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ARTIVATE: A JOURNAL OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE ARTS 
VOL. 8, NO. 2, SUMMER 2019 

Art and Blockchain 
A Primer, History, and Taxonomy of Blockchain Use Cases in the Arts  

Amy Whitaker  
New York University 

ABSTRACT: Blockchain technology, while commonly associated with 
cryptocurrencies, stands to bring radical structural change to the arts and creative 
industries. This paper presents a history, primer, and taxonomy of blockchain use 
cases in the arts and then explores the implications of blockchain in three regards: 
the blurring of the for-profit / nonprofit distinction, changes in the ownership 
structure of art, and potential for new structures of public and private support and 
related policy changes. These developments raise important questions of 
governance of a technology which requires expertise in cryptography, coding, and 
securities law for implementation. Ultimately, blockchain holds the potential to tip 
the role of the arts toward democratic availability through collective ownership 
structures or toward further commodification of cultural assets. 
DOI: https://doi.org/10.34053/artivate.8.2.2 

Blockchain—the distributed append-only ledger technology associated with cryptocurrencies 
such as Bitcoin—is a rapidly evolving area of arts entrepreneurship. Blockchain’s complex 
and decentralizing potential activates questions of strategy and possibility for artists (Catlow, 
Garrett, Jones & Skinner ; Brekke ), organizations (Schneider ; Bailey ; 
Adam, ), and systems of arts entrepreneurship (Beckman & Essig ; Chang & 
Wyszomirski ; Essig ; Ragsdale ; Welter ; White ; Gartner ). 
Although sometimes grouped with cryptocurrency (Brunton ; Golumbia ), 
blockchain itself has structural potential to reshape the landscape of entrepreneurial 
organizations within the arts and creative industries (Wierbicki & Rottermund ; 
Michalska ).  

The core idea of the technology, which is described at greater length later in the paper, is 
that blockchain is essentially a special database structure. It is a ledger of time-stamped 
information (Haber & Stornetta a, b). The innovation of blockchain is that the 



 

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ledger is distributed, meaning that it exists in many interconnected copies. This fact 
profoundly alters the power dynamic around, and governance over, information because it 
removes the need to trust a central authority (Haber & Stornetta a, b; Nakamoto 
). A museum or a government or a bank no longer needs to be the trusted keeper of the 
official record of anything, whether an artwork’s provenance, a person’s citizenship, or a 
checking account’s balance.  

In addition, financial structures have been built onto this distributed ledger to reward 
and incentivize people to keep those interconnected copies of the ledger up to date through a 
consensus mechanism. Those keepers of the ledger solve computing puzzles and receive 
cryptocurrency, Bitcoin and otherwise, in return (Nakamoto ; Brekke ). Although 
the details of the technology are more complicated, at its core, blockchain is a way of relating 
to knowledge by time-stamping a record into a group of other records and then trusting a 
distributed system, not a sole entity, to keep that record. The idea of a new database may seem 
technical or small. However, considering the extent to which modern corporate capitalism 
and nation-state structures are built on trust in central authorities—even within robust 
democracies—blockchain stands to invert deeply rooted power structures. Of course, the 
technology is still being adapted and comes with risks and challenges, which this paper 
discusses. 

This paper offers a history of blockchain, a primer on the technology, and a taxonomy of 
use cases in the arts, and then explores three related transformations that follow from the 
decentralized and fractionalizing potential of blockchain. First, blockchain blurs the for-
profit/nonprofit distinction in the arts because the decentralized structure shifts responsibility 
for infrastructure away from trusted central authorities. Private blockchain start-ups are 
recreating title registries that have to date been managed by the public sector, as well as 
managing provenance and authenticity research currently done by museums, foundations, 
and galleries. Secondly, blockchain changes the ownership structure of art by creating 
fractional ownership of artworks and scarcity for digital works. A great deal of variety exists 
within this area, with some companies focusing on collectors and others focusing on artists. 
These potential shared-value structures extend to resale royalties and copyright (Whitaker 
). Third, blockchain’s shared value structures generalize to new models of supporting the 
arts itself, including Michael Wilkerson’s () proposal for a true endowment for the 
National Endowment of the Arts and Margo Jones’s () proposal that theaters could 
become stock companies (Ragsdale ). These innovative cooperative financial 
arrangements could extend to community economic development funding, cultural festivals, 
and many other areas of arts management and policy design. 

A technology based on not trusting a central authority also raises fundamental questions 
of governance (Yermack a, b). As Lawrence Lessig wrote in , computer code is 
law. The question that follows is how much do we need to understand blockchain, coding, 
cryptography, or securities law to participate? These questions of governance feed into 
pedagogical practice (Brown ; Beckman ; Essig ; Lindemann, et. al., ; White 



 

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; Pollard & Wilson ; Essig & Guevara ; Tosher ) because cryptography and 
securities law are less developed areas for arts entrepreneurship education. Although 
pedagogy falls outside the scope of this paper, the entire blockchain project presents questions 
of self-pedagogy and the vulnerability and discomfort of confronting large quantities of 
technical and rapidly changing information—some of it touted in media to such an extent 
that the exuberance might encourage skepticism.  

The perspective of this paper is that blockchain could easily not develop to its full 
potential or not do so for three decades. As blockchain co-inventor Stornetta said in , 
“To me, this is the crux of the matter. Namely, the decentralization of trust at a technical level 
does not guarantee the democratization of the social structures built on top of it, but…such a 
future…beckons.”1  From first principle, blockchain is as profound a potential structural 
frontier as computer processing or democracy itself. Thus, we have a responsibility to try to 
understand it. Blockchain is also a post-sector technology, meaning that ignoring it within 
the field of the arts does not make it go away; ignoring it empowers actors outside the field to 
act without the field’s participation. 

Methodologically, this paper takes a hybrid approach that reflects both blockchain as an 
emergent technology and arts entrepreneurship as an interdisciplinary field. As David 
Throsby writes in the introduction to The Handbook of the Economics of Art and Culture (vol. 
): “Cultural economics is not well defined because it is located at the crossroads of several 
disciplines: art history, art philosophy, sociology, law, management, and economics” 
(Ginsburgh & Throsby , p. ). Andrew Taylor describes the “sprawling footprint” of arts 
entrepreneurship and its “older sibling” arts management (Taylor ). Paul Bonin-
Rodriguez highlights the political resonance of field-building across artistic practice, social 
science, and the performative nature of policy (Bonin-Rodriguez , ; Vakharia ). 
Linda Essig (b) describes arts entrepreneurship as an “ouroboros” or snake-like creature 
swallowing its tail, as emblematic of a holistic relationship of art and economics (a).2  

Blockchain is difficult to approach methodologically because it is a microcosm of these 
complex interdisciplinary dynamics of arts management, at the same time that blockchain is 
a new enough technology to resist some methods of social-science research. As Usman 
Chohan writes, researchers often study blockchain through technological, monetary, legal, 
and ideological lenses (Chohan ). Although blockchain has been studied empirically in 
finance (see, for example, Howell, Niessner, & Yermack ), a survey or statistical analysis 
of blockchain in the arts would tend to describe past adoption or current attitudes toward a 
technology that holds the potential to change the field, even from the outside.  

Thus, the methods of this paper draw on strategic foresight as a discipline in creating a 
framework with which to consider the future as unfolding (MacKay & Costanzo ). This 

 
1 W.S. Stornetta, personal communication, October 2019. 
2 “Ouroboros” is also the name of a particular consensus mechanism (Haber, personal communication, 
October 2019). 



 

24 

approach reflects the idea that the past, however well modeled and understood, does not 
always predict the future, and that large seismic shifts require confrontation with new and 
unfamiliar subjects and navigation of untemplated pathways. To invoke a near-cliched 
example of epochal change, studying the horse and buggy only helps so much with 
understanding cars. 

This approach draws on Israel Kirzner’s work on the economics of open-ended 
entrepreneurial discovery (). As Kirzner later writes, “We never know what real 
possibilities remain to be discovered; we never know what the real limits are to the elasticity 
of the resource constraints that circumscribe our existence” (Kirzner , p. , as cited in 
Harper , p. ). Scott Shane and Sankaran Venkataraman have written about this 
discovery orientation in arts entrepreneurship (). Linda Essig has also written about this 
process-oriented view of entrepreneurship (a), contrasting Kirzner’s work with the 
outcome orientation of Joseph Schumpeter’s idea of creative destruction (/, pp. –
). Blockchain is confusing to parse as means and ends, because the basic scientific research 
and entrepreneurial process from which the technology emerged are distinct from the 
financial rewards it later generated. As the history section of this paper shows, Stuart Haber 
and Scott Stornetta, the inventors of blockchain (a, b), were trying to deal with 
epistemological problems of how we trust what we believe to be true in a digital age. Shane 
and Venkataraman argue that discovery is not adequate, but that exploitation of opportunity 
is also required (, p. ). It is unclear in the story if Haber and Stornetta simply failed 
at exploitation or if their motivation was pure inquiry. What does seem clear is their focus on 
solving an important question, wherever that discovery led. 

In order to approach blockchain as discovered and not static, this paper relies on 
interviews and interactions with many of the founders of early blockchain companies in the 
arts, as well as in-depth interviews with the scientists, Haber and Stornetta, who developed 
blockchain. Henrik Berglund () characterizes this approach as a “lived experience” 
research method in entrepreneurship. As Berglund writes, research in entrepreneurship is 
often characterized by positivist empiricism but that we can instead widen the scope of 
method to reflect the ways in which “entrepreneurship is to a great extent a form of art, a 
practice-oriented endeavor that requires a sensitive and committed engagement with a range 
of phenomena in the surrounding world” (, p. ). This approach is one of research-
based artistic practice, informed by business strategy and investment management.  

The literature review for this paper draws on a cross-section of blockchain-related 
writing in finance, entrepreneurship, law, art, and computer science, as well as a literature 
review of related work on funding and investment in arts management and arts 
entrepreneurship. I have specifically looked for papers outlining market phenomena and 
policy proposals that could be enacted in new ways using blockchain. The rhetorical method 
of the paper is also to offer analogic thinking across these disciplines, for instance, likening 
the token structure of cryptocurrency to the investment nature of art. This paper’s intention 



 

25 

is for this translation across fields to function as an invitation of political enfranchisement 
into conversations around blockchain. 

I have organized the paper as follows: It introduces blockchain by telling the history of 
blockchain as a creative invention unto itself and then offering a technological primer. The 
paper then introduces a taxonomy of core use cases in the arts, followed by an analysis of 
three particular strategic implications of blockchain: the blurring of for-profit and nonprofit 
structures, the effects on the art market, and the possibilities for enacting new models of arts 
funding. The conclusions address governance concerns and how blockchain may tip the role 
of the arts toward democratic availability or commodification of cultural assets.  

A Brief Liberal-Arts History of Blockchain  
Although many people believe the  circulation of Satoshi Nakamoto’s “Bitcoin” white 
paper and  launch of the Bitcoin blockchain (Nakamoto , Wallace ) introduced 
the technology of blockchain, in fact, Bitcoin takes root in much earlier work. Nakamoto’s 
 Bitcoin white paper has eight footnotes in total. Three of those eight footnotes are to the 
work of Stuart Haber and Scott Stornetta, who developed the time-stamping structure we now 
call blockchain twenty years before Nakamoto’s paper (Haber & Stornetta a; Bayer, 
Haber & Stornetta ; Haber & Stornetta ). Haber and Stornetta’s central concern—
trust in information in the digital age—particularly informs applications of blockchain in the 
arts. 

In the late s, Haber, a cryptographer, and Stornetta, a physicist, were working 
together as researchers at Bellcore in Morristown, New Jersey. 3  The two scientists were 
observing the early mainstream adoption of personal computing. By , eight percent of 
American households owned computers. By , fifteen percent did (U.S. Census). Seeing 
this newfound reliance on digital information, Haber and Stornetta asked two questions. The 
first question was philosophical: If it is so easy to manipulate a digital file on a personal 
computer, how will we know what was true about the past? The second question was political: 
How can we trust what we know of the past without having to trust a central authority to keep 
the record? These questions led to what turned out to be an extremely thorny math problem.  

Building a trustworthy registry of digital files without a central administrator proved so 
difficult that Haber and Stornetta almost gave up. As scientists, their idea of giving up was to 
try to formally prove that the problem was, in fact, impossible to solve. Then one day Stornetta 
was standing in a Friendly’s restaurant in Morristown, New Jersey, waiting for a table with 
his wife and children when the germ of a possible solution came to him. Stornetta told Haber 
the next day, and they set out to build this system (Whitaker b).  

The time-stamped ledger they imagined—the basic underlying structure of a 
blockchain—is at once cryptographic and registrarial. The time-stamped series of records are 

 
3 Haber, personal communication, May 2018, W.S. and M. Stornetta, personal communication, March 2018. 



 

26 

linked together in such a way that one cannot tamper with one item without disrupting the 
whole chain. The ledgers are linked internally from one block of transactions to the next, and 
then many connected copies of the ledger are distributed, allowing for a ledger that requires 
some trust in an algorithm but not in a central administrator.4 

Haber and Stornetta presented their work at a  cryptography conference and then 
published it in The Journal of Cryptography in  under the title, “How to Time-Stamp a 
Digital Document” (Haber and Stornetta a, b). They wrote their foundational paper 
(Haber and Stornetta b) with an E.B.-White lucidity of prose and a liberal-arts epigraph 
from Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece:  

 
Time’s glory is to calm contending kings, 
To unmask falsehood, and bring truth to light, 
To stamp the seal of time in aged things, 
To wake the morn, and sentinel the night, 
To wrong the wronger till he render right. 
  —(Folger Digital Texts n.d. []) 

In addition to citing The Rape of Lucrece, the paper supports the case for designing a 
system that does not require trust in a central authority by quoting Juvenal circa  A.D., 
“But who will guard the guards themselves?” and including the original Latin, “Sed quis 
custodiet ipsos Custodes?” (Haber and Stornetta b, p. ). From the paper and 
conversations with Haber and Stornetta, their work shows a remarkable combination of 
technical and humanistic thinking in the blockchain’s starting point. 

Legally Haber and Stornetta’s employer, Bellcore, owned their blockchain invention. 
Haber and Stornetta were named co-inventors on the patents. In , Haber and Stornetta 
licensed the technology from Bellcore and 
founded a company called Surety to time-
stamp records. For example, scientists who 
had traditionally kept paper notebooks with 
numbered pages and stitched bindings—to 
prevent tampering with or reordering 
pages—could now log their scientific 
observations onto the Surety blockchain.5  

In order to take a radically transparent 
approach to the verifiability of their record-
keeping, each week Surety published an 
alphanumeric code that a computer 

 
4 W.S. & M. Stornetta, personal communication, March 2018. 
5 Haber, personal communication, May 2018. 

Figure 1 The Blockchain Friendly’s 



 

27 

scientist could use to check that no one had tampered with the Surety blockchain. They 
published the code in the “Notices” section of the classified advertisements of the Sunday 
national edition of the New York Times.  

Their code is still published in the “Notices” section of the Sunday paper, making theirs 
the oldest blockchain in the world.6 Surety and Bellcore did hold patents on the blockchain 
structure, but they lapsed because of a missed patent maintenance fee around . 
Otherwise, the blockchain technology itself would have still been under U.S. patent the first 
year of the Nakamoto Bitcoin paper (Haber & Stornetta ).7 

In January  Bitcoin entered the world to relatively little fanfare outside of computer 
programming circles. The white paper proposing Bitcoin had first circulated on a 
cryptography listserve in the fall of , and the Bitcoin blockchain launched officially on 
January ,  (Burniske & Tatar , p. ). The author name in the white paper, Satoshi 
Nakamoto, is thought to be a pseudonym for a person or a group of people. Nakamoto is aptly 
described by the authors Jake Goldenfein and Dan Hunter (, p. ) as "a kind of crypto-
libertarian mashup of Spartacus, Keyser Söze, and Jay Gatsby." Although generally evoking 
white male heroic tropes in that phrasing, most authors, Goldenfein and Hunter included, go 
out of their way to adhere to plural pronouns to avoid gendering Satoshi (who is often referred 
to by first name in the manner of Madonna) and to nod to the possibility that Satoshi is more 
than one person. The Bitcoin blockchain is generally observed to have the kind of concerted, 
kaleidoscopically thoughtful presentation less likely to be the work of one individual’s thought 
process.8  

Nakamoto took Haber and Stornetta’s concept of a distributed ledger and added a 
financial incentive for maintaining the connected copies of the ledger. Nakamoto’s key 
development was the invention of mining, that is, allowing people to win coins—bitcoins—

 
6 There is no inherent reason for why they published in the ”Notices” section; they simply needed a public 
registry of the code. They were fortunate to choose a paper that still exists. When they first tried to place the 
advertisement in “Notices,” they were turned down. Haber speculated that this was because it was not long 
after the Cold War and the alphanumeric hash looked like a spy code. Haber, who had recently been 
interviewed by the journalist John Markoff for the New York Times, breeched the advertising-editorial wall to 
ask the reporter to vouch for them that they were not spies (Haber, personal communication, May 2018 and 
October 2019). 
7 The author conducted independent patent research with research assistance from a patent clerk and patent 
attorney and also corresponded with Surety to confirm.  
8 In 2011, Dan Kaminsky, a forensic Internet researcher, tried to find weaknesses in the Bitcoin code, at the 
behest of Joshua Davis, a technology reporter writing for the New Yorker (Davis, 2011). Davis described 
Kaminsky as “like a burglar who was certain that he could break into a bank by digging a tunnel, drilling 
through a wall, or climbing down a vent, and on each attempt,he discovered a freshly poured cement barrier 
with a sign telling him to go home.” Kaminsky had previously and famously found a bug in one of the 
foundational protocols of the Internet itself, reporting it to the U.S. government, Microsoft, and Cisco and 
then helping them to fix it. Every time Kaminsky thought he would find a bug in the Bitcoin code, he found a 
line of code preempting the possible attack. Kaminsky concluded that Nakamoto was either “a team of 
people” or “a genius” (Davis, 2011).  



 

28 

by solving mathematical puzzles tied to verifying 
transactions in a block (Nakamoto , p. ; 
Narayanan, Bonneau, Felten, Miller & Goldfeder ). 
It is not the coins, in and off themselves, but the reward 
for building the chain that supports the tamper-
resistant decentralization Haber and Stornetta had first 
imagined. 

Although blockchain goes well beyond 
cryptocurrency as a tool, one early story of Bitcoin 
illustrates the wildly unpredictable trajectory of the 
invention in its early days. On May , , 
approximately fifteen months after its launch, someone 
tried to force a transaction in which bitcoins would be 
used to purchase something tangible. 9  A computer 
programmer named Laszlo Hanyecz offered , 
bitcoins to anyone who would procure two pizzas for 
him. The pizzas could be homemade or bought. A British man agreed and had two Papa Johns 
pizzas delivered to Hanyecz in Florida. The pizzas cost thirty dollars. By May , the , 
bitcoins he received in exchange for the pizzas were worth  million (Suberg ). 

These early days of cryptocurrency place Haber, Stornetta, and Nakamoto in the ranks 
of artists exploring frontiers that the broader world was slower to metabolize and understand. 
In the financial life of their invention, Haber and Stornetta are in some ways the Vincent van 
Gogh’s of the crypto-story; they did not particularly profit from their early work. Surety never 
became a large enterprise, and Haber and Stornetta went on to other projects. Stornetta 
became a high school math teacher, where he taught the most introductory math offered to 
incoming ninth-graders and the most advanced math offered to graduating seniors. Haber 
went on to work for Hewlett Packard and various start-ups. Both work in blockchain now.10 

Nakamoto’s addition of mining ushered in a subsequent wave of cryptocurrencies whose 
progress moved very slowly for several years. In  Vitalik Buterin introduced the 
Ethereum protocol—a smart-contract structure that allowed tokenization (Buterin ; 
Buterin & Obrist ). Whereas Bitcoin, the original blockchain protocol, requires the user 
to have more of a functional mastery of the mechanics, Ethereum presents a simpler interface 
and contributes the structure of tokens, which function financially in many regards the way 
that art investment does. Ethereum generalized some of the scripting language of Bitcoin to 
be able to run many types of programs. Over time, some of those programs—smart 
contracts—became standard.11 One such standard is the token type ERC- (named for a line 

 
9 Regarding capitalization, “Bitcoin” describes the currency and “bitcoin” describes the unit of currency. 
10 Haber, personal communication, May 2018; W.S. Stornetta, personal communication, March 2018. 
11 Sean Moss-Pultz, founder of Bitmark, personal communication, October 2019. 

Figure 2 Lost and Found 



 

29 

of code). The ERC- is fungible, meaning it functions as cash; two tokens are interchangeable 
the way that two dollar bills are. The later ERC- non-fungible token functions more like 
art (ERC- n.d.). The non-fungible token is the basis of digital collectibles such as 
Cryptokitties (Evans ); the code links to digital images that are related but technically 
unique, thus able to hold value but be part of an overall oeuvre the way an artwork might be. 

While blockchain technology is still very much a work in progress, it joins the ranks of 
technological innovations upon which large-scale societal structures are built. For instance, 
some of the load-bearing walls of modern financial systems result from research—granted 
Nobel Prize-winning research—of a relatively recent vintage: Harry Markowitz’s Modern 
Portfolio Theory (), William Sharpe’s Capital Asset Pricing Model (), and Fisher 
Black’s and Myron Scholes’s Black-Scholes Options Pricing Model (). These theories 
underpin normalized strategies and structures of stock markets; at the same time, they are no 
older than Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, and Conceptual Art. Similarly, the developments 
in blockchain since the early s may, in a relatively short time, have profound implications 
for art historians, artists, conservators, collectors, dealers, museums, and broader ecosystems 
of cultural assets and creative industries. 

A Blockchain Primer 
This section offers a more technical primer on blockchain, as a basis for the arguments made 
regarding related use cases and strategic implications in the arts. The section is standalone so 
that it may be read separately as the reader chooses. As introduced above, a blockchain is a 
time-stamped record of any kind of information, organized into blocks that are chained 
together by the repetition of an alphanumeric code as the first part of one “block” and the last 
part of the previous one. The information in the blockchain is safeguarded in a few related 
ways that range from cryptographic protection of each record to the linking and distribution 
of all records.  

First, each record is protected cryptographically through what is called a one-way hash 
function. A hash function is a mathematical procedure that takes any input and converts it 
into a fixed-length output (Narayanan et. al., , at ). Any piece of information—whether 
the purchase price of a tube of toothpaste or the entire published output of Marcel Proust—
is used to produce an alphanumeric series of a fixed output size.12 A standard hash function 
is called the SHA- algorithm, but as computing advances, that algorithm may be improved 
(Brekke ). 

 
12 Hash functions have three core attributes: (a) collision resistance, meaning it is almost impossible to use 
two different inputs and get the same output; (b) hiding, meaning if you see the output you cannot guess the 
input; and (c) puzzle friendliness, meaning people will actually do the cryptographic puzzle by random trial 
and error and not try to find a shortcut to the end (Narayanan, et.al,. 2016, 2-10). 



 

30 

What is special and useful about a cryptographic hash function is that it is a reasonably 
efficient forward calculation for a computer to do, and an extremely difficult calculation for 
a computer to undo. By analogy, the difference between hashing a number and uncovering 
the source number from a hash is a much more extreme version of the difference between the 
ease of scrambling and the difficulty of solving a Rubik’s Cube.  

These hashes are linked together and then themselves hashed to create a summary hash 
for each block or group of transactions. Because it is typically the hash and not the work itself 
that is visible on the blockchain, the content of work is also kept private. As Haber and 
Stornetta write in their  paper, “A particularly desirable feature of digital time-stamping 
is that it makes it possible to establish precedence of intellectual property without disclosing 
its contents” (Haber & Stornetta b, p. ). 

The largest safeguard is in the design of the system. As Sean Moss-Pultz, the founder of 
Bitmark, emphasizes, “Blockchain security is a dynamic, emergent property that comes from 
the competition to find the next block. Without this dynamic part, what is described is a list 
(chain of blocks) that must require a trusted authority to make the next block.”13 

The starting point of a blockchain is a “genesis block,” that is, the block containing the 
first piece of information. The genesis block of the Bitcoin blockchain was a Times of London 
headline that Nakamoto posted on January , , that reads, “The Times /Jan/ 
Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks” (Burniske & Tatar , p. ). Other records 
are then added to this genesis block and time-stamped into an order. The records are often 
called “transactions” but could be the hashes of any pieces of information. If someone tried 
to change a record within a block, they would alter the hash of the block. Because the hash of 
one block appears at the start of the next block, if someone wanted to tamper with the 
blockchain, they would need to change one block, and then go back and change all of the 
affected blocks, before the next block was verified.14 One can think of this feature as a kind of 
numeric chain-link fence, with each block connected to the one before and after it.  

With the introduction of the cryptocurrency Bitcoin, people were now incentivized and 
rewarded for operating computer nodes that verified the blocks. That incentive not only 
created currency, but established effectively a participatory algorithm for verifying blocks. 
Computers that serve as nodes in the Bitcoin system are constantly solving mathematical 
puzzles to verify each block. More specifically, the computers compete with each other to find 
the “nonce,” a puzzle solved by brute trial-and-error computer processing strength and of 
course luck.15 The computer that finds the nonce first verifies that block and wins an award 
in Bitcoin. The amount of the award halves at regular intervals over time. In , a miner 

 
13 Moss-Pultz, personal communication, October 2019. 
14 For example, if a blockchain were up to block thirty and one wanted to change block twenty, one would 
have to go in and change blocks twenty to thirty, before block thirty-one was established (Moss-Pultz, 
personal communication, October 2019). 
15 Nonces depend on random-number generation, itself a source of idiosyncratic risk in the blockchain 
ecosystem. See, for example, Bonneau, Clark, and Goldfelter, 2015. 



 

31 

completing a block received fifty bitcoins. In , they received , and in  that number 
was halved again to . bitcoins. There will only ever be  million bitcoins (BTC) in 
circulation, a supply that is expected to be fully tapped around  (Hayes ; Burniske & 
Tatar , p. ).  

Despite the cryptographic functions and linked blocks, these structures do have 
vulnerabilities. Advances in computing power to what is called “quantum computing” raise 
concerns over how differential computing power could affect blockchain governance. If one 
bad actor has this computing power and no one else does, the bad actor could theoretically 
find others’ private keys and authorize transactions, but it is unlikely that computing power 
will advance so disproportionately. Blockchain observers also write of the “ percent Attack” 
to describe the state in which the majority of a blockchain’s nodes are corrupted (Hertig 
).  

In addition, the mining is theoretically done by many disconnected actors and thus is 
decentralized in the spirit of the blockchain. But in practice, mining is concentrated 
geographically and by organization (Aki ). Special servers with special chips are used for 
mining so that one has the advantage of the best available computing power. Because of 
economies of scale, it is more economical to operate a group of mining machines than to set 
up a single one. The operation of a larger group of servers also gives the advantage of 
smoothing the flows of irregular, probabilistic income over time. A mining pool or mining 
farm of twelve computers, or  computers, would have smoother earnings than a single 
computer, incentivizing this centralization of mining.  

Mining also consumes enormous computing power, owing to its reliance on “proof of 
work”—meaning computing effort used to find the nonce. Other systems being explored are 
based on “proof of stake,” meaning proof of ownership in a system as opposed to proof of 
puzzle-solving force (Harper ; Burniske & Tatar  p. ). By some estimates, the 
computer power required by the Bitcoin network alone is equivalent to all the power 
consumed by Ireland (Why Bitcoin uses so much energy ). Many proponents of 
blockchain are working on reducing this environmental impact, and the original inventors of 
blockchain have spoken about the need to address these costs.16 Perhaps computers finding 
the nonce could simultaneously be performing other labor in the process of mathematical 
puzzle-solving, in the same way that reCAPTCHA allows the human labor used to verifies 
that a computer user is a person and not a robot to double as labor toward digitizing books.17 
Or perhaps environmental impact can be addressed by the sustainability of the source of 
energy used to power the blockchain. 

 
16 W.S. Stornetta, personal communication, May 2019. 
17 Techcrunch contributor. (2007). reCaptcha: Using Captchas to Digitize Books,” Techcrunch: “ReCaptcha’s 
founders, Luis von Ahn and Ben Maurer estimate that about 60 million CAPTCHAs are solved every day. 
Assuming that each CAPTCHA takes 10 seconds to solve, it’ this is over 160,000 human hours per day (that’s 
about 19 years).” 



 

32 

Other factors in blockchain design include whether a company is built on the Bitcoin or 
Ethereum or another protocol and whether the blockchain is public or private/permissioned. 
Of the current blockchain companies in the arts, some are built on Bitcoin and some on 
Ethereum, some are built on public blockchains and some are built on private, permissioned 
blockchains. Blockchain start-ups in the arts manage questions of access, technological 
expertise, and privacy in varying ways. Their strategies are all threaded with larger questions 
of diversity, inclusion and equity both in general terms and in ways that are particular to the 
arts (Westermann, Schonfeld & Sweeney ) and to the legal and technological fields 
inclusive of blockchain and artificial intelligence (Johnson, Evans & King ; West, 
Whittaker & Crawford ). 

Use Cases of Blockchain in the Arts 

Blockchain has core use cases in the arts including provenance and authenticity registries (M. 
McConaghy, McMullen, Parry & T. McConaghy ), digital scarcity (O’Dwyer ) for 
new media and generative art (Bailey ; Dash ), fractional equity and shared upside 
structures, (Whitaker & Kräussl ; Whitaker a; Lotti ), and new forms of 
copyright registry (Evans ; Waugh ; Savelyev ; Towse ; Whitaker ). 
Ethereum-based smart contracts and tokens also enable specific investment and intellectual 
property structures (McKinney, Landy &Wilka ; Gürkaynak, Yılmaz, Yeşilaltay, & Bengi 
). 

Provenance research is a time-consuming part of gallery preparation for art fairs and a 
differentiating factor in the business model of art fairs including The European Fine Art Fair 
(TEFAF), which has developed some of the strictest vetting standards in the world (Shaw 
). Costs of vetting are embedded within the mark-up fee structures of galleries selling on 
commission (David, Huemer & Oosterlinck ). Provenance is also central to museum 
practice as institutions revisit their own collections. For example, following from  
resolutions by the American Alliance of Museums (AAM) on the “Unlawful Appropriation 
of Objects During the Nazi Era” (AAM ) and by the International Council of Museums 
(ICOM ) on “Spoliation of Jewish Cultural Property” (ICOM ), the Museum of 
Modern Art, New York, began a “Provenance Research Project” to study the  works in the 
MoMA collection that were made before  and acquired after  (MoMA n.d.). 

Good provenance is foundational not only to price but to being able to sell the works at 
all. One can consider how blockchain would have hypothetically supported the return of 
artworks stolen during World War II. Blockchain would have arguably substantially changed 
the provability of theft or sale under duress of well known restitution cases such as Egon 
Schiele’s Portrait of Wally () (Carroll, ; O’Donnell,  pp. –) and Gustav 
Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer (c. ) (O’Donnell,  pp. –).  

While blockchain is not, of course, a magical technology that can undo abhorrent human 
behavior, going forward blockchain can powerfully counteract the lack of documentation and 



 

33 

the burden of proving ownership. These cases show the potential power of an immutable and 
decentralized record. If a blockchain database becomes a registry of title, meaning legal 
ownership, then the legal ownership of the work is inseparable from the blockchain 
provenance. Without transfer of the blockchain record, the artwork’s title does not transfer. 
If market actors chose to transfer a work “off chain,” the subsequent market would have to 
decide whether to recognize the title to sell the work. 

Provenance travels closely with authenticity. Where provenance describes the chain of 
ownership, authentication proves the correct authorship. Authentication of art occurs 
through various methods, including personal expertise, scientific analysis, and certificate of 
authenticity. Leonardo da Vinci’s Salvator Mundi exemplifies authentication by an expert. 
Had renowned Leonardo scholar Martin Kemp not concluded that the work was a real da 
Vinci, and had the work not, on that recommendation, been included in a  exhibition of 
Leonardo’s work at the National Gallery in London (Syson ), it is unlikely that the 
painting would have sold for . million at auction Christie’s New York in November 
. The authenticity has been subsequently contested (Kirkpatrick ). 

Scientific analysis authenticates other works. James Martin, the forensic conservator and 
founder of Orion Analytical, exemplified this work as a key witness in the case brought by 
Dominico and Eleanor de Sole against Knoedler Gallery for selling a “Rothko” which turned 
out to be a fake (Cascone ). Authentication is also done by a certificate of authenticity, 
as in the work of conceptual artists Sol LeWitt and Felix Gonzalez-Torres. Without the 
certificate, one does not technically own the work (Lydiate ; Halperin ; Pereira 
). In that case, the authentication is held by a contract. 

Blockchain combines provenance and authentication, providing a chained record of 
ownership that is dependent on the validity of the starting point of the blockchain record. 
Diana Wierbicki and Amanda Rottermund () highlight these issues of vetting for error 
and fraud in Trusts & Estates, writing:  

One of the biggest problems with using blockchain technology in the development of art 
registries, especially in situations like the Old Master painting example in which the artwork 
has previously changed hands a number of times, may be an unrealistic optimism on behalf 
of the technology companies that the information stored on a blockchain will be accurate and 
free from misinformation, mistakes, or even fraud. 

Crucially, the blockchain records can function not only as a seal of approval but as a 
trusted library of source material. The blockchain record does not have to be determinative 
automatically but it can certify the information being vetted by human experts. 

The blockchain companies that are active in provenance have generally tried to be trusted 
arbiters in different ways. For example, the company Verisart launched in  to provide a 
trusted database for artworks. Headed by Robert Norton, the former CEO of Saatchi Art, 
Verisart allowed anyone to list an artwork (Butcher ). In June , a man named 



 

34 

Terence Eden listed the Mona Lisa on the 
Verisart blockchain with himself as the artist 
and  as the creation date (Eden ; Woo 
).  

Although Verisart has some advantage in 
being publicly accessible as a database, another 
company Artory has managed for this 
vulnerability of vetting the initial listing of an 
artwork on the blockchain. In fall , Artory 
became the first company to list a major auction 
sale on the blockchain when it became the 
registrar of the Ebsworth Collection, sold at 
Christie’s New York for  million on 
November , . The November , , 
sale included forty-two pieces of art and set 
numerous records (Kinsella ). Artory, built 
on the Ethereum blockchain, offered collectors 
essentially a certificate of authenticity encoded 
to the blockchain. Artory only lists works that have been vetted by a partner organization—
for instance, an auction house or gallery—that would already be engaged in a high level of 
provenance research. Artory also took the business decision to make the registry double-
blind—meaning Artory itself does not know the identity of the collectors; it only lists the 
works. The founder of Artory, Nanne Dekking, is also the Chairman of TEFAF (The 
European Fine Art Fair). 

The other main company operating in this space is Codex Protocol which also partners 
with auction houses to vet the entry point of records onto the blockchain. Co-founded by 
Mark Lurie, Jessica Houlgrave, and John Forrest, Codex partners with the Liveauctioneers 
consortium of , regional auction houses. Codex Protocol uses a token they developed, 
BidDex, to store information posted by collectors, at the collector’s discretion (Hanson ; 
Michalska ).  

Verisart, Artory, and Codex all have the challenge of managing the “blockchain air gap,” 
between the blockchain listing and the physical artwork (Schneider ). To link blockchain 
records to physical artworks, companies have explored everything from physical tagging to 
DNA analysis to the ways in which the physical surface of an artwork can be recognizably 
photographed in the manner of a fingerprint. This challenge has not yet been resolved. Some 
applications of blockchain for digital art avoid this problem in interesting ways.  

Blockchain has been used to deal with a central challenge to selling digital art: how to 
create a limited edition of a file that can be easily reproduced (Bookoiit, Cimbol, Collins & 
Newman ). In , the artist Kevin McCoy and technologist Anil Dash collaborated in 
Rhizome’s “Seven on Seven” event in which artists are paired with technologists to create 

Figure 3 Mona Lisa by Terence Eden 



 

35 

projects (Connor ). McCoy and Dash created the prototype of Monegraph—short for 
“monetized graphics”—a venture that allows artists to record digital works on the blockchain. 
Built on a Bitcoin blockchain, Monegraph uses the same principles as the Robert Projansky 
and Seth Siegelaub Artist’s Contract (van Haaften-Schick ), to allow creators to specify 
sales conditions and sharing rights for their work (Zeilinger ). As Dash wrote, “in a realm 
where novelty, rarity and exclusivity underpin so much of the ‘real or perceived’ value of a 
work, copy and paste goes from being an act of creation to an act of destruction” (Zeilinger 
, p. ; Dash ).  

Alongside the possibility of digital scarcity through editioned works, the blockchain also 
allows fractional or shared ownership of individual artworks. From a collector’s point of view, 
the possibility of fractionalizing a single artwork allows investors to diversify their art 
holdings in ways that limited to the secondary art market and generally do not encompass the 
livelihood of artists. For example, the company Maecenas purchased an Andy Warhol 
artwork,  Electric Chairs, and divided it up into shares sold as ART tokens. The company 
sold . percent of the  million artwork (Adam ). By purchasing tokens through 
companies such as Maecenas and Masterworks, collectors can have a small investment 
exposure to an artwork. 

From an artist’s point of view, selling tokens or retaining equity can replicate the effect 
of regulated resale royalties (Whitaker ). Whitaker and Kräussl () have analyzed 
empircally what would have happened if artists had retained equity in works sold in the 

Figure 4 Artory page, Chop Suey by Edward Hopper 



 

36 

primary market in the s to s and found that many artists would have outperformed 
stock markets substantially. Blockchain could make these speculative systems of fractional 
equity possible. Such a registry of fractional shares could also enable a secondary market that 
allowed collectors to diversify, while still rooting the art market with artists. The vetted listing 
problem—addressed by provenance companies such as Artory in partnering with auction 
houses—would be addressed in this case by having blockchain records originate with artists’ 
studios.  

In the case of the company Dada, blockchain represents shared ownership of 
collaborative work. Dada is a drawing software app located on blockchain (Mustatea ). 
Artists on Dada make artworks that build on each others’ drawings. At the time of writing, 
Dada has not yet connected its business model directly to the collaborative creation but 
chosen to print editions from time to time. Still, the company represents a collaborative and 
artist-centric approach that may remain a speculative art project or represent a new form of 
interwoven shared value creation and cooperative ownership.  

In addition to companies such as Maecenas that fractionalize existing artworks, a new 
breed of digital collectible has challenged both the investment nature of and the definition of 
art. In November , Dapper Labs released the Cryptokitties, which are unique yet related 
cartoon images of cats that can be collected, traded, and bred (Evans ). Like Verisart and 
Artory records, Cryptokitties are based on the ERC- non-fungible token. More uniquely, 
the Cryptokitties are digital collectibles that function, arguably, as something like a Warhol 
panel of flowers or a Damien Hirst dot painting—related yet technically separable objects. A 
Cryptokitty does not currently have the same institutional and critical support of Warhol or 
Hirst. Writing in Art in America, Artie Vierkant, described Cryptokitties as “a sort of virtual 
Beanie Baby” after the collectible stuffed animal rage of the s (Vierkant ). At their 
peak, a Cryptokitty sold for , (Vierkant ). Vierkant also described the “almost 
satirically dystopian-sounding Verisart and Codex Protocol” and went on to say that “[su]ch 
publications [as the Codex white paper] express a transactional view of art” (Vierkant , 
pp. –). Thus, these digital collectibles offer interesting models for art investment but are 
not yet viewed as art by some critics. 

These blockchain applications may offer new ways of clearing copyright and of reflecting 
the collaborative nature of creativity and the increasingly complex nature of fair use for art 
(Adler ; Towse ). These systems are still speculative; at the same time, they stand to 
reorganize certain systems of investment and rights management radically. In the same way 
that fractional equity can create shared ownership structures for art, blockchain can support 
clearinghouses for royalties for artists who wish to use others’ images without risking fair-use 
litigation (Whitaker ). 

These applications in securitization and contract draw on early artists’ projects including 
Sarah Meyohas’ creation of the currency Bitchcoin which was tied to a set surface area of her 
photographs (Ghorashi ), as well as recent work by Kevin and Jennifer McCoy. Entitled 
Public Key/Private Key, the McCoys’s work is a -millimeter film that is registered on the 



 

37 

blockchain and donated to the Whitney on behalf of the public. Members of the public could 
apply by short essay to be holders of one of the fifty shares and therefore donors of record (K. 
McCoy & J. McCoy ). This project raises speculative questions of tax implication and 
perhaps conversation among the donors of record to coordinate future experimental action.  

Additionally, artist Eve Sussman founded the cryptocurrency platform Snark.art (Ngo 
). In , the design collective Larva Labs, founded by Matt Hall and John Watkinson, 
which had previously developed Cryptopunks digital collectibles, launched Autoglyphs, small 
collectible generative artworks that took as their inspiration the conceptual work of the artist 
Sol LeWitt (Bailey ) and the ways in which conceptual art particularly requires a 
certificate of authenticity (Pereira ). Hall and Watkinson designed the Autoglyphs to be 
not images but instructions that would create those images so that the file size was small 
enough to fit on the blockchain directly. These artists’ experiments converge with for-profit 
ventures in digital collectibles such as Cryptokitties (Vierkant ) and Rare Pepes (Roeder 
), and investment structures that allow collectors to purchase generative art in secondary 
markets such as OpenSea or to purchase shares of art alongside shares of sneakers on 
platforms such as Otis.  

In addition to seismic shifts to the art market, blockchain technology may also allow the 
arts to inform other kinds of investment. The non-fungible token allows investment in 
collectibles in ways that are, in fact, like art investment. If the idea of a Cryptokitty as art gains 
wider acceptance, museums and other public-facing arts entities may contend with populist 
definitions of artistic value—the proverbial question of the Museum of Modern Art vs. the 
Museum of Ice Cream—even more strongly than they do already. At the same time, these 
other areas of cultural asset may, for better or worse, learn from the arts as they create markets 
and financial structures. 

Managerial Implications of Blockchain for Arts Entrepreneurship  
This paper highlights three areas of greatest impact of blockchain on arts entrepreneurship. 
First, blockchain blurs the for-profit and nonprofit distinction in arts organizations by 
replicating nonprofit and public-domain functions within private start-ups. The inclusion of 
these governmental and nonprofit functions within start-ups reflects Jennifer Woolley’s 
argument () that new technologies often create business opportunities for which 
infrastructure does not yet exist and that new firms, therefore, need to build this infrastructure 
themselves in order to operate in the field. These functions include provenance research 
(Butcher ; Hanson ; Moskov ) and title registry. In other industries such as real 
estate, this fair title function is performed by a governmental land registry (Alt, Moss-Pultz, 
Whitaker & Chen ; de Soto ). Blockchain companies such as Artory, Verisart, and 
Codex Protocol could become trusted registries of the ownership of art. 

In addition, these questions of infrastructure are more complicated because of 
blockchain’s fundamentally decentralized nature. Existing records-keeping infrastructure is 



 

38 

operated by centralized platforms—e.g., governments, museums, rights management 
agencies—that blockchain, by design, intends to replace with the authority of the algorithm 
and the consensus of the crowd. Furthermore, this title registry function is so important that 
the start-ups appear to be vertically integrated from registry to sales, leading to business 
structures that follow vertical market strategy (Stuckey & White ).  

It is important to the construction of the field that we are mindful of private companies 
taking on what have, to date, been public registrarial activities. This vigilance is not because 
it is inherently bad for private companies to keep these records, but because we need to design 
governance structures that protect this information and allow various forms of access to it. 
Wyszomirski and Cherbo () have written on associational infrastructure in the arts. 
Blockchain’s decentralized structure presents unique challenges and opportunities to create 
consortia. Cutolo, Kenney, and Zysman () have written of “platform dependent 
entrepreneurs” to describe start-ups that depend on larger technology platforms such as 
Facebook or Google. Here, blockchain can pixelate platform businesses, making them 
collectively owned; instead of Facebook owning one’s data, one can assert property rights to 
their own data rather than be a product sold by a company to advertisers.18 On the other hand, 
new platforms and standards are being built by private companies, raising the possibility of a 
future in which one company prevails as a registry of authenticity. Following from Brea 
Heidelberg’s work (), these questions of platform dependency will create significant 
opportunities for policy entrepreneurship.  

After infrastructure needs and the blurring of for-profit and nonprofit structures, the 
second greatest area of potential impact of blockchain in arts entrepreneurship is on novel 
funding structures for organizations and for governments. As Diane Ragsdale () writes 
of Margo Jones’s research (), theater organizations can theoretically be structured as 
stock companies. Blockchain allows for a theater to create an investment structure by which 
patrons buy tokens and own part of the theater instead of only buying tickets or donating 
philanthropically. These models shift from the economics of consumption—buying tickets—
to investment models of ownership—buying shares. These investment models can apply to 
nonprofit arts organizations entrepreneurially as well (Preece ; Benz ).  

These models can also apply to governments. In a  article in the Journal of Arts 
Management, Law and Society, Michael Wilkerson proposes various models of “using the arts 
to pay for the arts.” Wilkerson’s endowment and tax-revenue approaches could be realized 
using blockchain. In the proposed “real endowment approach,” an endowment of  billion, 
at a  percent spending rate, would yield roughly the  million annual budget of the NEA. 

 
18 The company Bitmark (www.bitmark.com) manages a plug-in on IFFT.com that allows anyone to 
automatically “bitmark” social media posts so that one asserts property rights before the picture or text is 
posted to Facebook or Instagram. In practice, such a speculative project would probably need to be litigated, 
but the shift in property rights is, from first principle, enabled by blockchain and thus part of the structural 
potential of the technology (IFFT, n.d.). 



 

39 

Rather than stemming from government appropriation, the endowment could be structured 
as a token offered to members of the public. One can also imagine a hybrid in which the 
endowment is partially funded over time through tax revenue connected to, for instance, 
ticket sales, hotel bookings, or other measures of arts-related revenue. Although the politics 
of these funding proposals would be contestable, structurally blockchain enables a variety of 
new models for community support of the arts. These possibilities are particularly timely 
given activated conversations around wealth concentration (Piketty ; Fraser ), 
nonprofit board representation, and museum decolonization (Black, Finlayson, & Haslett 
).19  

The third key impact of blockchain on arts entrepreneurship is in the new structures of 
financialization for art. Although artworks, of course, hold many kinds of social and cultural 
values that are not reducible to the financial (see, for example, Klamer ; Gerber ), 
certain developments in blockchain hold the potential to radically change the ways in which 
artworks circulate in markets. For instance, a non-fungible token of, for instance, a 
Cryptokitty, is a unique image but also a type, the same way that a single Andy Warhol 
painting is a unique but relatable part of the overall body of Andy Warhol’s work. Especially 
the Ethereum-based non-fungible tokens (ERC-s) function financially like artworks. 
Because some of these start-ups, including Portion, Otis, and others, allow investment in art 
but also in sneakers or other collectibles, these companies function as change agents for the 
way we conceptualize art as an asset. Jennifer Lena’s work on how objects are legitimized as 
art may guide some of our understanding of how to consider sneakers alongside digital 
collectibles and fine art (Lena ). 

As companies build platforms for investment in art and in cultural assets, they stand to 
change two fundamental aspects of the arts: First, they can change the art market, including 
the complex economic and cultural signifiers of art investment (Bourdieu ; Velthuis 
), and also link art investment more closely to collecting of luxury goods. While these 
shared investment structures can solve for problems of diversification and liquidity in art 
investing (Horowitz ), they can also potentially destabilize and burst bubbles in the art 
market (Kräussl, Lehnert, & Martelin ). Second, these forms of fractional art investment 
can also reorient art markets to artists if the equity shares originate with the artists’ studio. 
This point of origination brings the art market in line with operating companies by focusing 

 
19 Most recently, a number of museums have stopped accepting donations from the Sackler family based on 
ties to the opioid crisis. Warren Kanders, whose company manufactures tear gas canisters among other 
products, was forced to resign from the board of the Whitney Museum of American Art. Although outside 
the scope of this paper to approach this topic in depth, one can consult the work of Decolonizing the 
Museum, W.A.G.E., and other activist efforts, especially the essay “The Tear Gas Biennial” by Hannah Black, 
Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett in Artforum (2019) on Mr. Kanders. This essay arguably tipped the 
balance of many other forms of protest leading to several artists asking to withdraw their work from the 
Whitney Biennial before Mr. Kanders stepped down from the board. The artists subsequently reinstated their 
work in the exhibition. 



 

40 

on the studio as a producer (Whitaker ). That idea could be critiqued as neoliberal or 
explored as a dynamic alternative to previous attempts at an Artist Pension Trust or other 
format for shared investment among artists. 

In addition to these conceptual pathways, blockchain faces numerous more practical and 
tangible challenges, ranging from the challenges of physical artworks to the risks of 
governmental regulation. Regarding the physicality of artworks, there is not yet a standard 
way of relating a blockchain record to a physical art object. Very few artworks—Autoglyphs 
(Bailey ) being an exception—exist on the blockchain itself, and Autoglyphs are there as 
an intentional speculative act of conceptual practice toward blockchain itself. With regard to 
regulatory risk, the US government has been metabolizing the ways in which cryptocurrencies 
fit into existing systems of taxation and regulation. Both federal and state systems in the 
United States have been under substantial development and uncertainty, with the federal 
government periodically ruling on specific company cases. State law is rapidly evolving, and 
Wyoming currently leads states in the development of cryptocurrency law, akin to the way 
that Delaware is the state with highly developed corporate law. These areas are evolving so 
rapidly that some of the most reliable sources of information are experts who post the 
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) determinations and the various legislative 
updates on Twitter.20  

Toward Questions of Governance and Pedagogy 

In the most optimistic outcomes of blockchain, the technology democratizes access to art and 
energizes conversations about the role of art in society. The arts may also contribute 
important financial innovations for broader investments in creative work and labor 
compensation. In the pessimistic view, the technology is subsumed by platform companies 
such as Facebook and existing central authorities such as banks and then regulated into a re-
centralized version of itself. Its wings are clipped. Just as pessimistically, the idealistic and 
lucid ideas of blockchain fall prey to the vagaries of forgotten private keys and the near-
universal need, for most of the population, to rely on information technology infrastructures 
designed by other people.  

Given these areas of impact on the field, blockchain raises important questions of 
governance. David Yermack has written (a, b) on corporate governance both for 
blockchain and for museum boards of trustees. Especially because blockchain is a 

 
20 For SEC rulings, see Andrew Hinkes, attorney and NYU law professor (@propelforward). For Wyoming 
blockchain news and other developments, Caitlin Long, the former investment banker, Wyoming native, and 
founder of the Wyoming Blockchain Task Force has been a pioneer. See her blog, https://caitlin-
long.com/about/, and Twitter feed: https://twitter.com/caitlinlong_/. While it may be unusual in academic 
writing to suggest social media, the function of these sources of that of experts in real time, before their work 
is digested by academic papers and even journalistic sources, and without the search cost of monitoring SEC 
notices and legislative actions. 



 

41 

decentralized technology, the community governance mechanisms of blockchain are critical 
to the health of the system. These governance mechanisms determine who has a voice or vote 
in changes to the code or solutions to problems or errors.  

For arts entrepreneurship, in an already interdisciplinary field, to what extent do the 
potential ramifications of blockchain technology require arts entrepreneurs, scholars, and 
managers to understand programming or securities law? In a speculative world, blockchain 
is as potentially transformative as democracy. Yet democracy depends on both popular 
participation and some forms of judgment by experts. The arts have always had this tension 
between popular audiences and rarified tastemakers (Whitaker ), and answering these 
questions for blockchain requires further attention to the history of the arts in expanding 
spheres of taste and participation (Lena ).  

Blockchain creates a call to participation that requires us to confront our vulnerability 
and also our mortality—the reality that if we have not done so already, we will not reverse 
engineer our lives to have been undergraduate math and computer science majors with joint 
J.D/M.B.A. training. At the same time, there are matters of degree. We may not all ever learn 
to pass a bill in the U.S. House of Representatives, but we may learn to register to vote and try 
to maintain a level of knowledge of important legislative issues. Whether blockchain takes 
decades to be widely adopted or is grounded on take-off, the potential of the technology 
begins to call anyone’s bluff on maintaining disinterest. The structural machinations of 
change are abstract, yet blockchain’s origin is specific—to the hard efforts in sheer thought of 
a physicist turned math teacher and a cryptographer who once worked professionally as a 
juggler. In spite of blockchain’s technological abstraction or media frenzy, Haber and 
Stornetta’s story offers a human entry point and story of continuing inquiry. 

The robustness of Haber and Stornetta’s (b) original research question—how will 
we know what was true about the past—transcends money and presents itself as a renewing 
art project of our time. Their question dovetails with some of the highest values of the arts as 
a field—worthy novelty, authenticity, and public participation. As a field, our responsibilities 
toward blockchain are those of scholars and practitioners but also of art audiences toward 
new and unfamiliar work. As Sir Nicholas Serota, former director of Tate, once implored the 
audience of the Dimbleby lecture (), “Essentially this…is a plea for patience…that your 
skepticism will gradually diminish and your fear will turn to love…All art was modern once.” 

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