Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 845 ARID ZONE JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT OF METAKAOLIN HOLLOW SANDCRETE BLOCKS M. Ibrahim Department of Civil Engineering, Baze University, Abuja, Nigeria Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT This study examines the effect of partially substituting metakaolin (MK) for cement on the hollow sandcrete block’s compressive strength. Sandcrete hollow blocks measuring 225 x 225 x 450 mm were made using a 1:6 mix ratio, which is one part cement to six parts fine aggregate (sand). The study was carried out by partially replacing metakaolin with cement at 0% to 35% at 5% intervals to assess the impact on the hollow sandcrete block’s strength. The blocks were cured using the sprinkling method, and compressive strength tests were conducted on the hollow sandcrete block samples at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The compressive strength of hollow sandcrete blocks samples ranges from 3.65 N/mm2 to 0.86 N/mm2. The compressive strength results showed that the optimum percentage of metakaolin (MK) replacement by weight of cement was 10% having a strength of 3.65 N/mm2 after 28 days of curing. These value meets the stipulated requirement specified by Nigeria Industrial Standard NIS 87 (2000), BS 6073, and National Building Code (2006) and are adequate for usage as non-bearing and load-bearing structures in areas where moisture infiltration may occur. The research was aimed at using metakaolin (MK) as a partial replacement of cement in the production hollow sandcrete blocks to curtail the reduction of cement components by block producers to produce low-quality sandcrete block for structural purposes and improve the strength properties of blocks in terms of its production. Submitted 21 May, 2024 Revised 04 July, 2024 Accepted 10 July, 2024 Keywords: Compressive Strength Hollow sandcrete blocks Metakaolin Cement © 2024 Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. All rights reserved. 1.0 Introduction Sandcrete blocks can be defined as composite construction materials made from combining cement, fine aggregate (sand), and water and molded into various sizes (Barry, 1999., and Anthony, et al., 2015). Observation has shown that many ancient buildings in Nigeria are made of clay works, presently still in existence and usable. Despite the introduction of new materials such as life bricks, modified clay blocks, sandcrete blocks seem to be an improvement over these materials which has gained wide usage in construction industries for use as load bearing and non-load bearing structure. Sandcrete blocks are perhaps the most widely used building material in Nigeria, having been employed in the construction of over 90% of the country's physical infrastructure. In Nigeria and other African nations, it is extensively utilized as non-load-bearing and load-bearing walling components, and they have many advantages because of some of their unique properties like strength, density, water absorption, shrinkage, durability, costs, and dimensional accuracy. Many factors, including the materials used in the manufacturing process, the length of time the blocks are left to cure, and the shape and size of the blocks, affect the quality of sandcrete blocks (Esegbuyota et al., 2019). Cement, the primary binder used to make concrete, mortar, sandcrete blocks, and other cement products, is very costly, especially in developing nations. Due to the recent expansion of infrastructure development, there is an increasing global consumption of cement used in the production of concrete (Zareei, 2017; Thomas, 2018; Attah et al., 2020). Reducing the cost of producing cement and the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission into the atmosphere (Mehta, 2001 Khan et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2013;), decreasing housing costs, and meeting the increasing need to protect the environment, has intensified the efforts of researchers at seeking and developing affordable and accessible alternative local materials that could be employed for environmentally friendly building (Awodiji et al., 2018; Onwuka et al., 2013, Nwa-David et al., 2023a). All the challenges have AZOJETE December 2024. Vol.20(4):845-854 Published by the Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818 www.azojete.com.ng mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng http://www.azojete.com.ng/ Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 846 resulted in increasing the cost of construction of houses and cement-based physical infrastructure, Hence the need to search for alternative binding materials as a whole or partly as a substitute for cement. Thus, Part of the solution to reducing the increasing cost of cement in the production of concrete in recent times is the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) including periwinkle shell ash, corncob ash, rice husk ash, cassava peel ash, oyster shell ash, sawdust ash and metakaolin for developing high-strength concrete with enhanced workability, strength and durability and reduced permeability (Olutoge et al., 2012; Kamau et al., 2016; Ogbonna et al., 2020). Kaolin clay is refined and then calcined under specific conditions (temperature and time) to produce metakaolin, a pozzolanic material. By increasing strength and decreasing setting time, metakaolin is a very useful material for improving the quality of concrete and may be a potential material for the production of high-performance concrete (Li and Ding, 2003). Metakaolin is produced for a specific purpose under controlled conditions, making it different from other supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash, slag, or silica fume. It is manufactured by heating kaolin to temperatures between 650-900°C for periods ranging from 1 hour to 12 hours. The kaolin's structure is broken down by this heat treatment. When metakaolin is added during the hydration process, it reacts with free lime to form additional CSH material, thereby enhancing the strength and durability of the concrete (Goud et al., 2017; Saand et al., 2017). However, for some time now, the majority of hollow sandcrete blocks used in developing nations, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa are substandard. (Anosike and Oyebade 2011). Previous studies conducted in Nigeria have also demonstrated how poorly these sandcrete blocks perform, with their strength and durability falling well short of the required standards. According to Odeyemi et al. (2018), stated that many of the hollow sandcrete blocks produced by commercial block producers do not meet the Nigeria Industrial Standard's recommended maximum water absorption of 12% and the minimum standard requirement for compressive strength values of 2.5 N/mm² and 3.45 N/mm² for non-load bearing walls and load bearing walls, respectively. some of these blocks even fail while being transported because of their weight, leading to or contributing to the collapse of buildings, especially the failure of load-bearing walls constructed with these blocks. This problem has been attributed to poor quality control and substandard constituent materials. (Olusola and Akintayo 2009). Due to their porous nature, sandcrete blocks generally take in fluid when exposed to moist conditions. According to studies by Siddique and Klaus (2009), Cassagnabère et al. (2010) and Marchand et al. (1996), the addition of mineral admixtures to concrete and mortar improved the porous structure's resistance to bending, compression, and efflorescence, thereby increasing the material's strength and durability. Due to the pozzolanic and filling actions of certain mineral admixtures, they are capable of improving durability through pore refinement, and the reduction in the calcium hydroxide of the cement paste, these cement composites improve the mechanical properties and life of the structure. The physical action of the pozzolanas provides a uniform, more homogeneous, and denser paste (Chindaprasirt et al., 2004). Much attention has been paid to the utilization of metakaolin in mortar and concrete as a partial substitute for cement. Metakaolin is used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete to improve durability, decrease permeability, enhance strength and the rate of strength gain, and reduce cement consumption (Asbridge et al., 2001; Aquino et al., 2001; Boddy et al., 2001; Justice et al., 2005 and Khatib and Wild, 1998). Metakaolin can also be used as a sandcrete block constituent, substituting part of the cement content since it has pozzolanic properties. This paper investigates experimentally the effect of partially replacing cement with metakaolin on the compressive strengths of hollow sandcrete blocks. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials The constituent materials used for the production of Metakaolin hollow sandcrete block were portable water, fine aggregate (sand), cement, kaolin, and metakaolin only. 2.1.2 Fine Aggregate (Sand) The fine aggregate (sand) used in this study was sourced locally in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, and was devoid of any organic or chemical debris, clay, loam, or dirt. It was fine aggregate sand passing through a sieve of size 4.76 mm to remove some of the contained coarse aggregates. The sand had a specific gravity of 2.61 and an average moisture content of 9.08%. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 847 2.1.3 Cement Dangote Portland limestone cement (3X brand) was used for this study. It was obtained from a dealer in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, and its properties met NIS 444-1:200 and BS EN 197-1 (2011) requirement. 2.1.4 Water Water from the Civil Engineering Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, was used for both the specimen preparations and curing of sandcrete blocks throughout the investigation and it conformed with the recommendations of BS 3148:1980. 2.1.5 Kaolin The kaolin used in the study was a product of the Kankara kaolin clay deposit from Kankara Local Government Area of Katsina state, Nigeria precisely around longitude 7° 26E and 7°28E and latitude 11°53N. The kaolin was subjected to close burning at 700°C to obtain the metakaolin that was used for this study (Elimbi et al., 2011). 2.1.6 Metakaolin The incineration of kaolin to obtain metakaolin for the study was carried out under controlled temperature conditions. Ahmadu Bello University Zaria’s School of Physical Science Multipurpose Laboratory was used to assess the oxide composition by mass of a metakaolin sample. To ascertain the percentage oxide composition and categorize the metakaolin as pozzolanic material, the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) method was utilized to analyze the oxide composition of the material. The test was carried out in compliance with the guidelines provided in BS EN 197-1: 2011 and BS EN 196-2: 2000. The Specific gravity test was carried out on the metakaolin in accordance with BS 1377-2: (1990) Figure 1: Kaolin before calcination Figure 2: Kaolin after calcination 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Hollow Sandcrete Blocks Production The hollow sandcrete blocks were produced using standard metal molds in accordance with NIS 87: 2000 (2000). A mix proportion of 1:6 (which is one part cement to six parts fine aggregate (sand) was used in the production of hollow sandcrete blocks measuring 450 mm x 225 mm x 225 mm as specified by (NIS 87:2000, 2000), for the production of sandcrete blocks in Nigeria. The cement was replaced partially with metakaolin at 0% to 35% levels at 5% intervals. The quantities of the materials were batched by weight. In the production of these blocks, hand mixing was used and the materials were thoroughly mixed until an even color and consistency were achieved. The mixture was poured and compacted into a metal mold measuring 450 × 225 × 225 mm. After that, the excess material was removed, leaving the surface smooth. Following these method, Before After http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 848 168 hollow sandcrete blocks measuring 450 × 225 × 225 mm were produced. The blocks were removed from the molds and placed on the pallets with a space between two hollow sandcrete blocks for the period of curing. 2.2.2 Curing The hollow sandcrete blocks were cured in compliance with (NIS 87:2000, 2000). Throughout the curing process, the hollow sandcrete blocks were left on wooden pallets and kept wet. The curing was done by sprinkling water twice (Morning and Evening) a day for 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28, days. For the curing of sandcrete blocks produced, clean water devoid of salt and other harmful substances was used at a temperature of 23 ± 2 ◦C. Figure 3: Metakaolin sandcrete blocks produced at various replacement levels 2.2.3 Compressive Strength Test A compressive testing machine was used to carried out the compressive strength of the blocks in the Material Testing Laboratory at Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, after the necessary curing days of 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The compressive strength test was carried out on the hardened hollow sandcrete blocks at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of age to determine the load-bearing capacity of the hollow sandcrete block samples, which was carried out as stipulated in BS 6073 Part 1, (1981). For each mix, 3 blocks were crushed to obtain the average strength using the following Equation Compressive strength (𝑁 𝑚𝑚²)⁄ = 𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 (1) http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 849 Figure 4: Crushing Strength of MKSB by Universal Compression Machine 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Specific Gravity/Bulk Density The specific gravity of Metakaolin was found to be 2.57 as shown in Table 1. The specific gravity value is a little lower than the 2.62 reported by Poon et al., (2001) but greater than 2.5 obtained by Al-Akhras et al. (2006) and Tafraoui et al. (2005). Also, the bulk density of Metakaolin is 1865 Kg/m³. Table 1 compares the specific gravity and bulk density of Ordinary Portland Cement with Metakaolin, demonstrating that OPC values are higher in both cases. Table 1: Comparison between Physical Properties of OPC and Metakaolin Item Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Metakaolin Bulk Density 1320 Kg/m³ 1865 Kg/m³ Specific Gravity 3.15 2.57 3.2 Chemical Analysis of Metakaolin The result of the oxide composition of metakaolin as shown in Table 2 shows that Metakaolin contains Silicon oxide (SiO2 = 56.48%), Aluminum oxide (Al2O3 = 36.09%), and Iron oxide (Fe2O3 = 0.59%). The total percentage composition of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, is 93.16% which is in line with ASTM C 618-78 (American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978) minimum requirement of 70% for pozzolanas. Therefore, the Kankara metakaolin meets the stipulated requirement for pozzolanas and is classified as class F. The presence of siliceous and aluminous material in the Metakaolin in its fine form suggests that it can react with calcium hydroxide to produce calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), a cement-forming substance that increases strength (ASTM C618). http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 850 Table 2: Chemical Composition of Metakaolin Elemental Oxide Percentage (%) of Metakaolin SiO2 56.48 Al2O3 36.09 Fe2O3 0.59 CaO 0.28 MgO 0.67 Na2O 0.02 K2O 0.06 TiO2 5.15 SO3 0.33 With its low combined alkali concentration of 5.21% (Na2O + K2O), Metakaolin decreases the likelihood of the destructive aggregate alkali reaction that causes the disintegration of concrete. It is also observed that the SO3 and MgO values are 0.33% and 0.67% which are less than the maximum of 2.5% and 4% specified in BS 3892: 1990 parts 1 and 2 respectively. This suggests that adding metakaolin to concrete mixes could improve their durability and reduce unsoundness when utilized in the production of Metakaolin hollow sandcrete blocks. 3.3 Compressive Strength of Metakaolin Sandcrete Blocks The result of the average compressive strength of the tested metakaolin sandcrete blocks with a mix ratio of 1:6 (which is one part cement to six parts fine aggregate (sand) at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of curing is shown in Table 3, whereas the plots in Figure 5 illustrates the increase of the compressive strength of hollow sandcrete blocks with the age of curing for different levels of replacement of cement with Metakaolin. Table 3: Compressive Strength of Hollow Sandcrete Blocks Age of Curing (Days) Compressive Strength (N/mm²) at Various Levels of Replacement of Cement with Metakaolin Control Mix 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 1 0.52 0.86 1.10 0.83 0.80 0.49 0.41 0.31 3 1.33 1.51 2.04 1.47 1.32 0.70 0.66 0.56 7 1.90 2.31 2.53 2.30 1.89 1.30 0.99 0.70 14 2.61 2.73 2.87 2.24 1.79 1.67 0.85 0.81 21 2.81 3.04 3.19 2.53 2.12 1.51 0.83 0.70 28 3.51 3.36 3.65 2.61 2.21 1.58 1.10 0.86 The compressive test results obtained for sandcrete blocks produced at different replacement level of cement with metakaaolin indicates that the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks increases with an increase in the Metakaolin content from 5% to 20% and decreases with an increase in metakaolin content from 25% to 35% replacement of cement with metakaolin. After 28 days of curing, the compressive strength at 5% replacement of cement with metakaolin is lower compared to that of the control mix. This can be seen when 5% cement is replaced with metakaolin achieving a compressive strength of 3.36 N/mm2 compared to 3.51 N/mm2 respectively. It is evident that the 5% replacement level of metakaolinite is insufficient to produce additional http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 851 C-S-H, and hence does not increase the compressive strength over the control at all ages. The metakaolinite available only reacts with a portion of calcium hydroxide released from the byproduct of hydration of cement which limits the strength development at the later ages (Siddique et al., 2009). Figure 5: Compressive Strength of Metakaolin Sandcrete Blocks with varying curing days. Metakaolin sandcrete blocks with 10% metakaolin replacement level exhibit the best strength development revealing that 10% metakaolin replacement is the optimum as seen in Figure 2. The average compressive strength of 3.65 N/mm2 after 28 days of curing was attained at a 10% cement replacement level with metakaolin. The mean compressive strength of 3.65 N/mm2 at 28 days of curing was achieved at a 10% replacement level of cement with metakaolin. This satisfied the Nigeria Industrial Standard NIS 87 (2000)'s compressive strength requirements of 2.5 N/mm2 for non-load-bearing walls and 3.45 N/mm2 for load-bearing walls. This also satisfies BS 6073 which recommends 2.80 N/mm2 for the mean strength, and 2.59 N/mm2 for the lowest individual strength. The compressive strength at 5%, 15%, and 20% replacement levels with metakaolin are 3.36 N/mm2, 2.61 N/mm2, and 2.21 N/mm2 respectively at 28 days of curing which satisfies the requirement given in the Nigeria Federal Ministry of Works, and Housing (1979) specification, National Building Code (2006) specification, NIS 87: 2000 for hand compacted blocks. Although, compressive strength at 25%, 30%, and 35% replacement at 28 days of curing exhibit significant strength of 1.58 N/mm2, 1.10 N/mm2, and 0.86N/mm2 respectively. This strength is higher than commercially produced blocks in some regions of Nigeria according to Ewa and Ukpata (2013) and Tsado et al., (2014) which ranges from 0.23 N/mm2 and 0.58 N/mm2. 4. Conclusion The Metakaolin obtained by the incineration (under controlled conditions) of the kaolin, a product of the Kankara kaolin clay deposit from Kankara Local Government Area of Katsina state, Nigeria met all the requirements of oxide composition and has a SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 combination of 93.16% which is higher than the 70% minimum recommended limit as stipulated by ASTM C 618-05. This suggests that the metakaolin utilized in this study, which was derived from kaolin, is a high-quality reactive pozzolana. The compressive strength of hollow sandcrete blocks increases with an increase in the Metakaolin content from 5% to 20% but reduces with an increase in metakaolin content from 25% to 35% in the mix. The compressive strength results indicate that the optimum percentage of Metakaolin replacement by weight of cement was 10% having a strength of 3.65 N/mm2 at 28 days of curing and also which meets Nigeria Industrial Standard NIS 87 (2000), BS 6073, and National Building Code (2006) stipulated requirement. It is recommended that Metakaolin sandcrete blocks produced at 10% cement replacement with metakaolin are adequate for use as load-bearing and non-load-bearing structure in areas where they may be subjected to moisture ingress. Sensitization is needed in the production of commercial hollow sandcrete blocks to block producers of low-quality blocks and how Metakaolin can be utilized as a partial substitute for cement to achieve the required profit margin with standard for structural purpose. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 852 References Al-Akhras, NM. 2006. Durability of metakaolin to sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 36(9): 1727 – 1734. Anosike, MN. and Oyebade, AA. 2011. Sandcrete blocks and quality management in Nigeria Building Industry. Journal of Engineering, Project and Production Management, 2(1): 37 - 46. Anthony, BS., Olabosipo, IF., Adewuyi, PA. and Misbau, AA. 2015. Sandcrete Block and Brick Production in Nigeria-Prospects and Challenges. IIARD International Journal of Geography and Environmental Management, 1(8): 104-120. Aquino, W., Lange, DA. and Olek, J. 2001. The influence of metakaolin and silica fume on the chemistry of alkali silica reaction products. Cement Concrete Composite, 23(6): 485 - 493. Asbridge, AH., Chadbourn, GA. and Page, CL. 2001. Effects of metakaolin and the interfacial transition zone on the diffusion of chloride ions through cement mortars. Cement and Concrete Research, 31(11): 1567 - 1572. ASTM C 618: 1978. Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolana for Use as Mineral /Admixture in Portland cement concrete. American Society for Testing Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa 19103, USA. Attah, IC., Etim, RK., Alaneme, GU. and Bassey, OB. 2020. Optimization of mechanical properties of rice husk ash concrete using Scheffe’s theory. SN Applied Sciences, 2: 928-941 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020- 2727-y. Awodiji, CTG., Onwuka, DO., Okere, CE. and Ibearugbulem, OM. 2018. Anticipating the Compressive Strength of Hydrated Lime Cement Concrete Using Artificial Neural Network Model. Civil Engineering Journal, 4(12): 3005-3018. http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/cej-03091216. Barry, R. 1999. The Construction of Buildings. Blackwell Science Oxford United Kingdom. Boddy, A., Hooton, RD. and Gruber, KA. 2001. Long-term testing of chloride penetration resistance of concrete containing high reactive metakaolin. Cement and Concrete Research, 31(5): 759 – 765 BS EN 197-1, 2011. Cement, composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements, British Standard Institution, London. BS 3148, 1980. Method of Test for Water for Making Concrete. British Standard Institutions, London. BS 6073: Part 1: 1981. Specifications for precast concrete masonry units. British Standard Institutions, London. Cassagnabère, F., Mouret, M., Escaidelas, G., Broilliard, P. and Bertrand, A. 2010. Metakaolin a solution for the precast industry to limit the clinker content in concrete. mechanical aspects. Construction and Buildings Materials, 24(7):1109-1118. Chindaprasirt, P., Homwuttiwong, S. and Sirivivatnanon, V. 2004. Influence of fly ash fineness on strength, drying shrinkage and sulfate resistance of blended cement mortar. Cement and Concrete Research, 34(3): 1087–1092. Esegbuyota, D., Akpokodje, OI. and Uguru, H. 2019. Physical characteristics and compressive strength of raffia fibre reinforced sandcrete blocks. Direct Research Journal of Engineering and Information Technology, 6(1): 1-8. Ewa, DE. and Ukpata, JO. 2013. Investigation of the Compressive Strengths of Commercial Sandcrete Blocks in Calabar Nigeria. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 3(4): 477–482. Federal Ministry of Works 1979. Sandcrete blocks specifications, Part 2. Lagos, Nigeria. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2727-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2727-y http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/cej-03091216 Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 853 Federal Republic of Nigeria 2006. National Building Code. 1st edition, Nigeria. Goud, BN. and Nagaraj, K. 2017. Characteristics of high-performance concrete using metakaolin. International Journal Innovation Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 6(8): 17100–17110. Johnson, ME. and Gonzalez, A. 2013. Estimating cost savings for aviation fuel and CO2 emission reductions strategies. The Collegiate Aviation Review International, 31(2):1-12. Justice, JM., Kennison, LH., Mohr, BJ., Beckwith, SL., McCormick, LE., Wiggins, B., Zhang, ZZ. and Kurtis, KE. 2005. Comparison of two metakaolin and silica fume used as supplementary cementitious materials. Proceeding on America Concrete Insitute, 7th Internation Symposium on utilization of high strength/high performance concrete, American concrete institute as SP-228, Fermington Hills, Michigan. 213 – 236 Kamau, J., Ahmed, A., Hirst, P. and Kangwa, J. 2016. Suitability of corncob ash as a supplementary cementitious material. International Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 4(4): 215– 228.doi:10.17706/ijmse.2016.4.4.215-228. Khan, R., Jabbar, A., Ahmad, I., Khan, W., Khan, AN. and Mirza, J. 2012. Reduction in environmental problems using rice-husk ash in concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 30: 360-365. Khatib, JM. and Wild, S. 1998. Sulphate resistance of Metakaolin mortar. Cement and Concrete Research 28 (1): 83 - 92. Li, Z. and Ding, Z. 2003. Property Improvement of Portland Cement by Incorporating with Metakaolin and Slag. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(4): 579 - 584. Marchand, J., Hornain, H., Diamond, S., Pigeon, M. and Guiraud, H. 1999. The microstructure of dry concrete products. Cement and Concrete Research, 26 (3): 227 - 238. Mehta, PK. 2001.Reducing the environmental impact of concrete. Concrete International, 23: 61- 66. NIS 444-1:2003. Cement: Part. 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. Nigerian Industrial Standard, Standard Organization of Nigeria, Lagos. NIS 87 2000. Nigerian Industrial Standard for Sandcrete Blocks. Lagos, Nigeria. Nwa-David, CD., Onwuka, DO., Njoku, FC. and Ibearugbulem, OM. 2023a. Prediction of Fresh and Hardened Properties of Concrete Containing Nanostructured Cassava Peel Ash Using Ibearugbulem's Approach. Engineering and Technology Journal, 41(5): 1-14. Odeyemi, SO., Akinpelu, MA., Atoyebi, OD. and Orire, KJ. 2018. Quality Assessment of Sandcrete Blocks Produced in Adeta, Kwara State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH), 37(1): 53–59. Ogbonna, C., Mbadike, E. and Alaneme, G. 2020. Characterisation and use of cassava peel ash in concrete production. Computational Engineering and Physical Modeling, 3(2): 11–20. Olusola, B. and Akintayo, O. 2009. An assessment of failure of building component in Nigeria. Journal of Building Appraisal, 4(4): 279 - 286. Olutoge, FA., Oriyomi, MO. and Olatunji, SO. 2012. Assessment of the suitability of periwinkle shell ash (PSA) as partial replacement for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in concrete. International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 10(3): 428–434. Onwuka, DO., Anyaogu, L., Chijioke, C. and Okoye, PC. 2013. Prediction and optimization of compressive strength of sawdust ash-cement concrete using scheffe’s simpex design. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(5):1-9. Poon, CS., Lam, L., Kou, SC., Wong, YL. and Wong, R. 2001. Rate of pozzolanic reaction of metakaolin in high-performance Cem. pastes. Cement and Concrete Research, 31(9): 1301–1306. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, December 2024; Vol.20(4):845-854. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng Corresponding author’s email address: musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng 854 Saand, A., Keerio, MA. and Bangwar, DK. 2017. Effect of Soorh metakaolin on concrete compressive strength and durability. Engineering Technology and Applied Science Research, 7(6): 2210–2214. Siddique, R. and Klaus, J. 2009. Influence of metakaolin on the properties of mortar and concrete. A review. Applied Clay Science, 43(3): 392 - 400. Thomas, BS. 2018. Green concrete partially comprised of rice husk ash as a supplementary cementitious material—a comprehensive review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82: 3913–3923. Tsado, T., Auta, SM., James, O. and Ahmed, SB. 2014. Quality assurance of hollow sandcrete blocks industries in Minna, Niger state, Nigeria. International Engineering Conference. Retrieved from www.seetconf.futminna.edu.ng Zareei, SA., Ameri, F., Dorostkar, F. and Ahmadi, M. 2017. Rice husk ash as a partial replacement of cement in high strength concrete containing micro silica: evaluating durability and mechanical properties. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 7:73–81. http://www.azojete.com.ng/ mailto:musa.ibrahim@bazeuniversity.edu.ng http://www.seetconf.futminna.edu.ng/