Availability and Conditions of Agricultural Machinery in Public and Private Sectors of Borno State, Nigeria


Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. October, 2007; Vol.5, 13-25
Copyright© Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818
www.azojete.com.ng

A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF MAIZE YIELD RESPONSE TO
TILLAGE, TRAFFIC AND SOIL TEMPERATURE ON A

FERRUGINOUS SOIL (HAPLUSTALF)

Yusuf, D.D.1

Abstract

Compaction of agricultural soils due to multiple passes of heavy power units has been the subject of much
concern, in recent years. This paper, through a 3-year on-farm experiment, studied and discussed the resulting
effects of tillage, traffic compaction and soil temperature on maize yield. Results showed that soil resistance to
cone penetration and crop yield changed rapidly during the period of study and could be related to soil moisture
content and tillage. As maize extracts soil moisture, differential soil strengths and crop yields were obtained
between shallow and deep tilled plots. Soil temperatures were lower in shallow (15.0 xm) tilled plots than in
deep (30.00cm) tilled plots and high soil temperature enhanced maize grain yield. The most rapid seedling
emergence and highest crop yield were obtained in soil temperatures that averaged 300C at seedling level and
within the top soil of 0-15cm zone. Increase in soil resistance to cone penetration reduced maize grain yield.
Tillage treatment significantly affected ( )05.0P soil temperature, plant height and maize grain yield.

1. Introduction

In Nigeria, technological development in agricultural sector together with economic pressure
to reduce production costs and increase crop production for the growing population make it
imperative that more vehicles are used on the farm. The unknown traffic set up by these
vehicles has been shown to cause soil compaction (Brannack and Dexter, 1979; Soane et al.,
1981; Spoor, 1982; Wolf and Hadas, 1984). Soil compaction which is also a measure of soil
particle bonding and matrix properties have caused reduction in seed germination, retarded
root development and reduced crop yields for many soil types and conditions (Soane et al.,
1982; Soane and van Ouwerkerk, 1994). Modern farming system is a continuing cycle
between soil compaction caused by wheel traffic and reduction of this compaction through
appropriate tillage. Soil physical investigations and studies on crop yield suggested that crop
yields were improved when appropriate tillage was practiced (Rydberg, 1986; Ryderg and
Ockerman, 1987; Dexter, 1988; Hakansson et al., 1988; Kay, 1990; Domzal and Hodora,
1991; 1992; Domzai et al., 1993).

Each implement pass causes a reduction of the mean aggregate size, and weakens the internal
structural bonds (Chanclellor et al., 1969). Intensive cultivation affects soil aggregate stability
with deleterious effect on soil physical properties and subsequent crust formation. These
modifications of soil physical properties have a direct effect on soil temperature. Soil
temperature models have been used to help predict soil temperatures resulting from different
tillage operations (Cruse et al., 1989; Gupta et al., 1981; 1982). Walker (1969) and Barlow et
al. (1977) showed that 10C change in soil temperature can significantly affect corn growth
rates. The objective of this research was to examine the effects of tillage, traffic, compaction
and soil temperature on maize yield at the Institute for Agricultural Research Farm.

1Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Nigeria

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A Critical Examination of Maize Yield Response to Tillage, Traffic and Soil Temperature on a
Ferruginous Soil (Haplustalf)

14
2. Theory

2.1 Soil temperature
Change in soil temperature with time can be expressed as:

)/('/ 2zTktT   (van Wijik, 1963) (1)
where k’ is the soil thermal diffusivity, T is temperature, t is time and z is soil depth.

According to van Wijik (1963), one –dimensional soil temperature changes in a homogeneous
soil is:

)]([),( /
0

/
0

DzDz tSineATtzT    (2)

where D is the damping length. T is the average temperature,  is the radial frequency, A0 is
the surface temperature and 0 is the phase constant.

2.2 Tillage
Deviations of tillage means (over two plots) from their overall (cropped) mean tillage or mean
soil moisture content are defined as relative tillage effects that is expressed as:

lijij xxRTE  (Radke et al., 1985) (3)
where RTEij is the relative effect of tillage, xi is the mean overall tillage and replications for
cropping treatments, i, and xij is the mean over replications with tillage, j, for cropping
treatments, i.

2.3 Soil resistance to penetrometer
The resistance to the penetrometer probe (Qp) can be calculated in terms of stress normal to
the probe surface ( ), the coefficient of soil – metal friction (  ), the adhesion (Ca) and the
cone semi-angle ( ) as:

 CaCotCotQp  )'1( (Bengough, 1992) (4)

The adhesion term is simply frictional resistance that is due to the load at the soil-metal
interface caused by the soil-water suction. Hence, represents the resistance to a ‘frictionless’
probe (i.e. setting  and Ca to zero in Eqnuation 4).

In Nigeria, the effects of soil penetration resistance on crop yields caused by wheel traffic
have been studied by various researchers (Oni et al., 1982; Kayombo and Lal, 1986; Ojeniyi,
1986; Ohu and Folorunsho, 1989; Onwualu and Anazodo, 1989; Yusuf, 1996; Yusuf and
Asota, 1998; Yusuf, 2001). Ohu and Folorunsho (1989) reported higher bulk density and soil
resistance to cone penetrometer pressure with increase in the number of tractor passes.
Onwualu and Anazodo (1989), Yusuf (1996) and Yusuf (2001) showed that soil moisture
content and porosity decreased with increase in soil penetration resistance. The use of
appropriate tillage system and the development of tillage machinery are input thrusts for
effective crop production in Nigeria.



AZOJETE Vol. 5 2007

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3. Materials and methods

3.1 Experimental Treatments
The experiments were conducted at Samaru (110111N, 070338’E and 685m above sea level) in
Kaduna State, Nigeria. The soil is classified as Ultic Haplustalf (Valette and Ibanga, 1984). It
is a reddish-brown soil with an average pH-KCl of 5.5 and 0.6%, w/w of organic carbon. The
experimental site was at the Institute for Agricultural Research Farm, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria. The tillage treatments were; arara ploughing followed by ziz-zag harrowing
and arara ridging (T1), emcot ploughing followed by ziz-zag harrowing and emcot ridging
(T2), mouldboard ploughing followed by disc harrowing and mouldboard ridging (T3), disc
ploughing followed by disc harrowing and disc ridging (T4) and manual ridging (T5). The
nitrogen treatments were: No nitrogen (No), 40kg Nha-1 (N1), 80kg Nha-1 (N2), and 120 kg
Nha-1 (N3). The nitrogen application was done uniformly after the tillage treatments with a
drop-type broadcaster that has spaced openings along the full length of a hopper. Two
planting methods, manual and mechanical were used. Manual planting involves dropping
seeds into holes made with heels, covering the seeds with soil and compacting the soil
surrounding the seeds with the heels. The mechanical planting involves the use of a single-
row animals-drawn planter. Tillage was done at an average soil gravimetric water content of
0.257 kg/kg (the water content at the time of tillage). They were sown with maize (Zea maiys
L.) of TZSR-W crop variety at the rate of 25 kgha-1. The crop row spacing, hill spacing and
depth of seed placement were 75cm, 25cm and 3cm, respectively.

The treatments were randomly assigned in a 4 x 5 x 2 factorial experiment arranged in a strip-
split-plot design with five tillage treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5) as horizontal treatments,
four nitrogen rates (N0, N1, N2 and N3) as vertical treatments and two planting methods (P1
and P2) as sub-plot treatments in four replications. Each plot size was 4m x 5m and the
experiment was conducted from 1997 to 1999.

3.2 Measurements
Soil temperature readings were taken from Cu-constant thermocouple recorded by a Campbell
Scientific CR5 digital recorder equipped with an S250 relay scanner. Installations were at five
different locations per plot each year along the sown line. Readings were taken twice per day
(at 08.00h and 16.00h) throughout the growing season from 1997 to 1999. Two depths (0-15
cm and 15-30 cm) were used for soil temperature and the thermocouple was inserted into the
ground close to the tip of developing plants.

The mean plant height in each plot was measured weekly from 2 to 12 weeks after planting,
using the method described by Tisdall and Adam (1986). Rainfall intensity and air
temperature measurements were available from the Institute for Agricultural Research,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria weather station, which is approximately 200m away. Soil
penetration resistances were measured with cone penetrometer (ASAE, 1976) at 10 locations
on each plot and the mean for each plot was used. Soil moisture content was determined
gravimetrically after drying at 1050C for 24 h. The data were analysed using regression and
analysis of variance (ANOVA).



A Critical Examination of Maize Yield Response to Tillage, Traffic and Soil Temperature on a
Ferruginous Soil (Haplustalf)

16

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Climate
The average annual rainfall for the experimental period (May to August in 1997-1999) ranged
from 702.0 to 870.0 mm while the long term annual precipitation for the region varies from
944.6 to 1239.2 mm. Mean air temperature during the study period (May-August in 1997 –
1999) remained relatively constant at 29.00C.

4.2 Tillage and Soil Temperature
Effect of tillage on soil temperature is shown in Table 1. Typical hourly variations in soil
temperature during a 5-day period of the study are shown in Figure 1. The temperatures of the
soil in the seed zone during planting are generally higher in the days than in the nights. This is
probably because rainy seasons at Samaru are characterized by warm days and cool nights.
Soil temperature and plant height were significantly affected ( )01.0P by tillage treatments
(Tables 1 and 2). Soil temperatures were lower in shallow tilled plots of T1 and T2. A
difference in early and high number of seedling emergence and crop yield could be expected
between shallow and deep tilled soils since soil temperatures were lower in shallow than in
deep tilled plots. Tillage treatments exerted a considerable influence on root-zone temperature,
plant development and maize yield. High soil temperature enhanced plant growth and crop
yield (Figure 2). This result is consistent with the earlier reports of Ehkers (1975), German et
al. (1984) and Farazdaghi et al. (1986) who attributed the enhanced plant growth and crop
yield to high soil temperature.

The most rapid seedling emergence and highest crop yield were obtained in soil temperatures
that averaged 300C at seedling level and within the top soil of 0-15 cm zone. It implies that
soil temperature can be used as an index of monitoring and predicting plant growth under
wide range of temperature conditions and tillage systems. This result is of practical
importance to maize farmers in that it will be possible to make decisions regarding the
necessity of replanting or the initiation of subsequent cultural practices.



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A Critical Examination of Maize Yield Response to Tillage, Traffic and Soil Temperature on a
Ferruginous Soil (Haplustalf)

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A Critical Examination of Maize Yield Response to Tillage, Traffic and Soil Temperature on a
Ferruginous Soil (Haplustalf)

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Figure 2: Distribution of mean plant height along gradients of maximum soil
temperature (Tmax) and minimum soil temperature (Tmin) using (a) mechanical
planter and (b) manual planting



AZOJETE Vol. 5 2007

214.3 Soil Compaction
In the months of May-September, mean soil bulk density of 1.90 Mgm-3 and soil
penetration resistance of 3.7 MPa were recorded at the site. However, by October and
November of each year of the study, the soil became drier with high soil penetration
resistance (> 3.7 MPa) at any soil depth during the 3-year investigations (1997-1999). Tillage
had significant effect (P )01.0 on soil penetration resistance (Table 2). The interactions of
nitrogen rate, planting method and tillage showed no significance effect (P )05.0 on soil
penetration resistance. Increase in soil penetration resistance reduced maize grain yield
(Figure 3). The T4 treatment had the lowest mean penetration resistance of 2.7 MPa and
highest mean maize grain yield of 4.8t ha-1. This result agrees with the findings of Carry and
Evans (1974) and Collebaut et al. (1986) which is in agreement with the results reported by
Richman et al. (1965) and Coote and Rainsey (1983). Though the soil moisture content
profile in 1997 and 1998 were similar, the distribution of soil penetration resistance varied
widely. Unger (1984) had similar results and reported that in some cases, tillage with identical
soil moisture contents, produced significantly different soil penetration resistance.



A Critical Examination of Maize Yield Response to Tillage, Traffic and Soil Temperature on a
Ferruginous Soil (Haplustalf)

22

Figure 3: Response of maize grain yield to soil penetration resistance at Samaru, Zaria
(with soil moisture content range of 18 – 23 %)



AZOJETE Vol. 5 2007

235. Conclusions and recommendations

Increase in soil penetration resistance reduced maize grain yield. Tillage treatment
significantly affected (P )01.0 soil temperature, plant height and maize grain yield. The T4
treatment had the lowest mean soil penetration resistance of 2.7 MPa and highest mean maize
yield of 4.8t ha-1. Soil temperatures were lower in shallow (15.0 cm) tilled plots of T1 and T2
than in deep (30.0 cm) tilled plot T3, T4 and T5. The most rapid seedling emergence and
highest crop yield were obtained in soil temperatures that averaged 30 0C at seedling level and
within the top soil of 0-15 cm zone.

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nkTI 


	A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF MAIZE YIELD RESPONSE TO 
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	References