ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT AZOJETE June 2023. Vol. 19(2):319-330 Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818 www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 319 ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION ANALYSIS OF YELLOW OLEANDER, RESIDUAL COOKING OIL AND FOSSIL DIESEL A. A. Bawa*, H. A. Dandejeh and D. M. Kulla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Kaduna State *Corresponding author’s email address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 1.0 Introduction The utilization of fossil fuels has adverse effects on the environment like pollution, global warming and unfavorable climate change (Jaynes, 2010, Batidzirai et al., 2006; Alamu et al., 2008; Gupta et al., 2007). Biodiesel are fuels derived from plants and animal sources and can serve as alternatives to fossil fuels (Rubi et al., 2011, Atadashi et al., 2012). Biodiesel are biodegradable, non-toxic, eco- friendly, provide longer engine life span when used in automobiles (Ibrahim et al., 2014). Due to the depletion of fossil fuel reserves, rising prices and environmental pollution, this has led to renewed interest in biodiesel production. With respect to low cost, waste to energy and non- edible feedstock; residual cooking oil (RCO) and Yellow Oleander (YO) seed has been selected as feedstock for biodiesel production. In the present study, the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine at constant speed and variable torque were investigated while running on Yellow Oleander biodiesel, residual cooking oil biodiesel and pure diesel. ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT Engine performance and emission characteristics of biodiesel produced from yellow oleander, soyabeans residual cooking oil and fossil diesel was carried out in a compression ignition engine. The engine was operated at constant speed of 2160rpm and variable torque (4, 7.5 and 10.6Nm). The oil extracted from yellow oleander by mechanical press had a yield of 60%. Physicochemical properties of the oil were determined. The chemical composition of the biodiesels was analyzed and the result revealed that yellow oleander and soyabeans residual cooking oils contain 86.2% and 85.3% methyl esters respectively. The engine performance tests of the yellow oleander, soyabeans residual cooking oil and fossil diesel at a constant speed 2160rpm and variable torque (4, 7.5 and 10.6Nm)., were found to be 2.40kw, 1.70kw and 0.91kw for brake power and 51412.57 MN/m2, 36376.87 MN/m2 and 19401.02 MN/m2 for brake mean effective pressure respectively. Similarly, at constant speed of 2160 rpm and variable torque (4, 7.5 and 10.6Nm), it was also found that in comparison to fossil diesel fuel, the emission reduction for soyabean residual cooking oil biodiesel at engine torque of 4Nm was 67% for CO, 47% for CO2, 100% for HC and 40% increase for NOx. However, there was no remarkable change in emission reduction when the engine torque was increased from 4 to 10.6Nm at constant engine speed of 2160 rpm. Biodiesel from yellow oleander and residual cooking can be used as part of substitutes for compression ignition engines to reduce the effects of greenhouse gases emissions caused by fossil diesel fuel combustion from heavy duty equipments . © 2023 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved. Submitted 12 December, 2022 Revised 29 March, 2023 Accepted 6 April, 2023 Keywords: Yellow Oleander Residual Cooking oil Constant engine speed variable torque Emission http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com mailto:%20sundayjayd@gmail.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2023; Vol. 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 320 2. Materials and method The materials used for the production of yellow oleander biodiesel and residual cooking oil biodiesel, physicochemical properties tests and engine performance evaluations were locally obtained from Samaru Zaria, Kaduna State. The yellow oleander plant and seeds are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Yellow oleander plant and seeds 2.1 Methods 2.1.1 Seed Collection and preparation The seeds of yellow oleander were obtained from aviation quarters Zango, Zaria Kaduna state and the soyabeans residual cooking oil was obtained locally from a fish seller at Hayin Dogo, Samaru Zaria Kaduna state. The seeds were plucked fresh, the fleshes were peeled off and the nuts were sun dried for a period of 8hours to enable easy cracking of the shell. After cracking, the seeds enclosed by the nuts were sundried for seven days and the seeds were crushed and grinded. 2.1.2 Oil Extraction Oil was extracted from the crushed and grinded yellow oleander seed by mechanical press method at the National Research Institute for Chemical Technology (NARICT) Zaria, Kaduna State. The seeds were placed in the oil press machine and the oil was extracted mechanically. The expelled oil was filtered using a 0.05mm sieve into a beaker. The difference in the weight of the seed sample before and after the extraction of the oil was taken. Percentage of yield of the oil was calculated using Equation (1) % oil yield = weight of the extracted oil weight of sample × 100 (1) file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Asamo et al: Development of an NCAM Tuber-Shaped Vegetable Slicing Machine. AZOJETE, 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 321 2.1.3 Production of yellow oleander and residual cooking oil Biodiesel by Transeterification Reaction Transesterification is one of the common chemical reactions of alcohol with vegetable oils in the presence of catalyst. In this work, methanol was used because of it low cost and availability. This reaction methanol was used to reduce the viscosity of yellow oleander and soyabeans residual cooking oil and conversion of the triglycerides into ester. The reaction was done with a methanol to yellow oleander/residual cooking oil molar ratio of in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst according to Jamil et al., (2016) using the equipment presented in Figure 2. % Biodiesel yield = weight of biodiesel produced(g) weight of raw oil used(g) × 100% (2) Figure 2: Transesterificatiion oils into biodiesel 2.2 Fuels Table 1 shows the samples of fuels used for this study S/NO Fuels Abbreviation 1 Yellow Oleander Biodiesel Y. O 2 Residual cooking oil Biodiesel R. C. O 3 Diesel D 4 50% Yellow Oleander blend with 50% Diesel 50%Y.O/50%D 5 50% Residual cooking oil blend with 50% Diesel 50%R.C.O/50%D 2.3 Engine performance test procedure The engine performance procedure was carried out on diesel, Yellow Oleander, Residual cooking oil and their blends. A measuring cylinder was used to measure 500ml of the fuel sample and poured into the engine fuel tank. The switch was turned on while the choke was closed by pushing the lever down and the throttle was opened slightly, the starting handle on the left of the engine and was rotated until the engine fires. The throttle was adjusted to bring the speed up slightly while the engine run idle for about 10minutes in order to warm up the engine. The first test condition was set by gradually opening the throttle and increasing the flow of water to the dynamometer until the engine is running on the load of 9Nm and throttling at about 2160rpm until the engine was stabilized then the readings of the engine speed, torque, exhaust temperature and air flow rate were taken. The fuel flow rates were measured by turning off the fuel tap so the fuel is consumed only from the pipette, then a stop watch to measure the time http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2023; Vol. 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 322 taken by the engine to consume 8ml of fuel from the pipette. This procedure was carried for varying speeds (2160, 1860 and 1560rpm) while keeping the load constant and constant speed while varying the loads (4, 7.5 and 10.6Nm). 3. Results and discussion 3.1 physicochemical properties of the fuels Table 2 below shows the physico-chemical properties of the fuels. It shows that RCOB has the highest density, highest kinematic viscosity at 30oC and highest calorific value while YOB has the highest cetane number. Table 2: Physicochemical properties of the fuels used S/N Properties Yellow Oleander Biodiesel Soybeans Residual cooking oil Biodiesel Diesel Biodiesel Standard 1 Density (g/cm3) (@ 30°C) 0.81 0.90 0.88 0.86 – 0.90 2 Kinematic Viscosity (mm2/sec) (@ 30°C) 7.72 9.46 6.09 1.9 – 6.0 3 Free Fatty Acid (mg/g) 0.15 0.20 --- --- 4 Acid Value (mg KOH/g) 0.30 0.40 --- 0.50 Max 5 Saponification value (mg/g) 197.75 201.28 --- 370 Max 6 Iodine Value (gI2/100g) 9.39 10.22 --- --- 7 Moisture Content (%) 2.14 1.17 ---- 0.06 Max 8 Biodiesel Yield (%) 87.30 82.80 --- --- 9 Flash Point (°C) 87.00 96.00 88.00 93.00 Min 10 Peroxide Value (𝑚e𝑞.O2 / 𝐾𝑔𝑂il) 0.40 0.90 --- --- 11 Fire point (°C) 92.70 105.20 67 --- 12 Cloud Point (°C) -2.00 1.00 2.00 --- 13 Pour Point (°C) -5.30 -5.80 -2.00 -3 to -12 14 Refractive Index 1.49 1.50 --- -15 to -16 15 Cetane Number 71.79 71.42 41.00 47.00 Min 16 Calorific value (MJ/Kg) 47.24 49.53 45.87 --- 3.2 GCMS Results of yellow oleander and residual cooking oil biodiesels 3.2.1 GC/MS Result of Yellow Oleander Biodiesel Figure 3 shows that yellow oleander contains about 86.24% biodiesel, with the highest peak number of 2, 6, and 7. These peaks corresponds to n-Hexadecanoic acid, cis-13-Octadecenoic acid and Octadecanoic acid methyl esters with total percentage covering areas of 76.98%, while the remaining total percentage covering areas of 23.01% includes Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester. The presence of methyl ester profile is one of the key indicators that determines the file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Asamo et al: Development of an NCAM Tuber-Shaped Vegetable Slicing Machine. AZOJETE, 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 323 sustainability of biodiesel feedstock (Sokoto et al., 2011). It can, therefore, be concluded that yellow oleander biodiesel has the required quality to be used in compression ignition engines. Figure 3: GCMS result of yellow oleander biodiesel 3.2.2 The GC/MS Result of Residual Cooking Oil Biodiesel Figure 4 shows that GCMS analysis of soyabeans residual cooking oil biodiesel reveals that fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) components are the highest dominant with Hexadecanoic acid-methyl ester and cis-13-Octadecenoic acid-methyl ester representing peak number 10 and 14 respectively with percentage area of 61.22% in aggregate. This is an indication that Residual Cooking Oil biodiesel contains high percentage of unsaturated carbonyl compound which may account to low cetane value of the biodiesel fuel (Chukwueziel et al., 2007). Hence, this result is in line with that of Sahar et al (2018) and can be concluded that residual cooking oil biodiesel has the required quality to be use in compression ignition. Figure 4: GCMS result of residual cooking oil biodiesel 0 1000000 2000000 3000000 4000000 5000000 6000000 7000000 8000000 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 In te n si ty Retention Time Intensity 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1718 19 0 10000000 20000000 30000000 40000000 50000000 60000000 70000000 23 28 33 38 43 48 In te n si ty Retention Time 12 34 5 6,7 8,9 10 11 1213 14 15 16 17 1819202122232425 http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2023; Vol. 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 324 3.3 Engine Test Results This section discusses results of the engine performance and emission characteristics of the fuels. 3.3.1 Brake Power (BP) at constant speed and variable torque Figure 5 reveals that B.P increases with increase in torque for all fuels. It shows that RCOB has the lowest B.P of 0.91kw at the engine torque of 4 Nm, followed by 1.70kw at 7.5Nm and the highest brake power of 2.40kw at 10.6Nm. The B.P increases by about 62% from engine torque of 4Nm to 10.6Nm. However, regardless of the fuel tested, B.P is the same for all the fuels at a fixed torque, this can be explained that the same engine parameters were used to analyze the fuels, therefore it is not fuel dependent but engine dependent. Figure 5: Variation of brake power with torque 3.3.2 Brake mean effective pressure (B.M.E.P) at constant speed and variable torque Figure 6 shows that the BMEP of the fuel samples increased with increase in engine torque from 4Nm to 10.6Nm. It reveals that Y.O.B has the lowest BMEP of 19401.02 MN/m2 at engine torque of 4Nm, further increase to 36376.87 MN/m2 at 7.5Nm and have the highest BMEP of 51412.57 MN/m2 at the highest torque of 10.6Nm. However, it can further be deduced that BMEP increased by about 62% from the lowest torque of 4Nm to the highest torque of 10.6Nm for the fuels, which was found to be the same for all the fuels at each particular engine torque. Figure 6: Variation of brake mean effective pressure with torque 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D B ra ke P o w e r (k w ) B. P at 4 Nm B. P at 7.5 Nm B. P at 10.6 Nm 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D B ra ke M ea n E ff et iv e P re ss u re (M N /m ) B.M.E.P at 4 Nm B.M.E.P at 7.5 Nm B.M.E.P at 10.6 Nm file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Asamo et al: Development of an NCAM Tuber-Shaped Vegetable Slicing Machine. AZOJETE, 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 325 3.3.3 Specific fuel consumption (S.F.C) at constant speed and variable torque Figure 7 shows that S.F.C decreased with increase in the engine torque from 4Nm to 10Nm irrespective of the fuel analyzed. The S.F.C of diesel was 0.52kg/kwh at the lowest torque of 4Nm, and it drastically decreased to 0.28kg/kwh when the torque was increased to 7.5Nm and then to 0.17kg/kwh at the highest engine torque of 10.6Nm. However, it was observed that the S.F.C decreased by 46% as the torque increases from 4Nm to 10.6Nm. This result implied that at the highest torque the S.F.C is low for all the fuel sample tested and increases as the engine torque was decreased, the S.F.C seemed not to depend only the engine but also on the fuel combusted. Figure 7: Variation of specific fuel consumption with torque 3.3.4 Exhaust Temperature at constant speed and variable torque Figure 8 shows that the exhaust temperature for all the fuel molecules increases with increase in the engine speed except for diesel. Considering yellow oleander from the graph below, it has its lowest temperature of 122°C at the lowest engine torque of 4Nm, and then increased to 152°C at 7.5Nm, and has the highest exhaust temperature of 188°C at the highest torque of 10.6Nm. However, yellow oleander has 35% increase in the exhaust temperature from the lowest engine torque of 4Nm to the highest torque of 10.6Nm, this increase in exhaust temperatures can be traced to the fact that biodiesel is more oxygenated than diesel, there is more oxygen available for combustion. Figure 8: Variation of Exhaust temperature with torque 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D Sp e ci fi c Fu el C o n su m p ti o n k g/ kw h S. F. C at 4 Nm S. F. C at 7.5 Nm S. F. C at 10.6 Nm 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D Ex h au st T e m p er at u re , ( °C ) Exhaust Temp. at 4 Nm Exhaust Temp. at 7.5 Nm Exhaust Temp. at 10.6 Nm http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2023; Vol. 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 326 3.3.5 Air fuel ratio (A. F. R) at constant speed and variable torque Figure 9 shows that the A.F.R for yellow oleander, residual cooking oil and diesel decreased with increase in the engine torque while that of their blends behaves otherwise which reason cannot be obviously explained. It shows that yellow oleander has a flow rate of 0.62m3/s at lowest torque of 4Nm, it then decreased to about 0.53 m3/s at 7.5Nm and having the least A.F.R of 0.43m3/s at the highest torque of 10.6Nm. It can further be seen that the A.F.R for yellow oleander decreased by about 31% from the lowest torque of 4Nm to the highest engine torque of 10.6Nm. Figure 9: Variation of Air flow rate with torque 3.4 Emission Characteristics 3.4.1 CO2 at constant speed and variable Torque Figure 10 reveals that CO2 emission of all the fuels increased from the lowest torque of 4Nm to the highest engine torque of 10.6Nm. It can be observed that residual cooking oil has the highest CO2 emission reduction of about 47% at the lowest engine torque of 4Nm, then followed by 43% CO2 emission reduction and has the lowest CO2 emission reduction of 33%. However, it can be observed that CO2 emission for the diesel is higher at each fixed torque than the two biodiesels and their blends which deduced that the biodiesel are good in terms of CO2 emission reduction. Figure 10: Variation of %CO2 emission with torque 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D A ir f lo w r at e, v .( m ^3 /s ) Air flow rate at 4 Nm Air flow rate at 7.5 Nm Air flow rate at 10.6 Nm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D % C O 2 CO2 at 4 Nm CO2 at 7.5 Nm CO2 at 10.6 Nm file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Asamo et al: Development of an NCAM Tuber-Shaped Vegetable Slicing Machine. AZOJETE, 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 327 3.4.2 NOx emission at constant speed and variable Torque Figure 11 shows that the NOx emission for all the fuels tested increased with increase in the engine torque from the lowest to the highest. Yellow oleander emits it lowest NOx of 235ppm at the lowest torque of 4Nm, the emission increases to 374ppm at engine torque of 7.5Nm and has it highest NOx of 512ppm at the highest torque of 10.6Nm. Therefore, the NOx emission of yellow oleander increased by about 54% from the lowest torque of 4Nm to the highest torque of 10.6Nm. However, it can be seen that all the biodiesels and their blends emit higher NOx than diesel at the different engine torque which may be due to the present of high amount oxygen in biodiesel and hence, enhance formation of NOx gases. Figure 11: Variation of % NOx emission with torque 3.4.3 CO at constant speed and variable Torque Figure 12 shows that CO emission increased with increase in the torque for the fuels with diesel having the highest CO emission at each particular torque tested. It can be observed that yellow oleander has the highest CO emission reduction of about 67% at the torque of 4Nm as compared to diesel at the same torque, followed by 44% CO reduction at 7.5Nm and then reduces to 50% CO reduction at the highest torque of 10.6Nm. However, the diesel emitted higher amount of CO emission than the biodiesels and their blend. Figure 12: Variation of %CO emission with torque 3.4.4 HC at constant speed and variable Torque Figure 13 shows that the HC emission decreased with the increase in the engine torque for the fuels tested, at the highest torque of 10.6Nm, it can be seen that the biodiesel and their blends have no HC emission except for diesel. Taking diesel for example, it emits the highest unburnt HC of 4.2%HC/ppm at the lowest torque of 4Nm and then followed by 2.7%HC/ppm at 7.5Nm 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D % N O x/ P P M NOx at 4 Nm NOx at 7.5 Nm NOx at 10.6 Nm 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D % C O CO at 4 Nm CO at 7.5 Nm CO at 10.6 Nm http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2023; Vol. 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 328 and having the lowest emission of 1.3%HC/ppm at highest torque of 10.6Nm. however, about 69% reduction in unburnt HC emission is observed for diesel from the lowest torque of 4Nm to the highest torque 10.6Nm. Figure 13: Variation of % unburned HC emission with torgue 3.5 The comparison between the biodiesels and diesel in term of emission reduction Table 3 shows the variation of exhaust gases emission reduction and increase for all the fuel molecules investigated as compared to diesel. With the negative sign signifying the percentage of emission reduction while the positive sign means increase in the emission with reference to diesel. Table 3 Represent the comparison between biodiesel and diesel at constant engine speed and variable torque. CO CO2 NOX HC Fuels/Torque(Nm) @ 4 @ 7.5 @10.6 @ 4 @ 7.5 @10.6 @ 4 @7.5 @10.6 @ 4 @ 7.5 @10.6 Y.O -57% -56% -58% -38% -35% -41% +54% +42% +42% -81% -85% -100% R.C.O -57% -44% -50% -47% -43% -33% +64% +31% +40% -88% -96% -100% 50%Y.O/50%D -50% -36% -32% -26% -22% -26% +45% +22% +29% -76% -89% -100% 50%R.C.O/50%D -33% -33% -23% -32% -27% -29% +47% +27% +29% -79% -96% -100% 4. Conclusion From the result of the experiment, exhaust temperature increased with increase in torque for all the fuels samples tested, likewise the air consumption rate at each specific torques. In term of engine emission characteristics, the Carbon II oxides (CO) emissions decrease with increase in torque, while Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) for yellow oleander, residual cooking oil and their blends were higher than that of the diesel at each fixed torque tested. However, Carbon IV Oxides (CO2) emissions increased with increase in torque. The diesel emitted higher amount CO2 at each torque than the biodiesels and their blends. Therefore, immense emissions are being produced during the operation of heavy and light duty diesel engines. Biodiesel from yellow oleander and residual cooking can be used as part of substitutes for compression ignition engines to reduce the effects of greenhouse gases emissions caused by fossil diesel fuel combustion and also provide employment opportunity in Nigeria. 0 1 2 3 4 5 Y.O R.C.O D Y.O/D R.C.O/D % H C /P P M HC at 4 Nm HC at 7.5 Nm HC at 10.6 Nm file:///C:/user/Downloads/azojete143/www.azojete.com.ng mailto:%20chykearcade@yahoo.com Asamo et al: Development of an NCAM Tuber-Shaped Vegetable Slicing Machine. AZOJETE, 19(2):319-330. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s e-mail address: sundayjayd@gmail.com 329 References Alamu, OJ., Akintola, TA., Enweremadu, CC. and Adeleke, AE. 2008. Characterization of palm- kernel oil biodiesel produced through NaOH-catalysed transesterification process. Scientific Research and Essay, 3(7): 308-311. Akintayo, ET. 2004. Characteristics and composition of Parkia biglobossa and Jatropha curcas oils and cakes. 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