
































Microsoft Word - 119-Article Text-487-1-11-20200914.docx


 

VOL. 9, NO. 2 
FALL 2020 

 

 SPECIAL ISSUE: ARTS ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION  

Self-Directed Learning on the Runway to Crafts 
Entrepreneurship 
Achieving Product–Market Fit through Learning Cycles 
with Self-Management and Self-Control 

Aparna Katre 
University of Minnesota Duluth 

ABSTRACT: Many artisans practice self-directed learning to gain crafts expertise in 
non-academic settings. They can apply this skill for crafts entrepreneurship. A pre-
liminary exploratory study supported by three crafts entrepreneurs’ cases explored 
their transition from artisanship to entrepreneurship. It begins to address the lack of 
literature at the nexus of crafts entrepreneurship and self-directed learning. Findings 
suggest artisans develop their product–market fit and solve business-related issues 
in self-directed learning cycles, exercising self-management at each step, and self-
monitoring the outcomes. With profound implications to promote crafts entrepre-
neurship in resource-strapped small legacy cities, we present guidance for future re-
search to develop this field. KEYWORDS: Crafts entrepreneurship, self-directed 
learning cycles, legacy cities, self-management, self-monitoring, creative industries. 
DOI: 10.34053/artivate.9.2.119 

Crafts Entrepreneurship 
Creative industries, of which crafts is a dynamic sector, are gaining attention due to their resil-
ience to economic downturns, the ability to promote inclusive development and overall com-
munity well-being, and for stimulating growth in other industries such as telecom. Crafts prod-
ucts are “those produced by artisans either completely by hand or with the help of hand tools or 
even mechanical means as long as the direct manual contribution of the artisan remains the 
most substantial component of the finished product” (UNCTAD, , p. ). Crafts products 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

46 

differ from visual, performing, and literary art products in that they operate in a more functional 
commercial mode in the marketplace. Examples include products involving fiber, leather, metal, 
wood, pottery, textiles, and first-hand visual-arts and design products. These are among the 
most traditional expressions of creativity, leveraging local cultures, traditions, and built and 
natural assets of their place of origin. Global crafts industries contributed  billion in inter-
national trade in  and exhibited a growth rate of . percent from  to  
(UNCTAD, ). Crafts industries have the potential for job creation and serve as possible 
tools for poverty alleviation while simultaneously promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity. 
Artisan or crafts entrepreneurship is an emerging field of study due to its role in revitalizing 
economies while emphasizing cultures, traditions, and the historic architecture of a place 
(Ratten, Costa, & Bogers, ). Although scholars have been studying crafts entrepreneurship, 
Pret and Cogan (), in their systematic literature review, highlight a dearth of conceptual 
papers and recommend theoretical discussions to provide conceptual guidance for empirical 
research. To advance this conversation, we focus on learning theories, as successful entrepre-
neurs demonstrate strong learning abilities (Minniti & Bygrave, ; Neck & Corbett, ). 

Of various learning theories, we examine the practice of self-directed learning (SDL), de-
fined as a process where individuals are responsible for planning, carrying out, and evaluating 
their own learning experiences (Knowles, ; Merriam & Caffarella, , p. ). In a review 
of the scholarship on entrepreneurship teaching and learning, Neck and Corbett () empha-
size the need to develop theoretical understanding using adult learning theories, including SDL. 
Artisans who become entrepreneurs, especially in challenging contexts, have to exercise agency 
and direct their skill development, and like other nascent entrepreneurs, can take responsibility 
for their learning (Post, ). These conditions make SDL a suitable frame for the study. A 
growing and significant share of adults use SDL as a way of life (Owen, ), to transition to 
self-employment (Fenwick, ) often found among artisans, and to acquire new knowledge 
and skills for social action or to drive change (Baumgartner, Lee, Birden, & Flowers, ). 
However, studies examining entrepreneurial learning using SDL, particularly in nonacademic 
contexts, to date are few; exceptions include Tseng (), Carwile (), and Howard (). 
Given that artisans frequently self-direct learning the craft, we contemplate that they have the 
advantage to practice SDL for entrepreneurship. 

Crafts products’ project-based nature and multifaceted values, such as utilitarian, aesthetic, 
artistic, creative, culturally attached, decorative, functional, and traditional (UNCTAD, ), 
can present unique challenges during entrepreneurial opportunity creation or discovery. We 
focus our inquiry on if and how crafts entrepreneurs practice SDL, especially in determining the 
fit between their products and the market needs, developing a new customer base, and acquiring 
business skills. Given the nascence of SDL for entrepreneurship and craft entrepreneurship in 
particular, and as suggested by Pret and Cogan (), we focus on an initial conceptual explo-
ration of the topic supported by specific cases. Next, we discuss the potential of crafts entrepre-
neurship in the context of small legacy cities and present an argument to select cases from such 
a city in the United States for the conceptual development of the topic. 

Legacy cities are places that once thrived economically and culturally, but since the mid- to 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

47 

late-s have experienced sustained population loss and economic contraction (Tighe & 
Ryberg-Webster, ). These cities were once the powerhouses of industrial production, their 
growth fueled by waves of immigration and migration, their heydays characterized by robust 
infrastructure, downtown centers, arts and cultural facilities, and diverse neighborhoods. After 
decades of decline, disinvestment, and population and job losses, many legacy cities are con-
fronting the issue of revitalizing and reshaping their communities both economically and cul-
turally. However, quintessential features of traditional American culture found in legacy cities, 
such as working hard and seeking to excel in one’s craft, (Berube & Murray, ) offer an 
opportunity. People celebrate the craft products as DIY (do-it-yourself) creations and the mak-
ers for shaping their unique identities and those of their towns (Berube & Murray, ), while 
simultaneously offering consumers the option to participate in ethical purchasing behaviors 
(Luckman, ). 

In “Crafted places/places for craft,” Harris () highlights the growing intersection of 
craft and pop-up cultures where the emphasis is on transforming the urban fabric through one-
off handmade production. The Main Streets of America movement (https://www.main-
street.org/home) has more than eight hundred nationally accredited programs, many in small 
legacy cities, emphasizing the value of handmade artisanal businesses for their revitalization. 
Artisanal works include craft brewing, works of metal, wood, clay, and stone, quilting, fashion, 
and jewelry. Among the growing artisanal entrepreneurship centers in the Main Streets of 
America is, for example, Milwaukee, WI, which is revitalizing itself with a number of artisanal 
crafts businesses, including Scathian, a design and build firm; Our Daily Salt, which produces 
handcrafted kitchen goods; Sparrow, a metal etching store; Wild Haven, a yarn shop focusing 
on unique fibers; and several craft breweries, as well as culinary craft businesses. The share of 
ceramics, fiber, and woodcraft is high in Western North Carolina cities (Stoddard, Davé, & 
Evans, ). In contrast, in Peoria, Illinois, the laid-off workforce from the large manufactur-
ing firm Caterpillar leveraged their industry expertise to create smaller companies using an ar-
tisanal approach for their products (Kapp, ). The cities of Paducah, Kentucky and Santa Fe, 
New Mexico in the United States are recognized as cities of crafts and folk art. The television 
network PBS has documented several more examples of this phenomenon in its Crafts in Amer-
ica series. 

Although small legacy cities have significant opportunities for the crafts economy, there 
are several issues. First, even though this sector is a genuine component of the creative economy 
and offers a vector for job creation, it is often disregarded and disconnected from public policy 
(UNCTAD, ), and small legacy cities lack the necessary support to enable its growth. Sec-
ond, in national discussions on postindustrial revitalization strategies, small legacy cities fall 
under the shadow of larger cities like Detroit and Cleveland (Hollingsworth & Goebel, ). 
As an example, these authors cite that there are twenty small legacy cities in Ohio alone, ac-
counting for a third of its population and a third of the state’s GDP, which nevertheless are 
falling further and further behind. The well-being of these small legacy cities is essential for the 
prosperity of the state and the country. Superficially, the challenges faced by small legacy cities 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

48 

might be comparable to those of the neighborhoods in larger legacy cities. However, the solu-
tions of the latter are not readily adaptable to small legacy cities due to lack of resources and 
access to economic activities of larger cities. Third, entrepreneurial ecosystems consisting of 
incubators, investors, training, and mentoring for any kind of entrepreneurship is lacking in 
small legacy cities. Should cities decide to develop them, it not only takes time (Roundy, ), 
but the crafts are often an afterthought. 

The growing phenomenon of crafts entrepreneurship in small legacy cities despite these 
adversities further emphasizes the significance of SDL, motivating us to engage in a conceptual 
exploration of the topic. Next, we visit the literature on SDL. 

Self-Directed Learning 
Although SDL has been around for a long time (Houle, ; Tough, ), its scholarship was 
not taken seriously until recently, as examining learning that happens in the daily lives of indi-
viduals was considered neither worthwhile nor possible (Merriam & Caffarella, , p. ). 
The concept that adults do learn deliberately on their own has since gained momentum, and 
theory-building in the area of SDL continues to draw interest (Merriam & Baumgartner, ). 

In a comprehensive review of SDL literature, Merriam and Caffarella (, pp. –) 
summarize SDL models as: 

• linear and instructional: often teacher-led in academic or classroom settings 
• interactive: often learner-led, where it is less planned and structured 

Figure 1. Self-Directed Learning Conceptual Model. Reproduced from Garrison (1997). 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

49 

The context for our study is artisans in legacy cities embarking on an entrepreneurial jour-
ney. Consequently, we are interested in cases where SDL is learner-led, interactive, less struc-
tured, and takes place in non-academic settings. In this mode, learning episodes occur from the 
interaction of environmental factors, the personality characteristics of the learner, their cogni-
tive processes, and the contexts in which they are operating. 

Garrison (, p. ) defines a comprehensive model for SDL with a balanced integration 
of cognitive and collaborative learning processes (Figure ). 

Self-management, one of the three dimensions Garrison describes, represents the collabo-
rative component for external or contextual task control specific to the management of learning 
activities. It does not indicate freedom from external influence. In an interactive model, the 
learner collaboratively shapes the environment in support of goal-directed actions. Learner pro-
ficiency, resources for learning, and interdependence capturing the norms, standards, and 
learner choice determine self-management. Increased learner control brings increased respon-
sibility, and therefore, the need for the second dimension, self-monitoring. Primarily cognitive, 
this dimension represents a commitment to learning, whereby the learner takes responsibility 
to integrate new and existing knowledge structures to construct meaning. At the metacognitive 
level, it requires the learner to reflect and think critically, assess outcomes, and develop new 
strategies to achieve intended outcomes. Motivation, the third dimension, is the coming to-
gether of attitudes, feelings, and goals, and is necessary for the initiation and maintenance of 
efforts towards learning. 

Although there is an increasing call to advance the scholarship of learning theories for en-
trepreneurship (Neck & Corbett, ; Wang & Chugh, ), the exploration of SDL for en-
trepreneurship is still nascent. Studies have looked at SDL readiness of entrepreneurs and found 
that it positively correlates with superior entrepreneurial performance (Guglielmino & Klatt, 
). Another study found that entrepreneurs from individualistic cultures rank higher on 
SDL readiness (Guglielmino & Guglielmino, ; Oliveira, Silva, Guglielmino, & Guglielmino, 
). Only a few scholars have explored aspects other than SDL readiness, and fewer have used 
qualitative, descriptive, or mixed-methods to study SDL for entrepreneurship. In a conceptual 
analysis, Tseng () suggests that exercising self-monitoring to learn about oneself, and self-
management to learn about the business enable entrepreneurial learning. Additionally, devel-
oping self-monitoring and self-management skills helps individuals to self-direct their learning 
efforts. Carwile () investigated the experiences of eight women during their first four years 
of business ownership and found that most learning was in-the-moment rather than pre-
planned, relied heavily on the involvement of others, and exhibited varying levels of motivation 
for learning. The study emphasizes the need for aspiring entrepreneurs to “know how to learn” 
in order to improve entrepreneurial performance. In a study of nascent entrepreneurs’ partici-
pation and discontinuance in a formal entrepreneurial extension education program, Post 
() found that they have a strong desire to be in control of and be responsible for their learn-
ing goals. In a qualitative study of eleven nascent entrepreneurs in the services industry, O’Shea 
and Buckley () highlight that entrepreneurs self-regulate their learning through interac-
tions with various individuals, groups, and organizations. 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

50 

Crafts Opportunity and New Venture Creation Nuances 
Artisan products and businesses, like most other creative works, exhibit characteristics that 
differentiate them from the rest. Drawing from the broad list of characteristics of creative 
enterprises provided by Pratt (), we highlight those that are significant for our discussion: 

• They prioritize the realization of intrinsic values from the craft alongside considerations for 
financial sustainability of the business 

• The work processes are project-based, catering to a short life with a rapid turnover of the 
products 

• They tend to have porous boundaries and mutually dependent relationships between 
o nonprofit, for-profit and public entities 
o their production and consumption processes 
o formal and informal economies 

• Their products are highly competitive with small temporal and quality differentiation 
• The majority of the organizations are micro, comprised of self-employed or two to three-

person businesses 

These characteristics call for higher tolerance of the uncertainty of demand, expertise in 
risk and failure management, willingness to honor the entrepreneur’s deep connection with the 
product, greater creative autonomy, and ability to work in a fast-moving, competitive environ-
ment (Saintilan & Schreiber, , pp. –). Luckman () argues that the small size of the 
businesses requires entrepreneurs to collaborate within and outside their companies rather than 
work as solo individuals. Recognizing a market opportunity assumes an idea that is either an 
innovation, an invention, or an improvement—one that people need, desire, or find useful and 
valuable (Neck, ). In the case of crafts products, several factors challenge the concept of an 
entrepreneurial idea and its categorization as invention, innovation, or improvement, as well as 
the notion of product–market fit. These include their project-based nature, their multifaceted 
values, and a deep sense of connection of the artisan with the product. The entrepreneurial 
learning for idea generation and validation for market need or desire must, therefore, need 
changes. Similarly, we see challenges with rational and deterministic methods, or the lean 
startup-based methods for customer segmentation and discovery. In our analysis, we pay atten-
tion to these aspects when artisans develop products, acquire new customers, and use their 
knowledge and skills for new venture creation. 

Methods 
To contribute to SDL research, Caffarella and O’Donnell () suggest descriptive investiga-
tions of learning projects, whereas Brockett and Hiemstra () propose qualitative studies to 
investigate self-direction in adult learning. Qualitative research methods are best suited when 
studying questions of the “how” and “why” aspects of a phenomenon as they allow researchers 
to capture thick descriptions of the responses and facilitate generating a deeper understanding 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

51 

of the phenomenon (Stake, ). SDL-related qualitative studies, for example, were able to 
reveal the reasons why some learners do not make a conscious effort to pre-plan learning activ-
ities (Carwile, ; Spear & Mocker, ). Given the nascence of SDL in the context of entre-
preneurship in general and crafts entrepreneurship in particular, Babbie () and Pret and 
Cogan () recommend a conceptual exploration to guide future empirical research. This 
study focuses on only three cases to conduct a preliminary examination of the applicability of 
SDL to crafts entrepreneurship and recommend research for the theoretical development of this 
topic. 

Sample and Data Collection 

Duluth, Minnesota, in the United States, is a small legacy city with a population of about , 
and a thriving crafts sector. Duluth boasts the only United States port accessing both Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans, making it easy for the rest of the nation to tap into the area’s abundant 
lumber, ample wheat, and expansive ore-mining opportunities (see reference list for Downtown 
Duluth article). In , it was the fastest-growing city in the United States. However, like other 
small cities, Duluth had transformed from a thriving community to one where the blue-collar 
industry started to fade. The town’s economy became stale. In , a blueprint created by local 
leaders with support from Knight Foundation tried to preserve what citizens loved most about 
the city’s character and its past while enabling new development to sensitively blend in and 
enhance the community’s personality and sense of place (Bohl & Bixby, ). Among many 
initiatives, a crafts economy has gained roots with Lincoln Park Crafts District that houses man-
ufacturing for the outdoors, a craft-brewing ecosystem, and repurposing industrial structures 
to promote a maker culture (Commission, ). Several media reports highlight the craft dis-
trict’s characteristics (see reference list for articles from TCB Magazine, Thomson House, and 
LISC). 

The fieldwork involved three entrepreneurs in the areas of art, fashion and jewelry, and 
coffee roasting. The sample was purposeful as the intent was to cover diverse and complemen-
tary aspects of the phenomenon in this study rather than look for theoretical saturation 
(Eisenhardt, ). The sample comprised a variety of crafts, and the entrepreneurs varied in 
age, gender, and education. Table  summarizes the demographic and business information of 
the study participants, whose identifying information is masked (Creswell, ) by generic 
names and descriptions of their companies. At the time of this study, all three participants were 
entirely dependent on the business as the primary source of income, had both full-time and 
part-time employees, and for this study were termed as successful entrepreneurs. 

Semi-structured open-ended interviews guided by an interview protocol supported the ex-
ploratory nature of the study (Yin, ). Interview questions included, but were not limited to, 
the following: 

• Tell me a bit about your background, experience and your cultural identity 
o Probe as to how the participant got involved in the craft 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

52 

• Share with me your journey of going from an interest in [the craft] to trying out different 
things with it 
o For the turning points mentioned, probe to understand the motivations, actions, and 

learning 
• Describe how you gained business-related expertise, especially knowing that [mention their 

specific background] 
o Probe to understand the choices they made along the way, actions and learning 

Interviews with founders occurred at a mutually convenient time and place. Since individ-
uals might have difficulty recollecting and describing their learning practices (Rae, ), the 
questions focused on helping participants trace and reconstruct their developmental pathway 
from artisan to becoming an entrepreneur, eliciting stories of subjective experiences. Thus, 
questions flowed from conversations rather than from a specific set of questions and answers 
(Corbin & Strauss, ). 
 
Table 1. Participants and Business Information 

Name Demographics Initial Expertise Profile 
Jeff Male, age in the 

s, some college 
education 

Some professional experi-
ence, high expertise in visual 
arts and tattoo craft 

Tattoo studio, retail rental space, has 
been in business for two years 

Mary Female, age in the 
s, Bachelor’s de-
gree 

Event management industry 
experience, jewelry making 
and upcycled women’s cloth-
ing as a hobby 

Retail stores selling handmade women’s 
jewelry and upcycled fashion products, 
retail rental space in two locations, has 
been in business for eight years 

George Male, age in the 
s, Bachelor’s de-
gree  

Some unrelated work experi-
ence and few years at coffee 
shops, coffee roasting as a 
hobby 

Retail coffee shop and wholesale coffee 
roasterie, retail rental space, has been in 
business for three years 

 

Data Analysis 

We developed individual case studies for the three study informants. Each participant’s inter-
view was a window into the learning journey. We began our analysis by documenting the nar-
ratives describing the areas of learning (consciously chosen or otherwise), the approaches to 
learning (planned or otherwise), the actions to acquire new knowledge and skills, and their mo-
tivations for these activities. While doing this, we focused on specific areas of transitioning from 
artisanship to starting a new venture, namely developing products and acquiring new customers 
and business knowledge. We attempted to uncover the reasons to prioritize specific actions and 
learning goals over others. Such narratives—fragments of text—were highlighted and studied 
with the SDL conceptual model (Figure ) to uncover specifics for each dimension in the model. 
Iterating between the model and the narratives helped to draw out categorizes in the operation-
alization of the SDL model. Such analyses resulted in the creation of the individual case studies 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

53 

presented below. A discussion of the findings from these cases follows. 

Case : Jeff 
Jeff’s passion for drawing, painting, and art in general dates back to his childhood. As a young 
adult, he was able to present his art at local coffee shops and galleries. Describing his continued 
motivation for the art, Jeff emphasized the fun and play aspects of making art. He said, “I would 
spend a lot of time [producing art, drawing portraiture, graphite stuff] . . . I enjoy it . . . it’s fun, 
it’s like an outlet for me.” Two years into making art as an adult, through his networks, Jeff 
learned of an opportunity to do some mural work at a tattoo studio in Utah. This opportunity 
motivated him to sell some of his work and make a bit of money. He did not use any explicit 
principles to price the product. Observing the dynamics at the studio, Jeff realized an oppor-
tunity for his art, but more importantly, noted how others were using their creativity to fulfill 
it. He narrated it this way, “here I was saving money to give [the art] to other people . . . these 
guys were making money right now doing what I wanted to do ultimately, making tattoos.” 
Using his knowledge of the craft, where one learns as an apprentice, he was able to transition 
from drawing to tattooing, learning the right way, the wrong way, the new way, and what he 
should and should not do. Jeff described learning from experts and his involvement in the com-
munity of tattoo artists sharing work, lending each other help when needed. During this time, 
his craft was a side gig. He worked as a contractor but kept an eye on the income from it. Re-
flecting on the side gig, Jeff learned to understand his customers, their opinions about his work, 
the price they were willing to pay, and about the equipment, materials, and related costs. It gave 
him the confidence that even if he tried something else in his life, the gig could be a fallback 
option should the need arise. He described an ongoing market need, “You get all these projects 
that aren’t done on people out there, and they want you to finish it. They are willing to pay you 
 an hour to tattoo them.” Personal factors motivated Jeff to reflect and evaluate options 
when he decided to venture into entrepreneurship. While he knew a few business basics, partic-
ularly on pricing, inventory management, and customer service, Jeff narrated several problems 
he faced beginning with finding affordable rental space, and weaknesses related to business op-
erations. Each situation involved trying out approaches and learning. About sales, he said, “Ba-
sically, nobody is going to babysit me. I wake up every morning unemployed. If nothing hap-
pens that day, it’s because I didn’t make it happen.” Many times, recognizing his strengths to be 
hands-on, Jeff did tasks, such as painting and flooring to make his rental space launch-ready, 
himself. On other occasions, identifying his weaknesses, Jeff hired an accountant, set-up a point-
of-sale system, and said, “The more I can delegate away, the more I can focus on my art that 
brings me money.” Sharing the knowledge he had acquired about customers and markets and 
his business operations, Jeff said, “You get the housewives and kids that never would have 
thought about getting tattoos done that are interested. That’s the kind of market I am shooting 
for . . . on top of charging less than other shops, the free touch-ups for life are unheard of be-
cause we want [the tattoo] to look good and the clients want it to look good. It gets them back 
into the shop too.” 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

54 

Jeff shared his attitude towards failure: “I’d rather try something and fail than to never have 
tried at all. You know, because I can live with failing and knowing that I at least tried. But I can’t 
really live with never doing it.” The above narratives suggest Jeff is a reflective learner, assessing 
each situation with intrinsic motivation to excel at his craft and his business, which in turn in-
forms his actions. 

Case : Mary 
Mary’s craft of making jewelry and later upcycling women’s clothing to make one-off fashion 
wear was a hobby for a short duration, kept to herself. Her first external recognition for the craft 
happened at a camping event when strangers who saw her handmade jewelry were impressed, 
requesting her to make some for them. She described the cascading demand that followed, say-
ing, “One was from Washington DC, somebody from Chicago, a girl from Minneapolis. They 
took it back and wore it. And then their friends wanted what I had created.” Realizing her gift, 
she started making jewelry for sale.  

Mary and her partner were both artists but were working unrelated full-time jobs. During 
their vacation trips to New Mexico, both would make art. Mary described how a business idea 
arose during one such trip, when her partner suggested opening an art gallery even though nei-
ther knew anything about art galleries. She said, “While I’m nodding, I’m asking all these ques-
tions in my head. Where to open? How to open? With what? What do you put in the art gallery? 
How do you afford it? What kind of finances does it take?” She then reached out to people in 
her networks, ask, learn, and decide the actions. Her partner started a ceramics studio, and she 
sold beads and jewelry while still working her job. This approach continued for a short while, 
during which Mary built a small customer base. An external circumstance—being laid off from 
her job—motivated Mary to venture into entrepreneurship. From this point on, Mary cites ac-
tion orientation and attempting a variety of strategies until she figured out her products, cus-
tomers, and financially viable operations. She describes several learning episodes arising from 
strategic choices, such as the kind of business and business model, and from operational issues, 
like attracting customers to her store during a brutal winter. The reflection and evaluation were 
intrinsically motivated. Mary described a situation where she evaluated her options to continue 
with the jewelry store or teach classes, and said, “Teaching is fine, and I like it. It’s lucrative. I 
am good at it, But I don’t love it. Do what you love. Let the rest go. So I really learned and 
massaged [to be a women’s upcycled clothing and jewelry store].” Another situation illuminates 
a learning episode when Mary had to solve a business problem: She says, “It snowed two feet on 
December fifth, the parking meters were buried in the snow drift. It was cold and icy. It is my 
biggest month for sales. Although we managed to pay bills, there was no money to put in the 
bank. And then January, February, and March were even colder. It was tough.” Reflecting, ex-
ploring scenarios and options available, Mary said, “They’re things I cannot control. As an en-
trepreneur, control what you can. I just went to my happy place, made a bunch of stuff.” As-
sessing the entire situation, she said, “I learned that there should be a Plan B, Plan C, to not let 
the fear set in.” While her daily actions after opening the business were reflected the value of 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

55 

doing everything one can to stay afloat, Mary embraced reflectivity and constant assessment of 
situations, and derived motivation from overcoming adversity. 

Case : George 
George, who grew up in a small town, described his inspiration for his craft and the first making 
and sharing process as, “There was nothing else you could do really [in the town]. I remember 
having that first specialty coffee and liking the taste. [My brother and I] had a small home es-
presso machine and turned our basement into a coffee shop with syrups and stuff for like when 
friends would come over. We called it The Last Portage. I feel like I fell in love with that process.” 
Intrigued by specialty coffee, he would listen to podcasts about coffee while mowing his lawn. 
Driven by curiosity and play, he and his roommate, who was a chemistry major, experimented 
with roasting coffee, exploring hundreds of blends, the chemistry behind them, and the tastes. 
He developed a broad and in-depth knowledge of coffee roasting and as he shared the coffee 
with friends, he learned about their likes and dislikes. George and his roommate purchased an 
at-home roaster, hooked up a popcorn popper to it, and developed a sophisticated setup that 
would log all roasting details to a computer. Describing the experiments, George said, “We 
would take little sheets of paper with different roasts, tape them on the wall, and try to figure 
out what makes a roast good and what doesn’t.” Towards the end of such experiments, he con-
tinued, “We tasted thirty-two different coffees multiple times. For me, it totally defined the way 
we roast coffee. So much to the point that I felt an authority on it.” Reflecting on the process 
and the learning, he said, “We roasted away and taught ourselves in that experience.” 

He shared the coffee he roasted with friends and family. George described the growing de-
mand: “I finally bought one of those  in-house roasters, and I started selling bagged coffee 
to family and friends.” By this time, he had developed networks of people in the coffee business 
through his work, began to write about articles for Roast magazine, and developed an expanding 
customer base. Reflecting on his unhappiness with his jobs at coffee shops and family pressure 
to pursue a real career, George began to contemplate the idea of starting a business. The com-
bination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations led him to develop a business plan with help from 
his brother, and George began to look for angel investors through his networks. While one was 
taking shape, for personal reasons, he moved to Duluth and had to call off the investor relation-
ship. Once again working an unrelated job, George focused on expanding his home roasting 
jobs. He said, “I got to the point where I’d buy one full bag of coffee, like those -pound and 
needed a larger roaster. All of a sudden I sold this one account, eighty bucks a week, and realized 
I should do something.” Faced with an operational issue, the need for a much larger roaster, he 
tapped into his knowledge base of a local organization that supported startups. He was still op-
erating from his home at a facility that did not meet food safety standards, attempting to solve 
one problem after another that came with growing demand. He said, “All of the sudden [my 
coffee] was out there. All I was doing is I had these bags, and I was stamping them, I had a laser 
printer in my garage. It was hodge-podge, I didn’t have a permit.” Reflecting and assessing the 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

56 

situation, he realized it was not the right thing to do. He decided to launch a venture and eval-
uated alternatives to determine the business model. He said, “Are we just going to be a roasterie 
or a café? What type of company do I want to be? What type of job do I want to have?” His past 
knowledge and learning from relationships in the coffee business were useful in answering these 
questions and making business decisions. 

Driven by curiosity and the desire to tinker and play, George collaborated with his col-
leagues to engage in cycles of experimentation to get better at the craft, and publishing in indus-
try magazines and the invitation to judge competitions was a testimonial to the expertise he 
achieved. Simultaneously, motivated to solve problems while growing his customer base, 
George used his prior knowledge and networks and took actions to acquire business-related 
knowledge. 

Discussion 
A narrative story form facilitated the study informants’ recollections of their early days from 
tinkering with their craft to starting their venture. A thematic analysis of their stories against a 
conceptual SDL model revealed the operationalization of each dimension in the model. Based 
on the findings, we propose that artisans exploit the attitudes and skills involved in making craft 
for entrepreneurship. Artisanship requires the physical realization of a model or a concept by 
hand, through iterative exploration and refinement, which offers immediate tactile feedback, 
and provides insights into improving the product (Luckman, ). Making craft is a way to 
exercise our agency in the physical world. As was observed in the cases, the artisans-turned-
entrepreneurs extended their agency for entrepreneurial activities, by being action-oriented, re-
peating cycles of making products, and sharing them with prospective customers. On the other 
hand, the desire to excel or master the craft motivates artisans to act on tactile feedback. It re-
quires reflecting and self-assessing the tactile feedback, and from that, sharing their products 
with others to make meaning and to learn. The study suggests that artisans-turned-entrepre-
neurs extend these reflective practices for entrepreneurial learning, demonstrating constructiv-
ism, a core principle of SDL. Artisans combined a dual action orientation and reflective prac-
tices into SDL cycles of “make—share—listen—learn—adapt” (Figure ) and “assess knowledge 
gaps—choose actions—act—review outcomes—learn” (Figure ) on their path to entrepreneur-
ship. Through the first learning cycle, artisans create products that customers want and help 
customers develop a taste for the products they make, shuttling between the two to generate a 
product–market fit. More importantly, this dynamic makes space to integrate their artistic and 
creative desires. The second learning cycle is triggered when problems occur and results in ac-
quiring business knowledge. The discussion below about the findings in these two areas rein-
forces the highly integrated nature of the three dimensions in the SDL model, as also suggested 
by Garrison (). 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

57 

SDL for Product–Market Fit and Developing New Customers 

Adults prefer SDL when they volunteer to learn or are forced to learn (Howard, ; Owen, 
). Play makes people happy and prepares them for the unique challenges and the ambigui-
ties they face in their daily lives (Brown, ; Thwaits, ). With intrinsic motivation, arti-
sans leverage the play aspect of making and tinkering to create craft products and share their 
creations with friends and family, sometimes strangers too. By doing this, the artisans collabo-
ratively construct meaning from the actions they share with the world (Garrison, ). The 
play element also creates the desire to gain mastery of the craft skills, motivating the artisans to 
listen to the reactions of others, even when critical, and to learn, try variations, and improve the 
products. Here, the artisan manages the tasks, exercises control over the subsequent iterations 
of the products, and decides the resources to leverage, and with whom to share. The cases sug-
gest that these cycles enable the creation of a base of patrons, however small or large, and gives 
artisans the confidence that they can exert some control over their environment through arti-
sanship (Baumgartner et al., ; Thwaits, ). The cases suggest that a perception of market 
opportunity (as in George’s case) or an external factor such as a life situation (as in Jeff and 
Mary’s cases) when coupled with the acquired self-efficacy catalyzes the transition of artisans 
into entrepreneurship. Once into entrepreneurship, artisans shape their contextual conditions 
(Garrison, ) by paying more attention to product–market fit, acting with a sense of urgency 
on the feedback of their patrons and customers, and, more generally, on the market needs. The 
only shift that occurs in the “make–share–listen–learn–adapt” cycle is where “sharing” happens 
more often through “selling.” 

The cognitive components of SDL require the learner to take responsibility to construct 
personal meaning, integrating new ideas with previous knowledge (Garrison, ). The cases 

Figure 2. SDL dimensions for product–market fit and developing patrons. 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

58 

suggest that artisans who become successful entrepreneurs regularly evaluate their work prod-
ucts not only against their creative desires but also for the feedback received from the patrons. 
The assessment occurs for new craft skills acquired and to develop an understanding of the 
market needs. Per our findings, pragmatism drives artisans to reflect in the moment to guide 
future actions and adaptations, occasionally upon the achievement of business or career mile-
stones. All informants provided examples where they assessed multiple alternatives to guide 
decisions about which products to make. Assuming cognitive responsibility to self-monitor the 
learning process (Garrison, ; Merriam & Baumgartner, ), artisans leveraged one or 
more of the following factors to guide future actions: 
• their prior knowledge 
• what they did well 
• their patrons’ desires 
• their own creative interests 
• financial viability. 

Constant reflection and evaluation of their skills demonstrate responsibility while exercis-
ing control on the actions artisans take, paying attention to their unique contexts. Artisans’ con-
stant reflection and evaluation of their skills demonstrate responsibility and control over the 
actions they take within a given context. 

SDL to Acquire Business-related Knowledge and Skills 

Learning by solving problems is the characteristic of constructivist learning theories (Merriam 
& Baumgartner, ), and self-directed learners perform extraordinarily well in environments 
that require problem-solving, innovation, and change (Guglielmino & Klatt, ). Acts of solv-
ing business-related problems are learning episodes. Congruent with the observations made by 

Figure 3. SDL dimensions to acquire business-related knowledge and skills. 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

59 

Brown (), our study findings suggest that artisans who object play with hands are good at 
solving problems of all kinds. Artisans who successfully transition to entrepreneurship look at 
startup problems and failures as opportunities to learn and grow, and are motivated to take 
action. Faced with difficulties, artisans initiate learning by first reviewing what they know and 
identifying the gaps, then reaching out and tapping into the knowledge of people in their net-
works for new knowledge. Artisans control the nature of such learning with regards to the pace, 
the timing, the location, and the modes. For example, a sudden increase in the demand for his 
product necessitated that George purchase a large roaster. George had known a local organiza-
tion working with startups, and decided to secure funding through them. He chose not to ex-
plore alternate paths, such as crowdfunding, and through his actions and decisions shaped the 
contextual factors, for example, the relationship with the funding organization. As in other en-
trepreneurial contexts (Carwile, ), our study suggests that craft entrepreneurs leverage the 
trial-and-error approach, a core capability of artisans who tinker with their hands (Mason, 
Garber, Hochtritt, & Sharma, ), to direct learning in the areas of business operations and 
marketing. When faced with externalities that artisans cannot control, a strategy can be to rely 
on making craft, to handle the stress, and to enable clear thinking. Another motivating factor 
for business-related SDL is about trying to operate within one’s means (often financial). 

Successful craft entrepreneurs demonstrate a willingness to self-monitor the learning pro-
cess by reflecting on the strategies used to solve problems (Garrison, ; Merriam & 
Baumgartner, ). Although the procedures used to address business issues and critical deci-
sions are founded on the principles of self-management to gain mastery in the craft, entrepre-
neurs take responsibility to evaluate the effectiveness of these procedures. They can clearly ar-
ticulate the skills acquired, especially relating to business operations, marketing, and finances. 
The study shows that overcoming adversity and solving business issues increases an entrepre-
neur’s self-confidence, further motivating them and demonstrating the interdependence of self-
monitoring and motivation (Garrison, ). 

Conclusions 
We began with the opportunity to revitalize the small legacy cities using economic activities in 
the crafts sector, and the role SDL can play to foster crafts entrepreneurship in the craft com-
munity in these cities. Studying SDL of three artisans from legacy city Duluth, Minnesota who 
became successful craft entrepreneurs, we found that artisans are well-positioned to pursue craft 
entrepreneurship. The transferability of SDL frequently found among artisans is an advantage 
for craft entrepreneurship. The SDL on the runway to entrepreneurship for the three artisans 
had many commonalities. Two models (Figures  and  above) capture specific details about 
three critical dimensions of SDL as individuals transition from artisanship to entrepreneurship. 
The findings from the study are promising, and further research is necessary to develop SDL 
theories for crafts entrepreneurship. We discuss the limitations of the study first, followed by 
implications for practice and theory. 

The study is exploratory, examining the nature of SDL among artisans who were able to 



ARTIVATE 1.1 

60 

launch craft businesses and survived the first few years of operations. First, due to the study’s 
conceptual nature aimed at guiding future empirical research, scholars must exercise caution 
when generalizing the findings. Second, there is the potential for recall bias, especially when 
discussing learning that occurred some time ago. Future research can examine SDL through 
real-time and longitudinal studies. Third, the sample was purposive, small, and covered only 
successful cases, and while the research provides a window into SDL among craft entrepreneurs, 
empirical qualitative studies with broader and larger samples are necessary for theory building. 
Finally, the study was at a legacy city that already has a thriving craft entrepreneurial commu-
nity, and the SDL dynamics can be different if the contextual factors are changed. 

The research has several implications for practice. First, the path to entrepreneurship can 
begin with an active pursuit of craft as a hobby or a side gig using SDL to develop patrons or 
customers and using intrinsic motivations to increase commitment to the craft. The perception 
of a market opportunity or external factors can help pivot to entrepreneurship. Second, SDL 
stories of entrepreneurs such as those in this study, not the heroic ones, can raise artisans’ con-
fidence. Homophily among artisans suggests the possible effect that, “if she can do it, so can I.” 
Third, a personal coach can guide artisans and heighten their awareness of SDL and its trans-
ferability to business aspects. Finally, small legacy cities can establish co-working spaces with a 
focus on helping artisans operationalize the self-directed learning cycles to develop patrons, as 
observed in this study. This implication is particularly profound as small legacy cities have a 
thriving artisan community. 

SDL theories for entrepreneurship, particularly for the context of craft entrepreneurship 
and small legacy cities, are in nascence. However, the research provides preliminary evidence 
for exploring this topic using empirical methods. Future research should use a grounded theory 
approach by expanding the sample and focusing on theoretical saturation to develop testable 
propositions. Such research can build on the SDL cycles as well as the specific self-management 
and self-monitoring processes uncovered in this study. Further, comparative studies examining 
the SDL among artisans who have attempted to be entrepreneurial but did not succeed and 
those who were successful, i.e., where the craft-business became their primary source of income, 
can help to develop a robust conceptual model. Studies can also focus on the inhibitors to SDL 
among artisans. Similarly, quantitative comparative studies measuring SDL-readiness of arti-
sans and others can further (in)validate the preliminary findings of this study. Finally, future 
research can compare SDL among craft entrepreneurs from different legacy cities, small and 
large, to study the influence of contextual factors on SDL for crafts entrepreneurship.  



ARTIVATE 1.1 

61 

References 

A. G. Thompson House. (2018, September 06). Lincoln 
Park craft district is Duluth's newest hotspot. Re-
trieved September 09, 2020, from https://thomson-
house.biz/lincoln-park-craft-district-duluth/ 

Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research. 
Wadsworth Publishing Inc. 

Baumgartner, L. M., Lee, M.-Y., Birden, S., & Flowers, D. 
(2003). Adult learning theory: A primer. Information 
Series. 

Berube, A., & Murray, C. (2018). Renewing America’s 
economic promise through older industrial cities. 
Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings. 

Bohl, C., & Bixby, N. (2011). The Duluth creative corri-
dor. University of Miami, School of Architecture. 

Brockett, R. G., & Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-direction in 
adult learning: Perspectives on theory, research and 
practice. Routledge. 

Brown, S. L. (2009). Play: How it shapes the brain, opens 
the imagination, and invigorates the soul. Penguin. 

Caffarella, R., & O’Donnell, J. M. (1988). Research in self-
directed learning: Past, present and future trends. In 
H. B. Long (Ed.), Self-directed learning: Application 
and theory (pp. 39–61). University of Georgia, Adult 
Education Department. 

Carwile, J. (2009). A case study of the self-directed learn-
ing of women entrepreneurs in the first four years of 
business ownership. [Doctoral dissertation, Virginia 
Commonwealth University.] https://scholarscom-
pass.vcu.edu/etd/1715  

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative re-
search. Sage Publications Inc. 

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, 
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Vol. 4). 
Sage Publications Inc. 

Duluth Public Arts Commission. (2016, July 18). Crea-
tive Watershed: Duluth Arts + Culture Plan.  City of 
Duluth. https://duluthmn.gov/media/7577/creative-
watershed-duluths-art-plus-culture-plan.pdf. 

Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building theories from case studies 
research. Academy of Management Review, 10, 532–
550. 

Fenwick, T. J. (2002). Lady, Inc.: Women learning, nego-
tiating subjectivity in entrepreneurial discourses. In-
ternational Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(2), 162–
177. 

Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a 
comprehensive model. Adult education quarterly, 
48(1), 18–33. 

Gleeman, A. (2020, May 20). Crafting a business district 
in northern Minnesota. Retrieved September 09, 
2020, from https://tcbmag.com/crafting-a-business-
district-in-northern-minnesota/ 

Guglielmino, P. J., & Guglielmino, L. M. (2006). Culture, 
self-directed learning readiness, and per capita in-
come in five countries. SAM Advanced Management 
Journal (07497075), 71(2), 21–57. 

Guglielmino, P. J., & Klatt, L. A. (1994). Self-directed 
learning readiness as a characteristic of the entrepre-
neur. In H. B. Long (Ed.), New ideas about self-di-
rected learning (pp. 161–173). Oklahoma Research 

Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Edu-
cation of the University of Oklahoma. 

Harris, E. R. (2018). Crafted places/places for craft: Pop-
up and the politics of the “crafted” city. In S. Luck-
man & N. Thomas (Eds.), Craft economies (pp. 173–
186) Bloomsburry Academic. 

History of Duluth. (n.d.). Retrieved September 09, 2020, 
from https://downtownduluth.com/about/history-
of-duluth.php 

Hollingsworth, T., & Goebel, A. (2017). Revitalizing 
America’s smaller legacy cities: Strategies for 
postindustrial success from Gary to Lowell. Lincoln 
Institute of Land Policy. 

Houle, C. O. (1961). The inquiring mind. The University 
of Wisconsin Press. 

Howard, Y. B. (2010). Women entrepreneurs reflect on in-
formal/self-directed learning in business and life. 
[Doctoral dissertation, University of Idaho.] 
ProQuest. 

Kapp, P. H. (2017). The artisan economy and post-indus-
trial regeneration in the US. Journal of Urban Design, 
22(4), 477–493. 

Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult edu-
cation: From pedagogy to andragogy (revised edition). 
Cambridge. 

LISC. (2018, August 28). Lincoln Park business craft dis-
trict soars: LISC Duluth. Retrieved September 09, 
2020, from https://www.lisc.org/duluth/regional-sto-
ries/lincoln-park-business-craft-district-soars/ 

Luckman, S. (2013). Precariously mobile: Tensions be-
tween the local and the global in higher education 
approaches to cultural work. In D. Ashton & C. 
Noonan (Eds.), Cultural work and higher education 
(pp. 69–86). Palgrave Macmillan. 

Luckman, S. (2015). Craft and the creative economy. 
Springer. 

Mason, R., Garber, E., Hochtritt, L., & Sharma, M. 
(2018). Skilled knowledge and craft education. In E. 
Garber, L. Hochtrichtt, & M. Sharma (Eds.), Makers, 
crafters, educators: Working for cultural change (pp. 
216–219). Routledge. 

Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2020). Learning in 
adulthood: A comprehensive guide. John Wiley & 
Sons. 

Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in 
adulthood : A comprehensive guide (2nd ed). Jossey-
Bass. 

Minniti, M., & Bygrave, W. (2001). A dynamic model of 
entrepreneurial learning. Entrepreneurship: Theory 
and Practice, 25(3), 5–16. 

Neck, H. M. (2011). Idea generation. In B. Bygrave & A. 
Zacharakis (Eds.), The portable MBA in entrepre-
neurship (pp. 27–52). John Wiley & Sons. 

Neck, H. M., & Corbett, A. C. (2018). The scholarship of 
teaching and learning entrepreneurship. Entrepre-
neurship Education and Pedagogy, 1(1), 8–41. 

O’Shea, D., & Buckley, F. (2010). Modelling self-regu-
lated learning strategies in early-stage entrepreneurs: 
the role of intentionality and interaction. Interna-



ARTIVATE 1.1 

62 

tional Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Busi-
ness, 10(1), 83–107. 

Oliveira, A. L., Silva, J. T., Guglielmino, L. M., & Gug-
lielmino, P. J. (2010). A cross-cultural study of self-
directed learning readiness, performance, creativity, 
and problem solving in a sample from Portugal. In-
ternational Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 7(1), 
45–59. 

Owen, T. R. (2002). Self-directed learning in adulthood: A 
literature review. (ED 461 050). Educational Re-
sources Information Center. Retrieved from 
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED461050.pdf. 

PBS (Producer). (2005–present) Craft in America [TV se-
ries]. Corporation for Public Broadcasting.  

Post, E. (2015). An exploration of SDL as a conceptual 
model for studying nascent entrepreneurs. Interna-
tional Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 12(2), 49. 

Pratt, A. C. (2008). Locating the cultural economy. In H. 
Anheier & Y. Isar (Eds.), The cultures and globaliza-
tion series (Vol. 2, pp. 42–51). Sage Publications Inc. 

Pret, T., & Cogan, A. (2019). Artisan entrepreneurship: A 
systematic literature review and research agenda. In-
ternational Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & 
Research, 25(4), 592–614. 

Rae, D. (2000). Understanding entrepreneurial learning: 
A question of how? International Journal of Entre-
preneurial Behavior & Research, 6(3), 145–159. 

Ratten, V., Costa, C., & Bogers, M. (2019). Artisan, cul-
tural and tourism entrepreneurship. International 
Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 
25(4), 582–591. 

Roundy, P. T. (2019). Rust belt or revitalization: Compet-
ing narratives in entrepreneurial ecosystems. Man-
agement Research Review, 42(1), 102–121. 

Saintilan, P., & Schreiber, D. (2017). Managing organiza-
tions in the creative economy: Organizational behav-
iour for the cultural sector. Routledge. 

Spear, G. E., & Mocker, D. W. (1984). The organizing 
circumstance: Environmental determinants in self-
directed learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 35(1), 
1–10. 

Stake, R. E. (2013). Multiple case study analysis. Guilford 
Press. 

Stoddard, J. E., Davé, D. S., & Evans, M. R. (2008). The 
economic impact of the craft industry in Western 
North Carolina. DESS Business Research, LLC. 
https://www.blueridgeheritage.com/wp-content/up-
loads/images/PDFs/Research/CraftEconomicIm-
pactStudy.pdf 

Thwaits, A. (2018). The joy of tinkering. In E. Garber, L. 
Hochtrichtt, & M. Sharma (Eds.), Makers, crafters, 
educators: Working for cultural change (pp. 3). 
Routledge. 

Tighe, J. R., & Ryberg-Webster, S. (2019). Legacy cities: 
Continuity and change amid decline and revival. Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh Press. 

Tough, A. (1971). The adult’s learning projects. A fresh 
approach to theory and practice in adult learning 
(2nd ed.). The Ontario Institute for Studies in Edu-
cation. 

Tseng, C.-C. (2013). Connecting self-directed learning 
with entrepreneurial learning to entrepreneurial per-
formance. International Journal of Entrepreneurial 
Behavior & Research, 19(4), 425–446. 

UNCTAD. (2010). Creative economy: A feasible develop-
ment option. United Nations Conference on Trade 
and Development. 
https://unctad.org/en/Docs/ditctab20103_en.pdf 

UNCTAD. (2018). Creative economy outlook and country 
profiles: Trends in international trade in creative in-
dustries. United Nations Conference on Trade and 
Development. https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLi-
brary/ditcted2018d3_en.pdf 

Wang, C. L., & Chugh, H. (2014). Entrepreneurial learn-
ing: Past research and future challenges. Interna-
tional Journal of Management Reviews, 16(1), 24–61. 

Yin, R. K. (2010). Qualitative research from start to finish. 
Guilford Press. 

Cover image: Glassmaker creating a glass animal by el-
lenm1, CC BY-NC 2.0, https://www.flickr.com/pho-
tos/ellenm1/3685165761/in/photostream/. 

 
 

Special thanks to Mr. John Forsman, B.A. in Cultural Entrepreneurship who assisted in 
the data collection phase in Duluth, MN. He was instrumental in securing participants, sched-
uling and participating in the interviews, and in helping with a preliminary analysis of the 
data. 


