http://www.press.ierek.com ISSN (Print: 2537-0154, online: 2537-0162) International Journal on: The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 50 DOI: 10.21625/archive.6i1.879 Investigation of human-centered transportation (walking and biking) for low-income workers in Kabul, Afghanistan Sayed Nasir Shah1, Yoshitaka Kajita1 1Tokai University Abstract Human-centered transportation (walking and biking) has been the cheapest, healthiest, and most convenient mode of transportation throughout history. In the new global economy, walking and biking have become common modes of transportation for low-income groups of people. Kabul is the biggest city in Afghanistan with scattered space organizations and currently is unfavorable for walking and biking due to insufficient attention to pedestrian and bicycle routes in city planning and poor road network and sidewalk conditions, which are among the issues that affect this 4-5 million population city. The purpose of this research is to analyze the current traffic situation in Kabul and identify the role and share of citizens' use of human-centered transportation (walking and biking) for transportation. This research also aims to investigate the relationship between the economic scope of low-income workers and the use of walking and biking for transportation. The statistical population of the current study was selected from three municipal districts as travel zones. Using cluster sampling, a sample participant of 929 people was obtained. It was observed that in the broad context, due to increasing cost and insufficient public transportation, low-income workers use bicycles and walking as a reliable mode of transportation. Finally, it is suggested that the spatial organization of Kabul is redefined and designed based on the new space organization, and the local organization and formulation of urban transportation strategies in urban strategic plans for pedestrian and bicycle transportation systems are strengthened, especially for roads leading to employment locations. Furthermore, in planning, priority is to be shifted to human-centered transportation (walking and biking). © 2022 The Authors. Published by IEREK press. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of ARChive’s International Scientific Committee of Reviewers. Keywords Pedestrian life; human-centerd transportation; walking and biking; Kabul; low-income workers 1. Introduction Human-centered transportation (walking and biking) has been the cheapest, healthiest, and most convenient mode of transportation. Walking and cycling for daily transportation have more potential than leisure activities for physical activity. Focusing on transportation policies can also reduce air and noise pollution and improve health. Furthermore, increasing walking and cycling in the general population and among groups of interest reduces the cost of daily travel (Racioppi, 2002). Research to date has tended to focus mainly on walkability as being beneficial for health and the environment as it helps reduce many health issues caused by obesity which is the result of an inactive lifestyle (Speck, 2018). Given the potential effects of economic stabilization and social equality that walkable neighbourhoods can provide, it is not surprising that recent studies have shown the resilience of these areas to economic crises (Gilderblooma et al, 2015). http://www.press.ierek.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275114001474#! Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 51 Walking and biking are some of the most widely used modes of transportation for work purposes of low-income workers in the city of Kabul, Afghanistan, even though the roads and pedestrian route conditions are not favourable. Human-centered transport (walking and biking) facilities are not provided in Kabul, and many roads lack sufficient width for safe passage by pedestrians. Consequently, on some roads, pedestrians are using the carriageways, causing conflicts with vehicles (JICA Study team, 2009). This situation reduces the traffic capacity and increases risks to nonmotorized transport as well. Furthermore, road crossing infrastructure including road marking for human-centered transportation (walking and biking) are insufficient. It is very dangerous for pedestrians and bikers to cross roads without such infrastructure, especially on roads with heavy traffic. Despite these problems, to improve walkability in the city, it is necessary to use effective measures and strategies to recover the lost identity of sidewalks and design complete streets. 1.1. Research question -With all the above-mentioned uncertainties in city walkability in Kabul, why is the share of human-centered transportation (walking and biking) relatively high compared to other modes of transportation? -To what extent do low-income workers benefit from the use of walking and biking for transportation? 1.2. Purpose The purpose of this research is to analyze the current traffic situation in Kabul and identify the role and share of citizens' use of human-centered transportation (walking and biking) for transportation. This research also aims to investigate the relationship between the economic scope of low-income workers and the use of walking and biking for transportation. 2. Method Simple statistical analysis was used to show the walkability share in Kabul. In this investigation, we used both qualitative and quantitative methods. We adjusted analyses for the person- and walkability factors associated with low-income workers. 3. Survy data and results The data were collected from a one-day trip survey. Participants (n = 34140), mean age = 33.06 years) resided in 22 municipal districts across Kabul, Afghanistan. The statistical population of the current study was selected from three municipal districts as travel zones. Using cluster sampling, a sample participant of 929 people was obtained. The OD is summarized to that of three transport modes and five trip purposes (Figures 1 and 2). Three transport modes: i) walking, ii) public mode (= bus + taxi), and iii) private mode (car + truck). Five trip purposes: i) to go to work, ii) to school, iii) for business, iv) for private (shopping + others), and v) returning home. We used street interview s to subjectively collect data on Kabul transportation characteristics. We adjusted analyses for the person- and walkability factors associated with the low-income group of workers. Table 1 Transportation modes share Modes Trips Share Modes Trips Share Walking 1347918 28.87% Taxi 467288 10.01% Bike/Bicycle 282319 6.04% PR Cars 709846 15.2% Microbus 1411794 30.24% SH Cars 179074 3.83% Minibus 110693 2.37% Truck 11828 0.25% Bus 147074 3.15% Total 4667834 100 Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 52 Figure 1 Transportation modes share Table 2 Transportation share by pusrpose Purpose Trips Share Purpose Trips Share Work 1675240 35.9% Shopping 178042 3.81% School 374243 8.01% Home Re 2387447 51.14% Business 52862 1.13% Total 4667834 100 Figure 2 Transportaion share by purpose The total number of daily trips in Kabul in 2019 reached 4,667,834, including 1,347,918 on foot trips (by walking and bicycle from origin to destination) and 1,411,794 of those trips was done by micro buses which is counted a s public transportation. In the 2008 calculation, non-motorized trips were higher than other modes of transportation, but in recent years, micro buses had more travel than trips on foot. Travel by other modes, such as bus, minibus, taxi, and private car, also has its share, which is shown in (Tables 3 and 4). Among the purpose of trips, most trips are made for work (35.9%), followed by school (8%), business (1.1%), and shopping (3.8%). 4. Study Area Kabul is situated in the northeastern part of the country, at 1,800 meters above sea level. The city is located between 34˚31ʹ80ʺ N and 69˚10ʹ29ʺ E. It is the largest city in the country with approximately 1,023 KM2area, and the population is estimated at 4.4 million people (Statistical year book of Afghanistan, 2019-2020). The target area of this research consists ofthree districts out of 22 municipal districts of Kabul province. 28.87% 6.04% 30.24% 2.37% 3.15% 10.01% 15.20% 3.83% 0.25% Walking Bike Tonnis Minibus Bus Taxi PR Cars SH Cars Truck 35.90% 8.01% 1.13%3.81% 51.14% Work School Business Shopping Home Return Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 53 In order to facilitate the survey and to effectively analyze the transportation system of Kabul, it was necessary to divide the city into main and sub-zones. The sub-zones are eliminated after the completion of the survey process, and no use is made in the analysis. The geological names of origins and destinations of the trip samples collected through the PT survey were converted into code numbers (coding) to facilitate the data assessment. The district centers were used for zoning within the city. In most societies, sidewalks are the main component of the network of urban and local passages for rest, recreation, and walking of citizens. Unfortunately, in Kabul, sidewalks are considered paralyzed and forgotten places. In urban planning, priority has been given to motorized transportation. Evidence of this claim is the unfavorable physical conditions of streets and sidewalks even in the most important central parts of the capital city of Kabul. These problems are as follows: - Existence of surface differences and physical barriers along the way - Lack of proper urban equipment and furniture - Lack of use of technically appropriate flooring materials on sidewalks and lack of necessary infrastructure - Interference of adjacent business activities to the pedestrian way - Occupation of large parts of sidewalks by shopkeepers - Vehicles parking on the street - Lack of proper bike lanes - Lack of complete streets - Other 5. Analysis According to the one-day trip survey, the trips on foot have the largest share among the other trips within the district. The size of the district is large, and the trip distances between districts tend to be calculated much longer than the actual ones so that no clear relation between the trip distances and the share of trips on foot was observed. Therefore, a model formula for the modal share of trips on foot within the district by purpose is prepared to assume the maximum, as well as the sharing rate for a distance, not less than 10km, will become almost 0% (Figure 3). Pij= 1 1+𝑒(𝑎𝐷𝑖𝑗+𝑏) (Formula by JICA study team, 2018) Where Pij Modal Share Dij Distance between i and j district (km) a, b Parameter Table 3 Parameters of modal choice model Table 4 Mode choice share Purpose a b Work 0.5 0.5322 School 0.5 -1.45 Private 0.5 0.4055 Purpose Walk Share Work 37% School 81% Private 40% Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 54 Figure 3 Modal sharing curve of trips on foot According to (Figure 3), it is observed that distance of travel and modal share have an inverted relation. 6. Results The first set of the analysis shows a significant share of the walking and biking modes of transportation, which consists of 37% altogether. The above share is for all the trip purposes, namely work, school. business, shopping, and home return. The result we are going to present in this research is the use of walking and bicycling for transportation for low-income workers. In order to accurately study citizen traveling patterns within the city, a question was asked from the statistical population to determine their daily travel cost, travel time, and travel distance. The results of which are as follows: Table 5 One day travel outcomes for all purposes 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 P ij Distance(km) Mode Choice Share Work School Private Travel Cost Travel Time Travel Distance Modes Ct. mean SD min max Ct. mean SD min max Ct. mean SD min max Walk 292 0.0 0.0 0 0 165 1.9 2.3 10 18 165 1.9 39.5 4 21 Bike 78 0.0 0.0 0 0 38 3.8 2.8 10 19 38 3.8 32.3 6 14 Microbus 221 31.3 16.8 10 100 126 6.9 4.8 19 30 109 6.9 66.3 4 6 Minibus 33 24.2 10.0 10 60 17 8.2 10.2 40 45 18 8.2 30.2 3 12 Bus 51 26.3 12.3 10 60 37 6.0 3.1 20 36 25 6.0 41.1 8 18 Taxi 86 79.0 41.1 20 220 53 7.5 4.7 20 35 60 7.5 50.4 10 22 Private 125 93.6 43.4 20 450 58 7.8 8.5 30 63 85 7.8 53.1 2 36 Share Car 43 44.4 15.2 20 80 19 5.5 3.4 30 47 29 5.5 31.6 16 24 929 513 529 Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 55 (Table 5) is the result obtained from sample data of 1, 3, and 8 zonal districts that shows count, mean, min, max, and standard deviation of travel cost, travel time, and travel distance from sample participants (n=929). All of the participants declared their travel cost, while 513 declared their travel time and 445 declared travel distance. In the following linear regression, as stated by (Pradip Kumar Sarkar, Vinai Maitri and G.J Joshi, 2015), the relationship between the two variables is modeled by fitting the linear equation of the observed data, one variable as an explanatory variable or is considered an independent variable, and the other that is to be estimated is considered as a dependent variable. Intention is to find out the existence of a relationship between a dependent and independent variable . A simple tool for determining the relationship between two variables is to consider a scatter diagram (Figures 4 and 5). Figure 4 Modal sharing line of trips on foot in respect to distance Figure 5 Modal sharing line of trips on foot in respect to time The above diagrams show the direct relationship between the one-day travel cost of workers concerning their travel distance and one-day travel cost with travel time. The mean scores of one-day travel cost were compared with one- day travel time and one-day travel distance of all modes of transportation to present their correlations. The use of walking and biking modes of transportation are the highest for shorter distances. As the distances get longer, private cars are used to meet daily needs. Non-motorized modes of transportation (walking and biking) also confirm previous statements, with more usage in shorter travel times. In the final analysis of the relationship between the mode share for low-income workers and the high usage of human-centered transportation, according to (Figures 4 and 5), it was observed that in the broad context, due to increasing cost and insufficient public transportation, low-income workers use bicycles and walking as their reliable mode of transportation to a noticeable extent. y = 0.0449x + 4.2724 R² = 0.4877 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 T ra v e l D is ta n c e /K M Travel Cost(Mean)/Afn 1Afn=0.014USD 1Day Travel Distance 1Day Travel Distance Linear (1Day Travel Distance) y = 0.1499x + 58.51 R² = 0.3017 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 T ra v e l T im e /M in Travel Cost(Mean)/Afn 1Afn=0.014USD 1day Travel Time 1day Travel Time Linear (1day Travel Time) Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 56 7. Share of transportation mode by trip distance The trip distance discussed here means the shortest distance between gravity centers of districts measured along the trunk road networks. Therefore, it should be noted that the trip distance within the district is unclear, the distance measured along the trunk road may not be the shortest route, and the trip distances for the inhabitants living far from the gravity center may be longer than actual trip distances. The share of trips on foot within the district, at 61%, is the highest. The average distance of trips on foot is 2.9 km (Figure 6 and Table 6). Table 6 Transportation modes share in respect to trip distances Distance Trips (trips/day) Share Walk Public transport Private transport Total Walk Public transport Private transport Intra District 1093300 533797 285685 1992408 55 27 14 0-2 21777 62724 56247 134493 16 47 42 2-4 7148 54313 30592 88284 8 62 35 4-6 42499 269558 89382 393703 11 68 23 6-8 63277 324066 126076 502441 13 64 25 8-10 53371 303420 109067 456388 12 66 24 10-12 15178 200909 73924 281212 5 71 26 12-14 13312 176204 64833 246631 5 71 26 14-16 25015 108650 43611 173801 14 63 25 16-18 14133 81548 27438 120857 12 67 23 18-20 1141 25167 6061 31704 4 79 19 20-22 6129 37746 14246 56776 11 66 25 22-24 5847 41279 20194 65001 9 64 31 24-26 5112 29064 10447 43717 12 66 24 26-28 5681 22283 7547 35087 16 64 22 28-30 2801 12553 4418 19462 14 64 23 30-32 3113 9210 3571 15731 20 59 23 32-34 254 213 139 613 41 35 23 34-36 163 1551 87 1817 9 85 5 36-38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38-40 1120 2710 973 4791 23 57 20 40-42 136 181 21 351 39 52 6 42-44 396 786 631 1760 22 45 36 44-46 217 432 154 806 27 54 19 46- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 1347918 2315923 1003993 4667834 29% 49% 22% Avg. length 2.9 km 8.3 km 7.3 km 6.4 km - - - Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 57 Figure 6 Share of transportation mode by trip distance The number of people using public transportation tends to increase when the trip distance exceeds two km and shares not less than 60% in most of the ranges. The average trip distance of public transport users is 8.3 km. The number of private transport mode users also tends to increase when the trip distance exceeds two km and shares around 20% in most of the ranges. The average trip distance by private transport is 7.3 km, which is shorter than that of public transport. The shares of each transport mode are almost constant in most of the ranges except for the trips within the district. This is because most of the trips are concentrated in the center of Kabul regardless of trip distance (whether from districts close to or far from the center). 8. Modal split by purpose The share of public transportation for commuting to work purposes is 60%, which is the highest, followed by private transport modes, such as passenger cars, motor bikes, etc. (Figure 7). Trips-on-foot shares 62% for the way to schools, followed by the trips with public transport sharing 29%. For business trips, the share of trips on foot was smaller compared to other purposes, and the share of private transport modes is higher instead. The share of public transport is high for the trips of private purpose, such as shopping, compared to other purposes. Table 7 One day mode split by purpose Figure 7 one day modal split by purpose of trip 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 T R IP S /D A Y KM Walk Public transport Private transport Walk Public transport Private transport Total Work 234534 1005144 435562 1675240 14.00% 60.00% 26.00% - School 232405 108156 33682 374243 62.10% 28.90% 9.00% - Business 3859 32352 16652 52862 7.30% 61.20% 31.50% - Private 23324 131573 23145 178042 13.10% 73.90% 13.00% - Home 809345 1172236 405866 2387447 33.90% 49.10% 17.00% - Total 1347918 2315923 1003993 4667834 28.89% 49.6 21.51% - 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Walk Public transport Private transport Shah/ The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 58 9. Conclusion The purpose of this study is to determine the limits of the use of walking and biking for transportation forlow-income workers in Kabul Afghanistan. It was also shown that human-centered transportation (walking and biking) was mainly used for intra zonal (district) trips because of the lack of proper zonal connectivity and walking and biking facilities. Although the current study is based on a small sample of participants, the findings suggest the investigation can be broadened to cover all 22 zonal districts to obtain more precise findings. Finally, it is suggested that the spatial organization of Kabul is redefined and designed based on the new space organization, and the local organization and formulation of urban transportation strategies in urban strategic plans for pedestrian and bicycle transportation systems are strengthened, especially for roads leading to employment locations. Furthermore, in planning, priority is to be shifted to human-centered transportation (walking and biking). References Francesca Racioppi, World Health Organization, (2002), A PHYSICALLY ACTIVE LIFE THROUGH EVERYDAY TRANSPORT WITH A SPECIAL FOCUS ON CHILDREN AND OLDER PEOPLE AND EXAMPLES AND APPROACHES FROM EUROPE, Rome. Jeff Speck, (2018). Walkable city rules, 101steps to making better places, Washington DC: Island Press, 2000 M Steet NW Suite 650 Washington DC 20063. John I.Gilderblooma et al (2015). Does walkability matter? An examination of walkability’s impact on housing values, foreclosures and crime. Elsevier Ltd. Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA) Study Team(2009). The Study For The Development of the Master Plan for Kabul Met ropolitan Area in The Islamic Republich of Afghanistan: SECTOR REPORT 8: TRANSPORTATION, Kabul-Afghanistan: RECS International Inc. Yachiyo Engineering CO, Ltd. CTI Engineering International CO, Ltd. Sanyu Consultants Inc. Pradep Kumar Sarkar, Vinay Maitri, G.J. Joshi, (2015). TRANSPORTATION PLANNING: Principles, Practices and Policies. Delhi-110092: PHI Learning Private Limited. National Statistics and Information Authority, (2021). Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook 2020: Issue No. 42. Kabul - Afghanistan: NSIA. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275114001474#!