ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
AZOJETE March 2020. Vol. 16(1):137-146

Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818

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Corresponding author’s e-mail address: usman.tangbo@fubk.edu.ng 137

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

EFFECTS OF CRUSHED AND POWDERED BRICK PARTICLES ON LIGHTWEIGHT
PAPERCRETE

M. U. Tangbo* and M. Ibrahim
(Department of Building, Federal University Birnin Kebbi)

*Corresponding author’s email address: usman.tangbo@fubk.edu.ng

1.0 Introduction
Several factors are pushing the demand for alternative materials to substitute or supplement
concrete. One of such is the need for low-cost construction materials. Secondly, as sustainability
has come forth as the most dangerous environmental issue at present, the movement is now
towards the utilization of materials that aid ecological sustainability. Moriconi (2007) traced the
current construction practice as unsustainable remarking that it goes to wasteful use of cement
and mineral resources which are restricted. As an example, aggregate which constitutes the
biggest ingredient of concrete is being quickly consumed as it is estimated that close to eleven
billion tonnes of aggregate is used annually (Smith, 2009). Of this amount, roughly eight billion
tonnes of aggregate comprising sand, gravel and crushed rock is used in concrete (Mehta, 2001;
Naik and Moriconi, 2005). Also, Moriconi (2007) showed that in summation to the enormous
amounts of crushed rock, sand and drinking water consumed, two billion tonnes of Portland
cement is also consumed, which is not an environmentally-friendly material considering that it

ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT

This paper studied a light weight paper and mortar composite called
papercrete which was produced using brick particles as aggregate and
as pozzolan. Papercrete samples were produced with crushed brick
particles to completely substitute sand as fine aggregate and labelled
Sample BAP. Another set of samples were produced using crushed brick
particles as aggregate and powdered brick particles as pozzolan to
partially replace 10% of the cement content. These were labelled
Sample BCP. Additional samples labelled Sample SP were produced
with sand as aggregate and with no cement replacement to serve as
controls. Initially, an X-ray diffraction analysis was performed on
powdered brick particles to assess their chemical composition in line
with ASTM 618. A total of 135 test samples were cast and tested for
density, water absorption, compressive strength and tensile strength at
14 and 28 days. Similarly, samples were subjected to thermal
conductivity and fire reaction tests. The results show an increase in
density, compressive and tensile strength of Samples BAP and BCP over
Sample SP. Additionally, all samples recorded low thermal conduction
and a good reaction to fire as none of the samples ignited when
subjected to fire. However, all samples had high water absorption
values. It was concluded that using crushed and powdered brick
particles to produce papercrete increases its density and strength and
can be used as aggregate and pozzolan in producing papercrete.

© 2020 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved.

Submitted 24 September, 2019
Revised 18 December, 2019
Accepted 04 January, 2020

Keywords:
Compressive strength
Papercrete
Crushed bricks
Pozzolana
Insulation concrete.

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Tangbo and Ibrahim: Effects of crushed and powdered brick particles on lightweight papercrete. AZOJETE,16(1):137-
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uses up a great deal of energy during manufacture and releases greenhouse gases (GHG) which
contributes to global warming.

One key effort towards ensuring sustainability is the usage of reused materials in concrete and
concrete based systems. Lately, there has been much interest in a concrete based system called
papercrete. Papercrete is produced by mixing recycled paper, Portland cement and sand (Chung
et al., 2015; Lyons, 2007; Mohammed, 2009 and Titzman, 2006). When these materials are mixed
and cured, they raise a material like concrete. The benefit of this material is multi-fold. First, it
provides an environmentally favourable and fertile means of throwing out wastepaper which
makes a significant component of environmental waste. The Bureau of International Recycling
(BIR) in 2012 estimate that over 400 million tons of paper is created and consumed annually
with only around 50% recovered. In Nigeria, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2012)
estimate that 19,000 tons of paper and paperboard was produced and a further 570,000 tons
imported with only 8000 tonnes recovered.

Even before the advent of papercrete, other recycled materials have been widely applied to
supplement or substitute some ingredients in concrete based systems. One such endeavour is
the usage of waste brick. Waste bricks are byproducts of brickmaking and construction
demolishing which are crushed to appropriate sizes for use as pozzolan or as aggregates. As
aggregates, CBB is mostly used to replace coarse aggregate. When applied as fine aggregate, it
significantly increases the water taken in a mix (Bektas, 2007). However, Khatib (2005) reported
comparable strength properties with concrete containing normal fine aggregate when CBB was
used as fine aggregate, hence suggesting the feasibility of using CBB as fine aggregate.

Being a comparatively new material, most studies on papercrete have focused on measuring its
properties. Sangrutsamee et al. (2012) examined the properties of papercrete containing
different paper types and content and obtained compressive strength as high as 6.14N/mm2
and thermal conductivity as low as 0.28910W/mK. Titzman (2006) studied a papercrete-concrete
composite with acceptable results for compressive strength (143.6psi-0.99N/mm2), tensile
strength (28.3psi-0.19N/mm2), thermal conductivity (0.10W/mK); while samples subjected to
flammability test did not inflame. Primarily, papercrete is produced by shuffling in mortar with
paper fibres. This investigation on the other hand assessed the viability of utilizing other
materials as constituents in papercrete by producing papercrete using CBB as fine aggregate.

1.1 Papercrete
Papercrete also called fibrous concrete or fibercrete is a generic term applied to identify a
mixture of cement, sand, paper and water (Chung et al., 2015; Mohammed, 2009 and Titzman,
2006). Papercrete is primarily made by mixing shredded paper with cement, sand and water to
make a paper-mache slurry that can be cast into block units and also used as mortar in binding
the blocks (Lyons, 2007). When papercrete dries, the resulting fabric is gray in colour and is
highly water-absorbent (Titzman, 2006). Nevertheless, due to its light weight, it has good
insulating properties and the cement content significantly increases its resistance to fire (Lyons,
2007). Each of the ingredients in papercrete contributes a different property in the admixture.
The cement is responsible for the strength of the material as it binds other ingredients together
(Kokkinos, 2010). Sand adds thermal mass, makes the mix stronger and less water absorbent
(Kokkinos, 2010). The fibres on the other hand, are responsible for low density, low strength and
low thermal conductivity (Sangrutsamee et al., 2012).

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Surveys on the utilization of wastepaper–mortar composites indicate varying strengths of
papercrete. In the study by Sangrutsamee et al. (2012), compressive strength of over 6N/mm2
was achieved by varying the pulp content. Mohammed (2009) obtained a 28-day compressive
and flexural strength of 5.56N/mm2 and 1.43N/mm2 respectively at a papercrete density of
650kg/mb. Papercrete also has sound insulation properties. Kokkinos (2010) reported that
papercrete has a low thermal conductivity coefficient and high thermal diffusivity which means
even though papercrete changes temperature quickly, it does not transfer much heat. This has
been noted by other researchers. Studies by Masjuki et al. (2008) obtained a thermal
conductivity K, for papercrete of 0.85W/mK. Sangrutsamee et al. (2012) carried out a study to
assess the thermal conductivity of papercrete containing different paper types and varying pulp
content, and obtained values ranging between 0.2890 and 0.6250W/mK. Titzman (2006)
obtained thermal conductivity as low as 0.10 W/mK. Papercrete however absorbs water easily,
behaving like a sponge when exposed to water (Titzman, 2006). Also, in a study of Suganya
(2012), water absorption values as high as 74% were obtained.

1.2 Crushed Brick as Concrete Ingredient
Recycled clay bricks are waste materials obtained either from building demolitions or discarded
products that do not adapt to standard during manufacture (Bektas, 2007). These materials are
crushed to smaller sizes to get the shape of material involved (0.075mm-50mm for aggregate or
ground to powder fineness for pozzolan) (Bektas, 2007). Crushed brick is mainly used as coarse
aggregate in construction. Bektas (2007) attributed the averseness to its use as fine aggregate
to the increased water demand when used as fine aggregate. According to Schultz and
Hendricks (1992), using waste brick as aggregate helps to get rid of the large amount of
masonry rubble generated and serves to meet aggregate demand for novel building. In addition,
Khalaf and DeVenny (2004) reported that crushed brick tends to increase tensile and flexural
strength when used as aggregate as a result of improved bonding between brick aggregate and
cement paste. The same view is held by Khatib (2005) who reported that when broken brick or
concrete is used as aggregate, cementation continues beyond 28 days hence the rate of
strength development is higher when fine crushed concrete or crushed brick is used.

Raw clay in itself, has no pozzolanic property. However, when clay is fired during the brick
making process, it acquires the possibility to undergo a pozzolanic reaction with lime in the
presence of water (Roger, 2011). When excited to temperatures between 600-950°C, the
structure of clay minerals undergoes an alteration that allows them to react with calcium
hydroxide. When calcined, the loss of water in clay causes the collapse of the crystalline
structure of alumino-silicates, leaving alumina and silica in an unstructured (amorphous) state. It
is in this unstructured state that silica and alumina have the potential to combine with and
reduce calcium hydroxide. This is, however, not possible in clays that are mixed with high
quantities of very crystalline minerals like quartz and feldspar (Pinheiro et al., 2010). Also, if
calcination temperature exceeds certain limit, the disordered silica and alumina will recrystallize
and form other unchanging composites like mullite (A3S2) that will not react with lime.

2. Materials and Methods
Binder: Dangote Portland cement obtained from local dealers in Zaria and conforming to BS 12
(1996) was used.
River sand was also obtained from local dealers in Zaria. The sieves used were 4.75mm, 2.36mm,
1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm and conformed to BS 410 (1986).

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Tangbo and Ibrahim: Effects of crushed and powdered brick particles on lightweight papercrete. AZOJETE,16(1):137-
146. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: usman.tangbo@fubk.edu.ng 140

CBB: waste bricks were obtained from a local dealer in PZ Zaria and were manually crushed to
smaller sizes. The bricks were also screened using a 5mm sieve in order to get rid of large
particles and to obtain particles within the fine aggregate limit (4.75mm to 600µm) pozzolans
(75µm and below). Grading of the crushed burnt brick was carried out based on the result of the
sieve analysis conducted i.e. the percentage by weight of particles retained on each sieve in the
sieve analysis of the river sand was used to grade the crushed brick. This was done in order to
enable comparison between samples containing crushed brick with samples containing river
sand.

Paper sludge: the preparation of the paper sludge involves soaking the paper in water and then
grinding. Newspapers were soaked in water until they were indulgent enough to mash. The
soaked newspapers were then ground until the desired consistency was obtained. The ground
paper was left in slurry form until it is needed. Before usage, water was drained from the ground
paper thus leaving it in a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. This was done in order to apply
the same measure of water for all the mixes.

Casting of samples: The experiment started with the determination of the quantity of water to
ensure a workable mix. A mix ratio of 1:1:3 as suggested by Lyons (2007) was employed with
varying quantities of water. The trials established that 2.5g of water per 1g of ground paper at
saturated surface dry condition was suitable. Three samples ‘SP’, ‘BAP’ and ‘BCP’ were prepared.
Sample SP contained cement, sand as fine aggregate and paper. Sample BAP contained cement,
CBB as fine aggregate and paper. Sample BCP contained cement, CBB as fine aggregate, CBB
replacing 10% of cement and paper. The moulds used were 72mm x 72mm x 72mm cube
moulds for density, water absorption, compression, and thermal conductivity tests. Cylinder
moulds 100mm x 200mm (ASTM C42, 1990; BS 1881-120, 1983) were used for tensile test and
250mm x 90mm x 25mm rectangular moulds (BS EN 11925-2, 2010) were used for fire reaction
test. Three samples each were produced per batch for the compressive strength, tensile strength
and water absorption tests. A sample per batch was used for the thermal conductivity test. Six
samples per batch were used for the reaction to fire test. A total of 135 specimens were cast.
The samples for strength tests were also used to assess the density of the materials.

Curing: As papercrete is highly water absorbent and takes a significant time to dry, the samples
were cured for 7 days by covering with polythene sheets and then, allowed to get air-dried.
Density test: the density of the papercrete samples was determined in accordance with BS EN
12390-7 (2009). The samples for each mix were weighed and their volume determined in
accordance with section 5.5.5 of the standard.

Water absorption test: this was determined by total immersion in accordance with ASTM C642
(1997). The oven dry mass (A) and saturated mass (B) after immersion in water was determined
for all the samples. The oven dry mass was determined by weighing the samples and drying in
an oven at a temperature of 100°C for 24 hr. The saturated mass was determined by immersing
the samples in water until they achieved a constant mass. This took up to 48 hours. The
absorption percentage was then calculated using the Eqn (1) due to ASTM C642 (1997):

Absorption after immersion (%) = ���
�

� �tt (1)

Strength tests: the compression test was conducted in accordance with BS EN 12390-3 (2009).
The cubes were placed, trowelled face sideways, in the testing machine and loaded. The loading

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was stopped once the sample became fractured. The tensile strength was also determined using
the same compression machine as in the compression test.

Thermal conductivity test: the test was carried out at the laboratory of the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic. The parameters for determining the thermal
conductivity were measured using the standard method for thermal conductivity described by
Ashraful (2005). A free and forced heat transfer apparatus was used. The apparatus consists of a
controller and a hot plate. The power supply is set from the controller. The temperature of the
hot plate was then recorded after the readings reached a steady state. The temperature at two
points on a sample was then recorded. The thermal conductivity was then computed using
Fourier’s law as stated by Incropera and Dewitt (2002) and presented in Eqn (2):

Q = � � �� ��
�

(2)

where: Q = heat transfer (W); k = thermal conductivity (W/mK); A = area of the specimen (m2);
ΔT = difference in temperature (K) between two sections (of area A) at a distance L (m); L =
distance between two sections (of area A) at which temperature is taken.

Fire reaction test: the reaction of papercrete to fire was assessed using Single Flame Ignitability
(SFI test) in accordance with BS EN 11925-2 (2010). The samples were fixed in a horizontal
position and a filter paper placed underneath the sample. Flame was placed on the edge and
surface of three samples each per mix for 30 seconds. The time to ignition and the time until the
flames spread up and reach 150mm above the flame application point are recorded. Also, the
ignition or otherwise of the filter paper was noted.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Chemical Analysis of CBB
Table 1 presents the composition of major oxides in powdered brick while Table 2 presents the
composition of oxides in the CBB used in relation to the requirements for class N pozzolana.
Table 2 shows that the sum of silica, alumina and iron oxide in CBB exceeds the 70% minimum
recommended by ASTM C618. The sulphur trioxide (SO3) content was also less than the
maximum 4% required by the standard. Also, the analysis revealed no traces of magnesia (MgO)
while the sum of minor oxides was less than 5%. Hence based on the oxide composition the
CBB used in the study has the potential to undergo pozzolanic reaction.

Table 1: Chemical Composition of CBB and Pumice
Concentration, %

Compound Al2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 CaO SO3 MgO Na2O K2O
CBB 16.10 65.20 10.66 1.69 0.12 � � 2.80

Table 2: Chemical Requirements of Class N Pozzolana
S/No. Properties Recommendation for Class N Pozzolana CBB
1 Silica (SiO2) + Alumina (Al2O3)

+ Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
70 (min %) 91.96%

2 Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 4 (max %) 0.12
3 Magnesia (MgO) + �
4 Free alkali e.g. Na2O, K2O 5 (max %) 2.80

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3.2 Bulk Density and Water absorption
Figure 1 presents the density of the papercrete samples at 14 and 28 days. Samples BAP and
BCP containing brick particles had higher densities than the control sample, SP at both ages.
This increase in density could be as a result of the pozzolanic effect of very fine CBB particles
which reduce the amount of CaOH2 thus improving densification. Also, Joy (2005) pointed that
regardless of the reactivity of pozzolanic particles, if very fine, it will be able to fit into cement
grains thus resulting in more efficient paste packing. This lowers the mean capillary size and
reduces bleeding and hence results in a denser microstructure (Joy, 2005). Even with the
increase in density of samples BAP and BCP over sample SP, papercrete containing crushed and
powdered brick still meets the requirement of ASTM C332 (1999) which requires the density of
lightweight concrete to be lower than 1440 Kg/m3. Figure 2 indicates that all samples are highly
water absorbent. This could be due to the high content of paper (60%) used in the mixes just
like Titzman (2006) acknowledged that unless special treatments are applied to papercrete, it
behaves like a sponge soaking in water. Sangrutsamee et al. (2012) also obtained water
absorption values as high as 58% using different types of recycled paper at varying contents.

3.3 Strength of Papercrete
The results of the compressive and tensile strength tests are also presented in figure 3. At 14
days, samples BAP and BCP containing brick particles gained 9% in strength over the control
sample, SP. At 28 days, Sample BAP containing crushed brick particles as fines gained 3% in
strength over the Sample SP. In an earlier study by Khatib (2005), strength results similar to the
control mixture containing normal fine aggregate were obtained using crushed brick as fine
aggregate to produce concrete. Sample BCP containing crushed and powdered brick particles
gained 39% increase in strength over Sample SP and 36% over Sample BAP. This significant
increase in strength could be attributed to the pozzolanic action of the powdered brick particles
as Rogers (2011), indicated that burnt brick if fine enough will undergo pozzolanic reaction
when combined with lime in the presence of water. Lin et al. (2010) pointed that pozzolans
reduce calcium hydroxide CaOH2 from the hydrating cement paste resulting in additional
cement gel thus improving strength. Additionally, the compressive strength of all the samples
fall within the range 0.7 N/mm2 – 7.0 N/mm2 required by ASTM C332 (1992). Results of the
tensile strength test in figure 4 were in tandem with those of the compressive strength with
samples BAP and BCP containing crushed and powdered brick particles recording similar or
higher values than the control at both ages.

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3.4 Thermal Properties
Figure 5 presents the thermal conductivity of the papercrete samples. Sample BAP (0.641 W/mK)
containing crushed brick particles recorded a lower thermal conductivity than the control
(0.657W/mK). However, Sample BCP (0.663W/mK) containing crushed and powdered brick
particles increased in thermal conductivity over the control. These differences in thermal
conductivity could be attributed to variations in porosity and density of the samples. However,
the values obtained by all the samples were more than the maximum 0.43 W/mK prescribed in
ASTM C332 (1999). Still, the thermal conductivity of the samples are very low when compared to
other materials such as concrete (1.25W/mK). Also, in an earlier study, Sangrutsamee et al. (2012)
assessed the thermal conductivity of papercrete containing different paper types and obtained
values ranging from 0.289W/mK to 0.625 W/mK for different mixes of papercrete. Just as with
the thermal conductivity test, all the samples reacted well upon impingement with flame. None
of the samples ignited upon application of flame as there were no flaming droplets nor ignition
of the filter papers used in the test.

4. Conclusion
This study assessed the effect of using crushed and powdered brick particles as aggregate and
as pozzolan in producing papercrete. An initial XRD analysis on powdered brick particles reveal
the presence of major oxides – silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3) above the
minimum recommended in ASTM 618 thus signifying its suitability as a pozzolan. Density and
strength tests show an increase for samples containing crushed brick particles over ordinary
papercrete and even greater increases in samples containing both crushed and powdered brick
particles. In addition, all samples met the density and strength requirements for lightweight
insulation concrete outlined in ASTM C332 (1999). The thermal conductivity values of the

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Tangbo and Ibrahim: Effects of crushed and powdered brick particles on lightweight papercrete. AZOJETE,16(1):137-
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samples were above the limit recommended by the standard but significantly low when
compared to other widely used materials like concrete and steel. Furthermore, all the samples
responded well to the fire reaction test as there was no ignition in any of the samples.
Conversely, all the samples were highly water absorbent. Overall, brick particles increase the
density and strength of papercrete with no significant adverse effect on water absorption,
thermal conductivity and fire reaction.

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