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VOL. 11, NO. 1 
SPRING 2022 

 

Motivations and Intentionality in the Arts Portfolio 
Career  
An Investigation into How Visual and Performing Artists Construct 
Portfolio Careers 

 
Karen Munnelly 
Florida State University 

ABSTRACT: Many artists find themselves in the role of an entrepreneur and small 
business owner as they manage multiple overlapping jobs while engaging in a port-
folio career. This research investigates how visual and performing artists construct 
meaningful portfolio careers and if the portfolio career model minimizes risk. The 
findings reveal that the majority of respondents view a portfolio career as less secure 
than a full-time job, but also prefer the portfolio career. A significant amount of their 
time is spent on creative activity and teaching. Artistic fulfillment, pay, and time com-
mitment are the primary factors artists consider when selecting work. 
KEYWORDS: portfolio career, arts entrepreneurship, arts careers, career patterns. 
DOI: doi.org/10.34053/artivate.11.1.163 

Introduction 
Many visual and performing artists working in the United States engage in portfolio careers and 
do not hold one single job with one employer (Bartleet, et al., ; Bridgstock & Cunningham, 
; Coulson, ; Munnelly, a; Thomson, ). There are numerous definitions of a 
portfolio career provided in prior research. These definitions revolve around holding numerous 
concurrent jobs, the lack of a single employer, and being self-employed and self-managed 
(Bartleet et al., ; Bartleet, Bennett, Bridgstock, Draper, Harrison & Schippers, ; Bennett 
& Bridgstock, ; Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Menger, ; Myers, ). In this re-
search, I define a portfolio career as holding multiple overlapping jobs in the arts as opposed to 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

2 

having a single full-time job with one employer. It often includes self-employed work, but it 
might also include a full-time position in addition to freelance work. While an arts portfolio 
career is made up of arts-focused work, it may include some work outside of the arts including 
a full-time day job. The term artists is used in this research to represent both visual and per-
forming artists who create and perform.  

Previous studies have found that artists are more likely to freelance and hold multiple jobs 
than individuals in any other profession (Menger, ; Popović & Ratković, ; Woron-
kowicz & Noonan, ). Project-based work is common in the arts as many artistic projects 
only require the artist’s time and skill for a limited period (Bennett & Bridgstock, ; Menger, 
; Woronkowicz, & Noonan, ). Freelance artists who hold multiple jobs engage in port-
folio careers and are often self-employed. Menger ( & ) and Throsby () suggest 
that freelance artists could be thought of as operators of small businesses. While not all small 
business owners would consider themselves entrepreneurs, artists who engage in portfolio ca-
reers need to have entrepreneurial skills in order to be successful and competitive (Bartleet et 
al., ; Coulson, ; Everts et al., ). Menger () suggests that the careers of self-
employed artists display attributes of entrepreneurship including the creation of value and risk 
taking. Artists must also be proactive in finding work and engage in opportunity recognition 
strategies associated with entrepreneurship (Coulson, ). Previous research has found that 
self-employed artists do not always consider themselves entrepreneurs, but they may be acci-
dental or forced entrepreneurs (Coulson, ; Everts et. al, ). The arts portfolio career is a 
type of entrepreneurial small business model.  

While previous research does indicate that many artists engage in a portfolio career 
(Bartleet et al., ; Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Coulson, ; Menger, ; Munnelly, 
a; Thomson, ), there is lack of detailed data regarding the jobs that make up the port-
folio career and how artists go about constructing their portfolio career (Bartleet et al., ; 
Coulson, ). Existing research suggests the decision to pursue a portfolio career is often 
based on supply and demand more so than the desire to pursue a portfolio career, but there 
seems to be a lack of data from artists supporting this question (Bartleet et al., ; Coulson, 
; Coulson, ; Fenwick, ). Because there appears to be a lack of detailed data regard-
ing how artists construct their portfolio careers and whether they engage in a portfolio career 
by choice or out of necessity, a central goal of this research is to collect data from artists to 
answer these questions. This research investigates the process by which visual and performing 
artists construct a meaningful portfolio career and whether they engage in a portfolio career out 
of choice or necessity. The research questions include: 

• What types of jobs make up the artist portfolio career? 
• What factors do artists take into consideration when deciding what work to accept or de-

cline? 
• Do artists consider a portfolio career with multiple employers to be more secure than one 

full-time job with one single employer? 
• Do artists engage in portfolio careers out of necessity or by choice? 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

3 

Given that we know many artists will engage in a portfolio career, it is important to gain a 
better understanding of how artists make career decisions—including the decision to enter into 
a portfolio career and the decision around what work to include in the portfolio career. This 
research will provide insights into how artists build and maintain their portfolio career. It is the 
hope that this research will provide information that can assist in preparing future generations 
of artists to think critically about how they build their careers. 

Background & Literature Review 

Organizational Behavioral Origins 

While there is a lack of research regarding how artists construct a meaningful portfolio career, 
organizational behavioral research provides a starting point for the theories and motivations 
behind building a successful portfolio career. The research of Handy () and Cawsey et al. 
() was used to provide a conceptual framework for this project. Although the portfolio ca-
reer has existed in practice for centuries (Clague, ), organizational behavioral researcher 
Charles Handy is credited with formalizing the concept. In his  book, The Age of Unreason, 
Charles Handy predicted that by the beginning of the twenty-first century “less than half the 
industrial world will be in ‘proper’ full-time jobs in organizations” (p.). He believed that full-
time positions with one organization or company would no longer be the norm and that instead 
individuals would be self-employed with a variety of jobs and projects. Handy attributed this 
change to the growth of shamrock organizations, which are organizations “based around a core 
of essential executives and workers supported by outside contractors and part-time help” (p. 
).  

Freelance contractors often have more than one job or project, and these may be with dif-
ferent employers. Handy () refers to the various types of work individuals take on and how 
this work fits together as a portfolio. He describes five categories of work that make up the port-
folio: () wage work, () fee work, () homework, () gift work, and () study work. Wage and 
fee work are both types of paid work, while homework, gift work, and study work are unpaid. 
There is an important distinction between wage and fee work. Wage or salary work refers to 
money that is paid for time given, while fee work is money paid in exchange for delivered results. 
According to Handy, fee work is increasing as more jobs go to freelance contractors instead of 
to full-time employees. While Handy defines homework as “the whole catalogue of tasks that 
go on in the home” (p. ), many individuals may not consider this a part of their portfolio 
career as homework needs to be done whether one engages in a portfolio career or not. Gift 
work is work that is done for free. It is often done for charity or community groups. Study work 
is the work needed to keep up one’s skills or acquire additional skills. Study work can lead to 
additional paid work opportunities.  

In the past, the typical work portfolio consisted of one job (Handy, ), and this is still 
the common work portfolio for many individuals. That job equaled a career. The portfolio ca-
reer model consists of multiple jobs that make up a career “because much creative work is 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

4 

conducted on a by-project basis, with each project drawing upon the creative skills of different 
combinations of different people” (Bennett & Bridgstock, , p. ). A portfolio consisting 
of only one job is riskier than a portfolio with multiple jobs. As Handy () points out, few 
people would put all of their money into one investment, but that is what many have been doing 
with their working lives. In their  article, The Portfolio Career as a Response to a Changing 
Job Market, Cawsey et al. compare the portfolio career to a financial portfolio, both existing to 
minimize risks. “The financial portfolio handles risk by holding various stocks with differing 
risks for differing parts of the economic cycle. The career portfolio minimizes risks by accumu-
lating skill sets that can produce a variety of value-adding activities. If one skill is not in demand, 
another might be” (Cawsey et al., , p. ). A portfolio career allows artists to balance higher 
and lower risk options in much the same way as an investment portfolio (Bartleet et al., ). 
Portfolio careers eliminate the dependence upon one employer, which results in higher job se-
curity because individuals have several employers and streams of income (Cawsey et al., ). 
If one job ends or is terminated, the individual will still have several sources of income in their 
portfolio. The more jobs there are in the portfolio, the less risk an individual has. The more 
versatility of skills one has and their willingness to continue to develop more skills also reduces 
the risk of becoming obsolete (Cawsey et al., ). Cawsey et al. discuss three categories of 
skills: () a developing skill, () a mature skill, and () a post-maturity skill; “A developing skill 
is a skill or skill set that the individual has decided is worth pursuing and developing” (p. ). 
While the skill is in the development stage, an individual will generally charge less or base the 
fee on results delivered instead of on time spent working. Continuously developing new skills is 
important as it will diversify the individual’s skillset and allow them to keep up with new de-
mands. Once a skill is fully developed, it is known as a mature skill and can be offered at a higher 
fee or wage. When a skill is no longer in demand—or when it is replaced by more complex and 
in-demand skills the individual has developed—it is referred to as a post-maturity skill. Because 
the demand for skills fluctuates with the market, continuously developing new skills to replace 
skills that are no longer in demand is essential. By developing new skills throughout their career, 
an individual can work to ensure that they have a diverse and relevant skill set. Versatility and 
relevance of skills reduces the risk of becoming obsolete.  

In addition to having various skills in a portfolio, Cawsey et al. () recommend that an 
individual consider three types of clients for their portfolio: () money clients, () learning cli-
ents, and () niche clients; “Money clients provide the money to pay the bills. The skills used for 
these clients are generally not particularly unique or valuable. Individuals have these clients out 
of necessity, not by choice” (p. ). Learning clients are opportunities that allow an individual 
to develop new skills and are often paid at a lower rate since the individual is still learning the 
skills and is not an expert. An individual may take on learning clients in order to develop addi-
tional skills to expand their portfolio of offerings. “Niche clients result from the matching of 
developed skills with a significant need. Here, the individual can market or sell his/her skills for 
an appropriate price. Niche clients allow one to develop a reputation for skills proficiency and 
to network for future work” ( p. ). Individuals might also consider the amount of learning 
that occurs on a job in relation to the amount the job pays. Cawsey et al. recommend that ideally 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

5 

individuals should look for opportunities that provide either low pay and high learning or high 
pay and low learning. This is because jobs that offer low pay and low learning do not have a 
significant return value, while jobs that offer high pay and high learning could be risky if the 
individual isn’t skilled enough to meet the client’s expectations.  

Individuals often look to a job for the fulfillment of a variety of needs including professional 
satisfaction, financial security, growth, and socialization (Handy, ). It can be challenging 
for one job to fulfill such a variety of needs. Through a portfolio career an individual can look 
to a variety of jobs or projects to fulfill these different needs. Niche clients might fulfill the need 
for interesting and satisfying work, while money clients provide financial security, and learning 
clients offer the opportunity to continuously develop new skills. Artists might look to creative 
freelance work to meet their artistic needs while also engaging in teaching and administrative 
work to provide financial stability (Bartleet et al., ). Different clients also provide a variety 
of people to work with, which could increase interest levels. Handy () suggests that indi-
viduals have expected their one job career to fulfill too many needs, which often leads to disap-
pointment. While the notion of not having one stable job may be frightening, Handy suggests 
that it might increase job satisfaction. A portfolio career can allow artists to be in control of their 
careers, deciding when they work, what artistic work they take on, the environment they choose 
to work in, and the fees they choose to charge, which may increase job satisfaction (Cutler, 
). 

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Arts Portfolio Career 

Although the portfolio career is often positioned as a way to take control of one’s career while 
pursuing artistic interests and minimizing financial risk through multiple employers, it has also 
been criticized for insecurity and exposing individuals to exploitative tendencies (Coulson, 
; Fenwick ; Scolere, ). Advantages of the portfolio career include “freedom to 
choose one’s own work and hours, and a non-routine working life.” (Coulson, , p. ). 
One of the biggest advantages often touted about the portfolio career is the autonomy over one’s 
professional life. One study of non-arts workers engaged in portfolio careers found that “most 
participants enjoyed the creative freedom to make choices, to design their own work process 
and environment” (Fenwick, , p. ). In the arts, the ability to pursue one’s artistic vision 
is a commonly mentioned advantage of the portfolio career (Bartleet et al., ; Cutler, ). 
While a portfolio career can allow an individual to have autonomy over their career choices, 
including which projects to engage in and schedule, the autonomy can be accompanied by fi-
nancial insecurity and unpredictable income (Coulson, ). Fenwick () found that most 
participants enjoyed the freedom of choice that came with a portfolio career, but they also found 
the labor of designing a portfolio career exhausting at times. It is also important to note that due 
to the precarious nature of the portfolio career, few artists will find themselves with the financial 
security to have complete control over their schedule and ability to pursue only the jobs that 
align with their artistic vision and ideal (Bartleet et al., ). 

In the United States, health insurance is often attached to a full-time job. While individuals 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

6 

engaging in portfolio careers may have health insurance through other means such as a spouse, 
they generally do not receive health insurance through their project work. A study by the Future 
of Music Coalition (Thomson & Cook, ) found that artists are less likely to have health 
insurance than the general population. This is not surprising given that many artists are self-
employed and would not have access to an employer provided health insurance plan. The study 
found that  of the artists surveyed did not have health insurance at the time of the study. 
“This is more than double the  of the non-elderly population that is uninsured, as estimated 
by the Kaiser Family Foundation” (Thomson & Cook, , p. ). Of those who indicated they 
did have health insurance,  had purchased a private or individual insurance plan. According 
to the Kaiser Family Foundation, this is six times greater than the percentage of the general 
population that purchases individual plans (Thomson & Cook, ). The lack of access to af-
fordable health insurance is another reason that the portfolio career can be a precarious career 
choice. Full-time jobs also offer unemployment benefits, which self-employed artists are gener-
ally not eligible for (Menger, ). Lack of access to health insurance and unemployment ben-
efits likely influences the number of artists who decide to hold full-time positions both inside 
and outside of the arts—in addition to their project-based work. Holding a full-time job, even 
if it does not align with one’s artistic priorities, is one way artists can obtain health insurance 
and be eligible to receive unemployment benefits.  

Mental health is another concern for artists engaging in portfolio careers. While factors of 
a portfolio career can provide satisfaction, they can also provide anxiety (Fenwick, ). “Low 
incomes, irregular work patterns, romanticizing the ‘tortured artist’ and the dismissal of music 
as being a worthwhile career pursuit, have all been contributing factors to the mental and phys-
ical health and wellbeing of musicians” (Bartleet et al., , p. ). Perceptions of success also 
have an impact on the mental health of artists. Research suggests that the career realities for 
artists can be vastly different to what they perceived when deciding to pursue studies and a ca-
reer in the arts. This can lead to narrow perceptions of success and an identity crisis when ca-
reers don’t match preconceived expectations (Hennekam & Bennett, ; López-Íñiguez & 
Bennett, ). Artists often identify deeply with their art and career transitions can have a sig-
nificant effect on their self-identity and mental health (Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; 
Hennekam & Bennett, ).  

The previously mentioned research of Handy () and Cawsey et. al () positions the 
portfolio career as a way to minimize financial risk. Several studies on arts portfolio careers 
(Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Bartleet et al., ; Menger, ) have also suggested that 
a diversified portfolio of work could be considered a risk management strategy. The reason be-
ing that multiple employers means multiple streams of income, so if one job in the portfolio 
ends or is terminated, there will be other streams of income remaining. However, this reasoning 
fails to consider that not all jobs in a portfolio career are equal. Certain jobs may pay the bills, 
while others deliver artistic fulfillment, networking opportunities, or the chance to learn a new 
skill. Many artists experience low pay even with a portfolio career (Everts et al., ; Hennekam 
& Bennett, ; Menger, ; Menger ; Throsby, ). Coulson () found that mu-
sicians in their study experience low pay and insecurity and were often just getting by 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

7 

financially. Bridgstock and Cunningham () found “that traditional arts occupations are the 
least remunerated and the most likely to be self-employed and precarious” (p. ). Several other 
studies indicate that artists often face higher underemployment and unemployment rates than 
the general working population (Menger, ; Menger, ; Popović & Ratković, ).  

While the narrative of the portfolio career being a type of risk management tool is preva-
lent, it fails to point out that artists participating in the portfolio careers are the ones who bear 
all the risk. “Under the portfolio career model, workers have individual responsibility for their 
career development, and thus assume all risk associated with economic vicissitudes, changes to 
supply chains and market demand, and personal adversity” (Bridgstock & Cunningham, , 
p. ). For those in full-time positions, some of this risk is taken on by the employer. The 
COVID- pandemic offers an example of this as some arts organizations continued to pay 
their full-time artists, while others engaged in furloughs and layoffs. The Metropolitan Opera 
Orchestra musicians went unpaid for nearly a year (Jacobs, ), while the New York Philhar-
monic musicians agreed to pay cuts so that they could continue to receive a salary while the 
orchestra was dark (Dubb, ). Both the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra and the New York 
Philharmonic are full-time unionized orchestras governed by collective bargaining agreements. 
The pandemic showed that artists who were employed full-time by organizations and artists 
who were self-employed both faced insecurities and risks. While artists who were self-employed 
might have been eligible to apply for relief grants, they did not have the luxury of either their 
employer deciding that continuing to provide a salary and benefits was a budget priority or that 
they were legally required due to an existing contract. In many instances, such as with the New 
York Philharmonic, union contracts offered protection to artists who were employed full-time.  

The possibility of engaging in self-exploitation was a concern of portfolio careers men-
tioned by several researchers (Brigstock & Cunningham, ; Coulson, ; Morgan et al., 
). Scolere () suggests that the narrative of the advantages of the portfolio career ration-
alizes a precarious and financially insecure career. “The narrative of passion or love for the work 
and ‘creative lifestyle’ becomes a way of rationalizing the low pay and insecure working condi-
tions” (Scolere, , p. ). Artists may be willing to accept low pay and job insecurity in 
order to continue working in the arts. Bridgstock and Cunningham () found that instead 
of leaving the arts in search of better paid opportunities in other fields, artists continue to accept 
underemployment and low pay while self-exploiting. While the risk of exploitation is a concern, 
one could also make the argument that artists might be choosing to consider the non-monetary 
payment that creative work provides such as artistic fulfillment, autonomy, and low level of 
routine in addition to solely considering financial compensation (Menger, ). Some artists 
may be willing to take on riskier working patterns because of the personal satisfaction derived 
by the work.  

Little research has been done exploring whether artists engage in a portfolio career by 
choice or out of necessity due to a lack of full-time jobs. Existing research suggests the decision 
to pursue a portfolio career is often based on supply and demand more so than the desire to 
pursue a portfolio career, but there seems to be a lack of data from artists concerning this ques-
tion (Bartleet et al., ; Coulson, ; Coulson, ; Fenwick, ). While Menger () 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

8 

does note an oversupply of artists, they also suggest that rather than being solely due to supply 
and demand, the growing trend of portfolio careers might be due to “the pervasive uncertainty 
of artistic careers, and the ways for individuals and organizations to handle uncertain prospects 
and to manage individual and business risks” (p. ). Regardless of the reasoning, it is evident 
that the portfolio career is a common career model for artists. 

Data Collection 
This study utilized a mixed-methods design. Both quantitative and qualitative data were col-
lected during the spring and summer of  using an online survey built in Qualtrics. This 
method of data collection was selected in order to reach a large number of individuals in the 
target population who were spread across a large geographic area. A mix of closed-ended and 
open-ended questions were used. While the survey instrument did collect both quantitative and 
qualitative data, this article focuses on the quantitative data collected from the survey.  

The target study population was individuals who self-identify as having a portfolio career 
as a visual or performing artist. Participants were recruited through state and local arts agencies 
as well as artist services organizations. The reasoning for going through state and local arts agen-
cies and artist services organizations was to assist in ensuring the survey reached individuals 
who derive a significant portion of their income through arts-related work and spend a signifi-
cant portion of their work time on arts-related work. Utilizing arts agencies and artist services 
organizations was away to target professional working visual and performing artists. The survey 
did ask if the participants identified as a visual or performing artist with a portfolio career. If 
they selected “no,” the survey was programmed to end. Participants were also asked whether 
they were at least eighteen years of age. These were the only screening questions. 

Because the COVID- Pandemic has had a significant effect on artists and arts organiza-
tions, and has likely affected the way artists engage in portfolio careers, respondents were asked 
to respond according to their , pre-pandemic work experiences aside from the final four 
questions, which focused on expectations for their post-pandemic careers. The purpose of ask-
ing participants to consider their pre-pandemic work life was to determine a baseline of norms 
for the pre-pandemic arts portfolio career so that future research can investigate the pandemic’s 
effects on artists careers. 

Findings 
The survey was completed by  individuals who identified as having arts portfolio careers. 
Participants came from a variety of arts background with just over half identifying as visual 
artists (see figure ). Those selecting “other” identified photography, woodworking, writing, 
videography, installation, and multidisciplinary as their primary disciplines. 
 

 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

9 

 

Figure 1: Primary Arts Discipline 

 One goal of the research was to understand the types of jobs that make up a portfolio career 
including the balance of arts and non-arts jobs. The survey next inquired into whether the port-
folio careers contained non-arts related work.  indicated that their portfolio career only 
contained arts-related work while  indicated that their portfolio careers contained a mix of 
both arts-related and non-arts related work. Another important piece of understanding the 
types of jobs that make up a portfolio career is the balance of full-time and project-based work. 
While a portfolio career is generally thought of in terms of multiple project-based jobs, some 
artists do also engage in a full-time job to support their artistic endeavors and for the benefits, 
including health insurance, retirement plans, and unemployment, that full-time positions often 
provide. In this study, the majority of participants, , did not hold a full-time job. Of the  
who indicated that they did hold a full-time job,  stated that their full-time job was related 
to the arts.  

Because the portfolio career may contain both arts-related and non-arts related work, it 
was important to investigate how much work time the participating artists spent on arts-related 
work. The majority of participants, , spent over half of their worktime on arts-related work. 
 indicated that over  of their work time was arts related, including  whose work time 
was  arts related. The majority, , also earned over half of their income from arts-related 
work (see figure ).  

Participants were next asked what types of work made up their portfolio careers and were 
directed to select as many categories as applied. Creative activity including performing, exhib-
iting, and creating were the most common type of work found in the participants’ portfolio 
careers with  selecting that option; this was followed by teaching with  selecting that 
option (see figure ). All but  of participants selected more than one category of work indi-
cating that many artists do a variety of jobs as part of their portfolio career. Half of respondents 
engaged in three or more categories of work.  

Dance
7%

Music
22%

Theatre
11%

Visual Arts
51%

Other
9%



ARTIVATE 11.1 

10 

 
Figure 2: Percent of Income Earned from Arts-Related Work 

 
Figure 3: Types of Work That Make Up the Portfolio Career 

39%

20%
9% 13%

19%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

100% of
income:

75-99% of
income:

50-74% of
income:

25-49% of
income:

0-24% of
income:

Percent of income earned from arts related work

23%

82%

32%

68%

27% 23%

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%

100%

Arts
 Administ

rat
ion

Perfo
rm

ing/E
xh

ibitin
g/C

reati
ng

Producti
on

Te
ac

hing

Non-ar
ts 

work
Other

Types of work that make up the portfolio career



ARTIVATE 11.1 

11 

Participants were then asked to select the single category of work that makes up the largest 
portion of their portfolio career. Performing/exhibiting/creating and teaching were again the 
two most common responses with  and  of respondents selecting these options. 

Another goal of the study was to gain a greater understanding of what factors artists take 
into consideration when deciding what work to accept or decline. Participants were asked to 
select all of the factors they consider from a list of six choices with the option of selecting “other” 
and entering a factor not on the list (see figure ). Artistic fulfillment, time commitment/sched-
ule, and payment were the three most common responses. When asked to identify one single 
factor as the most important consideration, artistic fulfillment was the most common choice 
with  selecting it. Time commitment/schedule and payment were the second most common 
choices with  selecting each option. Networking, learning new skills, and colleagues were 
each selected by less than  of participants.  
 

 
Figure 4: Factors Considered When Deciding What Arts Specific Work to Accept or Decline 

 
It is unclear whether visual and performing artists in this study felt that they have control 

over the type of work they engage in or if they felt they were in a position where they must take 
whatever work comes their way. When asked if they think intentionally about the type of work 
that makes up their portfolio careers, the majority, , indicated that they always do, while 
 indicated that they sometimes do. It does appear that the majority of artists in this study 
felt they have some control over the type of work they engage in and think intentionally about 
it.  

92%

48%
49%

82%

40%

85%

1.0%
0%

10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%

100%

Arti
sti

c F
ulfil

lm
ent

Netw
orki

ng

Le
arn

ing n
ew sk

ills

Pay
ment

Colle
ag

ues

Tim
e co

mmitm
en

t a
nd sc

hedule
Other

Types of work that make up the portfolio career



ARTIVATE 11.1 

12 

While prior research (Bartleet et al., ; Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Coulson, ; 
Thomson, ) does demonstrate that many visual and performing artists engage in portfolio 
careers as opposed to having a single job with one employer, there is little research that asks 
artists if they engage in a portfolio career by choice or out of necessity. When asked about this, 
responses were mixed.  indicated it was by choice, while  indicated it was out of neces-
sity. However,  stated that their portfolio career was both by choice and out of necessity. In 
a related question, when asked if they would prefer to have one full-time job in their arts disci-
pline or a portfolio career in their arts discipline, the majority, , indicated that they would 
prefer to have a portfolio career. Only  selected that they would prefer one full-time job.  

Organizational behavior research indicates that one benefit of a portfolio career is that it 
minimizes financial risk (Handy, ; Cawsey et al., ). The reason being that if an indi-
vidual were to lose one job in their portfolio career, they would still have other streams of in-
come. If an individual only had one job, they would lose all of their income in this scenario. 
While the literature does discuss the risk mitigation of portfolio careers, there does not appear 
to be data supporting this claim from individuals who engage in portfolio careers. When asked 
if having multiple employers minimizes financial risk, a similar percentage of participants re-
sponded “yes” compared to those who selected “no.” Those indicating that having multiple em-
ployers does minimize financial risk was , while  believed it does not. The remainder 
were unsure. Interestingly, while responses were mixed for this particular question, when asked 
if they consider a portfolio career with multiple employers more secure than having a full-time 
job with one single employer, nearly half of respondents, , chose “less secure.”  

The COVID- pandemic has had a significant effect on both artists and arts organizations, 
so it was important to ask several questions that focused on expectations for post-pandemic 
work life. One might assume that the pandemic has left many self-employed artists reconsider-
ing their portfolio careers, but that was not the case in this study. When asked if they were re-
considering their arts portfolio career due to the pandemic, only  responded with “yes”. It 
could also be assumed that the pandemic might influence the factors that were most important 
to individuals when deciding what arts-specific work to accept or decline, but artistic fulfillment, 
payment, and time commitment/schedule remained the top three most important factors. There 
were no significant differences in the factors considered when deciding what work to take on or 
decline when looking at post-pandemic work expectations. 

Discussion 
The purpose of this research was to investigate the process of how visual and performing artists 
construct a meaningful portfolio career and whether they engage in a portfolio career by choice 
or out of necessity. The research considered four questions:  

• What types of jobs make up the artist portfolio career? 
• What factors do artists take into consideration when deciding what work to accept or de-

cline? 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

13 

• Do artists consider a portfolio career with multiple employers to be more secure than one 
full-time job with one single employer? 

• Do artists engage in portfolio careers out of necessity or by choice? 

What types of jobs make up the artist portfolio career? 

Participants in this study had both arts-related and non-arts related work in their portfolio ca-
reer with the majority solely engaging in arts-related work. Artists engaging in portfolio careers 
will often have a combination of both arts and non-arts work, so this was an expected mix 
(Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Menger , Menger, ; Throsby, ; Woronkowicz 
& Noonan, ). About / of respondents did hold full-time jobs, but the majority partici-
pated only in project-based work. Of those holding full-time positions, most held full-time po-
sitions in an arts-related area. A full-time position can be a way to support one’s arts practice 
and a way to secure employer provided benefits that self-employed artists often lack such as 
health insurance and retirement plans. Creative activity and teaching were the two most com-
mon categories of work that participants engaged in. Over two-thirds of respondents held teach-
ing positions as part of their portfolio career. The large number of artists engaging in teaching 
work is not surprising given that previous research demonstrates that teaching is one of the 
most common income streams for artists (Bennett, ; Munnelly, b; Strategic National 
Arts Alumni Project, ). Throsby () discusses three unique labor markets that art-
ists participate in: 

a market for “pure” creative work involving an artist's core creative practice, such as producing 
original works of literature, painting, music, etc. or performing as actor, dancer, musician, etc.; 
a market for “arts-related” work that lies beyond an individual's immediate creative practice but 
uses his or her artistic knowledge and skills in activities such as teaching art, arts administration, 
etc.; and a non-arts market when an artist by choice or necessity generates income from an un-
related occupation in order to support his or her creative practice. (p. ) 

The respondents in this study did participate in all three labor markets. The types of work 
in the portfolio career were spread over several categories including arts administration, creative 
activity, production, teaching, and non-arts work. Creative work was the most common cate-
gory that participants engaged in with all but  indicating that they have creative work such 
as performing, exhibitions, and commissions in their portfolio. This aligns with Throsby’s def-
inition of “pure creative work.” Over  of the respondents indicated that they engage in at 
least one category of what Throsby calls “arts-related work,” including arts administration, pro-
duction, and teaching. As previously mentioned, a little over / of survey respondents engaged 
in work in the non-arts market, which Throsby names as the third labor market that artists 
participate in. Artists must decide how to split their time among the three labor markets, or 
categories, and many will engage in work in multiple categories (Throsby, ). In this study, 
the vast majority of participants engaged in more than one category of work. More than half 
indicated that they worked in three or more categories. This aligns with previous research 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

14 

indicating that the majority of musicians’ income is generated from more than one category 
(Thomson, ).  

What factors do artists take into consideration when deciding what work to accept or 
decline? 

Because little research has been done into the decision-making process artists engage in, it was 
important to inquire into what factors influence whether an artist accepts or declines a project. 
Artistic fulfillment was selected by almost all of the participants as influencing their decision-
making. The ability to engage in work that aligns with one’s artistic values is often named as a 
perk of an arts portfolio career (Bartleet et al., ; Cutler, ). Payment and time commit-
ment/schedule were also selected by the majority of respondents. When asked to name the sin-
gle most important factor, artistic fulfillment was the most common choice. The ability to decide 
what type of artistic work to engage in and a flexible schedule are two commonly mentioned 
advantages of the portfolio career. This type of autonomy and ownership of career decisions 
might lead to greater job satisfaction.  

Research suggests that artists engage in portfolio careers out of necessity not choice 
(Bartleet et al., ; Coulson, ; Coulson, ; Fenwick, ), so one might assume that 
artists are not in a position to think intentionally about the type of work they engage in and how 
they build their portfolio careers. In this study, almost all of the participants indicated that that 
they do think intentionality about the type of work they include.  

Do artists consider a portfolio career with multiple employers to be more secure than 
one full-time job with one single employer? 

Organizational behavior literature (Handy, ; Cawsey et al., ) and arts portfolio career 
literature (Bridgstock & Cunningham, ; Bartleet et al., ; Menger, ) indicate that a 
portfolio career can be a way to manage risk much like a financial portfolio. The more jobs one 
has in their portfolio, the less they worry about losing one because they will still have other 
sources of income. While the literature indicates the portfolio career can be a way to manage 
risk, it also indicates that artists are often underpaid and go through periods of underemploy-
ment and unemployment (Everts et al., ; Menger, ; Menger, ; Popović & Ratković, 
; Throsby, ). This may explain the mixed results when participants were asked if hav-
ing multiple employers minimizes financial risk. Just over / believed having multiple employ-
ers did minimize financial risk, while almost the same number of respondents believed that it 
did not minimize financial risk. Although participants were split on whether having multiple 
employers minimized risk, they seemed to believe that a portfolio career was less secure than a 
full-time job. Only  indicated that they considered a portfolio to be a more secure option 
than a full-time job. Again, the reasoning for the minimization of risk in the literature assumes 
that all jobs in the portfolio career are equal in terms of pay, but we know that is not the case. 
The research of Handy () and Cawsey et al. () encourages individuals to take on 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

15 

different types of work in the portfolio career. Handy mentions that some work will be paid, 
while other work will not, which will instead provide learning opportunities that can lead to 
future paid work. Cawsey et al. encourage money, learning, and niche clients. The money clients 
provide high pay, the learning clients generally low pay with opportunities for learning that may 
later lead to higher paid work, and the niche clients provide fulfillment and usually higher pay. 
If all work in the portfolio career paid equally, and if artists did not often find themselves just 
getting by financially (Coulson, ), participants may have felt the portfolio career was a strat-
egy to minimize financial risk. In all likelihood, losing just one job in the portfolio career could 
affect an artist’s ability to meet their financial obligations until they are able to replace that job 
with another one that provides similar compensation.  

Do artists engage in portfolio careers out of necessity or by choice? 

There are several articles that indicate artists engage in portfolio careers out of necessity as op-
posed to it being a choice, but there appears to be a lack of data from artists regarding this ques-
tion (Bartleet et al., ; Coulson, ; Coulson, ; Fenwick, ). When asked whether 
they engage in a portfolio career out of necessity or by choice, “both” was the most common 
response. / indicated it was a choice and just under one quarter indicated it was a necessity. 
It could be that for many, the portfolio career began as a necessity and ended up being a prefer-
ence due to the autonomy it provides. This could explain why over half of respondents indicated 
that they would prefer an arts portfolio career over one full-time position in the arts. Even 
though artists largely feel that a portfolio career is a less secure option than a full-time position, 
many do prefer the portfolio career. Menger suggests that artists are “committed to a labor of 
love” (, p. ) and may be willing to exchange higher income for psychic rewards. These 
psychic or emotional rewards include artistic fulfillment, autonomy, low level of routine, etc. 
This also relates to Handy’s () point that for too long people have looked to their single job 
to fulfill a variety of needs. Artists may find that through a portfolio career they are able to meet 
a wider range of needs such as artistic vision, flexible schedule, interesting colleagues, and a 
non-routine work life. A study of undergraduate music students found that their most im-
portant indicators of a successful career were artistic fulfilment, an active career, affecting peo-
ple with music, and financial stability (Munnelly, b). A portfolio career may give artists 
more flexibility in achieving these subjective measures of success.  

This research did not consider the career stage of the respondents, which could have an 
effect on how they view and construct their portfolio career. Due to the sample size (n=), 
comparisons among arts disciplines were not made. Arts education and training were also not 
considered. Future research might consider if there are any noticeable trends by career stage, 
arts discipline, and/or level of education. It could also be valuable to consider how and where 
artists acquired the skills needed to manage their portfolio careers.  
 



ARTIVATE 11.1 

16 

Conclusion 
In order to prepare the next generation of artists to enter the profession, it is essential to under-
stand the working patterns of artists and provide up-and-coming artists with realistic depictions 
of what an arts career looks like. Many artists will find themselves in the role of an entrepreneur 
and small business owner as they manage multiple overlapping jobs while engaging in portfolio 
careers. This research aimed to fill gaps in the literature regarding how artists build and main-
tain their portfolio careers and whether they enter into portfolio careers by choice or out of 
necessity. Despite existing assumptions that artists engage in a portfolio career due to a supply 
and demand issue, this study found the issue to be more complex. A number of respondents 
indicated that they intentionally chose to engage in a portfolio career. For many, the decision 
was both a choice and a necessity. Artists in this study appear to view the portfolio career as 
riskier than a full-time job. Although many of the respondents associate risk with the portfolio 
career model, the majority expressed a preference for an arts portfolio career over a full-time 
job in the arts when given the choice. This may be because a portfolio career can allow artists to 
have greater control of their careers. The ability to decide when they work, what artistic work 
they take on, and the environment they work in may be worth taking on a greater risk for some 
artists. Many artists engage in several different categories of work including work outside of the 
arts. A significant amount of their time is spent on creative activity and teaching. Artists in this 
study consider a variety of factors when deciding what work to include in their portfolio careers 
including artistic fulfillment, payment, and time commitment. Although prior research has in-
dicated that artists engaging in portfolio careers often experience low pay and go through peri-
ods of underemployment and unemployment (Everts et al., ; Hennekam & Bennett, ; 
Menger, ; Menger ; Popović & Ratković, ; Throsby, ), artists in this study still 
appear to value the benefits afforded by the portfolio career model. 

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Cover image credit: Rüdiger Lubricht,  Deutsch: Stu-
dio Margaret Kelley, Wikimedia  Commons. 

 


