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International Medical Scientific Journal       Issue-2 

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Art of Medicine International Medical Scientific journal 

 

Founder and Publisher Pascual Izquierdo-Egea 

Published science may 2021 year. Issued Quarterly.  

Internet address: http://artofmedicineimsj.us 

E-mail: info@artofmedicineimsj.us 

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Art of Medicine           Volume-1 

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Medieval metalworking crafts of Khorezm in the sources. 

  

 

Turganov Baxit Qurbanbaevich  

Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Ajiniyaz Associate Professor of 

History Teaching Methods, Candidate of Historical Sciences.  

 E-mail: turganovbaxit@gmail.com  

 

Reimbayev Rustem Sarsenbayevich 

Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Ajiniyaz. Senior lecturer of the 

Department of methods of teaching history.  

 

Keranova Aigul Kuandykovna. 

Student of the Historical Faculty of the Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after 

Ajiniyaz. 

 

Abstract: The article studies the history of the medieval metalworking craft of 

Khorezm on the basis of information from written sources. Iron products were widely 

used in the economic and social life of Khorezm. Metal raw materials and certain 

types of weapons were imported from neighboring countries, some of the metal 

products were used for foreign trade. The process of specialization of some branches 

of metalworking in Khorezm has began since the X century. The analysis of the 

sources indicates to the consistent development of metalworking in Khorezm during 

the IX-XIV centuries. 

Keywords: Khorezm, written sources, cities of the Middle Age, metal things, trade 

relationship, handicraft centers, blacksmith trade, arm equipment trade. 

Introduction. Medieval Khorezm was famous for its trade and the products of 

artisans. In the IX-X centuries, the number of settlements and rural settlements 

increased, the process of development of crafts and trade began in them.  



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According to the sources of the VIII - X centuries, there is a sharp increase in 

the number of cities in Khorezm. During the Arab conquest (712) there were only 

three cities in Khorezm: Kat (al-Fir), Hazarasp and Urgench, at the beginning of the 

IX century the number of cities is ten, and by the end of the X century it reaches 

thirty-three [14,180,202]. 

Valuable information on the handicrafts of Khorezm is contained in sources 

dating back to the early middle Ages. According to Al-Maqdisi (X century), there 

were handicraft workshops in the cities of Zarduh, Sadvar, Kat (kIyat) [14,187].  

During this period, there is an intensive growth in the production of handicrafts for 

the market, due to the increase in the number and development of cities. As a result, a 

wide volume of handicrafts begins to enter the foreign market as a commodity.  

In the early middle Ages, the cities of Urgench and Kat played an important role 

in trade relations with Central Asia, Eastern Europe and nomads. Trade was 

conducted in about 160 bazaars of Urgench. 

In particular, the appearance of outpost cities on the outskirts for the nomads of 

Khorezm from the X-XI centuries had a positive impact on the development of trade 

and economic relations and crafts. At that time, trade and craft quarters operated 

around dozens of outposts of cities, such as the city of Shamakhi (30 ha), Shehrlik 

(15 ha), Bolshoy Aybuyir (10 ha), Bugrakhan (60 ha), Puljay (60 ha). Archaeological 

materials in the monuments prove the increase in the number of ceramic, metal, glass 

and bone objects, as well as the appearance of their new types. 

The works of the authors - Ibn Rust (X century), Al-Maqdisi (X century), Az-

Zamakhshari (XII century), al-qUrashi (early XIII century), Zakariya al-Qazwini 

(XIII century), Muhammad an-Nasawi (early XIII century) Ibn Battuta (XIV century) 

contain some information about the Khorezm metalworking crafts. 

In Khorezm since the X century there have been specialized branches of 

metalworking craft, some metal products were exported.  It is reported by al-Maqdisi 

(985) that in Khorezm "... castles, intricate bows were made and exhibited for foreign 

trade, boats were built and equipped" [14,202].  



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In the 10th century, 42 types of goods were exported from Khorezm to the 

countries of the East, of which 27 types were brought from Bulgaria. At that time, 

metallurgy and metalworking were developed in Volga Bulgaria. Swords, bows, 

daggers, armor and copper were brought to Khorezm from Bulgaria [14,202]. In 

particular, Bulgarian swords and armor were exported to the countries of the East 

through Khorezm. 

Ambassador Ibn Fadlan (921-922), who traveled to Bulgaria along the Volga, 

also noted that iron raw materials came to Khorezm through trade with the Turkic 

peoples [10,55,57]. According to his report, there was a Khorezm blacksmith named 

Takin al-Turki in Khorezm. He was engaged in the iron trade in the country of the 

infidels (Volga Bulgaria - T.K.B.). 

The information of Ibn Fadlan (922) and al-Maqdisi (985) confirm that iron, 

copper raw materials and weapons came to Khorezm from Volga Bulgaria as a result 

of trade and economic ties.  

Iron objects were widely used in the medieval economic life of Khorezm. The 

gates of the castles were covered with iron, and stone-throwing machines stood above 

the gates. 

There was a suspension bridge "ramp" in front of the castle gate, which was 

raised at night and lowered again during the day. Sources note that in the early 

medieval settlements of Aykhan there was a stone machine "manjanak" above the 

gate, and in Nuzvar and Zamakhshar there were iron gates and suspension bridges 

[14, 187-188]. 

In Khorezm since the X century, metal products such as locks, saddles and horse 

harnesses were made in specialized industries and exported during the Mongol period 

for foreign trade [21,3].  

According to the Arab authors of An Nuweiri, ibn Abda-Zahra, and such 

products continued to be produced in Khorezm in the XIII-XIV centuries. Khorezm 

saddles and bridles with gold and silver notches were especially famous in the 



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Golden Horde period. Such products were sold in Muslim countries and were highly 

valued in foreign trade [16,60,100,152]. 

Especially during the reign of the Anushtakins (1097-1231), the economy, trade 

and craft were highly developed in Khorezm. At that time, about 400 cities of 

Khorezm had mutual trade and economic integration.  

Urgench has become a major trade and craft center of the East.  The area of the 

city occupied an area of 1000 hectares and numbered thousands of trade and craft 

workshops. The development of crafts is also observed in other cities of Khorezm, 

the process of craft specialization has been strengthened. 

During this period, as a result of close trade and economic ties with the states of 

the East, there is an increase in the range of metal products made by Khorezm 

craftsmen and an increase in their quality. 

In the work "Mukaddimat ul-adab" by the Khorezm scholar Az-Zamakhshari 

(1075-1144), a number of terms concerning tools, weapons, household utensils, as 

well as the names of individual specialized crafts are noted: jewelers (oltunchi), 

coppersmiths (kulachi), lock makers (kulfchi) and terms of some tools of craftsmen 

[11,93]. 

The listed indirect data allow us to assume that in addition to the manufacture of 

various products from copper, bronze, iron, metalworking artisans at that time 

produced steel products and used steel swords, scissors, which were complex metals.  

Among the authors, al-qUrashi (beginning of the XIII century) notes that there 

are about 50 specialized crafts in Khorezm, and Zakaria al-Qazwini (XIII century) 

writes that the inhabitants of Gurganj (Kunya-Urgench) are "skilled artisans", 

especially blacksmiths, carpenters, etc., who have achieved perfection in their craft 

[1,520]. 

According to the manuscript of the "Tariff of Shahru Khorezm", before the 

Mongols (beginning of the XIII century) there were three thousand and thirteen 

caravanserais in Khorezm, and each had a thousand cells. There were seventeen 



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hundred bazaars. If someone needed a kumach or silk fabric, then he could satisfy all 

his needs. 

There were one thousand three hundred blacksmiths, one thousand five hundred 

shoe shops, one thousand three hundred shoe shops, one thousand three hundred salt 

shops, one thousand two hundred coppersmiths' shops, one thousand three hundred 

grocery stores [5,151-153].  

Sources indicate that the blacksmith and copper workshops in Khorezm at that 

time were not inferior to other industries. 

Products made of precious metals, such as gold and silver, were brought to 

Khorezm mainly from the countries of the East by trade and embassy caravans. For 

example, among the gifts and gifts sent to Khorezm Shah by Genghis Khan in 1216, 

there were Chinese goods. Among them was pure gold, which looked like a camel's 

hump, brought on a separate chariot. The caravan of 500 camels sent by Genghis 

Khan in 1218 under the leadership of Bahauddin ar-Razi also contained gold, silver, 

precious metals and many other goods [4,164-165]. 

During the Anushtakin period, gunsmithing was one of the most developed 

industries. The number of troops of Khorezm at that time, their military 

achievements- a logical basis for the development of the arms industry. In 1218, 

Khorezm Shah organized a general review of the troops, which was attended by 

"about 150 thousand mounted soldiers in addition to foot soldiers, which numbered 

up to 100 thousand more." This is confirmed by the registers of the Khorezm Shah's 

military divan, in which 400 thousand horsemen on horses and camels participated in 

the campaign to Baghdad [4.89]. In the state of Anushtakinov, “Divan al-ard" was in 

charge of military ribbons (iqta'), all types of salaries and payments to soldiers of all 

ranks, as well as control and registration of troops and their weapons. 

In the state of Anushtakins, blacksmiths produced military equipment in addition 

to conventional weapons. Muhammad an-Nasawi (beginning of the XIII century) 

noted that in the army of the Khorezmshahs, in addition to conventional weapons - 

swords, spears, bows and arrows, maces and pikes – the Khorezmshahs' troops were 



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armed with catapults (mandanjik), siege engines (dabbabat), crossbow (tir-charkh), 

turtle (turtle), i.e. movable towers (mataris), battering rams (jamalukat), siege ladder 

(salalim) and other military vehicles [2,156,231]. 

According to the reports of al-Khorezmi, al-Maqdisi (X century), the Persian 

poet al-Lohuri (XI century), metal parts were widely used in the construction of 

military equipment [6,218]. In particular, al-Maqdisi (X century) notes that manjanak 

uses metal structures called "halka" or "al-halka" [6,215-221]. 

It should be noted that metal structures in the construction of suspension 

bridges, iron gates, mandrels and military equipment were made by specialized 

blacksmiths. 

Active participation of gunsmiths and blacksmiths in national military 

companies lasted until the late middle Ages. According to the documents of the 

Khiva khans, the army was followed by riflemen, carpenters, blacksmiths, 

infantrymen, cleaners and boatmen [7,91]. 

The armies had gunsmiths and blacksmiths who repaired and supplied the army 

with weapons and equipment like swords, daggers, bows, spears, shields, armor, 

chain mail, helmets, horse equipment. 

In Khorezm, the production of bows and arrows, swords, spears and other 

weapons in the traditional style continued in the late middle Ages [8,178]. Gunsmiths 

have long been a specialized industry, and the sale of weapons in the markets of 

Khorezm was organized until the last quarter of the XIX century [9,304]. 

During the Anushtakin period, trade and crafts were highly developed in the 

cities of Khorezm. Yakut al-Hamawi (1219) states: "... I was here in 616 (1219-

1220). Almost all cities of Khorezm have markets rich in goods and shops, and 

villages without markets are rare " [12,2021; 14,419]. 

In Mirza Ulugbek's work "Tarikh arba ulus" he wrote that "the Mongol army 

killed 100 thousand people after the conquest of Urgench, and 100 thousand artisans 

were expelled to Mongolia" [3,329]. 



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A similar message was sent to Muhammad al-Nasawi, secretary of Jalaladdin 

Manguberdi. According to the work, after the Mongol conquest of Khorezm, the 

captives were divided into separate groups. One hundred thousand artisans were 

separated from them and taken to their lands.... [19,129]. 

Perhaps the figures in the sources are exaggerated, but these data show that at 

that time Urgench (the beginning of the XIII century) was a major center of crafts in 

the East, among which the metalworking crafts industry is undoubtedly developed. 

Despite the fact that the Mongol invasion caused great damage to cities, in the 

second half of the XIII century a new center of agricultural and urban culture was 

formed in the west of Khorezm. Economic and cultural life in cities has been revived 

in a new way. 

As part of the Golden Horde, the lands of northwestern Khorezm became one of 

the strong economic bases, and then the politically influential region of the Golden 

Horde. In Khorezm, from the middle of the XIII century, such settlements as 

Urgench, Mizdakhkan, Sharlik, Shamakhi, Janik-kala were restored. 

This is due to the fact that - "Urgench, which was necessary as a source of 

invaluable wealth for the khans of the Golden Horde, rose again from the ashes and 

became a major center of trade and crafts" [17,309]. 

The traveler Plano Carpini stopped in Khorezm in 1246 on a trip to Mongolia. In 

his memoirs, he talks about the wealth of the markets of the city of Ornas (uRgench), 

which is rich and has a large population [15,46,209]. The Arab cosmographer 

Shamsiddin ad-dImishki (1256-1327) wrote that "the Khorezm region covers sixty 

thousand villages", which indicates the revival of economic and cultural life in 

Khorezm shortly after the Mongol invasion [18,30]. 

And in the information of the traveler Ibn Battut (1333) Khorezm and its 

capital the city of Urgench at that time as a major economic and cultural center 

[12,47]. According to his work, it is mentioned that the Urgench market was so 

crowded that “he could not move back or forward”" Ibn Battuta writes about 

Urgench: "It is the largest, most significant and beautiful city of the Turks, having 



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glorious markets, spacious streets, numerous buildings (mosques, madrasahs, 

khanaks). In the city, life boils from a large number of people, it looks like an 

undulating sea” [12,48]. 

During this period in Khorezm, gold and silver vessels were used in the 

decoration of palaces and houses of officials, as well as in hospitality [12, 48]. Ibn 

Battuta (1333) describing the house of Abu Hafs Umar, the judge of Urgench, said: 

"This is a beautiful and spacious room, ... silver vessels filled with gilding were 

placed on each of the rows of shelves. This is how the residents of the country usually 

decorate their homes" [12,59-60]. Continuing, he writes: "They brought other trays. 

The peeled pomegranate fruits were served in gold and silver dishes, with golden 

spoons." 

Silver and bronze spoons with gilding are also known according to local 

archaeological data of the XII-XIV centuries. 

The tradition of covering jewelry, various dishes, weapons and other objects 

with gold and silver by Khorezm craftsmen continued in the XIII and XIV centuries.  

According to an-Nuweiri and ibn Abd-Zahr (XIII-XIV centuries), the following 

items exported from Khorezm are noted: "locks, saddles, horse harness, etc." 

[16,60,100,152].  These authors noted that the products of Khorezm coiners, for 

example saddles and horse harness, using gold and silver, were exported from 

Khorezm to the countries of the East. 

In the second half of the XIV century, according to Ibn Arabshah, Khorezm 

(uRgench) was "... one of the largest cities in the region" [18,102]. The rich bazaars 

of the city attracted many trade caravans. Various handicrafts were sold in the 

bazaars, in particular, weapons for war and hunting, jewelry, ceramics and stone-

cutting products, carpets and fabrics. 

Sources also describe Khorezm as a silver-rich state. According to Ibn 

Arabshah, during Timur's second campaign in Khorezm, a merchant named Hassan 

Surij left the city to meet Temur and ask him to stop the war and give him loot in 

return. Timur asks him to give two hundred mules (donkeys) as a burden of silver and 



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hand them over to his treasury as a coin. However, Hussein Surij persuaded Timur to 

persuade him to ask for a quarter of what he asked for (silver). Hassan Surij separates 

the necessary wealth from his property and then weighs (silver) [13,88]. 

For comparison, when the Sassanid ruler Feruz (459-484) was captured by the 

Ephthalites, it was decided to release him in exchange for 30 mules of silver coins, 

but there were only 20 mules in the Sassanid treasury (a mixed type of donkey and 

horse). 

Blog Daria foreign trade that in the Middle Ages Khorezm had sufficient 

reserves of silver. This is due to the fact that from the early Middle Ages to the late 

Middle Ages, silver coins and ingots, silver vessels of Eastern countries such as 

Central Asia, China, India, Iran, were among the goods exported to the markets of 

Eastern Europe through Khorezm merchants. In particular, in 1749, merchants of 

Khiva and Bukhara exported 3 batches of silver products weighing 15 pounds 10 

pounds through Orenburg to Astrakhan [20,118]. 

In the Middle Ages in Khorezm there was a profession of "Kumushchi" 

working with silver. This is evidenced by the export of silver products from Khorezm 

(VI-VIII centuries), seats covered with a layer of silver, horse harness (IX-XIV 

centuries), silver processing of weapons and household utensils. 

These sources indicate that in the Middle Ages, the metalworking industry 

developed in Khorezm, some metal products were exported. In the IX-X centuries, 

there were industries specializing in the metalworking craft industry. 

This proves that the tools, weapons and equipment, coppersmith, jewelry, 

necessary for the national economy, were mainly made by local craftsmen. The 

production of weapons and equipment by artisans continued until the late Middle 

Ages.  

In general, the active participation of Khorezm in foreign trade in the IX-XIV 

centuries was one of the factors that influenced the growth of urbanization and the 

development of the crafts industry. 

 



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