ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT AZOJETE December 2022. Vol. 18(4):623-642 Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Print ISSN: 1596-2644, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818 www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 623 ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE IMPACT OF ACCELERATED CARBONATION CURING (ACC) ON THE PROPERTIES OF GUINEA CORN HUSK ASH BLENDED CONCRETE S. O. Odeyemi1*, M. S. Sholagberu1, R. Abdulwahab1, A. A. Adedeji2 1Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria. 2Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria *Corresponding author’s email address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 1.0 Introduction Since the industrial revolution, global warming has become a big problem for a sustainable future. The upsurge in global warming in the last five (5) decades cannot be overlooked. Carbon (iv) oxide (CO2) is the main greenhouse gas that leads to global warming. When CO2 gets accumulated in the air and traps heat, it consequently leads to an increase in temperature on earth. There are many sources of carbon (iv) oxide emissions, however, burning of fossil fuels and the production activities of manufacturing companies are the chief source of global CO2 emissions. Cement manufacturing industries produce more than 5% of the world’s CO2 emissions (Chen and Zhang, 2010). Studies have shown that about 0.98 tons of CO2 equivalent are discharged in the production of one ton of cement clinker (Qian et al., 2018). Turner and Collins (2013) estimated that 1.22 kg of CO2 are discharged into the atmosphere for each kilogram of cement produced. Hence, it is pertinent to utilize the wasted CO2 in the development of strong and low-cost concrete (Adeyemi and Malachi, 2020). El-Hassan (2020) recommended ACC as a means of reducing CO2 emissions, thus preserving the world. ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT There are different methods of curing concrete. These include immersion in water, sprinkling of the concrete samples, curing with sand or sawdust and open-air curing method. However, research on the use of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) method for curing concrete is very scanty. Therefore, this study concentrates on determining the impact of ACC on the properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash (GCHA) Blended Concrete. Materials such as Portland Limestone Cement, Guinea Corn Husk Ash (GCHA), sand, and granite dust were tested for fineness, coarseness, specific gravity before they were used for producing the concrete. Characterizations, such as Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (EDXRF) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) were performed to investigate the properties of the GCHA. The batched concrete was then cured using the ACC and Water Curing (WC) methods. Mix ratios of 0%, 5%, and 10% GCHA were utilized in obtaining the highest compressive strength. Compressive strength for 0%, 5%, 10% incorporation of GCHA in concrete for both ACC and WC methods of curing at 56th day were found to be 23.3 N/mm2 and 24.5 N/mm2; 19.1 N/mm2 and 21.7 N/mm2; 11.1 N/mm2 and 11.8 N/mm2 respectively. The highest sorptivity values were obtained at 10% replacement of cement with GCHA for both ACC and WC cured samples. However, the Sorptivity values decreased as the curing age increases both for ACC and WC cured concrete. This demonstrates that both methods produced durable concrete. © 2022 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved. Submitted 20 April, 2022 Revised 11 June, 2022 Accepted 14 June, 2022 Keywords: Accelerated Carbonated Curing Compressive Strength Concrete Guinea Corn Husk Ash Durability http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 624 Ahmad et al. (2017) defined carbonation as a process of diffusion where CO2 gas in the atmosphere infiltrates concrete and in the presence of water produces carbonic acid. This acid reacts with the Ca(OH)2 in concrete to form CaCO3. The CaCO3 produced owing to the carbonation process makes the resulting concrete dense, thereby improving its properties. Carbonation of cementations materials is accountable for the reduction of pH value which results in the concrete becoming less alkaline. Hence the process of carbonation of concrete is sometimes known as neutralization process. There are different methods of curing concrete, which includes; immersion in water, sprinkling of the concrete samples, curing with sand and in some cases sawdust, and open-air curing method (Atoyebi et al., 2020; James et al., 2011; Odeyemi et al., 2021). Nevertheless, research implementing ACC for concrete curing is few. For example, Kim et al. (2022) considered the effect of carbonation curing on the properties of cement mortar containing appreciable level of belite and exposed to high temperatures. Their findings show that heat resistance of cement mortar relative to that of samples cured in water was enhanced by carbonation curing. Zhang et al. (2017) carried out a review on carbonation curing of some cement-based materials. Though some findings were reported, the review recommended further laboratory and industrial research on the subject matter. In the same vein, research abound on the usage of GCHA as a possible partial replacement for cement in concrete (Aburime et al., 2020; Alkamu et al., 2018; Bello et al., 2018; Ndububa and Yakubu, 2015; Odeyemi, Anifowose, et al., 2020; Odeyemi, Atoyebi, et al., 2020). However, these authors adopted the method of immersion in water to cure their concrete samples but none of them considered the use of ACC. Hence, the current study was designed to determine the impact of ACC method on the properties of GCHA Blended Concrete. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials 2.1.1 Binder Portland Limestone Cement of Dangote brand [Grade 42.5R], was adopted in this research because it is the mostly used binder in the area of study. Soundness, normal consistency, and fineness test were conducted on the cement before use according to BS EN 12620:2002+A1:2008 (2008). 2.1.2 Water Potable water, free from deleterious materials, was utilized for mixing the concrete used in this research. It was tested for its pH value using portable pH meter (S-903) housed at the Department of Civil Engineering Water Laboratory, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 2.1.3 Fine Aggregate The sharp sand (fine aggregates) adopted for this study was collected from Asa River, in Ilorin. Laboratory tests such as specific gravity and fineness modulus were carried out as stipulated in BS EN 933-1 (2012), water absorption and sieve analysis, were conducted on the sharp sand in accordance with BS ISO 3310-2 (2013). file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 625 2.1.4 Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregate (crushed stone) which was locally sourced was utilized in this study. The coarse aggregate was sieved to a minimum particle-size distribution ranging from 4.75 to 10 mm. Tests such as specific gravity, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV), and water absorption were conducted on the aggregate in accordance with the standard specified in BS EN 12620:2002 A1+2008 (2008). 2.1.5 GCHA The Guinea Corn Husk (GCH) was sourced from farmlands at Alapa and Otte, in Asa Local Government Area of Kwara State. The husk was calcinated at a temperature of 650 ℃ as recommended by Bello et al. (2018) using a Thermolyne furnace at the Foundry and forging workshop, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin. The resulting ashes from the calcination process were grinded to finer particles using a milling machine before sieving with 75 μm sieve to obtain a uniform size distribution. 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Fineness Test on Portland Limestone Cement and GCHA The cement and GCHA used in this study were sieved with No. 9 (90 microns) sieve size to obtain their fineness. An empty pan of a known weight was used to hold one hundred (100) grams of the samples. The weight of the pan with the cement/GCHA was determined and recorded. For a period of 15 minutes, the cement was sieved through circular and vertical motions. The weight of the residue on the sieve was recorded. Equation 1 was used to calculate the fineness of the samples. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 100 . (1) 2.2.2 Fineness Modulus Test The fineness modulus was determined following the procedure enumerated in BS EN 933-1 (2012). The fineness modulus of the samples was found with Equation 2 by totaling the percentage of retained aggregates on individual sieves and dividing the outcome by 100. The test sample was dried in an oven at a temperature of 110 ± 5 ℃ before weighing. Afterwards, the samples were sieved using a set of BS sieves on an electric sieve shaker. After the sieving process, the weight of the samples on each sieve was taken and recorded. The summation of weight of samples on individual sieves was calculated as a ratio of the total sample weighed. Fineness Modulus= Total Cummulative % Retained 100 (2) 2.2.3 Specific Gravity Test Specific gravity of the sample was conducted in accordance with BS 1377-3:2018+A1:2021 (2018). The samples were painstakingly checked on BS sieves to get rid of deleterious materials. An empty bottle was weighed, and the weight designated as W1. The test sample was inserted into the empty bottle and weighed. The weight of both (i.e., the bottle and sample) was recorded as W2. Distilled water was poured into the bottle until it reached a marked point. Entrapped air and water bubbles at the surface water were removed by shaking the bottle vigorously. The weight of the bottle, with sample and distilled water was designated as W3. Subsequently, the bottle was emptied and kept in an oven. Upon removal from the http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 626 oven, distilled water was introduced into the dry bottle to the gauge mark and recorded as W4. Equation 3 was then used to calculate the specific gravity. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑊2−𝑊1 (𝑊4−𝑊1)−(𝑊3−𝑊2) . (3) 2.2.4 Soundness Test This test was conducted as specified by Neville (2011). In conducting the test, standard consistency of cement was required. 400g of cement was used for this experiment. Paste of cement was well mixed and filled into Le-Chatelier’s mould. The upper surface of the paste in the mould was cleaned and smoothened before placing a small weight over the cover lid. Immediately, the mould was inserted in water whose temperature was 27℃ and left for 24 hours. Thereafter, the mould was taken out from water and the distance between the indicator point was measured as Reading 1. Afterwards, the mould was placed in boiling water for 3 hours. After the stated time, the mould was taken out of the boiling water and made to cool at room temperature. The gap between the indicator points was also recorded as Reading 2. Equation 4 was adopted in determining the soundness of the cement. 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2) – (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1) (4) 2.2.5 Normal consistency for cement The normal consistency of the cement was determined following the procedure specified by Odeyemi et al. (2022). 300g of cement was placed on a mixing plate. A crater was formed at the center in which 75ml of water was added. Within 30 seconds, the material was turned and thoroughly squeezed with hand for at least one minute. Thereafter, it was pasted into a ball and tossed from one hand to the other for about six (6) times while keeping the hands 15 cm apart. Then, with the ball in the hollow of one hand, the material was hard-pressed into the mould through its larger end and smoothen off the top with a trowel. The mould was placed with its bigger end on a glass plate and smoothen off at the smaller end. Thereafter, the mould resting on the glass plate under the plunger was raced in the Vicat apparatus. The scale was then set to zero bringing the end of the plunger in touch with the paste surface and then released. The penetration was noted. The experiment was repeated with trial pastes containing different percentages of water. The volume of water mixed was calculated as a fraction by weight of the dry cement as given by Equation 5. 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟′𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 2 (5) Sample 1 = first trial of paste made; Sample 2 = second trial of paste made. 2.2.6 Setting Time Test After determining the normal consistency of the sample, 1 mm size square needle was inserted to the lower end of a Vicat apparatus and made to get in touch with the top of the paste following the procedure reported in Neville (2011). The scale of the apparatus was set to avoid error due to parallax before releasing the needle and noting the penetration. The experiment was repeated until the paste had sufficiently stiffened to prevent the needle from penetrating no further than 5 - 7mm from the lower end of the mould. The time when this was achieved was recorded as the setting times as shown in Equations 6a and 6b. 𝐼𝑆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (6a) 𝐹𝑆𝑇 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇1 (6b) file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 627 Where IST = Initial Setting Time; FST = Final Setting Time; T1 =Time of first initial setting needle penetration; T2 =Time of final initial setting needle penetration; T3 =Time of final initial setting needle penetration. 2.2.7 Water absorption test The water absorption capacity was determined following the procedure used by Odeyemi et al. (2022). Aggregate of 2 kg was used in this experiment. It was washed and placed in a wire basket. This basket was then submerged in water at 27 ℃. The air entrapped in the basket was taken away from the sample by lifting the basket 25 mm from the bottom of the tank and then allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate of one drop per second. Thereafter, the aggregate was kept in water for 24 hours. The basket and aggregate were weighed while kept in water. Subsequently, they were taken out of water and dried with an absorbent cloth before weighing. The aggregate was then heated in an oven for 24 hours at to 100 ℃. Upon removal from the oven, the aggregate was cooled in an airtight container before weighing. The water absorption (%) was calculated using Equation 8. 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (%) = (𝑊1 –𝑊2) 𝑊2 𝑥 100 (7) W1 (g) = Weight of air-dried aggregate; W2 (g) = Weight of oven dry aggregate 2.2.8 Sieve analysis Test This sieve analysis test was performed on both the fine and coarse aggregates to determine their particle size distribution as recommended by Odeyemi et al. (2020). The aggregates were oven dried at 105 ℃. A set of BS sieves was then used for sieving. For the fine aggregate, the size of the sieve ranged from 0.075 mm to 2.36mm with a receiver placed at the bottom of the sieves. For the coarse aggregate, the size of the sieves ranged from 4.76 mm to 31.75 mm with a receiver also placed at the bottom of the sieves. The sieve was thereafter shaken vigorously. The particles of the aggregate were then collected and weighed respectively and used in the computation of their particle size distribution curve. 2.2.9 Aggregate crushing value The aggregate crushing value was determined following the procedure in Jethro et al. (2013). Aggregate in a plate was weighed and the weight designated as W. The samples were then divided into 3 layers. The individual layers were given 25 strokes of a tamping rod before weighing. The weight obtained was recorded as W1. The topmost part of the aggregate was cautiously leveled, and a plunger was fixed to rest horizontally to the surface of the aggregate. Care was taken to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder. Thereafter, the aggregate with plunger was inserted into the loading platform of the compression testing machine with a loading capacity of 4 tonnes (T). The aggregate was subjected to the load for 10 minutes. The resulting crushed aggregate was sieved with a 200 mm diameter BS sieve 4.00mm stainless steel mesh and loss of fines was avoided. The portion of the aggregate passing through the 200 mm diameter BS sieve was weighed and recorded as W2. The percentage of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each test was calculated using Equation 8. ACV = W2 𝑥 100 W1−𝑊 . (8) W2= weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve (g); W1- 𝑊 = weight of surface dry sample (g) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 628 2.2.10 Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) The SEM analysis was done at the Material Science and Engineering Laboratory, Kwara State University, Malete following the procedure adopted by Odeyemi et al. (2022). The ASPEX 3020 model of the equipment was used to investigate the surface morphological structure of GCHA. To test the sample, electrons were fired into the sealed vacuum chamber that holds the sample. The sample was coated in gold using Palzer’s sputtering device before introducing it under the microscope. The electron beam was brought to a great precision by an electromagnetic coil. Another coil steered the electron beam from one side to another to scan across the sample. The electrons made contact with the surface of the sample before bouncing off it. A detector then records the scattered electrons and converts it to an image. The SEM displayed the image of the sample at different magnifications of 250, 500, 750 and 1000 on a mode of 16 kV accelerating voltage. 2.2.11 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (EDXRF) The EDXRF analysis was conducted at the Centre of Excellence, Nanotechnology Advance Material in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria following the procedure adopted by Odeyemi et al. (2022). The Skyray EDXRF analyser (EDX 3600B) was used to determine both the elemental and oxide compositions of the GCHA. The equipment was designed to operate at the following specifications: analyzable element ranging from 11𝑁𝑎(𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚) − 92𝑈 (𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚) ; analyzable element content ranges dynamically from ppm- level to nearly 100 percent; test time (60sec- 200 sec with extra 50 sec if vacuum requires); inside dimension of sample chamber of 320mm (diam) x 180 mm (height); maximum voltage of 50kV; dimension of spectrometer 650(W) x 466 (H) x 608 (D) mm. To test the sample, the voltage of the equipment was adjusted to ensure adequate power from the x-ray source. The XRD software package on the computer system connected to the equipment was activated and then initialized using pure silicon standard sample. Thereafter, the non-homogeneous sample (GCHA) was ground to a finer and standardized size before loading into the XRD sample holder. The run parameters such as step size, end angle, start angle, and speed were selected, and the sample was scanned. The equipment analyzed the samples relative to peak formations with the XRD standard reference manual and then the operation ended. 2.2.12 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) on GCHA The XRD analysis was done at the Centre of Excellence, Nanotechnology Advance Material, Akure, Ondo State (NASENI) following the procedure adopted by Odeyemi et al. (2022). The equipment, (GBC Difftech XRD-MMA), with a model number of EMMA014 and CuKα radiation of λ=1.54060 Å was utilized. The equipment specifications include maximum power of 3.0 kW, voltage ranging from 0 – 60 kV, ampere ranging from 0 – 80mA, long term stability 0.01 % over 8 hrs. of performance, ripple displays at 0.003% rms. To achieve a high-resolution scanning, the powder stage had a tripod mounted to allow very precise height adjustment. A variable radius ranging from 175 mm to 250 mm (K𝛼1 and K𝛼2 peaks completely separated at 80 deg with CuKα) was adopted. The scanning speed with full multi-pass averaging 0.0002º/min to 60º /min. The range of 2θ = 0º to 70º with scanning step size of 0.002º was used to determine the chemical phase and the crystalline structure of the GCHA. 2.3 Concrete Mixing proportion Two concrete mixtures having the same mix proportions (1:2:4) containing Portland Limestone Cement (PLC) with GCHA, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate were considered in this study as shown in Table 1. The first combination was prepared with PLC as the cementitious material. In the second mixture the Guinea corn husk ash and Portland file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 629 Limestone Cement were combined as cementations material. Both concrete combinations were prepared with a water-to-cementitious material ratio of 0.5 to achieve a slump height of 100 mm (±20 mm) following the recommendations in Odeyemi et al. (2020). After mixing, each of the concrete was divided into equal parts and then cured using ACC and water immersion curing method. Table 1: Weight of Constituent Materials Per Cubic Meter Materials Quantity Portland cement (kg) 205.71 Guinea corn husk ash (5%) 10.28 Guinea corn husk ash (10%) 20.56 Sharp sand (kg) 411.4 Coarse aggregate (granite) (kg) 822.8 Water to cementations material 0.5 2.4 Set up for ACC Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) chamber for curing the concrete samples was constructed for this experimental study following the schematic diagram found in Assaggaf et al. (2019). A snapshot of the chamber and the orthographic view is shown in Figure 1. The total length, width and height were 1.0 m X 1.0 m X 1.0 m while the inner length, width and height of the chamber that could contain 90 cubes were 0.9m by 0.9m by 0.9m, respectively. The inner part was built in three layers so that 30 cubes could be arranged in each layer. Galvanized plate of 0.6mm thickness was used for the inner construction to prevent the corrosion of the inner chamber. The outer layer thickness was 0.7mm black plate. ‘FEV COL PUR’ adhesive material was used as a moisture curing polyurethane adhesive, which serve as Glue that bond both the outer layer and the inner layer plates together. This material is in form of liquid but when sprayed into the plate it became glue like. There were two valves that regulate the inflow and out flow of CO2, one on top of the cylinder gauge and the other at the outlet of chamber. A door was inserted to gain access into the chamber and to mitigate the loss of CO2 from the chamber. Two holes were drilled through the wall of the chamber. The inlet hole was connected to the CO2 cylinder through a hose. A pressure gauge was also connected to the setup to measure the pressure in the ACC chamber. The second hole serves as the outlet for flushing out the CO2 from the chamber after curing the concrete samples. (a) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 630 (b) Figure 1: Accelerated Carbonation Chamber (a) Snapshot view (b) Orthographic view 2.5 Curing process A total of 126 concrete cubes were cast. 18 samples without GCHA were used as control samples and 108 contained varying percentages of GCHA. 63 samples were cured by immersion in water while the remaining 63 were cured in ACC. Thereafter, the chamber was tightly closed to avoid any escape of the gas. CO2 was allowed to circulate within the chamber for ten (10) hours as was done by Assaggaf et al. (2019). Samples of the cubes were taken out of the chamber after 10 hours to determine their performance in the compression, durability and shrinkage. The samples cured in water were immersed for a maximum number of 56 days before testing. 2.6 Compressive Strength Test The compressive strength test was carried out following the stipulations in BS EN 12390-3 (2019). The cubes were tested at 7, 28, and 56 days after they were cast. For each method of curing, 3 cubes were crushed at each day of testing to obtain the average strength. 2.7 Durability Test Two different tests were adopted in determining the durability of the concrete samples as recommended by Fapohunda et al. (2020) viz.: (i) coefficient of water absorption test and (ii) Sorptivity test. 2.7.1 Coefficient of water absorption test The rate at which the dry concrete samples take up water in one (1) hour was investigated using the method found in Fapohunda et al. (2020). The concrete samples had 100 x100 x 100 mm dimensions. The specimens were tested after 56 days of curing. The samples were dried in an oven at 105 ℃ for three (3) days until a stable weight was recorded. Subsequently, the samples were left to cool in an air-tight container for another three (3) days. Since it was file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 631 required for water to flow in a direction in this test, all sides except one of the concrete samples were coated with silicone sealant. Then, the samples were partially immersed in a vertical position to a depth of 5 mm at one end, while the remaining sides were exposed to the ambient air. The volume of water absorbed by the concrete samples in the first 60 minutes was determined. Equation 9 was considered in calculating the Coefficient of water absorption (𝐾𝑎) for the concrete specimens after 56 days curing. 𝐾𝑎 = [ 𝑄 𝐴 ]2𝑥 1 𝑡 (9) Where t =time curing (s), A= Area of concrete (m2), Q = Quantity of water absorbed (m3). 2.7.2 Sorptivity test The tests were carried out at selected times ranging from 0 to 120 minutes as stipulated in Fapohunda et al. (2020). At the times under consideration, the samples were taken from water and excess water dried off using a damp paper towel before weighing the sample. The samples were then placed back in water until another selected time. The gain in mass per unit area over the density of water was plotted versus the square root of the elapsed time. The cumulative water absorption (per unit area of the inflow surface) is thought to increase as the square root of elapsed time (t), increases. The slope of the line of best fit of these points was taken as the sorptivity value. Equation 10 was adopted in determining the sorptivity values of the blended concrete specimens at 7, 28 and 56 days of curing. 𝑖 = 𝑠 √𝑡 . (10) Where i = sorptivity (m ⋅ s− 1 2); s = slope, t = elapsed time (s) 2.7.3 Shrinkage test on concrete The shrinkage was determined as specified in Neville (2011). The initial length of the tested specimens 𝐿𝑜 (𝑚) was determined and recorded. Afterwards, the length of the sample at each curing age 𝐿𝑡 (𝑚) was determined and recorded. The same procedure was adopted for the masses of the samples. The drying shrinkage ratio ɻ 𝑠 (𝑚) and mass loss ∆𝑤 (𝑔) were calculated using Equations 11a and 11b. The average value of the three specimens tested was recorded as the drying shrinkage value for the sample. ɻ 𝑠 = ( 𝐿𝑜− 𝐿𝑡 280 𝑥 100%). (11a) ∆𝑤 = (𝑤𝑜 − 𝑤𝑡 )𝑥100% (11b) 3.0 Results and Discussion 3.1 Test Results for Materials 3.1 Fineness of Cement Fineness of cement was found to be 1.5%. This result indicates that the cement is very fine and suitable for concrete formation. 3.2 Sieve Analysis Result for Fine Aggregates (Sharp sand) The Fineness modulus from the sieve analysis was 2.8%. This falls within the range (2.2 % - 3.2%) for fine aggregates. Similar result was obtained by Odeyemi et al. (2020) when they determined the properties of the fine aggregate used in the designing of concrete using GCHA as an additive. Figure 2 confirms the size of the sand particles used in the research as the grain diameter were found to be between 0.080 mm to 2.5 mm with most grains falling in the fine range of particle distribution. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 632 Figure 2: Grain size distribution for fine aggregate 3.3 Sieve Analysis Result for Coarse Aggregate (Granite) The fine modulus obtained from the sieve analysis was 6.8%. This result falls within the range (5.5%-8.0%) for coarse aggregates. In comparison, the results obtained in this research is quite higher than that obtained by Odeyemi et al. (2020) when they determined the grading of granite used for their concrete. This is because the granite used in this research is coarser than that used in the earlier stated literature. Figure 6 confirms the size of the granite particles used in the research as the grain diameter were found to between 3.6 mm to 30 mm with most grains falling in the coarse range of particle distribution. Figure 3: Grain size distribution for Coarse Aggregate 3.4 Specific Gravity (S.G.) of Cement, Sharp Sand and Granite The S.G. of the cement, sharp sand and granite used in this study was obtained as 3.11, 2.57 and 2.69 respectively. It was observed that the S.G. for cement obtained in this research was similar to that obtained by Tijani et al. (2020) while the specific gravity of coarse aggregate was file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 633 the same with that obtained by Odeyemi et al. (2020). Also, the S.G. for the sharp sand fell in the range (2.5-3.0) stated for natural aggregates by Neville (2011). 3.5 Normal Consistency of Portland Limestone Cement Table 2 shows that the result of the normal consistency of cement was found to be 32% (128ml). When the quantity of water in concrete is lower than the standard consistency, the hydration of cement will be hampered. Also, if the quantity of water is too much there may be reduction in the strength of the cement. Hence, the result suggests that 32% of water (128ml) is required to make a standard consistency cement paste for the research work. Table 2: Normal Consistency of Cement Percentage of water by wt. of dry cement (%) Quantity of water added (ml) Gauging Time (minutes) Penetration (mm) 30 120 4 8 31 124 4 30 32 128 4 35 33 132 4 40 3.6 Soundness of cement The soundness of Portland Limestone Cement used in this research was obtained as 1mm. According to BS EN 196-3:1995 (1995), soundness for ordinary Portland cement must not exceed 10mm. Therefore, since the result obtained was 1mm, the result confirms that the cement can still maintain its shape and volume after it gets hardened. 3.7 Initial and final Setting Time of Cement The initial settling time was calculated as 1 hour 3 minutes. This indicates the time the cement turns into paste by mixing and begins to lose its plasticity properties. The final setting time was found to be 6 hours and 8 minutes. 3.8 Water Absorption Capacity of Sharp Sand and Granite The water absorption capacity for sharp sand and Granite were found to be 1.4% and 0.2 % respectively. This indicates that the sharp sand has larger absorption capacity than the granite. It also indicates that the sharp sand has more pores for absorption and could retain more water than the granite. 3.9 Aggregate Crushing Value for granite The aggregate crushing value was found to be 21.5 %. This indicates that the resistance of the aggregates to failure under an increasing compressive load is high. Jethro et al. (2013) obtained a coarse aggregate value of 21.6 % for granite used in their study and concluded that the resistance of granite is highly durable for engineering work and road construction. 3.10 Quantity of Water The pH of the water used in this study was found to be 7.5. This indicates a neutral pH. If the water was too acidic or basic, it may attack the concrete by dissolving both hydrated and unhydrated cement compounds or even react with the compounds present in the carbonated guinea corn husk ash, thereby causing shrinkage in the concrete. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 634 3.11 XRD Analysis of Calcined GCHA Figure 4 illustrates the X-ray diffraction form of the calcined GCHA. It confirmed the presence of a crystalline compound in the calcined GCHA. The peaks at 2 theta (2θ) angles 20.2008°, 28.2348°, 41.0028°, 43.564°, 54.6025°, and 61.9344° are attributed to the presence of SiO2 (Quartz) particles. The GCHA molecules tend to form a hexagonal crystalline structure. This result is in agreement with what Nandanwar et al., (2015) obtained when they carried out the XRD characterization of SiO2 particles and obtained an hexagonal shape. Figure 4: The XRD pattern of the calcined GCHA 3.12 XRF Analysis of Calcined GCHA Table 3 shows the oxide composition of GCHA. It consists mainly of SiO2 (63.1559%), K2O (23.4164%), Al2O3 (4.1534%), and Fe2O3 (4.6572%). It was discovered that the sum of Al2O3, SiO2, and Fe2O3 gave 71.9665%. This is above the minimum 70% specified for supplementary cementitious materials by ASTM C618 (Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2019, 2019). Odeyemi et al. (2020) and Ndububa et al. (2015) also obtained similar results. The findings are also in tandem with what was obtained by Odeyemi et al. (2022) for bamboo leaf ash (BLA). These further confirms that GCHA is suitable as a pozzolan in concrete. Table 3: The Oxide composition of Calcined GCHA Oxide Composition (%) MgO 3.3649 Al2O3 4.1534 SiO2 63.1559 P2O5 2.2621 SO3 4.0899 K2O 23.4164 CaO 6.9492 TiO2 0.0000 V2O5 0.0000 Cr2O3 0.0000 MnO 0.0187 file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 635 CoO 0.0000 Fe2O3 4.6572 NiO 0.0098 CuO 0.0483 ZnO 0.2338 As2O3 0.0049 PbO2 0.0559 WO3 0.3297 Au2O 0.0000 Ag2O 0.0018 Rb2O 0.0489 Nb2O5 0.0062 MoO3 0.3045 CdO 0.000 SnO2 0.4802 Sb2O3 0.4169 *LOI 0.0000 * Loss of Ignition 3.13 SEM Analysis of Calcined GCHA The morphological structure of the calcined GCHA at 650 ℃ is revealed in Figure 5. Figure 5(a-d) are of equivalent width of 15.8 mm at 250-1000 magnification. Figure 5(a) shows the image of the GCHA at magnification of 250. The structure contains numerous pores of irregular size. A nearer view of the structure in Figure 5(b) shows that the GCHA at magnification 500 also contains flat-like materials with coarse edges. Moreover, at Figure 4 (c- d), magnifications 750 and 1000 respectively, it was clearly observed that there are discontinuous patterns of arrangement on the GCHA image that are well compact. Therefore, it was inferred that the GCHA calcined at 650℃ is a potential material for the substitution of cement in concrete. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 636 Figure 5: SEM images of calcined GCHA at different magnifications (a) magnification at 250 (b) magnification at 500 (c) magnification at 750 (d) magnification at 1000 3.14 Compressive strength of concrete The average compressive strengths for 0%, 5% and 10% GCHA inclusion in concrete after being cured by ACC and water curing are revealed in Figure 6. The tests were conducted on the 7th, 28th and 56th day of curing. For the control experiment for ACC, the compressive strength increased from 16.2 N/mm2 at day 7 to 23.3 N/mm2 at day 56. For the WC, the compressive strength increased from 17.6 N/mm2 at day 7 to 24.5 N/mm2 at day 56. For 5% inclusion of GCHA in concrete, the compressive strength increased from 12.6 N/mm2 at day 7 to 19.1 N/mm2 at day 56 and from 13.7 N/mm2 at day 7 to 21.7 N/mm2 at day 56 for ACC and WC respectively. For 10% inclusion of GCHA in concrete, the compressive strength increased from 6.2 N/mm2 at day 7 to 11.1 N/mm2 at day 56 and from 7.9 N/mm2 at day 7 to 11.8 N/mm2 at day 56 for ACC and WC respectively. Hence, from the graph it could be observed that as the ratio of GCHA increases the compressive strength reduced for both ACC and WC concrete. These findings are like those published by Poongodi et al., (2021). Moreover, the ACC method of curing produced results that are close to the results obtained using WC. This follows the same trend of results reported by Assaggaf et al. (2019). Furthermore, the advantage in using ACC is that the curing was carried out for only ten (10) hours unlike the immersion method which was done for 56 days. Figure 6: Compressive strength for concrete samples (a) ACC (b) WC (a) 0% GCHA (b) 5% GCHA and (c) 10 % GCHA file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 637 3.15 Sorptive behaviour Figure 7(a) shows the plot of sorptivity against the percentage replacement of GCHA for ACC with R-square values of 0.9932, 0.9868, and 0.8322 at 7, 28 and 56 days of curing respectively. The highest value (0.26 mm/𝑚𝑖𝑛0.5) and lowest value (0.09 mm/𝑚𝑖𝑛0.5) value of sorptivity was obtained at the 7th and 56th day for 10 % GCHA and 0% GCHA respectively. Figure 7(b) shows the plot of sorptivity against the percentage replacement of GCHA for WC with R- square values of 0.9423, 1.0000, and 0.8547 at 7, 28 and 56 days of curing respectively. The highest value (0.23 mm/𝑚𝑖𝑛0.5) and lowest (0.08 mm/𝑚𝑖𝑛0.5) value of sorptivity was obtained at the 7th and 56th day at 10 % GCHA and 0% GCHA for WC respectively. The graph shows the same trends for both ACC and WC. The values of sorptivity are less than 0.1 mm/𝑚𝑖𝑛0.5 at 56 days indicating that both curing methods are suitable for concrete development. Similar result was obtained by Cantero et al. (2021) in a study that involves the use of a recycled concrete. This further validates that ACC cured concrete are durable. Figure 7: Sorptivity for Concrete (a) ACC (b) WC 3.16 Water Absorption Figure 8(a) expresses the plot of water absorption against the percentage replacement of GCHA for ACC. The highest value for the water absorption (2.91 𝑚/𝑠2) was obtained for http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 638 10% inclusion of GCHA at 56th day of curing. The graph also reveals that as the level of substituting cement with GCHA increases the water absorption also increases. This indicates that the total reachable pore volume of the concrete becomes more exposed as the percentage GCHA increases. In the same vein, as the number of curing days increases the water absorption also increases. Figure 8(b) shows the plot of water absorption against the percentage replacement of GCHA for WC. The highest value for the water absorption (2.87 %) was obtained for 0% inclusion of GCHA at 56th day of curing. Unlike the ACC method, the 56th day water absorption result decreased with the surge in the proportion of GCHA in the concrete. The results show that the highest value of water absorption occurred in ACC method. This high value in water absorption implies that the ACC method may not be suitable for concrete members kept in water. Figure 8: Water Absorption (a) ACC (b) WC 3.17 Shrinkage Figure 9(a) reveals the change in shrinkage against the percentage replacement of GCHA for ACC. The highest value of shrinkage (-153 𝜇𝑚/𝑚) was obtained after 56 days of curing at 10% inclusion of GCHA. The correlation coefficient at day 7, 28 and 56 were all greater than 0.9. These findings agree with the result of Cantero et al. (2021). A similar trend was observed in Figure 9(b) samples cured in WC. The highest value was obtained as -176 𝜇𝑚/𝑚 at day 56 for 10% inclusion of GCHA. The correlation coefficient at day 7 and 28 were greater than 0.9. However, that of 56 days decreased slightly. Hence, in both ACC and WC, the variation in loss of moisture content in the concrete due to hydration of cement and temperature between day 7 and 28 is not as significant when compared to the shrinkage that occurred between day 28 and 56. Generally, the shrinkage tends to reduce as the days of curing increases and as the percentage of GCHA increases. file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Odeyemi et al: Impact of Accelerated Carbonation Curing (ACC) on the Properties of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete. AZOJETE, 18(4):623-642. ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 639 Figure 9: Shrinkage (a) ACC (b) WC Conclusion This research studied the impact of ACC on the performance of Guinea Corn Husk Ash Blended Concrete and the following conclusions were drawn. (a) The chemical composition of Portland Limestone Cement utilized in the research is within the acceptable range recommended by BS EN 12620:2002+A1 (2008) and Guinea Corn Husk Ash (GCHA) satisfies the requirement for a pozzolan and can be adopted as supplementary cementitious material for concrete production. (b) The method of curing by immersion in water produced the concrete with the highest strength with a strength value of 21.7 N/mm2 This was closely followed by the concrete cured in ACC with a strength value of 19.1 N/mm2. (c) Both ACC and water immersion curing methods produced concrete that are durable. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/Engr%20Oyeniyi/azojete/AZOJETE%20ARCHIVE/UPLOAD/VOL%2018%20NO%204/samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December, 2022; Vol. 18(4):623-642 ISSN 1596-2644; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng 640 Notation ACC – Accelerated Carbonation Curing GCHA - Guinea Corn Husk Ash GCH - Guinea Corn Husk WC – Water Curing SEM - Scanning Electronic Microscopy EDXRF - Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer XRD - X-Ray Diffraction References Aburime, PI., Ndububa, EE. and Kpue, DO. 2020. The Impact of Guinea Corn Husk Ash as an Admixture for Crack Control in Concrete. European Journal of Engineering Research and Science, 5(10): 1152–1159. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2020.5.10.2171 Adeyemi, SA. and Malachi, J. 2020. 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