http://www.press.ierek.com ISSN (Print: 2537-0154, online: 2537-0162) The Academic Research Community Publication pg. 1 Research paper Received: 13 June 2023, Accepted: 17 July 2023, Published online: 31 July 2023 DOI: 10.21625/archive.v7i2.964 Tourism in a Unique Destination: Case study Antarctica Pelagia Moloni MSc Student at University of Thessaly, Greece Email: peggy.moloni@gmail.com Abstract Tourism in Anta rctica ha s been dyna mica lly developed in recent deca des, a lthough it is loca ted in a sma ll geogra phica l pa rt of the continent. The ma in rea son tha t visitors pla n a trip to the destina tion when the opportunity is given is the na tura l la ndsca pe a nd wildlife. In a ddition, the overhea ting of the pla net tha t ca uses ice to melt ha s enha nced the feeling of fea r, a s there is severe environmenta l concern for the coming yea rs. Spa ce a nd sea sonal exclusions ma ke it even more specia l, a nd the tourist product tha t is offered by this continent is expensive a nd requires a lot of prepa ra tion. Tourism a ctivity in such a fra gile environment ha s spa rked severa l rea ctions in the pa st, ma inly from the scientific comm unity, which is the ma in recipient of the nega tive effects of tourism. Furthermore, orga nized efforts ha ve been ma de so tha t the offered product will promote more environmenta lly friendly trips tha t will a ffect the ecosystem a s little a s possible. The ma in objective of this resea rch is to a na lyze this kind of tourism beca use of the need for new forms. The positive a nd nega tive impa cts that tourism ca n have on the environment and the sta tistics on the a rriva ls a nd countries of origin of tourists in recent yea rs a re a na lyzed. Moreover, the tourist pa cka ges tha t seem to be in the grea test dema nd a mong visitors a re presented. The ma in resea rch question of this pa per is whether this destina tion ca n host intense tourism a ctivity. Following a n extensive bibliogra phic review, the resea rch ma kes it clea r tha t the study a rea ca nnot support strong tourism a ctivity, even though future tourism foreca sts report a n a dditiona l increa se in a rriva ls. © 2023 The Authors. Published by IEREK Press. This is a n open a ccess a rticle under the CC BY license (https://crea tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). Keywords Antarctica, last chance tourism, exped ition cruises, ecosystem 1. Introduction When it comes to Anta rctic tourism, it is a ra ther recent phenomenon that ta kes pla ce under certa in circumsta nces. Two of the ma in rea sons for this destina tion’s footfall a re its unique la ndsca pe a nd wild life. Firstly, due to its loca tion a nd extreme clima te, the la ndsca pe is enveloped in mystery, enticing ma ny visitors to explore it (Ba uer, 2013). Moreover, Anta rctica is home to a siza ble fa una (a lba trosses, penguins, wha les, etc.) tha t provides a n element of intrigue for visitors, a s well a s va rious kinds of invertebra tes, dra wing the a ttention of ecologists a nd resea rchers (World Tra vel Guide, 2017). Therefore, visita tion motives correspond to a ra nge of visitors’ needs, a nd the a rea ’s unique a ttributes reinforce their desire to tra vel to Anta rctica . Beside the rea sons behind one’s wish to tra vel to Anta rctica a nd the trends influenced by consumers’ emerging needs, protecting the fra gile na tura l environment of the a rea is pa ra mount, a s is ma king sure tha t a ny a ctivities held there ha ve the sma llest possible footprint (Ma son a nd Legg, 1999). Severa l orga niza tions ha ve been founded a nd deployed http://www.press.ierek.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 2 to this end, while the Protocol on Environmenta l Protection, or Ma drid Protocol of the Anta rctic Trea ty System ha s been in pla ce since 1998 - na mely, the ma in body for biodiversity conserva tion a nd ma nagement, regula ting, a mong others, tourist a ctivity in the a rea (Anta rctic Trea ty, 2023). This a rea wa s selected due to its increa sing tourist demand despite its "fra gility", which intrigues ma ny resea rchers. The resea rch questions the present pa per seeks to a nswer a re the following: Wha t is the environmenta l impa ct of tourist a ctivity in Anta rctica ? -Is intense tourist a ctivity possible in such a pa rticula r a nd eco -sensitive destina tion? 2. Literature Review Technologica l a dva ncements, increa sed leisure time, new socia l a nd consumption sta ndards, a nd the shift towa rds tra ditiona l life a nd na ture, coupled with the pursuit of a n a lterna tive lifestyle, a re the pivota l fa ctors contribu ting to the development of specia l forms of tourism (Kokkosis et a l., 2011). The la tter lea d to the emergence of new destina tions a nd experiences, a s well a s new tourist dema nds (George et a l., 2009). Tourism in very pa rticula r destina tions is a ca tegory of specia l forms of tourism a nd is comprised by people or groups wishing to explore a destina tion tha t is rela tively ha rd to a ccess a nd demonstra tes severa l pa rticula rities (Lee a nd Ba i, 2016). This genre wa s crea ted by the desire of potentia l visitors to p a rta ke in a n a ctivity or their interest in a n a rea or destina tion (Dougla s a nd Derret, 2001). Tourists who choose to visit a pa rticula r destina tion a re a ra ther niche ma rket, a s they a re interested not just in the a rea but a lso in the broa der experience (R itticha inuwa t, 2018).Tourist Activity a nd the Anta rctic 2.1.1 Origins and historical context During the 1950s, ships a rriving from Argentina a nd Chile brought pa ssengers to the South Shetla nd Isla nds, their number exceeding 500. In 1966, businessma n La rs-Eric Lindbla d sta rted emba rking on explora tion voya ges, which a lso ha d a n educa tiona l function, with a group of tourists (Pa lmowski, 2020). Cruise tourism bega n in 1969 with Lindbla d Explore, which wa s exclusively designed to tra nsport tourists to Anta rctic a (Hea dla nd, 2009). The colla pse of the Soviet Union boosted cruise tourism a s icebrea kers a nd specia l Soviet Na vy ships were cha rtered to releva nt compa nies (Molena a r, 2005). The periods 2006 -2007 a nd 2008-2009, Golden a nd Sta r Princess a rrived in Anta rct ica respectively, ca rrying 3,700 pa ssengers. The a via tion industry took off in 1957 with Pa n America n World Airwa ys a nd the first tourist flight to the a rea ’s ma inla nd, while in 1959 Linea Aerea Na ciona l ca rried 66 pa ssengers to the South Shetla nd Isla nds. In 1977, Austra lia a nd New Zea la nd opera ted short overflights over Anta rctica (Ba uer, 2007). More frequent flights bega n in the 1980s by Chilea n Air to King George Isla nd. Flights for the rest of the a ccessible ma inla nd a rea s of Anta rctica bega n a t the end of the sa me deca de by Adventure Network Interna tional (Hea dla nd, 2009). Toda y, the la rgest pa rt of tourist expeditions to Anta rctica a re ca rried out by sea (Anta rctica flights, 2022). 2.1.2 Last chance tourism One of the gra vest consequences of clima te cha nge is the melting of ice sheets, ca using sea levels to rise, a long with fea rs for the future sinking of isla nds. This dra ws visitors to destina tions such a s Anta rctica , Greenla nd, Ala ska , and Tuva lu, a s people wa nt to see them before they va nish (Eijgela a r et a l., 2010). This kind of tourism ha s been hea vily criticized a nd ha s been la beled "clima te tourism", "extinction tourism", "disa ster tourism", "clima te sightseeing," and "clima te disa ster tourism" (Lea hy 2008, Sa lkin 2007, Gra s-Dijkstra 2009). According to Stewa rt et a l. (2009), "la st cha nce tourism" wa s first used a s a term to describe the increa sing tourist dema nd for the gla ciers. Some opera tors ha ve a cknowledged the potentia l impa ct of tourist a ctivity on the fra gile environment of these destina tions; however, others consider it a n opportunity to ra ise a wa reness. Specifica lly, the Anta rctic a nd Arctic regions ha ve become more a ccessible due to clima te cha nge, a s melting ice a llows tourists to put some a rea s, now a ccessible by cruise liners, on their destina tion lists (Gossling a nd Ha ll, 2005). The visitors’ motiva tion to tra vel there is to experience na ture, to explore, to lea rn, to ha ve a n a dventure, a nd to a sma ller degree, to rela x (Eijgela a r et a l., 2010). Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 3 2.1.3 Expedition cruises Cruise tourism is one of the ma in forms of specia l tourism a nd conta ins va rious sub -ca tegories. According to Dia komiha lis (2009: 147), cruise tourism combines tra nsporta tion, F&B services, culture, leisure tourism, and enterta inment on boa rd in just one voya ge. Specia l expedition cruises is a subca tegory of cruise tourism; this genre is ca rried out ma inly in a rea s like Ala ska , Anta rctica a nd North Pole, which is why a lot of people ca ll them "a dventure cruises" (Should be cruising, 2022). This pa rticula r subca tegory involves sma ller vessels (20 to 500-pa ssenger ca pa city), most of which a re designed to wea ther the pa rticula r conditions of the a rea . Their sma ll size a llows them to rea ch a rea s impossible to a ccess by la rger cruise liners. Even though a ny tourist a ctivity im pa cts the host a rea in some wa y, this type of tra vel ha s a minima l environmenta l footprint. Moreover, higher susta ina bility is a chieved when tra velers a re required to a ttend semina rs a nd expert round ta bles during their trip. 2.2 Statistical data Arriva ls in Anta rctica ha ve been increa sing over the yea rs. The period 1989 –1990 sa w the visitors rea ch 2,500, while a ccording to Figure 1, in 2008–2009, tourist a rriva ls rose to 37,000 a nd in 2019 –2020, they exceeded 74,000 (IAATO, 2020). This percenta ge is expected to increa se in the following yea rs, even though it ca me to a ha lt due to the COVID- 19 pa ndemic. It is worth mentioning tha t in 2020, tourism in the a rea wa s not significa ntly impa cted, a s the tourist sea son la sts up until Februa ry. Figure 1: Progression of arrivals over time Rega rding visitor profiles, in the ea rly 2000s, Anta rctica ’s tourist ma rket wa s prima rily North America n, Austra lia n, a nd Europea n (Ba uer, 2001). As seen in Figure 2, this rema ins rela tively cons istent in the tourist period 2019 –2020, except for the a ddition of China , which follows the USA a t the top. Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 4 Figure 2: Visitors’ origin countries for 2019 -2020 3. Methodology The present study is a combina tion of methodologica l a pproa ches, na mely a ca se study a nd content a na lysis. Specifica lly, the method used wa s seconda ry resea rch for the theoretica l fra mework a nd the ca se study, a s the la tter wa s ba sed on obta ined informa tion a nd third -pa rty sources, such a s books, scientific a rticles, a nd sta tistics. Through the litera ture review, we try to a nswer the a forementioned resea rch questions ba sed on a critica l a na lysis of existing published work (litera ture reviews, empirica l, a nd theoretica l resea rch). 4. Results In 1991, IAATO (Interna tiona l Associa tion of Anta rctica Tour Opera tors) wa s founded a s a membership orga niza tion promoting eco-friendly tourism through guidelines. This orga niza tion a dvocates responsible tra vel to Anta rctica with a minima l or zero footprint, a nd it ha s put in pla ce a series of mea sures a ll visitors a re obliga ted to conform to. Those tra veling by ship ha ve to pa rticipa te in educa tiona l semina rs on the rules a pplied on la nd a s well a s the dista nce they ha ve to keep from the loca l fa una . Moreover, a limit ha s been imposed on the number of pa ssengers a nd the dura tion of visits; the consumption of food a nd a lcohol, a s well a s smoking ha ve a lso been forbidden. During breeding sea sons, some a rea s a re off-limits. Toda y, they coopera te with more tha n 100 m embers, including governments, scientists, tra vel a gencies, compa nies, a nd NGOs (IAATO, 2022). Regula r monitoring is ca rried out, which ena bles a thorough a ssessment of the impa ct of tourist a ctivity (Fra me et a l., 2021). 4.1 Positive impact Though the environment is the ma in receiver of touristic a ctivity, there a re other benefits from Anta rctic tra vel which, a s we sha ll see, a re long-term. According to Powell et a l. (2008), tourists who visited Anta rctica sa w a n improvement in their environmenta l a ttitudes a s they beca me more a wa re of environmenta l protection a nd were informed on releva nt issues. Therefore, IAATO’s initia l objective is a chieved; visitors return home a s a dvoca tes of Anta rctic ecology. Moreover, a la rge number of these visitors become more interested in environmenta l protection a nd na tural resource conserva tion in their da y -to-da y lives. The a forementioned resea rch showed tha t, a fter ta king a n Anta rctic trip, visitors a ctively pa rticipa te in cha rity events rega rding environmenta l protection a nd conserva tion in genera l. Toda y, experts cla im tha t we must prioritize the ma ximiza tion of positive impa ct a nd develop methods to turn Anta rctic tourists to a dvocates of Anta rctic conserva tion (Zeppel a nd Muloin 2008, Alexa nder et a l. 2020). According to Snyder (2007:5), tourism ca n be used to not only turn visitors into ‘a mba ssa dors’ for the protection of the visited regions but a lso into supporters of conserva tion a ctivities a nd orga niza tions worldwide . Properly educa ting visitors on ecologica l ma tters ca n convey the importa nce of the a rea for the la rger ecosystem. Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 5 4.2 Negative impact Concerns a rise from the growing sca le of tourist a ctivity a nd its future consequences. Ma ny ha ve deemed decision - ma king a nd implementation to be ra ther wea k, a s ma ny of the regula tions a re not lega lly binding (Enzenba cher, 2007). Visitors unintentiona lly bring in ba cteria , which destroy the a rea ’s ecologica l equilibrium (Huiskes et a l., 2014). Moreover, tourist a ctivities a ffect the lives of orga nisms, seeing tha t quite oft en the breeding period coincides with the a rriva l of tourists; thus, their popula tions a re diminishing (Lea per a nd Miller 2011, Ba rbosa et a l. 2021). Rega rding a ir tra vel, the increa se in the frequency of routes due to increa sed dema nd, the cruise lines’ d etermina tion to obtain a ccess to ever more a rea s, a s well a s globa l issues such a s clima te cha nge a nd pollution, give rise to growing fea rs, a s future consequences ha ve not been studied extensively in recent yea rs (Lei et a l. 2020, Tejedo et a l. 2022). Fin a lly, there a re ma jor concerns rega rding the prospective dema nd for construction in the a rea , which will lea d to the deteriora tion of the na tura l la ndsca pe (Liggett et a l., 2011). 4.3 Tourist product Tourist a ctivities ta ke pla ce from November to Februa ry, since the rest of the yea r the a rea is ina ccessible by ship due to sea ice (Verbitsky, 2014). Anta rctica is not a n ea sily a ccessible destina tion, which is why the sca le of tourism there is sma ll in rela tion to the size of the continent a nd touristic a ctiv ities a re concentra ted in specific loca tions (Vila et a l., 2016). Arctic tourism requires extensive prepa ra tion, like specia l permits, proper clothing, experienced sta ff, and logistica l support, a s a ny kind of oversight or wea ther cha nge ca n result in the trip being ca ncelled. Tourist a ctivities a re concentra ted on the Anta rctic Peninsula a nd the isla nds off the western coa st (Neuma nn, 2020). 98% of the services provided to visitors a re different kinds of cruises. They va ry in dura tion, level of comfort, and a ccessibility, while their ra nge of a ctivities is a lso empha sized (Figure 1). Certa in cruises provide semina rs by experts, while others provide a ccess to ha rd -to-rea ch a rea s (Anta rctic Trea ty Consulta tive Meeting, 2022). Cruises a board sma ll or medium -size vessels provide a ctivities such a s scuba diving, wa ter skiing, ra fting, a nd ca mping, while la rger cruises provide la ndsca pe views from the deck or the coa st. Ships opera ting in the a rea a re ca tegorized a s follows (Pa lmowski, 2009): -YA: 12-pa ssenger ya chts -C1 cla ss 1: 13 to 200-pa ssenger ships -C1 cla ss 2: 201 to 500-pa ssenger ships -CR: Vessels with a ca pa city of more tha n 500 pa ssengers Table 1: Tourist activities 2018-2019 Table 1: Tourist activities 2018-2019 Column A (t) Tourist activity Percentage Driving Small Boats/Zodiacs 41.6% Small boat cruise 25% Ship Cruise 18.1% Rafting 3.4% Exploring 2.9% Pollar Plung 1.2% Snowshoeing 0.9% Hiking 0.7% Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 6 Water skiing 0.6% Camping 0.6% Scuba Diving 0.4% Bird Watching 0.4% Other 2.1% Total 100% Source: Antarctica Tourism (2020), Processed by researcher Trips to Anta rctica usua lly la st 8 –25 da ys, a nd the cost va ries from €4,500 to €20,000. The most commonly used ports of depa rture a re those in Buenos Aires a nd Ushua ia in Argentina a n d in Punta Arena s in Chile. In recent yea rs, the India n tourist ma rket ha s selected this a rea a s a honeymoon destina tion. The top two tourist pa cka ges a re the Anta rctic Explorer: Discovering the 7th Continent a nd the South Georgia a nd Anta rctic Peninsula : Penguin Sa fa ri, la sting 11 a nd 16 da ys, respectively. Both trips sha re the element of educa tiona l a ctivities on boa rd (semina rs and presenta tions by experts) a s well a s the observa tion of ra re a nima l species from a sa fe dista nce (Qua rk Expeditions, 2022). 5. Conclusions Anta rctic tourism ha s been severely criticized, ma inly by the scientific community, since it used to be one of the few pla ces on ea rth still inta ct. Toda y, the a rea presently studied ha s lost this element, a s more a nd more tourists ha d been visiting it every yea r up until the outbrea k of COVID-19. Tourism in this a rea is highly sea sona l a nd concentra ted in more ea sily a ccessible a rea s with unique na tura l a nd historica l a ttributes. It is estima ted a t less tha n 0.5% of the continent, ma inly a round the Anta rctic Peninsula . The a rea ’s uniqueness ma kes it increa singly enticing to tourist ma rkets, which is why tourism there is continuously growing. One of the most serious modern cha llenges Anta rctica fa ces is effective tourism development pla nning a nd the comprehensive monitoring of tourist tra ffic. The studied a rea ca nnot support intense tourist a ctivity. Knowledge on tourism’s impa ct is stea dily growing, but the qua ntifica tion of its contribution rema ins la rgely unknown. The precise determina tion of t he impa ct of tourism on the a rea is a n a mbitious a nd complex endea vor. It requires a n a pproa ch combining long-term impa ct monitoring and short-term experimenta l studies to detect a ny nega tive impa ct of Anta rctic tourism. Uncontrolla ble tourism growth ca n ha ve irreversible effects on the environment. However, it is ra ther optimistic tha t ma ny measures ta ken to restrict huma n a ctivity a re now policy -oriented a nd therefore ma nda tory. Monitoring tourism is of vita l importa nce for the continent. IAATO a nd the ot her orga niza tions a nd tra vel a gencies it works with a re ma king a n effort to promote pa ckages with ever-lower environmenta l impa cts through the mea sures they implement. The Atla ntic Trea ty is dedica ted to the protection of the environment a nd science. Educa tion is a prerequisite for a ny a nd every visit, tha nks to IAATO’s work. Informed tra vel contributes to a deeper understa nding of the objective, the need, a nd the responsibility of tourism for the continent’s protection. This is why the a ctivities provided a re designed to impa ct the loca l fa una a s little a s possible, a nd a ccess to high reproduction ra tes is not a llowed. 6. Discussion In recent yea rs, significa nt progress ha s been ma de in understa nding the environmenta l impa cts of Anta rctic tourism, which is la rgely reflected in the mea sures tha t ha ve been implemented. However, it seems tha t a ll a ccessible a reas a re a la nding point for visitors. An exception is the ina ccessible South Georgia Isla nd, where it is the most breeding a rea , most species a re found there, a nd monitoring is done remotely. It is proposed to a dopt simila r policies in other a rea s, especia lly during breeding sea sons. According to IAATO (2023), more tha n 50 cruise ships a re a pproved to sa il in Anta rctica for the 2022–2023 sea son. This ra nges from expedition ships to ocea n ships from ma instrea m cruise Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 7 lines tha t opera te scenic cruising a long the Anta rctic Peninsula . Therefore, the number of ships tha t ca n visit the a rea is controlled every yea r in order to protect a nd preserve it. The present res ea rch does not propose a limita tion on the number of these but a limita tion on their size, a s until toda y it seems tha t a ll ca tegories of ships tha t visit Anta rctica ca n a pproa ch a t close ra nge. As a consequence, it is considered necessa ry to limit the la rge ships to a sa fe dista nce a nd to tra nsport visitors inla nd with sma ller ones. Huma n a ctivities in Anta rctica were increa sing before the onset of the COVID-19 pa ndemic, a nd tourism wa s no exception. Furthermore, the pa ndemic due to the tempora ry suspension of resea rch a nd tourism a ctivities, crea ted an opportunity to re-eva lua te the tourism a ctivity a nd exa mine the tourism pressure, something tha t unfortunately did not ha ppen. However, it seems tha t the return of tourist a ctivity did not ha ve cha n ges in terms of observing the mea sures a nd restrictions with the pre-pa ndemic period. Toda y, further scientific resea rch on the effects of tourist a ctivity in the study a rea is deemed necessa ry a s its qua ntifica tion rema ins unknown. Acknowledgments Not a pplica ble. Funding This resea rch did not receive a ny specific gra nts from funding a gencies in the public, commercia l, or not -for-profit sectors/individua ls. Ethics approval Not a pplica ble. Conflict of interest The a uthor decla re no conflict of interst. References Alexander, K.A., Liggett, D., Leane, E., Nielsen, H.E.F., Bailey, J.L, Brasier, M.J., Haward, M. (2020). What and who is an Antarctic ambassador? Polar record. 55(6) 497 -506. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247420000194 Antarctica flights, (2022) Learn more about Antarctica Retrieved from: https://www.antarcticaflights.com.au/learn-more [Access on: 20/4/2022] Antarctica Tourism, (2020) Antarctica Tourism – Human Impacts Threats to the Environment. Retrieved from: https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_tourism.php . [Access on: 10/4/2022] Antarctica Treaty, (2023). The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved from: https://www.ats.aq/e/protocol.html [Access on: 29/3/2023] Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, (2022) ATCM and other meetings. Retrieved from: https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html. [Access on: 5/5/2022] Barbosa, A., Varsani, A., Morandini, V., Grimaldi, W., Vanstreels, R.E., Diaz, J.I., Boulinier, T ., Dewar, M., Gray, R., McMahon, C.R., Miller, G., Power, M., Gamble, A., Wille, M. (2021). Risk assessment of SARS-COV-2 in Antarctic wildlife. Science of the Total Environment. 755(2) 143352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143352 Bauer, T. (2001). Tourism in the Antarctic: Opportunities. Constraints and Future Prospects. 1st edition. Lo ndon: Routledge. Bauer, T., Dowling, D. (2007). Issues in Antarctica. Ecotourism Policy and Planning. CABI Publishing. Bauer, T. (2013). Tourism in the Antarctic: Opportunities, Constraints and Future Prospects. New York: Haworth Hospitality Pr ess. Diakomixalis, M. (2009). Maritime Tourism and economic impact. Athens: Stamouli [in Greek] Douglas, N., Derrett, R. (2001). Special Interest tourism: context and cases. Tourism Management. 23(5) 568 -570. https://doi.org/10.3727/154427304774865841 Eijgelaar, Ε., Thaper, C., Peeters, P. (2010). Antarctic cruise tourism: The paradoxes of ambassadorship, ‘last chance’ touri sm and greenhouse gas emissions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 18(3) 337-354. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669581003653534 Enzenbacher, D. (2007) Antarctic Tourism Policy-making: Current Challenges and Future Prospects. London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law. Frame, B., Liggett, D., Lindstrom, K., Roura, R., Watt, L.M (2021). Tourism and heritage in Antarctica: exploring cultural, natural and subliminal experiences. Polar Geography 45(1) 37 -57. https://doi.org/10.1080/1088937X.2021.1918787 George, E. W., Mair, H., Reid, D. G. (2009). Rural Tourism Development Localism and Cultural Change. UK: Channel View Publications. Gossling, S., Hall, M. (2005). Tourism and Global Environmental Change. 1st Edition London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247420000194 https://www.antarcticaflights.com.au/learn-more https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_tourism.php https://www.ats.aq/e/protocol.html https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143352 https://doi.org/10.3727/154427304774865841 https://doi.org/10.1080/09669581003653534 https://doi.org/10.1080/1088937X.2021.1918787 Moloni / The Aca demic Resea rch Community Publica tion pg. 8 Gras-Dijkstra, S. (2009). Values in tourism: An itinerary to tourism ethics. The Netherlands: ToerBoek Headland, R.K (2009). A chronology of Antarctic exploitation. A Synopsis of Events and Activities from the Earliest Times until the International Polar Years. London: Bernard Quaritch. Huiskes, A., Gremmen, N.J.M., Bergstrom, D., Frenot, Y., Hughes, K.A., Imura, S., Kiefer, K., Lebouvier, M ., Lee, J.E., Tsujimoto, M., Ware, C., Chown, S.L. (2014). Aliens in Antarctic: Assessing Transfer of Plant Propagules by Human Visitors to reduce invasion Risk. Biological Conservation. Vol. 171 278 -284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.01.038 IAATO, (2022) Our mission. Retrieved from: https://iaato.org/about-iaato/our-mission/. [Access on: 29/6/2022] IAATO, (2022) Visitor Statistics Downloads. Retrieved from: https://iaato.org/information-resources/data-statistics/visitor-statistics/visitor- statistics-downloads/. [Access on: 24/4/2022] Kokkosis, C., Tsartas, P., Griba, E. (2011). Special and alternative forms of Tourism. Demand and Supply of new Tourism Products. Athens: Kritiki [in Greek] Leahy, S. (2008). Extinction Tourism – See it now before its gown. Published: 18/01/2008. Leaper, R., Miller, C. (2011). Management of Antarctic baleen whales amid past exploitation, current threats and complex marine ecosystems. Antarctic Science. 23(6) 503 -529. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102011000708 Lee, S., Bai, B. (2016). Influence of popular culture on special interest tourists destination image. Tourism Management. Vol . 52 161-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.019 Lei, J., Zhao, L., Chen, D. (2020). Antarctic Tourism Case Study. Modern economy 11(8) 245 -251. 10.4236/me.2020.118106 Liggett, D., Mcintosh, A., Thompson, A., Gilbert, N., Storey, B. (2011). From frozen continent to tourism hotspot? Five decad es of Antarctic Tourism Development and Management and a Glimpse into the f uture. Tourism Management. Vol. 32 357 -366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.03.005 Mason, P., Legg, S. (1999). Antarctic tourism: Activities, impacts, management issues and a proposed research agenda. Pacific Tourism Review. 3(1) 71-84. Molenaar, K.R. (2005). Programmatic Cost Risk Analysis for Highway Megaprojects. Journal of Engineering and Management. 131(3) 343. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733 -9364(2005)131:3(343) Neumann, A. (2020). Wilderness Protection in Polar Regions – Arctic Lessons learnt for the Regulation and Management of Tourism in the Antarctic. Studies in Polar Law. Vol.2 71 -183. https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2021.1911764 Palmowski, T. (2020). Development of Antarctic Tourism, GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites. 33(4) 1520 -1526. 10.30892/gtg.334spl11-602 Powell, R., Kellert, S., Ham, S. (2008). Antarctic Tourists: Ambassadors or Consumers? The Polar record. Vol.44 233 -241. 10.1017/S0032247408007456 Quark Expeditions, (2022) Antarctic explorer: Discovering the 7th Continent. Retrieved from: https://www.quarkexpeditions.com/expeditions/antarctic -explorer-discovering-the-7th-continent. [Access on 4/5/2022] Quark Expeditions, (2022) South Georgia and Antarctic Peninsula: Penguin Safari. Retrieved from: https://www.quarkexpeditions.com/expeditions/south -georgia-and-antarctic-peninsula-penguin-safari. [Access on: 4/5/2022] Salkin, A. (2007). Tourism of doom on rise. The New York Times. Should be cruising, (2022) What is an Expedition Cruise (and Why You Should Consider One) Retrieved from: https://shouldbecruising.com/2020/09/14/what-is-an-expedition-cruise/. [Access on 4/5/2022] Snyder, J. (2007). Prospects for Polar Tourism. CABI Publishing. Stewart, E., Kirby, V., Steel, G. (2006). Perceptions of Antarctic tourism: A question of tolerance. Landscape Research. 31(3 ) 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426390600783111 Tejedo, P., Benayas, J., Cajiao, D., Leung, Y.F., De Filippo, D., Liggett, D. (2022). What are the real environmental impa cts of Antarctic tourism? Unveiling their importance through a comprehensive meta -analysis. Journal of Enviromental Management. Vol. 308 1 -16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114634 Rittichainuwat, Β. Ν. (2018). Special Interest Tourism. 3rd Edition Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Verbitsky, J. (2014). Antarctic tourism management and regulation: the need for change. Polar Record. 49(3) 278 -285. 10.1017/S003224741200071X Vila, M., Costa, G., Angulo -Preckler, C., Sarda, R., Avila, C. (2016). Contrasting views on Antarctic tourism: ‘last chance tourism’ or ‘ambassadorship’ in the last of the wild. Science Directs. 111(3) 451 -460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.12.061 World Travel Guide, (2017) Antarctica Travel Guide. Retrieved from: https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/antarctica/antarctica/. [Access on 10/5/2022] Zeppel, H., Muloin, S. (2008). Conservation benefits of interpretation on Marine Wildlife Tours. Human Dimensions of Wildlife . Vol. 13 280- 294. 10.3727/154427308787716802 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.01.038 https://iaato.org/about-iaato/our-mission/ https://iaato.org/information-resources/data-statistics/visitor-statistics/visitor-statistics-downloads/ https://iaato.org/information-resources/data-statistics/visitor-statistics/visitor-statistics-downloads/ https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102011000708 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.019 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/me.2020.118106 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.03.005 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2005)131:3(343) https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2021.1911764 http://dx.doi.org/10.30892/gtg.334spl11-602 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0032247408007456 https://www.quarkexpeditions.com/expeditions/antarctic-explorer-discovering-the-7th-continent https://www.quarkexpeditions.com/expeditions/south-georgia-and-antarctic-peninsula-penguin-safari https://shouldbecruising.com/2020/09/14/what-is-an-expedition-cruise/ https://doi.org/10.1080/01426390600783111 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114634 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003224741200071X https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.12.061 https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/antarctica/antarctica/ http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/154427308787716802