





































ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 

A SYSTEMATIC LITERA-

TURE REVIEW ON THE IN-

TERSECTION OF EXPERIEN-

TIAL AND MULTIMEDIA 

LEARNING WITH VIRTUAL 

REALITY AND ITS IMPLICA-

TIONS 
 

RUT MEHTA, CLAUDIA SANTACRUZ, BRIANNA LISCHY 

 

✵ ABSTRACT 
This literature review examines the current 

literature and research surrounding the foundations 

and applications of experiential and multimedia 

learning in virtual reality environments. Eleven in-

sightful research papers are discussed, detailing the 

efforts and results of multimedia learning and expe-

riential learning in virtual reality independently, not 

combined. The literature, and consequently the lit-

erature review, heavily pulls from Kolb’s Experiential 

Learning model and Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of 

Multimedia Learning. We find a general trend sug-

gesting the efficacy of creating experiential learn-

ing-based lessons and the efficacy of multimedia 

learning formats. However, based on the literature, 

combining these two theories and techniques may 

result in higher student engagement and content 

retention. This literature review also explores the 

thresholds for sensory stimuli fidelities necessary to 

create meaningful, effective, immersive virtual real-

ity content. However, further research will be re-

quired to measure attention, retention, and infor-

mation recall in different virtual reality and multime-

dia lesson formats, as well as engagement and pos-

itive emotions associated with learning. 

 

 

1 INTRODUCTION 
Over a (college) semester, the team com-

piled a literature review on current research sur-

rounding the effectiveness of using virtual reality 

technologies to allow for accessible experiential 

learning. Experiential Learning can be defined as in-

teractive learning by doing; however, the specifics 

of the processes of this method will be later dis-

cussed in this paper. The team began by utilizing 

education theorist Richard Kolb’s definition of the 

experiential learning model to compile findings on 

the method’s effectiveness. Next, education theorist 

Richard Mayer and his research into multimedia 

learning styles with virtual reality as a supplement 

was incorporated into the literature review. Virtual 

Reality technology is the latest that employs a simu-

lated experience in 3D near-eye displays via a head-

mounted display (hardware).  We aimed to see if 

combining these two learning styles via VR could 

create a synergy for the learner. Here VR is defined 

as “a high-end (complex) user interface that involves 

real-time simulation and interaction through multi-

ple sensorial channels (visual and auditory stimuli)” 

(Burdea & Coiffet, 1994). As researchers, current 

Rutgers students, and founders of a VR EdTech 

startup, SageTech, the team seeks to understand if 

the technology is worth integrating into education 

as a supplement to multimedia learning and as an 

experiential learning method. In the exploration 

process, it was found that there is little research on 

VR in the educational space. As VR technology rap-

idly advances, including adaptive learning systems, 

gamification, and cloud systems, there is a need for 

scientific exploration into the effect alternative 

learning methods will have on learners. Educators, 

administrators, parents, and students must under-

stand the integration and outcomes of VR to make a 

holistic decision on learning style preferences. Fol-

lowing Kolb's experiential learning model and May-

er's multimedia learning theory, a literature review 

of the implementations and implications of mixed 

reality in education was conducted. For this publica-

tion, significant components of the research were 

highlighted from the more extensive literature re-

view on the subject. 

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-018-9581-2#ref-CR14


ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

2 KOLB’S MODEL OF EXPERIENTIAL 

LEARNING 
Experiential learning is the process of learn-

ing by doing, first popularized by American educa-

tion philosopher John Dewey in 1939 with his the-

ory of education. Dewey emphasized student en-

gagement and progressive education, claiming that 

educators must stimulate learning via experience. 

In 1984, American psychologist, professor, 

and educational theorist David A. Kolb expanded 

Dewey’s findings in his experiential learning theory. 

Cited in the Journal of Experiential Education, 

Kolb’s model functions as both a cycle of the learn-

ing process and highlights four adaptive learning 

modes (Schenck & Cruickshank, 2015). This four-

step cyclical process includes the concrete experi-

ence (feeling), reflective observation (watching), ab-

stract conceptualization (thinking), and active exper-

imentation (doing).  

The concrete experience is a new experi-

ence or reinterpretation of an existing one requiring 

five themes: 1. The learner is an active participant, 

referring to the idea that learners are involved and 

participating in the learning process, such as inter-

acting with a chemistry lab. 2. Knowledge is situated 

in a place and time, where learning is dynamic as 

opposed to static. It is influenced by the social, phys-

ical, cultural, and environmental factors in which it 

takes place, a crucial key in learning about historical 

and social movements. 3. Learners are exposed to a 

novel experience that involves risk, where “novel” 

constitutes as new or challenging event leading to 

opportunity for growth, like team projects. 4. Learn-

ing demands inquiry into specific real-world prob-

lems. Lastly, 5. Critical reflection acts as a mediator 

of meaningful learning, where thoughtful analyza-

tion allows the learner to reflect, such as a paper 

outlining surprises and lessons understood. Sec-

ond, reflective observation entails the learner re-

flecting on past experiences and considering their 

existing or new knowledge to identify gaps in un-

derstanding. Third, abstract conceptualization 

grabs the observations made in the previous stage 

to create a theoretical approach. Fourth, learners 

can test their theories and apply what they have 

learned to the world around them through active ex-

perimentation (1). 

 

 
FIGURE 1: Kolb’s model of experiential learning 

 

Kolb’s model is followed by four learning types, ac-

commodating, diverging, converging, and assimilat-

ing. Accommodating can best be described as 

learning hands-on and self-reliance on intuition. Di-

verging applies to learners who prefer to watch and 

enhance the use of gathered information with crea-

tivity. Converging emphasizes problem-solving with 

applied learning. Lastly, assimilating occurs when 

the learner encounters new information they try to 

fit into the web of their preexisting knowledge. 

These four learning types are identified along two 

bipolar dimensions: active-to-reflective (doing-

watching) and concrete-to-abstract (feeling-think-

ing). Learners that are more active and concrete are 

considered accommodators, and so on, following 

the diagram above (Cornwell & Manfredo, 1994). 

Neuroscience research has consistently 

supported the effectiveness of experiential learning 

as a key learning method. Cited in the Journal of Ex-

periential Education, the authors write that “experi-

ential learning integrates different neural networks 

during the learning event” (Piaget, 1950/2001), re-

sulting in multiple memory pathways (Hebb, 1949) 

and connections between abstract concepts. The 

neural networks referred to are the different sensory 

channels (auditory and visual stimuli), kinesthetic 

stimuli (moving), and experience-based memory 



ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

pathways, such as episodic memory. The combina-

tion of these different encoding pathways while ac-

tively learning in an immersive environment aid in 

stronger memory retention. When students develop 

demonstrations of these abstract concepts or ex-

plain them through multiple modalities, there is a 

significantly higher retention rate (Craik & Tulving, 

1975). Multiple neural pathways encoding infor-

mation is more effective for long-term memory and 

retention compared to practicing a strict “learning 

style” where a single approach limits the student. 

Furthermore, experiential learning offers opportuni-

ties for novel experiences vital for memory for-

mation. The literature review will touch on this phe-

nomenon more in the following text.  

 

3 THE ROLE OF SENSORY STIMULA-

TION IN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (EL)/VR 
Multisensory aspects of experiences are es-

sential for EL and aid furthermore in the retention 

process. Creating realistic experiences in virtual re-

ality environments aims to foster brain and behav-

ioral responses in the virtual world that are analo-

gous to those in the real world. For instance, re-

searchers have been able to view the sensorimotor 

system in a more controlled environment, which 

would not have been possible in real-world experi-

ments. Although the quantifiable results of studies 

on this system are irrelevant to the scope of this pa-

per, it is essential to note the accessibility of study-

ing the sensory-motor system in a controlled envi-

ronment while a patient wears a VR hardware piece. 

The sensorimotor system is a network of neurons 

that includes the body’s nervous system, sensory or-

gans, and motor controls. When stimulated by a 

digital environment containing triggering stimuli, it 

is easier to measure this system in action. At the 

same time, the patient remains in the same location 

instead of the patient out in the world.  

In a study from Georgia Tech University pre-

sented at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics 

Engineers (IEEE) Annual International Symposium 

Virtual Reality, 322 subjects participated in an ex-

perimental study. The study investigated the effects 

of tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), audio (hearing), 

and visual (sight) sensory cues on a participant's 

sense of presence in a virtual environment by plac-

ing the participants in a simulated corporate office 

suite and varying these sensory cues. There were 

four primary dependent variables: one question on 

the overall rating of presence (range from 0 to 100), 

a longer 13-item presence questionnaire, a four-

item questionnaire on the spatial layout, and a five-

item questionnaire on object location. The partici-

pant’s memory was also tested on the objects in that 

environment (testing recall and retention). Results 

strongly indicate that increasing the different sen-

sory modalities in a virtual environment can increase 

both the sense of presence and memory for objects 

in the environment (Dinh et al.). 

The paper From Presence to Consciousness 

through Virtual Reality by Maria V. Sanchez-Vives 

and Mel Slater further explores the concept of the 

presence or the feeling of “being there.” To take this 

further, consider “telepresence,” first introduced by 

Minsky in 1980. Telepresence is seen when the user 

acquires the sense that they are immersed in a dif-

ferent environment than reality. For instance, a user 

of virtual reality technology sees through the eyes of 

a headset and uses their arms and legs to control in-

game movements. Here, the machine “body” re-

places one’s true self. The user is immersed in an en-

vironment with similar bodily controls to reality, de-

veloping the phenomena of telepresence. Similarly, 

“virtualization” occurs when the user interprets a vir-

tual image as a real object without anything physi-

cally being there. By immersing a user in a virtual 

space with virtualization and sensory stimuli, 

telepresence becomes possible.  



ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

 
FIGURE 2: Early visualizations (top) and the physical setup 

(bottom) of telepresence 

 

The diagram above illustrates a user experi-

encing a virtual environment, yet responding to 

stimuli as if it was real, not virtual. Tactile stimuli of a 

floorboard’s edge, accompanied by visuals of a 

deep precipice, cause the user's heart to race; this 

paradox is at the root of the concept of presence. 

Audio stimuli are one of the sensory chan-

nels of encoding external input for an individual and 

are especially strong when an individual is attentive 

to their environment.  Since VR technology is espe-

cially skilled at providing a user with audio and vis-

ual stimuli for an immersive digital experience, it is 

important to delve into the contributions of audio 

stimuli for presence within a VR environment.  

Spatialized sound, or a surround sound ef-

fect, significantly increases the sense of presence in 

a virtual environment by creating realistic auditory 

cues. (Hendrix & Barfield, 1996). This phenomenon 

is commonly called the soundscape or the acoustic 

environment humans perceive in a particular con-

text. A soundscape encompasses the entire aroma 

of an environment, including natural or mechanical 

sounds. A soundscape is beneficial because of the 

increased immersion and telepresence a user feels, 

which is necessary for enhancing experiential learn-

ing in VR. 

To further investigate audio sensory stimuli, 

a 2020 study in the Journal of Frontiers in Robotics 

and AI compared walking in a virtual park with a 

soundscape vs. self-triggered footsteps. The publi-

cation demonstrated that auditory perception can 

“compensate for restricted visual fields of view” 

(Kern and Ellermeier, 2020), or limitations of visual 

stimuli. Two features were studied within the envi-

ronment: the soundscape, consisting of ambient na-

ture audio, and footsteps, corresponding to walking 

audio. During the experience, the participants were 

asked to count specified objects in the environment. 

As a result, the background soundscape aided in a 

higher sense of presence, immersion, and involve-

ment in addition to lower distractions, compared to 

distinct footsteps. The study stressed that “presence 

is enhanced by the reproduction of sound”, with ef-

fective soundscape sounds serving as three times 

more effective in creating a more subtle, holistic im-

mersion. The Effects of Student Engagement, Satis-

faction, and Perceived Learning in Online Learning 

Environments bridges these results to classroom 

learning. A survey of 216 graduate students re-

vealed a .652 correlation between learner interac-

tion and student engagement and a .403 correlation 

between instructor presence and student engage-

ment. The study then explored a .891 correlation 

between student engagement and perceived stu-

dent learning (Gray and DiLoreto, 2016). Interaction 

and learning were “fully mediated by student en-

gagement,” demonstrating a statistically significant 

link between engaged students and classroom 

learning. These phenomena may be a valuable con-

sideration for designers of VR environments in the 

future, emphasizing the importance of audio-sen-

sory stimuli and their influence on higher presence 

and user engagement. 

 

4 MAYER’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF 

MULTIMEDIA LEARNING 
Now that the fundamentals of experiential 

learning have been reviewed, the literature review 

will move into education theorist Richard Mayer and 



ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

his theory on Multimedia Learning styles. The de 

facto source on this is the Cognitive Theory of Multi-

media Learning by Richard E. Mayer states his the-

ory very as being rooted in three cognitive science 

principles of learning: 

THE DUAL-CHANNEL ASSUMPTION: the assumption 

that human information processing systems include 

dual channels for visual and auditory information, 

respectively. 

THE LIMITED CAPACITY ASSUMPTION: the assump-

tion that every human has a limited capacity for pro-

cessing information. 

THE ACTIVE PROCESSING ASSUMPTION: the as-

sumption that active learning requires carrying out 

a coordinated set of processes. 

The rationale behind the multimedia learn-

ing theory is that humans learn more deeply from 

words and pictures than words alone, and our scope 

of multimedia consumption is immensely growing. 

Mayer’s theory outlines how one might effectively 

present information through multimedia formats, 

dubbing the term “multimedia design.”  

This leads to the next logical question. How 

can different multimedia formats be used to pro-

mote learning? In multimedia instructional environ-

ments, learners are exposed to a variety of text and 

visual materials, including static and dynamic forms 

(Mayer and Moreno, 2002). Animation is one of 

these forms of dynamic pictorial multimedia, refer-

ring to a “simulated motion picture depicting the 

movement of drawn (or simulated) objects.” In this 

study, Mayer and Moreno, based on their research, 

created a collection of seven principles for multime-

dia animation design by comparing the problem-

solving transfer performance with and without cer-

tain conditions; These seven principles are Multime-

dia, Spatial Contiguity, Temporal Contiguity, Coher-

ence, Modality, Redundancy, and Personalization. 

These allow the measurement of the students’ abil-

ity to use what they have learned in new situations, 

creating a framework for designing animations, nar-

rations, and other multimedia content. 

There have been multiple attempts to test 

the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual 

reality against traditional instructional effectiveness. 

In a study conducted by Richard Mayer and Jocelyn 

Parong, the effectiveness of virtual reality in learning 

science was explored through two experiments, 

one comparing VR with traditional slideshow learn-

ing content (to mimic traditional instructional envi-

ronments) and the other comparing segmented VR 

with individual lesson summaries (referred to as 

VR+) versus continuous VR lessons. Mayer and Pa-

rong examined mean post-test scores and self-re-

ported engagement, interest, and motivation levels. 

They found that students who viewed a slideshow 

scored higher on a post-test (M = 13.54 versus M = 

10.17) but showed lower levels of interest, motiva-

tion, and engagement ratings compared to the 

other group. Experiment 2 showed that the VR+ 

learning experience produced significantly better 

results on the post-test than VR (M = 13.84 versus M 

= 10.31), while the groups did not differ in interest, 

engagement, and motivation. An interesting point 

to consider is that the VR learners performed as well 

as slideshow learners in conceptual questions but 

lacked only terms of factual questions. This supports 

the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and 

demonstrates the value of generative learning 

(learning both physically and cognitively actively in 

organizing and integrating new information into ex-

isting knowledge structures) strategies in immersive 

VR environments (Parong, Mayer, 2018). However, 

further research needs to be conducted with 

Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning and design 

principles to study the effectiveness of segmented 

and supplemental VR content to combine multiple 

multimedia formats of educational content into 

Kolb’s experiential learning model.  



ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

 
FIGURE 3: Conceptual model of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, from the Cambridge Handbook of Mul-

timedia Learning, pp. 43 – 7 

 

5 COMMENTS ON THE LITERATURE 

AND THE APPLICATIONS OF THE RE-

SEARCH 
Looking back on the literature com-

piled, the need for continued research to be 

done on the effectiveness of experiential learn-

ing content and multimedia design in educa-

tional multimedia formats, especially future 

technological formats such as Virtual Reality 

(VR), Augmented Reality (AR) and Ex-

tended/Mixed Reality (XR), is recognized. Aug-

mented reality is a digital experience that en-

hances the real world through modification and 

digital projection, while Extended/Mixed Reality 

combines VR and AR. 

Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality 

provides a wide range of possible applications 

to bring users into a fully immersive environ-

ment that might not otherwise be accessible. In 

fact, many corporations have turned to XR for 

corporate training. Experiential learning is a 

powerful form of learning that can be effectively 

utilized through virtual reality, such as taking 

field trips or having other inaccessible or expen-

sive experiences. However, as previously men-

tioned, one would need to study the short and 

long-term effects of virtual reality education and 

content retention. These effects can be any-

where from headaches/migraines, non-effective 

learning, or increased distractions to hindered 

problem-solving ability, dependence on move-

ment to learn, or shortened attention span, 

amongst countless other possibilities. 

Furthermore, based on Mayer’s Cogni-

tive Theory of Multimedia Learning, education is 

supercharged when presented in multiple for-

mats, and therefore, virtual reality would need 

to be paired with other media formats for full ef-

fectiveness. Based on the literature presented, 

it is hypothesized that segmented VR learning 

designed with the multimedia principles out-

lined above, paired with reflection exercises 

such as summarizing content and posttests, can 

drastically increase learning effectiveness and 

retention by promoting conceptual learning 

and increased engagement. There is an incred-

ible importance of research in bridging the two 

educational theories, Kolb’s model of Experien-

tial Learning and Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of 

Multimedia Learning, and it is exciting to see 

what future literature and research hold∎ 

 

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https://doi.org/10.1109/BSN.2017.7935996


ARESTY RUTGERS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL, VOLUME I, ISSUE V 

 

 

 

 

 

Rut Metha is a Rutgers undergraduate student double majoring in Busi-

ness Analytics and Information Technology (BAIT) and Computer Sci-

ence with a minor in Mathematics at Rutgers University - NB (RBS and 

SAS). Rut strives to push the boundaries of human capabilities through 

his work in SageTech, AI projects, and other emerging technologies 

such as Quantum Computing/Machine Learning (QML), Human-Com-

puter Interfaces (HCIs), and autonomous humanoid robots.  

 

 

 

 

Claudia Santacruz is a Rutgers undergraduate student double majoring 

in Cognitive Science and Information Technology and Informatics (ITI). 

She is an honors program student passionate about the study of cog-

nitive science and how understanding brain processes could aid in ei-

ther the use or implementation of advancing technology. Her research 

areas lie in multi-sensory information encoding, user experience, and 

memory systems. She is a research assistant at Rutgers Memory Opti-

mization Lab studying how humans use strategies to encode spatial in-

formation. Additionally, she recently joined Dr. Wendy Ju’s lab at Cor-

nell Tech studying human computer interaction and autonomous vehi-

cle interfaces. She is also cofounder of EdTech startup SageTech, a 

platform for hosting virtual reality educational content inspired by 

multi-sensory virtual learning environments. Claudia has also interned 

with Johnson & Johnson working on user experience (UX) and ex-

tended reality technology. After her undergrad she plans on continu-

ing entrepreneurship and pursuing graduate studies leading to a PhD 

in Cognitive Science. 

 

 

Brianna Lischy is a Rutgers undergraduate student at the Rutgers Busi-

ness School majoring in Business Analytics and Information Technol-

ogy (BAIT) with a concentration in professional selling. She is inter-

ested in connecting learning processes to technology through her 

work in the Interdisciplinary Research Teams (IRT) and relevant course-

work. She helped lead data collection from students, educators, and 

administrators in the Northeast Region I-Corps Customer Discovery 

Program. As a result, she established new insights and linkage be-

tween experimental learning and emerging EdTech methodologies. 

Brianna is also a passionate entrepreneur, working as Co-Founder of 

SageTech. She is excited for her upcoming role as a Business Develop-

ment intern this summer, furthering her work in customer research and 

strategic problem solving. 


