ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT AZOJETE March 2023. Vol. 19(1):13-22 Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818 www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 13 ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE EVALUATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND WASTES GLASS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE A. M. Auwal*, M. O. A. Mtallib, M. T. Abdulwahab and A. Mohammed Department of Civil Engineering, Bayero University Kano Nigeria. *Corresponding author’s email address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 1.0 Introduction Concrete is the most used construction material due to its satisfying performance in strength requirements and its ability to be moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes. Nowadays, the higher demand for housing and infrastructure, accompanied by recent developments in civil engineering facilities, such as high-rise structures, offshore platforms, tunnels, highway pavement, hydropower structures and long-span bridges associated with long term poor performance and poor consolidation of conventional concrete (CC) especially in congested reinforcement led to accelerated research for the development of concrete which would score on all the aspects of strength, workability, durability, affordability. Thus, to overcome the aforementioned shortcomings associated with CC, high performance concrete (HPC) was introduced due to its technical and economic advantages of high strength, high early strength, high modulus of elasticity, high durability and long life in severe environments, resistance to chemical attack, ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT The construction industry is largely reliant on the use of cement-based products. Every tonne of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) emits equivalent amount of CO2 into the atmosphere, contributing to increased raw material consumptions and environmental concerns. In this regard, the use of waste materials that can be blended with OPC as partial or full replacement to reduce the environmental impacts is strongly desirable. This research was experimentally carried out to evaluate the influence of ground waste glass (GWG) as a partial replacement of cement in high performance concrete (HPC). A grade 50 HPC was designed based on ACI 211.1-91. Various experiments were carried out to determine the mechanical properties of the HPC. Tests include specific gravity of constituent materials, sieve analysis of GWG and aggregates, slump flow of fresh HPC, compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths of hardened HPC were carried out. The chemical composition analysis of GWG was conducted using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analytical method. HPC cubes, cylinders and beams were cast, cured and tested at curing ages of 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days using 0, 5, 10 15, 20 and 25 percentage replacement levels. The optimum compressive strength of 57.44 N/mm2 was obtained at 10% cement replacement after 28 days of curing age. The slump test result shows that the workability of the HPC decreased as the GWG content increases. Generally, the strengths of HPC reduced as the percentage of GWG replacement increased beyond 10% but increases with curing age. Therefore, 10% is the optimum replacement level of GWG for cement in HPC. © 2023 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved. Submitted 24 Nov., 2021 Revised 28 May, 2022 Accepted 30 July, 2022 Keywords: High performance concrete Ground waste glass Workability Compressive strength Splitting tensile strength Flexural strength http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, March, 2023; Vol. 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 14 toughness and impact resistance, ease of placement, compaction without segregation (Mehta and Aitcin, 1990; Aitcin and Neville, 1993; Bickley and Mitchell, 2001). The constituent materials used for the production of HPC are the same as those for CC except that HPC has higher cement content about 450-550kg/m3, silica fume or any other supplementary cementitious materials and always a superplasticizer (Neville and Brooks, 2010). The higher cement content could produce substantial heat of hydration in the concrete due to reaction between cement and water, lead to cracking. Furthermore, the higher cement content will necessitate the production of more cement, which will led to global warming and climate change due to the emissions of green-house gases like CO2 to the atmosphere. The International Energy Agency (IEA) in the year 2020 reports that the cement industry emits 2.4 billion tons of CO2 corresponding to 7% of total global emissions. The practice of incorporating the industrial waste materials has gained tremendous attention in research to develop greener and sustainable building materials. In Nigeria, 4% of the solid wastes generated are glass Micheal et al., (2014) which is disposed in the form of glass bottles from beverage factories and glass sheets from ceramics industries. Glass disposal in landfill could have significant negative effects on the environment because it is non-biodegradable. Therefore, recycling the waste glass as supplementary cement materials into concrete production could be a viable solution not only to the pollution problem, but also to the problem of the high cost of building materials. The American Concrete Institute (ACI Committee 363, (1998)) defines HPC as concrete meeting special combinations of performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely when using conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing and curing practices. HPC enhances the service life of the structure and suffers less damage which would reduce overall costs. HPC consist of all ingredients of CC with chemical and mineral admixtures. Chemical admixtures, usually a superplasticiser which reduces the water content, thereby reducing the porosity within the hydrated cement paste (Bharatkumar et al., 2001) and supplementary cementitious materials generally called mineral admixtures and or pozzolana. The pozzolana was introduced to reduce the cost, overcome the adverse effects of OPC and utilize wastes. Also, the use of pozzolana improves/modifies fresh and hardens properties of concrete as well as microstructure of the concrete matrix resulting in stronger and durable concrete. This is due to the reaction between the amorphous silica of the pozzolana and calcium hydroxide during the cement hydration. Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological and decorative usage. Glass is an immensely versatile material used every day in numerous applications. It is produced in many forms such as container glass, flat glass, and bulb glass. Glass is an inert material that could be recycled and used many times without changing its chemical property (Shayan and Xu, 2004). It is an amorphous material with high silica content, so it is reasonable to expect fine glass powder to be used as pozzolana and/or partial replacement of cement in concrete. This is also a higher value choice than the use of glass as aggregate, not only because it makes full use of its physical and chemical properties, but also because cement is more expensive than aggregate, thus offering more economic and environmental advantages. Several researches show that, at a higher age, GWG with 15% to 20% of cement replacement provides compressive strengths exceeding those of control concrete (Lalitha et al., 2017, kumarappan, 2013, Nassar and Soroushian, 2011). However, a study by Rashed (2014) showed that previous studies with glass addition were not conclusive file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Auwal et al: Evaluation of the Influence of Ground Wastes Glass on Mechanical Properties of High Performance Concrete. AZOJETE, 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 15 considering workability and strength. In this research, we tried to evaluate the influence of GWG as partial replacement OPC in the production of HPC. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials Grade 42.5 OPC, manufactured in Nigeria by BUA Group, was used it was obtained from a major dealer along Gwarzo Road, Kano State, Nigeria. The coarse aggregate is a crushed granite rock of nominal size of 20 mm obtained from monkey rock quarry, Kano- Nigeria. The fine aggregates used is naturally occurring clean river sand obtained from Challawa river, Kano. Potable tap water at Civil Engineering laboratory of Bayero University, Kano was used for mixing and curing of specimens. Conplast SP 342 MS, which is a chloride free super-plasticising admixture based on selected sulfonated naphthalene polymer was also used. GWG was prepared from transparent soda-lime glass waste. Broken waste glasses were collected from disposal sites at Kofar-ruwa market, Kano-Nigeria. The samples were cleaned, given time to dry and crushed into smaller pieces using a mortar and pestle. The crushed waste glasses were ground to a fine powder using a model 2A corn milling machine manufactured by Nildeep Talavia, India, then sieved through a 75µm BS sieve. The X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis of OPC and GWG was conducted using a model FTIR-8400S manufactured by Shimadzu, Japan, at Spectral Laboratory Services, Kaduna-Nigeria. 2.2 Methods To achieve the objectives of this study, HPC grade 50 was designed based on ACI 211.1 (1991). Six (6) mixes as shown in Table 1 were used, G-00 is the control mix and G-05, G-10, G-15, G-20 and G-25 are mixes containing GWG at replacement levels of OPC by weight at 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%, respectively. The mixes were used for the determination of the slump flow in accordance with BS EN 12350-2 (2000). The test for compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths of GWG-HPC was carried out in accordance with BS EN 12390-2 (2009), BS EN 12390-6 (2009) and BS EN 12390-5 (2009) respectively. The specimens were prepared and cured for 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days, all tests were conducted for three replicates and averages were evaluated. Table 1. Grade 50 HPC mix proportions per cu.m. Mix Mark Cement (kg/m3) GWG (kg/m3) Fine Aggr. (kg/m3) Coarse Aggr. (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Super- plasticizer (kg/m3) G-00 539.5 0 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 G-05 512.525 26.975 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 G-10 485.55 53.95 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 G-15 458.575 80.925 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 G-20 431.6 107.9 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 G-25 404.625 134.875 631.16 979.34 205 6.5 http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, March, 2023; Vol. 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 16 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Physical and Chemical Analysis of the Constituents Materials The specific gravities and fineness moduli of constituent materials a presented in Table 2, while the oxides composition of the OPC and GWG are presented in Table 3. The particle size distribution of GWG, fine and coarse aggregates are presented in Figure 1. Table 2. Specific Gravities of constituents Materials Table 3. Chemical Composition of OPC (BUA brand) and GWG Oxides OPC Composition (%) BS EN 197-1 (2000) GWG Composition (%) ASTM C618 (2008) SiO2 10.773 The sum of reactive CaO and SiO2 shall be at least 50%. The ratio of CaO to that of SiO2 shall be at least 2%. MgO ≤ 5%. Cl ≤ 0.1 %. SO3 ≤ 4.0%. LoI ≤ 5%. 72.697 The sum of reactive SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 shall be at least 70%. The reactive SiO2 shall not be less than 25% The CaO shall be less than 10%. SO3 ≤ 4% LoI ≤ 10%. Al2O3 1.702 1.257 Fe2O3 2.877 0.352 CaO 60.773 4.696 MgO 0 1.890 ZnO 0.004 0.001 MnO 0.04 0.110 SO3 0 0.000 TiO2 0.066 0.041 Cr2O3 0.012 0.011 Cl 0 0.000 LoI 6.424 3.221 The result indicates that the OPC has a combined CaO and SiO2 of 71.546% Which is above the minimum recommended value of 50%. The individual oxides of SO3 and MgO are all within the limits recommended in BS EN 197-1 (2000) for OPC. Thus, the OPC used can be said to be of sound quality in terms of chemical composition and satisfied the standard requirements. The chemical composition of GWG indicates a combined SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 content of 74.306%, which is slightly above the minimum value of 70% recommended in ASTM C618 (2008) for a good pozzolana and would therefore be a reactive pozzolana. The magnesium oxide content was 0.0% which satisfied the required maximum value of 4%. Calcium oxides content of 4.696% which satisfied the required value of not more than 10%, loss on ignition (LoI) value of 3.221% which is within the acceptable value of 10% and SO3 content of 0% which is also within the maximum content of 4%. This shows that GWG is a good pozzolanic material which satisfied the recommended limit given in BS EN 197-1 (2000) and ASTM C618 (2008). The result is consistent with the findings of Shao et al. (2000); Shi and Wu (2005); Chen et al. (2006) and Taha and Nounu, (2008) on conventional concrete made with GWG. Sample OPC GWG FA CA SP Specific Gravity 3.16 2.58 2.63 2.70 1.19 Fineness Modulus 2.8 6.62 file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Auwal et al: Evaluation of the Influence of Ground Wastes Glass on Mechanical Properties of High Performance Concrete. AZOJETE, 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 17 The particle size distribution of GWG, fine and coarse aggregates were presented in Figure 1. As indicated, the fine aggregate falls in grading zone 2 based on BS 882 (1992) grading limits for fine aggregates. This shows that there is more medium sand than fine and coarse sand. It is cohesive and well-graded, which is desirable for making HPC. Also, in Figure 1, the curve indicates that coarse aggregates have dominant particle sizes of 14 mm and 10 mm. This shows that the aggregate size is within the specified limits of a maximum of 20 mm as suggested by Shetty (2012) for use in HPC. GWG has grain sizes ranging from 1.75 to 75µm. This implies that the GWG could be used as pozzolana in concrete based on BS EN 206-1 (2000). Figure 1. Particle size distribution chart of GWG, fine and coarse aggregates 3.2 Slump Flow of GWG-HPC The slump flow result is presented in Figure 2; it can be seen that the slump flow value gradually reduces with increasing levels of GWG. The reduction in workability could be due to the high reactivity and higher surface area of GWG when compared to OPC. It may also be due to the increase in water demand due to increase in GWG content leading to the increase in surface area of glass particles and the number of angular shaped glass particles in the mix resulting in lesser fluidity Consistent with the findings of Ferraris et al. (2001) and Shekhawat and Aggarwal (2014). 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 P a s s in g ( % ) Sieve Metric Size (mm) Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Zone II Upper limit Zone II Lower limit GWG http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, March, 2023; Vol. 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 18 Figure 2. Slump flow GWG-HPC Similar trends in the slump flow values were reported by Metwally (2007); Vandhiyan et al. (2013); and Afif et al. (2017). All the samples examined satisfied the requirement of BS EN 206-9 (2010) for slump flow value of 550-850mm. 3.3 Effects of GWG on Strength of HPC The compressive strength of GWG-HPC is shown in Figure 3. The result shows an improvement in compressive strength with increase in GWG at 5% and 10% and starts to reduce gradually at 15%, 20% and 25% OPC replacement level. The reason behind the improvement is due to the pozzolanic reaction of GWG. Ground waste glass being highly reactive, it reacts with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) (a by-product of cement hydration) in the presence of water to produce calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). The decrease in compressive strength beyond 10% GWG content. In this case, the amount of silica available in the hydrated cement matrix is probably too high and the amount of produced C-S-H is most likely insufficient to reacts with all the available silica and as result of that, the dilution effect of OPC and weaker formation of C-S-H gel due the pozzolanic reaction takes over and the strength starts to decrease. The observation is consistent with earlier works by Ogork and Auwal (2016). Figure 3. Compressive Strength of GWG-HPC. 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 C o m p re ss iv e S tr e n gt h ( N /m m 2 ) Curing Age (Days) 0% GWG 5% GWG 10% GWG file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Auwal et al: Evaluation of the Influence of Ground Wastes Glass on Mechanical Properties of High Performance Concrete. AZOJETE, 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 19 The results also, shows an improvement in compressive strength with increase in curing period at all replacement levels. The improvement in compressive strength with increase in curing age could be due to micro filling ability and pozzolanic activity of GWG. The smaller particle size of GWG can fill the micro voids within the OPC particles. This observation is in agreement with earlier studies of Ogork and Uche (2014) and Lalitha et al. (2017) who worked on groundnut husk ash (GHA), corn cob ash (CCA) and GWG respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that 10% is the optimum level for replacement of cement with GWG. The optimum dosage is in agreement with Kumarappan (2013) and Lalitha et al. (2017) who worked with glass powder as partial replacement of OPC. Thus, it can be concluded that 10% is the optimum level for replacement of cement with GWG. The splitting tensile and flexural strengths of GWG-HPC follow a similar pattern to compressive strength, as shown in Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4. Splitting Tensile Strength Development of GWG-HPC The result reveals a gain in splitting tensile and flexural strengths with increases in GWG at 5% and 10%, then gradually drops at 15%, 20%, and 25% OPC replacement levels. There was also an improvement in splitting tensile and flexural strengths as the curing age increases. The improvement could be due to micro filling ability and pozzolanic activity of GWG. The smaller particle size of GWG can fill the micro voids within the OPC particles. This observation is consistent with the findings of Ogork and Auwal (2016) using corn cob ash as supplementary cementitious material (SCM). 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sp lit ti n g Te n si le S tr e n gt h ( N /m m 2 ) Curing Age (days) 0% GWG 5% GWG 10% GWG 15% GWG 20% GWG 25% GWG http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:abuiyal1@gmail.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, March, 2023; Vol. 19(1):13-22. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: abuiyal1@gmail.com 20 Figure 5. Flexural Strength of GWG-HPC 4. Conclusion The following conclusions are drawn from the study: i. The soda-lime GWG is suitable material for use as a pozzolana since it satisfied the requirement for such material by having a combined (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) of more than 70%. ii. The workability of HPC reduces as percentage of GWG increases. 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