p = .215, indicating no statistically significant difference across levels. writing new words in a notebook: f(3,148) = 2.718, p = .047 suggests a significant difference among levels, meaning that students at different levels vary in their tendency to write new words for memorization. repeating new words to oneself resulted in f(3,148) = 3.014, p = .032, indicating a significant difference, whereby higher-level students might use this method more effectively than lower-level ones. while writing down words is significantly different across levels, repetition also shows a difference, suggesting that higher-level nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 375 10listen to english texts to learn grammar. between groups (combined) 17.147 3 5.716 4.359 .006 within groups 194.056 148 1.311 total 211.204 151 11listen to word pronunciations on google translate. between groups (combined) 1.438 3 .479 .482 .695 within groups 147.187 148 .995 total 148.625 151 12try to speak with native english speakers. between groups (combined) 16.132 3 5.377 4.119 .008 within groups 193.210 148 1.305 total 209.342 151 13practice pronunciation with english speakers or other learners. between groups (combined) 12.158 3 4.053 3.319 .022 within groups 180.684 148 1.221 total 192.842 151 14read newspapers, stories, or books in english. between groups (combined) 3.248 3 1.083 .873 .457 within groups 183.594 148 1.241 total 186.842 151 15read for enjoyment in english. between groups (combined) 6.600 3 2.200 1.381 .251 within groups 235.867 148 1.594 total 242.467 151 16skim the english text quickly first, then reread it carefully. between groups (combined) 9.629 3 3.210 2.045 .110 within groups 232.266 148 1.569 total 241.895 151 17focus on main headings and subheadings in english texts. between groups (combined) 4.229 3 1.410 1.067 .365 within groups 195.606 148 1.322 total 199.836 151 18listen to english songs. between groups (combined) 24.938 3 8.313 3.840 .011 within groups 320.430 148 2.165 total 345.368 151 19watch movies or tv shows in english. between groups (combined) 12.505 3 4.168 3.078 .029 within groups 200.436 148 1.354 total 212.941 151 20pay attention to people speaking english. between groups (combined) 4.496 3 1.499 1.537 .207 within groups 144.340 148 .975 total 148.836 151 21chat with people online in english. between groups (combined) 4.463 3 1.488 1.050 .373 within groups 209.748 148 1.417 total 214.211 151 22discuss english learning materials and information with others. between groups (combined) 1.920 3 .640 .494 .687 within groups 191.547 148 1.294 total 193.467 151 23participate in group discussions in english. between groups (combined) 11.201 3 3.734 3.045 .031 within groups 181.476 148 1.226 total 192.678 151 24write essays and short stories in english in my free time. between groups (combined) 6.597 3 2.199 1.562 .201 within groups 208.344 148 1.408 total 214.941 151 25write notes, text messages, and reports in english. between groups (combined) 3.781 3 1.260 .956 .415 within groups 195.107 148 1.318 total 198.888 151 26write simple, uncomplicated words in meaningful sentences. between groups (combined) 8.494 3 2.831 2.412 .069 within groups 173.710 148 1.174 total 182.204 151 27try to finish english homework before the deadline. between groups (combined) 7.306 3 2.435 2.212 .089 within groups 162.905 148 1.101 total 170.211 151 28set a specific study schedule for exams. between groups (combined) 7.326 3 2.442 1.731 .163 within groups 208.773 148 1.411 total 216.099 151 nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 376 29try various methods for studying english. between groups (combined) 4.369 3 1.456 1.492 .219 within groups 144.447 148 .976 total 148.816 151 30maintain a balance between my life and learning english. between groups (combined) 4.931 3 1.644 1.482 .222 within groups 164.168 148 1.109 total 169.099 151 31motivate myself with positive self-talk. between groups (combined) 7.095 3 2.365 2.059 .108 within groups 169.958 148 1.148 total 177.053 151 32seek help from experienced individuals to correct my english mistakes. between groups (combined) 3.305 3 1.102 1.015 .388 within groups 160.590 148 1.085 total 163.895 151 33record my progress in learning english in a notebook. between groups (combined) 3.647 3 1.216 .678 .567 within groups 265.294 148 1.793 total 268.941 151 34compare my english learning progress with my prior knowledge. between groups (combined) 3.575 3 1.192 .938 .424 within groups 188.004 148 1.270 total 191.579 151 35evaluate myself through tests. between groups (combined) 7.988 3 2.663 2.056 .109 within groups 191.689 148 1.295 total 199.678 151 students rely more on these strategies compared to beginners. lower-level students may not be as disciplined in noting new words, while advanced students might integrate writing and repetition more effectively. second, translating new words into the native language: f (3,148) = 0.154, p = .927, indicates no significant difference across levels. this suggests that translation remains a common method among all levels, implying that efl omani students continue relying on their native language to support their english learning regardless of proficiency. third, grammar learning strategies following online english grammar lessons showed f(3,148) = 1.047, p = .374, which is not significant. visualizing mental images for grammar rules: f(3,148) = 1.098, p = .352 is also not significant. similarly, observing mistakes for improvement: f(3,148) = 1.913, p = .130 and practicing grammar exercises: f(3,148) = 1.294, p = .279 are not significant. in general, no significant differences were found across levels, suggesting that students at all levels use similar grammar learning methods. this may indicate a lack of differentiation in how grammar is taught or studied, implying that grammar learning remains uniform across academic progression. fourth, concerning reading and listening strategies, listening to english texts to learn grammar: f(3,148) = 4.359, p = .006 is significant. though reading english texts for grammar: f(3,148) = 1.205, p = .310 is not significant, listening to english songs: f(3,148) = 3.840, p = .011, and watching movies or tv shows in english: f(3,148) = 3.078, p = .029 are significant. it can be reported that listening-based strategies are significantly different across levels, suggesting that higher-level students engage with these activities more frequently than beginners. in contrast, reading strategies did not show significant differences, which may suggest that reading habits are more stable across different levels of study. fifth, speaking and pronunciation strategies showed significant differences. more specifically, speaking with native speakers: f(3,148) = 4.119, p = .008, practicing pronunciation with others: f(3,148) = 3.319, p = .022, and participating in group discussions: f(3,148) = 3.045, p = .031 are significant. this can reveal that speaking and pronunciation-related strategies show significant differences across levels, suggesting that higherlevel students engage in active communication more frequently than lower-level students. this may indicate that confidence and proficiency increase with level progression, leading students to seek more interaction with native and fluent speakers. the dataset examines whether the level of study significantly affects traditional methods of learning english. the analysis is based on anova, with statistical significance (p-values) and effect sizes (eta squared) examined. statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in the following traditional methods of learning english among nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 377 efl omani students; writing new words on paper (p = 0.047), repeating new words to oneself (p = 0.032), listening to english texts to learn grammar (p = 0.006), speaking with native english speakers (p = 0.008), practicing pronunciation with others (p = 0.022), listening to english songs (p = 0.011), watching movies or tv shows in participating in group discussions (p = 0.031). these results indicate that the level of study significantly affects the use of these traditional methods. in contrast, most of the other traditional methods, including translating words, reading english texts, following online lessons, and using grammar exercises, showed no significant differences across levels of study. however, the largest effect size (eta squared) were found in the following traditional methods of learning english by efl omani students: listening to english texts to learn grammar (0.081), speaking with native speakers (0.077), listening to english songs (0.072), practicing pronunciation (0.063), watching movies/tv shows (0.059), and group discussions (0.058). these indicate moderate effects, meaning the level of study plays a meaningful role in these learning behaviors. in table 6, the dataset provides mean scores across four study levels for various ai-integrated english learning activities among efl omani students. the mean scores of general ai use in learning english range from 3.11 (level three) to 3.49 (level four), suggesting that higher-level students use ai applications slightly more, but the differences are small. concerning vocabulary learning, level two (3.69) and level four (3.56) students report higher ai use, whereas level three students show the lowest (3.17). as for writing skills improvement, level two students (3.62) use ai more, whereas level three students report the least (2.89). regarding speaking skills strengthening, levels one, two, and four have similar usage (around 3.30–3.53), whereas level three is the lowest (2.89). however, in reading and listening skills enhancement, minor variations exist, with means ranging from 3.06 to 3.45. regarding grammar learning and pronunciation accuracy, levels two and four students show slightly higher means than other levels. the strategy related to the translation of new words showed that the highest usage is observed in level one (4.17), decreasing slightly in higher levels. it could be concluded that the means suggest that ai-integrated methods are used across all study levels, but there is no clear table 6. the effect of the level of study on ai-integrated language learning strategies descriptives no mean st. dev. st. error lower bound upper bound 36use language ai applications to learn english. level 1 30 3.43 1.406 .257 2.91 3.96 level 2 29 3.28 1.437 .267 2.73 3.82 level 3 36 3.11 1.304 .217 2.67 3.55 level 4 57 3.49 1.297 .172 3.15 3.84 total 152 3.35 1.343 .109 3.13 3.56 37use ai applications to acquire new vocabulary. level 1 30 3.50 1.358 .248 2.99 4.01 level 2 29 3.69 1.168 .217 3.25 4.13 level 3 36 3.17 1.444 .241 2.68 3.66 level 4 57 3.56 1.210 .160 3.24 3.88 total 152 3.48 1.292 .105 3.27 3.69 38use language ai applications to improve writing skills. level 1 30 3.30 1.368 .250 2.79 3.81 level 2 29 3.62 1.293 .240 3.13 4.11 level 3 36 2.89 1.282 .214 2.46 3.32 level 4 57 3.51 1.167 .155 3.20 3.82 total 152 3.34 1.277 .104 3.14 3.55 39use language ai applications to strengthen speaking skills. level 1 30 3.30 1.236 .226 2.84 3.76 level 2 29 3.38 1.293 .240 2.89 3.87 level 3 36 2.89 1.214 .202 2.48 3.30 level 4 57 3.53 1.151 .152 3.22 3.83 total 152 3.30 1.224 .099 3.11 3.50 nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 378 40use language ai applications to enhance reading skills. level 1 30 3.17 1.234 .225 2.71 3.63 level 2 29 3.45 1.298 .241 2.95 3.94 level 3 36 3.06 1.308 .218 2.61 3.50 level 4 57 3.35 1.329 .176 3.00 3.70 total 152 3.26 1.296 .105 3.06 3.47 41use language ai applications to improve listening skills. level 1 30 3.17 1.117 .204 2.75 3.58 level 2 29 3.66 1.317 .245 3.15 4.16 level 3 36 3.22 1.312 .219 2.78 3.67 level 4 57 3.42 1.209 .160 3.10 3.74 total 152 3.37 1.238 .100 3.17 3.57 42use language ai applications to learn english grammar. level 1 30 3.23 1.382 .252 2.72 3.75 level 2 29 3.28 1.386 .257 2.75 3.80 level 3 36 2.83 1.231 .205 2.42 3.25 level 4 57 3.33 1.286 .170 2.99 3.67 total 152 3.18 1.314 .107 2.97 3.39 43use language ai applications to enhance pronunciation accuracy. level 1 30 3.20 1.186 .217 2.76 3.64 level 2 29 3.72 1.386 .257 3.20 4.25 level 3 36 3.14 1.222 .204 2.73 3.55 level 4 57 3.44 1.239 .164 3.11 3.77 total 152 3.38 1.260 .102 3.17 3.58 44use language ai applications to translate the meanings of new words. level 1 30 4.17 1.085 .198 3.76 4.57 level 2 29 3.59 1.524 .283 3.01 4.17 level 3 36 3.78 1.376 .229 3.31 4.24 level 4 57 3.89 1.160 .154 3.59 4.20 total 152 3.86 1.277 .104 3.66 4.07 linear trend showing increased usage with study progression. ai-assisted vocabulary learning and writing improvement show the most differences between levels, suggesting that specific skills may influence ai adoption more than general proficiency levels. however, efl omani students in level three consistently report the lowest ai usage, which could indicate external factors (e.g., curriculum difficulty, engagement levels). in contrast, the highest ai use is seen in word translation, especially among level one students, suggesting beginners rely more on ai for direct translation rather than deeper language learning. the anova tests show that none of the differences in ai usage across study levels are statistically significant (p-values > 0.05) among efl omani students. this indicates that the level of study does not have a significant effect on aiintegrated learning methods for english. although some variations exist in ai usage patterns across study levels, these differences are not statistically significant. this suggests that ai-integrated learning is used relatively consistently regardless of the students’ level of study. iv. discussion this study employed quantitative research to examine english learning strategies among efl omani students, comparing traditional and ai-assisted methods. the findings revealed that traditional methods, particularly vocabulary memorization, translation, and structured learning, were dominant. these three strategies form the basis of learning foreign languages. on the other hand, ai tools were moderately used, mainly for translation, vocabulary learning, and pronunciation, but less so for grammar and writing. in both groups of foreign language learning strategies, vocabulary learning and translation are fundamental. gender differences showed that female students were more engaged in structured learning strategies. however, the study finds no statistically significant gender differences in the use of ai-integrated applications for learning english. further, the findings reveal that lower-level students rely heavily on structured techniques like writing new words, repetition, and translation, whereas higher-level students gradually shift toward interactive and communicative strategies, nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 379 such as speaking with native speakers, listening to english media, and engaging in discussions. this shows the linear track of learning foreign languages among non-native speakers of english, starting with learning new words and ending with speaking and listening. that is, arab learners including efl omani students learn reading and writing skills first, followed by speaking and listening skills in contrast with the natural order of acquiring languages. however, strategies of learning grammar seem to be consistent across all students’ levels, thereby demonstrating a standardized instructional approach. a key observation is that vocabulary learning and translation of new words are the most common ai-assisted learning strategies, with higher mean scores compared to ai usage for writing, reading, and grammar. this aligns with souriyavongsa et al. (2013), who found that students relied on vocabulary books and electronic dictionaries. these findings imply that as students advance in their language learning process, they are willing to implement more active learning methods, which may boost both fluency and confidence in using english. moreover, students’ level of study does not significantly influence students’ use of ai-integrated methods for learning english. this result aligns with tamimi and razeq’s (2020) study, which emphasizes that though students adopt several strategies for learning english, their awareness and effective utilization of these strategies require further improvement and enhancement. however, this result contradicts previous findings (kashefiannaeeini & maarof, 2016) that showed senior students utilize more strategies than freshmen. the findings also point out that students in level three reported the lowest usage of aiintegrated language learning strategies. this result contrasts with sedighi and zarafshan (2006), who revealed that senior students adopt more strategies than freshmen. a possible reason can be associated with the greater academic pressure faced by students at this level, thus reducing their engagement with ai-integrated language learning tools. the inconsistency in these studies implies that external factors like curriculum demands or students’ comfort with ai technology could impact ai adoption more than the level of study itself. pedagogically, these findings advocate aiintegrated methods as a complement rather than a replacement of the traditional learning strategies. these results are in line with rubaai et al. (2019), who highlighted the significance of adjusting teaching strategies based on students’ preferred learning styles. the variations in adopting ai tools across students’ skills and levels highlight the need for educators to provide targeted guidance on effective ai usage in the teaching and learning process. v. conclusions the findings illustrated that both traditional and ai-integrated methods of foreign language learning are utilized with distinct patterns of preference among efl omani students. traditional methods, namely translating words into arabic, writing new words in notebooks, and practicing pronunciation, are dominant. on the other hand, ai-integrated language learning strategies are gaining traction, especially in vocabulary learning, pronunciation improvement, and listening comprehension. consequently, these findings imply that ai is predominantly used as a supplementary tool rather than a replacement for traditional language learning strategies. overall, though the findings imply that ai is a valuable resource in english language learning, its impact is not significantly influenced by students’ academic levels. however, this study has several limitations that should be considered while interpreting the results. first, the dependence on self-reported data might lead to response bias, since students may either overestimate or underestimate their use of ai and traditional learning strategies. second, the sample consists of only students from one public university in oman, thus limiting the generalizability of the findings to a broader population. additionally, the study did not consider employing qualitative insights into students’ experiences and perspectives of ai integration in language learning, which could provide a deeper understanding of the challenges and benefits associated with ai-based learning. future studies could also explore the possible effect of specific instructional interventions on enhancing ai adoption rates across varied levels. this implies encouraging lower-level students to utilize writing and repetition methods early to increase their vocabulary retention. moreover, longitudinal studies tracing students’ development over time with ai-assisted foreign language learning could provide valuable insights into the long-term benefits and limitations of integrating ai nayef jomaa / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 380 into english language instruction. ethics statement the relevant informed consent was obtained from the university, the preparatory studies center, and students. credit author statement nayef jomaa: designed the whole study, prepared the questionnaire, analysed the data, wrote the findings. badri mudhsh: helped in designing the questionnaire, collecting the data, and writing the literature review. khalid alghafri: helped in collecting the data, overall proofreading, and writing the discussion. acknowledgements “this research was funded by the ministry of higher education, research and innovation (sultanate of oman), grant number (moheri/ bfp/utas/2023), and the apc was funded by (moheri/bfp/utas/2023 ” declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references alhaysony, m. 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(2012). exploring the gender effect on efl learners’ learning strategies. theory and practice in language studies, 2(8), 1614. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.8.16141620 bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 437 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: august 02, 2025 final revision: september 22, 2025 accepted: september 24, 2025 available online: september 28, 2025 this article presents a series of reflections on the visual and verbal rhetoric of baburite art, with a particular emphasis on the interplay between visual and textual elements in islamicate manuscripts. it particularly critiques the semiotic and multimodal methods employed to decipher the artistic customs of the period, specifically the reign of zahiruddin muhammad babur and his descendants. the work offers a psychological analysis of miniatures, calligraphy, and inscriptions as powerful rhetorical tools to disseminate the imperial message, establishes cultural and national identity through their connection with various religions, and fosters political legitimacy. the paper itself also highlights babur’s impact on the evolution of indian painting, particularly his role in importing persian and central asian art practices that would meld with regional styles in india to form a distinct mughal visual culture. as a result of cultural hybridity, babur’s artistic contribution informed the art direction of mughal viceroys for their visual and literary narratives. this article highlights several key themes, including persian, central asian, and indian influences, and focuses on the significance of considering baburite art as a vehicle for artistic representation and propaganda. the paper advocates for a more unified approach to considering baburite art as a simultaneous cultural expression and imperial communication. keywords baburite art, visual and verbal rhetoric, semiotic analysis, mughal painting, cultural influence correspondence *e-mail: bekhzod96@gmail.com under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.437-451.2025 introduction the time of zahiruddin muhammad babur and his descendants, the baburids, was a critical moment in south asian cultural and artistic history (branfoot, 2018). when babur invaded india in the early sixteenth century, he brought with him a wealth of artistic traditions from persia and central asia that became infused with india’s own artistic legacy, affecting even the monumental structures as well as miniature painting (gonzalez, 2016; losty & roy, 2013; patel & leonard, 2011; shahzad, 2025). during this time not only political power centralized, but a distinct mode of artistic expression with characteristics both eastern and western had emerged. the baburite court radiated a renaissance, attracting scholars, poets, painters, and calligraphers from different parts of the country to participate in an unmatched cultural confluence (gonzalez 2016). the visual arts, specifically illuminations and miniature paintings, were integral elements of this cultural flowering, providing a significant medium for the propagation of imperial propaganda, cultural identity, and political legitimacy. these works of art were not only decorative; they also formed an influential visual and ideological space within the mughal empire (gonzalez, 2016; losty & roy, 2013); mishra & tyagi, 2024). review visual and verbal rhetoric in islamicate manuscripts: a semiotic and multimodal perspective bekhzod b. khadjimetov1*, abdumadjid madraimov2, shixnazar djumaniyazov3, maftuna kh. kalbaeva4, asalkhon g. rakhmatullaeva5, zilola a. askarova6 1-4department of miniature and calligraphy, national institute of arts and design named after kamaliddin behzad, tashkent, 100106, uzbekistan 5,6department of “history and theory of art”, national institute of arts and design named after kamaliddin behzad, tashkent, 100026, uzbekistan bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 438 the visual and verbal rhetoric in these works has not yet been systematically investigated, although the individual art traditions have been studied extensively (abiodun, 1987; aczél, 2023; hagan, 2006; stampoulidis & bolognesi, 2019). studies show that visual and verbal expressions generate interactive communication experiences more powerful than the sum of equally persuasive components. hagan (2007) classifies four dimensions of visual-verbal interaction across the continuum of loose to tight picto-literate coupling in which coherent and perceptual relations between image/illustration and text can either support, oppose, or contest reader response. this interweaving encompasses not only literal and figurative content but also imagined ingredients that generate unrealized rhetorical potential. aczél (2023) terms these visual hybrids and describes them as staging rhetorical ‘plays of difference-andunity’ whereby identification occurs when thoughts connect to images, words to pictures. mackenhorarik (2004) demonstrates that image and verbiage are complementary in creating meaning, so that the analysis of multimodal texts requires consideration of the co-alignment of evaluation between these modes. over time, the visual arts of babur’s era have been interpreted in terms of the stylistic source—whether persian, indian, or central asian (gonzalez 2016). however, these works do not typically discuss the complex interaction between visual art and its complementary textual components, nor how both systems of information combine to convey nuanced messages. semiotics, the science of signs and symbols, provides a useful means for analysing the role that visual features like miniatures and calligraphy serve in expressing authority, power, and ideology (chandler 2025; jappy 2013; lagopoulos et al. similarly, a multimodal analysis that takes into account the interaction of visual and verbal modes enables us to develop a more cohesive understanding of how these works functioned as communicative tools within their socio-political settings within the baburite empire (iedema, 2003; ledin & machin, 2020; macken-horarik, 2004). previous research has explored the impact of babur’s central asian background on indian art, but there remains a void in understanding how its visual and verbal components coalesced to convey a rhetorical statement (branfoot, 2018; dale, 2004; foltz, 1998; gonzalez, 2016; hagan, 2006). a significant portion of the available literature focuses on either the aesthetic aspects or the historical significance of baburite art as individual elements, such as groups of miniatures or calligraphic styles, rather than on how these elements interact to produce meaning (balafrej, 2019; gonzalez, 2016; khajavi, 2020; kia, 2006). together with semiotic analysis, multimodality offers a more enriching approach to studying such artworks and artifacts, examining how text and image interact to create a coherent ideational message. despite the growing interest in multimodal analysis as an important method for understanding art, literature, and communication in general, relatively little attention has been devoted to this approach as it relates to historical artworks, specifically those from pre-islamic times, such as the baburidate period. here, visual imagery and written text, including miniatures, border vignettes, and other details, work closely together as elements of a combined communicative system that includes inscriptions, poems, and narrative texts. this article proposes a conceptual framework for discussing visual and verbal rhetoric in islamicate manuscripts from a semiotic multimodal perspective, aiming to fill the gap highlighted above. using semiotic analysis, this research project deciphers the symbols, themes, and stories underlying the work’s visual factors, while multimodal analysis considers how these visuals interact with textual elements to create a coherent and integrated story. both approaches combined offer a comprehensive framework for analysing the relationship between image and text in islamicate manuscripts, shedding light on their rhetorical, cultural, and communicative potential. pre-islamic indian paintings and miniatures the tradition of painting in the indian subcontinent has its roots in ancient times. frescoes in the ajanta and ellora caves, buddhist manuscripts on palm leaves, miniature paintings of the mughal and rajput schools, and numerous other paintings all testify to the high skill of indian artists. through painting, indian classical visual art conveys the joy of life, the abundance of its blessings, spiritual sentiments, and the triumph of spiritual perfection (ranjana & shahid, 2025). a distinctive feature of indian painting is that the theme of tragedy is avoided in these pictorial works. bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 439 classical indian visual art can be divided into two types: wall paintings (frescoes) and miniatures for manuscripts (sahni et al., 2020). over time, these types have evolved into a blend of various styles that influence one another. for example, cave wall paintings appear earlier than hindu temple wall paintings. the history of stone art in the indian peninsula dates back to the 2nd millennium bc (newman, 1984). a vivid example of this is the frescoes of the bagha and sittanavasala caves. special attention should be paid to the frescoes of ajanta and ellora, which are listed as a unesco world heritage site and are considered a treasure of ancient art. parshvanatha is shown seated beneath the prickly leaves of a seven-hooded snake as a symbol of divine protection and spiritual power. on the south, on the other hand, is housed a figure of a seated man under an umbrella (parasol), with attributes similar to that of a tirthankara, whose identity remains unclear but is marked by an inscription as “sri tiruvasiriyam,” meaning “revered teacher,” which suggests that this figure may not represent a tirthankara but possibly a teacher or a saintly figure of note within the jain tradition. the uncertainty of identification in the images also calls for a more rigorous examination of the wide range and everchanging nature of spiritual figures covered by jain art, pointing to the intricate fabric and dynamism of religious iconography in a jain context. figure 1. miniatures at cave frescoes tirthankara parshvanatha one of the most interesting features are the carved out niches containing three reliefs of meditating figures, including that of tirthankara parshvanatha (figure 2), a saint who is revered in jainism. figure 2. tirthankara parshvanatha source : mapacademy.io figure 3. samavasarana source : mapacademy.io the most important and principal fresco in this rock-cut cave portrays a pond filled with lotus (figure 3), where monks, ducklings, swans, fish, and other animals converge to gather the flowers. this episode is about the samavasarana, a key aspect of jainism. the samavasarana is the divine pavilion where tradeankaras impart their sermons to followers. it is a seat for gods and divine beings, belonging to bulls, elephants, or apsaras (heavenly nymphs) who stand together to see this divine event (hegewald, 2010; restifo, 2019; siderits, 2009). this symbolic lotus pond fresco has been shot in detail, as seen in the above image. miniature is a type of exquisite painting in the indian subcontinent. the main aspect of this art is a complex and delicate writing style. paints for writing miniatures are traditionally made from natural materials: minerals, plants, precious stones, gold, silver, and mollusc shells (burgio et al., 2009). writing miniatures is a very complex, bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 440 such impurity, as wisdom and reason emerge from pain in the world yet transcend it; an account found throughout the written work. the juxtaposition of text and image further enriches the viewer’s understanding of the bodhisattva path that is central to prajñāpāramitā teachings. mamaki is depicted seated in a meditative posture with a vajra, embodying the ideal bodhisattva and striving for enlightenment primarily for the benefit of all sentient beings. this is consistent with scriptures, which emphasise that the bodhisattva acts as a guide for others to understanding. the vajra is meant to be taken in her hand to show that what she holds is an indestructible truth, while standing on the lotus represents purity of realization and reaffirms the text’s assertion that wisdom arises from an ordinary world, yet serves as a pathological sash that animates the soul to exist above anything else. furthermore, the lotus in mamaki’s representation holds significant iconographic meaning, as it ties in with the principle of śūnyatā, or emptiness, throughout the prajñāpāramitā sutras. the lotus, which is also the symbol of purity and transcendence, blossoms out of muddied waters, yet its bloom remains untainted—just as wisdom sprouts forth from the world’s ignorance and suffering. this is in accordance with the text’s discussion on emptiness – an understanding of all things as devoid of any intrinsic existence and as being interdependent. the image of mamaki on the lotus illustrates graphically the wisdom that enables one to rise above maya, another prevalent lesson in the prajñāpāramitā. the visualisation in both the vajra and lotus painstaking art, in which no detail is neglected. depicts world-famous indian miniature paintings, buddhist scriptures, and works of indian epics. indian masters, following the best traditions of persian book miniatures, clearly conveyed the plot of works of art, placing multi-figure compositions against the background of a traditional decorative landscape. the creation of miniature cycles required the participation of many artists. each of them specializes in depicting certain elements: architectural details, landscape, and costumes. painters applied egg colors with a very fine brush and, at the end, added gold or silver colors, using a bear’s or tiger’s paw. thus, the work of these artists was similar to the work of jewelers. the works of indian miniaturists are distinguished by their variety of colors, clarity of drawing, and elegance of artistic taste. pala school of painting the earliest copies of indian miniatures date back to the reign of the buddhist pala empire, which covered the territories of modern india. bengal, bangladesh, and bihar. pala miniatures are illustrations of religious buddhist manuscripts from the xi-xii centuries (ghosh, 2018). the style of the pala school is characterized by skillful, elegant lines, tones, and modeling of figures, as well as the use of natural colors (huntington & huntington, 1990). this naturalistic style resembles the perfectly cast forms of bronze sculptures and echoes the ajanta frescoes. the pala school paid special attention to the symbolic use of color in tantristic paintings (figure 4). western indian school of miniature painting of the xii-vi centuries. jain miniatures the western indian style of miniatures developed and dominated the regions of gujarat, rajasthan and malwa ((brown, 1930; lahoti, 2024). in the aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā manuscript, the image of mamaki holding a vajra in a lotus (figure 4) neatly framed within its pages creates a deep association between mahayana buddhist doctrine and an artistic rendition. mamaki, a female bodhisattva of wisdom and benevolence, standing on a lotus holding a vajra sign of indestructible spiritual power! the prajñāpāramitā sutras stress the perfection of wisdom, and the iconography of mamaki provides a direct means to express this notion. the lotus springs from the mud; however, it is unaffected by figure 4. māmakī with a vajra on a lotus in aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā manuscript source : commons.wikimedia.org bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 441 directly influenced by iranian and central asian miniature art (agravāla, 2006; kumar, 2018). acquaintance with european art, many examples of which appeared in india since the 16th century, also played an important role. mughal miniature paintings reflect a combination of indian and persian styles. as an art, it was created during the reign of the mongol emperor humayun (1530-1540; 1555-1556). humayun, who returned to india from persia in exile, brought with him two persian artists who initiated the development of mongol miniature painting. over time, persian art, which absorbed local traditions, formed its own style. the main subjects of mongol miniatures are hunting, battle scenes, scenes of court life, moments from legendary stories, landscapes, animal images and portraits (topsfield, 2013). under the patronage of emperor akbar, jahangir and shah jahan, the mongol school of painting reached a new stage of its development. during the reign of akbar the great (1556-1605), art workshops grew greatly (balabanlilar, 2020; beach & das, 1980). hundreds of artists worked in the palace, following the style established by the two persian artists who came to india with humayun. as emperor akbar loved legends and stories, the main themes during this period were scenes from the mahabharata, ramayana and persian epics (topsfield, 2013; truschke, 2011). during the reign of emperor jahangir (1605-1627), art, particularly painting, received significant support. during this period, the painting style becomes more refined, the colors are lighter and quieter. in addition to portraits, animals, birds and nature images, events in jahangir’s life are the main themes in the paintings (beach & das, 1980; jaykrushna, 2021). during the reign of shah jahan (1628-1658), sensitivity and intricate detail in mughal paintings began to give way to a sense of coldness and austerity. the lavish, highly decorative style that had flourished under his predecessors started to shift towards a more restrained and formal aesthetic. previously, during the mughal period, paintings featured rich textures and bright colors, with a focus on emotions. paintings made during his rule often depicted certain characteristic subjects, such as musical performances, lovers, and holy men. these, however, were symbolically rich and often is grounded in the spirit world and metaphysical concepts explained in prajñāpāramitā, ensuring that the manuscript can be used to teach esoteric spirituality. although the text delves into complex philosophical explanations of wisdom, emptiness, and the path to liberation, the visualization of mamaki provides an intuitive understanding of these topics instantly. the picture serves as a practical guide for studying the scriptures and conveys cardinal messages of life that engage the interest of those who are not literate, educating them on dharma. thus, there’s a complementary relationship between the text and the image—that they support each other, enabling us to relate to the teachings both intellectually and emotionally. one of the driving forces of creativity in this region at that time was jainism, which had been patronized since the middle of the 10th century (ray, 2024). by the end of the xiii century, a substantial amount of jain religious literature was widely used among the nobility and wealthy merchants of the time. many of these manuscripts are preserved today in jain book repositories (bhandara) in many parts of western india. the drawings in these manuscripts are highly stylized and distorted. jain miniatures focus on disproportion and gross exaggeration of body parts, eyes, thighs and breasts. the jain school of miniatures emphasizes pure colors, heavy gold outlines, and minimal clothing (de jonckheere, 2019; lavanya, 2022; maitra, 2023). from the 15th century, the west indian school of painting began to be influenced by the style of persian fine art. this is confirmed by the types of faces typical of persian paintings, the shapes of flowering trees, the presence of hunting scenes, grasses growing in tufts, the sky and clouds (agravāla, 2006; kumar, 2018). this effect is especially noticeable in the use of ultramarine and gold colors, which are common in persian fine art. the earliest examples of persian painting in india were illustrated manuscripts, many of which were copied and gradually spread throughout india. islamic paintings and miniatures mongolian school of miniature painting (mughal) although the mongol school, which emerged in the second half of the 16th century, was founded on the basis of indian artistic traditions, it was bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 442 tied to the world of courtly life and religious piety, and were also somewhat distanced from raymund’s character and the more somber mood of his court, reflecting as they did the emperor’s own tastes. mughal painting, which had achieved its greatest heights under the patronage of akbar, jahangir, and shah jahan, began to decline after the reign of emperor aurangzeb. the extremely strict religious policy of aurangzeb prevailed, and the arts suffered greatly. his lack of support for painters, and especially those in the imperial atelier, severely restricted the development of painting during his reign. aurangzeb, unlike his ancestors, who had been art lovers and patronisers, was concerned with religious orthodoxy and military expansion; combined with his disinterest in the visual arts, this led to a decline in mughal painting. when shah alam ii ascended to the throne (1759‐1806), the mughal painting tradition had practically perished, and the surviving paintings were of a bleakness which did not measure up to its former splendours. mughal painting, which had been an artistic representation of imperial wealth and culture, of supreme nes as well as elite aesthetic sensibilities in the time of its greatest flourishing, in the mid-eighteenth century, was no longer a defining feature of the empire’s visual repertoire (losty & roy, 2013; topsfield, 2013). the flourishing mughal art of the earlier period had declined significantly, with only one surviving practice in miniature painting that employed tight control and restraint: the rajput school of painting. the rajput school, which had also subsequently spread under the rajput influence, retained a separate style, but it was hardly reminiscent of the bright mughal period and did not belong to its tradition, testifying to a process of political and cultural upheaval in india at this time (beach, 1992). the emperor shah jahan standing upon a globe the emperor grasps the image of shah jahan as supreme ruler upon a globe in this striking visual representation (figure 5). the globe under his feet signifies the sphere of his power and influence, indicating that he ruled over a wide area beyond the indian subcontinent. chapter 30 in that portrait, shah jahan appears not as a ruler of one land but as a world sovereign. the globe is no longer just a geographical icon; it becomes the sign of the emperor’s control over heaven and earth. these images reinforce the mughal concept of the emperor as a king-divine whose authority was understood to be divinely authorized. shah jahan’s stance atop the globe is a depiction of him as all-powerful, reflecting his literal or symbolic connection to divinity. the standing in the world can be read as a visual assertion of his supremacy, to show that he is above all power and rulers. this pose also shows that he doesn’t only rule on earth; there’s something celestial about his power. elevating shah jahan to the status of a figure who can transcend human limitations and have a relationship with a higher cosmic order also helps consolidate one’s belief in mughal emperors as intermediaries between heaven and earth. the inscription in arabic below the picture of emperor shah jahan standing on a globe likely complements the themes of composite imagery that help construct this story about imperial authority, divine right, and global supremacy. in our image analysis, we have also observed how shah jahan is depicted as a ruler who represents a higher sense of life, transcending the earthly one, and it appears that he stands over the globe to remind all his figure 5. the emperor shah jahan standing upon a globe source : commons.wikimedia.org bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 443 subjects of his control over them and his connection to higher cosmic energies. the arabic inscriptions would add yet another dimension to this imagery, placing it in context with shah jahan’s role as supreme sovereign, often with divine backing, and indicating not only that he ruled over earthly dominions but also claimed divine power. the allegory of the globe as represented in this painting also represents shah jahan’s conception of the mughal empire as a universal and eternal historical force. rather than mere control of terrain, it emphasizes his ambition to make himself known and remembered by the world at large. known for magnificent feats of architecture, such as the taj mahal, shah jahan’s image is that of an emperor who stands upon the world – a reference to his desire to leave behind a global reputation. the globe is not only an image of his political authority, but also acts as a metaphor for the spiritual, cultural, and intellectual blossoming during his time. under him, the mughal empire reached unprecedented heights in art, literature, and science, further solidifying his stature as a leading patron of culture and the arts. asvatthama fires the narayana weapon (cosmic fire) at the pandavas the “asvatthama fires the narayana weapon (cosmic fire) at the pandavas” is an impressive moment in a folio from khan-i khanan’s razmnama, which illustrated a manuscript of the mahabharata produced during the mughal period (figure 6). this is one of the numerous narrative images that accompany the persian translation of the mahabharata, known as the razmnama, commissioned by emperor akbar in the 16th century and completed under his khan-i-khanan. a key to akbar’s success in creating a cohesive and prosperous empire on the subcontinent was his innovative and revolutionary rule, one that encompassed an openness to and fascination with cultures beyond his own. akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, was especially eager to promote unity between the muslim and hindu segments of his enormous empire. this interest led him to fund the translation of several important hindu works into persian, the court language, in order to facilitate a greater degree of understanding between the two communities. these included the hindu epic poems, ramayana and mahabharata that fuel indian culture with references to the mythology, philosophy and moral of hinduism. akbar’s desire for cross-cultural knowledge and integration is evident in his approach to studying these epics, which he used to teach to his muslim courtiers, many of whom would not have spoken sanskrit. as a bibliophile, the khan-i khanan commissioned works that were intended to showcase both the grandeur of the mughal empire and his personal patronage of intellectual and artistic projects. the production of such manuscripts was an expression of his loyalty to akbar’s policies and an attempt to preserve and honor akbar’s cultural legacy. one of the most significant elements (and not only in the painting, but in the whole manuscript) is style. fazl, probably one of the principal painters in khan-i khanan’s atelier, executed many of the miniatures in this manuscript. the painting has a slightly old-fashioned style, favouring elements of akbar’s early taste, although by the time it was produced under the khanan’s patronage, the imperial studio had started to abandon hindu epics as subjects. though not actually painted under akbar’s order, the miniature contains much of the figure 6. asvatthama fires the narayana weapon (cosmic fire) at the pandavas source : commons.wikimedia.org bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 444 stylistic activity associated with the era of the great mughal. the figural composition of the painting, which emphasizes balance and clarity of composition, is also drawn from persian artistic traditions. this is evident in the stylized rendering of the figures and the rather flat treatment of the looming hills in the background, which bears a slight resemblance to earlier persian miniature painting. this mountain does not have the soaring, three-dimensional panoramas that infer the more dynamic constructs of the imperial court workshops of akbar’s reign. however, the picture remains replete with exclusively mughal characteristics – the intricate and ornate faces, colourful costumes, and wellcrafted ornaments. the color palette, with its rich tones and highlights, is indicative of the mughal style. the landscape detail is characteristic of mughal painting rather than persian, reflecting a sense of sophistication and realism typical of latemughal painting. another striking element in this particular manuscript is the dramatic effect of fire, shown as a fiery ribbon or embankment. the image of this cosmic fire, representing destruction and divine might, draws furthermore on the designs of akbar’s time. the diagonal strip of fire slashes through the composition violently, giving a sense of motion and immediacy. though this image is toned down compared to the more psychedelic, vitalist images of akbar’s day, it still bears whispers of his dynamic visual style. this amazing diagonal is especially slippery and particularly demonstrates how mughal artists continued to incorporate and revitalize earlier styles despite the political transition. the text and image from the razmnama are closely interrelated, as the two joint forces serve to depict the same mythological moment: that of asvatthama releasing the narayana weapon (cosmic fire) on the pandavas. this epic scene of mahabharata is shown not only in the text but also through images, providing a double complement with details. the influence of boburate painting toward art and political rhetoric the arrival of the baburs on the indian territory made a sharp turn in the country’s cultural life and left an indelible mark on its history. according to babur scholars, a new era in the country’s history began with babur mirza’s arrival in this country. because he put an end to feudal disunity and the struggle of small khanates for central power, and took a bold step towards social stagnation, economic development, and cultural change in society. the tradition of historicism in the painting of the babur dynasty consisted of depicting historical figures in pictures. an example of this is the portraits of husayn boygaro (figure 7). the inscription on the portrait of husayn bayqarah seeks to enrich the painting’s semantic value by enacting a verbal equivalent of representations concerning an ideal prince. in persian and mughal miniatures, word-image pairings are a means to convey the sitter’s identity, virtues, and divine legitimacy. in the case of husayn bayqarah, though the decorative text is unlike a manuscript, it plays a narrative role by enhancing one’s knowledge of his mightiness, power, and identity. the ruler’s legitimacy and divine right is further bolstered using titles such as. in islamic art, rulers are frequently associated with the divine; these titles make explicit that the subject of this painting is not simply a political figure, but a ruler installed—and consecrated—by divine powers. this transcends husayn bayqarah’s status as a human king alone by endowing him with a role figure 7. the potrait of husayn boykaro source : commons.wikimedia.org bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 445 as a divine martyr, with cosmic implications. the arabic inscriptions reinforce the notion of husayn as a king chosen by divine will, a crucial aspect of islamic and timurid kingship ideology. the arabic inscription of a portrait frequently represents the virtues of the ruler, such as wisdom, justice, feats in battle, and piety. in the case of husayn bayqarah’s portrait, an arabic text may be included to emphasize the attributes integral to his profile as a perfect monarch. the face would depict him in an honorific stance, sitting serene and upright, which symbolizes his position as a farseeing and final decision-maker. the associated arabic inscriptions, being in poetry perhaps, would further stress these attributes through a sophisticated network of references that would connect the young prophet’s image with his ethical and intellectual gifts. together, the painting and text would convey a ruler’s multifaceted qualities, his political authority, personal traits, and spiritual value, presenting a complete image of husayn bayqarah as an ideal king. the likeness of the text and image is evidence of the interplay between persian and arabic traditions in timurid court art, to which husayn bayqarah belonged. the arabic text situates the ruler within the larger framework of islamic rule and places him in relation with the rich cultural background of the islamic world, including its tradition of previous caliphs and sultans. by situating husayn within this historical and spiritual context, those who wrote about him helped to establish his enduring presence in a broader political and cultural narrative, where he was both a regional chieftain and a spiritual guide. this also helps place husayn bayqarah in relation to his position in the timurid dynasty, and as a result cements the subsequent prevalence of his rule amid the glories and cultural vitality of that dynasty. for a ruler like husayn, who ruled herat during times of great political and cultural change, the text serves as an important measure, anchoring his place in the stylized narrative of the timurid empire’s history. a similar association between image and text is employed to convey the cultural, intellectual, and political significance ali-shir nava’i (figure 8) during the timurid period in the portrait of alishir nava’i attributed to mahmud muzahhib. a poet, an erudite and a leading statesman, his portrait not only represents his image but also epitomises the revival of culture in that period. the arabic or persian text opposite illuminates his personality and services to the timurid empire. dignified of expression, t’agay-timur is shown here in his rich court robes, which confirm his status at the top of society and as a cultivated host of artists. showing the thoughtful, calm demeanor that you would expect of an intellectual, he appears sagacious. the writing portrays him not only as a courtier but also as an esteemed personality whose labours were instrumental to the flourishing of the empire. the same text insists on nava’i’s function as a man of learning, emphasizing his advocacy for the persian and turkic languages at the court. it also serves to immortalize his intellectual and cultural legacy, as well as to cement his place in the history of central asia (golombek & subtelny, 2023; shea, 2018). the style of the portrait, with brilliant colors and persian-central asian influences, testifies to the cultural exchange of the time. because of his goodness and the service, he rendered to the intellectual life of the timurid empire. the image of nava’i in the miniature, in combination with its accompanying text, presents nava’i not just as a ruler but also as a political and cultural presence that continues to shape the cultural and intellectual landscape of the timurid era. figure 8. the potrait of alisher navoiy source : wikipedia.org bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 446 babur’s painting is based on the estalists. akbar shakh ordered the palace scholars to collect his grandfather’s literary heritage and write manuscripts. his aunt gulbadanbegim created the work “humayunnama” (dimand, 1953; stronge, 2002). babur had a significant impact on the history of indian culture and art, particularly in painting, and established unique creative traditions before the establishment of the babur dynasty (stronge, 2002). it is known to everyone that classical miniatures are drawn according to the content of famous indian epics such as “kalila and damina”, “shubhisaddati”, “ramayana”, “mahabkhorat”, and this field is especially developed in indian architecture. however, the arrival of the encyclopedic work “baburnama” in india, its translation, and the commissioning of miniatures by indian artists laid the groundwork for the introduction of worldly, realistic elements in classical painting here (thackston, 2002). the development of miniatures during the babur era in a general way and looks at the role of babur in the history of painting art (topsfield, 2013). at the same time, the creative work of mukhammad murad samarkandi, a skilled painter brought to india by babur from samarkand, had a positive impact on the color image of india (figure 9). (1605-1627), and in bukhara. in his works, indian motifs typical of the painting style of these emperors are reflected. he must have returned to samarkand after jahangir’s death in 1627, because the “zafarnoma” miniatures were created by him after 1628. he made a great contribution to the development of miniature art in central asia with his unique style and works of a high artistic level. firdausi’s “shakhnama” (115 miniatures that decorated the 1556 copy are in the national museum of uzbekistan), as well as saadi’s “boston” (in the chester beatty library in dublin), have reached us. the work of the artist sought to update artistic methods; the artist, avoiding the traditional structure of plots and compositions, chose sharp plots (the blacksmith aquarius uprising, who was able to lead the masses against oppression, siyovush, who proved his innocence by trial by fire, etc.), was able to reveal the faces of people in an impressive state of mind. many artists contributed to the decoration of the “boburnoma” manuscript with elegant miniatures. six of the seventeen famous artists mentioned by the same author: kesu, miskina, madhu, romdas, farrukhbek, and sonvala also created miniatures for “boburnoma”. originally from movarounnahr, farrukhbek first lived in kabul and later in india (thackston, 2002). we can see that farrukhbek participated in decorating the “boburnoma” manuscripts kept in delhi and british museums. farrukhbek also worked on babur’s portrait miniatures. in general, jagannath from gujarat, shankar from gujarat, and muhammad kashmiri and ibrahim lohury participated in the creation of “boburnama” paintings from other parts of india. eastern miniature art is divided into several periods and schools. among them, the indian miniature school stands out. the establishment of this school had a great positive effect on the fact that the most skilled calligraphers and artists from major cultural centers such as herat, samarkand, and bukhara were taken to india, and many unique manuscripts created in collaboration with them took place in the indian library. during the baburi period, abul qasim attracted the attention of central asian scholars and artists due to several positive developments in the field of memorization, visual arts, and literature in india, and as a result, they began to go to india, to the palace of the baburi. these include artists such as mir said ali termizi, figure 9. le chant funebre aux funerailles d’iskandar source : commons.wikimedia.org 16th century painter, mukhammad murad, a major representative of samarkandi miniature school. the study of costumes in the shahnoma manuscripts of firdavsi, was noted in “zafarnoma” who assumed that the manuscript miniatures are similar and stylistically close to each other, and that the performer of the “zafarnama” miniatures could be muhammad murad samarkandi (akay, 2024). he worked for a while in india, at the court of the mughal emperors akbar (1542-1605) and jahangir bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 447 abdusamad sherozi, farrukhbek, and calligraphers muhammad baqir. this event had a significant positive impact on the development of indian art. the works of indian artists are also popular in european countries. in his time, the famous dutch artist rembrandt advised his students to copy indian miniatures. the famous english artist j. reynolds also recognized the high skill of indian artists. the styles of kamoliddin behzad also had a special place in the 16th-century indian miniature school. this is the reason why babur and his successors greatly respected the work of the great artist. in their library, the baburis carefully preserved the rare works decorated by kamoliddin behzod with miniatures. there is no doubt that indian painters studied the styles of these miniatures. because the great painter’s style of portrait genre was further developed by indian artists. according to art experts, in no country in the east has the portrait genre of miniature art reached such a high level as the indian school. especially abul hasan, who was awarded the “nadir uz-zaman” nisab, achieved great success in this field. he could depict great events on a small surface level with high artistic skill, he could imitate the qualities and appearance of the depicted people. as an example of this, this portrait of prince khurram, the eldest son of mughal emperor jahangir (1605-1627), jahangir named him shahjahan (figure 10). it was drawn when he gave the title of “king of the world”. shahjahan retained this title when he succeeded his father as emperor in 1628. later, shahjahan adds a persian inscription in black ink to the border of the picture, noting that “this is a good representation of my twenty-fifth birthday, and it is a wonderful work of nadir uz-zaman’s leading artist.”. davlat khanazod, an indian portrait artist, also gained wide fame. it is worth mentioning that a total of fifty-seven historical and scientific-practical works were created under the material and spiritual support of alisher navoi and abdurahman jami, a copy of davlat khanazod’s copy of the portrait of the great thinker abdurahman jami created by kamoliddin behzod, which has reached us (figure 11). figure 10. shah jahan artist abul hasan source : collections.vam.ac.uk figure 8. the potrait of abdurahman jami artist davlat khanazod source : wikipedia.org the state loved and appreciated the work of khanazod kamoliddin behzod. this can also be observed in the miniatures in the copy of the “baburnoma” manuscript made by this artist, which is kept in the national museum of delhi. babur’s son, nasiruddin muhammad humayun, left a name in the history of indian fine art as an enlightened ruler who founded an art workshop near the palace. when humayun shah was in the country of tahmosp, he met mir mansur musavvir, an artist originally from termez. after humayun took the throne of kabul, he established an artist’s bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 448 company under the palace, and in addition to mir mansur musawvir, his son mir sayyid ali, abdusamad sherazi, and also the students and comrades of kamaluddin behzad, such as maulana dost muhammad, maulana darvish muhammad, and maulana yusuf. took him to his service. to this day, the number of scholars, including orientalists, historians, source historians, and art historians, who have studied the rich cultural heritage left by zakhiriddin mukhammad babur and the baburis, as well as the number of artists who have created creative works inspired by them, is very large. analyzing the above studies and the opinions of scholars, it can be said that there are a lot of sources left during the time of zakhiriddin mukhammad babur and the baburites, and there are still unexplored manuscripts, samples of letters, miniatures, and their schools, which are used by art historians and historians to analyze. and many more resources for artists. visual art, which has existed in india for a long time, enriched its schools with masters, calligraphers, and painters that zakhiriddin mukhammad babur brought from mavorunnahr, together with local engineers, calligraphers, and artists, creating a rich cultural heritage worthy of a great empire. it can be seen in manuscripts, visual arts, murals, buildings, and architecture. in indian painting, wall paintings employed a unique method, but when they transitioned to miniature, they were distorted into a holistic view (orsini & sheikh, 2014). the indian school of art has long been referred to as the art of the mongols, but in reality, this artistic tradition flourished after muhammad murad samarkandi from samarkand brought his influence to india. babur, the founder of the mughal empire, himself carried manuscripts from central asia and commissioned famous artists of the time to paint miniatures for these manuscripts in india. this historical connection suggests that what is often referred to as mongol art should actually be called the art of mawaraunnahr (the region of transoxiana). however, a mistaken approach exists in some parts of the world that incorrectly attributes babur and his dynasty to the mongols. this misconception has been scientifically clarified by several prominent foreign scholars over time, who have impartially addressed the distinction between the mongol and timurid traditions. the visual and verbal rhetoric of its art and manuscripts offer an intriguing snapshot of the intersection between iconography and language as early as the 7th century ad. in these manuscripts, the miniatures are not only handsome images; they also reflect the cultural and political identity of their creators. semiotic analysis further aids in deciphering the visual vocabulary of these paintings, complex webs of symbolic motifs, ornamentation, and color schemes, all deliberately selected to amplify the message of divine rule, babur’s glorious lineage, and the legitimate authority of mughal rulers. this visual semiotics conveys a sense of imperial majesty, connecting babur to the belief in “the divine right of kings,” and so locates the historical memory of his life within the larger cultural history of central asia and islam. at the same time as pledging, the verbal propaganda inscribed in the inscriptions, poetry, and narratives in the manuscripts reaffirms the ideological basis of babur’s rule through an association with universal ideas of justice, potency, and spiritual endorsement. in addition, in 2017, the conference on “the role of zahiriddin muhammad babur’s works in the history of world culture,” held at andijan, witnessed a gathering of worldwide academicians who voted to shun the incorrect attribution “’the great mughul” when mentioning babur. rather, they proposed using the name “turkish language” (literary one) instead of the erroneously treated name “chagatai language” in babur’s works. through this suggestion, the real languages and culture from which babur emerged have been acknowledged; as such, this recommendation is a major milestone in reorienting his story towards world history and literature. this lexical change also serves to estrange babur’s historical selfdefinition from its mongolocentric narrative and reasserts that his intellectual roots ran deep into the heart of central asia. babur’s contribution to the world community is tremendous, and he raised our homeland’s flag high into the international arena, making him a beacon of pride for everyone in uzbekistan.” his contribution has earned a new inroad between the arts and helped to harness intellectual and cultural cohesion in central asia. babur’s memory is carefully constructed through visual and verbal rhetoric used in the manuscripts, as well as a corpus of political narratives that surround them. these are political communications, which portray babur bekhzod b. khadjimetov / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 449 not only as the conqueror he was, but also as a civilized and learned ruler believed to be endowed with divine right. the representation of babur as a ruler who follows divine and ancestral cultural traditions complements his political legitimacy and his status as a historical figure of considerable global significance. it is thus essential to raise public awareness and highlight the immeasurable heritage left by our great ancestors, such as babur, who made significant contributions to the world’s science and culture. his reputation is established not simply by his military successes but through his support of the arts and culture. the variety of modes in which babur communicates in his portraits, inscriptions, and manuscripts tells us how profoundly he influenced not only political history but also cultural history. these graphic details and textual explications demonstrate the enduring and expansive influence of babur as a political and cultural symbol, long after his direct, centralized rule had faded. thereby, it safeguards babur’s political legacy and the awareness of his involvement in politics, culture, and language by future generations, whether within his ethnic composition or within a global horizon. it is also of great moment that one should understand history, and it is the duty of scholars fully to enter into the cultural life of those epochs in which our ancestors lived, when they elaborate for investigation many matters which have hitherto remained uninvestigated. through a multimodal and semiotic analysis, we gain access to the illustrations’ depiction of babur’s political authority and intelligentsia. in these perspectives, we learn not only about the visual and spoken politics of his rule but also about the afterlife of such politics in south asia and beyond. in the process, the images and texts that surround babur’s legacy provide important evidence for how he saw his place in world history and for how he sought to preserve his empire’s cultural inheritance. conclusion in conclusion, this review reinforces the substantial place that baburite art held within visionscapes and ideoscapes of the mughal empire. through an analysis of the relationship between visual and verbal elements, it can be demonstrated that babur’s artistic legacy constituted more than simply an aesthetic exercise; rather, art was one mechanism of political propaganda and the articulation of cultural identity. the confluence of persian, central asian, and indian artistic traditions in babur’s court played a crucial role in the development of an islamicate mughal style that not only expressed imperial power but also facilitated a cultural renaissance that left its mark on indian painting for centuries to follow. the convergence of semiotics with multimodal studies reveals fresh perspectives on the rhetoric embedded in these codices, stimulating a deeper comprehension of how visual and verbal modes interact to convey multifaceted meanings. although babur left behind no notable indian 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(2014). semiotics and visual communication: concepts and practices. cambridge scholars publishing. diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 348 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: november 27, 2023 final revision: december 28, 2023 accepted: december 29, 2023 available online: january 8, 2024 this research aims to describe the dynamics that occur as a result of conflict between two opposing parties, namely the minority party and the ruling party. the approach used is qualitative descriptive with a three-dimensional analysis of norman model discourse fairclough, namely texts, discourse practices, and sociocultural practices. the steps in this research include: reading the novel bakri sang guru demonstran; sorting data accordingly; and interpreting and concluding data. the results of this research are as follows following. first, text analysis shows that the author uses linguistic features to convey ideology about the ideal teacher figure and how the powerful try to intervene against minority groups. second, seen from the perspective of discourse practice, text production is influenced by the author’s background as a practitioner of education and this novel was written to provide education to readers about the ideals of teachers and the challenges they face. third, the sociocultural dimension shows that the flow story in the novel represents various problems that occur in society, especially in the field of education. that matter can be seen from various reports that appear in space public. implications from the study this is possible to increase the breadth community (reader) understanding of the dynamics of the world of education and improvement system education through policy. keywords critical discourse analysis, hegemony, independence, norman fairclough correspondence e-mail: dianazulita.2022@student.uny.ac.id article dialectics of independence and hegemony in the novel bakri sang guru demonstran diana zulita1, kastam syamsi2, anwar efendi3, hartono4 1-4faculties language, arts and culture, yogyakarta state university, jogjakarta, indonesia under license of creative commons attributioni-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.10.4.348-359.2023 i. introduction language, literature, and public life have close relationships. third element is each other influences each other. language is meant to be the main in the creation of literary works, in matter. this is a novel. language in the form of words or sentences in the novel forms and reflects the reality of social culture society. novels are often made as tools for conveying various thoughts, ideologies, and criticism of social and cultural life in public. literary works are presented as lighter spirit-related actions and reactions with life social public so that through literary works can search for road truth to repair existing situations and conditions (ervania et al., 2022). besides that, the existence of literary works also becomes a reflection of how the development of language and, at the same time, social culture is something society at a certain time. the story described by the author in the novel expresses his anxiety about various things social problems. the forms of these problems include oppression or pressure exerted by the dominant social class on subordinate classes(fitriansyah, 2021). this pressure or domination is not always in physical form, but also in the form of intellectual influence and emotional influence. group domination over other groups is achieved through coercive action, diplomacy, intellectual influence, and moral leadership, also known as term hegemony (atiqah, 2019). hegemony happens everywhere in field life no except in the world of education. the existence of hegemony gives rise to resistance groups. they stand on the side in opposition to straightening up independence. independence can interpreted as diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 349 something free state without existing pressure or influence from party other. isno el kayyis lifts the problem in his novel entitled bakri the demonstrator teacher, which was published by pintu kata in 2018. this novel tells the story of the career journey of bakri, a young teacher who is still honorary. his various teaching experiences moved from one school to another in color i with the struggle to uphold his principles and ideals. for bakri, being a teacher is a noble job, full of noble values, responsibility, and truth that must be upheld. however, in several of these schools, bakri found despicable and arbitrary actions carried out by the leadership agencies and parties who own their power. bakri, as an idealist, put up resistance. however, as a minority group, in the end, he had to accept that power remains in the hands of the wrong people giving a bad ending. for studying reality, practice power, and ideology, the author in the novel can use study analysis of critical discourse. analysis discourse critical is a method for analyzing language used to understand how language and text are used to create, maintain, or change power or prevailing ideology _ in public (mudiawati et al., 2023). besides that, it aims to disclose important facts where language is used as a tool of power within the public (firmansyah et al., 2018). in the literature, there is research analyzing the novel of bakri sang guru demonstran. fitzgelard et al. (2023) try to research from the aspect of social situation and reflection of the social public. the approach used in the study this is ian watt’s sociology of literature. approach this emphasizes the influence structure of social and circumstances economy public towards literature. analysis power no became the center of attention in this study. situmorang (2022) conducted a study to examine the structure, function, social impact, and value of honesty in bakri sang guru demonstran. the analysis revealed a total of 67 data points, comprising 47 unique structures, 16 social functions, and 4 instances of the value of honesty. the findings of the study provide valuable insights into the importance of honesty in this particular context and underscore its potential to enhance social welfare and promote ethical behavior. aula fitriani (2022) studies literary psychoanalysis in the form of id, ego, and superego, values education characters, and the relevance of the novel as literature teaching materials at the level of high school education with the use of method analysis fill. data is collected using triangulation, that is, triangulation theory, triangulation data sources, and triangulation method. on the other hand, analysis discourse critical of norman fairclough’s model has been used by researchers. among them is a study about the discourse-related diversion issue of the national capital in 2019 utilizing big data from twitter to know opinions, views, and themes that emerge in discussion society ( mulyono et al., 2023). results of the research show that involvement in public online leads to proven digital activism that is powerful for mobilization and support of politics. marliana et al. (2023) focused on the practice of social discourse pedagogy through description marker presentation topic in teacher and student interaction during teaching micro and interpretation practice discourse. research results this shows the practice of social form equality teacher-student domination in the classroom. other research examined discourse critical of the story short magic of 1928 works katherine anne porter using the framework of fairclough discourse. the research results indicated that there were errors in social events that occur within the story (yuliana et al., 2021). the application of the norman fairclough model for the analysis of critical discourse pertaining to the novel bakri sang guru demonstran has yet to be conducted. by utilizing norman fairclough’s critical discourse model, the analysis of this novel will be conducted with utmost precision and depth. this approach will enable the writer to delve into the intricate layers of the text and unearth its hidden meanings, leading to a more insightful and thought-provoking analysis. fairclough said that analysis discourse is something that approaches the comprehensive use of language good in the realm of society and politics to explain the connection between power and ideology (fairclough, 2003). thus, the goal of the study is to understand how the connection between language, power, and social structure utilizes tool analysis discourse. the expected results of the study can provide a significant contribution to the field of literary work analysis, thereby becoming a valuable resource for readers to interpret the intricacies of life, particularly within the realm of education. furthermore, the study aims to facilitate the improvement of the existing education system diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 350 through the formulation of relevant policies by the authorities. as such, the study results are expected to be instrumental in advancing the discourse on literary works while also aiding in the development of a more effective education system. ii. methods internal data sources study this is a novel entitled bakri, the demonstrator teacher published by pintu kata yogyakarta in 2018 by isno el kayyis. the design of this research is qualitative descriptive using the fairclough model of critical discourse analysis method. research steps include reading novel text, noting words or relevant sentences with focus study, doing analysis, interpretation, and interest conclusion. the analysis focuses on the language and context of a text, using three dimensions of fairclough’s cda model: text, discourse practice, and sociocultural practice. during the text analysis stage, linguistic aspects such as vocabulary, semantics, grammar, and relationships between sentences are examined. discourse analysis is used to find out how the text is produced and consumed. the analysis of sociocultural practices aims to see how the content of the text is related to real life in the world of education in indonesia. iii. results language has an important role in discourse (asad et al., 2021). fairclough’s analysis of discourse becomes three dimensions that are dimensions text, practice discursive, and practical sociocultural (eriyanto, 2015; junaidi et al., 2018; jupply et al., 2022; rengganis et al., 2019). the third dimension is related to each other, so it forms a deep understanding of something’s discourse(teik et al., 2023). text dimensions texts serve not only to describe objects, but also to establish how these objects are related to one another. in order to analyze texts, fairclough’s model identifies three key elements: representation, relationships, and identity (eriyanto, 2015). through representation, texts construct a particular view of an object or concept, while relationships describe how this object or concept is linked to others within the text. finally, identity refers to the way in which texts establish and communicate the characteristics of the entities they describe. by considering these three elements, we can gain a deeper understanding of how texts function and the ways in which they shape our perceptions of the world around us. bakri, the main character of the story, is represented explicitly by the author through semantics, diction, and sentences. the character bakri also carries ideology and conveys the messages the author wants to convey to readers. data (1) the title of the novel is bakri sang guru demonstran. data (2) kita harus mempertahankan idealisme kita. karena orang yang memiliki idealismelah orang yang berharga. ... orang idealisme memiliki keyakinan. mereka memiliki pedoman. (we must maintain idealism. because people who have idealism are valuable. ... people of idealism own confidence. they have guidelines.) (kayyis, 2018). data (3) bakri menstarter sepeda bututnya. (bakri started his beat-up bicycle.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 2). data (4) bukanlah bakri kalau tidak haus membaca, ia pun segera mengambil koran yang telah disediakan. (it wouldn’t be bakri if he didn’t have a thirst for reading, he soon did take newspapers that were provided.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 3). data (5) ia tidak ingin menjadi orang yang tidak beradab. diajak bicara, malah asyik membaca. (he does not want to be someone who isn’t civilized. invited talk, instead of a fun read.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 4). data (6) ia memutuskan untuk berkonsentrasi mengawasi gerakgerik siswa. setiap pergerakan apapun diawasi oleh bakri. ... sebab dengan ketenangan dan keheningan akan membuat siswa mudah berkonsentrasi untuk mengerjakan soal dengan baik. (he decides to concentrate on supervising gestures students. every movement whatever is supervised by bakri. ... because calm and stillness will make students easily concentrate on doing questions with good.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 8). data (7) “selamat bekerja anak-anak. silakan dikerjakan sendiri! bekerjakan dengan jujur! karena dengan kejujuran kita diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 351 akan menjadi orang sukses dunia dan akhirat” (“enjoy your work children. please done alone! do it with honest! because with honesty we will become a successful person in this world and the hereafter “) (kayyis, 2018, p. 14). data (1) show that the main character bakri is introduced as a young teacher who is visionary, dedicated, and abstinence high surrender. bakri is shown as the perpetrator of action protest and brings ideas for change to the existing system. bakri is also presented as an idealistic teacher (data 2 and 7), upholding moral values. this is conveyed firmly by the author. in data (3), bakri is described as living a simple and humble life. this sentence reinforces that the character shows the image of a teacher who has a humble character or way of life. politeness can also be seen in his attitude, which showed that he appreciated the hospitality of other figures when bakri was received by teachers at the school where he would supervise the national exams. apart from that, bakri also showed a friendly and open attitude when interacting with other supervisors (data 5). this shows that a teacher has a good personality and social competence. data (4) and (7) assertively demonstrate bakri’s unwavering adherence to his principles, with an unrelenting commitment to self-improvement and a palpable idealism that is far from mere rhetoric. these observations unequivocally establish bakri as a person of integrity and conviction, wholly devoted to his personal and professional growth. however, he also fills his soul with positive things, such as liking to read. as a teacher who wants to educate his students, bakri also conveys and instills values derived from honesty. the trailer showcases the characters as strong and capable and delivers understanding and role models for students with real action, not just verbal commands. according to data 6, bakri is a responsible person who is entrusted with supervising national exams. he takes his responsibilities seriously and is diligent in his work. however, bakri has expressed frustration over his fellow supervisors who do not take their duties seriously. through the representation of bakri’s character, the writer conveys its ideology related ideal figure of teacher. the ideal teacher is suitable with the mandate given by the famous ki hajar dewantara with the motto of ing ngarso sung tulodo, ing madya mangun karso, and tut wuri handayani. a teacher has teak self and abilities in his profession as a teacher. four teacher competencies, namely personal, social, professional, and pedagogical, are reflected in the character bakri. the use of diction and well-crafted sentences can effectively communicate to a leader how they can act with wisdom and inspire a sense of calm among their subordinates. through carefully chosen words and phrasing, a leader can convey their ideology and values, setting a positive example for their followers. by utilizing these tools, a leader can establish a sense of trust and respect among their team, fostering a productive and harmonious working environment. data (8) dengan pemimpin yang memahami persoalan anak buahnya, maka akan mengambil tindakan yang bijak. setidaknya itulah harapan bakri. (with leaders who understand the problem child the fruit, then will take wise action. at least that’s bakri’s hope) (kayyis, 2018, p. 14) in data (8) author conveys hope with clarity. how should a head school as a leader agency manage the information he receives, understand all problems faced, and then make decisions with wise. data (9) “sistem pendidikan kita ini bobrok. pendidikan kita ini bobrok. mentalitas kita ini bobrok. semua bobrok. dan kebobrokan inilah yang sekarang dianggap sebagai kebaikan”. (“system education we this dilapidated. our education this dilapidated. mentality we this dilapidated. all dilapidated. and depravity this is what it is now considered as kind “.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 27). data (10) “jangan pesimis seperti itu!” (“ don’t be pessimistic like that!”) (kayyis, 2018, p. 27). through conversation between bakri and a student (data 9 and 10), the narrator shares their thoughts on the education system in indonesia. they urge us to open our eyes and not turn a blind eye to the many instances of fraud and corruption that exist due to the fragility of the state and the idealism of corrupt leaders. despite the severity of the situation, we should not become pessimistic about the possibility of change. when focusing on the production of text, it diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 352 is crucial to keep in mind the dynamic between the writer and reader. as the creator of the text, the writer has the power to express their thoughts, ideas, and personal convictions about indonesia’s education system. many authors use their writing to communicate a specific moral message. in this novel, the writer endeavors to establish a model for how an education system ought to be implemented. schools are recognized as critical sites of learning for students, and therefore, should cultivate an environment that nurtures and promotes positive moral values. it can be seen from the following quote data (11) “bakri ingin melihat pendidikan indonesia ke depannya, akan menghasilkan manusia-manusia layaknya nabi muhammad yang bergelar al amin. manusia yang jujur. manusia yang bisa dipercaya. dan manusia yang mendekati paripurna”. (“bakri wants to see that indonesian education in the future will produce people like the prophet muhammad who has the title al amin. honest human. a trustworthy human being. and humans who are approaching perfection. “) (kayyis, 2018, p.1). the reader is an essential component of literature. those who appreciate literature possess not only a love for it but also an innate ability to decipher stories and events within the text and connect them to real-world experiences. this process allows readers to glean valuable insights that can be applied to everyday life, ultimately leading to improved behavior. it is through this symbiotic relationship between literature and its readers that the ultimate goal of producing literature is accomplished. in the educational system, there are various participants involved such as teachers, principals, leaders, students, parents, and society. all these participants play a significant role in shaping the education process and influence each other. the principal, as a leader, provides policies and guidelines for the sustainable functioning of the school system. teachers, on the other hand, are responsible for carrying out the teaching and learning activities. students are the recipients of education and teaching. meanwhile, parents and the community at large contribute to the educational process to ensure its smooth functioning. data 12 shows that bakri’s character has a good relationship with a colleague his colleague. as activists who have a community, bakri, of course, already builds good interaction and communication with other people. data (8) shows bakri’s character tries to build a connection good with his superior. when facing problems at school and place, he supervises exams and national others; bakri said chronology incidents the to head school to understand the situation. likewise, when bakri moved to teach at darma bakti high school, bond kinship and brotherhood intertwined between the teacher and head school. at school, bakri spoke out his thoughts and ideas for progress school in the quote following. data (12) di sekolah baru tersebut, bakri menemukan kedamaian dan semangat kekeluargaan yang tinggi. setiap hari bakri diajak kumpul-kumpul dengan para guru. ...bakri bisa menyimpulkan bahwa para guru di sma darma bakti ini memiliki sifat egaliter. (at the new school, bakri found peace, enthusiasm, and high kinship. every bakri’s day was invited to gather together with the teachers. ...bakri can conclude that the teachers at darma bakti high school own characteristic egalitarian.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 30). condition relation then changed when darma bakti high school reached peak success after all party schools worked together to build the school. mr amir, the chief school experienced a change in attitude and adhered to the understanding capitalism makes school a dredging field profit. change that makes the connection between the teacher and head school become an opposing party. head of school, as the dominating party, uses language to show the inequality connection between himself and the teacher council as his subordinates. he, of course, acts arbitrarily, even intimidating tu teachers and staff who aren’t obedient to him. the head school even uses languagefromm threat to show his strength like the quote following (kayyis, 2018, p. 59). data (13) “pak bakri, anda ini hanyalah guru baru. guru bau kencur di sma darma bakti. jadi jangan macammacam di sini! tau dirilah! jangan terlalu pintar dengan mempengaruhi para guru untuk demonstrasi! ... hanya karena racun dari mulutmu itulah, sehingga para guru mau memberontak kepada saya”. (“mr bakri, it’s you just a new teacher. new kid teacher at darma bakti high school. so do not do all kinds of things here! know yourself! don’t be too clever with influencing teachers to demonstrate! ... just because diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 353 poison from your mouth that’s what teachers want rebel to “.) data (14) “bila anda benar kenapa anda takut para guru berunjuk rasa? sepertinya anda takut kebobrokan kepemimpinan anda diketahui,” balas bakri. (“when you’re right why are you afraid of teachers protesting? it looks like you’re scared of depravity “ your leadership is known,” replied bakri.) data (15) jangan menyebarkan fitnah, guru bau kencur! hati-hati dengan kata-katamu...”. (don’t spread slander, new kid teacher! be careful with your words ...”.) data (16) “kalau berani, semua keuangan dilaporkan secara terbuka kepada para guru. sekalian yayasan harus mengaudit. baru kami percaya bahwa anda bersih,” jawab bakri. (“if you dare, everyone finance reported in a way open to the teachers. as well as the foundation must audit. then we believe that you are clean,” replied bakri.) data (17) “kurang ajar kamu! akan aku buktikan, siapa diantara kita yang akan keluar dari sini. aku atau kamu!” (“insolent of you!! i will prove it, who? between we will go out from here. me or you!”) from the dialogue (data 13-17) it can be seen the tension that occurs between bakri as party minority and mr amir as the ruling party. new teacher’s choice of words, new kid, pretentious smart, poison from the mouth, is denoting phrase vanity powerful and intimidating for weaken party minority and destroy character so as not to return do resistance. word of warning meaningful warning at the moment there is a threat. to guard hegemony from party power. this relationship is related to inequality social because there are inconsistencies between elements. the principal abused his position and power to maintain hegemony. this has an impact on the resistance provided by teachers and students. teachers feel that the existing system at school is no longer working as it should. parents have to pay a lot of money so that their children can go to that school or even parents have to be disappointed because their children can’t go to that school. students who felt the impact directly and did not receive lessons from teachers are reflected in the quote following. data (18) pak amir selaku kepala sekolah kini memiliki kekuasaan yang tidak terbatas. semua keputusan ada di tangan. dan dengan kekuatan yang tidak terbatas serta daya tawar tinggi terhadap sekolahnya, ia mampu bermain-main dengan mengeruk pundi-pundi dolar. (mr amir, as head school, now owns power that is not limited. all decisions are in hand. and with power that is not limited as well as power bid tall to his school, he is capable of playing around with dredge coffers dollar.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 47). data (19) “kawan-kawan, kita berkumpul di sini untuk menuntut keadilan dan menegakkan kebenaran. kita mendaftar sekolah di sini untuk diberi ilmu. namun perlakuan kepala sekolah dengan menyuruh kita untuk tidak belajar bahkan pulang ke rumah adalah tindakan yang tidak adil dan sewenang-wenang. kita menuntut keadilan agar kepala sekolah itu diganti saja dengan kepala sekolah yang memahami pendidikan.” (“ guys, we gather here to demand justice and uphold the truth. we register schools here for given knowledge. however treatment head school ordered we for no study even go home to house is an action that is not fair and is arbitrary. we demand justice order chief school that replaced just with head schools that understand education.”) (kayyis, 2018, p. 68). problems that occur inside the story it is also colored with mass media reporting. discourse from text news also has strength for herding opinion society is on a corner look certain. the language used in text news bakri used to fight for idealism and effort to tear down the struggle hegemony maintained by pak amir as a party in power. data (20) berita koran di hari minggu terlihat headline-nya masih didominasi berita tentang unjuk rasa di sma darma bakti. .... diruntut dari berita kemarin tentang unjuk rasa para guru yang menuntut pergantian kepemimpinan, disusul berita hari ini yang mengabarkan tentang pelaksanaan belajar para siswa yang tidak setuju dengan berbagai kebijakan sma darma bakti. (newspaper of the day sunday saw the headline still dominated news about the demonstration at darma bakti high school. ...sued from the news yesterday about a demonstration demanding teachers’ replacement leadership, followed news day this is what is reported about the implementation learn those students who don’t agree with various darma bakti high school policies).(kayyis, 2018, p. 71). data (21) “baguslah kalau begitu. jika sma darma bakti terlihat kacau begini, niscaya pancinganku agar semua elemen diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 354 apabila terjadi kesewenang-wenangan atau adanya ketidakberesan dalam perbuatan seseorang?” (“being an idealist in this day and age is indeed difficult. if i just obeyed while closing my eyes to the abuse around me, maybe i would be safe. but i can’t do it all. my mouth feels itchy when there is arbitrariness or irregularity in someone’s actions?”) (kayyis, 2018, p.183). discursive dimensions language serves not only as a tool for expressing thoughts and emotions but also as a means of constructing discourses that can bring about social change in society (triadi & nurjanah, 2022). discursive dimensions cover the production, distribution, and consumption of such discourse. the choice of name for the character bakri in the novel bakri sang guru demonstran is thought to have a possible self-image that is related to the figure in the song oemar bakrie by iwan fals. the character oemar bakrie in the lyrics of the song iwan fals and the character bakri in this novel have similarities, namely living a simple life, having a small income, and having an honest nature. the choice of name for the character bakri in this novel was also possible because it is personal branding. oemar bakrie’s song was very popular at that time and left an impression on people’s hearts as a teacher with strong character. a text serves a specific purpose, as per eriyanto’s (2015) discourse practice analysis, which examines how texts are produced and consumed. in the case of the novel titled bakri sang guru demonstran, the author’s background is important to consider since the text is a product of his efforts. isno el kayyis, the author, is an esteemed education expert with experience as a teacher, lecturer, advisor, and supervisor across various foundations. additionally, he is a member of the educational development board in several institutions. submitted story ideas writer related to problems and social events that occur in indonesia in particular in the field of education. anxiety writer by profession as practitioner education become forerunner will will the creation of this novel. isno expressed his thoughts and ideas about what an ideal teacher should be like. ideology author can seen in the quote following. “if he only teaches then the task is very light. and everyone will be able to become a teacher. however, being a teacher apart from teaching, he is also obliged to educate. pimpinan akan segera bertindak mengatasi masalah sma darma bakti akan berhasil. percuma saja melawan langsung kepala sekolah yang otoriter itu. saya perlu memancing orang yang kuat untuk turun gunung mengatasi orang seperti pak amir itu. (“that’s good if so. if darma bakti high school is visibly chaotic like this, of course, my bait is that every element leader will quickly act to overcome darma bakti high school’s problem and succeed. it’s useless to oppose a direct-head authoritarian school. i need fishing for strong people for down mountain overcome such people mr. amir.) (kayyis, 2018, p. 71). the passage above analyzes the author’s positioning and perspective in a novel. the author employs a third-person omniscient point of view, allowing the reader to gain insight into not only the experiences but also the thoughts and feelings of the characters. however, it is evident that the author is partial towards the main character, as reflected in the chosen words and sentence structures. the author’s views on education are also conveyed through their carefully crafted language and the way they present certain ideas. hence, the author’s narrative technique and ideological stance are central to the story’s development and meaning. data (22) kini di sekolah swasta yang selama beberapa tahun telah membuatnya nyaman dengan merealisasikan ideidenya telah dibeli oleh kepala sekolah yang tertular virus-virus kekuasaan yang penuh dengan nafsu-nafsu yang tersembunyi. dia harus berhadapan dengan kepala sekolah yang telah dibesarkan dengan ideidenya. karenanya ia memiliki tanggung jawab saat sang kepala sekolah berbelok ke arah. (now in school private sector for a long of years has made it comfortable to realize his ideas have been bought by the head schools infected with full-power viruses with hidden desires. he must face to face with a head school that has raised his ideas. therefore he does not quite have enough answers when the chief school turns to direction). (kayyis, 2018, p.60). according to the author’s perspective, it is unacceptable for leaders to abuse their authority and engage in any kind of unjust behavior. the author believes that such actions are arbitrary and go against the principles of fairness and equality, as in the following quote. data (23) “menjadi orang idealis di zaman seperti sekarang ini memang berat. kalau hanya menurut saja sambil menutup mata atas kesewenang-wenangan di sekililingnya, mungkin aku akan aman saja. tapi aku tidak bisa melakukan itu semua. mulutku terasa gatal diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 355 the mind, soul, and spirituality of the student. this is what’s tough.” (kayyis, 2018, p. 92). the heavy responsibility carried out by teachers makes the teaching profession noble, and respected, and even has a place of honor in the eyes of humans and god. however, along with this, the challenges for teachers are very heavy. especially in this era, the flow of technology has a very big influence. social media users in indonesia, from year to year, experience significant improvement (mulyono et al., 2023). all information is easily accessible, including negative influences that damage the purity of students’ souls. teachers must work extra hard to cultivate good character in students. the existence of this novel is one of isno’s ways of doing this, el kayyis makes readers aware of this polemic. through bakri’s character, the author also conveys thoughts and ideas as well as suggestions for improvements to the system of education that is school. first, the academic community at school must build soul togetherness, kinship, and friendship together for advanced school. second, teachers must grow sincere souls devoted to making problems visible heavy can resolved with hearts open. third, school citizenship must own creativity to build a school. fourth, relationships between leaders and subordinates must change from top-down to bottom-up order. head school can accommodate all thoughts and ideas from the teachers so school can develop by need school. fifth, schools can create an environment of study for teachers so all teachers are always updated with development knowledge knowledgeable, and motivated to follow changes that occur as well as capable of adapting. sixth, parties and schools can build good communication with the public to support school programs (kayyis, 2018). readers, as parties who consume texts, use novels as entertainment. apart from that, this novel can enrich the reader’s inner experience. the conflicts experienced figure the make reflection that work as a teacher is not easy. readers can know, understand, and comprehend that the workload of teachers is not easy which some people expect. various challenges faced in educating participants need to mix hand all parties to finish it. socio-cultural dimensions sociocultural dimension analysis is based on the assumption that social contexts outside the media influence how discourse emerges in the media (eriyanto, 2015). likewise with literary works. a literary work is created inseparable from the influence of external elements, including the social and cultural life of society. the author’s view of an existing phenomenon also influences the way the work is written. is the author a pro or con person? the authors’ compelling words explore the prevalent issue of anxiety among writers, particularly in the early education sector. their intention is to raise awareness and urge society to recognize the urgent need for a significant revamp of the education system in indonesia. the authors stress that this can only come to fruition when every individual acknowledges their personal responsibility and takes meaningful action within their respective roles. the problems experienced by bakri’s character are a representation of the polemics teachers face in the real world. the polemic is like the issue of national exam cheating (abidin, 2018; salim, 2014). apart from that, abuse of authority for personal interests by school principals as leaders also occurs. artiyanto, 2022; asikin, 2022; haq, 2021; pos, 2020; taris, 2022). there are also cases of criminalization or unpleasant behavior experienced by teachers (kompas.com, 2013; rachman, 2013; sitompul, 2016). various cases experienced by teachers in indonesia became a source of ideas for the author in creating his work. the author’s attitude in positioning himself as part of the teachers who experienced all these polemics can also be seen in his choice of sentences and storytelling techniques. embodied language in the text besides working as a tool for intertwining communication, is also used as an effective tool for forming power. connection power with need discourse for studied related there is or not aspect control in it. that matter was reflected in a text message sent by the head bakri school to him the moment fired bakri as a teacher as a consequence of bakri’s efforts to uphold honesty moment supervising exams at other schools such as the quote following. “regards. mr. bakri tomorrow you aren’t permitted again to teach at harapan umat high school. accept love has served at this school.” (kayyis, 2018, p. 29). the phrase not allowed confirms the power possessed by the head of the school to fire bakri diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 356 who is only an honorary teacher. the language spoken head school shows that he has control over sustainability in bakri’s job as a teacher at school. message dismissal sent past message short (sms) shows bakri’s helplessness to fight back against his superior. even though bakri only tries to become a responsible supervisor answer, straightens out the behavior of students, to be honest at all times when exams take place. inequality that occurs in the real world is not only detrimental to teachers as teachers and educators. however, many teachers are not aware of their duties and responsibilities as educators. one of the portraits in the real world, like the news jpnn.com. (2021) about the weak dedication of some teachers in carrying out their duties when they become civil servants. tthis novel aims to remind teachers of their role and inspire them to carry out their duties with dedication through the depiction of bakri’s strong character furthermore, the novel boldly uncovers the hidden frustrations and struggles of teachers, providing a much-needed perspective on the challenges they face in their line of work. iv. discussion discourse is interpreted as a combination of text and context (eriyanto, 2015). when analyzing discourse critically these two things (text and context) are presented simultaneously (putri & ramadhan, 2021). this happens because text and context are interrelated, text appears in a context related to participants, situations, intertext, etc. likewise in the process of creating the novel bakri sang guru demonstran. this novel was created from the creative process of a writer who has experience, insight, and hope in the world of education. this experience became the starting point for ideas and concepts to convey the ideology that isno adheres to at a time of delivering criticism to the social culture public, especially in the field of education. ideology is reflected in the novel bakri sang guru demonstrator which is a criticism of the gloomy practices of the world of education. the world of education, which should be able to create a conducive environment for the growth and development of good character, habits, and role models for students, is instead marred by unscrupulous officials or leaders who abuse their power for interest personal. apart from that, through the choice of words and sentence structure in the novel, the author conveys a moral message, especially to teachers about what a teacher should be like as an educator. these messages are conveyed explicitly and implicitly. the use of simple vocabulary makes this novel easy to understand the meaning and tendencies. by reading this novel, teachers are invited to carry out their teaching duties with full responsibility. this novel is one of them effective media to increase public awareness. education will run well if it is supported by all parties. parents should not just hand over their child’s education to teachers at school. then when students have problems, parents blame the teacher. teachers are accused of being incompetent in educating. this is illustrated by the incident experienced by the character pak anwar in the story. on the other hand, the teacher also regretted the parents’ attitude. teachers, parents, and the community should work together to create an appropriate learning environment for students. society must be aware that education children need exemplary, good habits and work the same every element to create an environment supportive of learning. the writer chooses words and arranges sentences and paragraphs in such a way that they can convey a certain meaning. in this novel, the author wants to give a message to readers that education in indonesia proceeds with various polemics. especially for some teachers who have neglected their responsibility to straighten out their intentions to become teachers. to the general public, the author provides an education that works being a teacher is also full of challenges. education will be successful if the community participates in creating a conducive learning environment for their children. every choice of words, sentences, and paragraphs, as well as the storyline developed by the author, refers to the same goal. the metaphor chosen is adjusted to support the message the author wants to convey. this is as stated by eriyanto (2015) that discourse is understood as something that is controlled and expressed consciously. study this can expand the understanding reader to the essence of existing discourse in the novel. difference focus study possible readers to understand more widely in interpreting representing problems in life and society in the real world. on diana zulita / jurnal arbitrer vol. 10 no. 4 (2023) 357 the other hand, the author can guide understanding readers with exposure to ideology conveyed in a way plain through language as a tool discourse. studying this novel also possibly becomes a consideration for changing policy in the education system v. conclusion through language as a tool discourse can be understood that there is power, ideology, and inequality in society in the novel. choice of words, phrases, and structure sentences in language describe ideology and power. person rulers use language as a tool to show their power with the method of intimidating their subordinates. on the other hand, the language used can also be herding opinion readers to polemic in the world of education and hope repair to the system education in indonesia. study this can made as a method to understand the reality of the world of education by readers and add a repertoire of studies discourse, especially the fairclough model. furthermore, it recommended researching this novel from the corner, taking another look, and studying more to find important aspects of the life represented in this novel. references abidin, z. 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(2021). critical discourse analysis of the short fiction “magic” based on norman fairclough’s approach. 9, 2338–3739. https://jurnal.unsur. ac.id/jeopallt nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 138 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: february 11, 2025 final revision: april 19, 2025 accepted: april 24, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 in reading research and pedagogy, it is important to understand the nuances of collocation competence in esl learners’ reading comprehension of english-language learners, investigate the interrelationships, and evaluate the mutual effect. this study aimed to determine the relationship between receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and reading comprehension performance of royal malaysian air force technicians, focusing on the setting of institute technology aerospace (itas) in kedah state in malaysia. using a quantitative design, three tests (receptive/productive collocations, vocabulary size) and two questionnaires (motivation, self-efficacy) were administered to 200 technicians studying english reading comprehension courses. these participants were selected through a random probability sampling technique to ensure an unbiased representation of the target population. data were analysed descriptively and inferentially, conducting correlation and regression analyses. after determining the correlations, three regression models were conceived to evaluate the most contributing variable. the findings revealed that the receptive collocational knowledge of these esl learners was the most predictive of their reading results, which briefly means that it enhances reading performance. moreover, all variables had positive and significant correlations with reading performance. in contrast, receptive and productive collocational competence and vocabulary size had higher correlation values than motivation and self-efficacy. the study offers significant theoretical implications for the field of reading research, especially in the southeast asian region, and practical implications for teachers, learners, and assessors of esl reading comprehension. keywords collocational knowledge, motivation, reading selfefficacy, esl reading comprehension, royal malaysian air force technicians. correspondence *e-mail: nahazatul@yahoo.com article receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and self-efficacy in esl reading comprehension nahazatul halimi1*, rafizah rawian2 1,2universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.138-152.2025 i. introduction vocabulary is linguistically the fundamental part of textual comprehension; therefore, related collocational knowledge contributes contribute to semantic nuances in a text. researchers have also highlighted the crucial role of collocational competence in second-language reading comprehension, enabling learners to process formulaic language structures effectively. this has made it evident that sufficient receptive and productive collocational knowledge is required for reading comprehension (duong & nguyen, 2021; gablasova et al., 2017). ma and lin’s (2015) study found that collocational awareness, with various related activities, contributes positively to the output of textual interpretation. the significant role that collocational knowledge plays in quality comprehension has also been recognised by malaysian education stakeholders (wu, halim, & nordin, 2021). for example, in malaysia, where english has become the second official language despite malay being the official language, english proficiency is both a global necessity and a national priority (zin & yunos, 2020). as a lingua franca and a bridge tool worldwide, english bridges nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 139 divide and unlock access to a global knowledge system (hultgren, 2019). to become a highincome economy, malaysia’s government is changing english education priorities to increase competitiveness in technology, tourism, and international trade (afip et al., 2019). therefore, collocational knowledge is essential for college students, preparing them to succeed in an information-driven world where accurate text interpretation is vital for academic and professional success. similarly, university-level malaysian cadets and technicians are also expected to be able to comprehend moderately complex english texts. malaysian armed forces personnel, in the making, are expected to be ready to communicate globally through skilful communication, including reading (zin & nazri, 2021). the royal malaysian air force (rmaf) includes air force technicians who also study english as a second language at their institutes, and the courses focus on reading comprehension as a crucial part. however, it has been reported (singh, 2018; ratnam, 2012) that many learners in these institutes lack sufficient textual comprehension skills in english, in which collocational knowledge deficits, both receptive and productive, are prominent. specifically, hong et al. (2011) found that a deficit in verb-noun collocational awareness causes a comprehension deficit among malaysian university-level learners. this has made it evident that sufficient receptive and productive collocational knowledge is required to comprehend the language. therefore, it is also vital for university students and students from the royal malaysia air force institutes. other studies have also found that a lack of collocational knowledge affects reading comprehension skills (ginanti & rochman, 2020). many researchers (durrant, 2014; fitriani, 2017; hsu & chiu, 2008; lien, 2003) have claimed that receptive and productive knowledge of english collocations simultaneously affect textual comprehension output because these two aspects of vocabulary are intertwined at several levels. based on this empirical information, it is not hard to see why the collocational ability of malaysian universitylevel learners in english reading comprehension is below expectations compared to other regional esl contexts such as india, pakistan, south korea, and vietnam. addressing the systematic collocational knowledge gap through focused research is essential to reduce risks in high-stakes situations, improve technical comprehension, and comply with international aviation standards, given the crucial reliance on english for technical operations and aviation safety. to properly perform their tasks in this information and technologydriven era, armed forces personnel must be able to understand textual material, particularly in the form of collocation (sovhar, 2024). it is essential to address this issue in a broader context beyond academic backgrounds, requiring english proficiency for various operations, understanding manuals, and interacting with global experts and specialists. individuals who face linguistic competency challenges or may lack confidence in handling communication tasks often perceive the target language as a significant obstacle. this difficulty in successful language usage and lower performance levels can adversely impact their self-efficacy and motivation. according to some researchers (chen & kent, 2020; seven, 2020; unrau et al., 2018), low motivation can affect the performance and confidence of learners in executing tasks. reading comprehension is also a cognitive process in which the learner uses mental processes of interpretation, synthesis, and vocabulary understanding. this creates a nexus of variables that operate together, such as cognitive skills, reading comprehension performance, vocabulary size, collocational knowledge, and motivation (efriza et al., 2023). for instance, poor collocational knowledge restricts the capacity to identify word partnerships (e.g., “make a decision”) and hinders fluent parsing of meaning, while a constrained vocabulary limits text decoding. cognitive resources are strained by these language barriers, which slow understanding and increase anxiety. on the other hand, students who are more proficient in vocabulary and collocations might feel more confident in themselves, encouraging them to take on challenging texts (ceprano & shea, 2017). as a result, self-efficacy and motivation interact dynamically with linguistic competencies to influence learners’ access, process, and perseverance in esl reading tasks rather than functioning independently (wu et al., 2022). under specific conditions and circumstances, these aspects may branch into their relational subfactors. since rmaf is the most important example, it uses english as its primary documentation, training, and instruction medium for its technology and nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 140 maintenance. due to the importance of english proficiency in the rmaf, a more in-depth study is warranted to investigate the role of collocational knowledge in facilitating reading comprehension among learners. this may also be seen in light of the findings of unrau et al. (2018), who found that intervening in self-efficacy through awareness of training and techniques tends to improve reading comprehension. the present study investigates how collocational knowledge affects the reading output of royal malaysian air force technicians, who underperform in their recent vocabulary tests based on the australian defence force english language profiling (adfelps). empirical evidence of this inadequacy has been observed in the overall performance of these technicians. as collocational knowledge and skills broadly bifurcate into receptive and productive collocational awareness, this study attempts to determine the relationship between both types of collocational manifestation and reading performance. verb-noun collocations are included in the analysis because of their significance in everyday and academic reading. these forms show the multidimensionality of the role of collocations in a language. another variable investigated is vocabulary size. this study also evaluates the most contributing role in the learners’ textual understanding of these variables. contributive correlations can explain the variance in the reading ability of royal malaysian air force technicians beyond the academic setting. this may further assist learners, instructors, curriculum designers, and policymakers in catalysing relevant learning, teaching, and assessment practices. researchers have paid considerable attention to collocational knowledge, word frequency, and vocabulary size in the context of reading comprehension and vocabulary development for l2 learners. scholars like mueller (2011) emphasise collocational competence as the foundation for l2 proficiency, arguing that it supports reading skills, compensates for semantic gaps, and reflects grammatical and semantic awareness during interlanguage stages. alderson (2000) corroborates this by noting that vocabulary competence consistently emerges as a critical factor in verbal skill development. earlier, horwitz (1988) underscored the recognition of collocations as essential for reading success. the findings and conclusions of these notable researchers highlight the significant role of collocational knowledge and vocabulary size in learning l2 language skills. the current study operates on the same research premise; however, it aimed to investigate collocational knowledge in two forms while integrating three influential elements related to l2 skills: reading self-efficacy, motivation, and vocabulary size. ma and lin (2015) conducted a quantitative study on the contributing role of self-efficacy, collocations, vocabulary size, and other relational variables in the variance of reading comprehension outcomes of adult learners in taiwan. they found that collocational competence affects reading performance through additional variance. furthermore, vocabulary and collocational knowledge explain most of the variance in reading performance. on the other hand, yazdandoost, amalaleh, and kafipour (2014) performed a study on iranian efl learners in which they evaluated the effect of collocational knowledge on the four core language skills (i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing). the results showed a significant correlation between reading comprehension and collocational ability (p = 0.724), preceded only by speaking skill (p = 0.885). the relationship between collocational competence and reading comprehension remains contentious, with fitriani (2017) reporting no significant correlation in indonesian contexts, contrasting earlier studies. despite the theorised role in second languages, el-dakhs (2015) highlights a critical research gap. to address these inconsistencies, this study examines how receptive and productive collocational knowledge, along with vocabulary size, influences reading outcomes, positing that lexical proficiency, which encompasses both breadth (quantity) and depth (semantic and inferential nuance), mediates comprehension, as theorised by perfetti’s (2007) on lexical quality hypothesis and cain and oakhill’s (2014) emphasis on vocabulary quality. extending qian’s (2002) multidimensional model, which integrates size, depth, lexical organisation, and automatised knowledge, this research underscores collocations as a facet of depth, arguing that their mastery enhances text integration, thereby bridging gaps between fragmented findings and offering a holistic framework to evaluate vocabulary’s role in reading proficiency. nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 141 argued that it is essential for achieving nativelike fluency. despite its significance, there is limited research on the influence of collocational knowledge on reading comprehension among malaysian esl learners. studies in various efl/esl contexts reveal concerns about learners’ deficient receptive and productive collocational knowledge, negatively impacting language skills like reading (begagi, 2014). research has also established a significant positive correlation (r = 0.68, p < 0.01) between collocational awareness and reading comprehension (keshavarz & salimi, 2007). however, the role of learner motivation and self-efficacy in utilising collocations for comprehension has received insufficient attention (ma & lin, 2015). the existing literature includes studies assessing collocational competence and its effects on skills and investigating the relationship between collocational awareness and reading comprehension. while the influence of affective variables like self-efficacy on reading has been noted (raissi & roustaei, 2013; schunk, 2003; unrau et al., 2018), these are often examined separately from collocational knowledge. notably, while comprehensive, qian’s (2002) vocabulary association awareness model did not incorporate affective variables. based on this, the present study aimed to determine the effect of receptive and productive knowledge, vocabulary size, and reading self-efficacy on the reading outcome of malaysian l2 learners studying in the royal malaysian armed forces (rmaf) technician colleges. as highlighted above, reading comprehension is shaped by several key factors: motivation, self-efficacy, vocabulary breadth, and familiarity with collocations. recognising and addressing these elements is vital for enhancing reading skills. this study, guided by specific research questions, investigates the interplay of motivation, self-efficacy, vocabulary size, and collocational knowledge among learners enrolled in an english language proficiency course at an rmaf training institution. rq1: is there a significant relationship between receptive collocational knowledge, productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, reading self-efficacy, and reading comprehension performance of royal malaysian air force technicians studying esl reading building on qian’s (2002) multidimensional framework, vocabulary size, the first component, has been widely examined as a predictor of reading proficiency, with studies demonstrating its incremental growth in educational stages, as evidenced by kirmizi’s (2014) findings on turkish efl learners, whose receptive vocabulary expanded progressively across school grades but plateaued at higher lexical levels (e.g., 10000 words level). this aligns with cameron’s (2002) advocacy for level tests as practical tools to quantify vocabulary breadth. this method is recurrently applied in l2 research, including the study by kotchana and tongpoon-patanasorn (2015) on thai efl learners, which revealed a receptive-productive gap mirroring trends in neighbouring malaysia, where ibrahim et al. (2013) identified insufficient vocabulary thresholds among pre-university esl learners, alongside a strong correlation (r = 0.862) between collocational competence and linguistic proficiency. such findings underscore vocabulary size as a foundational yet insufficient factor, necessitating integration with depth and automaticity, a notion reinforced by green et al. (2023), who affirmed its robust link to academic reading comprehension. research highlights vocabulary size as a crucial, though partial, factor in textual comprehension. this supports its role in examining the relationship between collocational knowledge and reading outcomes, especially in contexts like malaysia, where lexical gaps remain despite regional linguistic connections. vocabulary depth and associative awareness have emerged as critical factors in second language (l2) learning, as noted by webb and nation (2017). they highlighted that knowledge of word associations supports vocabulary development and enhances text interpretation, which is particularly crucial for university students encountering complex texts. however, much of the existing research has concentrated on native english speakers, creating a gap that the current study addresses within the malaysian context. additionally, collocational knowledge has been extensively studied and is recognised as playing a significant role in l2 acquisition. jeensuk and sukying (2021) emphasised that a robust collocation foundation enables learners to grasp linguistic features more effectively. as this knowledge becomes embedded, it promotes spontaneous language use, enhancing comprehension and production. rogers (2024) nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 142 courses? rq2: among receptive collocation knowledge, productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and reading selfefficacy, which is the most predictive variable for the reading comprehension performance of these malaysian esl learners? rq3: if motivation and self-efficacy (model 2 & model 3, respectively) are added to the regression model of receptive and productive collocational knowledge and vocabulary size (model 1), which model explains a higher variance in reading comprehension performance? ii. method samples two hundred undergraduate esl learners at the institute of technology aerospace (itas) in kedah state were selected through random probability sampling, ensuring an unbiased representation of the target population (aziz, hassan & aljamili, 2024). this strategy allows statistical inferences, and every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. data for the study were collected from participants who had enrolled in a compulsory course on reading comprehension and other english language skills. the background exposure of these respondents to english reading courses was approximately 10 to 12 years spent in schools. all the students at this institute were male. instruments the study focused on six variables: receptive collocational knowledge, productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, selfefficacy in reading, and reading comprehension performance. consequently, data for each variable were collected from representative tests: (1) a receptive collocational knowledge test, (2) a productive collocational knowledge test, (3) a vocabulary size test, (4) a motivation questionnaire survey, (5) a reading self-efficacy questionnaire survey, and (6) an english reading comprehension test. in this study, six tools were used to measure the relevant variables. a receptive collocational knowledge test first evaluated participants’ ability to identify suitable word combinations in context. second, a productive collocational knowledge exam assessed their ability to produce precise collocations. third, the scope of their lexical knowledge was assessed using a vocabulary size test. fourth, the learners’ inner and extrinsic motivation to participate in the acquisition of the english language was recorded by a motivation questionnaire. fifth, a reading self-efficacy questionnaire assessed participants’ confidence in reading skills. lastly, the outcome measure was an english reading comprehension test that assessed their comprehension and interpretation of written materials. to answer rq1, correlational analyses (pearson’s r) examined the connections between reading comprehension scores, motivation, vocabulary size, reading self-efficacy, and receptive/productive collocational knowledge. multiple regression analysis compared the standardised beta coefficients of all five independent variables to determine the best predictor of reading comprehension for rq2. three hierarchical regression models were built for rq3: model 1 (vocabulary size + receptive/ productive collocational knowledge), model 2 (motivation + model 1), and model 3 (model 1 + self-efficacy in reading). whether selfefficacy or motivation increased predictive power was assessed by changes in adjusted r². following pilot testing, all instruments showed satisfactory reliability (cronbach’s α >.70). this multimethod approach guaranteed a comprehensive understanding of the interaction of linguistic, cognitive, and affective aspects in esl reading comprehension. the following subsections present the details of these research instruments: receptive collocational knowledge test (collex) a receptive collocation knowledge test, developed by gyllstad (2009) and called the collex test, was used to collect the data on respondents’ receptive knowledge of verb-noun collocations. according to gyllstad (2009), collex is suitable for testing english language learners’ receptive collocational knowledge and related combinatory skills. this indicates that the test can be used both for collocational knowledge measurement and word association knowledge. it has 50 multiple-choice items with three options for each item. figure 1 presents a sample item of this test: nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 143 productive collocational knowledge test (collocational recall test) a productive collocational knowledge test developed by szudarski (2012) measured the response’s verb-noun collocation recall skill. this test is called the collocation recall test and comprises 50 items requiring learners to fill in the blank space in a sentence with a suitable verb-noun collocation. szudarski (2012) states that this test is suitable for measuring the productive collocation skills of esl learners because its closed test format is generally considered adequate. a sample of this test is shown in figure 2. vocabulary size test (vlt) the vocabulary levels test (vlt) was modified to measure the respondents’ vocabulary size. this test has two versions; the first version was initially developed by nation (1990) and has eight clusters with three items in each cluster, whereas the second version, developed by schmitt, schmitt, and clapham (2001), has ten clusters with each cluster comprising three items. nation (2001) described the second version as an improved form of his version, so the second version was used in this study. vlt was explicitly designed to assess the vocabulary size of teachers; however, it is also widely used to assess vocabulary knowledge. it consists of high-frequency and low-frequency words presented in five levels: 2000, 3000, 5000, 10,000, and academic words. the test was adapted for the current undergraduate-level respondents, using only 2000 to 3000 words to keep the difficulty level of the test compatible with the university-level requirement. this adaptation was carried out due to a few previous studies (ma & lin, 2015; cheng, 2007; chen, 1999) in which it was consistently found that the vocabulary level capacity of southeastern esl learners generally ranges between 2000 – 3000 levels words, while the rest of the levels are difficult for learners at this level. motivation questionnaire (llos) noel et al. (2000) asserted that the ‘language the learning orientation scale (llos) was administered to measure the respondents’ motivation. it has 20 statements that assess seven subscales on extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. the subscales of identified regulation measure the former, introduced regulation, and external motivation regulation. however, intrinsic motivation is measured by the subscales of intrinsic motivation knowledge (imk), intrinsic motivation achievement (ima), and intrinsic motivation stimulation (ims). a five-point likert scale records the learners’ responses with a maximum score of 100. cronbach’s alpha (𝛼) was determined for this scale in the data analysis stage, which was 0.81, according to pallant (2020), which is adequate reliability for further quantitative analysis. reading self-efficacy questionnaire (sserc) in this study, a questionnaire titled ‘scale of self-efficacy beliefs in reading comprehension’ (sserc), which was explicitly designed to measure self-efficacy in vocabulary and reading comprehension tests, was used to collect data on respondents’ self-efficacy. epcacan and demirel (2011) developed sserc for english-language learners. it comprised 27 elements, and the response options on the likert scale ranged from ‘i’m very sure’ (5) to ‘i’m very uncertain’ (1). these questionnaire items are stated in ‘can do’ form, which is recommended for self-efficacy surveys by bandura (1980), who proposed the theory of selffigure 1. a sample item from the collex test data source. gyllstad (2009, p. 157) figure 2. a sample item from the collocation recall test data source: szudarski (2012, p. 32) nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 144 efficacy, recommended for self-efficacy surveys. its reliability estimate (𝛼 = 0.89) was adequate for further quantitative analysis. english reading comprehension test a reading comprehension test was adopted from an ielts academic reading test that required constructed responses. the answers required the test-takers to use sufficient opportunities to use verb-noun collocations. it consisted of 10 shortanswer questions. it was found to be used in this study because ielts tests are considered valid and specifically designed for esl / efl learners (ielts, 2023). iii. results descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were performed on the collected data. the frequency statistics at the descriptive analysis stage provided the respondents’ standard deviations, mean score percentages, and secured score ranges on the collex test, the collocation recall test, the vlt, and the reading comprehension test. table 1 presents these statistics: table 1 highlights the influential role of reading self-efficacy and receptive collocational knowledge in the respondents’ textual comprehension. in this sense, motivation was also found to have a strong influence on reading performance (m= 70.0) in the current model. it implied that reading self-efficacy, closely related to motivation (bandura, 1977), substantially contributed (m=100) to enhance the learners’ reading performance. it was followed by receptive collocational knowledge (m=36.5). pearson’s correlation analysis was performed at the inferential analysis stage to determine the relationship between receptive and productive collocational knowledge, motivation, and vocabulary size with reading comprehension performance. table 2 shows the obtained correlation coefficients. table 1. the descriptive statistics of the variables (n= 200) variables maximum score std. deviation mean score (%) obtained score range rck 50 2.89 36.5 (73%) 27 (54%) – 46 (92%) pck 50 3.89 34 (68%) 24 (48%) – 44 (88%) vs 60 3.94 41.5 (69.16%) 30 (50%) – 53 (88.33%) rc 50 3.01 31.5 (63%) 18 (36%) – 45 (90%) m 100 4.82 70 (70%) 45 (45%) – 95 (95%) rse 135 5.11 100 (74.07%) 70 (51.85%) – 130(96.29%) note. rck = receptive collocational knowledge determined by the total score of the collex test pck = productive collocational knowledge by determining the total score of the collocation recall test vs = vocabulary size determined by the total score of vlc rc = reading comprehension performance determined by the total score of the rc test. m = motivation determined by the total llos score rse = reading self-efficacy determined by the total score of sserc table 2. correlation between variables and reading comprehension (n= 200) variables rc rck pck vs m rse rc 1.00 rck .71* 1.00 pck .63* .70* 1.00 vs .49* .63* .56* 1.00 m .41* .58* .53* .54* 1.00 rse .46* .55* .52* .57* .60* 1.00 note. *the correlation is significant at p < .01. rck = receptive collocation knowledge determined by the total score of the collex test pck = productive collocational knowledge by determining the total score of the collocation recall test vs = vocabulary size determined by the total score of vlc rc = reading comprehension performance determined by the total score of the rc test. m = motivation determined by the total llos score rse = reading self-efficacy determined by the total score of sserc nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 145 with reading comprehension performance, both receptive collocational knowledge and (r = .71, p < .01) productive collocational knowledge (r =.71, p < .01) had a positive, high and significant correlation with reading comprehension performance, indicating that a direct proportional increase in reading comprehension if the respondents’ collocational knowledge of the respondents increased. this shows the affinity between both types of collocational knowledge, provided that the receptive collocational knowledge’s associative disposition of receptive collocation knowledge had a relatively higher correlation than the productive correlation. the vocabulary size also had a positive and significant correlation with reading performance (r = .49, p < .01). there was a moderate correlation on the verge of expanding. this also indicated that the vocabulary expansion would increase their reading scores. motivation and reading comprehension had a significant correlation (r = .41, p < .01) that showed a proportional effect if the motivation increased. lastly, a significant, moderate and positive correlation existed between self-efficacy in reading and reading performance (r = .46, p < .01). the results indicated that receptive collocational knowledge, followed by productive collocational knowledge, had the strongest correlation among all variables. these findings answered rq 1 by revealing that all variables had a significant and positive correlation with reading comprehension, while receptive collocational knowledge had the highest correlation among these variables. this further showed how receptive and productive collocational knowledge relates to the learners’ reading performance. the regression models that predict reading performance are compiled in table 2. with a highly significant model fit (f (3, 196) = 541.31, p <.001), model 1, which comprised vocabulary size, productive collocational knowledge and receptive collocational knowledge, predicted 71% of the variance in reading outcomes (r2 =.71, adjusted r2 =.70). with a beta coefficient almost 15 times greater (β = 7.48, p <.001) than productive collocations (β = 0.25) and vocabulary size (β = 0.20), the knowledge of receptive collocation showed the most substantial standardised effect among the predictors, confirming its dominance in explaining comprehension of the language. this showed that receptive collocational knowledge could largely influence reading comprehension among rmaf cadets. motivation had a moderately favourable effect (β = 5.08, p <.001), and model 2, which included motivation, explained 58% of the variation (r2 =.60, adjusted r2 =.58; f (3, 196) = 541.31, p <.001). self-efficacy also had a similar effect (β = 5.12, p <.001), and model 3, which included self-efficacy, also explained 58% of the variation (r2 =.60, adjusted r2 =.58; f (3, 196) = 541.31, p <.001). in particular, the better predictive capacity of linguistic factors is demonstrated by the 12% decrease in the explained variance (r2 =.12) between model 1 and models 2/3. although self efficacy and motivation are consistent with previous research showing that learners who have stronger self-beliefs perform better (unrau et al., 2018; epcacan & demirel, 2011), receptive collocational knowledge (β = 7.48), which alone explained about 40% of model 1 variance, outweighed their contributions (β = 5.0). by measuring effect sizes, table 3. regression analysis for the most contributing variable to reading performance (n = 200) model variables beta (β) p f r2 adjusted r2 1 rck 7.48 .000* 541.31 .71 .70 pck 7.29 .000* 541.31 .71 .70 vs 6.68 .000* 541.31 .71 .70 2 m 5.08 .000* 638.82 .60 .58 3 rse 5.12 .000* 638.82 .60 .58 note. *the correlation is significant at p < .01. rck = receptive collocational knowledge determined by the total score of the collex test pck = productive collocational knowledge by determining the total score of the collocation recall test vs = vocabulary size determined by the total score of vlc rc = reading comprehension performance determined by the total score of the rc test. m = motivation determined by the total llos score rse = reading self-efficacy determined by the total score of sserc nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 146 variance contributions, and model superiority, these findings provide a significant response to rq2 (receptive collocations as the strongest predictor) and rq3 (linguistic variables > affective components). iv. discussion the findings revealed that general receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and reading self-efficacy significantly contributed to reading comprehension performance. with a variance of 70%, collocational knowledge and vocabulary size significantly impacted reading outcomes because it is not surprising that reading comprehension requires the reader to comprehend chunks of language (nation, 2001). this shows that vocabulary, location segments, and the learner’s ability to understand and produce these segments play a vital role in adult learners’ textual comprehension. the main finding was that students who score well in collocation better understand the text, in line with earlier research showing that readers utilise collocation to understand english (li et al., 2022). the findings also provided that motivational effects and reading self-efficacy beliefs would increase reading performance. this may be seen in light of the findings of unrau et al. (2018), who found that intervening in learners’ self-efficacy through awareness of training and techniques tends to improve reading comprehension. these findings are consistent with anderson’s theory that motivation is crucial in second-language cognition. the level of reading comprehension among the chosen respondents is predicted by their belief in self-efficacy in this area. (khan et al., 2023). however, the present study included collocational knowledge in the form of broad types concerning reading comprehension in its model and then determined the correlations among these variables. the correlation values between receptive and productive collocational knowledge and reading performance revealed that the respondents’ receptive collocational competence of the respondents (r = .71) was more highly correlated with their reading outcomes than their productive collocational knowledge; however, these two types of competencies had a more significant effect on the reading performance than any other variable in the whole model (model 3). this value is slightly lower than that obtained by yazdandoost, amalsaleh, and kafipour (2014) in the iranian efl context. they found that collocational knowledge and reading comprehension performance had a significant correlation (r =.72); however, they did not separate collocational awareness into its types. similarly, ma and lin (2015) found that the correlation between collocational knowledge and reading comprehension was 0.43, and again, they determined the value by overall collocational awareness. farjami’s (2023) study advocated that reading comprehension and collocation awareness are closely related. the findings of the independent sample t-test showed that reading comprehension abilities were significantly improved due to the collocation-focused activities completed as an extracurricular activity, according to the results of the independent sample t-test with 91. the current study also found a positive and significant correlation between productive collocation competence and reading outcomes (r = .63). the current study presents in-depth results on collocational knowledge. furthermore, this study focused on verb-noun collocational knowledge, so it narrowed down its periphery to this collocational type. the vocabulary size of the respondents exerts a significant effect on their performance, but this effect is lower than that of the collocational competence. this may be explained as though the vocabulary size is vital to comprehending a text. however, collocations are repetitive vocabulary chunks that appear to add more to meaning-making than single words. this study further revealed the importance of english collocational vocabulary, specifically verb-noun pairs. models 1, 2, and 3 in the regression analysis revealed that the most predictive of reading performance is the receptive collocational knowledge of the respondents. in examining model 1, where motivation and self-efficacy beliefs are accounted for, it is evident that receptive competence remains the most significant contributing factor to reading outcomes. here, it is plausible that passive input of collocational knowledge is generally higher in efl/esl learners because most productive skills, such as speaking and writing, are more challenging (elhassi & imssalem, 2017). it supports the findings of alsakran (2011), who discovered a substantial gap between productive and receptive knowledge of arab efl learners. he claimed that the learners’ production of collocational understanding was significantly inferior to their receptive collocational nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 147 awareness. however, the current findings are different because the difference between the correlation values of receptive and productive knowledge is less pronounced than what alsakran (knowledge) found. it can plausibly be explained in terms of the difference in linguistic environment. an efl environment usually has fewer opportunities to exercise l2 language skills than an esl environment (for example, malaysia). in models 2 and 3, in which motivation and reading self-efficacy were added turn by turn, receptive collocational knowledge still contributed the most to learners’ reading performance. these affective variables portray a more in-depth picture of the knowledge of reading comprehension than merely collocational competence would do. however, collocational knowledge still overrides these two affective variables. furthermore, compared to the results of ma and lin (2015), the contribution of motivation and self-efficacy in the current study is noticeably higher. this study’s affective factors of motivation and self-efficacy contributed 58% of the variation (β=5.08 & 5.12, respectively). on the contrary, in ma and lin, motivation and self-efficacy after entering the model explained 25% of the variance in reading performance. furthermore, the findings supported the researcher’s previous conclusions by demonstrating that reading efficacy positively predicted students’ english reading comprehension (li & gan, 2022). these different findings may be explained in terms of the specialisation of malaysian english language learners. these learners are given practice in the english language on a biweekly basis, and their mental bent is on being globally professional in the field of aerospace and aircraft mechanisms; therefore, they are usually more exposed to motivated situations than a regular university undergraduate usually is because the latter generally is less profession-orientated at this stage. the present study expands the reading performance picture regarding general malaysian learners and aerospace technicians in a few ways. the study has several implications for esl teachers, learners, malaysian universities, english policymakers, and curriculum designers. implications of the study this section will initially outline the study’s theoretical implications and then discuss its practical implications. theoretical implications the core finding of this study is that, of all variables, receptive collocational knowledge is the best predictor of reading performance. it also has the most significant correlation with the reading comprehension of malaysian esl learners. this finding corroborates the prevalent theoretical perspective in the esl/efl context that receptive vocabulary, or collocations, contributes significantly to reading comprehension performance (ma & lin, 2015). a learner with an extensive reservoir of receptive collocational vocabulary tends to promote its mechanics while comprehending a reading text, leading to better understanding. furthermore, lexical collocations, especially verb-noun combinations, are vital in language learning because a language portrays actions and things like verb-noun combinations (gulec & gulec, 2015). in this way, receptive verbnoun collocational knowledge determines success in l2 reading. theoretically, it is congruent with the prevalent proposition that more than 50% of linguistic items and categories that native users of language use appear in collocational form (hill, 2000). skehan (2009) also corroborates that a native speaker’s cognitive bank of language and lexicon exists in language chunks that manifest as collocations. this way, communicative situations benefit from the pre-fabricated or memorised chunks in his mind, no matter which language skills the learner must practice or use. this improves language comprehension and speed, and reduces the cognitive load a text can put on the learner’s mind if the learner does not have any l2 collocation bank. this also explains why reading is prescribed to l2 learners as a beneficial activity to learn that language. this also indicates why receptive collocational knowledge is usually more active in l2 learners than productive collocational competence. another finding about the affective factors of motivation and self-efficacy in reading highlights the theoretical perspective that the self-belief and confidence of a learner assist in successful language learning. the more effective a learner is, the greater the sense of confidence in performing the given reading task (bagci & unveren, 2020). it may be explained in general terms of confidence. learners who believe in themselves often carry out a language nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 148 activity without inhibition and anxiety, positively affecting their success percentage. the learners who may have a good grasp of the language but lack self-efficacy may struggle with what they otherwise could easily accomplish; therefore, motivation and reading self-efficacy support successful reading comprehension while increasing the chances of better scores. overall, positive relationships among receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and self-efficacy in reading appear to make a good case for adequate reading comprehension. practical implications the findings of this study also provide some practical implications. pedagogically, this study is specifically beneficial for itas and other malaysian aerospace institutes that teach english reading comprehension as a compulsory training course. as the present findings indicated, receptive collocational competence contributes the most to their reading performance. it correlates most with receptive and productive collocational knowledge, vocabulary size, motivation, and reading selfefficacy. this implies that esl teachers in these air force institutes can make learners more aware of the significance of collocational knowledge in increasing learner performance. additionally, productive knowledge should be improved to improve the learners’ reading outcomes. these learners and other malaysian esl learners can be instructed about the value of collocational knowledge by integrating more focused reading activities that require the learners to work with verb-noun collocations. other lexical and grammatical collocations should also be integrated into the courses. it can help to improve learner reading performance if collocation clouds are taught and practised. in this way, the vocabulary and collocational fragment sizes can be increased, leading to better textual understanding. authentic non-academic materials, such as english newspaper content, advertisement content, movie subtitles, and song lyrics, can enhance common native-like reading comprehension. the learners can be asked to underline useful collocations and make use of them in sentences and short story writing. likewise, assessments and washback can be designed accordingly to address the learner’s needs. lastly, motivational aspects and self-efficacy factors are generally overlooked in esl classes. these aspects must be considered by examining the self-efficacy levels in reading occasionally and motivating them to carry out reading tasks, making them more attractive and engaging for learners. adult learners may use the findings equally to self-instruct them accordingly, paying attention to the results. v. conclusion this study examines the experiences of malaysian esl learners, specifically technicians from the royal malaysian air force. it underscores the essential role of understanding how words function together in achieving reading success. the findings indicate that learners who effectively recognise common verb-noun collocations, such as “make a decision” instead of “do a decision,” tend to perform better in reading assessments. proficiency in collocations and a robust vocabulary accounted for 70% of the variance in reading performance. furthermore, the study highlights the significant impact of motivation and self-efficacy on learning outcomes, explaining 58% of the variations in student scores. this demonstrates the interaction between mindset and language proficiency. for educators, these findings suggest the importance of prioritising collaborative instruction and contextual reading activities, such as analysing real-world texts, while fostering learner confidence through acknowledging small achievements. it is important to note that the findings may not universally apply to younger learners or individuals in diverse professions. future research could further enhance our understanding by integrating surveys with qualitative insights to explore the effectiveness of specific learning strategies. ultimately, successful esl instruction requires a balanced approach that combines the science of language with the emotional aspects of learning, promoting proficiency and a lifelong passion for language. ethics statement the uum research committee reviewed and approved this study. the research adheres to ethical standards for publication in jurnal arbitrer and does not involve human subjects, animal testing, or social media data. credit author statement nahazatul halimi conceptualised and collected data, studied literature, formal evaluation, funding approval, inquiry, methodology, and initial draft preparation. rafizah rawian processed the concept, verified subjectivity, adduced literature, developed content, reviewed, and edited for final draft production. nahazatul halimi / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 149 references ahmad afip, l., hamid, m. o., & renshaw, p. 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(2020). tvet students’ attitudes and motivation toward learning english. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences. 10(11), 717-727. zin, s.h.m. & nazry, m. (2021). the mediating effect of english self-efficacy on the relationships between motivation to learn, intention to share knowledge, and job performance among military personnel: a conceptual framework. advances in business research international journal, 7(2), 228-240. dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 383 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: may 06, 2025 final revision: september 15, 2025 accepted: september 18, 2025 available online: september 25, 2025 this research on the myth and ritual of ine pare among the ende-lio community in nida village, flores, indonesia, aims to reveal how linguistic expressions encode local wisdom amid cultural marginalization. an ethnographic approach and linguistic anthropological theory are employed as the formal framework of the study. data were collected through 16 weeks of participant observation and in-depth interviews with the traditional elder (mosalaki) and five other key informants. thematic data analysis found that the myth and ritual of ine mbu—the rice mother—represent a socio-ecological knowledge system supported by local rationality and religiosity. socio-ecological knowledge is reflected in communal solidarity, equitable resource distribution, and environmental taboos. local rationality is expressed through agricultural and nutritional knowledge. religiosity is manifested in ancestor veneration, ritual obligations, and moral ethics enforced through communal sanctions. in this context, the lio language, used in myths and ritual mantras, functions as the preserver and transmitter of these local wisdom values. the nidaende community and its oral traditions and local wisdom remain relatively resilient due to geographic isolation. however, youth migration, digital and social media influx, and tourism commodification threaten these traditions. the implication of this research is strengthening linguistic anthropological scholarship regarding the relationship between oral traditions and local competencies (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) in sustaining ecological balance and social cohesion. these findings recommend undertaking cultural revitalization efforts, including documentation of local cultural heritage, integration of local wisdom into formal education curricula, and development of cultural tourism. keywords ende-lio, ine pare, local language and culture, local wisdom, myth, ritual correspondence *e-mail: hasanuddin@hum.unand.ac.id article myth and ritual of ine pare: an anthropolinguistic study of ende-lio ethnic culture, flores dentiana rero1, hasanuddin2*, elly malihah3, sapriya4, neiny ratmaningsih5 1universitas flores, kupang, indonesia 2universitas andalas, padang, indonesia 1,3,4,5universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.3.383-400.2025 i. introduction local language and culture are increasingly being pushed aside by the growing pressures of nationalization, modernization, and globalization. as a result, marginalization occurs — a condition in which local-traditional cultural practices undergo transformation in form and shifts in meaning, function, and value due to internal or external pressures (koentjaraningrat, 1985). this phenomenon is increasingly sweeping across indonesian society, both at the local and national levels. this is also happening among the endelio community in flores, east nusa tenggara province, indonesia. one factual reality revealed by widyastuti (2020) concerns the decreasing frequency with which the ine pare ritual is performed in its complete form, due to changes in social structure and the influence of new religious beliefs. cultural marginalization is marked by several indicators, including the decreasing frequency of traditional rituals or ceremonies, the shifting dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 384 of norms and values of old traditions within communities, the exodus of youth to urban areas, the dominance of popular culture promotion through mass media and digital technology, government policies that do not support the strengthening and revitalization of local culture, and no less importantly, the commodification of culture through tourism programs without considering the originality—including the sacredness—of that local culture (suryadi & wahyuni, 2021; yulianto & prasetyo, 2021). several factors are causing cultural marginalization, among them nationalism, globalization, modernization, urbanization, migration, centralized policies, and others. the dominance of national language policy within the education and administrative systems often becomes a cause of local cultural marginalization (geertz, 1980). modernism within globalization— characterized by technological advancement that facilitates cross-national communication and information through social media, film, music, and fashion—has also contributed to shifting the younger generation’s perception of their local culture as outdated and irrelevant to contemporary life. the attractiveness of cities as centers of business and formal education has driven urbanization and further caused a shift in everyday spoken language, increasingly infused with mixed accents of indonesian, thereby weakening the position of regional languages—such as lio—in daily communication (tarigan & sembiring, 2019). as reported by unesco, the marginalization of regional languages has led to the extinction of one regional language in the world every two months. such extinction inevitably results in the simultaneous loss of unique traditional knowledge systems, moral and philosophical values, and community-specific ecological systems (unesco, 2023). equally influential in the marginalization of regional languages and cultures is government policy that prioritizes material infrastructure development over the protection of diverse and unique local cultures across regions. similarly, in the context of tourism, cultural commodification frequently occurs—including of traditional rituals—where they are presented merely as attractions, without interpretive appreciation of their social and spiritual meanings, functions, and values (cohen, 2015; unesco, 2023) academics and policymakers need to pay special attention to the marginalization of local languages and cultures to find practical solutions. this is because the marginalization of local languages and cultures signals a threat to indonesia’s multicultural national identity, the disruption of intergenerational cultural transmission, cultural exploitation, socio-ecological crises, and other related consequences. therefore, steps toward reconstructing and revitalizing local wisdom must be taken to preserve cultural identity and ensure the continuity and dynamic development of local cultures so that they continue to grow rooted in their own foundations (yaqin et al., 2024). such reconstruction and revitalization of local culture are urgently needed, as any delay will cause the complexity of problems to become increasingly intricate (hasanuddin et al., 2023). one local linguistic and cultural heritage facing the threat of marginalization and erosion of values is the myth and ritual of ine pare among the ende-lio community in east nusa tenggara, indonesia. the ritual, based on the myth of ine pare among the ende-lio people, is not merely folklore or an ordinary agricultural ceremony; rather, it is a cosmological, linguistic, and philosophical manifestation reflecting the lio community’s relationship with nature, ancestors, and the divine. the local myth and ritual of ine pare constitute an intriguing subject for linguistic anthropological study, as they demonstrate a close and inseparable linkage between language and culture. the ritual contains distinctive lio-language mantras from nida village, rich in symbolism, possessing unique linguistic structures, and expressing complex sociocultural functions. hypothetically, the myth and its actualization through the ine pare ritual constitute the core of local wisdom in nida village, ende-lio, flores. this local wisdom encompasses philosophy, knowledge systems, social systems, and spiritual intelligence. all these local wisdom dimensions and elements form an integral unity, serving as a marker of identity and simultaneously functioning as a benchmark for their cultural vitality. this research is relevant for documenting the form of the ritual and uncovering the richness of meanings, functions, and value systems embedded within it. this research is relevant for documenting the ritual’s form and uncovering the richness of meanings, functions, and value systems embedded within it. dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 385 based on a literature review, previous studies (takandewa, 2019; larasati, 2018) have tended to remain descriptive, lacking analysis of the linguistic aspects of ritual mantras, failing to establish correlations between the myth and the supporting community’s cosmology, and neglecting contemporary dynamics such as shifting perceptions or the impacts of cultural commodification within tourism projects (cohen, 2015). moreover, systematic digital documentation initiatives involving community participation regarding the subjects and objects of the ine pare ritual have not yet been undertaken (unesco, 2023). this research aims to address these gaps through three focal points: (1) anthropological linguistic analysis of ritual incantations, (2) interpretation of the myth as a framework of cultural meaning, and (3) mapping of contemporary socio-cultural contexts influencing the ritual’s practice. this study aims to uncover the cultural meanings embedded in the myth and ritual incantations of ine pare in nida village, ende, through an anthropological linguistic-ethnographic approach. utilizing participatory observation and in-depth interviews, the research analyzes the linguistic structure of the incantations, their ritual contexts, and socio-cultural functions, in order to reconstruct the cosmology, philosophy, and local values of the lio community. thematic-interpretive analysis with data triangulation is employed to understand ritual language not as a static artifact, but as a living practice that actively shapes the community’s social and spiritual realities. ii. methods this study employs a qualitative approach with a linguistic anthropological perspective. the method used is ethnography, aimed at describing the form and function and analyzing the cultural meanings embedded in the mythic narratives and ritual mantras of ine pare in nida village, ende regency, flores (map-1). this approach is expected to facilitate a deep understanding of language, social practices, and cultural values through participatory engagement with the research subject community (moleong, 2007; sibarani, 2015; senft, 2018). data was collected through participatory field observation over 16 weeks (may–august 2023). information was gathered via in-depth interviews with six key informants, whose community representation was determined purposively, while individual informants were selected using snowball sampling. observations were performed to observe and document the ine pare ritual, which consists of four phases: land clearing, planting, harvesting, and communal harvest consumption. specific aspects figure 1: map of indonesia and ende (nida village) photo adapted from: https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/kabupaten_ende#/map/0 and https://www.google.com/ search?q=peta+kabupaten+ende&rlz dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 386 iii. results from a linguistic perspective, the province of east nusa tenggara (ntt) is home to more than 50 regional languages, including several major ones such as: kupang malay (kupang melayu), tetun, rote, sabu, manggarai, ngadha, sumba, ende, lio, lamaholot, and alor (grimes & barbara, 1987; capell, 1970; lewis, 2016). specifically in ende regency, there are six primary languages and several local dialects. the main languages in ende regency include: ende, lio, nage, soa, wai brama, and nggela. in nida village, the community speaks lio with the nida dialect—referred to locally as lio—which has been influenced by both the ende and indonesian languages. this linguistic diversity reflects the cultural richness of the lio-ende region (mbete, 2006). ine pare consists of folk narratives containing myths and rituals. the storyline of ine pare serves as the foundation for its ritual stages; in other words, the ine pare ritual is a symbolic enactment of the underlying myth. among the nida villagers, the known version of the myth is ine mbu, one of three existing versions, alongside boby no’o nombi and ana kalo (larasati, 2018). the ritual functions to commemorate and preserve the life journey of ine pare, from birth until death. the narrative is performed through ritual stages that begin with poka taba (clearing new fields by cutting trees and removing weeds), followed by tedo pare (rice planting), keti pare (rice harvesting), and conclude with mi are (the ceremonial consumption of newly harvested rice). the myth of ine mbu according to mr. aloysius wete (58 years old), the customary leader (mosalaki) of nida village, ine mbu derives from the word “ine”, meaning “mother”, and “mbu”, the name of a girl who later became known as ine pare. mbu was one of three children born to a couple named raja and kaja. their children were named ndale, mbu, and sipi. at first, the family lived happily. however, one day a tsunami disaster struck. they were forced to flee to another place, specifically to keli mbape. not long after that incident, their father fell ill and passed away, followed shortly thereafter by their mother. the three orphaned siblings, left with no relatives, decided to live a nomadic life. on their journey, they encountered local receiving focused attention include the recitation of mantras, bodily gestures, ritual implements, and social interactions. in-depth interviews were conducted to explore mythic narratives, symbolic meanings, and the underlying philosophies of each ritual element (geertz, 2018). table 1: informants informant name age’s (years) status/ jobs aloysius wete 58 mosalaki damianus jaghu (male) 52 public figure agustus pepa (female) 48 farmer susana iso (male) 49 farmer bernadus baru (male) 53 farmer hemanus lagu (male) 50 farmer linguistic and ritual data were coded in a phased manner. this process has three stages: transcription, structural-functional classification, and thematic analysis. first, audio-video recordings of rituals and interviews were transcribed verbatim in the native language (ende-lio) and subsequently translated into indonesian, while preserving key terminologies and original linguistic structures. second, ritual texts (incantations) were coded according to: (1) linguistic structure (rhythm, repetition, metaphor); (2) event context (time, place, participants); and (3) sociocultural function (norm reinforcement, legitimization of authority, value transmission). third, initial codes were grouped into broader thematic categories such as “agricultural cosmology,” “human-nature relationships,” and “spiritual authority.” data analysis was conducted thematically and interpretively within an anthropological linguistic framework. ritual texts were analyzed as linguistic artifacts and cultural practices that construct social realities (riyanto et al., 2021). the analysis followed a cyclical process: pattern identification, verification through source triangulation (observations, interviews, local documents), and contextual interpretation grounded in the local cultural framework. the analytical results were then synthesized to reconstruct the representation of cultural values embedded in the ine pare ritual, following hanurawan’s (2016) recommendation for a phenomenological-cultural approach. thus, this methodology does not merely document textual content but also deciphers the living layers of meaning embedded within ritual practices, positioning language as a window into understanding the cultural world of the nida community. dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 387 communities suffering from food shortages. one day, while searching for firewood in a swampy area, mbu injured her hand. her blood dripped onto the muddy ground, and immediately rice began to grow where it had fallen. this miraculous event repeated itself daily, yet remained a secret among the three siblings. eventually, mbu received a divine calling to leave her human form behind and transform into a guardian spirit of nature. to fulfill this destiny, she willingly offered herself as a sacrifice, so that her blood could continue to produce rice to sustain the people’s needs (more complete story attached). moments before the sacrificial ritual, mbu recited a poetic farewell, as follows. text 1: mbu’s final words before sacrifice text translate tebo neku mbale dowa awu fara mbale dowa tana so aku peno dewa no’o nebo pija no’o bita, ngere embu mamo kobe lima rua aku tei tondo wula telu aku te’a, wula sutu aku nuka nua (i am willing for) my body to turn into ash (i am willing for) my flesh and blood to become earth (i am willing to be) covered by the gods with grass buried beneath the mud of our ancestors after two to five nights, i will sprout after three months, i will bear fruit, after four months, i will enter the village soi renggi aku tei nei sa ripi, sa buku, sa laru aku beke kau tango nuwa kobe nuwa leja” i see those who lift me and carry me from seed, to shoot, to grain i affirm and guarantee it! by night and by day.” this myth illustrates a rational and empirical knowledge system related to rice cultivation, environmental awareness, social responsibility, and selfless sacrifice for communal welfare over personal or familial interests. as shown in text 1, mbu willingly sacrifices herself for the benefit of society. she offers her body to become awu (ash), tana (earth), nebo (dirt), and no’o bita (covered in ancestral mud), symbolizing her transformation into the very soil that nourishes rice—the primary source of carbohydrates for the community. additionally, text 1 contains scientific insight into rice growth patterns. it states that rice begins to sprout (tondo) within two to five nights (kobe lima rua) after sowing. after three months (wula telu), it bears fruit (te’a), and after four months (wula sutu), it is ready for harvest and brought back into the village (nuka nua). in the same passage, mbu declares that she sees (aku tei) those who lift and carry her (soi renggi). she also watches over the development of the seeds (sa ripi), shoots (sa buku), and grains (sa laru). finally, mbu affirms (aku beke) and guarantees (kau tango) her eternal vigilance, watching over both night (nuwa kobe) and day (nuwa leja). the ine pare ritual based on the belief in the myth of ine mbu or ine pare, the people of nida village perform the ine pare ritual annually. this ritual consists of several stages: land clearing (poka taba), rice planting (tedo pare), harvesting (keti pare), and the ceremonial consumption of new rice (mi are). the ritual stages of ine pare are described as follows. 1. land clearing (poka taba) there are two types of land-clearing activities: opening new farmland and cleaning previously used fields for replanting. each type has different ritual requirements. for clearing new land, the requirements include a large livestock animal such as a buffalo or cow, rice, spices, and traditional clothing. there are two types of land-clearing activities: opening new farmland and cleaning previously used fields for replanting. each type has different ritual requirements. for clearing new land, the requirements include a large livestock animal such as a buffalo or cow, rice, spices, and traditional clothing. during the ceremony to open new land, the mosalaki wears traditional attire consisting of ragi (sarong), lambu (shirt), podi (headband), and senai (sash). the mosalaki then recites an incantation requesting permission from the spirits of the universe, accompanied by offerings. the incantation and its meaning, as interpreted by the mosalaki, are as follows (text 2): text 2: incantation for opening new farmland text translate roo ma’e ale baja ma;e tana, boka kumu tua, zoo, kamu maku, kami kema gha” we ask permission to work from the spirits inhabiting this earth, the elders of the soil, trees, and ancestral beings.” buku do rae sera sena si lae masa, tau pati ka tana watu nitu pa’i kami do iwa mera leka ina eo kami molo kema gha. kami eo janji kami kema leka ina kami do siap sawe no binata ria. eo kami deo janji kami do ule age mae toki, topo mae neka, binata mae toki. before sowing seeds on this wide land, we offer food to the guardian spirits of the land, stones, and large ancient trees. we do not live here; we only come to work. we promise only to work here, mother, and we are ready to sacrifice large animals. we keep our promises—no snake bites, no wounds from blades, no attacks from wild animals. this text is an incantation seeking permission from the nitu pa’i (guardian spirits) who are dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 388 believed to be the owners of the land, stones, and forest. therefore, land clearing must be conducted with their consent. nitu pa’i permits can be obtained by offering sacrificial animals, such as large livestock like cows or buffaloes. the mantra recited during the offering contains their hopes for protection while working, for smooth progress without obstacles, and for avoidance of injuries from blades, snakebites, or attacks by wild animals. as stated in the above mantra, through the mosalaki, the community comes and requests permission to work (to clear fields), not to settle permanently. the community believes that if they violate this agreement, it will result in disaster. therefore, any misfortune experienced while working will be interpreted as a form or sign of the guardian spirits’ displeasure toward their actions. forms of disaster are not limited to workplace accidents, such as injuries or animal bites. however, they may manifest as larger natural disasters like falling trees, landslides, or flash floods. hence, they exercise great caution when clearing land or exploiting nature further. after the ritual, the landclearing activity may begin. text 3: incantation for cleaning previously cultivated land text translate kami pati ka eo miu tana watu, kami wi ndawi bene, mai ka si” we feed the owners of the land and stone (and request permission to start working), pulling weeds—we shall eat together. kami nosi mai dhawi uma rema wi mula pare” we announce our gathering to clean the field to plant rice. 2. rice planting (tedo pare) before planting rice, farmers must perform the tedo pare ritual, which involves sacrificing a cow. its blood is mixed with rice grains and then planted. the process begins with preparing a basket containing seeds and a stone. on the stone is placed a mundi leaf, serving as a seat for ine pare. the basket is tied with aji leke (a piece of rope), along with a ragi (sarong), shawl, jewelry, and lengi feo (candlenut oil). once all materials are prepared, the workers begin planting rice. the planting is done using a sharpened bamboo stick, one end of which is tied with pulu leaves. the bamboo is inserted into the ground, the rice seed is placed inside, and it is watered regularly. this act symbolizes an offering to ine pare, the beautiful spirit of fertility. the incantation recited before and during planting is as follows (text 4): text 4: incantation before and during rice planting text translate seso tana uma ria, seso tana uma loo arrange the soil for large fields, arrange the soil for small plots latu esa telu tau wii tedo are: paki, pire, fai falu tedo there are three steps in rice planting: land preparation, taboo observance, and planting dego do, oo… mo, oo tebo, oo… wesa, oo.. mela o… bhuka... tebu ... si tiko esa… bhoka benu do uma rema… o…. call again, oo… tired, oo… body, oo… water, oo… pests, oo… grow, sprout… around the grain, fill completely the fields… ooo… this text contains prayers for smooth progress throughout the planting process, whether on tana uma ria or tana uma loo (large or small fields), ensuring well-arranged and healthy growth. line two states esa telu tau wii tedo are: paki, pire, fai falu tedo (“three steps in rice planting: land preparation, taboo observance, and planting”). during the planting, the mosalaki and participating villagers chant the incantation together. the incantation includes instructions (e.g., dego do—”call again,” tebo—”flush”) and prayers expressing hopes (e.g., bhuka—”grow,” tebu— ”sprout”), all aimed at ensuring that the seeds sprout well and yield abundant harvests. one crucial stage is observing pire (taboos). the taboos are intended to maintain the conduciveness and harmony of horizontal relationships (among fellow community members) and vertical relationships (between humans and the divine). violations of these taboos are believed to negatively impact the process and outcomes of their agriculture. such impacts may include obstacles in land clearing and planting, pest infestations, crop failure, or even natural disasters. the mention of taboos within the incantation can serve as a symbolic function to reaffirm the sacred agreement not to commit such violations. the observed taboos during the performance of the ine pare ritual in nida village, ende-lio, are as follows: • prohibition of quarreling — during the preparation and performance of the ritual, participants must maintain patience, suppress expressions of anger, refrain from uttering curses or insults, or engaging in fights. negative emotions are believed to disrupt the sacred relationship between the community and ancestral and nature spirits. dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 389 • obligation to plant simultaneously according to the traditional calendar — the community is prohibited from planting rice outside the time designated by the customary calendar or instructions from the mosalaki; violation of this rule will adversely affect the harvest. • prohibition of using harsh language — uttering harsh, offensive, hurtful, or impolite words during the ritual is believed to obstruct the fulfillment of prayers by ancestors and the rice goddess (ine pare). • obligation to participate in the ritual until completion — community participants in the ceremony are forbidden from leaving the location before the ceremony ends; violation of this rule is considered impolite and may bring misfortune upon the individual and their family. 3. rice harvesting (keti pare) keti pare (rice harvesting) is the ritual phase during which rice is harvested. in this part of the ceremony, all participants sing incantations containing prayers asking nature to bless the harvest so that it is abundant, high in quality, and delicious in taste for communal consumption. the incantations recited before and during the rice harvesting process are as follows (text 5). text 5: incantation before harvesting rice text translate kami eo… pati ka tana watu nitu pa’i kami wee dhawe pare kami eo pakai pela ine pare kaa si… we offer food to the guardian spirits of the land and stones. we are about to begin harvesting. we wear the adornments of mother rice. come and eat together... bele do.. bele do.. le.. le.. do.. bele do…. le… le... do… le … bele do… do… do… bele dhae… be.. le.. do… do.. be.. le.. do… dhae mai.. bele … do… bele do.. mai.. do… ro… a… come together, come together, come, come. come together… come .. come to .. gether come together … came ,, come. come to harvest rice…come .. come .. together .. come to harvest rice. come together… come together… come together and rejoice. mai kau nai tangi, mai tenda wea dha ndawa ndota, nai temua wau, teka temu tiro. gather, please climb the ladder, gather in the bamboo hut made from split bamboo strips. gather, stay inside, do not go out anymore, remain within this text contains the incantation recited before, during, and after harvesting rice. the ritual begins with offering food to tana watu nitu pa’i (guardian spirits of the land and stones), seeking their blessings for a successful harvest. as a sign of respect, participants wear pela ine pare (“mother rice’s ornaments”), which consist of traditional attire including ragi (sarong), lambu (shirt), podi (headband), and senai (shawl). in the second part, the incantation is sung throughout the harvesting process. phrases such as “bele do dhae mai” (“come together, gather, harvest rice”) are repeated continuously. the third section of the incantation is performed when the harvested rice is brought into the bamboo house, where it will be stored, threshed, and processed into rice grains. text 5 expresses gratitude and reverence toward ine pare, who is believed to have protected the fields until harvest time. this shared joy symbolizes the importance of expressing happiness and appreciation for the blessings received through the harvest. once harvested, the rice—still attached to its stalks—is carried in baskets to a designated bamboo house near the village. ritual chants accompany the arrival of the rice. as reflected in the text, the rice is treated with care and appropriately housed, reflecting hopes that it remains safe from theft, animal damage, or other misfortunes. the harvested rice is regarded as kin—a human-like presence—whose well-being is expected to bring blessings to the community. 4. consuming new rice (nuwa bo’o) after harvesting, the rice must be separated from its stalks. some of the rice is then pounded into rice grains for cooking. the new rice is prepared and served communally. a portion of the rice is roasted (singrai) and ground with stone (kibi) to be distributed among all present family members and community helpers. the incantation recited during this ritual is as follows (text 6): text 6: incantation during the consumption of new rice text translate ka se are pesa se rusa ndu’a, kura, leko, ule au. gha mi do are, menga kai tuka ma’e ro, ka mo poto tondo, pesa mo nua saga. ka paga tuka, pesa mo foko. na mi dowa are, menga kai sai pesa sai, pire ji’e, gara pawe dowa. eat rice, meat of wild goat (goat), shrimp, frog, and bamboo caterpillars. here comes the cooked rice. may no stomach pain occur, may this meal nourish the body and make it grow taller. eat to feed your body and make it strong. this rice is now ready. only you i serve with my side dishes. the taboos are complete; only kind words have been spoken. this text describes the communal meal, the foods offered, and prayers uttered to ensure that the newly harvested rice brings blessings, fullness, and physical and spiritual growth. the communal dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 390 eating ritual is not limited to living community members but also includes ancestral spirits such as ine pare and guardian deities of nature. the menu items mentioned in the incantation include “ka se are pesa se rusa ndu’a, kura, leko, ule au” (“please eat rice, meat of wild goat/kid, shrimp, frog, and bamboo caterpillars”). the texts above, together with their associated rituals, illustrate that the people of nida village still hold deep beliefs in ine pare as an ancestral figure crucial to the success of their agricultural cycle. therefore, they offer sacrifices to ine pare at key moments: clearing new farmland or replanting, planting rice, harvesting, and consuming new rice. these offerings are placed on a special altar called nabe pare. the altar is located in a small hut measuring approximately 2x3 meters or 3x4 meters, constructed from ngga au (split bamboo branches), tied together with nao (black palm fiber rope), roofed with ki (alang-alang grass), elevated about two meters off the ground, and equipped with a staircase of 2–3 steps leading to the entrance. a watu (stone) and peso re wewa (offering base) are placed at the foot of the stairs as the first step toward entering the nabe pare hut. there are several obligations and taboos related to the ine pare ritual, as follows. • villagers are obligated to perform the ine pare ritual annually, following the annual cycle of upland rice cultivation. • according to the mosalaki (customary leader): “roo baja, sala susu, roo ale baja tana, kau susu iwa sala, nawu iwa bowa, uma rema eo ula age” — “if the ritual is neglected, the community will suffer plagues, health disturbances, incurable illnesses, and rice infestations.” • members of the nida indigenous community classify failure to perform the ine pare ritual as a violation of customary law, punishable by expulsion enforced by the customary elders. • there are prohibitions against opening land for wet rice fields and cultivating farmland more than once per year. • additionally, there is a taboo against telling the myth of ine pare to younger generations unless they are over fifty years old. cultural value of myth and ritual of ine pare based on the aforementioned research findings, two critical domains can be identified: the linguistic domain and the domain of cultural values. the mythic and incantatory texts of ine pare reveal three principal features: performative syntax, derivational morphology, and symbolic poetic devices. syntactically, the dominance of imperative and optative structures (e.g., “roo ma’e ale baja ma...”) reflects a performative function— not merely descriptive, but actively constituting ritual reality. the use of the first-person plural pronoun “kami” (“we”) underscores a collective subjectivity, reinforcing communal responsibility. parallelism and repetition (e.g., “bele do… do… do…”) serve mnemonic and hypnotic functions, establishing sacred rhythm while facilitating memorization within oral tradition. morphologically, the prefix “wi-” (e.g., wi ndawi bene — “to uproot grass”) functions as a marker of active verbs, indicating a structured conjugational system. reduplication (e.g., do… do… do…) is not merely aesthetic but intensifies meaning and signals participant plurality. poetically, the text abounds in natural metaphors (“tebo neku mbale dowa awu” — “my body turns to ash”), which unify the human body with earthly elements, symbolizing sacrifice and regeneration. personification of nature (“kamu maku” — “you who are hard,” referring to trees or stones) reflects an animistic cosmology. binary rhythm and the use of the sacred number “three” (esa telu) construct a triadic structure, symbolizing cosmic harmony. these features are not merely aesthetic but profoundly functional: they forge bonds between humans, nature, and ancestors; transmit ecological knowledge; and reinforce social cohesion through sacred, ritually structured language. in the domain of cultural values, myth and ritual of ine pare can be identified and categorized into three main groups: values of rationality, social and environmental wisdom, and religious or spiritual values, as outlined below. 1. values of rationality the myth and ritual of ine pare contain elements of rational cultural values that offer explanations for natural phenomena within the logical framework available to the community at dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 391 that time, though these cannot be equated with modern scientific reasoning. for instance, in text 1, the final words of ine mbu serve as a form of traditional scientific explanation (knowledge system) regarding rice cultivation. it states that rice seeds must be sown into the soil, watered (and thus become muddy), and will sprout within two to five days (kobe lima rua aku tei tondo), bear fruit after three months (wula telu aku te’a), and be ready for harvest and brought into homes after four months (wula sutu aku nuka nua). in text 2 (part 2), symbolic descriptions of the forest environment are evident, including strong tree trunks and deep roots (boka kumu tua, zoo, kamu maku), representing the importance of soil (tana), stone (batu), and guardian spirits (nitu pai) in maintaining ecological balance and fertility. additionally, text 6 (incantation for consuming new rice) illustrates knowledge systems related to nutrition and health. the community recognizes protein sources beyond rice (as a carbohydrate source), such as wild goat or goat meat (pesa se rusa ndu’a), shrimp (kura), frog (leko), and bamboo caterpillars (ule au). furthermore, nutrient-rich food is understood as necessary to prevent stomach ailments (menga kai tuka ma’e ro), support body growth (ka mo poto tondo pesa mo nua saga), and nourish physical development (ka paga tuka, pesa mo. 2. social and environmental wisdom the myth and ritual of ine pare also reflect profound values of social and environmental wisdom. social wisdom is exemplified by ine mbu’s sacrifice for the collective good—ensuring food security through rice grown from her own blood. as stated in text 1, she willingly offers her body to become ash (tebo neku mbale dowa awu), her flesh and blood to become earth (fara mbale dowa tana), covered by grass and mud (so aku peno dewa no’o nebo, pija no’o bita). this act symbolizes her commitment to ensuring food availability for the community, as affirmed in “aku beke kau tango, nuwa kobe nuwa leja” (“i affirm and guarantee it—by night and by day”). the ine pare narrative also embodies social solidarity, reflected in the communal practices before, during, and after the ritual. this shared experience extends beyond prayer and labor to include the enjoyment of harvest results, reflecting principles of equitable access to food. by fulfilling basic needs fairly and without economic disparity, social harmony is preserved. these values are further reinforced through respect for social hierarchy, particularly the role of the mosalaki (customary leader) as the authority over the ritual, who upholds norms such as cooperation, obedience, and self-sacrifice for the common good. ine mbu’s sacrifice reflects group solidarity and serves as a model for resolving conflicts and reducing social tensions. her story teaches values such as equality, tolerance, and social responsibility, fostering unity and justice within the community. environmental wisdom is evident in the ritual of land clearing (poka taba), which requires the sacrifice of large livestock such as buffalo or cows—animals of high economic value. this practice implies a deep consideration for ecological sustainability; opening new land without proper justification would incur greater costs than the loss of an animal. similarly, there is a taboo against cultivating the same land more than once per year, promoting restraint in excessive exploitation of natural resources. the harvesting ritual (keti pare) includes prayers for agricultural abundance alongside reverence for nature as a provider. this reflects educational values emphasizing balancing human needs and environmental sustainability. 3. religious and spiritual values religious values in the ine pare ritual are multidimensional, encompassing belief, ritual practice, ethics and morality, communal identity, and emotional and spiritual dimensions. the myth and ritual of ine pare reflect both individual and collective beliefs of the nida community in ende-lio. in the village, belief in dewata (god), the divine existence of ine mbu, and the supernatural forces surrounding and legitimizing the ritual are clearly manifested. these supernatural elements include threats of disease outbreaks, skin conditions, infertility, pest infestations, crop failures, and other misfortunes if the ine pare ritual is not performed at the four key stages of the rice cultivation cycle: land clearing (poka taba), planting (tedo pare), harvesting (keti pare), and consuming new rice (nuwa bo’o). the ritual itself constitutes one of the primary dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 392 expressions of religiosity, integrating formal and informal acts of worship. within the ritual, ethical and moral teachings are embedded—such as bele (togetherness) in working, praying, and sharing the harvest—as well as adherence to pire (taboos). all activities are carried out collectively, rooted in shared emotions, solidarity, and spiritual beliefs. emotional and spiritual dimensions are also present in the ine pare ritual, including gratitude, inner peace, and closeness to god and ancestral spirits. these values are reactualized through reflective practices such as meditation or communal prayer—even during the consumption of new rice. such prayers are not only expressions of thanksgiving but also moments for contemplating the relationship between humans, nature, and the divine. the above analysis demonstrates that ine pare, as both a myth and a ritual, is more than just a fictional, mystical, or legendary story. rather, it represents a multifaceted cultural expression that integrates rational knowledge, social and environmental wisdom, and spiritual-religious values. from a rational perspective, ine pare conveys traditional knowledge systems, educational functions, and sustainable practices in managing natural resources. from the perspective of social wisdom, it represents values, norms, ethics, and moral guidance that help build social order, strengthen community cohesion, and promote environmental stewardship. from a religious and spiritual viewpoint, ine pare holistically and multidimensionally reflects the beliefs, rituals, ethics, communal identity, and emotional and spiritual life of the people of nida village, endelio, flores, east nusa tenggara, indonesia. iv. discussion the findings above indicate that ine pare is essentially a ritual that serves as a symbolic practice that actualizes the message of myth (a sacred narrative) in everyday life. in other words, myth and ritual in ine pare are two integrated entities. the phrase “integrated entities” implies that one cannot exist without its counterpart. it is neither possible nor necessary to determine which entity comes first—the myth or the ritual—since this question is analogous to asking whether the egg or the yam came first. therefore, the relationship between myth and ritual in ine pare goes beyond being merely “interconnected” (liénard & boyer, 2018), or where “myth becomes the foundation of ritual” (bell, 2020), or even where “ritual is a reactualization of myth” (whitehouse & lanman, 2018). instead, they form a unified whole. if the myth of ine pare were to disappear, the ritual would lose its reference point; similarly, if the ritual were to vanish, the myth would become a mere story devoid of meaning. the ine pare myth and ritual represent traditional forms of rationality concerning knowledge, economics, society, psychology, ethics, and morality. epistemic rationality relates to nature, weather, and the characteristics of forests and farmland. knowledge about the forest is symbolized by terms like boka kumu tua, zoo, kamu maku, referring to trees with strong trunks and deep roots, within which not only snakes and other animals reside but also nitu pai—supernatural beings believed to maintain balance and fertility. the taboo against cultivating land more than once a year symbolically reflects knowledge of seasonal weather patterns, particularly rainfall, which enables crops to grow optimally. additionally, sufficient time after harvest allows the soil to generate new humus as natural fertilizer. another aspect of epistemic rationality lies in the educational function of the myth and ritual regarding agricultural methods and the importance of ensuring an adequate food supply. in this sense, the ine pare myth and ritual resemble dayak myths about forest spirits that teach the importance of preserving forests as sources of life (taylor, 2020). both types of myths serve the dual function of rationally explaining weather patterns while regulating human behavior toward the environment (cf. boyer & liénard, 2021). in this context, ine pare fulfills the role of language as a repository of local knowledge about food resources and their management (simanjuntak, 2021). the sub-ritual nuwa bo’o—the communal consumption and distribution of harvested rice— has economic dimensions, particularly in resource distribution and risk management. categorizing individuals who do not perform the ine pare ritual as violators of customary law and imposing sanctions (such as expulsion) can be understood as a rational explanation of the supremacy of social law. dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 393 this phenomenon is not unique; many myths and rituals worldwide have served as tools of political rationality, legitimizing governance systems and the authority of leaders or supernatural figures over community members. myths and rituals are not just fictional stories but also instruments of moral rationality that help societies maintain social cohesion (cf. liénard & boyer, 2018), and even legitimate aristocratic power, as seen in ancient greek mythology (bellah, 2017). thus, ine pare supports the view that “language is not only a means of communication but also a repository of cultural knowledge and worldview” (lucy, 1992). furthermore, there are more than 70 regional languages in east nusa tenggara province. the province consists of six relatively isolated inhabited islands, allowing each region to develop its own distinct language. local communities tend to live in isolation, leading their languages to evolve independently. population movements from prehistoric times through the colonial era have influenced language development across ntt. on flores island alone, there are six regional languages, each with several dialects. the local language used in nida village is ende lio, which has a specific dialect. the use of the ende-lio dialect in the ine pare ritual serves to strengthen group solidarity and identity. in this context, regional language functions as the main medium for maintaining social cohesion and cultural identity (putra & pradnyana, 2022), reinforcing group identity and shared values (gumperz, 1982). ine pare is not only a myth and ritual but also a cultural expression that reflects environmental wisdom. this is demonstrated through the community’s respectful attitude toward ecological balance, symbolized by the spirit of ine pare. this respect is enacted through taboos against cultivating farmland more than once a year and imposing sanctions—such as expulsion—on community members who fail to perform the ritual. from a normative perspective, the fundamental principle behind customary sanctions lies in maintaining harmony with nature and ancestral spirits, upholding collective responsibility within families and villages, and adhering to spiritual and social values. violations of these principles are perceived as threats to the harmony between humans, nature, and ancestral spirits (barnes, 2015). breaking the ine pare ritual is considered a serious offense because it disrupts the spiritual and social stability of the village, hence warranting temporary or permanent expulsion from the village (heryanto, 2017). nevertheless, developments in science and technology have opened nida village’s younger generation to the outside world, enabling them to communicate more broadly and think critically and practically. events occurring beyond nida village inevitably influence how young people perceive their own traditions. a critical and sceptical attitude among youth—questioning the absolute authority of customary law and leading to selective compliance—is increasingly likely to emerge in nida village, as described by heryanto and suryadi (suryadi, 2020; heryanto, 2017). moreover, adaptation and reinterpretation of traditional meanings may occur, potentially compromising the authenticity of local values and social identity. if such changes take place, the cultural identity of nida village and the broader ende-lio community will likely experience distortion and decline. consequently, the functions of mythology and ritual—such as reinforcing group solidarity, as seen in african mythology (norenzayan et al., 2021), or serving as tools for strengthening social cohesion (whitehouse et al., 2019)—will become harder to uphold. similarly, the adoption of values embedded in traditional myths and rituals as lessons for modern environmental movements (berkes, 2018) or as foundations for global ecological initiatives (grim & tucker, 2021) will be increasingly difficult to realize in practice. clifford geertz stated that “religious concepts are encoded in language through rituals, prayers, and myths that shape the community’s understanding of the cosmos” (geertz, 1973). belief often serves as the foundation for individual moral and ethical values (saroglou, 2020). the moral and ethical dimensions guide individual behavior to align with prevailing societal norms. rituals serve not only spiritual purposes but also reinforce group identity and social norms. religiosity is not merely an individual matter—it is also a collective one (bellah, 2017). this collective dimension is clearly visible in the ine pare ritual, which is regularly performed and participated in by the people of nida village. the finding also highlights that the myth and ritual of ine pare remain strongly preserved in nida village, ndetukeli subdistrict, endedentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 394 flores, east nusa tenggara province, indonesia. this observation aligns with claims made by the mosalaki (the sole customary leader in nida village) and several other field informants. such claims are important in demonstrating that there are still villages in ntt where local cultural identities and values are relatively well-preserved. field informants believe that ine pare will continue to exist due to the village’s relative isolation, which is located in the highlands with limited road access. however, interview results show that 10–15% of nida village high school graduates migrate to urban centers such as kupang, surabaya, or malang each year. comparatively, the urbanization rate in ende regency was 36% in 2023, up from 28% in 2010 (bps, 2023). the attraction of cities and the drive of the younger generation to pursue personal development cannot be avoided. increasing awareness of the importance of higher education and the shrinking availability of agricultural jobs are pushing youth toward urban migration. at the same time, cities offer modern lifestyles, digital technologies, and broader social opportunities. as a result, traditional local culture is gradually becoming marginalized. several potential challenges threaten the local culture of nida village, among them nationalization, tourism, and globalization. nationalization has led to the homogenization of language and culture (tarigan & sembiring, 2019), aiming at a cohesive national identity (conversi, 2017). this trend often involves the adoption of dominant cultures, resulting in the stunting of local cultural growth (barkah, 2021). while intended as a tool for political integration, it frequently sidelines minority cultures (tolstykh & aasi, 2020). tourism development, although presenting local culture as an asset, carries the risk of commodifying traditional practices. meanwhile, physical infrastructure development poses additional threats to cultural diversity. globalization, though inevitable, enables the dominance of foreign cultures (handayani et al., 2024; lubis & putri, 2024) through the proliferation of digital media platforms dominated by global content (a et al., 2025; urbaite, 2024). to anticipate the marginalization and erosion of local culture, efforts must be made to reconstruct, refunctionalize, and revitalize local cultural values as tools for maintaining social cohesion while preserving unique characteristics (ivanova, 2023). these revitalized values can support social resilience, community development, and overall well-being (listyawati, 2018; huraerah et al., 2023). by integrating traditional knowledge systems into contemporary frameworks— especially through digital documentation, formal education, and participatory cultural policies—the ine pare myth and ritual can continue to serve as a source of ecological wisdom, moral guidance, and communal identity, even in the face of rapid modernization and globalization. the findings contributes to strengthening the theory and practice of anthropological linguistics, preserving local language and cultural practices, and informing policies related to well-being, character education, and environmental awareness rooted in local culture in indonesia. more broadly, the reinforcement of identity based on local culture must be continuously nurtured so that it remains dialectical, dynamic, and adaptive—capable of enduring the inevitable pressures of globalization that cannot be resisted through concrete walls or local isolation alone. furthermore, the findings of this study are significant for recognizing, strengthening, and revitalizing the original local identity of the nida village community and other ethnic groups. furthermore, this study offers an original anthropological linguistic approach to the myth and ritual of ine pare, distinguishing itself from prior studies that were either purely descriptive or narrowly focused on agrarian aspects. takandewa (2019) merely documented ritual procedures without linguistic analysis, while larasati (2018) examined a different ethnic group (atoni pah meto), rendering her findings irrelevant to the lioende context. this research reveals the structure of lio ritual incantations through performative syntax, derivational morphology (e.g., the wiprefix and reduplication), and symbolic poetic devices— affirming ritual language as a practice that actively constructs socio-spiritual reality (duranti, 1997; senft, 2018). in contrast to wahyuni & yurnetti (2023), who neglected the mythological foundation, this study demonstrates that the ine mbu myth functions as an epistemological framework integrating rationality, ecological wisdom, and religiosity—consistent with geertz’s (1973) conceptualization of myth as a cultural system. moreover, it identifies contemporary threats— youth migration, tourism commodification, and dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 395 digital dominance—and documents indigenous sanction mechanisms (barnes, 2015; heryanto, 2017), aspects overlooked in earlier research. theoretically, these findings reinforce lucy’s (1992) notion of local languages as repositories of cultural knowledge; practically, they propose concrete revitalization strategies—digital archiving and curriculum integration—directly addressing unesco’s (2023) urgent call for safeguarding endangered intangible heritage. however, this study is limited to analyzing verbal texts (myths and incantations) and the ritual context of ine pare in nida village, flores. it therefore does not encompass dialectal variations of the lio language, cross-village comparisons, or broader tourism impacts. methodologically, the qualitative research lacks quantitative data or multimodal analysis (e.g., bodily gestures, ritual artifacts). findings are locally specific and have not addressed practical revitalization implementation, such as curriculum integration or digital documentation. despite its significant scholarly contribution, substantial room for further development remains. future research is recommended to explore the internal dialectal variations of the ende-lio language and its position within the linguistic diversity of east nusa tenggara (ntt)—a region encompassing more than 70 local languages. the scope should also be expanded to examine the correlation between linguistic variation and the local cultural content it reflects. a comparative and typological approach will enrich our understanding of how linguistic diversity across flores and ntt serves as a mirror of complex, interrelated, and dynamic cultural wisdom—transcending the study of the ine pare ritual within a single village. v. conclusion this study reveals that the myths and rituals of ine pare among the community of nida village, ende-lio, constitute a complex manifestation of local knowledge systems that integrate rational, socio-ecological, and spiritual-religious dimensions. structurally, the mythic narrative of ine mbu and its accompanying ritual sequence— from poka taba (clearing the land), tedo pare (planting rice), keti pare (harvesting), to nuwa bo’o (consuming the new rice)—are not merely agricultural practices but symbolic texts that transmit collective values through ritual language in the lio tongue. the incantations recited serve a dual function: as technical guides for cultivation and as moral prayers that regulate social and ecological conduct. at the substantive dimension, ine pare, through mythological symbols, represents and reflects the wisdom of traditional rationality that is relevant to modern scientific logic, encompassing an understanding of rice cultivation cycles, soil fertility management, and the importance of balanced nutrition. on the other hand, this ritual guides its community into cohesive social bonds. principles of cooperation, principles of fairness in the harvest distribution system, and legal systems in the form of customary sanctions against community members who violate taboos constitute an ideal social order across time. knowledge systems regarding ecology and its sustainability, and prohibitions against excessive exploitation of nature, are highly relevant to modern society today and into the future. ine pare also reflects a religious dimension, including belief in the divine power of ancestral spirits, affirmation of mosalaki’s authority, and adherence to ritual practice as a guardian of microcosmic social harmony and macrocosmic spiritual harmony. currently, the ine pare ritual, as a representation of local language and culture in nida village, remains relatively preserved due to geographic isolation. however, this village remains vulnerable to external influences and internal pressures for change. several driving factors include the demand for youth migration for education and decent livelihoods, external influences of global modernity and popular culture, and pressures from development policies insensitive to local wisdom. therefore, reconstruction, refunctionalization, and revitalization of local cultural values are necessary, including: (1) digital documentation of narratives and mantras; (2) integration of ine pare materials into formal education curricula; (3) empowerment of the younger generation as cultural inheritors; and (4) development of cultural tourism that preserves the sacred meaning of rituals without commodifying them. these findings enrich linguistic anthropology regarding regional languages in relation to culture, which store indigenous knowledge systems, while also providing an empirical foundation for policies to safeguard indonesia’s intangible cultural dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 396 heritage. ine pare is not merely a relic of the past, but a living value system profoundly relevant for addressing contemporary global challenges: ecological crisis, social disintegration, and erosion of cultural identity. ethics statement this research is independently conducted with support from yayasan perguruan tinggi universitas flores-ende and in collaboration with partner researchers from upi and unand. informed consent was obtained from all informants for interview and publications. the research fully complies with the ethical standards and publication guidelines of jurnal arbitrer credit author statement dentianan rero: conceptualized the study, collecting data and analyzing. hasanuddin: writing – review & editing, project administration, validation. elly malihah: analyzed and contributed to the development of the framework. sapriya: analyzed and contributed to the development of theory. neiny ratmaningsih: provided input on methodology and framework. acknowledgement we thank the head of the flores university research and development center for funding this research. we also thank theododisius f. sosa, andreas gregorius sosa, the nida traditional leader (mosalaki), and the informants and contributors for their material and moral supported the research. declaration of competing interests we declare that we have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references barkah, h. j. 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(2021). digitalisasi budaya lokal sebagai strategi pelestarian warisan budaya tak benda di era disrupsi. jurnal komunikasi budaya, 6(2), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.20473/jkb. v6i22021.112-127 dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 399 appendix oral story ine mbu to become ine pare seleja muri ebe kolo telu aji no’o ka’e. ebe nea ata kuasa keli nua ola ata lio. naja ki raja, konde, no’o ratu. raja kuasa nua ola keli samba, konde kai kuasa nua ola kelimutu, ratu kai kuasa nua ola mbutu busa. raja fai noo kaja, ngga’e pati ana kolo telu. ana mboko pu’u naja ki ndale, ana one bungsu naja ki mbu, ana sepu susu naja ki sipi. keluarga ebe muri bheni. sa kobe leja nua ola lio ae mesi nai, tana lala. gha nua ola raja ne’e kaja menga tei watu ne’e tana. eo kile menga tana ne’e watu. ebe fai, kaki,nee ana, mba nua keli mbape. iwa sai seleja baba ebe rango do iwa ji’e leka mata sawe. ana kolo telu muri ne’e ine ki. la’e se nala ine mata. ebe ke..ate dho hiro haro muri ana kalo. ebe mera imu telu, piki muri eo leja ka apa, ema ne’e ine mata sawe. eo piki ngere emba, ebe kolo telu aji no’o kae mbana nua mbenggu, nua nea sama ne’e nua ola masa ndale sama ne’e nua ola koja ndale ne’e nua nanga ndale. se leja kiwa ebe mbu, ndale, sipi mba leka nua ola mase ndale. ebe ra’i leka nua mase ndale ebe imu telu kile manusia kaa awu kaju. ebe kee, ate ebe hiro haro. mbu nggae kaju leka uma, iwa do lama lima neka, raa mbu deti leka tana bita. la’e nala pare tebu. ebe imu telu iwa nosi manusia leka nua ola. noo leja noo leja ebe mba uma , ebe rahasia noo nea. ebe kolo telu tedo pare ne keti pare mesa kena. leja noo leja muri ebe pawe. ata nua ola piki re’e ebe tau apa muri ebe pawe. ata nua ate ree noo ebe. ebe paru leka nua watu kaka leka paga, ebe mba nua bu, mbengu, mego, noo nua nita leka koro, mba leka lowo ae endo noo nanga mbawe. ebe mba noo sapa ke tanjung watu manu noo tanjung sada leka ndondo. ebe ngange mbana tana ata lise kurulande, nua ola ata nita barat. ebe laje, ebe mba nua ndondo, naja nua ola sama ndondo naka taka. ebe kolo telu mba leka keli membu toro, ebe deki nua keli koja noo nua keli lima. nua ola keli lima so timur, naja ki ndota keli lima. ebe imu telu mba no’o leja no’o leja leka nua tana ata pawe latu leka ae ne’e uma rema. ebe pawe ne’e nua ola ata lise, ebe ngala mba nua tana lise kurulande. ebe nosi mba mesa-mesa. mbu no’o ndale mba leka keli koja, sipi mba leka nua ola wesa pare leka timur nua kowe longgo. ebe imu telu ate dhoa hiro haro ne’e kunu rana ola nua ata ebe mba iwa latu kaa.. mbu ngaji embu mamo nooo nggae dewa. mbu so roke, e..o nipi tei kai mata nooo jaga tana watu. nebu nipi nea, mbu rore tebo kai mo tebu pare,senua ola. nipi tei mbu sekobe, kai gare tei ne’e ka’e ki ndale. ndale ngange, rore aji kai, kai ngange. ebe bha leka nua keli koja. leka nua keli koja. dhu leka keli koja ebe kolo rua nara weta mera. mbu nosi leka nara ki ndale, pa’e si tebo aku naraku ndale, demi eo manusia senua ola. ndale nosi si ngange. ndale ate hiro haro wi rore tebo mbu. eo nipi lei sawe. ndale rore ne’e topo leka pu’u tengu mbu. mbu mata sawe, ra mbu mbere senua ola ende-lio. ana mae mbu mbale ke ine pare. [aloysius wete (laki-laki, 78 tahun, mosalaki), pada 9 june 2023]. oral story ine mbu to become ine pare once upon a time, three siblings lived, giants who were incarnations of the god of rule in the lio area, named raja, konde, and ratu. raja became the ruler in keli samba, konde the ruler of lake kelimutu (three colors), and ratu the ruler of mbutu busa (a child of lake kelimutu). raja married kaja, and they were blessed with three children. the first child was named ndale, the second was named mbu, and the third was named sipi. their family life was very happy. one day, suddenly, a disaster occurred throughout the lio land with the local language term (ae mesi nuka, tana lala: there was a tsunami). as a result of this natural disaster, the raja and kaja villages became shallow. because the area was already shallow, raja, kaja, and their families decided to evacuate. they all took dentiana rero / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 3 (2025) 400 refuge in keli mbape. not long after, the father of the three children fell ill and died. the children lived with their mother. not long after, their mother also died. the three children were devastated to be orphans and have no one. after the death of both their parents, ndale, mbu, and sipi had to live independently. based on mutual considerations, the three of them decided to be nomadic, moving from one place to another. the area they then lived in was the land of the mbengu alliance, known as the mase ndale area, the koja ndale area or the nanga ndale area. when mbu, ndale, and sipi moved to mase ndale, they found the locals were suffering and still consuming rotten sawdust (local language: fata mewu). their feelings were troubled by the incident. one day, when mbu was looking for firewood in a swampy place, suddenly mbu’s hand was suddenly injured. the blood from mbu’s hand dripped onto the muddy ground. instantly, rice grew where the blood from mbu’s hand had touched. incidents like this happened every day and became the secret of the three brothers. the three brothers continued to experiment with rice cultivation in secret. day by day, their lives became better and more prosperous than those of other residents. this became a big question for the surrounding community. they were curious about the secret behind the increasingly prosperous lives of the three brothers. however, the three brothers remained firm in keeping their secret. the pressure from the surrounding community gradually turned into a very real threat. the three brothers felt afraid and decided to move. they fled to watu kaka in paga, crossing the alliance lands of bu, mbengu, mego, and the western outskirts of the nita kingdom, namely koro near the endo river, which flows into nanga mbawe. they used boats past the watu manu and sada capes to ndondo without passing through the alliance lands of lise kurulande, from the west nita region. because they felt tired and weary, their stopover in ndondo was known as the ndondo naka taka area. the journey of the three brothers continued through the membu toro mountain region in order to quickly arrive at the keli koja and keli lima areas. the keli lima area is a little to the east and is now called ndota keli lima. the journey of the three brothers, who passed from day to day, was through an agricultural area. in order to be fair to the lise people, the three brothers were finally willing to return to cross the lise kurulande fellowship land. not long afterward, the three brothers decided to separate. mbu and ndale headed to keli koja, while sipi described spreading rice eastward starting from kowe longgo. considering the suffering of the people in the areas they passed through, who needed a food source from rice, while rice only grew from mbu’s blood drops, mbu thought hard. mbu then meditated and asked the ancestral spirits and gods to provide a way out. finally, mbu was inspired to leave the world as a human and live a new destiny as a guardian of nature. to fulfill this order, mbu was willing to sacrifice himself so that his blood could grow a lot of rice to meet food needs and for the welfare of the community. mbu’s inspiration and willingness to sacrifice herself was conveyed to her brother ndale. ndale refused because his love made him unable to bear to sacrifice his sister. the journey to the keli koja area was finally carried out as if heading to a sacrifice ceremony for mbu. upon arriving at kali koja, the two had rested for a while. ndale was still very reluctant to carry out the sacrifice ceremony for his sister mbu. however, at the insistence of mbu, who had been willing to sacrifice herself to save many people, ndale finally gave in, inspired by the ancestral spirits and gods. mbu was sacrificed by being slaughtered, and her spirit was transformed into ine pare (mother rice). [narrated by: aloysius wete (male, 78 years old, mosalaki), on june 9, 2023]. m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 153 online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (print) | 2550-1011 (online) | jurnal arbitrer submission track a b s t r a c t received: march 25, 2025 final revision: may 01, 2025 accepted: may 05, 2025 available online: june 25, 2025 following english rhetorical conventions in english academic texts, especially by non-native english authors, does not necessarily mean disregarding some rhetorical practices of their national language. although investigating english ras has largely been focused on how the textual structure of the section is written in english by native english speakers and non-native english speakers, there has a limited empirical attention so far related to the investigation of rhetorical differences between ra introductions written in english and those written in indonesian. after a thorough genre-based investigation of 60 ras published from 2019 to 2023 using the modified cars model (swales, 1990, 2004), this study has revealed that the use of each rhetorical style, including moves, steps, and patterns, in english and indonesian ra introductions is different. the result indicates that although the moves and steps display a close affinity with the cars model, we found higher use of move 1, i.e., establishing a territory, in the language teaching ra introductions written in indonesian than in english. on top of that, while international authors (ias) established their niches adequately, indonesian authors (eng-fl) established their niches inadequately, seemingly due to the influence of their national language (indonesian). moreover, the indonesian language not only affects the frequency of occurrence of the moves and steps but also contributes to the pattern deviations found in the english ra introductions written by the indonesian authors. this study provides pedagogical implications for academic writing and insights for indonesian authors to write english articles using english rhetorical styles. keywords cross-cultural investigation, contrastive rhetoric, genrebased investigation, glocalization, research article introduction correspondence *e-mail: affandia@fbs.unp.ac.id article deviation or glocalization? rhetorical differences in research article introductions written by international, english fl, and indonesian l1 authors m. affandi arianto1*, maulluddul haq2, jufrizal3, dwi bayu saputra4, and dewi syafrina5 1,2,3,5universitas negeri padang, padang, indonesia 4universitas bengkulu, bengkulu, indonesia under license of creative commons attribution-non commercial 4.0 international.doi: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.12.2.153-173.2025 introduction the increasing demand for international publication in the world of academia undoubtedly has encouraged researchers to share their knowledge more widely, increase visibility, navigate professional futures, push research performance, find career opportunities, and achieve a professorship (abramo et al., 2023; frandsen et al., 2022; hashim et al., 2024; hyland, 2016; hyland, 2023; olsen et al., 2005; rorstad & aksnes, 2015; sasvari et al., 2022; sheldon, 2011). those who have experience in conducting research, writing their research reports in the form of research articles (ras), and publishing them in international journals might be more motivated and confident to write various ras (irawati, 2022); however, non-native english speakers and novice authors who write ras in english, publishing english ras, especially in international journals indexed by reputable databases (i.e., scopus or web of science) is an intimidating, daunting, difficult, and pressured task (hyland, 2016; hyland, 2023; irawan et al., 2023; khélifi & al-amri, 2018). a series of workshops to support publications m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 154 become routine activities in indonesian universities to boost authors’ comprehension of how to write a concise english ra (arono & arsyad, 2019; jasrial et al., 2019; jasrial et al., 2021; madnani et al., 2018; nasihin et al., 2021; perris & corcoran, 2014; yonezawa, 2015). while strategies and guidance provided by the mentors from such activities have been beneficial in assisting authors to meet expectations of the editorial teams of international journals (hyland, 2003; marchetti & o’dell, 2015), indonesian authors, particularly in field of social sciences and humanities, still have not fully recognized the styles and patterns of the introductory section of an english ra (adnan, 2009; adnan, 2014, arianto et al., 2021; arono & arsyad, 2019). to tackle this challenge, they need to acquire genre knowledge to make their introductions more convincing (pratiwi & kurniawan, 2021; swales, 1990), and this is a privileged room for applied linguists, who focus on genre analysis, to discover the characteristics (i.e., moves and steps) of english ra introductions in the field of social sciences. the introduction section plays a key role in an ra since it shows how authors invite, influence, and provoke the readers on the research topics being discussed. authors must show their credibility to determine and define their position as a researcher, especially after reviewing previous literature about topics related to their research areas (arianto & basthomi, 2021; arianto et al., 2021; amnuai, 2021; basthomi et al., 2021). besides, they are required to state the significance of conducting the research (hyland & jian, 2020; lim, 2012). swales (1990) has formulated a conventional structure of an english ra, namely creating a research space (cars), and this model has been carried out by several researchers. farnia and barati (2017) investigated the introduction section written by native english authors and iranian authors. they found that native english authors used more strategies in organizing their ra introductions than iranian authors did. rahman et al. (2017) also found that native english authors in reputable international journals in the field of applied linguistics followed the rhetorical structure of the ra introduction conceptualized by swales (1990). not only in the field of applied linguistics, muangsamai (2018) confirmed that native english authors in other fields such as biotechnology, medicine, and environmental studies also followed the framework. from the results of the previous studies, we can see that the compatibility of swales’ (1990) framework to investigate english ra introductions is unquestionable, and previous scholars also considered following the cars model in investigating the introduction section in several disciplines. however, it cannot be taken as a general view that the framework (swales, 1990) is necessarily the only one applied in all fields, for example, the field of language teaching. arianto (2021) modified and combined the swales’ cars frameworks, i.e., the old version model (swales, 1990) and the revised version (swales, 2004), in the english language teaching ra introductions, one of the sub-fields in applied linguistics. he modified the framework because he thought that the cars framework may be suited for some disciplines and could be modified as needed. even swales (1990) accommodated the suggestions provided by anthony (1999) and samraj (2004) and revised his cars framework to apply to other disciplines. therefore, arianto (2021) made necessary revisions related to move 2 and added several steps in the step of indicating research gaps by taking into account the insight from afshar et al. (2018) and lim (2012), so that it is well-suited to his samples related to english language teaching. he argued that the swales’ frameworks (1990, 2004) should be updated, and researchers focusing on genre analysis are expected to find new strategies that can be added to the swales’ theoretical frameworks. hence, inspired by the previous study, an important question is whether the modified framework of swales (see fig. 1) can be used to analyze the ra introductions, specifically in the field of language teaching. in our case, we used the modified framework to analyze ra introduction in some language teaching, such as english language teaching and indonesian language teaching. it is expected that the modified framework that had been used to analyze elt ra introduction can also be used to be used in analyzing another language teaching. echoing the significance of publishing ras in high-impact journals, such as scopusindexed journals, adhering to english rhetorical conventions, and considering the appropriate moves and patterns of ra introductions in the journals will guide and assist authors in writing. geng et al. (2023) investigated the rhetorical moves of the introductory sections of linguistic ras from m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 155 scopus and non-scopus journals. although they found that move 1 and move 2 appear more in the group of scopus authors, we still need to question what the distribution of these moves looks like in their introduction. in other words, there is a need for further investigations related to move patterns. they did not focus intensively on the rhetorical patterns of the sections. moves and patterns are the aspects that must be considered by authors in organizing their texts. several studies in the field of applied linguistics (e.g., amnuai & wannaruk, 2013; farnia & barati, 2017; kafes, 2018; lin, 2014; rahman et al., 2017; rochma, 2020) have explored move patterns in academic writing, but they have not delved into the variety of patterns compared to established english rhetorical conventions, such as swales’ cars model. attempts to compare these patterns to existing models have yielded inconclusive results, potentially due to the diverse subfields within applied linguistics and random data collection methods leading to contradictory findings. therefore, our study attempts to investigate the similarities and differences in move patterns and steps in ra introductions in english and indonesian, specifically focusing on language teaching. previous researchers have conducted genre analysis focusing on the organization of the specific section, i.e., introduction, by delineating its moves and steps (abdolmalaki et al., 2019; arsyad & adila, 2018; arsyad et al., 2020; chen & li, 2019; deveci, 2020; farnia & barati, 2017; saricaoglu et al., 2021). however, the majority of the studies used swales’ (1990) framework as the conventional indicator to identify the general moves and steps in the english ra introductions (afshar et al., 2018; amnuai & wannaruk, 2013; deveci, 2020; farnia & barati, 2017) without any further developments. consequently, the specific sub-step in the move of establishing a niche (move 2), namely indicating research gap(s), was not investigated in detail. we believe that taking into account the frameworks of arianto (2021), chen and li (2019), kwan et al. (2012), and lim (2012), the identification of the rhetorical moves and steps in the ra introductions can be done more specifically and more deeply. moreover, the previous studies limit their focus only to comparing a specific move in the introduction section (e.g., arianto et al., 2023; ankomah & afful, 2019; wang & yang, 2015), and they did not see the connection between moves which can potentially provide a wider description about how international authors organize their english ra introductions. besides, the previous scholars only focused on applied linguistics (i.e., amnuai & wannaruk, 2013; lin, 2014) without considering the sub-disciplines in applied linguistics, which suggests that every sub-discipline has specific characteristics of rhetorical styles (khani & tazik, 2010). besides, we also assume that the rhetorical structures of ra introductions in english are different from those written in the indonesian language (arsyad & wardhana, 2014) because the culture included in the english ra introductions gives color to authors’ writing (hyland, 2003; shukri, 2014). thus, the investigation of cross-language moves, steps, and patterns in ra introductions, which is still lacking in the existing literature, is also worth conducting. this study also focuses on providing information about the adherence or contravention in organizing moves in ra introductions by asking the question of whether all authors, in the corpus of our study, follow the english rhetorical patterns (swales, 1990, 2004), or some patterns deviate from the standard. this study is expected to make a major contribution to research on genre analysis by comparing the rhetorical structures in ra introductions written by international authors who write english ra introductions (ias), indonesian authors who write english ra introductions (engfl), and indonesian authors who write indonesian ra introductions (indo-l1) a sub-field of applied linguistics, namely language teaching. the objectives of this study are twofold: to describe the similarities and differences in terms of moves and steps in the ra introductions written by the three groups of authors, and to investigate their move patterns, which adhere to or contravene the swales’ cars model. ii. methods the ra introductions analyzed in this study were obtained from 60 ras written by international and indonesian authors in language teaching. 40 english ras were published in international journals written by international authors (n=20, ia) and indonesian authors (n=20, english-fl), and the other 20 ras were published in national journals m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 156 we analyzed the data following some steps. first, the frameworks of cars (swales 1990, 2004) were used in this study to analyze the rhetorical moves presented in the three groups of authors. taking into account the insights from afshar et al. (2018), arianto (2021), and chinaprayoon (2017), several sub-steps were added to the framework (see table 1). fying the rhetorical moves, swales’ (1990, 2004) cars model was taken as a point for analyzing the patterns. the models have clearly conceptualized the common rhetorical patterns in the introductory section (amnuai & wannaruk, 2013; lin, 2014). in this study, the framework, which focused on rhetorical patterns (swales, 1990, 2004), was used to analyze the ra introductions written by the three groups of authors. the framework was validated by experts and tested in some ra introductions. to ensure reliability, another coder was invited to analyze several data samples (n=10). then, we re-analyzed the data. the idea of kanoksilapatham (2005) was used to justify and classify the frequency of each move. if a certain move appeared in every ra introduction (100%), it was categorized as “obligatory”. if the occurrence ranged from 60-99%, it was classified as “conventional”. if it was below 60%, it was “optional”. written by indonesian authors in the indonesian language (indonesian-l1). international authors (ia) in this case are those who are from outside indonesia and have published english ras in scopus-indexed journals. indonesian authors (english-fl) are those who are native speakers of indonesian, and they have published english ras in scopus-indexed journals. meanwhile, indonesian-l1 authors are those who are native speakers of indonesian, and they had indonesian ras in sinta-indexed journals. in collecting the data, a certain set of criteria was used. for the groups of ia and english-fl, the articles were downloaded from peer-reviewed open-access journals. the journals were indexed by one of the most reputable databases, namely scopus. meanwhile, for the indonesian-l1 group, the ras were obtained from peer-reviewed indonesian journals, which were also indexed by the popular index in indonesia, namely sinta (science and technology index), which was under the control of the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology. for the data obtained from sintaindexed journals, we only focused on the ras published in sinta quartiles 3, 4, 5, and 6. we did not include sinta 1 and 2 journals because they are commonly indexed by scopus and the majority of ras are written in english. in addition, we only included the ras published in the range of 20192022. table 1. the modified cars framework to analyze the data moves steps establishing a territory claiming centrality making topic generalization reviewing items of previous research establishing a niche indicating a research gap stating the absence from previous studies indicating the insufficient research highlighting the limitations of previous studies contrasting and conflicting previous research findings highlighting unsolved problems adding to what is known presenting positive justification showing interest to conduct the study occupying the niche announcing present work descriptively and/or purposefully presenting research questions (rqs) or hypotheses definitional clarifications summarizing methods announcing principal outcomes stating the value of the present research outlining the structure of the paper m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 157 iii. results this study aims to identify and compare the moves and steps used by the three groups of authors, ia, english-fl, and indonesian-l1, as well as the patterns they used. the frequency of occurrence of moves and steps, and the comparisons of move patterns of the three data sets are shown in each subheading below. the explanations and exemplifications of each move/step are also shown, and each example is equipped with code at the end of the sentence, for example, ia-01 refers to the first article in english from international authors, engfl-01 refers to the first article in english from non-native english (indonesian) authors, and indol1-01 refers to the first article in indonesian language from native indonesian authors. the linguistic markers indicating moves/steps are printed in bold. the rhetorical moves of language teaching ra introductions across three groups of authors move 1: establishing a territory this move can be realized by claiming centrality, making topic generalizations, or reviewing items of previous research. authors need to introduce the topics of their research using this move and ensure that their topics are important, useful, worth conducting, and challenging. based on table 2, move 1 was considered an obligatory move by ia, english-fl, and indonesian-l1 groups (100%). table 2 displays a comparative analysis of the three steps in establishing a territory across the three author groups. the results indicated that international authors predominantly utilized the claiming centrality step to establish and promote their research topics. in contrast, the authors from english-fl and indonesian-l1 groups more frequently introduced claiming centrality only after establishing research context through either topic generalizations or literature reviews. this pattern suggests that claiming centrality may not function as the most commonly used step in the ra introductions written by indonesian authors, regardless of whether they were writing in english or indonesian. move 1 step 1: claiming centrality in this step, the authors focus on highlighting the importance of the research they have conducted. as seen in table 2, across the three steps, claiming centrality was mostly used by the international and indonesian l1 authors. another important piece of information from the data is that for indonesian-l1 authors, making topic generalizations was the step that was mostly used in their indonesian ra introductions. the application of this step in the three corpora can be seen in the following excerpts. (1) large-scale studies of english corpora have found that … more or less frequent in academic prose compared to conversational, fictional, and media registers (biber, johansson, leech, conrad and finegan 1999). (ia-01) (2) for people in non-english speaking countries, like indonesian youth, this language competence paves ways for the global world (sayer, 2018). (engfl-01) (3) mata kuliah “translation” merupakan mata kuliah wajib yang hadir di hampir seluruh program studi sastra inggris dan pendidikan bahasa inggris di universitas-universitas terkemuka di indonesia. #translation course is a compulsory subject in almost all english literature and english education study programs at leading universities in indonesia#. (indol1-01) excerpt 1 shows that the international authors attracted the readers’ attention by showing the popularity of the topic. by using the phrase largescale study, the authors showed the readers that the topic of english corpora was a popular topic to study. besides, claiming centrality can be demonstrated by stating the importance of the research being conducted. as seen in excerpt 2, the indonesian authors promoted their research topic, i.e., english language competence, by pointing out the importance of their topic. in contrast to excerpts 1 and 2, where the authors claimed their research topics by referring to the research table 2. frequency of occurrence of move 1 and its steps in ia, english fl, and indonesian l1 corpora moves steps ia english fl indonesian l1 freq (%) freq (%) freq (%) establishing a territory claiming centrality 140 (44.44) 122 (31.77) 172 (22.54) making topic generalizations 72 (22.85) 123 (32.03) 410 (53.73) reviewing items of previous research 103 (32.69) 139 (36.19) 181 (23.72) total 315 (100) 384 (100) 763 (100) m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 158 development, the indonesian author in excerpt 3 showed the popularity of translation by referring to the observed phenomenon (real world). move 1 step 2: making topic generalizations this step functions to show the current state of knowledge and how authors relate their topics to the state of knowledge (farnia & barati, 2017). as illustrated in table 2, the authors from the ia group employed this step less than the english fl group. the examples of sentences indicating making topic generalizations can be seen in the excerpts below. (4) writing is commonly characterized a complex activity, involving simultaneous management of cognitive, motivational, and linguistic processes. (ia-10) (5) it is a common phenomenon that students nowadays cannot separate from their mobile phones. (engfl-08) (6) karya tulis ilmiah merupakan karya tulis yang disusun atau dikembangkan berdasarkan prosedur ilmiah. #academic writing is the form of writing which is organized or developed based on scientific procedures#. (indol1-02) excerpt 4 illustrates that the authors employed the step of making topic generalizations by using the adverb commonly to show the general characteristics of writing. similarly, the indonesian authors from the english fl group also employed this step by describing the recent phenomenon regarding the relationship between smartphones and students. on the other hand, the authors from the indonesian l1 group employed this step by defining the topic (i.e., academic writing) in general. move 1 step 3: reviewing items of previous research this step is used by authors to contextualize the research topics with the studies that have been done by previous scholars. the applications of reviewing items of previous research are exemplified in the excerpts below. (7) for example, carrington and skelton (2003) submit that government policies … about the salience of ‘role models’ in socialization’ (p.253), rather than solid empirical results. (ia-07) (8) on the other hand, ruegg (2015), investigating the students of the english program in japan, proves a similar finding to park (2018), probing feedback in a korean university. (engfl-04) (9) safnil (2001) meneliti struktur retorika bagian pendahuluan ajp yang ditulis … sebagaimana dalam model ‘creating a research space’ (cars). #safnil (2001) examined the rhetorical structure of indonesian research article introductions written by … as in the ‘creating a research space’ model’ (cars)#. (indol1-03) the three excerpts above illustrate that the authors used the step of reviewing items of previous research in the process of reviewing previous studies. in excerpt 7, the authors strengthened their arguments by referring to the claims of previous researchers. meanwhile, the authors in excerpt 8 reviewed the findings of research conducted by previous researchers. on the other hand, in the indonesian ra introduction (excerpt 9), the authors showed a more detailed report, including the research objective and the results of research conducted by the previous researcher. from the three data above, it can be concluded that the step of reviewing items of previous research has functions to strengthen claims, show previous research findings, and report what previous researchers have done in their research. move 2: establishing a niche move 2 is important in the introduction section table 3. frequency of occurrence of move 2 and its steps in ia, english fl, and indonesian l1 corpora. move 2 steps ia english fl indonesian l1 freq (%) freq (%) freq (%) establishing a niche indicating research gap(s): stating the absence from previous studies 14 (27.45) 7 (30.43) 7 (35) indicating the insufficient research 11 (21.56) 12 (52.17) 2 (10) highlighting the limitations of previous studies 10 (19.60) 0 (0) 1 (5) contrasting and conflicting with previous research findings 6 (11.76) 4 (17.39) 2 (10) highlighting unsolved problems 9 (17.64) 0 (0) 6 (30) adding to what is known 1 (1.96 0 (0) 0 (0) showing interest in conducting the study 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (10) total 51 (100) 23 (100) 20 (100) m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 159 since it shows the positionality of the authors in the research conducted. based on the analysis, it was found that this move was obligatory, and it appeared in all ra introductions in the three data sets. however, in terms of using the steps in this move, the frequency of occurrence of indicating research gap(s) appeared most often in the ia group. table 3 also provides detailed differences in using the three steps in establishing a niche move by the three groups of authors. the findings revealed that international authors predominantly established their positionality through research gaps, with five distinct gap-indication strategies identified in their ra introductions. in contrast, both english-fl and indonesian-l1 authors demonstrated less frequent and less developed use of research gap strategies to substantiate their academic positioning. it is worth noting that although the strategies of adding to what is known and showing interest in conducting the study were still considered by certain authors in the corpus of our study, these steps occurred with less frequency. move 2 step 1: indicating research gap(s) indicating a research gap is a step used by authors to prove that the study being conducted has novelty. ways that can be done to indicate research gaps are stating the absence from previous studies, indicating insufficient research, highlighting the limitations of previous studies, contrasting and conflicting with previous research findings, and highlighting unsolved problems (arianto, 2021; lim, 2012). the applications of indicating research gap(s) are exemplified in the excerpts below. (10) yet, as ortega (2016) argued, using l1 norms as a benchmark for l2 acquisition is problematic because a bilingual speaker does not correspond to two monolingual speakers. (ia-05) (11) meanwhile, in indonesia, few studies have been reported in giving a picture of how students are aware of using metacognitive reading strategies. (engfl-05) (12) penelitian yang dilakukan fengjie dkk masih belum meneliti tentang penggunaan kata penghubung, sehingga diperlukan penelitian lebih lanjut tentang objek/fokus tersebut. #research conducted by fengjie et al. still has not examined the use of conjunctions, so it needs further research focusing on it#. (indol1-04) as shown in excerpt 10, the authors showed their research gap by showing the limitation or weakness of a certain variable (i.e., using l1 norms). the authors used the voice of a previous author (ortega, 2016) to strengthen the gap. contrarily, excerpts 11 and 12 illustrate that the authors indicated their research gaps using their voices. in excerpt 11, the authors used the strategy of indicating insufficient research, while in excerpt 12, the gap was indicated by stating that there had been no research focusing on examining the use of conjunctions. move 2 step 2: adding to what is known this step functions to establish research niches. authors can be inspired by what has been done in previous studies, and they may continue the tradition of what has been conducted by previous scholars. as shown in table 3, this step only appeared once in the international authors corpus, while in the other two corpora, this step was not found. the following excerpt is an example of the use of this step by the authors in their ra introductions. (13) motivated by yi and colleagues’ work, i conducted the current study, aiming to bridge the research gap and meanwhile to innovate the tesol curriculum. (ia02) based on the data analysis, it was found that the step of adding to what is known was only found in the international group’s corpus. in other words, indonesian authors, either in english fl or indonesian l1 groups, did not apply this step to indicate their research gaps. as seen in excerpt 13 above, the authors’ research gap was that they were inspired by the research that had been conducted by the previous researchers (i.e., yi and colleagues). by continuing the research tradition that had been done, their study could contribute to the advancement of knowledge of the tesol curriculum. move 2 step 3: showing interest in conducting the study research is done not only because of a gap that needs to be filled but also because of the interest of researchers in investigating certain cases or phenomena. interest in conducting the study can occur if the authors find the uniqueness of the phenomena, and that they deserve to be studied. the authors also need to provide logical reasons why they are interested in the topics. in terms of frequency of occurrence, the step of showing interest in conducting the study only appeared twice in the group of indonesian l1 authors. m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 160 (14) keadaan tersebut sangat menarik untuk dicermati menjadi suatu penelitian dan menjadi alasan kedua dilaksanakannya penelitian ini. #this situation is very interesting to study, and it becomes the second reason for conducting this study#. (indol1-01) unlike the step of adding to what is known, which was used only by the international authors, the step of showing interest in conducting the study was used only by the native indonesian authors. it indicates that this step is acceptable to be applied in ras published by local indonesian-language journals. move 3: occupying the niche this is a move where the authors make an offer to fill the research gap (farnia and barati, 2017). similar to the two previous moves, this move appeared in all articles of the three groups of authors in this study, meaning this move is an obligatory move in english and indonesian ra introductions. based on the data analysis, it was found that the frequency of occurrence of the use of move 3 in the ia group was in the vast majority (110 times), trailed behind by the indonesian l1 (88 times) and english-fl (65 times) groups. table 4 revealed that the steps of announcing the present work descriptively and summarizing methods were predominantly used by the three groups of authors in their ra introductions. the three groups of authors also articulate the positive implications of the study by explicitly stating the values of their present research. it is also worth noting that as the authors announced the aims of the studies descriptively, they tended to treat the step of presenting research questions as optional. move 3 step 1: announcing present work descriptively and/or purposefully in this step, the authors clearly show the purpose(s) of their research. they may state the purpose(s) using linguistic signals, such as this research aims to…, this study attempts …, this study seeks to …. the applications of this step by the three groups of authors are exemplified in the excerpts below. (15) the aim of the present study, then, is to investigate closely how variability—a developmental phenomenon—potentially engenders change. (ia-02) (16) with the above-mentioned backdrop, the present study sought to compare the rhetorical organization and linguistic realizations of tourism research article abstracts from national and international journals. (engfl-06) (17) penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan … selama masa pandemi covid-19. #this study aims to describe … during the covid-19 pandemic#. (indol1-06) based on the excerpts, it can be noticed that the three groups (ia, engfl, and indol1) applied the step of announcing the present work descriptively and/ or purposefully to indicate the purposes of their research. another important information from the findings of this study was that the majority of international and indonesian authors put this step at the end of their introductions. the use of phrases, such as the present study aims…, this present study sought to…, this study examines…, the aim of the study is…, became linguistic signals to show the readers the purposes of their research. move 3 step 2: presenting research questions (rqs) or hypotheses authors, in this step, show their research objectives in the form of questions or hypotheses. table 4. frequency of occurrence of move 3 and its steps in ia, english fl, and indonesian l1 corpora. move 3 steps ia english fl indonesian l1 freq (%) freq (%) freq (%) occupying the niche announcing present work descriptively and/or purposefully 36 (32.72) 22 (33.84) 34 (38.63) presenting research questions (rqs) or hypotheses 19 (17.27) 11 (16.92) 9 (10.22) giving definitional clarifications 6 (5.45) 0 (0) 1 (1.13) summarizing methods 35 (31.81) 20 (30.76) 22 (25) announcing principal outcomes 0 (0) 4 (6.15) 0 (0) stating the value of the present research 10 (9.09) 7 (10.76) 22 (25) outlining the structure of the paper 4 (3.63) 1 (1.53) 0 (0) total 110 (100) 65 (100) 88 (100) m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 161 as shown in table 4, the use of this step was quite frequent in the ia corpus. meanwhile, this step was least frequently used by the authors in the indonesian l1 group. (18) thus, the present study is designed to address the following research question: how effective is a digital game e-based learning task for the accurate production of english articles by efl (english as a foreign language) learners in comparison to drill and practice exercises? (ia-01) (19) accordingly, this study tries to answer the following research questions: 1. how is efl students’ metacognitive reading strategies awareness? 2. how is efl students’ metacognitive reading strategies use? … (engfl-05) (20) … rumusan masalah, yaitu bagaimana tingkat koherensi pada karya ilmiah mahasiswa? #the formulation of the problem is that how is the level of coherence of the students’ academic writing?# (indol1-04) as illustrated in the excerpts above, the international authors (ia) and indonesian authors (engfl) used the step of presenting research questions (rqs) or hypotheses in the form of points, isolated from the paragraph. contrarily, the majority of authors in the indol1 group applied this step in the last paragraph of their ra introductions. move 3 step 3: definitional clarifications this step is used to describe descriptively and operationally the terminologies authors use in their studies. the applications of this step are exemplified in the excerpts below. (21) while definitions of authorial voice are many (see stock and eik-nes 2016 for an overview), there is consensus (tardy 2012; zhao 2013; canagarajah 2015; fogal 2017) that authorial voice develops as part of a socially constructed amalgam that writers negotiate as they acculturate to their academic disciplines. (ia-02) (22) dan, demi alasan kepraktisan, artikel ini akan menggunakan nama umum “translation” untuk berbagai penamaan mata kuliah yang pada intinya berkaitan dengan penerjemahan. #in addition, for practical reasons, this article uses the common term “translation” for various naming courses which are essentially related to translation#. (indol1-01) based on the data analysis, it was found that only the authors from the international and indonesian l1 groups gave definitional clarifications in their ra introductions. meanwhile, this step did not appear in the english fl group. as shown in excerpts 21 and 22, the authors tried to limit the definitions of certain terminologies in their ras hoping that the readers would understand and that it made their research more contextual and situational. move 3 step 4: summarizing methods in the introduction section of a research article, the authors can briefly describe the methods used in their research. the following excerpts are examples of the applications of this step by the authors in their ra introductions. (23) the study took place over 21 months, including six total data collection waves: three at-home (presojourn, postsojourn-1, and postsojourn-2) and three abroad, allowing for a comparison across two learning contexts. (ia-06) (24) for this study, researchers comprehensively interconnect theories from borg’s (2011) teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices to understand teachers’ tpack framework comprehensively. (engfl-10) (25) dalam penelitian ini, peneliti membatasi masalah penelitian pada kohesi gramatikal jenis referensi pronomina persona. #in this study, the researchers limit the research problem to the grammatical cohesion of the personal pronoun reference type#. (indol1-06) excerpt 23 shows that the international authors performed the step of summarizing methods to slightly show the duration of their research, and they stated a brief overview of the data they had collected. meanwhile, excerpt 24 shows that the authors used borg’s theory (2011) as a theoretical reference to understand the data they had obtained. in addition, authors can limit the scope of their studies. for instance, the authors in excerpt 25 only focused on examining a certain area, i.e., grammatical cohesion specifically in pronouns. move 3 step 5: announcing principal outcomes through this step, authors may show the major findings of their studies. the application of this step is exemplified in the excerpt below. (26) the present investigation is going to fill the discrepancies on the previous studies which should have conclusively discussed the effects of dcf and icf in which the participants of the study have different proficiency levels consisting of high and low levels. (indol1-02) based on table 4, it was found that only the indonesian authors who published their articles in international journals (eng-fl) used the step of announcing principal outcomes. if we look at the excerpt above, the authors tried to convey that the m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 162 purpose of their research was to fill the gap left by the previous researchers. so, even though the research gap has been mentioned, this step can be used as a reaffirmation of the general goal of conducting the research. move 3 step 6: stating the value of the present research this step functions to show the benefit or significance of the research. the examples of sentences indicating the value of the present research can be seen in the excerpts below. (27) consequently, this study has the potential to further our understanding of interactions between substantial prior linguistic knowledge … (ia-06) (28) by doing that, this study is expected to provide a textual description that can be used by tourism scholars, especially … (engfl-06) (29) hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pentingnya unsur koherensi dalam … pada proposal skripsi mahasiswa. #the results of this study are expected to increase the importance of the element of coherence in … the student thesis proposals#. (indol1-04) from the three excerpts above, it can be noticed that all three groups applied the step of stating the value of the present research in their ra introductions. as seen in excerpt 27, the author explained the implications of his research results, i.e., increasing understanding of the interactions between prior linguistic knowledge and contextual influences. excerpts 28 and 29 indicate that indonesian authors shared their expectation that their studies would contribute to the body of knowledge. move 3 step 7: outlining the structure of the paper in this step, authors may show the structure of their article. (30) the next section describes the cph and the distinction between implicit and explicit learning and exemplifies which conditions may enhance language acquisition through explicit learning, even after the cp. (ia-04) (31) while the issues of teacher professional development practices are discussed in the latter part of the paper. (engfl-03) based on the data analysis, it was found that only the authors in the indonesian l1 group did not use the step of outlining the structure of the paper. as seen in excerpt 30, the international authors provided a little explanation of what would be explained in the next section. likewise, the indonesian authors in excerpt 31 invited the readers to read a certain part discussing the issues of teacher professional development practices. move patterns in the three corpora after analyzing the rhetorical moves and steps, which were found in the three corpora (i.e., ia, eng-fl, and indo-l1), we found that the three data sets shared some similarities and differences in terms of move patterns. the findings can be seen in the figure and table below. figure 1 indicates that the patterns of moves in the authors’ ra introductions tended to contradict the conventional patterns (following swales’ 1990, and 2004 cars models). it is clearly noticed that the contravening patterns occurred more frequently than the conventional ones. figure 1. adhering and contravening move patterns across three groups of authors m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 163 table 5 indicates that some rhetorical patterns organized by the authors in the three corpora followed the swales’ (1990, 2004) cars model. it is worth noting that the three groups of authors shared similarities in some patterns. table 5 indicates that the three groups of authors mostly started their ra introduction with move 1 and ended with move 3. for the conventional patterns following swales’ (1990, 2004) model, it was found that only two english ra introductions (one in ia and one in eng-fl groups) followed the linear pattern of moves, where the moves were organized sequentially from move 1 to move 3. aside from the linear pattern, nine move patterns used by the three groups of authors were also considered conforming to the swales’ (1990, 2004) model. the cyclical pattern of moves also found in this study was shown in move 1, move 2, and move 3, and interestingly, there was only one ra introduction (written by native indonesian authors) in which the moves were organized in a complete cycle or a full repeated cycle (m1-m2-m3-m1m2-m3). although the complete cycle of moves was found only in one ra introduction, it is also worth noting that the remaining types of cyclical moves were used by the three groups of authors. the cyclical pattern focusing on moves 1 and 2 was found in the english ra introductions written by the ia and eng-fl authors. another type of cyclical pattern appeared in the indo-l1 group, in which the authors organized the moves by recurring moves 1 and 3, meaning the authors began with moves 1, 2, and 3, or moves 1 and 2, and repeated moves 1 and 3 without move 2. despite the three groups of authors following the swales’ cars model, according to table 5, we can indicate that there were nine contravening patterns, that were different from what had been conceptualized by swales (1990, 2004), found in the three groups of authors. this study found that only one ra began the introduction with move 3, and it was written by the ia authors. besides, all contravening patterns found in this study are cyclical. they were dominated by the cyclicity of moves 1 and 3, meaning although the three groups of authors cyclically developed table 5. the frequency of occurrence of move patterns in the three corpora move patterns ia eng-fl indo-l1 freq % freq % freq % conventional patterns (following swales’ (1990, 2004) cars model) 1-2-3 1 5% 1 5% 1-2-3-1-2-3 1 5% 1-2-1-2-3 1-2-3-1-3 1 5% 2 10% 1-2-3-2-3 2 10% 1-2-1-3 1 5% 1-2-1-2-1-2-3 4 20% 2 10% 1-2-1-2-1-2-1-3 2 10% 2 10% 1-2-3-1-2-3-1-3 1-2-1-3-1-3-1-3 1 5% contravening patterns (deviating from swales’ (1990, 2004) cars model 1-3-2-1-3 2 10% 1 5% 3 15% 1-3-1-3-1-2-3-1-3 1 5% 2 10% 1 5% 1-3-2-3-1-3-1-3 1 5% 1 5% 1-3 2 10% 8 40% 6 30% 3-1-3-1-2-3-1-3 1 5% 1-3-1-2-1-3 1 5% 2 10% 1-2-1-3-1-3 2 10% 1-3-1-2-3 1 5% 1-2-1-3-2-3-2-3 2 10% 3 15% total 20 100% 20 100% 20 100% m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 164 their ra introductions, the deviating patterns, mostly, involve move 2 once. table 5 shows that the contravening patterns occurred in the indo-l1 authors in a vast majority (80%), trailed behind by the eng-fl (75%), and ia authors (45%). in other words, the contravening patterns occurred more frequently in the ra introductions written by eng-fl and indo-l1 authors. to sum up, this study found that most of the contravening move patterns were found in the indonesian ra introductions written by native indonesian authors. besides, the ra introductions written by the indo-l1 group were likely to have more deviant patterns than those written by the ia group. meanwhile, the deviating patterns organized by the ia authors in their english ra introductions also appeared less frequently than those in the eng-fl corpus. iv. discussion this study has revealed how moves and steps are used by international authors (ias) and indonesian authors (english fl) in their ra introductions in english, and how they are used by indonesian authors in the indonesian language (indonesian l1). besides, we also have resolved the issue of whether the three groups of authors adhere to and deviate from the standardized rhetorical patterns of ra introduction that have been conceptualized by the cars model (swales, 1990, 2004). in this section, our two research findings are discussed and compared with other existing literature. rhetorical differences and similarities in ra introductions written by the three groups of authors related to comparing the rhetorical moves of ra introductions across three groups of authors, our study indicated that the authors from the indonesian l1 group used move 1 most often, and it was similar to what the other groups did in the two other corpora (ia and eng-fl). this is in line with what has been found by arsyad and wardhana (2014) that indonesian authors, in the fields of social sciences, language studies, literature studies, and law sciences, used the communicative unit in the introductions to establish shared schemata and research areas, and the role of establishing territory is necessary for introducing, recognizing, and contextualizing the research area being conducted (arianto, 2021; chinaprayoon, 2016; farnia & barati, 2017; wannaruk & amnuai, 2016; rochma 2020). besides, although move 1 appeared most often in the ra introductions written by the three groups of authors, the implementation of each step was different between one group and the others. as found in this study, the indonesian l1 group used the step of making topic generalizations more than the step. meanwhile, in the english ra introductions, claiming centrality should be used higher than the other steps since it elevates the persuasiveness and makes the proposed topics becomes more convincing (arianto et al., 2023; wang & yang, 2015). it indicates that native indonesian authors tend to put general statements in their ra introductions due to several factors. first, it might be the concept in their thought that using claims that aim to strengthen the research topic in move 1 is not something that should be highlighted. besides, it might be due to the lack of reading sources so that they tend to only see the phenomena observed, and force them to be put in their research. regardless of all, it should be noted that we did not evaluate which structure was good because, in a comparative study, we only looked at the characteristics of the rhetorical structures of the three groups of authors. it might be possible that the step of making topic generalizations is the most popular in indonesian ra introductions, but perhaps, the specific rhetorical structures for writing ra introductions have not yet been developed in indonesia (safnil, 2003). there is a need to study the reasons why this step has become most popularly used in indonesian-language journals, especially in applied linguistics journals. a lack of reading existing studies and theories which are relevant to the topics the authors are interested in or appropriate with the authors’ disciplinarity may impact to lack of criticizing. as a consequence, it influences the quality of reviewing literature and fails to criticize and justify their positions in the study being proposed. surprisingly, it happens to non-native authors causing the step of reviewing literature to appear inadequately (farnia & barati, 2017). in this study, the authors from the english fl group seemed to have an understanding of the importance of reviewing items of previous research, which appeared in 36.19%, and it was almost similar to that of the ia group (32.69%). it indicates that english fl authors are not influenced by the rhetorical culture of writing ra introductions in indonesian, especially in m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 165 establishing the research area, by prioritizing the steps of claiming centrality and reviewing items of previous research. workshops, short training, and genre-based mentoring (arsyad et al., 2019; arono & arsyad, 2019) that they have participated in might have impacts on improving the quality of their ra introductions writing. concerning the applications of steps in the move of establishing a niche, we found that non-native authors still inadequately used the research gap strategies, both in their english and indonesian ra introductions. the research gap(s) can be identified if the authors take the step of reviewing items of previous research (arianto, 2021; saricaoglu et al., 2021). in establishing a niche, the authors from the ia group relied more on the step of indicating research gap(s) (50 times) than the step of adding to what is known (once). this finding supports the claims of arianto (2021), arianto et al., (2021), arianto and basthomi (2021), and rochma (2020) that international authors use indicating research gap(s) most often. another step, namely presenting positive justification, was not found in the ra introductions of the three groups of authors. this may be due to the development of knowledge and views about ra introduction writing that the steps of presenting positive justifications and adding to what is known do not optimally indicate the credibility of researchers. it is also similar to the other two groups in that the authors also prioritize the use of indicating research gap(s), which functions to show the novelty of the research (abdolmalaki et al., 2019; arianto et al., 2021; arianto & basthomi, 2021; chen & li, 2019; lim, 2012). however, the frequency of occurrence of the step of indicating research gap(s) by indonesian authors is still few. the lack of reviewing previous studies impacts the lack of indicating research gap(s) (arianto, 2021), and it happens to indonesian l1 authors so that the application of the step of reviewing items of previous research is not optimally used. for english fl authors, it is assumed that the authors need to understand the strategies for indicating research gap(s) in english ra introductions. they may read studies focusing on the investigations of strategies for indicating research gap(s) (e.g., arianto et al., 2021; chen & li, 2019; lim, 2012). furthermore, we found the step of showing interest in conducting the study only in the indonesian l1 group, whereas this step was not found in the other two groups. the lack of strong argumentation and logic for using this step might become a reason why this step is not considered important in english ras published in international journals. of course, showing the value of conducting research is very important (lin, 2014; shehzad, 2012), but the novelty of the research is not only limited to saying that someone is interested in conducting the research but it should also be followed by argumentative reasons and uniqueness of certain phenomena (rochma et al., 2020). for move 3, it was found that the three groups used the step of announcing present work descriptively and/or purposefully more than the other steps, namely presenting research questions (rqs) or hypotheses, giving definitional clarifications, summarizing methods, announcing principal outcomes, stating the value of the present research, and outlining the structure of the paper. this finding is in line with the studies conducted by rochma (2020) sun and crosthwaite (2022), and swales and feak (2004) that each introduction is obliged to indicate the purpose(s) of the research, especially in the introduction which does not have several subheadings. however, if the section is divided into several subheadings, such as literature review and research questions, it might be possible that more detailed research objectives will be found in the research questions section or the literature review section followed by research questions. it is also very interesting to examine the rhetorical structures of the ra introductions which consist of several subheadings. another important piece of information from this study is that the second most frequently used step by the three groups was the step of summarizing methods. it indicates that ia, english fl, and indonesian l1 authors initially give clues in terms of collecting and analyzing data by stating what kinds of data they have obtained and what methods they have used. additionally, it was found that the indonesian l1 group used the step of stating the value of the present research more than the authors from the ia and english fl groups. this might be due to the lack of applying move 2, especially in the step of indicating research gap(s), so they try to convince readers by informing the benefits of their research to occupy the niche move. besides, we also conclude what has been found related m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 166 to move 3 that the step of announcing principal outcomes is not quite important to be used in the introduction section because the authors mention it when pointing out the research gap(s), meaning indicating research gap(s) can predict the outcomes of research. furthermore, the step of outlining the structure of the paper not only serves to lead readers’ interest to read other parts of ra but also provides brief information about the structures of the authors’ ra. rhetorical patterns in ra introductions written by the three groups of authors: deviation or glocalization? concerning the pattern investigation, we found that some of the three groups of authors followed the common patterns of an ra introduction proposed by swales (1990, 2004). as discussed earlier, swales’ cars model has classified the six patterns that are mostly used by authors in english ra introductions. amnuai and wannaruk (2013) also clarify and confirm what has been conceptualized in the theory. this study also indicates that the majority of non-native english authors undoubtedly still perform the pattern with no gap (m1-m3). our result showed that indonesian authors introduced their research topics via claiming centrality and topic generalizations, and then showed the lists of relevant studies conducted by previous authors. however, as they reviewed the studies, they only reported what the previous scholars did, and then jumped into announcing present work purposefully. this study supports the studies conducted by briones (2012), kafes (2018), and farnia & barati (2017). the omission may be due to the local culture the authors have and anticipation of risk and more face-threatening if they compare what had been done and what they will do by highlighting the limitations of previous studies. hence, they omitted move 2, which is claimed as the best strategy for presenting the research novelty and insights (arianto et al., 2021; chen & li, 2019; lim, 2012; swales, 1999, 2004; swales & feak, 2004). moreover, our finding indicates that only two ra introductions follow the linear pattern of moves. it happens only in the english ra introductions written by ia and eng-fl authors. our finding contradicts kafes’ (2018) findings that most international authors and native english authors still followed the linear pattern. it may be due to the sample we choose. in our case, the long introductions with no sub-headings still influence the authors to cyclically organize their texts. it conforms to what has been conceptualized by swales (1990) that writing a long introduction tends to make it cyclical. we also support the claim of shehzad (2012) and swales (1990, 2004) who state that there must be potential iteration or cycling of patterns in certain ra introductions. another important information that should be highlighted is that the linear pattern, we think, is not really popular in this current situation. the linear pattern could be a good way if the researchers to organize their ras in which the introduction and literature review sections are separated by subheadings. it does not mean that we provoke others to be more cyclical, and the more cyclical the better the introductory sections can be produced. the linear pattern may also still be followed in writing long introductions if the research gaps the authors offer provide important, usefulness, challenges, uniqueness, and worth conducting that impress the editorial teams of the targeted journals (arianto et al., 2023; arianto et al., 2021; swales, 1990). a sizable body of research that can be accessed in free and open-access journals that provide researchers inspiration also contributes to the advancement of knowledge and could make the authors critically review the previous studies. therefore, introducing certain variables, proposing certain methods to solve problems, highlighting limitations, and contradicting previous studies to justify current issues may influence the authors to be more cyclical in writing ra introductions. concerning the contravening patterns that have been found in this study, it indicates that the frequency of occurrence of contravening patterns in the two groups of authors, i.e., eng-fl and indo-l1, was more than 50%, and the violated orders also found in almost half of the ra introductions written by ia authors. this finding contrasted with amnuai and wannaruk (2013), lin (2014), and kafes (2018) who found that most international authors followed the common patterns that have been conceptualized in the cars model, 85%, 78,2%, and 64% respectively. the domination of contravening patterns found in our study might be due to the sample we and the previous researchers collected. the previous scholars focused on the ra introductions in applied linguistics in general, meaning that several sub-disciplines, such as m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 167 language testing, language teaching, second language research, translation, and second/ foreign language acquisition, were possibly included in their sample. meanwhile, our study specifically focused on only one sub-field of applied linguistics, namely language teaching. our findings highlight new insights that authors of language teaching do not constantly and accurately adhere to the common patterns of english ra introduction. some of them may have liberal ways of forming their english ra introductions (wakerkwa, 2025). if further studies focused on any other subdisciplines in applied linguistics, they may find any other deviation patterns that may be indicated as their specific characteristics. despite more than half of our research sample indicating deviations from cars models (1990, 2004), all authors in this study still ended the section with move 3. it is in line with what has been found by lin (2014) who also found that most applied linguistic authors close their introductory sections by presenting the present work and indicate the literature content. moreover, the contravening patterns do not only happen in english ra introductions. our study also suggests that the rhetorical patterns of indonesian ra introductions are also different from the common patterns of swales’ cars model, and we believe that the pattern characteristics in indonesian ra introductions are different from english counterparts. arsyad (2000), who tried to examine the rhetorical patterns in indonesian ra introduction found that authors from psychology, education, and economy usually order move 1 to move 3, and almost all of the authors cyclically order the two moves without considering move 2, and this can be an evidence that indonesian ra introductions have very distinctive patterns. surprisingly, in this current study, we found that native indonesian language authors have realized the importance of justifying positionality, as seen from no introductions without move 2. it can be assumed that non-native authors, in this current situation, believe that move 2 in indonesian ra introductions is of importance since to distinguish the proposed research from the existing ones, authors have to review what has been done by previous scholars and justify their research through indicating research gaps (arianto et al., 2021; deveci, 2020; lim, 2012; farnia & barati, 2017). what we have found in this study can be considered a pattern model that can be followed by those who will write ra introductions in the indonesian language. swales’ (1990, 2004) cars model is still used by previous scholars as a basic framework for identifying rhetorical patterns of indonesian ra and master thesis introductions (e.g., wakerswa, 2025; warsidi, 2024). the framework can be considered useful as a foundation to find out the contravening patterns indicated in the authors’ academic texts. therefore, we suggest future scholars also look at the contravening patterns that can be possibly found in other sections such as in the abstract, methods, findings, discussion, and conclusion sections. in our study, we used the model to not only indicate the contravening patterns but also to examine whether the contravening patterns found in eng-fl groups have similarities to what has been found in the indo-l1 group. surprisingly, five out of nine contravening patterns in indonesian ra introductions are also found in those written in english by native indonesian authors. even, one of them is also found in the two ra introductions written by international authors. the contravening patterns, which deviate from the cars model, may also be caused by the cultural norm that is embedded in the rhetorical knowledge of authors. besides, this might be due to the scientific tradition or practices in a particular discipline (safnil, 2000). the contravening patterns can also be influenced by the rhetorical experiences and knowledge of authors, meaning as long as the communicative purposes appeared in each move substantially, the authors could organize their ra introductions with varied patterns. moreover, we can also assume that the contravening rhetorical patterns, which appeared more than the conventional patterns in the eng-fl group, are related to the issue of glocalization. we can argue that non-native authors have efforts to follow the english rhetorical conventions, but the national cultures they have might not intentionally fuse to their writings. in our context, we can see that the english ra introductions written by indonesian authors, which also had been published in internationally reputable journals tend to transfer indonesian rhetoric. besides, world englishes affects the glocalization in which the speakers from nonenglish countries use english varieties. the glocalization can also be specified in written m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 168 discourse in which the authors employ hybrid rhetorical practices in english research articles. we did not specifically choose the sample of english ra introductions written by international authors in this study, but we realize that some authors are from asia. an author who collaborates with others from different countries, especially those who are from non-anglophone countries, such as asian authors, may face different styles in writing due to their socio-cultural norms and values. it can be seen from the findings of our study that international authors have similar contravening patterns with what has been found in eng-fl and indo-l1 groups. besides, the variations of rhetorical patterns of ra introductions may also be accepted in international journals whose editors and reviewers are also from non-english speaking countries. future researchers, who will conduct comparative studies, may consider these issues to see the glocalized patterns in english ra introductions. v. conclusion non-anglophone authors, such as indonesians, may retain their national language as their rhetorical conventions in their english academic texts. our study has explored the applications of moves, steps, and patterns in the ra introductions in the field of language teaching in english and the indonesian language. we can conclude that the manifestations of moves and steps of the ra introductions written in english and indonesian are quite different. although there are differences in rhetorical structures in moves 1 and 2, research objectives are clearly explained at the end of the introduction section in the three groups of authors. in terms of rhetorical patterns, a circular and fairly long introduction of the research topic is used by indonesian l1 authors in their english and indonesian ra introductions, and most of them show salient deviations from swales’ cars model. moreover, as found from our study, this can prove that the characteristics of language and patterns used by the indonesian authors in the indonesian ra introductions, especially the way they organize the communicative purposes, can be considered in writing english ra introductions. the contravening patterns that do not follow the conventional ones can be regarded as guidance since they appeared in the english ra introductions written by groups of authors who published their ras in internationally reputable journals. despite the contributions, this study also highlights some practical implications. first, although indonesian authors (english fl) have adhered to the standards or rules for building their research topics, a deeper examination reveals that english fl and indonesian l1 authors still need guidance, such as books or related sources, to learn, find, and indicate research gap(s). they should join activities, such as attending workshop activities, short training programs, short courses, and mentoring activities, to increase knowledge of how to review, criticize, and demonstrate the novelty of research through the identification of research gap(s). one thing to consider by english fl authors is that they need to increase the frequency of using the steps of summarizing methods, stating the value of the present research, and outlining the structure of the paper in their english ra introductions. this study also has some limitations. while this study only focused on a specific discipline in applied linguistics, namely language teaching, this study may not capture the diversity of rhetorical styles in other sub-disciplines. further studies may adopt similar methods to investigate larger data and a more diverse sample. besides, further studies need to examine whether the authors show deviations from the cars model in terms of organizing the other sections, such as methods, findings, and discussion sections. besides, this study did not explicitly examine the linguistic features that characterize interlanguage investigations. further studies may work on how metadiscourse features may shape writing practices across languages and sub-disciplines. ethics statement authors have read and followed the ethical requirements for publication in jurnal arbitrer and that the current work does not involve human subjects, animal experiments, or any data collected from social media platforms. credit author statement m. affandi arianto: writing – original draft, conceptualization, data curation, methodology, formal analysis, data interpretation; jufrizal: supervision, writing – review & editing, validation, data curation; maulluddul haq: investigation, formal analysis, resources, reviewing; dwi bayu saputra:investigation, validation, resources, proofreading; dewi syafrina: investigation, validation, resources, validation, and proofreading m. affandi arianto / jurnal arbitrer vol. 12 no. 2 (2025) 169 acknowledgements we would like to thank lembaga penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat universitas negeri padang for funding this work with the contract number 1441/un35.15/lt/2023. declaration of competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. references abdolmalaki, s. g., tan, h., abdullah, a. n., sharmini, 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