







































 

VOL. 12 
2023–2024 

 

Evaluating an Art and Design Students’ Gender-

Based Entrepreneurial Potential Model 

Peter Oluwagbenga Odewole 

Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT: Extant literature has revealed the issue of gender inequality in art and design edu-
cation and entrepreneurship. Given that gender inequality hinders socio-economic develop-
ment in any nation, it is crucial to gather empirical evidence on whether the entrepreneurial 
potential of art and design students is influenced by gender. Hence, this study examined the 
relationship between art and design students’ gender and their entrepreneurial potential. Using 
a well-structured questionnaire, the study sampled 204 art and design undergraduate students 
from different higher institutions across Nigeria. Data were collected from participants using a 
questionnaire that included measures of their entrepreneurial traits. The hypothesized rela-
tionships among variables were tested based on Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Struc-
tural Equation Modeling (SEM). The findings indicate that CFA and SEM results showed a good 
fit between the proposed model and the observed data for both female and male groups. This 
suggests that both genders of art and design students have significant potential to become en-
trepreneurs without any biases. KEYWORDS: gender, art and design students, entrepreneurial 
potential, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Struc-
tural Equation Modeling (SEM). DOI: doi.org/10.34053/artivate.12.1.204 

Introduction 
Entrepreneurship, in the context of this article, encompasses a range of activities, includ-

ing innovation, risk management, value creation, resource allocation, intrapreneurship 

within organizations, social and serial entrepreneurship, economic development, lifestyle 

choices, cultural expression, academic and research endeavors, and global engagement, 

all centered around identifying opportunities and applying entrepreneurial principles in 

diverse contexts beyond traditional venture creation. This agrees with De Avila and Davel 

(2023), who reasoned that arts entrepreneurship could be innovation-based, mindset-



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based, project-based, and organization-based. Like other fields, entrepreneurship in art 

and design involves identifying opportunities, taking risks, organizing resources, and us-

ing innovation and creativity to bring a new product, service, or business concept to the 

marketplace.   

Entrepreneurship is relevant to economic growth and significant for driving social 

development in every nation of the world. Ungureanu (2020) opines that entrepreneur-

ship and economic development have become significantly interlinked in the new global 

economy. Fostering entrepreneurship in the art and design field is increasingly essential. 

The reason for this is the increasing need for channeling the teeming unemployed youths 

towards viable and sustainable pathways to self-reliance. The art and design discipline 

offered in higher education institutions is vocational-based and provides a vital path for 

creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship. Emphasizing the teaching and learning of 

entrepreneurship in the arts and design field is driven by the need to facilitate artists’ in-

tegration into the workforce and equip individuals who can drive the creative economy 

(De Avila & Davel, 2023). The art and design field is a domain of the creative economy that 

offers prominent entrepreneurial potential (Jalil et al., 2019).  

Entrepreneurship potential comprises a set of psychological cognitions and percep-

tions of oneself about confidence, success, risks, motivations, and competencies, including 

everything that influences entrepreneurial intentions (Ward et al., 2019). Entrepreneurial 

potential connects with several personality traits that characterize successful entrepre-

neurs, including self-efficacy, opportunity-seeking, calculated risk-taking, leadership, per-

sistence, and more (Souza et al., 2017). This implies that the more entrepreneurial traits 

individuals possess or can develop, the greater their potential to become entrepreneurs 

(Windapo, 2018). According to Zefane (2012), people with the desire or potential to be-

come entrepreneurs are usually more inclined to start a business. 

Youth unemployment and gender stereotypes continue to persist as significant issues 

in the field of entrepreneurship (Mahlaole & Malebana, 2022). In Nigeria, a developing 

country with over 200 million people, youth entrepreneurship research is crucial for ad-

dressing the issue of high unemployment rates. Nevin et al. (2020) reported that 41% and 

31% of the Nigerian population aged 15-34 years and 25-34 years were unemployed. The 

percentage of unemployed individuals with a bachelor’s degree was 41%, which is higher 

than 18% for those with vocational skills. This indicates that more than obtaining a higher 

education is required to secure employment. To tackle this problem, the Nigerian govern-

ment introduced the NPower policy, which aims to create 600,000 new jobs and provide 

entrepreneurial training and skills development opportunities for graduates and non-

graduates (Nevin et al., 2020). However, according to Akabuike (2022), Nigeria has not yet 

tapped into the entrepreneurial potential of its students.  

The interest in entrepreneurship education in the 21st century now hinges on achiev-

ing sustainable development goals (SDGs) (Ashari et al., 2021). In this sense, the extent to 

which an entrepreneurship course can achieve the SDGs determines its effectiveness. The 



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attempt to attain SDGs 4 and 5 has recently driven the need for more inclusive and equi-

table quality education and more gender-based research in developing countries. Regard-

ing entrepreneurship, gender inequality is deleterious to socio-economic development in 

any country, particularly developing countries (Olarewaju & Fernando, 2020). In Nigeria, 

addressing gender biases in entrepreneurial undertakings is one of the significant con-

cerns of vocational education and training in recent times (Akwa, 2016). 

Since Odewole et al. (2022) addressed the gender suitability of the art and design dis-

cipline, considering gender issues relating to art and design students’ entrepreneurial po-

tential is also relevant. Gender disparities and the efficacy of entrepreneurship training 

programs are interconnected with gender concerns in entrepreneurship education and 

advancement. The claim in some extant literature that entrepreneurship is male-oriented 

presents gender as a mystifying variable that moderates entrepreneurial intentions and 

behavior (Ward et al., 2019). According to Miller (2013), sociological literature on gender 

and artistic careers revealed numerous ways in which cultural perceptions of artists tend 

to assume a masculine subject. Thus, there is a need to provide empirical evidence on 

whether or not the potential of art and design students to become entrepreneurs is gen-

der-driven.  

“Gender-driven” in the context of this article suggests that entrepreneurial potential 

may vary by gender-related factors, such as the experiences, challenges, or opportunities 

that individuals of different genders encounter when pursuing entrepreneurial activities 

in the art and design field. Nonbinary groups have been an essential community in art and 

design, like in other fields of human endeavor (Furman et al., 2019). Therefore, it is imper-

ative to clarify that the female or male gender referred to in this article is the “genetic 

female or genetic male,” according to the Nigerian cultural context, instead of the socially 

attributed meanings to the masculine and feminine genders. To the researcher’s best 

knowledge based on the literature review, no empirical study has yet been conducted to 

investigate art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential in Nigeria’s 

tertiary institutions. Hence, this study examined art and design students’ gender-based 

entrepreneurial potential using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test the hypothe-

sized relationships among variables.  

Theoretical Background 

Gender in Entrepreneurship 

Gender is a significant factor, particularly regarding stereotypes about women in the labor 

market (Pech & R ehor , 2021). There is evidence of disparity in the gender gaps in entre-

preneurial involvement in some African countries, including Nigeria (Ndofirepi et al., 

2018). Gender inequalities in entrepreneurship typically encompass several factors, in-

cluding limited access to credit and finance/capital, fewer networking opportunities for 



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women entrepreneurs, horizontal gender segregation, challenges balancing work and 

family life, and gender biases and stereotypes about women in business (Arnaut et al., 

2016). The perpetuation of a stereotypical and male-centric view in entrepreneurial activ-

ities can dissuade women from engaging in such activities (Cardella et al., 2020). Hence, 

promoting gender equality can foster the establishment and success of enterprises char-

acterized by increased innovation, sustainability, and a rewarding workplace (Muntean & 

Ozkazanc-Pan, 2015). 

Gender and Entrepreneurial Potential in Art and Design Education  

Higher education provides an appropriate avenue for the development of entrepreneur-

ship (Hatt, 2018). Entrepreneurial learning in higher institutions provides avenues to de-

velop students’ entrepreneurship mindset (attitudes) and skills (Olorundare & Kayode, 

2014). However, the role of gender in entrepreneurship education is an important and 

complex issue, as gender can influence the opportunities and challenges faced by aspiring 

entrepreneurs of different genders. Entrepreneurial potential, which comprises both the 

environment and personality traits that motivate individuals to intend to start a business 

or become an entrepreneur, can serve as a tool for analyzing gender differences (Ward, 

2019).  

Gender is important in considering the variables of entrepreneurial potential since 

gender inequality plays a significant part in entrepreneurial activities (Bela et al., 2021). 

In the context of this article, gender-based entrepreneurial potential refers to the inherent 

capabilities, qualities, and attributes that enable individuals to identify opportunities, take 

calculated risks, and create value in various domains, including traits like creativity, inno-

vation, resourcefulness, and the ability to transform ideas into successful endeavors, 

which may differ in the biological female and male gender. Gender-based entrepreneurial 

potential hinges on the assumptions of differences between male and female propensity 

to become entrepreneurs, given the significant concerns that young people with high en-

trepreneurial potential are more inclined to be enterprising than those with lower entre-

preneurial potential (Zeffane, 2013). The issue of gender inequalities concerns entrepre-

neurial intentions, considering the significant gap between genders in entrepreneurship 

globally (Konutgan, 2022).  

Gender Inequality in Art and Design Education in Nigeria 

Taking Nigeria as a case study, gender inequality in art and design education is traceable 

to historical patriarchal structures and cultural norms preceding colonization. Aina et al. 

(2015) noted that the disparities in Nigeria’s higher education system are rooted in tradi-

tional gender roles. Before colonial influence, the Nigerian society adhered to distinct gen-

der-specific roles and skill development. Boys were predominantly entrusted with acquir-

ing essential occupational skills such as farming, fishing, carpentry, masonry, and 



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blacksmithing/goldsmithing. These skills were considered essential for the economic sus-

tenance of the community. Conversely, girls were traditionally taught skills related to re-

productive functions, including housekeeping and childbearing. This division of labor 

along gender lines created a dichotomy in skill training and access to education, perpetu-

ating a gender gap in vocational and creative fields, including art and design. 

However, Abodunrin (2017) shed light on women’s historical involvement in Nige-

ria’s art realm, traced back to their engagement in traditional crafts such as pottery, weav-

ing, and other artisanal works. These crafts were essential components of Nigeria’s cul-

tural heritage and economy, and women played a vital role in their preservation and 

development. In essence, while patriarchal structures and historical gender-based divi-

sions of labor have contributed to gender disparities in art and design education, women’s 

historical involvement in traditional crafts underscores their significant contributions to 

Nigeria’s artistic and creative heritage. Efforts to address gender inequity in the art and 

design field should acknowledge and build upon these historical foundations, working to 

break down the barriers that have limited women’s participation and opportunities in art 

and design education. Wall-Andrews and Luka (2022) underscored the need for fostering 

gender equity among diverse artists who aspire to professionalize their careers through 

acquiring production and entrepreneurship skills. 

Like in other parts of the globe, students pursuing entrepreneurship in art and design 

education in Nigeria face challenges related to the lack of curricula that strongly empha-

size entrepreneurial skills development, issues with balancing creativity with commer-

cialism, and a need for mentorship and support, among others (Thom, 2015). Addressing 

these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach, including integrating business educa-

tion into art and design curricula, providing access to resources, creating supportive eco-

systems, promoting the value of creativity and entrepreneurship, and encouraging gender 

equality in art and design entrepreneurship. In Nigeria, as in many other places, recogniz-

ing and supporting the potential of art and design entrepreneurship, with no regard for 

gender biases, can be vital for economic development, cultural enrichment, and diversifi-

cation of the arts and design industry. 

Stereotype Activation and Gender-Integrative Theories 

Addressing gender-related challenges in arts and design education and entrepreneurship 

involves promoting gender equality and breaking down stereotypes and biases. According 

to Lo, Sun and Law (2012), changing the normative perceptions that associate entrepre-

neurship primarily with males is difficult, as these notions reflect self-perceptions molded 

by entrenched gender stereotypes regarding entrepreneurship. Hence, based on the liter-

ature review, the author considered the stereotype activation and gender-integrative the-

ories pertinent to examining gender-based entrepreneurial potential among art and de-

sign students in this study. The reason is that these two concepts address different aspects 



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of gender perception. While stereotype activation theory focuses on how stereotypes af-

fect individuals’ self-perception and behavior, gender-integrative theory challenges tradi-

tional gender biases, countering the deleterious effects of stereotypes. 

Stereotype Activation Theory 

The stereotype activation theory suggests that stereotypes can automatically and unin-

tentionally affect people’s perceptions, judgments, and behaviors (Wheeler & Petty, 2001). 

It highlights the significance of being aware of different biases and working actively to 

challenge and correct them to promote fair and unbiased interactions with others. Accord-

ing to stereotype activation theory, when a stereotype becomes cognitively accessible 

(stereotype activation) in specific situations, it will influence attitudes and behaviors 

(Sweida & Reichard, 2013). Gender stereotyping hinders the prospects of female entre-

preneurs from thriving in the entrepreneurial arena, preventing them from exploring un-

familiar sectors and managing larger businesses with the potential for higher profits 

(Adom & Anambane, 2020). Gender roles and stereotypes negatively influence women’s 

entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intention to initiate high-growth businesses (Sweida & 

Reichard, 2013).  

Stereotypes contribute to social categorization, a critical factor in fostering preju-

diced attitudes, thereby giving rise to distinctions between in-groups and out-groups (Tu -

rko, 2016). Regarding the outcomes of the stereotype activation theory, the gender stere-

otyping of entrepreneurial endeavors leads to reduced entrepreneurial intentions and a 

decreased likelihood of women embarking on their business ventures (Jennings & 

Tonoyan, 2022). Within the realm of entrepreneurship, gender stereotypes are prevalent, 

historically portraying entrepreneurship as a predominantly male domain (Jennings & 

Tonoyan, 2022). These stereotypes can create barriers for women, including female art 

and design students, who may encounter societal expectations and biases undermining 

their entrepreneurial potential. In the context of art and design entrepreneurial education, 

gender stereotypes can influence the attitudes and behaviors of both male and female stu-

dents, leading to varying levels of gender inequality. Based on the reviewed literature, a 

hypothesis is proposed as follows: 

H1: Art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports stere-

otype activation theory.  

Gender-Integrative Theory 

Muntean and Ozkazanc-Pan (2015) criticized existing approaches to studying women’s 

entrepreneurship drawn from various feminist theories, suggesting the consideration of 

a gender-integrative perspective to entrepreneurship that attributes gender appropri-

ately to both men and women instead. Research has indicated that individuals of both 



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genders tend to evaluate business opportunities equally when entrepreneurs are de-

scribed using gender-neutral attributes (Gupta et al., 2014). The gender-integrative theory 

requires a departure from rigid gender stereotypes, acknowledging that entrepreneurial 

success is not inherently linked to specific gender traits or characteristics. Stereotype nul-

lification, which entails linking gender-neutral attributes with domains traditionally asso-

ciated with males, can eradicate gender disparities in entrepreneurial intentions (Gupta, 

Turban & Bhawe, 2008). According to Muntean and Ozkazanc-Pan (2015), the potential of 

stereotype nullification is an effective remedy for gender bias in entrepreneurship as the 

gender gap in entrepreneurial intentions can be eliminated by deliberately associating en-

trepreneurship with gender-neutral characteristics.  

The gender-integrative theory establishes a supportive ecosystem that encourages all 

individuals, irrespective of gender, to pursue their entrepreneurial aspirations and unlock 

their full potential, recognizing individual strengths, skills, or competencies as the driving 

factors rather than gender, acknowledging the unique capabilities that both males and fe-

males possess to ensure an unbiased assessment. Regarding art and design entrepreneur-

ship education, this approach supports equal opportunities for all students, encouraging 

them to develop their entrepreneurial skills and promoting an inclusive environment of 

innovative ideas and diverse perspectives, irrespective of gender. Based on the reviews, 

the following hypothesis is formed: 

H2: Art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports gen-

der-integrative theory.  

Required Skill Sets for Entrepreneurship  

According to Cooney (2012) and Agogbua and Mgbatogu (2021), the skill sets required for 

entrepreneurship can be classified into three main groups: entrepreneurial, tech-

nical/soft, and business management skills. Entrepreneurship education equips individu-

als with technical, business management, and personal entrepreneurial skills to thrive in-

dependently (Okoro, 2021). For art and design students to increase their chances of 

achieving entrepreneurial success in the creative industry, developing and refining per-

sonal entrepreneurial skills, technical/soft skills, and management skills through contin-

uous learning, practice, and real-world experiences is essential.  

Entrepreneurial skills encompass traits and abilities crucial for success in the entre-

preneurial journey. These skills include creativity and innovation, self-motivation and de-

termination, risk-taking, resilience, adaptability, and flexibility (Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & 

Mgbatogu, 2021). Technical/soft skills are the practical knowledge and expertise needed 

in art and design entrepreneurship. These skills include but are not limited to communi-

cation and presentation, coordination, time management, and networking/collaboration 

(Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & Mgbatogu, 2021). Management skills are crucial for operating 

a flourishing art and design business venture. These skills include business planning and 



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strategy, financial management, and marketing/promotion (Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & 

Mgbatogu, 2021).  

Combining these required skill sets could positively influence students’ entrepre-

neurial potential in art and design. According to Zeng et al. (2023), experiential entrepre-

neurship learning methods have significantly contributed to cultivating entrepreneurship 

and management skills within the cultural and creative industries. Combining entrepre-

neurial and technical/soft skills would not diminish any expected qualities of an entrepre-

neur but rather enhance their potential for success by incorporating additional attributes 

(Cooney, 2012; Alroaia & Baharun, 2017). Technical/soft and managerial skill traits are 

complementary rather than mutually exclusive toward achieving entrepreneurial success 

(Wang et al., 2019). 

Research findings by Njoku et al. (2020) revealed that students’ gender significantly 

influenced their business management, technical, marketing, accounting, financial man-

agement, and ICT compliance skills in creating business ventures. However, it is essential 

to reflect on these results prudently and consider the broader context of gender dynamics 

in entrepreneurship. Addressing gender disparities, challenging stereotypes, and promot-

ing equal opportunities is essential to fostering inclusive and diverse entrepreneurial eco-

systems (Veckalne & Tambovceva, 2023). Based on the extant literature reviewed, the fol-

lowing hypotheses are proposed:  

H3: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ technical/soft and 

managerial skill traits, regardless of gender.  

 

H4: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial and 

technical/soft skill traits, regardless of gender.   

 

H5: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial and 

managerial skill traits, regardless of gender. 

Methodology 
The study used a quantitative research design based on an online survey. Art and design 

students from some Nigerian tertiary institutions were selected as the sample to gather 

data. Tertiary education institutions in Nigeria include universities, polytechnics, colleges 

of education, and monotechnics, providing advanced levels of education. An online ques-

tionnaire survey was designed using Google Forms. The survey questions centered on the 

three main skill sets required for entrepreneurship: technical skills (TES), managerial 

skills (MNS), and entrepreneurial skills (ETS), and were measured using a five-point Lik-

ert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). However, Fricker (2012) identified some 

drawbacks of an unrestricted, self-selected sampling method for online surveys as used in 



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this study. In the context of this study, the potential presence of self-selection, which oc-

curs when individuals voluntarily choose to participate in the survey, can lead to a non-

random sample (Fricker, 2012). The respondents in this study involved only the art and 

design students from various Nigerian tertiary institutions, who accepted to voluntarily 

participate in the survey without any form of enforcement or inducements. The survey 

link was distributed to the volunteering art and design students’ WhatsApp platforms 

with the help of students and lecturers from the respective institutions.  

Data were collected from a sample of 204 students enrolled in colleges of education, 

polytechnics, and universities within the designated timeframe for data collection. It is 

generally accepted that a sample size greater than 200 is sufficient for most models (Kline, 

2005). Hence, considering the 36 hypothesized variables used in this study, a sample size 

of 204 is considered suitable for SEM. The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 

29 and IBM SPSS Amos 29 Graphics. The hypothesized relationships among variables were 

tested based on Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling 

(SEM). 

The SEM is a multivariate statistical analysis technique combining aspects of factor 

analysis and multiple regression analysis to explore and assess the structural relation-

ships between observed variables and latent constructs in a given dataset (Setiawan et al., 

2020). The SEM holds broad applicability due to its quantitative approach in testing sub-

stantive theories and explicitly considers the presence of measurement error, a pervasive 

factor in most disciplines (Civelek, 2018). This makes SEM a valuable tool for researchers 

seeking to validate theoretical constructs and explore complex relationships in their stud-

ies.  

In conducting SEM, researchers frequently employ CFA as an initial step to assess the 

measurement model’s adequacy, ensuring that the observed variables accurately repre-

sent the intended constructs or factors before evaluating the structural model (Jackson & 

Gillaspy, 2009). The CFA model is often categorized as a type of measurement model 

within the broader framework of SEM (Harrington, 2009). The CFA also plays a pivotal 

role in validating measurements and assessing the reliability of a research instrument 

(Hamdan, Badrullah, & Shahid, 2011). Given the drawbacks of traditional correlational 

analysis methods, such as the Pearson coefficient analysis in measuring reliability and va-

lidity (Hamdan, Badrullah, & Shahid, 2011), the study preferred using CFA/SEM. More so, 

the CFA/SEM distinguishes itself by encompassing both observed (measured) and unob-

served variables (latent constructs) and explicitly specifies error, necessitating a formal 

model specification for estimation and testing, while traditional correlational methods 

rely on default models and analyze only measured variables, assuming measurements oc-

cur without error (Suhr, 2006).  



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Results and Discussion 

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 

Table 1 shows the respondents’ demographic characteristics. The data presented in Table 

1 indicated that the samples have good gender distribution, with 66 (32%) females and 

138 (68%) males. The current higher institution of study of the respondents cut across all 

the three major tertiary institutions in Nigeria, which are the College of Education with 13 

(6%), Polytechnic with 28 (14%), and University with 163 (80%), respectively. The re-

spondents’ educational level is categorized as follows: 100 Level (OND 1, or Year 1) with 

41 (20%), 200 Level (OND 2, or Year 2) with 67 (33%), 300 Level (HND 1 or Year 3) with 

59 (29%), 400 Level (HND 2) with 30 (15%), and 500 Level with 7 (3%). The areas of spe-

cialization of the respondents are Art Education with 5 (2.5%), Art History with 3 (1.5%), 

Ceramics with 17 (8.3%), General Art/Design with 28 (13.7%), Graphics with 52 (25.5%), 

Painting with 49 (24%), Sculpture with 15 (7.3%), and Textiles with 35 (17.2%). With the 

satisfactory frequency distributions of the demographic characteristics surveyed in the 

study, it can be inferred that the respondents who participated in the survey adequately 

represent the target population.  

 

Table 1. Respondents’ demographic characteristics 

Respondents’ demographic 

characteristics   

Frequency (n=204) Percentage (%) 

Gender 

Female 66 32  

Male 138 68 

Type of current higher institution of study 

College of Education 13 6 

Polytechnic 28 14 

University 163 80 

Educational Level 

100 Level, OND 1, Year 1 41 20 

200 Level, OND 2, Year 2 67 33 

300 Level, HND 1, Year 3 59 29 

400 Level, HND 2 30 15 

500 Level 7 3 

Area of specialization 

Art Education 5 3 

Art History 3 2 

Ceramics 17 8 



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General Art/Design 28 14 

Graphics 52 25 

Painting 49 24 

Sculpture 15 7 

Textiles 35 17 

Descriptive Analysis 

Table 2 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondents regarding the 36 items meas-

ured in this study. TES10: “I like searching for appropriate methods and techniques to en-

sure success in whatever I do” has the highest mean of 4.378. TES6: “I enjoy having many 

friends” has the lowest mean of 3.039. This implies that the art and students’ research and 

development skills are the most pronounced, while their networking skills are the least 

pronounced.  

Table 2. Descriptive data of the respondents  

S/N Item Variable Skill Trait Mean Sd Mean 

Score 

Rank 

1 TES1 I prefer not to interrupt 

other people when they 

are speaking. 

Communica-

tion 

3.431 1.397 28 

2 TES2 I pay attention to non-

verbal signals—body 

language, facial expres-

sions, and gestures—

when communicating 

with others. 

Communica-

tion 

3.956 1.155 17 

3 TES3 It is easy for me to in-

spire others to do what I 

want. 

Leadership 3.299 1.111 31 

4 TES4 I am not afraid of acting 

as a leader during activ-

ities. 

Leadership 3.412 1.254 29 

5 TES5 I like to be in contact 

with other people. 

Networking 3.902 0.983 19 

6 TES6 I enjoy having many 

friends. 

Networking 3.039 1.203 32 

7 TES7 I can work out good re-

lations with different 

people. 

Team playing 4.039 0.977 14 

8 TES8 I can work together 

with a person or a team. 

Team playing 4.275 0.927 3 



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9 TES9 I like researching and 

challenging old ideas 

and practices and find-

ing ways to improve 

things. 

Research & 

Development 

3.971 0.904 16 

10 TES10 I like searching for ap-

propriate methods and 

techniques to ensure 

success in whatever I 

do. 

Research & 

Development 

4.378 0.729 1 

11 MNS1 I do not get caught by 

surprise in situations 

that I could have 

planned. 

Planning 3.642 0.989 26 

12 MNS2 I like to have the activi-

ties of my next year al-

ways well planned. 

Planning 3.725 1.014 24 

13 MNS3 My own decisions are 

influential in my work. 

Decision 

Making 

4.127 0.777 8 

14 MNS4 I think I can shape my 

life with my decisions. 

Decision 

Making 

4.132 0.846 7 

15 MNS5 I can improve efficiency 

by pooling the re-

sources I have. 

Resource 

Management 

4.054 0.878 12 

16 MNS6 I can transform the re-

sources I have effi-

ciently to produce 

goods/services. 

Resource 

Management 

4.118 0.891 10 

17 MNS7 I am very capable of or-

ganizing and executing 

actions to be successful. 

Motivation 4.127 0.917 8 

18 MNS8 I have control over the 

critical factors that in-

fluence my success. 

Motivation 3.882 0.891 19 

19 MNS9 I can easily convince an-

ybody to buy a prod-

uct/service. 

Marketing 3.637 0.949 28 

20 MNS10 I can provide sales sup-

port. 

Marketing 3.750 0.983 23 

21 MNS11 I like to have a budget 

plan for the money I 

spend. I enjoy tracking 

and recording my ex-

penses. 

Financial/ 

Accounting 

4.044 0.959 13 

22 MNS12 I enjoy saving and in-

vesting my money. 

Financial/ 

Accounting 

4.167 0.899 6 



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23 MNS13 I enjoy building rela-

tionships and creating 

win-win outcomes 

when dealing with other 

people. 

Negotiation 4.201 0.784 4 

24 MNS14 I am willing to compro-

mise during a negotia-

tion when necessary to 

solve problems. 

Negotiation 3.863 0.899 20 

25 ETS1 I try to work in new 

ways that others have 

not employed before. 

Creativity/ 

Innovation 

3.882 0.960 19 

26 ETS2 I like working on pro-

jects that allow me to 

try something new. 

Creativity/ 

Innovation 

4.113 0.849 11 

27 ETS3 I face difficult situations 

in my daily activities as 

personal challenges. 

Persistency 3.858 0.917 21 

28 EST4 The obstacles I face 

make me increase my 

energy to overcome 

them. 

Persistency 4.118 0.874 10 

29 ETS5 I can make effective de-

cisions regarding busi-

ness in the future. 

Visionary 4.093 0.908 15 

30 ETS6 I like making prepara-

tions for the future. 

Visionary 4.373 0.787 2 

31 ETS7 I am open to changes in 

my work and studies. 

Flexibility 4.176 0.841 5 

32 ETS8 I have no problem 

adapting to a new situa-

tion and practice. 

Flexibility 3.975 0.975 15 

33 ETS9 I have an excellent abil-

ity to detect business 

opportunities. 

Opportunity 

seeking 

3.848 0.937 22 

34 ETS10 I am interested in know-

ing the market needs for 

determining prod-

ucts/services. 

Opportunity 

seeking 

3.951 0.940 18 

35 ETS11 I like to run financial 

risks for potential bene-

fits. 

Risk-taking 3.672 1.048 25 

36 ETS12 I like to be exposed to 

situations that involve 

some risk. 

Risk-taking 3.343 1.183 30 



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Internal Validity and Reliability of the Constructs by CFA 

Five (5) out of the initial ten items for TES, six (6) out of the initial 14 items for MNS, and 

five (5) out of the initial 12 items for ETS provided a good measure of residual matrix and 

evidence of convergent validity. Thus, they were used for the CFA. The remaining items 

for each of the TES, MNS, and ETS constructs used for CFA and their factor loadings are 

shown in Table 3. According to Su ru cu  and Maslakçı (2020), the reliability of a scale is 

established when the composite reliability (CR) exceeds 0.7, as in Cronbach’s alpha value, 

and convergent validity is confirmed when the average variance extracted (AVE) exceeds 

0.5. Hence, as shown in Table 3, the CR values exceed 0.7, and AVE values exceed 0.5, re-

vealing good convergent validity. Approaches employed to address missing data in this 

study include conducting exploratory data analysis to visually inspect response patterns, 

identify trends, and detect any unusual patterns that may indicate data quality issues and 

implementing robust maximum likelihood estimation in SEM to reduce the impact of out-

liers on parameter estimates. 

Table 3. Results of the Internal Validity and Reliability of the Constructs based on CR and AVE 

Item Factor Loading CR AVE 

TES  0.842 0.516 

TES1 0.713   

TES3 0.692   

TES4 0.649   

TES7 0.781   

TES8 0.751   

MNS  0.861 0.510 

MNS2 0.626   

MNS3 0.663   

MNS6 0.771   

MNS7 0.792   

MNS8 0.691   

MNS10 0.729   

MNS2 0.626   

ETS  0.852 0.537 

ETS2 0.751   

ETS3 0.787   

ETS5 0.75   

ETS7 0.74   

ETS8 0.626   



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15 

Results of the CFA Model 

Figure 1 shows the CFA results for the female art 

and design students’ entrepreneurial potential 

regarding the tested constructs. The CMIN/DF 

ratio of 1.192 suggests a good fit between the 

proposed model and the observed data. Gener-

ally, a ratio below the threshold of 2 is consid-

ered acceptable, indicating that the model ade-

quately represents the data. The Incremental Fit 

Index (IFI) value of 0.939 indicates a good fit be-

tween the proposed model and the observed 

data. An IFI value closer to 1 suggests a better fit, 

and a value above 0.90 is typically considered ac-

ceptable. The Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) value of 

0.919 represents a moderate fit between the 

model and the data. Similar to the IFI, a TLI value 

closer to 1 is desired. However, a value above 

0.90 is generally considered acceptable. The 

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) value of 0.935 sug-

gests a satisfactory fit between the model and 

the observed data. Like the IFI and TLI, a CFI 

value closer to 1 is desirable, with values above 

0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation 

(RMSEA) value of 0.058 indicates a good fit between the model and the data. A lower 

RMSEA value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered accepta-

ble. The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) value of 0.08 represents a rea-

sonable fit between the model and the data. A lower SRMR value indicates a better fit, and 

values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. Based on the provided CFA results, 

it can be inferred that the proposed model fits the data reasonably well for female art and 

design students’ entrepreneurial potential.  

Figure 2 shows the CFA results for the male art and design students’ entrepreneurial 

potential regarding the tested constructs. The CMIN/DF ratio of 1.414 suggests a good fit 

Figure 1. CMIN/DF = 1.192; IFI = 0.939; TLI = 
0.919; CFI= 0.935; RMSEA = 0.058; SRMR = 0.08 

 



ARTIVATE 12 

16 

between the proposed model and the observed 

data. Generally, a ratio below the threshold of 2 is 

considered acceptable, indicating that the model 

adequately represents the data. The IFI value of 

0.927 indicates a good fit between the proposed 

model and the observed data. An IFI value closer 

to 1 suggests a better fit and a value above 0.90 is 

typically considered acceptable. The TLI value of 

0.902 represents a moderate fit between the 

model and the data. Similar to the IFI, a TLI value 

closer to 1 is desired. However, a value above 0.90 

is generally considered acceptable. The CFI value 

of 0.924 suggests a satisfactory fit between the 

model and the observed data. Like the IFI and TLI, 

a CFI value closer to 1 is desirable, with values 

above 0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. 

The RMSEA value of 0.057 indicates a good fit be-

tween the model and the data. A lower RMSEA 

value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 

are generally considered acceptable. The SRMR 

value of 0.0657 represents a good fit between the 

model and the data. A lower SRMR value indicates a better fit, and values below 0.08 are 

generally considered acceptable. Based on the provided CFA results, it can be inferred that 

the proposed model fits the data reasonably well for male art and design students’ entre-

preneurial potential.  

Comparing the CFA results for female and male art and design students’ entrepre-

neurial potential, the CMIN/DF ratio for female and male students is 1.192 and 1.414, re-

spectively. Both ratios are below the threshold of 2, indicating a good fit for both groups. 

However, the CMIN/DF ratio for female students (1.192) is lower than that for male stu-

dents (1.414), suggesting a slightly better fit for the female group. The IFI values for female 

and male students are 0.939 and 0.927, respectively. Both values indicate a good fit, with 

the female group having a slightly higher IFI value. The TLI values for female and male 

students are 0.919 and 0.902, respectively. While both values indicate a good fit, the female 

group shows a slightly higher TLI value. The CFI values for female and male students are 

0.935 and 0.924, respectively. Both values suggest a satisfactory fit, with the female group 

having a slightly higher CFI value. The RMSEA values for female and male students are 

0.058 and 0.057, respectively. Both values indicate a good fit, with no substantial differ-

ence between the two groups. The SRMR values for female and male students are 0.08 and 

0.0657, respectively. Both values suggest a good fit, with the male group showing a slightly 

lower SRMR value. 

Figure 2. CFA for Male. CMIN/DF = 1.414; IFI 
= 0.927; TLI = 0.902; CFI= 0.924; RMSEA = 
0.057; SRMR = 0.0657 



ARTIVATE 12 

17 

Results of the SEM Model and Hypothesis Testing 

Figure 3 shows the results of the SEM analysis on 

data regarding female and male art and design stu-

dents’ entrepreneurial potential. The CMIN/DF ra-

tio of 1.287 suggests a good fit between the pro-

posed model and the observed data for both 

female and male groups. Generally, a ratio below 

the threshold of 2 is considered acceptable, indi-

cating that the model adequately represents the 

data. The IFI value of 0.960 indicates a good fit be-

tween the proposed model and the observed data 

for both groups. An IFI value closer to 1 suggests a 

better fit, and a value above 0.90 is typically con-

sidered acceptable. The IFI value of 0.960 suggests 

a strong fit for both female and male students. The 

TLI value of 0.948 represents a good fit between 

the model and the data for both groups. Similar to 

the IFI, a TLI value closer to 1 is desired. A TLI value above 0.90 is generally considered 

acceptable. Therefore, the TLI value of 0.948 indicates a satisfactory fit for both female and 

male students. The CFI value of 0.958 suggests a good fit between the model and the ob-

served data for both groups. Like the IFI and TLI, a CFI value closer to 1 is desirable, with 

values above 0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. The CFI value of 0.958 indicates a 

strong fit for both female and male students. The RMSEA value of 0.039 indicates a good 

fit between the model and the data for both female and male students. A lower RMSEA 

value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. The 

RMSEA value of 0.039 indicates a strong fit for both groups. The SRMR value of 0.0531 

represents a good fit between the model and the data for both groups. A lower SRMR value 

indicates a good fit between the proposed model and the data. Typically, values below 0.08 

are considered acceptable in assessing model fit. In this case, the obtained SRMR value of 

0.0531 suggests a strong fit for both female and male students. 

The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis results allow us to infer that the 

proposed model effectively captures the relationship between variables associated with 

entrepreneurial potential among female and male art and design students. This inference 

is supported by the favorable fit indices, including CMIN/DF, IFI, TLI, CFI, RMSEA, and 

SRMR, indicating a strong fit for both groups. The findings suggest that the proposed 

model accurately represents the interconnections between various factors related to en-

trepreneurial potential in art and design education for both female and male students. 

These results provide confidence in the validity and applicability of the model to under-

stand and assess entrepreneurial potential in this specific population. 

The stereotype activation theory posits that individuals can be influenced by 

Figure 3. CMIN/DF = 1.287; IFI = 0.960; 
TLI = 0.948; CFI= 0.958; RMSEA = 0.039; 
SRMR = 0.0531 



ARTIVATE 12 

18 

stereotypes associated with their gender, leading to impacts on their behaviors, attitudes, 

and self-perceptions (Wheeler & Petty, 2001). In this regard, gender stereotypes can neg-

atively influence the perception of art and design students regarding entrepreneurial po-

tential. However, the SEM results indicate a good fit of the proposed model for both female 

and male respondents, suggesting that gender stereotypes may not significantly influence 

art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential within the context of this study. 

Therefore, H1 is not supported. Hence, H1, which proposes that art and design students’ 

gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports stereotype activation theory, is 

rejected. 

The gender-integrative theory supports recognizing and respecting gender 

differences while avoiding stereotypes (Muntean & Ozkazanc-Pan, 2015). Since the SEM 

results indicate a good fit of the proposed model for female and male art and design 

students, this suggests that gender may not be a significant differentiating factor when 

predicting entrepreneurial potential among art and design students. Therefore, H2 was 

supported. Hence, H2, which suggests that art and design students’ gender-based 

entrepreneurial potential model supports gender-integrative theory, is accepted. 

Table 4. Testing hypotheses H3, H4, and H5. 

Hypothesis Relationship Estimate S.E. C.R. P Decision 

H3 ETS <--> MNS .246 .049 5.016 *** Accepted 

H4 TES <--> MNS .126 .046 2.765 .006 Accepted 

H5 ETS <--> TES .120 .043 2.777 .005 Accepted 

 
The results of the hypotheses testing the relationship between technical/soft skill 

traits (TES), managerial skill traits (MNS), and entrepreneurial skill traits (ETS) among art 

and design students are shown in Table 4. When examining the relationships between 

variables, hypotheses are tested to determine the significance of their influence by ana-

lyzing the critical ratio (C.R.) and probability values (p-values). The C.R. value ≥1.96 or the 

p-value ≤0.05 indicates a significant influence between the studied variables (Syamsudin 

et al., 2022). As shown in Table 3, the connection of ETS with MNS was positive and signif-

icant (C.R.=5.016, p= 0.001); hence, H3 was supported. The relationship between TES and 

MNS was positive and significant (C.R.=2.765, p= 0.006); therefore, H3 was supported. The 

association between ETS and TES was positive and significant (C.R.= 2.777, p < 0.005); 

hence, H4 was supported. 

In Table 4, the results of testing H3 revealed a p-value of 0.000, which is lower than 

the generally recommended significance level of 0.05. Therefore, hypothesis H3, which 

proposes a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial skill 

traits and their managerial skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This implies that, 

irrespective of gender, students with specific entrepreneurial skills in art and design are 



ARTIVATE 12 

19 

more likely to exhibit corresponding managerial skills. While art and design students of-

ten possess creative and innovative mindsets, developing entrepreneurial and managerial 

skills can significantly enhance their ability to turn their ideas into successful ventures. 

Entrepreneurial skill traits are essential for identifying and exploiting opportunities, tak-

ing calculated risks, and managing the overall business process. These skills are valuable 

for art and design students who aim to create their businesses or work as freelancers. On 

the other hand, managerial skill traits are crucial for organizing and executing the daily 

operations of a business. The relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneur-

ial and managerial skill traits is vital in determining their entrepreneurial potential. Com-

bining creativity, problem-solving abilities, adaptability, networking, leadership, time 

management, financial literacy, and communication skills empowers them to transform 

their artistic talents into successful entrepreneurial endeavors. According to Zeng et al. 

(2023), experiential entrepreneurship learning methods have significantly contributed to 

cultivating entrepreneurship and management skills within the cultural and creative in-

dustries. 

In Table 4, the result of H4 testing indicated a p-value of 0.006, which is lower than the 

generally recommended significance level of 0.05. Consequently, hypothesis H4, which 

proposes a significant relationship between art and design students’ technical/soft skill 

traits and their managerial skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This implies that, 

irrespective of gender, students with specific technical/soft skills in art and design are 

likelier to exhibit corresponding managerial skills. Technical/soft skills form the basis of 

the artistic value and quality of products or services offered by art and design entrepre-

neurs. These skills are essential for creating unique, visually appealing, and innovative 

works that attract customers and differentiate them in the market. Managerial skills help 

art and design students translate their technical skills into successful entrepreneurial ven-

tures. By developing managerial abilities, students can effectively market their work, man-

age finances, build client relationships, and lead teams, thereby enhancing their chances 

of business success. Technical/soft and managerial skill traits are complementary rather 

than mutually exclusive toward achieving entrepreneurial success (Wang et al., 2019). 

While technical/soft skills allow artists and designers to produce compelling and aestheti-

cally pleasing work, managerial skills provide the necessary entrepreneurial acumen to 

turn that work into a sustainable business. While exceptional technical/soft skills are val-

uable, lacking managerial abilities may limit their capacity to commercialize their work 

effectively. On the other hand, solid managerial skills without sufficient technical profi-

ciency may result in a lack of artistic quality and innovation. Therefore, art and design 

students with a combination of technical/soft and managerial skills traits are more likely 

to realize their entrepreneurial potential. These students can establish successful creative 

enterprises and thrive as artistic entrepreneurs by continuously honing their tech-

nical/soft skills while developing managerial competencies. 



ARTIVATE 12 

20 

In Table 4, the result of H5 testing showed a p-value of 0.005, which is below the gen-

erally recommended significance level of 0.05. As a result, hypothesis H5, which suggests 

a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial skill traits and 

their technical/soft skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This indicates that, irre-

spective of gender, students with particular entrepreneurial skills in art and design are 

likelier to exhibit complementary technical/soft skills.  

Combining entrepreneurial and technical/soft skills would not diminish any expected 

qualities of an entrepreneur but rather enhance their potential for success by incorporat-

ing additional attributes (Cooney, 2012; Alroaia & Baharun, 2017). The relationship be-

tween art and design students’ entrepreneurial and technical/soft skill traits significantly 

determines their entrepreneurial potential. Both sets of skills are essential and comple-

mentary, contributing to the overall success of students in pursuing entrepreneurial ven-

tures in the art and design industry. While entrepreneurial skill traits provide the vision, 

adaptability, and business acumen necessary to launch and manage a successful venture, 

technical/soft skill traits enable the execution and delivery of high-quality artistic prod-

ucts or services. Students who combine both skill sets effectively have more potential to 

succeed as entrepreneurs in the art and design industry. 

Practical Implications 
To address gender inequalities and biases, there is a need to design and deliver entrepre-

neurship education that is more inclusive and tailored to the needs of diverse aspiring 

entrepreneurs (Pimpa, 2021). It is important to continue exploring and addressing gender 

inequalities in entrepreneurship education to promote a more inclusive and equitable en-

trepreneurial ecosystem. Ndofirepi et al. (2018) accentuated the necessity for gender-sen-

sitive approaches to formulating and executing entrepreneurship development and sup-

port measures among potential entrepreneurs. Hence, modifying entrepreneurship 

education curricula will mitigate stereotypes hampering gender equality in entrepreneur-

ship (Tu rko, 2016). Entrepreneurship should not be centered around contrasting the ap-

proaches of male and female entrepreneurs but rather on how both genders can contrib-

ute to the economic progress of a nation.  

Moberg (2020) suggested some approaches teachers can employ to handle gender 

issues in entrepreneurship education. These strategies include using entrepreneurial role 

models with varied backgrounds, teaching how to do entrepreneurship rather than how 

to become an entrepreneur, using gender-mixed groups, conveying the image of entrepre-

neurship as a rewarding endeavor, and providing different images of entrepreneurship 

that will boost students’ entrepreneurial mindset (Moberg, 2020). Adopting these teach-

ing approaches will enable students to focus more on entrepreneurial activities in a man-

ner that surpasses the gender-stereotypical image of entrepreneurship.   

To properly harness art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential, there is a 



ARTIVATE 12 

21 

need to consider the adoption of the gender-responsive pedagogy framework. According 

to Chapin and Warne (2020), gender-responsive pedagogy involves teaching and learning 

processes tailored to address the distinct learning needs of female and male students. In-

corporating gender as a fundamental perspective in higher education pedagogy fosters a 

more inclusive and interactive learning environment that ensures equitable participation 

from both women and men (Chapin & Warne, 2020). By creating an inclusive environment 

that appreciates diversity and avoids perpetuating gender biases, art and design educa-

tion can foster an entrepreneurial culture where all students are encouraged to explore 

their entrepreneurial potential, regardless of gender. 

Limitations  
Regarding the drawbacks of an unrestricted, self-selected sampling method for online sur-

veys as used in this study, students who are more inclined towards entrepreneurial activ-

ities might be more likely to participate, skewing the results and making it challenging to 

generalize the findings to the entire population of art and design students. It is essential 

to minimize self-selection bias in surveys, especially in niche populations like art and de-

sign students, by introducing incentives to encourage more representative participation. 

Though both showed a good fit in the study, the CMIN/DF ratio of the female students 

could have been lower than that of the male students due to the much smaller sample size 

of female participants (32%). Future research should consider using the same number of 

male and female participants to check this pattern. Within the study duration, the re-

searcher could not acquire a comprehensive number of art and design undergraduate stu-

dents in higher institutions across Nigeria. More so, the study does not have detailed in-

formation about the specific population of art and design students being targeted. Factors 

such as family and cultural backgrounds and other demographic variables can signifi-

cantly influence students’ entrepreneurial potential in art and design. Without a clear def-

inition of the population, the generalizability of the study’s findings becomes questiona-

ble. Future research in the context of this study should take cognizance of these limitations 

and make necessary improvements. 

Conclusion 
This study has contributed to the knowledge that can assist art and design educators and 

policymakers in promoting an inclusive and equal opportunity environment that 

encourages and supports entrepreneurship among art and design students, regardless of 

gender. The finding of this study showed good responses from both female and male 

students, signifying a promising entrepreneurial potential, agreeing with Zeffane (2013). 

The research findings by Konutgan (2022) also revealed that, although the pursuit of 

status and a willingness to take risks substantially influence an individual’s choice to 

pursue entrepreneurial goals, there is no significant relationship between gender 



ARTIVATE 12 

22 

differences and entrepreneurial intention. This is, however, in contrast to the survey that 

revealed that males are about three times more likely than females to start a business after 

graduation (Pech & R ehor , 2021). The findings by Ndofirepi, Rambe and Dzansi (2018) 

also established the existence of significant gender differences in entrepreneurial 

intention. These inconsistencies highlight the complex and multifaceted relationship 

between gender and entrepreneurship, suggesting a need for further research. 

It is essential to note that the findings of this study are specific to the sample and 

context of the art and design students within higher education institutions across Nigeria. 

Further research is needed to validate these results in different settings and to explore 

potential variations in entrepreneurial potential across gender groups within the art and 

design field. While the proposed model in this study demonstrates a good fit with the data, 

further research is warranted to delve deeper into the intricacies of gender stereotypes 

and their potential impact on entrepreneurial potential in various contexts. Addressing 

and mitigating gender biases and stereotypes remains crucial to promoting equal 

opportunities and supporting all individuals’ entrepreneurial endeavors, irrespective of 

gender. More efforts should be made to address gender-related issues in art and design 

entrepreneurship education to ensure continuous progress and inclusivity.  



ARTIVATE 12 

23 

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