Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 794 ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF GROUNDNUT SHELL POWDER- FILLED POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) COMPOSITES FOR SUSTAINABLE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS A. A. Hammajam1,2*; H. Maidawa1 and E. B. Bwala1 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nigerian Army University Biu-.Borno State, Nigeria. 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maiduguri-Borno State, Nigeria. * Corresponding author’s email: hammajam@naub.edu.ng, Hammajam92@gmail.com ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT This paper explores the economic potential of using groundnut shell powder as a filler in biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) composites. Groundnut shells, an abundant agricultural waste, are proposed as a low-cost reinforcement material to develop sustainable bioplastics. The investigation characterized and determined the mechanical properties of groundnut shell powder (GSP) filled PLA thermoplastic composites. Two different fiber sizes; 150 µm and 212µm were pulverized. The fiber loadings were 10 %, 20 %, and 30 % by weight. The GSP-PLA composites were prepared by use of internal mixer, followed by compression molding process. Tensile and Flexural properties were tested using universal testing machine (UTM). The tensile strength decreased from control sample (0 %) to 10 % by weight fiber loadings for all mesh sizes. In addition, the strength increased from 14.2 MPa and 15 MPa for 150 µm and 212 µm respectively, at a loading of 20%. The modulus increased from 712.9GPa for a control sample (0%) loading to 2344.9GPa at 30% loading for 150 µm. Furthermore, it increased to 1576 GPa for 212 µm. The tensile percentage elongation reduced at 10% loading compared to 0% control sample. Flexural strength and modulus increased for both mesh sizes at all the fiber loadings. However, at 30% fiber loadings, the flexural strength and modulus decreased slightly for 212µm size composites. The hardness of the composites increased for both mesh sizes at all the fiber loadings. It is presumed that the tensile properties performed good at 20% loading as deduced from the findings. while flexural properties increased for all loadings. The study identifies key application areas including packaging, construction, agriculture, and consumer products, highlighting their relevance in supporting eco-friendly startups and rural industries. The innovation aligns with global sustainable development goals (SDGs) number 7 and 8 and offers promising opportunities for green entrepreneurship, especially in agrarian economies. Received: 3rd July 2025 Revised: 8th August 2025 Accepted: 10th August 2025 Keywords: Groundnut shells Composites Polylactic acid Mechanical properties © 2025 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved. 1.0 Introduction The growing emphasis on environmental sustainability and circular economy principles has catalyzed the development of bio-based and biodegradable polymer composites. Biocomposite, polylactic‐rich biomass material has emerged as promising reinforcement and offers versatile applications and potential benefits in various fields, especially in natural fiber composites (Ahmed et al., 2022; Kolo et al., 2022). The use of natural fibers for composite material manufacturing have received great attention because of their sustainability and renewability. Research and advancement on natural fiber composites are continually rising and their function is growing into novel fields of usage. The modern age of technology presents an abundant of bio-based composites. This gives better chance for environmentally friendly, lower energy utilization, insubstantial weight, lagging and sound absorption behaviors, reduction in volatile organic radiation, and decreased reliance on synthetic. Advancement of workable resources as the substitute for synthetic materials are being investigated to reduce the over-reliance on oil or petroleum (Mohammed et al., 2022). AZOJETE September 2025. Vol.21(3):794-803 Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818 https://doi.org/10.63958/AZOJETE/2025/21/03/010 www.azojete.com.ng mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng mailto:Hammajam92@gmail.com http://www.azojete.com.ng/ Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 795 On the other hand, Agro waste cereals such as rice, barley, maize, sorghum, wheat etc contribute significantly as reinforcements or fillers in plastic composites productions in recent time (Hammajam et al., 2019). The importance of rice husk in composite was further discussed by Simone et al. (2022) which indicate the description of lignocellullosic rice husk filled with polyethylene composites. For example, steam explosion was employed for obtaining sweet sorghum fibers to be use as reinforcing agent in poly lactic acid base composites. Cascade mixer was employed for barley husk polypropylene composite by Andrzej et al. (2010) whereas Ricardo et al. (2023) uses thermogravimetric analysis of composite obtained from sintering of rice husk scrap tire mixture; and Ismail et al. (2003) employed effect of mixing sequence in the preparation of white rice husk ash filled polypropylene/ethylene propylene monomer composites. PLA is thermoplastic polymer with high strength and modulus that can be derived from annually renewable resources. This makes PLA very vital environmentally friendly biocomposites matrix. It can be degraded by simple hydrolysis of the ester bond and does not demand the presence of enzymes to catalyse (Ortega-Leyva, 2022). It also has melted and glass transition temperatures of 175 oC and 55 oC respectively. These attributes make it suitable candidate for most degradable natural fibers as environment friendly materials. Ahmed et al. (2022) reported on the chemical modifier to improve properties of coconut shell powder (CSP) filled PLA biocomposites. Their study depicts the effects of filler content on mechanical, thermal and morphology properties as evaluated. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) also known as peanut or legume is grown in several countries as a cash crop. The top three groundnut producing nations are China, India, and Nigeria with an annual production of 16,685,915, 6,857,000, and 3,028,571 metric tons, respectively (Mohammed et.al., 2021; Maidawa and Dukku, 2022). Groundnut shell (GS), which is an Agro-waste with little or no commercial value, accounts for 20% of the total weight of the pod. Thus, a large amount of groundnut shells is generated globally, paving way for more studies to search for other viable areas of applications. The shells, a by-product of the processing are an abundant agricultural waste material that decomposes slowly in nature (Adhikari et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2013). Despite their potential, GS are often discarded, leading to environmental harm through burning or disposal in landfills. However, these shells contain valuable bioactive compounds and functional ingredients that can benefit various industries, including food, feed, paper, and bioenergy (Trivedi, et al. 2019). To achieve zero waste and unlock the full potential of groundnut shells, innovative technologies and applications are necessary to transform this waste into a valuable resource (Rosa et al., 2021; Matumba et al., 2017; Venkatarajan and Athijayamani, 2020). Researchers have explored various ways to utilize GS over the years. However, little fraction was successfully incorporated into animal feed, particularly for cattle, while others have investigated their potential as a dietary fiber source for humans. Additionally, studies have examined the use in pulp production, bioethanol production etc. (Yakub et al., 2016). Particle board manufacturing, mulch, and activated charcoal were also investigated (Trivedi, et al., 2019). These efforts aim to find valuable applications for GS. The reduction in waste and unlocking their economic potential are key to engineering advancement. Other applications of GS include its use in composting wet materials, wastewater treatment, plastic, wardrobes, insulation board, metal casting, and a medium for pesticides as well as activated carbon (Berthet et al., 2015). This study investigates the potential of groundnut shell-filled polylactic acid (PLA) composites as a sustainable alternative to conventional petroleum-based materials. Groundnut shells were processed and incorporated as lignocellulosic fillers into a PLA matrix to develop lightweight, eco-friendly composites. 2. Materials and Method 2.1 Sample collection and preparation Groundnut shells were collected from farm after milling at Kaleri, Bauchi State, Northeastern Nigeria.4 kg of the materials were collected one month after the milling on the farm site. The groundnuts husks were collected and packaged in a bag for this research. The husks were initially dried at 105oC for 24 hours in an industrial oven to remove excess moisture according to the ASTM D4442. The PLA grade 2002D was obtained from the Nature Works LLC (USA) IngeoTM grade and was supplied in the form of granules. The properties of the matrix were: density of 1.25g/cm3; glass transition temperature (Tg) of 59oC; melting point of 152oC and melt flow index (MFI) of 30.3g/10 min. Groundnut shell were pulverized into two different mesh sizes of 150 µm and 212 µm using Fritsch Pulverisette P15/P16 mill. The pulverized samples were subjected to 105°C temperature for 24hrs in an industrial oven in order to remove moisture before blending with the polylactic acid granules. Plate 1 depict mesh sizes of GSP. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 796 Plate 1(a and b) Mesh sizes of GSP 2.3 Characterization 2.3.1 Chemical composition of the groundnut shells These analyses were carried out in the Agriculture Chemical Analysis Laboratory (D 10), Food and Agriculture Analysis Laboratory Programme Technical Services Centre, Nigeria. The analyses were performed to evaluate the cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and other compounds in the fiber that are mainly responsible for fiber- matrix compatibility in composites. The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) analysis (D10/M1 and D10/M10 In- House-Method) was used to determine the cellulose content of the fiber. The acid detergent fiber (ADF) analysis (D10/M12 and D10/M5 In-House-Method) was employed to determine the hemicelluloses content of the fiber. Meanwhile, the acid detergent lignin (ADL) analysis (D10/M13 and D10/M7 In-House-Method) was used to determine the lignin content of the fiber. 2.3.2 Composites fabrications Groundnut shell fibers and PLA were compounded by mixing, followed by compression molding process. Internal mixer (Brabender GmbH) was used in the blending process at processing temperature of 170°C, for a period of 10min, and rotating speed of 50rpm. This method was adopted by Collins and Ghodke (2018). labquip scientific 40-ton compression molding machine was used in hot pressing the test specimens. 15 cm ×15 cm × 0.3cm steel mold was used for the compression process. The samples were pre–heated for 3min at 170 °C. Venting time was set to 3min and final press temperature of 170°C for 3min. Finally, the samples were cold pressed for 5min at room temperature. GSP–PLA composites were cut from the two sample sizes with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% weight of fiber loading. 2.3.3 Composite formulation Rule of mixture (ROM) This process involves the rules guiding the mixing of fiber and matrix in composite formulations as shown in equation 1 and 2. In this study, the ROM was based on the capacity of the internal mixer (Brabender). The weight of the fiber and matrix was governed by the rule (Hammajam et al. 2019) ROM; Wf + Wm = 1 1 Wmf + Whdpe = Mcw 2 where Wf is weight of fiber, Wm is weight of matrix, Wmf is weight of groundnut shell powder, Wpla is weight of Polylactic acid, Mcw is mixer capacity. Table 1 shows the compression conditions for the composite formulation. Table1: Formulation of GSP-PLA Sample Name GSP (wt %) PLA (wt %) Neat PLA 0 0 GSP- PLA 10, 20, 30 90, 80, 70 (a)150 µm (b)212 http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 797 2.3.4 Mechanical properties The tensile properties were tested according to ASTM D638 by using Instron 3365 machine. Tensile testing was carried out at 5mm/min with load cell of 5kN. While the flexural properties were tested by using the same machine that was used for the tensile test at a crosshead speed of 3 mm/min with a load cell of 5 kN and a span of 50 mm. Hardness test is extensively used to characterize a certain material and to identify if it is appropriate for its intended purpose. Hardness test is the measure of its resistance to the indentation due to compression force caused by sharp tools. Durometer hardness test is carried out based on the ASTM: D4762 identify the hardness of the natural fiber composite material. A similar method and process was reported by Hammajam, et al. (2019) and Sapuan and Bachtiar (2012). Plate 2 shows the mechanical properties test specimens. While Figures 1 and 2 shows flexural and tensile test specimen as per ASTM D790; D638 respectively. Plate 2: Mechanical properties test specimens Figure 1: Flexural test specimen (ASTM. D790) Figure 2: Tensile test specimen as per ASTM D638 2.3.5 Microstructural examinations The fiber-matrix dispersion analyses were carried out to understand the extent of fracture surface when the composites were subjected to tensile testing. The fiber dispersions were inspected using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). This process was done by using Hitachi S‒3400 N model at 20.0 kV. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Chemical composition analysis of the GSP The chemical compositions of GSP are shown in Table 2. It was observed that the cellulose content of the GSP was 43.2%. This value was different from the 32.7% and 33.2% values reported by Patel, (2012) and http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 798 Petchwattana and Covavisaruch, (2013) respectively. It was also observed that the shell’s hemicelluloses and lignin contents were 24.17% and 16.19%, respectively. Whereas It was also revealed that the protein and fat contents were 7.63% and 4.31%. Other constituents of the fiber; pectin, waxy contributed to the remaining percentages (%) of the GSP. The general observation in natural fibers was that the expected moisture uptake in fiber takes place mainly by hemicellulose, starch, lignin and surface of cellulose content. Lignocellulosic cereal fiber contains fat and protein which are covalently bonded together, and act as a fiber coating. Hence, there are slight variations in the composition of cereal byproducts, as has been reported by Andrzej et al. (2010). Table 2: Chemical composition of the groundnut shells Composition Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Protein Fat % content 43.2 24.17 16.19 7.63 4.31 3.2 Tensile Strength of GSP-PLA Composite Figure 3. depicts the mean values of tensile strengths of GSP‒PLA composites with different fiber loading. in composites development, there is a complicated interaction of the dynamics of the basic stages such as matrix, fiber and interfacial zone between the fiber and matrix as reported by Ridzuan, et al. (2016). The increase at 10 % by weight of GSP causes slight decrease in the tensile strength of GSP‒PLA composites when compare to control sample (0 % PLA. It was observed that composites with 20 % fiber loadings appreciated in strength of 14.2 MPa and 15 MPa for 150 µm and 212 µm respectively. Thus, it shows slight decrease below 0 % PLA with 25.9MPa. Furthermore, it can be said that fiber size has effect on the tensile strength of GSP-PLA composites. This shows similar finding in Kanayo, et al. (2018). Hence the decrease in the tensile strength is due to poor GSP‒PLA interaction as a result of opposing separations of the GSP and PLA matrix. Also, in Figure 1, increase loading up to 30 % has slightly decreased the tensile strength of the composite for both the fiber sizes. This could be due to weak dispersion and weak interface in the PLA matrix resulting in poor bonding between GSP and PLA. Figure 3: Effect of fiber loading on the tensile strength of GSP-PLA Composite 3.3 Tensile Modulus of GSP-PLA Composite From Figure 3, there was an increase in the tensile modulus of GSP‒PLA composites as fiber loadings increased. It can be observed that the maximum value of the tensile modulus was 712 GPa at 10 % loading for 150 µm. it was drop to 472 GPa at the loading for 212 µm. at 20% loading, the modulus increases for 212 µm and decrease for 150 µm. But at 30 % loadings, 150 µm continue to decrease while 212 µm appreciated. Thus, it was still appropriate to argue that increasing GSP up to 30 % in PLA increases the rigidity of the composites. It showed the level of adhesion between GSP-PLA hardly affect the tensile modulus significantly. The tensile moduli of the composites are enlarged by increasing the fiber loadings. The reason is the fact that lignocellulosic fibers possess greater modulus when compared to polymer matrix. Also, because modulus is processes that involve so small strain values and small stress may be produced with application of little value of elongation (Mohammed, et al. 2021). Thus, it was expected that there will be further improvement of modulus of the composites when going above 30% fiber loadings for 212 µm. 35 30 25 20 15 10 150 um 212 um 5 0 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) Te n si le S tr en gt h (M Pa ) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 799 Figure 4: Effect of fiber loading on the tensile modulus of GSP-PLA Composite 3.4 Percentage Elongation of GSP-PLA Composite It was observed from figure 5 that the tensile elongation at the break of the composites was grossly decreased. This is the result of thermoplastic composites having a rigidity tendency because of the increase in fiber loading. Usually, the reduced tensile elongation at break values is as a result of increased modulus. Similar findings were reported by Mohammed et al. (2021). It is possible that the addition of fibers which has brittle attribute decrease the elongation at break. Figure 5: Percentage Elongation of GSP-PLA Composite 3.5 Flexural strength of GSH-PLA Composite Figure 6 depict the effects of fiber loadings on the flexural properties of the GSP-PLA composites. The flexural strength of the GSP-PLA composites increased for the 10% and 20% fiber loadings for 150 µm but decreased at the 20% fiber loadings for 212 µm. There was an increase as fiber loadings reached 30% for 150 µm and dropped slightly for 212 µm when compared to pure PLA. It was observed that the flexural strength dropped 11.9% at 20% fiber loading for 150 µm. The findings show an increase in strength at 10% and 20% fiber loadings for PLA composites. Therefore, the fiber did not reduce completely the ability of fibers and matrix to interact. The increased adhesions create better fiber and matrix interactions which allow the stress to be transferred from the matrix to fiber and translates into improved flexurability. Similar findings were reported by Yakub et al. (2017). The increase in flexural strength became highly prominent when the fiber loading did not go beyond 10% and 20%. Furthermore, this is only likely when there was a better stress transfer from matrix to fiber via a good interface adhesion. 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 150 um 212 um 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) 350 300 250 200 150 150 um 100 212 um 50 0 -50 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) T e n s ile S tr e n g th ( M P a ) Te n si le M o d u lu s (G Pa ) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 800 Figure 6: Flexural strength of GSP-PLA Composite 3.6 Flexural Modulus of GSP-PLA Composite In most cases, the normal trend for flexural modulus is to increase with increasing fiber loading. These characteristics were indeed observed in Figure 7. this could be attributed to the contribution made by fibers to impart their own property to the composite. The findings reveal a steady increase in the modulus values as the fiber loading is increased from 712.9GPa for pure PLA to 2344.9 GPa at 30% loading in 150 µm and 1576 GPa for 212 µm. It was revealed that there was around 45% improvement in flexural modulus up to 30% fiber loading from neat PLA and 44.7% from 10% fiber loading for the PLA composites. These phenomena presume that above 30% fiber loading, the composites stiffness will decrease as the fiber loading increases. Therefore, the increase in the modulus of these composites was due to the higher initial modulus of the fibers acting at the main building block of composites and improve interfacial bond between the fibers and matrices Figure 7: Flexural Modulus of GSP-PLA Composite 3.7 Result of Hardness Test of GSP-PLA Composite Hardness of a material is the measurement of its resistance to dentation due to a compressive force caused by a sharp object. The results of hardness test are shown figure 8. that hardness of GSP-PLA There is increased in hardness throughout the loadings. Although, at 20% loading, is slightly decreased. It also revealed that angle orientation has play much role in the hardness property of the composite. This is because as the fibre loadings increases, the resistance to penetration is more due to the availability of fibres acting as rigid medium. 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 150 um 212 um 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 150 um 212 um 500 0 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) T e n s ile M o d u lu s ( G P a ) T e n s ile S tr e n g th ( M P a ) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 801 a b Agglomeratio Fiber pull-out 100 µm 100 µm a b Agglomeratio Improved adhesion Void 100 µm 100 µm Figure 8: Hardness Test of GSP-PLA Composite 3.8 Microstructures Observation of GSP-PLA Composite SEM images of fractured surface of GSP‒PLA composites were depicted in plates 3(a and b). The image of different fiber loading composites shows that lower GSP loadings indicates non‒homogeneous dispersion patterns. This causes fiber pull‒out and makes the fiber to undergo accumulation. Hence, these lead to reduction in the tensile strength of the composites mostly at lower fiber loadings. Similar findings were reported by Fogorasi, and Barbu, (2017). However, at 20 % and 30 % loadings, there were better dispersion of GSP‒PLA formation with reduced fiber pull out and breakage. This is the main reason for improvement of tensile strength at these loadings for smaller fiber sizes. Plate 3a: SEM micrographs 150 µm of GHP-PLA composites Plate 3b: SEM micrographs 212 µm of GHP-PLA composites 100 80 60 40 150 um 20 212 um 0 0 10 20 30 GS Fiber Loadings (%) A n g le O ri e n ta io n s (o 0 ) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 802 4. Conclusion This study had shown that fiber loading significantly influences its mechanical properties. It was observed that composites with 20 % fiber loadings appreciated in tensile strength of 14.2 MPa and 15 MPa for 150 µm and 212 µm respectively. Interestingly, it was observed that there was a steady increase in the tensile modulus values as the fiber loading is increased from 712.9GPa for pure PLA to 2344.9GPa at 30% loading in 150 µm and 1576 GPa for 212 µm. The optimum performance strength for both composites type was at 20% filler loading and the modulus was at 30% filler loading GSP-PLA composite. Consequently, the flexural strength of the GSP-PLA composites increased for the 10% and 20% fiber loadings for 150 µm but decreased at the 20% fiber loadings for 212 µm. It was revealed that there was around 45% improvement in flexural modulus up to 30% fiber loading from neat PLA and 44.7% from 10% fiber loading for the PLA composites. Thus, from these findings, the developed composites possess attributes that suit some engineering applications such as automobile interiors and household utensils were high impact are less needed. Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank TETFUND and Nigerian Army University Biu for providing the research grant (IBR No. 001; 2025) and enabling environment for this study. REFERENCES Adhikari, B., Dhungana, SK., Ali, MW., Adhikari, A., Kim, ID. and Shin, DH. 2019. Antioxidant activities, polyphenol, flavonoid, and amino acid contents in peanut shell. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 18(4): 437-442. Ahmed, MB., El-Jummah AM. and Hammajam, AA. 2022. Development and Evaluation of the Mechanical Properties of Coconut Fiber Reinforced Low Density Polyethylene Composite. Open journal of composites materials, 12(3): 83-97. Andrzej, K., Bledzki AK, Abdullah AM and Jürgen V. 2010. Barley husk and coconut shell reinforced polypropylene composites: The effect of fibre physical, chemical and surface properties. Composites Science and Technology 70: 840–846. Berthet MA., Angellier-Coussy, H. and Machado D. 2015. Exploring the potentialities of using lignocellulosic fibres derived from three food by-products as constituents of biocomposites for food packaging. Industrial Crops Product; 69: 110–122. Collins, S. and Ghodke P. 2018. Kinetic parameter evaluation of groundnut shell pyrolysis through use of thermogravimetric analysis. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 6(4): 4736–4742. Fogorasi, MS. and Barbu, I. 2017. The potential of natural fibres for automotive sector. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 252: 12-24. Hammajam, AA., El-Jummah, AM., Ismarrubie, ZN. 2019. The Green Composites: Millet Husk Fiber (MHF) Filled Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) and Degradability Effects on Environment. Open journal of composites materials, 9:300-311. Ismail, H., Mohamad, Z., and Bakar, AA. 2003. Comparative study on processing, mechanical properties, thermo-oxidative aging, water absorption, and morphology of rice husk powder and silica filler in polystyrene/styrene butadiene rubber blends. Journal of Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering, 42(1): 81-103. Kanayo K., Oluwatosin M. and Awe AA. 2018. Microstructure, mechanical and fracture properties of groundnut shell ash and silicon carbide dispersion strengthened aluminium matrix composites. Journal of King Saudi University Engineering Science; 30(1): 96–103. Kolo, LAM., Hammajam, AA., and Zaka AM. 2024. Mechanical Characterization of Camel’s Foot (Piliostigma Reticulatum) Fiber Reinforced Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Composite. Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 9(1): 397-402. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June 2025; Vol. 21(3): 794-803. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: hammajam@naub.edu.ng 803 Maidawa, HMM. and Dukku, M. 2022. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis and Morphology of Desert Date Particles Reinforced Polymer Composites for Vehicular Dashboard. International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Management (ijaem), 4(6): 2590-2596. Matumba, L., Singano, L. and Tran, B, 2018. Managing aflatoxin in smallholder groundnut production in Southern Africa: paired comparison of the windrow and Mandela cock techniques. Industrial Crops Product. 112: 18–23. Mohammed, AU., Ibrahim, M. and Abdulhafiz, OU. 2021. Characterization of groundnut shell powder as a potentioal reinforcent for biocomposites. Journal of Polmer from Renewable Energy.1-15 Ortega-Leyva, MN. 2022. Composites from plastic and wood: what do have to know? Journal of Plastic Technology, 23: 23-28. Patel, BM. 2012. Animal nutrition in Western India, A review of workdone from 1961-1965. Anand, India Council of Agricultural Resources. Petchwattana, N. and Covavisaruch, S. 2013. Effects of Rice Hull Particle Size and Content on the Mechanical Properties and Visual Appearance of Wood Plastic Composites Prepared from Poly(vinyl chloride). Journal of Bionic Engineering, 10(1): 110-117. Ridzuan, MJM., Abdul Majid, MS., Afendi, M., Aqmariah Kanafiah, SN., Zahri, JM. and Gibson, AG. 2016. Characterisation of natural cellulosic fibre from Pennisetum purpureum stem as potential reinforcement of polymer composites. Materials & Design, 89: 839-847. Rosa, SML., Nachtigall, SMB., and Ferreira, CA. 2021. Thermal and dynamic mechanical characteristics of rice husk filled with polypropylene composites. Macromolecular Research, 17(1): 8-13. Ricardo, H., Gustavo, E., Martinez, T., Gonzalo,CE., Pedro, IGC., Cesar, MB., Santiago, DA., Davier, GM., Carlos, VCM. and Osvaldo, MD. 2023. A preliminary study on the preparation of wood plastic composites from urban wastes generated in Merida, Mexico with potential applications as building materials. . Journal of Waste Management and Research, 28(9): 838-847. Sapuan, SM. and Bachtiar, D. 2012. Mechanical Properties of Sugar Palm Fibre Reinforced High Impact Polystyrene Composites. Procedia Chemistry, 4:101-106. Sapuan, SM., and Mansor, MR. 2014. Concurrent engineering approach in the development of composite products: A review. Materials & Design, 58: 161-167. Simone, M., Rosa, L., Evelise, FS., Carlos, AF., and Sonia MBN. 2022. Studies on the properties of rice husk filled polypropylene composites- effect of maleate polypropylene. Journal of Material Science, 12(3): 333-338. Trivedi, NS., Kharkar, RA. and Mandavgane SA. 2019. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid adsorption on adsorbent prepared from groundnut shell: effect of preparation conditions on equilibrium adsorption capacity. Arab Journal of Chemistry, 12(8): 4541–4549. Venkatarajan, S. and Athijayamani A. 2020. An overview of natural cellulose fiber reinforced polymer composites. Materials Today Proc., 9: 1–5. Yakub, I., Abdalla, Y. and Musa, M. 2016. Valorization of Bambara groundnut shell via intermediate pyrolysis: products distribution and characterization. Journal of Clean Product, 139: 717–728. Yakub, I., Abdalla, Y. and Nga J. 2017. Recovery of clean energy precursors from Bambara groundnut waste via pyrolysis: kinetics, products distribution and optimisation using response surface methodology. Journal Clean Product, 164: 1430–1445. Zheng, W., Phoungthong, K., Lü, F., Shao, LM. and He, PJ. 2013. Evaluation of a classification method for biodegradable solid wastes using anaerobic degradation parameters. Waste management, 33(12): 2632-2640. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:hammajam@naub.edu.ng