Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 13 Online version available in : http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id | 2339-1162 (Print) | 2550-1011 (Online) | JURNAL ARBITRER Submission Track A B S T R A C T Received: February 18, 2024 Final Revision: March 23, 2024 Accepted: March 25, 2024 Available Online: April 5, 2024 Glocalization is the practice of combining global and local approaches. In English language teaching, it involves adapting materials to reflect the students’ local environment while still equipping them with intercultural communication skills. Nevertheless, it is a phenomenon that teachers are unfamiliar with in many parts of the world. Guided by glocalization research, this study aims to study the teaching practices of university instructors of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Yemen, Algeria, and France, as well as their attitudes towards glocalization. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, including both a questionnaire addressed to 78 teachers and interviews with a select group of 21 EFL professors and instructors working in the three countries, to understand and analyze their use of a glocalized approach for teaching EFL. The results revealed that EFL teachers in all three countries recognized the importance of applying a glocalized approach in their classrooms and used a variety of strategies, technologies, and materials to implement it. Finally, the study found no significant differences in the attitudes of EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria, and France towards adopting glocalized approaches. Still, some noticeable differences can be observed, particularly in how teachers in the different countries glocalized their classrooms. French participants, for example, focused on the types of documents studied in class and how they were selected, while the Algerian and Yemeni participants focused their comments on their general strategies. This study highlights the awareness of EFL teachers of the importance of including local values while teaching a foreign language to their students. Keywords EFL teaching, glocalization, post-method approach, language and culture Correspondence E-mail: wagdyrashad@hu.edu.ye Article EFL Teachers’ Attitudes Towards a Glocalized Approach: An International, Mixed-Methods Study Wagdi Bin-Hady1, Hanane Sarnou2, Daniel Schug3 1Department of English, College of Education, Humanities and Applied Sciences, Hadhramout University, Yemen 2DPSM Laboratory, Abdelhamid Ibn Badis University, Mostaganem, Algeria 3CREA Laboratory, Université Paris Nanterre, France Under License of Creative Commons Attributioni-Non Commercial 4.0 International.DOI: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.11.1.13-28.2024 I. INTRODUCTION The present study focuses on attitudes towards glocalization in the context of university EFL teaching in three different countries: Algeria, France, and Yemen. It delves into how teachers perceive such an approach and how it is integrated into their classroom practice. Far from being a new phenomenon, glocalization has been studied in numerous domains, from business to education. In simple terms, glocalization is the merging of global and local traditions through a process that naturally encourages dialogue between diverse communities (Patel & Lynch, 2013). In his seminal paper, Robertson (1995) suggested that the very notion of a local-global dichotomy is somewhat misleading. He explained that most traditions could be described as translocal, incorporating elements and influences from numerous communities; constant interaction between groups, the blending of traditions, and the integration of global phenomena into local practices have created a situation in which the global cannot exist without the local. Glocalization focuses on this very interconnectedness, highlighting how local issues fit on a global stage (Hauerwas et al, 2021). The English language itself can be viewed through a glocalized lens (Feng, 2018). The English language has been the source of significant Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 14 debate. In many countries, native speaker teachers, particularly those from inner circle countries such as the US or Australia, are still considered to be the experts of the most prestigious English varieties. In China, for example, non-native speakers working, feel that they do not receive the same respect as their native speaker colleagues (Feng, 2018), despite their knowledge of the role of English in Chinese society. Many have criticized this phenomenon and called into question the insistence on the native- speaker standard in English, given how often it is used as a lingua franca by non-native speakers (Lai, 2013; Poppi, 2012; Setzler, 2013). Additionally, such a trend ignores the fact that many types of English are not standardized so one cannot be an expert in the same way, regardless of their native- speaker status (Yazan, 2018). This shift in how English is perceived underline a need for English teachers to adapt their approach to reflect the reality of English use in the local community. From a theoretical perspective, it is not surprising that numerous theories have been referenced in glocalization, given that it is a practice that impacts various fields and inherently involves numerous cultures. Indeed, this field requires a theory that considers local concerns, traditions, identity and practice, while still recognizing the value of connecting them to global issues (Cheng, 2004; Huang et al., 2016). Studies have referenced Southern Theory (Wahyudi, 2014), Postmodernism (Ahmadian & Rad, 2014), a 3-part model involving a foreground, middle ground, and background (Chen, 2022), and the Tian Shi (timing) Di Li (context) Ren He (human capital) framework (Chen & Li, 2023 in Chen, 2023), just to name a few. As the present study concerns teachers specifically, it seemed pertinent to us to select a model that allowed for the analysis of teaching practice. Research indicates that glocalization is complex and at times difficult to define; in the context of language teaching, one does not simply state whether a course has been glocalized, as it can occur on a spectrum. To capture the reality of this phenomenon, our data will be analyzed through the Globalization-Localization Interaction Dynamics Model (GLIDM - Chen, 2023), as shown in Figure 1. The GLIDM highlights that globalization and localization can exist simultaneously, each at different levels. In quadrant 1, we see an approach that is high globalization and low localization, labeled Grobalization-dominant. In this case, global practices and ideas are prioritized at the expense of local ones. According to Chen (2023), the danger here is that the content may lack substance, given how unfamiliar it is to local learners. In quadrant 2, we see an approach that is high globalization and high localization, labeled Glocalization- dominant. Here, the approach resembles what Chen (2022) referred to as the middle ground; it represents a mix of global and local practices that can potentially lead to deeper learning. In quadrant 3, we see an approach with low globalization and low localization, labeled noncommittal. While Chen (2023) tells us such an approach is rare, it would be characterized by a lack of global or local elements used in the classroom; such an idea would be difficult to imagine. Lastly, in quadrant 4, we see an approach with low globalization and high localization, labeled Localization-dominant. Such Figure 1. Globalization-Localization Interaction Dynamics Model (Chen, 2023) Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 15 an approach may be seen in societies with little exposure to outside ideas; this context could make it difficult for students to connect their learning to the outside world. Given that the present study analyzes data from three culturally distinct contexts, Algeria, France, and Yemen, we are confident the GLIDM model will provide a solid framework through which to understand and describe language teaching in these countries. In teaching, glocalization is determined by a variety of factors, ranging from pedagogical approach to materials selection. Yaman (2016), for example, studied to what extent an English language textbook used in Turkish public schools were glocalized by analyzing its content. Noting that most topics included references to the local culture, the target (anglophone) culture(s), and an international culture, the book was determined to be highly glocalized. Conversely, Wahyudi (2014) describes a MOOC on the topic of critical thinking; the MOOC in question presented only Western ideas related to the topic, meaning that, for students of other traditions, the material did not provide opportunities to interact and express themselves. These findings are in line with research showing that students may hesitate to discuss their culture out of fear that it might not be relevant; teachers may therefore require training to ensure that subjects are addressed in a beneficial and respectful way (Salih & Omar, 2022; 2023). Taken together, these reports present glocalization a comprehensive approach, requiring consideration not only to what is taught but also how it is taught. Particular attention to the classroom context and the needs of the students is therefore crucial. Several studies and reports have shown both the impact of glocalization and how language teachers have adopted it into their practice (Dwi Lusianov, 2020; Hollier, 2013; Weber, 2007). Research has attempted to identify attitudes towards glocalization, with promising results. Tien and Talley (2012) conducted a study involving interview data with Taiwanese learners and teachers of English, asking participants to reflect on the expression “think globally, act locally.” Even if some respondents were unsure of how to interpret this concept, data showed a positive attitude towards learning more about it. Participants also noted a desire to develop a multicultural mindset, better language skills, and a deeper knowledge about both foreign and local cultures and issues. Oanh (2012) conducted a similar study with teachers from eight different countries throughout Asia. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data on attitudes regarding Global English and its role in education. Many participants were favorable to the creation of a Global English, without ties to native-speaker varieties, to facilitate international communication. Glocal English, on the other hand, elicited a wider variety of responses. A number of participants feared that a glocal English variety would only be understood by local communities. Others felt that defining a glocalized English would be beneficial in that it would allow educators to adapt evaluations and curricula to the real uses of English in the country. These findings are consistent with research also in the professional world. He and Li (2023) note that the Chinese EFL curriculum focuses heavily on grammatical accuracy and the native-speaker standard. Questionnaire data with professionals in various contexts indicated that such programs do not reflect real uses for English in the Chinese professional world; a more glocalized approach would include communication-focused methods, with the student at the center of learning experience. Further research has attempted to describe strategies teachers can employ in a glocalized classroom. Glocalized EFL instructors do not blindly apply Western approaches to their classrooms; indeed, there have been calls for a mix of approaches, combining local and foreign influences (Friend et al., 2023; Weber, 2007). In the Chinese context, questionnaire and interview data on glocalized practices showed that foreign approaches were used particularly when teachers wanted to help students express themselves and share opinions (Pawan & Pu, 2019). A similar approach was used to collect data in Indonesian primary schools (Suci & Puspitasari, 2017), where classroom observations were also added to the analysis. Again, practices labeled as glocalized were those that encouraged students to share opinions and interact, presented and valued diverse perspectives, and used local wisdom to expand students’ global knowledge. Students also had opinions on glocalized practice, as illustrated by Kettaneh and Hanford’s (2019) study with international students in Canadian universities. Learners described a variety of glocalized practices in their courses, including teachers’ efforts to highlight everyone’s opinion, Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 16 develop learner autonomy, ensure interaction and student-centered lessons, and provide a curriculum that is relevant to global contexts. In line with descriptions of glocalization provided by Patel and Lynch (2013), Wahyudi (2014), Yaman (2016) and others, research on glocalized teaching underlines the importance of creating an atmosphere where students can express themselves, their opinions and experiences are valued and useful for learning, and a mixing of local and foreign teaching strategies are used with intention. The present study seeks therefore to add to the body of knowledge on glocalized practice, by studying teaching practices in France, Algeria, and Yemen. With particular attention to their teaching strategies, materials selections, and opinions about the role of English in their societies, the goal of this paper is to expand on the existing research on glocalization in the EFL classroom. Aside from being the three countries in which the authors work, they also represent interesting contexts for a study on EFL teaching practices. In Algeria, English is gaining traction as a major foreign language, despite meeting significant resistance from those who note the French language’s current and historical role in the country (Imerzoukene, 2023). France has long struggled with foreign language instruction, with an approach involving a strong focus on grammatical accuracy. Though a shift towards more communicative strategies has been observed, grammar-based approaches prevail (Beacco, 2010). EFL instruction in Yemen faces similar challenges; despite some recent tendencies to offer more communicative courses, EFL teachers lack the knowledge or the desire to stray too far from more traditional grammar-based approaches (Assad, 2019). Given the status of EFL teaching in these different countries and these reported small shifts towards away from traditional approaches, further research is needed to identify how this is translating into classroom practice. As a glocalized approaches insists on facilitating communication and bridging different perspectives, it provides a useful lens through which teaching strategies can be analyzed. With the goal of better understanding the specificities of teaching practice in three countries not often seen in glocalization research, this study is guided by the following three questions: 1. To what extent do university EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria and France perceive the importance of a glocalized approach in teaching? 2. What glocalized strategies and methods do EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria and France use in their teaching? 3. How do EFL teachers in these three countries differ in their use of a glocalized approach? II. METHODS Research design A mixed methods approach was selected for data collection and to allow for a wide range of responses from a large number of participants. Not only does the use of two tools allow for obtaining more in-depth data, the strengths of one tool compensate for the shortcomings of the other. The study took place during the academic year 2023- 2024. Instruments Questionnaire The questionnaire is composed of four biographical questions to determine the respondents’ profile and 23-Likert scale questions in which participants had to select a score between 1 and 5, which corresponded to either a frequency or a degree of agreement with the statement. The final version of the questionnaire is the result of a thorough literature review, piloting, several discussions between the authors and feedback from other colleagues. The Likert scale questions are divided into three categories, with questions 1-10 in the category “Requirements for Course Planning,” questions 11-16 in the category “Course Content,” and questions 17-23 in the category “Awareness & Attitudes towards Language/Culture.” The total Cronbach Alpha was calculated for each of the three categories to determine internal consistency (Goforth, 2015). It was calculated as .761, which is considered acceptable, following Dörnyei’s (2007, cited in Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008) guideline calling for a minimum value of 0.6. An initial version of the questionnaire was created, inspired partially by the categories described in Salimi and Safarzadeh (2018), which relate to different varieties of English and the connection between culture and identity. The literature review also allowed for the creation of a checklist entitled “What does it mean to be a glocalized teacher?” Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 17 This list provides the qualities we were looking to identify in our questionnaire; it takes the major themes from various the glocalization studies that were used to formulate relevant questions. The authors of this study sent this initial version of the questionnaire to researchers not involved in the study to get feedback on the formulation and relevance of the different questionnaire items. In total, four researchers provided feedback, resulting in some items being eliminated, others being added, and still others being reformulated. During this modification phase, the three authors held meetings to discuss the questionnaire items one by one to agree on a finalized version. After a piloting phase conducted with language teachers, slight modifications were made. This finalized version can be found in Appendix 2. The questionnaire was sent to participants via email and WhatsApp in the three countries with a 10- day deadline to complete it. A descriptive analysis including mean score, standard deviation was calculated. An inferential analysis as represented in one-way ANOVA is used to identify differences between Yemeni, Algerian, and French teachers in terms of their glocalized teaching attitudes and practice. Interview Similar to the questionnaire procedure, a preliminary list of interview questions was established after a careful review of literature on glocalization and multicultural teaching. The researchers modified the questions, taking into account the feedback from other colleagues. Again, the three researchers met to discuss the interview questions one by one to ensure clarity and their alignment with the study’s aims. The interview questions are all open-ended, so participants could give unexpected responses, potentially shaping following questions (Hsieh, 2009). Participants were selected on a volunteer basis from the EFL instructors working at the three researchers’ respective universities, with each researcher interviewing participants from his or her own university. A variety of modalities were used, depending on the participants’ preferences, with some interviews occurring in person, some occurring over the phone, and some via a video conference platform. Interview data were stored in a shared document between the three authors. To analyze this qualitative data, a coding guide was established following the recommendations of DeCuir-Gunby et al. (2011) and Schug and Simon (2023). The raw data were carefully studied, and data codes were determined based on relevant, common themes, and approved by the three authors. As our research questions deal with teachers’ attitudes and teaching practice, and comparisons between the three countries, it seemed appropriate to define two major categories: 1) Glocalized Strategies and, 2) Glocalized Attitudes. A third category, Non- glocalized, was also created to highlight the few comments that indicated a resistance or hesitation to the idea of glocalization. The coding guide was agreed upon by all three researchers. One researcher did the first round of coding for all the qualitative data, and it was later confirmed by the other two researchers. Questionable items were discussed until consensus was reached. An indicative list of the semi-structured interview questions can be found in Appendix 3. The coding guide, complete with frequency data, is in Appendix 4. Participants The study collected data from 78 EFL professors and instructors working at universities in three different countries: Yemen, Algeria, and France. For the questionnaire, researchers contacted colleagues in English departments at several universities in their respective countries, as well as in TESOL and linguistics research associations with the request to share the questionnaire with their teams. The purpose of the study was stated in the introductory part of the questionnaire and researchers ensured participants that their responses were anonymous. Table 1 below presents a summary of the respondents’ biographical data. For the interview, a convenience sampling strategy was used to identify colleagues in the researchers’ home universities. In the end, interviews were conducted with 10 professors from Algeria, 5 professors from France, and 6 from Yemen. All interviewees had advanced degrees and several years, or even decades, of university teaching experience. To ensure anonymity, all interviewees were given a code in lieu of using real names; the code consisted of the first letter of the country name and a number. French Interviewee 1 became FI1, Yemeni Interviewee 2 became YI2, Algerian Interviewee 6 became AI6, and so on. Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 18 III. RESULTS RQ1: To what extent do university EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria and France perceive the importance of a glocalized approach in teaching? Table 2 indicates that EFL teachers in the three countries have a high positive perception towards using glocalized approaches, with an average mean score 3.90 and a standard deviation of 0.336. Such results place participants well in the Quadrant 2 of the GLIDM in Figure 1. The scores of each individual questionnaire item can be found in Appendix 2. countries, particularly the UK and the USA; these experiences had a clear impact on their teaching in France: I liked that the lessons in the US were centered around discussion. I’ve tried to replicate it in France, but it’s hard because the classes are so big. Still, I try to encourage a lot of participation. - FI1 In the US, flipped classrooms were really common, but in France it almost doesn’t exist. It’s hard because French students aren’t used to it, but I try - FI4 These responses highlight that the instructors understand that certain elements of teaching practices in other countries, particularly those often used to encourage in-class collaboration and conversation, can also be useful in their local contexts, if certain concessions are made to accommodate local cultural differences. Similar attitudes were also found amongst Yemeni and Algerian instructors: It is important to find a balance between incorporating effective teaching strategies from Western approaches and respecting local cultural practices and values. -YI1 Effective teachers often take a culturally responsive approach, adapting their teaching methods to meet the unique needs and contexts of their students while drawing from both Western and local educational approaches to create a meaningful and effective learning experience - AI4 Table 1. Demographic information of the participants Count Column N % In which country do you currently teach? Yemen 26 33.3% Algeria 33 42.3% France 19 24.4% Total 78 100.0% What is the highest diploma you’ve obtained? PhD/Doctorate 52 66.7% Master/Magister 20 25.6% Bachelor 6 7.7% Total 78 100.0% How many years of teaching experience do you have? 1-10 years 35 44.9% 11-20 years 25 32.1% More than 20 years 18 23.1% Total 78 100.0% Which of the following best describes your current situation? I am a local teacher & non-native speaker of English 57 73.1% I am a local teacher & a native speaker of English 2 2.6% I am a foreign teacher & non-native speaker of English 5 6.4% I am a foreign teacher & native speaker of English 14 17.9% Total 78 100.0% Table 2. EFL teachers’ perceptions on the importance of applying a glocalized approach Country N Mean Std. Deviation Yemen 26 4.01 .327 Algeria 33 3.88 .321 France 19 3.80 .354 Total 78 3.90 .336 Interview responses provide further information regarding teacher’s attitudes towards a glocalized approach, with 12 comments coded as indicating a glocalized approach in France & Yemen, and 22 comments in Algeria. With the instructors from France, for example, all had experiences working and/or studying in other Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 19 Regarding technology, teachers in the three countries described using various technological and online tools in a way indicative of a glocalized approach. First, in all three countries, technology is used to facilitate interaction and encourage students to express themselves, an important element of the glocalized classroom. Tools such as Google Classroom (YI1), ClassDojo (FI2), and flipped classrooms (AI4) are used to offer students alternative spaces to participate in classroom discussions, thereby ensuring the presence of multiple perspectives. Similarly, several of our participating teachers also adopted a glocalized approach in establishing their classroom atmosphere. FI5, for example, is a foreign teacher working in France. S/he has combined elements from the top-down hierarchy approach he/she found in France, with the open- communication approach found in his/her home country, the United States. The result was an approach in which the teacher served as a guide or facilitator, setting clear expectations, that still allowed students the freedom to express themselves while learning. AI8 describes using a variety of approaches to facilitate learning, chosen based on the needs of the students. YI3 describes using a post-method pedagogy and teaching methods based on the local culture and student needs. Classroom materials, such as articles and classroom activities, also show the teachers’ commitment to showing multicultural, diverse opinions to show students a plethora of perspectives in the world. When asked about the types of sources selected for lessons, YI4 claims that he/she chooses materials that reference the USA, the UK and Yemen specifically to help students bridge cultural gaps. Similarly, FI1 has his/her students study a variety of documents, including news articles from various websites, based on his/her own interests, the interests of the students, and what’s happening in the world at the time. While many of his/her While several of the interviewed colleagues - 8 to be precise - had never heard of glocalization, and several more had only a vague idea of its connection to language teaching, participants in all 3 contexts seemed to describe attitudes that suggested valuing a glocalized approach, whether through referencing various cultures in their lessons, actively creating an atmosphere conducive to exchanging opinions, or using a teaching approach with elements from different cultures. Still, it is important to note that our interview responses contained some instances of teachers’ expressing hesitation or disinterest in the glocalized approach. As shown in Appendix 4, 4 comments from the Yemeni participants, 3 comments from the French participants, and 6 comments from the Algerian participants were coded as non- glocalized. In the case of YI3 and YI6, they simply stated that they do not use a glocalized approach in their lessons, though it is of course possible that they were unfamiliar with the term of glocalization as it applies to language teaching. FI2 considers that it is not really the English teacher’s job to discuss world events and phenomena in class and make connections to the local environment, while AI5 and AI6 state that they focus on US and UK cultures in their English classes, as opposed to other foreign cultures or the local one. RQ2: What glocalized strategies and methods do EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria and France use in their teaching? Interview questions focused principally on teachers’ approaches and strategies in the classroom, as well as their attitudes towards the role of culture in English teaching. Interview responses on the theme of Glocalized Strategies were further coded in the following categories: technology, materials, classroom atmosphere and approach (Appendix 3). The frequency with which comments were coded into these categories can be found in Table 3. Table 3. Frequency of comments coded in the four categories of glocalized strategies Code Categories Frequencies Yemen France Algeria Classroom Technology Google Classroom, ClassDojo, flipped classroom. 3 3 4 Classroom Materials Articles and classroom activities News articles from various websites 3 16 8 Classroom Ambiance Teachers served as a guide or facilitator, setting clear expectations 5 9 6 Approach Top-down hierarchy approach Communicative approach 19 8 31 Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 20 sources describe events from the USA, studying them inspires discussion on comparisons between France and the USA. AI1 takes the practice one step further by discussing not only anglophone societies, such as the USA or the UK, and Algerian issues, but also issues from other countries to allow for a fuller discussion. Lastly, many teachers discussed their approach in more general terms, talking about their attitudes towards teaching and what they feel the classroom environment should be like. YI1 and FI4, for example, point to their use of a communicative approach to encourage students to express themselves in class. AI3, on the other hand, stated that while the foundational aspects of language learning in his/her class often draw from major Anglo-Saxon cultures, he/she also actively incorporates elements of the local culture and global events. RQ3: How do EFL teachers in these three countries differ in their use of a glocalized approach? The third research question will be answered using statistical results and qualitative findings. Table 4 indicates that there are slight differences in the mean scores of EFL teachers, regarding their glocalized approach. However, teachers in the three countries have a high perception (M=, 3.90), with Yemeni teachers scoring the highest, M= 4.01, Algerian EFL teachers in second at M=3.88 and French EFL teachers scoring third at M=3.80, as displayed in Table 2. To check whether there is a significant difference among the teachers in the three countries, a One Way ANOVA is used to calculate the difference between the groups. Table 4 shows that the calculated F value amounted to 2.257 at the probability value of .113. As the Sig. value is higher than .05, it shows that there is no significant difference among EFL teachers in Yemen, France, and Algeria in their perception of a glocalized approach in their teaching. students express themselves in the classroom or adapting the classroom to their specific needs. Nevertheless, some noticeable differences can be observed, as seen in Table 3. The French participants, for example, gave 18 comments about the classroom materials, while the Algerian and Yemeni participants focused their comments more on their approach. French interviewees focused on the types of documents studied in class and how they were selected; FI1 uses press or informational articles, FI2 uses authentic business scenarios and case studies, while FI4 uses novels and news articles, with all stressing the importance of students’ needs and interests in selecting documents. They also point out that they often use these documents to connect international and global phenomena with the local context; FI1 described using some documents on the conspiracy theories surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic and drawing parallels with some of the fake news and a corresponding documentary in France. FI3 describes using documents relating to the Olympics and doping in sports with her students majoring in Sports Sciences; these topics are of global interest but of particular relevance in France as the country prepares to host the Olympics in July 2024. Participants from Yemen and Algeria, on the other hand, tended to focus on their general approach and beliefs about teaching, rather than specific tools or materials. Some of the representative responses from Algeria include AI9 describing the importance of comparing local and foreign societies in class discussions and A10 talking about fostering students’ creativity to help them see links between global issues and their local experiences. From Yemen, YI4 mentions drawing parallels between English and local languages and dialects, and YI6 talks about explicitly showing students how global phenomena can be applied to the local contexts. IV. DISCUSSION The first research question in this study explored the perceptions of EFL teachers in Yemen, Algeria, and France towards glocalization in their teaching. The study found that teachers generally have a highly positive perception of the glocalized approach and agree on its importance, even if they did not use this specific term. Several comments from the interviews support this conclusion, with teachers describing their Table 4. EFL teachers’ perception on using a glocalized approach Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups .457 2 .228 2.076 .113 Within Groups 8.251 75 .110 Total 8.708 77 The interview data reinforced what was found in the questionnaire; while tools and strategies differed somewhat, interview participants generally described approaches used with the goal of helping Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 21 desires to integrate teaching methods from other countries into their teaching practice, albeit with some accommodations. For these teachers, English language instruction should be a compromise between the local identity and the foreign culture. Their attitude is in line with Patel and Lynch (2013), who describe the value of a glocalized approach and connecting with the students’ local experience. This finding is also supported by Eslami (2010), Tien and Talley (2012) and Ryan and Deci (2000) who affirmed that students learn better when course content is aligned with their experience. Our second and third research questions focused more specifically on teachers’ strategies and differences between countries. The three countries are quite similarly glocalized, both in terms of the teachers’ attitudes and their teaching strategies. This finding is perhaps not surprising, since many of those who referenced foreign approaches and materials referenced specifically the UK and the USA; it is therefore logical that those influences result in some similar practices. Furthermore, for decades, numerous resources have reported on the role of culture in EFL teaching, attracting attention in both Europe and the Arabic-speaking world (Bax, 1994; Mahmoud, 2015). Such materials have surely made their way into teacher preparation programs, thereby encouraging teachers to consider the context in which they are working. Additionally, in all three countries, teachers use class materials, their approach, technology, and even the classroom ambiance to help create inclusive environments where everyone feels comfortable expressing themselves and expanding their knowledge. This finding is in line with Patel and Lynch (2013) and Pawan and Pu (2019), who stated that adapting one’s approach to the needs of the students and one’s teaching context is the very essence of glocalization and highly valuable for promoting learning. Nevertheless, some slight differences were found regarding the ways in which teachers implement their glocalized practice, with French teachers focusing more on specific materials they are using, while Yemeni and Algerian teachers focused more on their approach. This finding could perhaps be due to the profile of teachers participating in the interviews; in France, many of the teachers worked mostly or exclusively with non- English majors. As a result, their courses depend strongly on authentic documents and students’ abilities to bring their own content knowledge to the classroom. Of the EFL teachers from Yemen and Algeria, many worked in English departments, and with students working more on the specifics of the language. This difference is key for several reasons, because it explains why EFL teachers in Yemen and Algeria more frequently reported using materials that reference the USA and the UK, while French teachers reported working on topics from a variety of cultures. Because the material use of the Yemeni and Algerian instructors would more likely fall in quadrant 1 of the GLIDM, they compensate through their more glocalized approach. Future research should consider the students’ perspective in evaluating their glocalized strategies. The topic of culture in the EFL class has long been a thorny one (Alptekin & Alptekin, 1984), but addressing culture differences could be crucial for advancing student learning (Wang, 2011). It is therefore vital to look at students’ impressions of classroom experiences and learning materials, as shown in Kettaneh and Hanford (2019). V. CONCLUSION The present study looks at teaching practices in Yemen, Algeria, and France through the lens of glocalization. The main goal was to determine to what extent English language teachers in these countries valued the concept of glocalization and the ways in which it was implemented in their classrooms. Ultimately, it was found that teachers, though not always using the term glocalization, considered it important to implement a glocalized practice. They did so through various means, including incorporating technologies, using materials featuring a variety of different cultures, ensuring that their classrooms were inclusive, and actively selecting elements of local culture and foreign cultures to incorporate into their approach Considering the value of glocalization in teaching practices, the authors recommend establishing a framework that would bridge local and global language and culture to better meet the specific requirements of the local context. The limitations of this study are those typical of small-scale reports. Given the relatively low number of participants, it would be difficult to generalize the findings to other contexts. 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CHECKLIST USED FOR CREATING THE QUESTIONNAIRE Reflection: What does it mean to be a glocalized teacher? - a checklist • Learning connects new information to what students already know (Patel & Lynch, 2013) • Learning connects global and local issues (Tien & Talley, 2012) • Lessons reference the local culture (Salimi & Safarzadeh, 2018) • The course is adapted to the learners (Ahmadian & Rad, 2014) • Value of local language is maintained (Anderson, 2013; Jensen & Thogersen, 2011) • Teaching practice is culturally-relevant (Lin et al 2005) • Teaching materials include references to different cultures and domains (Yaman, 2016) • Teachers actively create a spirit of inclusion in classes (Patel, 2017) • Teachers are aware of how the English language is perceived in my local society (Shi, 2013) • Teachers take students’ interests into account when selecting materials (Patel & Lynch, 2013) • Teachers value non-native speakers (Feng, 2018) • Teachers work on confidence-building in class (Lin et al 2005) • Teachers foster a community of respect in the classroom, despite differences (Feng, 2018) • Teachers facilitate group cohesion across differences (Patel & Lynch, 2013) • Teachers understand local difficulties (Shin, 2007) • Teachers make sure everyone can participate (Wahyudi, 2014) • Teachers are aware of cultural differences within my lessons (Wahyudi, 2014) • Teachers provide opportunities for students’ to talk about their experiences/culture (Salih & Omar, 2023) • Teachers do not value exclusively to the major varieties of English, such as American or British English (Yazan, 2018) • Teachers elicit feedback from my learners (Ahmadian & Rad, 2014) Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 26 Appendix 2. QUESTIONNAIRE Please select the option that most accurately describes you in the following 3 tables, from 1 to 5 Statements Mean Std. Deviation R eq ui re m en ts fo r C ou rs e Pl an ni ng I provide opportunities for students to express opinions in my English class 4.4872 .67888 I encourage students to explore how the course material connects to their lives and experiences 4.0256 .88236 I look for ways to connect students’ interest and the English/anglophone culture 3.9359 .85796 I take steps to create an inclusive environment in my lessons 4.1667 .74584 I look for ways to connect students’ interest and the English/anglophone culture 4.5789 .57185 I take steps to create an inclusive environment in my lessons 3.7949 1.04892 In my lessons, I take steps to help students build their self-confidence as English users 4.3421 .79251 I provide opportunities for students to discuss their local culture in my lessons 4.1974 .93836 I take student feedback into consideration when preparing my lessons 4.5263 .73889 I take into account different learning styles when preparing my lessons 4.4286 .73321 I strive to make sure everyone participates in my lessons 4.5325 .57547 I have a good understanding of the difficulties students tend to encounter when learning English 4.0256 .80541 C ou rs e C on te nt An English language course should contain topics from a variety of different perspectives 4.2237 .77629 [English instructional materials should have a connection to the local culture & society 4.4342 .77176 English instructional materials should reflect relevant societal values (for example, human rights and dignity, equality, social inclusion, sustainable development.)] 4.3377 .69982 [The goal of English language instruction should be to help learners connect to the global community.] 4.4103 .76338 English language teachers should help students identify connections between global and local issue 2.3333 .92113 Students’ background knowledge should be considered when selecting appropriate materials 2.3974 .82713 Aw ar en es s & A tti tu de s to w ar ds La ng ua ge /C ul tu re . I use the student’s native language/L1 in my English classes] 3.7013 .97421 [I allow students to use their native language in my English classes in certain situation 3.6053 .80131 In my English class, I raise the learners’ awareness about their culture and identity.] 3.7143 .97140 English instructional materials should reflect one or some of the major native varieties of English (UK, USA, Canada, Australia 4.1711 .71904 Teachers should encourage students to learn about non-native varieties of English 3.8442 1.11290 [I am aware of how the English language is perceived in the local society] Which of the following best describes your current situation? 1.6923 1.19857 English courses should help students to sound like a native-speaker when communicating (in terms of accent, grammatical accuracy, idiomatic language…)] Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 27 Appendix 3. Semi-Structured Interviews 1. What teaching methods (techniques, strategies, tools, materials) do you use in the classroom to teach the English language? How do you choose them? 2. How do you get/incite/encourage your students to express their opinions? 3. How would you rate students’ awareness about local issues and events? 4. Do Western approaches impact your English language teaching? What factors influence you when you bridge the Western approaches with local teaching practices in your classroom? 5. Which cultures do you reference more in your lessons: the major anglo-saxon cultures (UK, USA, Australia, etc), the local culture (Yemeni/Algerian/French), to global events? 6. What strategies do you suggest to help students understand the global world? 7. Have you ever heard of “glocalization” in teaching? 8. Would you say glocalization is similar to what you do in class? 9. How can teachers help students connect global issues with their local experiences? Wagdi Bin-Hady / Jurnal Arbitrer - Vol. 11 No. 1 (2024) 28 Appendix 4. Interview coding guide Theme, definition, and further codes. Categorization Example response Frequency Glocalized attitudes. Items coded in this category are indicative of a teacher’s positive attitude towards glocalized practice. Comments relating to the importance of helping students’ express themselves, adapting courses to students’ needs, and bridging foreign and local influences are all considered relevant here. Yemen We are part of the global world, and we cannot just separate or isolate ourselves from the events going on in the global sphere. - Yemeni Interviewee 4 12 France It’s good to take what is good in French education but use other influences — one specific example is with grammar. – French Interviewee 2 12 Algeria Effective teachers often take a culturally responsive approach, adapting their teaching methods to meet the unique needs and contexts of their students while drawing from both Western and local educational approaches to create a meaningful and effective learning experience – Algerian Interviewee 4 22 Glocalized strategies Items coded in this category highlight the different approaches, strategies, tools, and activities teachers use in the classroom that indicate glocalized practice. Again, strategies to adapt to students’ needs, create an inclusive classroom environment, inform students about what’s happening the world, and present a variety of perspectives are included here Further codes: 1) Technology 2) Materials 3) Classroom atmosphere 4) Other Yemen [I] teach about global issues such as climate change, sustainability, economic viability, conflict, health, and poverty, which are tackled globally and locally. – Yemeni Interviewee 1 30 France Open communication. — introducing the different perspectives (I’m American — we’ll be talking about civil rights, for example and I explain my perspective – I highlight that we need to understand the context of one’s perspective – French interviewee 5 36 Algeria At the beginning of each academic year, I have an ice-breaking activity with my students to unravel some aspects that help me deal with them, and that reflect what they like and dislike, and how they prefer to learn. – Algerian interviewee 9 49 Non-glocalized Items coded in this category highlight a hesitation or a resistance to using a glocalized approach. Comments relating to an insistence on using only one type of approach, focusing on one culture, or implementing a top-down hierarchy in the classroom. Yemen No (glocalization isn’t what I do in class) - Yemeni interviewee 6 4 France Not a teacher’s primary job, and not always possible given time constraints [to inform students about what’s happening in the world & make them understand it’s importance] - French interviewee 2 3 Algeria I use authentic materials, including videos and CDs, to make learners listen to native speech, to make them repeat and try to imitate native speakers of English. – Algerian interviewee 10 6