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The Introduction of Academic Articles on Civil

Engineering and Its Linguostylistic Analysis

Minoo Khamesian
Yerevan State University

T he strategy of participants’ behavior in the field of science communication isimplemented through specific speech acts, which are the optimal choice of
means and methods of communication. What matters is not only the choice of style but
the choice of genre and compositional form of the text. The properties of written scien-
tific texts are the result of the language use on the basis of certain “communication code”,
which operates in a scientific corporative community. This code is based on common
conventions and rules of communication and is supplemented with standards inside the
corporative community. Through this community the process of intercultural communi-
cation in science is developing and expanding. Unlike in other areas written communica-
tion plays a vital role in science.

Research articles in English favor the prestigious status of being the major channel of
sharing scientific knowledge among the members of academic/domain specific discourse
community mainly because of the position of English as the international language of sci-
ence and technology. In the world of an increasing international academic and research
collaboration, the ability to read and write research articles in English is crucial for aca-
demic success (Kanoksilapatham 2005). Like other genres, research articles possess their
own communicative and rhetorical conventions.

To facilitate the long and arduous process of getting accepted as academic discourse
community members, especially at its initial stage, this study focuses on the analysis of
a civil engineering data set to investigate how research articles are constructed. Civil
engineering is known to be an academic discipline dating back to the year of 1711, when
John Smeaton, the founder of a Society of Engineers and the builder of the famous
Eddystone Lighthouse in Great Britain, claimed to be the first civil engineer
(<http://whatiscivilengineering.csce.ca/ civil1.htm>). With this long history, needless to
say, any academic institution in the world that offers a degree in engineering tends to
offer a degree in civil engineering. An insight into the analysis of civil engineering arti-
cles will thus be beneficial to a large number of scholars, practitioners and fellow stu-
dents in the field.

Hence, the present article will attempt to scrutinize various linguistic patterns of the
introductory part of a civil engineering research article successfully published in the
International Journal of Civil Engineering, allowing scientists and practitioners in the
field to both effectively share and update their scientific knowledge and contribute to the
growth of the discourse community. 

We should hasten to add that Introduction is evaluated as the representation of the entire
content of papers. As a result, readers often make the introduction as the guide to under-
standing the content of the research paper. Even to some readers, Introduction is a guide to
deciding whether they need to continue reading or the content satisfies their needs.

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The passage adduced below presents the introductory part of a research article in
Civil Engineering. 

In designing an ordinary moment resisting frame, often the principle of
strong-column-weak beam is implemented in order to make sure that plas-
tic hinging occurs in the beams and as such the frame is capable of dissi-
pating significant energy while remaining stable in the inelastic region.
The stability in this context is defined as the ability of the frame to main-
tain its elastic level of resistance throughout the entire inelastic range of
response. Using this principle, plastic hinges would develop in the beams
adjacent to the joints and usually very close to the column face. The prob-
lem is that this closeness may allow cracks caused by plastic hinging to
propagate into the joint core region and as such initiate a brittle failure
mechanism.

Attempts have been made in the past in order to develop methods of
relocating a plastic hinge away from the column face. Most of the meth-
ods, however, have been on detailing of reinforcing bars, which can only
be utilized in new construction. For example, Abdel-Fattah and Wight [1]
showed that the use of intermediate longitudinal beam reinforcement
combined with extra top and bottom steel in the beam at a specific length
can help in successfully relocating a plastic hinge away from the column
face. The relocating was also studied by Jon et al. [2]. Four half-scale RC
interior beam-column joints with different reinforcement details in the
beam in the region adjacent to the column were tested under cyclic loads
in their investigation. Their results showed that the bond deterioration
within the joint may be prevented by the relocation of plastic hinge, while
shear sliding may occur at the plastic hinge zone due to the increased
shear force at the beam end. Jon et. al. [2]) proposed a new arrangement
for the beam bars in order to improve the plastic hinging. Paulay and
Priestley [3] also proposed that the beam bars may be curtailed so that
stresses in the reinforcement would not exceed yield stress at the face of
the column, while strain hardening may be developed at the critical sec-
tion of the plastic hinge. Paulay and Priestly [3] concluded that the crit-
ical section must be a sufficient distance away from the column face. They
recommended that because the nature of shear transfer across the critical
section of a plastic hinge is complicated, care must be taken with detail-
ing of the shear reinforcement. Paulay and Priestley [3] proposed that
this necessitates stirrups extending between these two regions, perhaps
supplemented by specially bent top beam bars, to carry the entire shear
force and also suggested that to ensure that the critical section occurs at
a chosen place, extra flexural reinforcement can be provided by bending
some of the top and bottom bars at the angle of 450 or less into the oppo-
site face of the beam.

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Many already existing moment resisting frames do not posses correct
joint reinforcement detailing as they have been designed based on older
codes. A different method which can upgrade the joints of these frames in
an efficient and cost effective way is consequently desirable. This paper
presents results of an experimental investigation into the effectiveness of
FRP wraps in controlling the location of a plastic hinge in an Ordinary
Moment Resisting Frame (OMRF). The proposed method is to stick car-
bon FRP sheets of specific lengths to the sides of the beams of a reinforced
concrete joint (i.e. web-bonded FRP) and extend them over the joint to act
as an anchor. The performance of this method has been investigated by
the authors and is presented in the following. Other aspects of the investi-
gation can be found in papers [4, 5]. The method can be used just as effec-
tively for the repair of earthquake damaged RC exterior joints.

This introductory part presents how a new method can promote the joints of moment
resisting frames in order to avoid the problem of cracking by plastic hinging which pro-
liferates into the joint core region and brings about a brittle failure mechanism.

As has widely been mentioned the method of linguostylistic analysis (Akhmanova 1972)
is quite a safe and reliable method to be applied to any linguistic material as it can help the
investigator bring out all possible linguistic peculiarities of the given discourse.
Understanding the direct, nominative meanings being our very first task in the investigation
(entirely based on dictionaries of contemporary English), we start with such words as:

Verbs: implement, maintain, present, extend, investigate;
Nouns: frame, principle, reinforcement, performance;
Adjectives: capable, stable, adjacent, effective.

Our research has revealed the following nominative meanings:
Implement: (1) to give practical effect to and ensure of actual fulfill-

ment by concrete measures, (2) to provide instruments or means of expres-
sion for (Webster 2008).

Maintain: (1) to keep in an existing state (as of repair, efficiency, or
validity), (2) preserve from failure or decline (maintain machinery)
(Webster 2008).

Present: to act the part of; perform (Webster 2008). 
Extend: to cause to be of greater area or volume; enlarge (Webster

2008). 
Investigate: to carry out a systematic or formal inquiry into (an inci-

dent or allegation) so as to establish the truth (Concise Oxford English
Dictionary 2004).

Frame: a rigid structure surrounding a picture, door, etc. (Concise
Oxford English Dictionary 2004).

Principle: a general scientific theorem or natural law (Concise Oxford
English Dictionary 2004).

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Reinforcement: act of strengthening, fortification (Babylon English
Dictionary 2009).

Performance: the manner of reacting to stimuli (Webster 2008).
Capable: having attributes (as physical or mental power) required for

performance or accomplishment (Webster 2008).
Stable: firmly established (Webster 2008).
Adjacent: having a common endpoint or border (Webster 2008).
Effective: producing a decided, decisive, or desired effect (Webster

2008).

As is usually assumed, the basic function of scientific writing is to elaborate on cer-
tain points or assumptions; define and explain different phenomena, pass on and sum up
information, arrive at certain conclusions. In other words, the process of scientific work
is mainly reflected in general scientific vocabulary, which has been singled out in the fol-
lowing conceptual fields (the examples are taken from the sample adduced above): 

1) prospect, outlook (attempt, propose, etc.); 
2) acquiring knowledge (investigate, study, etc.); 
3) organization and systematization (combine, result, etc.); 
4) checking up (relocate, test, etc.); 
5) making conclusions (conclude, effective, etc.); 
6) passing on knowledge (suggest, can be used, etc.). 

(Gasparyan 1998)

From the point of view what has been mentioned above, it can be concluded that
words belonging to the general scientific vocabulary deal with processes of acquiring and
passing on information, making prospects, arriving at certain results, checking them,
making conclusions, and so on. As a result, according to Akhmanova (1978), the lexical
“diapason” (range) of words in scientific writings is naturally narrowed down, which
means, they totally acquire special meanings. In other words, general scientific words
remain general only in the sense that they appear to be simple and familiar and can easily
be considered as functioning in all registers of speech. However, when they are used in
a scientific text, a certain transposition of their meaning is bound to occur.

The grammatical-morphological study of the vocabulary notes of the passage (fre-
quency analysis) shows that nouns in this passage prevail and it is discernible that the
introductory part of the above civil engineering material presents a technical object,
namely FRP (the effectiveness of FRP wraps in controlling the location of a plastic hinge
in an Ordinary Moment Resisting Frame (OMRF)).

On the level of word groups (Lexical-Phraseological word combinations) the use of
noun compounds, such as ordinary moment resisting frame; correct join reinforcement;
joint core region; brittle failure mechanism, etc. prevails. This is in line with the style of
scientific prose for it is believed that the mentioned constructions are used as a means to
represent information in a compact and dense form. Also as Ferguson (2004) illustrates
noun compounds can be used as technical terms as well (ordinary moment resisting

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frame). In this sense they can be used in the introduction to indicate the first technical
concept. In this connection we may continue by considering the interaction of vocabu-
lary and syntax in greater detail. Although ultimate syntagmatic sequences are larger
than words and mostly include the expression of predication, they are generally applica-
ble, highly reproducible complexes which may be regarded as functionally similar to
nominative units, e.g.: … in order to make sure that…, … in this context is defined as …,
The method can be used just as effectively for the … to name but a few. We should has-
ten to add here that the number of attributive word-combinations (significant energy,
inelastic region, older code, experimental investigation, etc.) prevails, as well as the so
called of-phrases (elastic level of resistance, range of response, the principle of, the
effectiveness of) and so on. 

Our analysis on the level of words and word-combination reveals that these groups
are mainly non-connotative and devoid of any emotional colouring. As has always been
assumed by and large, in intellective communication the speaker or writer whose main
aim is to pass on information does not mainly rely on the power of words and utterances,
i.e. on their connotative values.

With respect to morphological-grammatical analysis the most important oppositions
are between the present and the past, active and passive. Similar to other scientific writ-
ings the use of verbal phrases in the passive is prevalent, such as is implemented, is
defined, have been designed, has been investigated, to name but a few. As is frequently
mentioned by scholars passive constructions play a very important role, for they serve to
express general statements about things without bothering to introduce doers into the
statements. Needless to say the present tense appears almost throughout the whole pas-
sage as informative works are not restricted by time. As regards the present perfect tense,
it should be noted that it is the form which helps to establish a direct contact with the
interlocutors, being so much more situation-bound.

On the level of major syntax, complete (non-elliptical) complex and compound sen-
tences with the secondary clauses of cause, effect and condition which enable the author
to express the relations between the parts more precisely (as different from the asyndetic
connection typical of colloquial speech) constitute a high percentage. For example: In
designing an ordinary moment resisting frame, often the principle of strong-column-weak
beam is implemented in order to make sure that plastic hinging occurs in the beams and
as such the frame is capable of dissipating significant energy while remaining stable in
the inelastic region.; Many already existing moment resisting frames do not posses cor-
rect joint reinforcement detailing as they have been designed based on older codes.

The syntactic semi-composite sentences, i.e. absolute constructions (ACs) with two
predicative lines, the first being the main clause, the second extending it via incomplete
secondary predication are wide usages. The absence of a finite verb in the sentence is
considered to be one of the types of secondary predication (Karapetyan 2010). In our
analysis we come across such cases as in In designing an ordinary moment resisting
frame, often the principle of strong-column-weak beam is implemented in order to make
sure that plastic hinging occurs in the beams and as such the frame is capable of dissi-
pating significant energy while remaining stable in the inelastic region.; Using this

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39



principle, plastic hinges would develop in the beams adjacent to the joints and usually
very close to the column face.  

As is known, the ever-increasing rhythm of scientific development requires transmission
of information in the linguistic frame as compressed as possible, and the absolute construc-
tions (ACs) due to their structural incompleteness, which nonetheless does not distort the
meaning they transfer, contribute to the beneficial evolution of the discourse, make the speech
compact and neat, and give an opportunity to fit more information into a lesser volume.

Sentence patterns applied are of three types;
1) Postulatory, i.e. a hypothesis must be based on facts already known. Therefore,

every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are
taken as self-evident and needing no proof. E.g. In designing an ordinary moment
resisting frame, often the principle of strong-column-weak beam is implemented in
order to make sure that plastic hinging occurs in the beams and as such the frame is
capable of dissipating significant energy while remaining stable in the inelastic
region.

2) Argumentative, that is, the writer’s own ideas are shaped in formulae, arguments,
etc., in other words, in sentences giving reasons for further conclusions. E.g. The prob-
lem is that this closeness may allow cracks caused by plastic hinging to propagate into
the joint core region and as such initiate a brittle failure mechanism.

Formulative, that is to say, the definition sentence-pattern which is the sentence which
sums up the facts is generally a kind of clincher sentence which is in line with scientific
prose writing in general. E.g. The method can be used just as effectively for the repair of
earthquake damaged RC exterior joints.

As it is widely accepted, a hypothesis, a scientific conjecture or a forecast must be
based on facts already known, on facts systematized and defined. Therefore; every piece
of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are considered as
self-evident, needing no proof. A reference to these facts is only preliminary to the expo-
sition of the writer’s viewpoints and is therefore summed up in precisely formulated
statements accompanied by references to sources.

When speaking about syntax, it is important to elaborate on the functional perspec-
tive of paragraphs or the supraphrasal unities which exist as part of a discourse, as ele-
ments in a series of intertwined syntactic entities which jointly serve for the expression
of wider, overall purports. Consequently, the division of a text into paragraphs, i.e. the
paragraph as a semiotic device, and the average length of paragraphs could be an impor-
tant conclusion to make. 

In the introductory part presented above the average length of paragraphs is 13-14
lines, which in actual fact is not in line with what is recommended in scientific writings.
But it goes without saying that what really matters in a piece of scientific writing is its
careful edition in terms of division into paragraphs (Akhmanove 1978).

The general function of the Introduction section is to introduce the topic, furnishing
the rationale for the study being reported. Building on the notion of shared communica-
tive purposes Swales (1990) suggests “rhetorical movement” analysis (move and step
analysis) as the basis for explaining a genre. When applied to the introductory section

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adduced above this mechanism of analysis offered by Swales proves to be productive and
can be illustrated in the following way: the analysis shows that the first step of move 1
(Claiming centrality) is absent here as there is no evidence of the kind to support step 1.
On the other hand, the presence of the second step can be specified by the use of lexical-
grammatical vocabulary with often in: often the principle of … is implemented in order
to make sure that … which is considered as the statement to elaborate on either
knowledge, consensus, practice or description of phenomena. Step 3 (Reviewing items
of previous research) is present in the introductory part adduced above by using already
in Many already existing moment resisting frames do not possess correct joint reinforce-
ment detailing as they have been designed based on older codes. Here, the writer needs
to represent what has been found or claimed and possibly, who has found or claimed
it. After describing important features of their research territory (Move 1), academic writ-
ers typically try to claim a “niche” for their research. This move can be done by showing
that the previous research or solutions are not complete, or that there are aspects of the
research field still needing further investigation (indicating a gap). This is often signaled
by words expressing contrast or negative evaluation as in A different method which
can upgrade the joints of these frames in an efficient and cost effective way is conse-
quently desirable. Finally in Move 3 (Occupying the niche) the writers reveal their solu-
tion to help fill the gap that has been presented in Move 2 by describing the aims in terms
of what the research sets out to do or accomplish using either human or inanimate agents
as the subject as in This paper presents results of an experimental investigation into the
effectiveness of FRP wraps in controlling the location of a plastic hinge in an Ordinary
Moment Resisting Frame (OMRF). Needless to say, here the writer uses an inanimate
agent to perform the step (Announcing present research).

Thus, Generic patterns commonly intertwined in academic discourse across disci-
plines (Civil Engineering research articles, the core in this study) are so complex that a
system of linguistic analysis is required to account for the intricacies in order to be han-
dled by the members of specific discourse communities. Students will benefit from the
findings of the present study if they are made aware of not only rhetorical moves, but also
of the linguistic patterns associated with them. As this leads to a degree of standardiza-
tion which suggests that research papers may share a common basic structure, or employ
common units within the scientific genre.

Notes: 

1. Move 1 = Establishing a territory. Step 1 = Claiming centrality. Step 2 = Making topic
generalization (s). Step 3 = Reviewing items of previous research. 
Move 2 = Establishing a niche. Step 1 = Indicating a gap.
Move 3 = Occupying the niche. Step 1 = Announcing present research (Swales 1990:
141, Figure 10).

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References:

1. Akhmanova, O.A.; Idzelis, R.F. (1978) What is the English We Use? M.: MUP.
2. Ferguson, G. (2004) Handout: Lecture on the Grammar in ESP: Noun Compound.

UK: University of Sheffield.
3. Gasparyan, S.K. (1998) ESP as an Object of Learner-Oriented Teaching. // Didaktik

und Methodik des Fremdsprachen Unterrichts. Heft, IV. Köln.
4. Kanoksilapatham, B. (2005) Rhetorical Structure of Biochemistry Research Articles.

// English for Specific Purposes, 24, 3.
5. Karapetyan, R. (2010) On the Syntactic Status of Absolute Constructions. Yerevan:

YSU.
6. Swales, J. (1990) Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings.

Cambridge: CUP.

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