ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
AZOJETE, September 2019. Vol. 15(3) 733-749

Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818

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733

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL WASTE UTILIZATION AS IMPROVEMENT ADDITIVES FOR
RESIDUAL TROPICAL SOILS

K. Ishola1*, O. A. Olawuyi1, A. A. Bello1, R. K. Etim2, P. Yohanna3 and J. E. Sani4

(1Department of Civil Engineering, Osun State University, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
2Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot Akpadent, Nigeria.

3Department of Civil Engineering, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
4Department of Civil Engineering, Nigeria Defense Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria.)

* Corresponding author’s email address: isholakzm@gmail.com

ARTICLE INFORMATION

Submitted 22 November, 2018
Revised 7 March, 2019
Accepted 10 March, 2019

Keywords:
Agricultural waste
Soil improvement
rice husk ash
Palm oil fuel ash
Corn cob ash

ABSTRACT
The development of a nation partially depends on sustainable materials
obtained from agricultural products. Increased agricultural products
could increase the amount of waste generated yearly. This paper
presents a review on the use of agricultural waste with pozzolanic
properties (rice husk ash, Locust bean waste ash, Palm oil fuel ash,
Banana leaf ash, Bagasse ash, Coconut shell ash, Bamboo leaf ash, Corn
cob ash, Cassava peel ash and Palm kernel shell ash) in various
geotechnical engineering applications. Interestingly, these wastes were
subjected to various laboratory tests such as (particle size distribution,
Compaction, Atterberg, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and
California bearing ratio (CBR)) to assess their effectiveness in soil
improvement. In all these, the percentages of the materials required for
soil improvement were discussed. The reports from various researchers
have shown that agricultural waste having pozzolanic properties
improves the engineering properties of soil. For instance, palm oil fuel
ash (POFA) is mostly used as an admixture in concrete as reported
elsewhere. Few studies have been carried out on the use of banana leaf
ash and palm oil fuel ash as soil improvement materials. It is
recommended that further researches should focus on the possibility of
using other agricultural waste from Cocoyam, Yam peel, maize trunk,
Cashew and Guava that have limited reporting researches for use as
soil improvement materials.

© 2019 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved.

1.0 Introduction
Several studies have shown the importance of agricultural waste products as an alternative to
conventional material for soil improvement (Olonode, 2010; Oluremi et al., 2012; Ako and Yusuf,
2016, Ishola et al., 2019). The residues generated from the growing and processing of raw
agricultural materials such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops are
regarded as agricultural wastes. The report of Obi et al. (2016) sheds light on the waste
obtained from the food processing industry especially that of maize where it was indicated that
20% is good for canning and remaining 80% counted as waste. The significant increase in

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 734

agricultural wastes globally was due to intensifying farming systems, high demand in the food
industry and increase in housing areas that lead to the clearance of plantation area (Daud et al.,
2016). The increases in global population lead to a high rate of agricultural products which in
turn increases the waste produce yearly (Agamu, 2009). Interestingly, wastes from agricultural
product like locust bean, Rice husk, Palm oil, Banana Tree, Sugarcane, Bamboo Tree and palm
kernel have widely been used to improve the geotechnical properties of tropical soils ( lateritic
and black cotton soils) among others that are deficient for engineering application in their
natural form (Bello et al., 2015; Sadiq et al., 2015). A report shows that about 998 million tonnes
of agricultural waste are generated every year (Agamu, 2009). These rates prompted researchers
to focus more on how the materials can be converted for use as a material for soil improvement
in construction.

Lateritic soils are generally used in many developing countries like Nigeria for the construction
of sub-base and base courses in both flexible and rigid pavements. In most of these regions, the
dominant soil material available is lateritic soil. Additionally, it is readily available and found in
abundance and are cost-effective (Alhassan and Mustapha, 2015). Naturally, lateritic soil has a
low bearing capacity and low strength due to high clay content. It has been reported that
lateritic soil with large clay materials would not have guaranteed strength and stability under
loading in the presence of moisture (Bello et al., 2015). Typical laterite soils are generally rich in
iron and aluminum formed in tropical areas. Most laterites are rusty-red because of the presence
of iron oxides (Osinubi et al., 2009). They are formed by intensive and long-lasting weathering of
the underlying parent rock. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical
weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy
of the resulting soils. The initial products of weathering are essentially kaolinite rocks called
saprolites (Nnochiri and Aderinlewo, 2016). Researchers have worked extensively on the
geotechnical and engineering properties of lateritic soils in all geopolitical zones of Nigeria and
other part of the country (Adewoye et al., 2004; Agbede and Osuolale, 2005; Bello, 2007; Bello et
al., 2007; Bello and Adegoke, 2010; Owoseni et al., 2014 and Lekha, 2015).

Black cotton soil is tropical black clay having a colour characteristic of dark grey to black with
high clay content and usually expansive in nature and contains over 50 % of montmorillonite
which is the principal clay mineral (Rajakumar and Meenambal, 2015). These soils dominated
semi–arid regions of tropical/ temperate zones and mostly found anywhere in the world,
especially where the annual evaporation exceeds the precipitation (Rajakumar and Meenambal,
2015). Tropical black clays possess shrink-swell characteristics and cause damages (settlement)
to structural pavement resting on such soils. However, this happened as a result of variation in
moisture content that is not evenly distributed (Osinubi et al., 2010; Akinmade, 2016). Generally,
deposits of black cotton soil in the field show a general pattern of cracks during the dry season
of the year. The Cracks measured about 70 mm wide and over 1m deep have been observed
and may extend up to 3m or more in case of high deposits (Rajakumar and Meenambal, 2015).
Black cotton soil usually loses its strength properties to the wet and dry characteristic which have
effect in its hardness. The presence of montmorillonite and illite in the black cotton soil has
made it exhibit very low bearing capacity, low permeability, and high volume change. However,
In their natural state, these properties make them unsuitable for construction of embankment,
highway, building or any other load bearing structure (Das, 1998). These types of soil group form
found in the North Eastern part of Nigeria and exhibit large volume changes with respect to the
variation of seasonal moisture content (Eberemu et al., 2012). They usually pose challenges to

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Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, September, 2019; Vol. 15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490;
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civil engineering works because of their swelling and shrinkage characteristics and call for a need
to improve such soils prior to their applications for load bearing structures.
In order to make deficient soils suitable for use as a construction material, it presents properties
needed to be improved. Such soils required the laboratory test such as permeability, unconfined
compressive strength, and California bearing ratio, to assess their suitability for various
engineering applications such as embankment, concrete and road construction (George and
Oriola, 2010; Ochepo, 2014; Eberemu, 2013; Eberemu 2015; George et al., 2013; Sadiq et al., 2015;
Amu et al., 2011; Bello et al., 2015). Generally, the improvement of deficient soils could either be
by modification or stabilization or both. In the modification process, a modifier such as cement
and lime are added to soil to change (improve) its index and friction properties. While Soil
stabilization enhanced the strength and durability characteristic of the soil. However, they
become totally suitable for construction beyond their original classification.

Over time, cement and lime have been the two main materials used for stabilizing soils. Neville
(2000) reported that the cost of these materials has rapidly increased due to the sharp increase
in the cost of energy since the 1970s. Current trend in research works of geotechnical
engineering and construction materials has focused more on the search for cheap and locally
available materials such as agricultural wastes (Rice husk ash(RHA), Locust bean ash (LBA), Palm
oil fuel ash (POFA), Banana leaf ash (BLA), Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA), Bamboo leaves ash
(BLA), Cassava peel ash (CPA), Corn cob ash (CCA) and palm kernel shell ash (PSA)) as stabilizing
agents for the purpose of full or partially replacement of traditional stabilizers. Agricultural waste
has become a focus of researchers, because of the enhanced pozzolanic capabilities of such
waste when oxidized by burning. Thus, this review work evaluated the possibility of utilizing
agricultural wastes in the improvement of residual tropical soils as suggested by several authors
and pointed at the agricultural products that have limited reports in the literature.

2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Saw Dust Ash
Sawdust ash is obtained as a by- product of burning of sawdust from a timber shed. The
sawdust is first air-dried and burnt under atmospheric condition within a temperature range of
550 – 650°C measured with a thermocouple. The ash obtained from the sawdust is allowed to
pass through the No. 200 sieve (75 µm aperture) to meet the requirement of ASTM C618-78
(2013)

Thompson (2012) evaluated the effects of saw dust ash (SDA) on the geotechnical properties of
soil obtained from two locations (A and B) in Southwestern Nigeria. Laboratory test was carried
out on the two samples and samples mixed with up to 10% SDA content with respect to
consistency limits, specific gravity, compaction, California bearing ratio, unconfined compressive
strength and shear strength. The results show that saw dust ash has improved the geotechnical
properties of the soil samples: maximum dry density increased from 1403 to1456 Kg/m3 and
1730 to 1785 kg/m3, optimum moisture content increased from 23.6 to 28.2% and 26.2 to 29.2%,
unconfined compressive strength increased from 101.4 to 142.14 and 211.11 to 154.97, shear
strength increased from 50.92 to 71.07 kN/m2 and 77.49 to 105.99 kN/m2 for samples A and B,
respectively. Based on the laboratory test results, he concluded that saw dust ash is therefore
found to be an effective stabilizer for lateritic soils.

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 736

Yohanna et al. (2016) performed a reliability assessment of black cotton soil stabilized with
sawdust ash admixtures for use in road construction. Treatment with up to 8% sawdust ash
significantly improved the index properties, compaction and strength characteristics of the
natural black cotton soil studied. Reliability estimates of strength characteristics (California
bearing ratio, CBR and unconfined compressive strength, UCS) results with variable factors
produced safety index values that are less than 1.0 and unacceptable. The results recorded
indicate that black cotton soil compacted with reducing British standard light ( RBSL) energy
cannot be used as a road pavement material, but for low load bearing structures such as road
shoulders and pedestrian walkways. However, saw dust ash (SDA) can be beneficially used as an
admixture in road construction when a higher compactive effort is used.

Mannir et al. (2016) studied the effect of sawdust ash mixtures on compacted black cotton soil
as road construction material. The result shows that the liquid limit, plastic limit, and linear
shrinkage decreased, while the plasticity index increased with SDA content. Also, optimum
moisture content (OMC) increased to a maximum value of 30% while maximum dry density
decreased to a minimum value of 0.86Mg/m3 at 10% SDA content. Peak unsoaked California
bearing ratio (CBR) value of 4% was recorded at 2% SDA content. On the other hand, peak 7
days unconfined compressive strength (UCS) value of 90kN/m2 was recorded at 8% SDA content.
The results recorded indicate that black cotton soil compacted with RBSL energy cannot be used
as a road pavement material, but for low load bearing structures such as road shoulders.

Oluremi et al. (2007) evaluated the plasticity characteristics and cation-exchange capacity (CEC)
of lateritic soil treated with up to 10% of iron ore tailing (IOT) and waste wood ash (WWA) using
laboratory tests and regression analysis. Their results showed an initial increase in the cation-
exchange capacity up to 8% IOT content and 2% WWA content. However, the plasticity
characteristics (liquid limit and plastic limit) initially increased with higher IOT content and then
decreased up to 2% WWA content and thereafter increased up to 10% WWA content. The
plasticity index decreased up to 8% for IOT and 6% for WWA and thereafter increased with
additional IOT and WWA contents, respectively. The regression analysis showed a close
relationship between the experimental values and the predicted values for both IOT and WWA
treated lateritic soil. The conclusion was made on the treated soil that an optimal blend of 8%
IOT and 6% WWA contents with lateritic soil improved the consistency indices for use as a
subgrade material in lightly trafficked roads.

2.2 Rice Husk Ash
Rice husk is an agricultural waste obtained from milling of rice/ rice mill factories and contains
pozzolanic material (Yoobanpot and Jamsawang, 2014). Rice mill factories create a waste
product called raw husk which is used as heating fuel in rice mill processing and produces the
RHA as a byproduct from the burnt raw husk. In a year, about 10 tons of rice husk is usually
produced globally (Bello et al., 2014). Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006) reported that in Nigeria,
about 2.0 million tons of rice is produced annually, especially in Niger State where about 96,600
tons of rice grains are produced, however, this rate of production shows that high quantities of
rice are being consumed, which in turn increase the quantity of rice husk produce annually.
Generally, Rice husk ash has been reported to be a pozzolanic material with about 67-70 %
(silica), 4.9 % (aluminum) and 0.95% (iron oxides) (Oyetola and Abdullahi, 2006).

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Bello et al. (2014) investigated the influence of four compactive efforts namely Reduced British
Standard Light (RBSL), British Standard Light (BSL), West African Standard (WAS) and British
Standard Heavy (BSH) on the engineering properties of lateritic soil stabilized with rice husk ash
(RHA) derived from Osun State University main campus, Osogbo, Osun State, Southwestern
Nigeria. The results of laboratory tests conducted showed a reduction in maximum dry density
(MDD) values for RBSL, BSL, WAS, BSH compaction energies, when natural soil was treated with
6%, 8%, 10% and 12% RHA respectively, however, increase in optimum moisture content (OMC)
was recorded for RBSL, BSL, WAS, BSH at 4 %, 6 % and 8 % RHA respectively. They reported an
improvement in California bearing ratio (CBR) of soaked samples from 2.5, 8 and 11% for BSL,
WAS and BSH to 10, 18 and 30% at 4 -8% RHA content. Finally, the BSL that yielded CBR value of
10% at 6% RHA treatment of soil was recommended for use as subgrade of lightly trafficked
roads and BSH that yielded CBR value of 30% at 4 % RHA stabilization of soil was being
recommended for subbase construction (Bello et al., 2014).

Yoobanpot and Jamsawang (2014) investigated the compressive strength characteristics of soft
soil improvement using RHA as a partial replacement of cement at various curing times of 3, 7,
14 and 28 days. In their results, 30% of RHA produced the soil strength of 424, 722, 915 and
1,126 kPa at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days curing respectively. They concluded that the increase in
strength of the stabilized soil was relative to the formation of major reaction products such as
calcium silicate hydrate.

Choobbasti et al. (2010) conducted a laboratory test to determine the influence of adding RHA
on the amount and quickness of soil and lime reaction. They reported that the combination of
soil with 4% lime gives the maximum amount of cohesion and internal friction angle parameters
which is similar to the situation of using 3% and 5% RHA. However, the addition of RHA to the
combination of soil with 4% lime caused an increase in the dilation parameter but shows a
decreasing rate in the combination of soil with 6% lime. The addition of lime and RHA to the soil
causes a decrease in the deformability of soil samples and gives more brittle materials. Moreover,
this action causes an increase in shear strength. The maximum shear strength of soil with lime
combination occurs at 5% RHA for 28 days of soil samples.

Chao-Lung et al. (2011) carried out a laboratory test to investigate the effect of marble dust on
the strength and durability of an expansive soil stabilized with an optimum percentage of rice
husk ash (RHA). Their report showed that the optimum percentage of RHA used was 10% based
on unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. However, compaction tests, UCS tests, soaked
CBR tests, swelling pressure tests, and durability tests were conducted on these samples after 7
days of curing. Finally, the result of UCS and soaked CBR of RHA stabilized expansive soil
showed an increase of up to 20% addition of marble dust.

2.3 Locust Bean waste ash (LBWA)
The locust bean waste is a material obtained from locust bean fibrous after the husk has been
removed. Locust bean tree is common in the environment, especially in Nigeria. The tree grows
to about 15 m in height with dark, evergreen, pinnate leaves. An estimated value of about
200,000 tons of locust bean seeds is reported gathered each year in Nigeria (Osinubi et al., 2016).
This comprises of husk, powder, and the seed which is commonly used to produce local
seasoning for food. However, the husk is known to be waste among the three components
which when burnt in an open place, produces ash called Locust bean waste ash (LBWA).

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 738

Nwadiogbu and Salahudeen (2014) reported that LBWA is a pozzolanic material that is capable
of reacting with lime in the presence of water at ordinary temperature to produce a cementitious
compound.
Samaila and Srividhya (2015) reported the results of laboratory tests conducted to evaluate the
characteristics of two weak soils (sample 1 and sample 2) stabilized with up to 8% and 6% LBWA
content respectively. The preliminary test produced results for the two soil samples and showed
that sample 1 and sample 2 that classified as CL and CH soil respectively have 75% and 100%
free swell index, 43.6% and 53.2% liquid limits; 19.6% and 18.12% plasticity index; 72% and 68%
fine content. They reported the results of other properties such as maximum dry densities,
optimum moisture contents and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for the two soil samples
(sample 1 and 2) and are given as (1.74 g/cm3 and 1.67 g/cm3), (17.5% and 18%) and (1.5
kg/cm2 and 2.1 kg/cm2) respectively for the two soil samples. However, result of the stabilized
samples showed that the UCS improved by 45% when soil sample 1 was treated with 8% LBWA,
while the improvement of 102% was obtained when soil sample 2 was treated with 6% LBWA
content for the same 7 days curing. Their report indicated that the properties of weak soils
improved when stabilized with LBWA.

Nwadiogbu and Salahudeen (2014) carried out a laboratory test on the lateritic soil to evaluate
the potential of lime on modified lateritic soil using locust bean waste ash as an admixture. The
lateritic soil used was treated with up to 4% lime content and 8% LBWA content by weight of
the dry soil sample In the sieve analysis performed, an increase in the particle sizes was observed
with an increase in lime/LBWA content. However, an improvement in the atterberg limits was
also observed as the maximum dry density (MDD) for British Standard Light (BSL) compaction
increased to a peak value at 4% LBWA for all lime contents, while the West African Standard
(WAS) compaction, have the MDD trend that followed continuous decrease. As per British
Standard Heavy (BSH) compaction, no consistent trend was observed. Their report showed that
corresponding optimum moisture content (OMC) values for all the three compactive efforts
generally increased steadily. Generally, cohesion decreased while the corresponding angles of
internal friction increased with increase in lime/LBWA content.

Adama et al. (2013) evaluated the effect of locust bean pod ash on the compaction
characteristics of weak subgrade soils. Their studies made use of soils obtained from old borrow
pits along Minna-Kataeregi-Bida road in Northern Nigeria and analyzed for the main index
properties and compaction. The experimental results revealed that locust bean pod ash reduced
the maximum dry density from 1.68-1.62, 1.33-1.304 and 1.62-1.50 g/cm3 respectively for all the
lateritic soil samples obtained while it increased the optimum moisture content from 10.4 -11.5,
18.0 -19.5 and 12.03-18.50% respectively thus, improving the compaction properties.
Considering compaction characteristics and economy, 6-10 % weight of stabilizer to the soils
was considered as the required optimum values for satisfactory accomplishment of the
stabilization of the weak soil as road sub-base.

Akinmade et al. (2016) conducted a study on the evaluation of strength characteristics of tropical
black clay treated with locust bean waste ash up to 15 % of LBWA to assess its soil improvement
potential. The natural and treated soil samples used for the study were subjected to index and
compaction test using three energy levels (British Standard light, BSL, West African Standard,
WAS or ‘Intermediate’ and British Standard heavy, BSH), shear strength (unconfined compressive
strength, UCS), California bearing ratio, CBR and durability tests. It was reported that maximum

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Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, September, 2019; Vol. 15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490;
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dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) decreased and increased, respectively.
However, regardless of the compactive effort and curing period, strength and durability
properties increased with higher LBWA content.In checking for durability results, it was observed
that optimal 12.5% LBWA treatment of black cotton soil obtained from BSL energy level cannot
satisfy criteria for its use in road construction.

Namadi and Yamusa (2013) carried out a laboratory test to investigate the influence of locust
bean waste ash (LBWA) on cation exchange and plasticity characteristics of ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) modified lateritic soil. In the preliminary tests carried out on the natural soil and
soil-cement mixtures up to 4% OPC admixed with 8% LBWA content by weight of the dry soil
showed an improvement in the plasticity characteristics of the soil, reflected in the decrease in
liquid limit, increase in plastic limit and decrease in plasticity index with increase a cement and
LBWA content .Following the results obtained, they concluded that modification with cement
and LBWA blend significantly improved the plasticity characteristics through cation exchange of
the lateritic soil.

2.4 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a product of palm oil residue obtained from palm oil mills, when
burnt into ashes it contained a large amount of silica in its chemical composition, which may be
used as a cement replacement like rice-husk ash and sawdust (Ikpong and Okpala 1992; Elinwa
and Mahmood 2002; Tangchirapat et al., 2009). However, the use of POFA as a pozzolanic
material to replace conventional stabilizing materials (cement, lime etc) is known to few
researchers and POFA not more than 10% by weight of a binder has been recommended by Tay
(1990). POFA exhibited some pozzolanic properties and could be used as a partial replacement
for cement (Safiuddin et al., 2011; Tangchirapat et al., 2009).

Pourakbar et al. (2015) investigated the possible uses of Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) on clayey soil.
The laboratory tests (Proctor compaction, Atterberg limit and unconfined compression strength)
were carried out on stabilized and unstabilized soil and results obtained were then compared
with samples treated with cement. Scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis was
conducted on untreated and treated soil to show their strength properties. From their findings it
was revealed that POFA/cement mixture treatments result significantly reduce the soil plasticity
index (PI), decrease the optimum moisture content and increased the maximum dry density
across selected binder dosages. However, using POFA alone to stabilize clayey soil resulted in a
slight increase in the UCS of the specimens until the 28 days of curing, whereas combining POFA
with cement results in a sharp increase in the UCS of the samples in the same curing time.

Tangchirapat et al. (2009) conducted a research study on utilizing palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as a
pozzolanic material for replacing Portland cement. The POFA was grounded to replace cement
40% by weight of the binder and the effects of POFA fineness on the set times, compressive
strength, and expansion of mortars exposed to a 5% MgSO4 solution was investigated. It was
found that the use of POFA to replace Portland cement caused an increase in water demand and
setting time. Up to 10% replacement of Portland cement with POFA increased the compressive
strength of the mortar. However, the ground POFA was a good pozzolanic material and can be
used to increase both the compressive strength and the sulfate resistance of mortar.

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 740

2.5 Banana Leaf Ash (BLA)
Banana is known as a plant that produces fruit and possesses the largest herbaceous flowering
plant that consists of fruit, flower, and leaves. Banana is produced in 135 countries and among
the highest producer in the year 2017 were indian and china, which approximated to about 38 %
of the total world population (FAOSTAT, 2017). This rate showed the wide application and high
consumption level of banana in the country, especially in Nigeria. Banana leaf is large, flexible,
and waterproof and often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates"
in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries.

Emeka and Aderinlewo (2016) investigated the geotechnical properties of lateritic soil stabilized
with banana leaf ash. They carried out preliminary soil tests (natural moisture content, specific
gravity, and Atterberg limit) on the natural soil sample collected from the Federal University of
Technology, Akure (FUTA), Nigeria and Engineering tests such as compaction, California bearing
ratio, and unconfined compressive strength tests were also performed on the lateritic soil at their
natural and stabilized states up to 10% banana leaf ash content by weight of the dry soil. Result
of the strength tests showed that the banana leaf ash enhanced the strength of the lateritic soil.
The unsoaked CBR and unconfined compressive strength values improved at 4% banana leaf ash.
However, they concluded that banana leaf ash satisfactorily acted as cheap stabilizing agents for
subgrade purposes.

2.6 Bagasse Ash (BA)
Bagasse is the fibrous residue obtained from sugar cane after the extraction of sugar juice at
sugar cane mills (Osinubi and Stephen, 2005). Bagasse ash is the residue obtained from the
incineration of bagasse in sugar producing factories. The ash has been reported to be a good
pozzolanic material (Osinubi and Alhassan, 2008., Osinubi and Mustapha 2008) with possession
of silica and alumina contents of up to 77. 29% and 10.95% respectively for ash obtained from
bagasse burnt at 700°C temperature.

Osinubi et al. (2009) investigated the geotechnical properties of the deficient lateritic soil up to
12% bagasse ash by dry weight of the soil sample. Soil samples were subjected to particle size
analysis, compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR) and
durability tests. The energy level employed for compactions test was British Standard Light (BSL)
producing results that showed changes in moisture-density relationships resulting in lower
maximum dry densities (MDD), higher optimum moisture contents (OMC), reduction in fine
fractions with higher bagasse ash content in the soil – stabilizer mixtures. Results of UCS and
CBR values were given as 836 kN/m2 and 16%, respectively at 2% bagasse ash treatment of
lateritic soil. They concluded that since these values were below 1,700 kN/m2 and 80% for UCS
and CBR, respectively, recommended for adequate cement stabilization. It implies that bagasse
ash cannot be used as a ‘standalone’ stabilizer but should be employed in admixture
stabilization.

Salahudeen and Ochepo (2015) carried out laboratory tests on lateritic soil to evaluate the effect
of bagasse ash (BA) on the California bearing ratio of lateritic soil. The tests were performed on
natural and bagasse ash treated soil. In the study, treated specimens were prepared by mixing
the soil with bagasse ash in steps of 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8% by dry weight of soil. Results of their
investigation showed that the specific gravity of the soil samples decreased from 2.61 for the

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741

natural soil to 2.48 at 8% bagasse ash content. However, by dry weight of the soil sample the
liquid and plastic limits increased from 36.32 to 38.0 and 21.30%, to 21.54 % respectively at 2%
bagasse ash content. The maximum dry density (MDD) of the soil increased from 1.48 Mg/m3
for the natural soil to a peak value of 1.49 Mg/m3 at 8% bagasse ash content with the
corresponding increase in optimum moisture content (OMC) from 18.5% for the natural soil to
19.0% at 4% bagasse ash content. Result obtained for unsoaked California bearing ratio for the
lateritic soil treated with 4% BA content and above met the minimum CBR value of 30% specified
by (BS 1990) for material suitable for use as base course material when determined at MDD and
OMC. However, the highest CBR value of 62% recorded at 8% BA content failed to meet the 80%
CBR value recommended by the Nigerian general specification (1997) for cement stabilization.
Bagasse ash improved the CBR value of lateritic soil when compacted at optimum moisture
content.

Ochepo et al. (2015) evaluated the effect of bagasse ash on the California bearing ratio of
contaminated lateritic soil. In their study, the treated specimen was mixed with bagasse ash up
to 8% by dry weight of the soil sample and contaminated with used oil up to 6% by dry weight
of the soil sample. Result of investigations showed that the specific gravity of the soil sample
decreased from 2.61 for the natural lateritic soil to 2.48 at 8% bagasse ash content and a similar
trend was reported for 6% oil / 0% bagasse ash and 6% oil/8% as decreased to 2.16 and 2.11
respectively. Other test results such as liquid limit and plastic limit increased from 36.32 and
21.30 % respectively to peak values of 38.0% and 21.54 % at 2% bagasse ash content for all oil
contents. The MDD of the soil increased from 1.48 Mg/m3 to 1.49 Mg/m3 at 8% bagasse ash
content for all oil contents. OMC values increased from 18.5% for the natural soil to 19.0% at 2%
bagasse ash content. Result of unsoaked CBR obtained at 4% BA content and above met the
minimum CBR value of 30% specified by BS 1990 for materials suitable for use as base course
material when determined at MDD and OMC. However, higher CBR value of 62% recorded at 8%
BA content failed to meet 80% CBR value recommended by the Nigeria general specification
(1997) for cement stabilization. Oil contamination caused reduction in the strength andCBR
value of lateritic soil.

2.7 Coconut Shell Husk Ash (CSHA)
Coconut shell husk can be regarded as an agricultural waste that is widely available in larger
quantities in tropical countries of the world (Obi et al., 2016) and it is used in Nigeria and some
other part of the country as a source of fuel for the boilers (Obi et al., 2016). Onyelowe (2016)
studied the effect of coconut shell husk ash (CSHA) and palm kernel shell husk ash (PKSHA) on
the axial load and compaction behavior of pozzolan stabilized lateritic soil. The admixtures
(CSHA and PKSHA) used in the study, were applied in proportions by weight of soil sample as 0,
2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 %. Results showed that the two admixtures increased optimum moisture
content and decrease the maximum dry density of soil. The triaxial test examination conducted
on the stabilized soil showed that the value of unit weight and dry unit weight decreased at
addition of different percentages of CSHA and PKSHA but that of PKSHA reduced drastically
than that of CSHA. However, the unconfined compression strength (UCS) increased with respect
to the curing days and also increased at different percentages of CSHA and PKSHA. Natural UCS
value was given to be 6.43 kN/m2, 8.65 kN/m2 and 14.80 kN/m2 for 0, 7 and 14 days
respectively and later improved to 10.79 kN/m2, 31.82 kN/m2 and 40.00 kN/m2 respectively
when stabilized with up to 10% CSHA content. However, 11.38 kN/m2, 33.43 kN/m2 and 41.64

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 742

kN/m2 was recorded for an improvement at 10% PKSHA for 0, 7 and 14 days respectively. With
the improvement of the strength properties of the weak soil studied by using CSHA and PKSHA,
he then recommended for use as admixtures for the improvement of the geotechnical properties
of weak engineering soil.

2.8 Bamboo Leaf Ash (BLA)
Bamboo grows abundantly in most of tropical countries and found naturally as a composite
material. The possession of cellulose fibers embedded in a lignin matrix makes bamboo
considered a composite material (Amu and Babajide, 2011). Some researchers has identified
various species of bamboo to be 1,200 globally (Wang and Shen, 1987). Bamboo chips were
used to record history in ancient China and have been used as a building material over the
history of mankind (Amu and Babajide, 2011). It has also been used widely for household
products and extended to industrial applications due to advances in processing technology and
increased market demand. Massive plantations of bamboo provide an increasingly important
source of raw material for the pulp and paper industry in China (Hammett et al., 2001).

Amu and Adetuberu (2010) conducted a research study on the characteristics of lateritic soil
stabilized with bamboo leaf ash (BLA) in highway construction. Preliminary and geotechnical
property tests (compaction, California bearing ratio (CBR), and triaxial) were performed on the
three soil samples at step concentration of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% bamboo leaf ash (BLA) by dry
weight of soil sample. The results showed that the addition of BLA improved the strengths of the
samples. However, reduction in optimum moisture contents was recorded for the three soil
samples (A, B and C) classified as A-2-7(2), A-2-4(1) and A-2-5(3) soil respectively at 8, 4 and 6%
BLA, respectively, while MDD increased for the samples (A, B and C) at 8, 2 and 4% BLA
respectively. The unsoaked CBR values and shear strength values increased for sample A and B,
and it was concluded that bamboo leaf ash had a good potential for stabilizing lateritic soils in
highway construction.

Umoh and Adesola (2015) investigated the characteristics of bamboo leaf ash blended cement
paste and mortar. In their test results, the physical properties of pastes were determined and
compared with the requirements stipulated by relevant standards. An increase in compressive
strength was recorded for the mortar cubes with an increase in curing age. They reported that
the mix with 15% bamboo leaf ash favourably satisfied the standard mix at 28 days. Therefore, it
was recommended that 15% BLA could replace cement for adequate production of masonry
mortar.

2.9 Corn Cob Ash (CCA)
Corn cob is an agricultural waste product obtained from maize or corn. Zhang et al. (2013)
reported that an estimated weight of about 160- 180 kg corncobs generated from every 1 ton of
corn produced. However, most of the corncobs generated worldwide are discarded as waste
(Zhang et al., 2010). The disposal of this enormous waste constituted pollution to the
environment. Thus, many researchers have considered recycling it for various applications.

Akinwumi and Aidomojie (2015) investigated the effect of corncob ash (CCA) on the
geotechnical properties of lateritic soil stabilized with Portland cement. Preliminary tests (specific
gravity, consistency limits, compaction, California bearing ratio (CBR) and permeability) were

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743

carried out on natural soil and stabilized soil with up to 12 % corn cob ash. Results obtained
from the test showed that the addition of CCA to the lateritic soil reduced its plasticity, swell
potential and permeability; and increased its strength. It improved the geotechnical properties of
the soil for pavement layer material application.

Raheem et al. (2010) investigated the effects of plasticizer on the properties of corn cob ash
(CCA) cement concrete. Their study was aimed at the workability and compressive strength of
CCA cement where the end results showed an improvement in the workability of corn cob ash
cement concrete. The CCA cement concrete incorporated with accelerator achieved greater
strength at early ages, plasticizer achieved very high strength at both young and old ages; and
water retards the strength at old age. Olafusi and Olutoge (2012) made a study to determine the
strength properties of corn cob ash concrete, enhancement of the reduction of corn cob wastes
and reduction in the cost of concrete. They carried out various tests on concrete cubes of size
150 × 150 × 150 mm³ and concrete cylinders of size 100 x 200mm with different percentages by
volume of CCA to Portland cement and their physical and mechanical properties were
determined. Result of mechanical properties tests on the compressive strength showed that 10%
of the CCA in replacement for cement was quite satisfactory with no compromise in compressive
strength requirements for concrete mix ratios 1:2:4 at 7days. In addition, the test results also
showed that the use of CCA as a partial replacement for cement in concrete, particularly in plain
concrete works and non-load bearing structures will enhance the waste to wealth initiative.
Hence, CCA could be used as a partial replacement for cement in high strength concrete.

2.10 Cassava Peel Ash (CPA)
Cassava Peels is an agricultural waste obtained from cassava processing, either for domestic
consumption or industrial uses and constituted up to 20-35% of the weight of tuber, especially
in the case of hand peeling. In Nigeria, about 6.8 million tonnes of cassava peel are produced
yearly which estimated to be 20% of the total population (Bello et al., 2015). The disposal of
cassava peels indiscriminately constitutes a nuisance to the environment due to improper
management and lack of appropriate technology to recycle them.

Olatokunbo et al. (2018) investigated the effect of cassava peel ash as a replacement for cement
at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%. The cassava peel used was calcinated at 700oC temperature to obtain
ash and test results showed that addition of 10 and 15% CPA gave stable compressive strength.
The improvement reported was attributed to the cassava peel ash that contained all the main
chemical constituents of cement in lower percentage compared with OPC which showed that it
can serve as a suitable replacement if the right percentage is used.its durability and sulphuric
acid resistance improved considerably at 10% replacement of cement with cassava peel ash.

Bello et al. (2015) carried out studies to assess the impact of Cassava Peels Ash (CPA) on the
stabilization of lateritic soil deposit found within Osogbo local government area in Osun State,
Nigeria. The preliminary and geotechnical property tests (compaction, California bearing ratio
(CBR), and Unconfined Compression Test) were performed on three samples, L1, L2, and L3
classified as CL, SC and CL soil respectively for identification and classification purposes. The
natural soil used was improved at step concentrations of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% Cassava Peels Ash
(CPA) by dry weight of soil. Results obtained showed that addition of CPA improved the
strengths of the samples as optimum moisture contents (OMC) reduced to 14.58, 18.40 and

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Ishola, et al: Review of agricultural waste utilization as improvement additives for residual tropical soils. AZOJETE,
15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com 744

16.0% at 6, 4 and 6% CPA for samples L1, L2 and L3 respectively while maximum dry density
(MDD) increased to 1470, 1410 and 1440 kg/m3 at 10, 4 and 2% CPA for samples L1, L2, and L3
respectively. The unsoaked CBR values increased for the three soil samples at 8 and 10% CPA
content and the shear strengths of samples (L1, L2, and L3) also increased up to 10 % CPA
content. The studies concluded that the CPA has a good potential for stabilizing lateritic soil.

2.11 Palm Kernel Shell Husk Ash(PKSHA)
Onyelowe (2016) evaluated the effect of coconut shell husk ash (CSHA) and palm kernel shell
husk ash (PKSHA) on the axial load and compaction behaviour of pozzolan stabilized lateritic soil.
In his study, he made use of lateritic soil collected from Oboro in Delta state, coconut shell husk
ash and palm kernel shell husk ash were applied in step concentration by dry weight of soil
sample as 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% respectively. An increase in optimum moisture content and a
decrease in maximum dry density were recorded for the addition of the varied proportions of
CSHA and PKSHA. However, the triaxial test results showed that the value of unit weight and dry
unit weight of the test decreased at different percentages of CSHA and PKSHA while UCS results
also show improvement for treated soil at 10 % CSHA and PKSHA.

3.0 Conclusion
This study showed the resurgence of interest in the use of alternative naturally occurring
materials to the conventional additives (cement, bitumen and lime) for soil development.
Agricultural wastes such as (Rice husk ash, Locust bean waste ash, Palm oil fuel ash, Banana leaf
ash, Bagasse ash, Coconut shell ash, Bamboo leave ash, Corn cob ash, Cassava peel ash, and
Palm kernel shell husk ash) have been found useful in concrete, geotechnics and Highway
engineering applications. Engineering properties such as Atterberg, Strength, durability, and
gradation to soil particles could be modified and improved upon by simple use of these
materials as additives. However, there is little information regarding the use of banana leave ash
and palm oil fuel ash as soil improvement materials. Furthermore, further study is required for
the use of Palm oil fuel ash to understand its property and potential as a soil improvement
material. In addition, waste sourced from Cocoyam, Yam, maize trunk, Cashew, and Guava have
limited reports and is recommended to check for their properties and use as hydraulic
conductivity material in stabilizing problematic soil.

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Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, September, 2019; Vol. 15(3):733-749. ISSN 1596-2490;
e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng

Corresponding author’s e-mail address: isholakzm@gmail.com

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