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ARTIVATE: A JOURNAL OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE ARTS 
VOL. 8, NO. 2, SUMMER 2019 

Artmaking as Entrepreneurship 
Effectuation and Emancipation in Artwork Formation 

Adrienne Callander 
University of Arkansas 

ABSTRACT: In this article, I assess how the improvisational and collective models of 
organizing known as effectuation (Sarasvathy 2001) and emancipation (Rindova, 
Barry and Ketchen 2009) apply to the making of socially engaged artwork. This case 
study focuses on the entrepreneurial nature of art-making exemplified by FOOD 
(1971), a collaborative work initiated by Gordon Matta-Clark and Carol Goodden and 
made possible by a host of co-creators throughout its three-year run. This article 
explores the motives and means that generated this work and argues that under 
certain conditions, an artwork functions in distinctly entrepreneurial ways. I also 
argue that the case of FOOD demonstrates how entrepreneurship can be central to 
artwork formation. Specifically, the processes involved in structuring a socially 
engaged artwork rely on the effectual principles of affordable loss, strategic alliance, 
exploitation of contingencies, and control of an unpredictable future, as well as the 
emancipatory principles of seeking autonomy, authoring, and making declarations. 
This article also introduces the term “artwork formation” to tether effectuation and 
emancipation to the continuous formation of socially engaged artwork. By 
recognizing the entrepreneurial process as an aspect of socially engaged art-making, 
I seek to invite discussion on the connection between artistic production and 
entrepreneurship and to support the validity of entrepreneurship in creative 
pedagogy and practice. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34053/artivate.8.2.4 

Introduction 
In this article, I assess how the improvisational and collective models of organizing known as 
effectuation (Sarasvathy ) and emancipation (Rindova, Barry, and Ketchen ) apply 
to the making of socially engaged artwork. Specifically, the processes involved in structuring 
a socially engaged artwork rely on a number of effectual and emancipatory principles. These 
include affordable loss, strategic alliance, exploitation of contingencies, and control of an 
unpredictable future, as well as seeking autonomy, authoring, and making declarations. This 



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case study focuses on the entrepreneurial nature of art-making exemplified by the 
collaborative and participatory artwork, FOOD (), to demonstrate how entrepreneurship 
can be central to artwork formation. Here, the term “artwork formation” tethers effectuation 
and emancipation to the continuous formation of socially engaged artwork. 

FOOD belongs to the category of socially engaged art, though no one had yet coined the 
term in . The work was an extension of participatory and experiential art movements of 
the s and a precursor to what Joseph Beuys refers to as “social sculpture,” a type of art 
informing “how we mould and shape the world in which we live” (Beuys , ). In the 
s, social sculpture’s shaping of interactions between people and their environment 
morphed into relational aesthetics, defined by Bourriaud () as “art taking as its 
theoretical horizon the realm of human interactions and its social context” (Bourriaud , 
). What we know today as “socially engaged art” is a successor to these efforts. Socially 
engaged art, also referred to as “social practice” or “social cooperation art” (Finkelpearl ), 
is an art form that generates human engagement, challenges institutions, and embraces 
change. When tracing the lineage of social practice, relational art, and social sculpture, one 
inevitably encounters FOOD. FOOD traces its own evolution to event scores, happenings, and 
chance operations of the preceding decade and, before that, to the performative rebellion of 
the Dadaists who protested the murderous absurdity of WWI with what FOOD’s co-founder, 
Gordon Matta-Clark, referred to in Schumpeterian terms as “a devotion to the imaginative 
disruption of convention” (Moure , ). 

The example of FOOD demonstrates how effectual and emancipatory features such as 
privileging creation over discovery, collaboration over competition, and improvisation over 
planning apply to the formation of socially engaged artwork. Accordingly, this article seeks 
to not only broaden the discussion of how art and entrepreneurship interact but also to lessen 
the burden on the field of arts entrepreneurship to defend the presence of entrepreneurship 
in art pedagogy and practice. (Gangi ); (Nytch ); (Lord ); (White ); (Essig 
; ); (Roberts ); (Thom ). In arts entrepreneurship literature, 
entrepreneurship frequently appears as a tool to promote art. As I argue here, the lens of 
utility does not frame the intersection of art and entrepreneurship in its entirety.  This article 
argues for acceptance of entrepreneurship research within—rather than merely alongside—
artmaking. Here I want to assert that acceptance of entrepreneurship as an art process 
depends on the degree to which entrepreneurship extends art, not via commercialization of 
its products, but by establishment of its own credibility as a medium—a credibility that may 
entail identification of entrepreneurial processes hiding in plain sight within the making of 
canonical artworks, and that may depend on destabilization of existing frameworks in both 
art and entrepreneurship in order to allow for integrative forms. 

Comparisons of art and entrepreneurship beg their respective definitions. Neither is 
monolithic. Both entail distinct subdomains, with their own sometimes contradictory or 
divergent theories, methods, processes, and outcomes. Is art defined as an object, concept, 
process, exchange, or institutional critique? Is entrepreneurship understood as organization 



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formation, economic disruption, market discovery, or opportunity creation? Does arts 
entrepreneurship derive from entrepreneurship or from art? Is their intersection a distinct 
phenomenon? Regard for the co-constitutionality of art and entrepreneurship supports a 
more nuanced understanding of the relationship between the two. 

This article presents a historiographical case study of the organizational aspects, both 
effectual and emancipatory, of FOOD. It begins by briefly considering indicators of 
organizing—intentionality, resources, boundaries, and exchange (Katz and Gartner )—
in Interfaith Charity Shop (), The Store (), Bliz-aard Ball Sale () and Dorchester 
Projects (-present), and then introduces key elements of effectuation and emancipation. 
It proceeds with a detailed exploration of FOOD and its conceptual, physical, social, cultural, 
and fiscal features and their effectual and emancipatory characteristics. Critiquing the 
conflation of business and entrepreneurship, I challenge the separation of art and 
entrepreneurship—of artist and entrepreneur—and propose that, in the integration of art and 
entrepreneurship, the small-medium enterprise might serve as a vehicle for impact usually 
attributed to innovation-driven enterprise (Aulet & Murray ). As I argue, arts 
entrepreneurship literature neglects entrepreneurship as an art form or a factor in the 
formation of an artwork. This article questions that omission and calls for further research 
into the parallels between effectual and emancipatory processes and the formation and 
performance of socially engaged art. 

Organizing, Effectuation, and Emancipation 
Embedded in Selfridges, the London-based department store, and funded by Artangel, the 
vanguard charitable arts organization, Miranda July’s Interfaith Charity Shop ran as a store, 
an art installation, and a curatorial project for six weeks in . Operated and staffed by four 
separate faith-based charity shops selected by July, Interfaith Charity Shop reflected what July 
called the “inherently participatory conventions of commerce” (“Interfaith Charity Shop at 
Selfridge’s,” ). Hannah Ellis-Peterson () wrote for The Guardian, “The shop is as 
much a curated art piece as a functioning retail venue. . . .” The shop constituted a social 
practice platform for Muslim, Buddhist, Jewish, and Christian collaboration, and for 
participants to engage in ecumenical, commercial, and creative exchange. The art was 
activated by commercial transactions that were themselves micro vehicles for diversity and 
harmony within the established frameworks of socially engaged art—characterized by 
“dependence on social intercourse as a factor of its existence” (Helguera , )—and charity 
retail. One can readily identify signs of organizational emergence—intentionality, resources, 
boundary, exchange—and the potential for sustained performance (Katz & Gartner, ), 
but Interfaith Charity Shop adhered to fine art conventions; the shop was a show that ran for 
six weeks. 

One might be tempted to term Interfaith Charity Shop “entrepreneurial art”, but the 
category does not exist despite a lineage spanning more than half a century of entrepreneurial 
processes operating within artworks. Claes Oldenburg’s The Store () retailed crude, 



64 

painted plaster versions of everyday items in “the realm of five-and-dime commerce” (Keats, 
). David Hammons’s Bliz-aard Ball Sale () mimicked city sidewalk vending with a 
layout of snowball inventory arranged on a blanket and available for purchase. Theaster 
Gates’s Chicago-based Dorchester Projects (–present) merges urban planning, real estate 
development, and socially engaged artwork; to fund building renovations for Stony Island 
Arts Bank (–present), one of many Dorchester subprojects, Gates sold marble tiles from 
its urinals as , bonds. 

That these projects operate according to a conceptual rationale that is not tethered to 
financial return makes them no less entrepreneurial. Referring to venture formation, or 
organization emergence, as “organizing,” Gartner writes: 

Organizing, as a phenomenon, can occur in various formats and situations that are not 
necessarily businesses, or for-profit, or, for that matter, anything other than a phenomenon 
that is assembled in a way that is: intentional, requires resources, bounded in scope, and 
entails exchanges between others (Gartner ). 

Organizing posits that organization formation, or emergence, is detectable in the setting 
of a goal and initiation of its realization; the seeking and gathering of resources; observable 
differentiation between the emergent body and its environment; and transactions. These four 
properties combined suggest entrepreneurial action (Katz & Gartner ). Interfaith Charity 
Shop and The Store marshal resources, rent space, and conduct commercial transactions to 
conflate commercialization of art and commercialization as art. Interfaith Charity Shop, a form 
of socially engaged art, facilitates communion through sales. The Store, in the Pop Art 
vernacular of consumer culture, sells sculptures off the shelf to narrow the margin between 
fine art object and ubiquitous commercial product. Stony Island Art Bank’s tile-bond 
increases in value for its holder for the very reason that it is understood to be an artwork; 
resource and art are the same.  

Bliz-aard Ball Sale presents more subtle and subversive handling of intention, resources, 
boundaries, and exchange. Hammons sold snowballs on the sidewalk. He hawked fragile 
white forms; he operated outside of the gallery system. Speculation persists: is Bliz-aard Ball 
Sale commentary on the status of the black artist, a critique of the art market, a jest? 
Hammons, “best known to the art world for his refusal to participate in its rites and rules” 
(Filipovic , ), provides little guidance but his simultaneous engagement with and 
rejection of the art market is well documented (Filipovic ). Analysis often grounds Bliz-
aard Ball Sale in the art practice of institutional critique, but its entrepreneurial properties are 
irrefutable. Bliz-aard Ball Sale pushes the qualifications for organizing to their limit: the 
product is ephemeral, the resource is dependent on the weather, the marketplace is temporary 
and illegal, and the exchange is largely conceptual. Conventionally, tax status might articulate 
a boundary (Katz & Gartner , ), but Bliz-aard Ball Sale is a black market action; it is 
unregulated. In a nod to marginalization, Bliz-aard Ball Sale points to boundaries by 
strategically minimizing them. Filipovic writes, “. . . Hammons knows that to be black in an 



65 

art world as white as the walls of its museums, and in an America where privilege and presence 
and whiteness go hand in hand, is to realize that visibility is something to mess with, to 
disavow.” (, ). While Interfaith Charity Shop, The Store, and Dorchester Projects 
embrace organizing, Bliz-aard Ball Sale organizes to articulate the precariousness of 
boundaries, resources, and exchange. 

Intentionality, resources, boundaries, and exchange indicate organization emergence; 
the entrepreneurial models of effectuation and emancipation offer frameworks for means and 
motive that are well suited to an examination of both the formation of certain ventures and 
the formation of certain artworks. Effectuation, an entrepreneurial process that seeks to 
“control an unpredictable future rather than predict an uncertain one” (Sarasvathy , 
), claims as entrepreneurial a long-standing art practice: improvisation. It blends bricolage 
(Levi-Strauss )—the ability to “create something from nothing by exploiting physical, 
social, or institutional inputs” (Baker and Nelson , )—and convergence (Baker, 
Miner, & Eesley, )—“composition and execution” occurring simultaneously (Moorman 
and Miner , )—to form a highly agile approach to organizing. Situating effectuation in 
the business context, Sarasvathy () defines the effectuator as “an imaginative actor who 
seizes contingent opportunities and exploits any and all means at hand to fulfill a plurality of 
current and future aspirations, many of which are shaped and created through the very 
processes of economic decision making and are not given a priori” (Sarasvathy , ). 
Drawing on March, Mintzberg, and Weick, effectuation theory emphasizes the “exploration 
of new possibilities” over the “exploitation of old certainties” (Sarasvathy , ), learning 
and discovery over expertise, options over planning, and strategic alliances over the 
competition to build, rather than predict its world. In effectuation, rather than the end 
determining the means, the means determine the end. What comes next is shaped by what 
happens now. 

While effectuation values bricolage and strategic alliances, emancipation merges the two 
to mirror a key aspect of “social bricolage”, described in the context of social 
entrepreneurship: the exploitation of social resources “at hand” to drive “community 
stakeholder participation” in the creation of the venture (Di Domenico, Haugh, Tracey , 
). Who is at hand is as important as what is at hand. A nexus of three activities—seeking 
autonomy, authoring, and making declarations—spurs and supports emancipatory 
entrepreneuring, defined as “efforts to bring about new economic, social, institutional, and 
cultural environments through the actions of an individual or group of individuals” (Rindova, 
Barry and Ketchen , -). Drawing on research that indicates a variety of 
entrepreneurial goals beyond the maximization of profits (Baker and Nelson ); (Baker 
and Pollock ), emancipatory theory emphasizes change creation over wealth creation. In 
the emancipation model, the entrepreneur seeks to break up the status quo and break free of 
perceived constraints of “an intellectual, psychological, economic, social, institutional, or 
cultural nature” (Rindova, Barry and Ketchen , -). Seeking autonomy emphasizes 
the collective over the individual. It relies on authoring and making declarations—both 



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inherently relational processes—to mediate the tension that emerges when a venture disrupts 
established practices and proposes new perspectives while at the same time requiring support 
and acceptance of the disruption from established networks and systems. Authoring is a 
process in which “relationships, arrangements, and rules of engagement” (Rindova, Barry and 
Ketchen , ) are defined and developed to strengthen the change potential of the 
venture. It positions the venture “in a system of exchange relationships with resource holders” 
(Rindova, Barry and Ketchen , ) to preempt potential resource holder demands that 
could undermine the emancipatory goals of the venture. Making declarations, a 
reinforcement device that complements authoring, delivers “unambiguous discursive and 
rhetorical acts” that make sense of the change proposition. Making declarations positions the 
venture within “webs of meaning” (Rindova, Barry and Ketchen , ) that ease 
acceptance of the venture’s break with conventions. 

The collaborative and participatory artwork, FOOD (), opened its doors for business 
forty-six years before Interfaith Charity Shop, and it practiced effectual and emancipatory 
principles thirty years before their categorization in the entrepreneurship literature. What 
follows is a study of FOOD as a forerunner of the integration of art and entrepreneurship, 
specifically socially engaged art and effectual and emancipatory models of entrepreneurial 
process. 

Art Was Restaurant Was Art 
Some -odd years before July’s Interfaith Charity Shop, on September , , FOOD 
opened at  Spring Street in the warehouse district of lower Manhattan. Initiated by artists 
and embraced by a diverse strata of people who accepted its experimental nature and 
participated in it as workers and as patrons, FOOD was “a restaurant, performance place, 
gathering space, a place to hang out, and a place an artist could earn quick money waiting 
tables” (Morris, ). A performative and socially engaged artwork that incorporated the 
restaurant model, FOOD was a sustained improvisation that integrated cooking, art, 
architecture, and business (Lee, ). The site-specific piece was “at once a meeting place, a 
business, and a conceptual work of art” (Morris, ). 

FOOD began as a party conversation between Carol Goodden and Gordon Matta-Clark. 
Goodden, a dancer, provided the bulk of the financial investment. Matta-Clark, a sculptor 
and trained architect, inspired the conceptual scaffolding that encompassed cuisine, 
performance, sculpture, and the built environment. Goodden () recalls, “Gordon’s idea 
was that the whole restaurant was an art-piece, a living sculpture.” Building on the “event 
score,” on “happenings,” and on food art—all of which, in turn, had built credibility on the 
earlier phenomena of Marcel Duchamp’s readymade and Dada’s Cabaret Voltaire—FOOD 
escaped the conventions and constraints of the gallery and presented the commercial 
transaction as a medium.  

Sunday Night Guest Dinners showcased artists-as-chefs who produced “meals of a 
decidedly artistic bent” (Lee, ). Goodden () writes, “The serving of these dinners 



67 

and the public reaction to them, Gordon saw as performances.” For the meal-performance 
Alive, Matta-Clark served live brine shrimp in hard-boiled egg white hollows; for Bones, 

[t]he entrée was a platter of bones of all sizes and their attendant meat – frog, chicken, and 
beef. . . .When the customers were through eating their dinner, the bones went to musician 
Richard Peck who scrubbed them up, then went to sculptor/jeweler Hisachika Takahashi who 
drilled holes in them and strung them on a rope. Along with their check stubs, the waitresses 
gave the bone necklaces to the customers so they could wear their dinner home.  

Paul Ha (in Goodden, ) refers to FOOD’s capacity to feed body, mind, and spirit as 
“arts sustenance.” Ideas of sustenance could take a surreal turn. Matta-Clark (in Moure, ) 
wrote to fellow artist St. Lee Junior, enticing him to offer himself up as the main course: 
“Lee—just imagine what a fabulous treat you would make. It seems to be the perfect 
achievement for the artist lover or saint to give all of himself and be well chewed before 
swallowing. You would not only be well remembered but superbly catered.” 

This nexus of food, performance, and the participatory had precedent. Fluxus artists of 
the s used food as a medium and the meal as context in what are historically labeled event 
scores: “simple actions, ideas, and objects from everyday life recontextualized as 
performance” (Knowles, ). Allison Knowles made a salad (Make A Salad, ); Ken 
Friedman served the audience soup (Twenty Gallons, ); Emmet Williams and Ben Vautier 
each staged elegant dinner parties that eventually opened up for audience participation 
(Supper, ); Bengt af Klintberg complicated eating by intentionally missing his mouth 
while attempting to eat an entire meal on stage (Food Piece for Dick Higgins,). Matta-
Clark himself had previously roasted a pig under the Brooklyn Bridge (Pig Roast, –) 
fried photographs (Photo Fry, ), and planted a cherry tree in a gallery (Cherry Tree, ). 

Fluxus was a process-oriented and performative collective of interdisciplinary artists, 
many of them residing in lower Manhattan, who often engaged audience members as 
participants in the creation or completion of an artwork. The collective championed the call 
of the late s and early s to incorporate chance operations in artmaking as promoted 
by pioneering composer John Cage and to operate in what Robert Rauschenberg referred to 
as the gap between art and life. 

Fluxus artist Allan Kaprow, credited with the development of the performance artworks 
known as “happenings,” identifies a gap between the recognizable and the as-yet-to-be-
named when artists challenge established art modes. He called this gap “nonart.” In his  
essay, “The Education of the Un-Artist,” he wrote: 

Nonart is whatever has not yet been accepted as art but has caught an artist’s attention with 
that possibility in mind. . .Nonart’s advocates, according to this description, are those who 
consistently, or at one time or other, have chosen to operate outside the pale of art 
establishments—that is, in their heads, or in the daily or natural domain. 



68 

Matta-Clark and his peers measured their liberation by the extent to which they could 
operate in this “natural domain.” FOOD was activated by exchange; it was participatory. It 
was realized through civic communion and the personal and political realities those 
exchanges encompassed, and it reflected Matta-Clark’s personal aesthetic philosophy: 
“[U]nlike other artists, I feel the need to become directly involved in a context that is 
physically, politically and socially structured, in short, to leave the studio and go out on the 
streets” (in Moure, ). Matta-Clark was neither alone nor original in this desire. 

FOOD relied on everyday interactions and participants willing to enter into an unscripted 
territory and to adapt to conditions as they arose. An advertisement for FOOD that ran in the 
Spring  issue of the arts magazine Avalanche lists more than  cocreators. In addition 
to artists cooking, dancers danced, films were shot, and “art was discussed, inspired and 
produced” (Morris, ). While Goodden and Matta-Clark are credited with financially and 
creatively initiating FOOD, it was made possible by a host of collaborators who joined the 
action during its three-year run. Matta-Clark (in Moure, ) would later profess, “As an 
artist, for years I have endeavored to channel my actions toward an idea of social welfare. . . . 
I don’t wish to be considered an artist who does everything himself.” 

A critique of norms played out beyond FOOD’s curb, where a constellation of concerted 
and sustained art actions had inspired its inception:  Greene Street, the experimental 
exhibition and workspace owned by Jeffrey Lew who “gave artists the opportunity to work 
with abandon”; Anarchitecure, the think tank that met weekly to conceptually “deconstruct 
existing structures . . . anything from a building to a herd of sheep”; and the locally produced 
arts magazine Avalanche, an “important social and intellectual link in the Soho art universe” 
and “perfect media vehicle” for both FOOD and  Greene Street (Morris, ). 

In More Songs about Buildings and Food, Thomas Crow () writes that while FOOD 
was “something of a permanent stage for Matta-Clark and numerous friends,” it also provided 
“reasonably cheap, fresh, and healthy nourishment for the youthful contingent of loft-
dwellers in a neighborhood with next to no commercial infrastructure.” By the late s, the 
postwar exodus of manufacturing firms from lower Manhattan had culminated in mass 
vacancy. Artist Jene Highstein (in Donoso, ) remembers, “People thought the 
neighborhood was dangerous, but it was just deserted—after  o’clock there was nobody 
there.” Artists living south of Houston street prior to  squatted in largely abandoned 
commercially zoned industrial spaces. In January , in an effort to ameliorate conditions, 
the New York City Housing Authority adopted an artist-in-residence (A.I.R.) amendment, 
effectively rezoning the area—later branded SoHo—for joint living and work use by 
“certified” artists who were thus categorized by law as light manufacturers (“City Planning 
Commission NZRM,” ).  

Ironically, the very artists vying for consideration within this category in order to afford 
the city and maintain proximity to its marketplace were actively transforming concepts of 
both goods and production. The interdisciplinary arts community south of Houston Street 



69 

would not confine itself to discrete or established methods or outputs. Artist Jane Crawford 
(in Donoso, ), Matta-Clark’s widow, recalls transgression as the norm:  

The artists who were attracted to SoHo came from all around the country, and the world, 
working in all areas of the arts. They didn’t mind living primitively on the fringes of society 
in exchange for roomy studio space. There were many different political theories and social 
theories, ethnicities and aesthetics—but everybody was opposed to the war . . . and the 
establishment. . . . We felt that all institutions were aligned with “the establishment,” and so 
they needed to be turned upside down and reevaluated. 

FOOD redefined the conventional restaurant by overlapping its space and function with 
social, economic, and aesthetic complexities. Diners became patrons and collectors—as in 
Bones, one might wear one’s dinner home—while artists became stakeholders. In lieu of 
profit, FOOD’s return on investment comprised wages, affordable nutrition, and community. 
FOOD financially supported artists and was an artwork in its own right—it produced both 
artist and art. While  Greene Street, Anarchitecture, and Avalanche provided the 
conceptual groundwork for FOOD, carving out alternative spaces for the production of 
experimental and increasingly dematerialized work of the late s and early s, FOOD’s 
innovation extended beyond production to distribution. While FOOD participated in what 
Crawford () refers to as the “out-of-the-gallery movement,” a subtler relocation of the 
art “product” to the commercial transaction itself was taking place. FOOD conflated art and 
non-art labor. The art was accessed not only by entering the physical space of the restaurant 
or participating in its improvisational culinary events but also, specifically, in the everyday 
economic micro exchanges that it contained. Exchanges of labor for remuneration or trade-
in-kind supported a process equal parts aesthetic and pecuniary. 

Conceptually and pragmatically, FOOD was designated as art in tandem with its 
designation as business. “Half dreaming, half sweating, still planning the restaurant,” Matta-
Clark (in Moure, ) wrote to St. Lee Junior. “This so much absorbs and demands my 
energies. . . I keep wondering why I am doing this. . . It cannot be for business or money alone. 
There are deeper needs and pleasures at stake.” FOOD was improvisational; the process itself 
was a deliverable. However, improvisation was not without orchestration. Open from eleven 
in the morning until midnight throughout the week, FOOD served the growing population 
south of Houston Street. Staff shopped the Fulton Street fish market and took delivery of meat 
and produce orders throughout the day; people paid for meals; people worked; people were 
paid. While FOOD has been referred to as “more of a utopian enterprise than a business,” 
(Kennedy, ),  Catherine Morris () writes, “For Goodden, the restaurant was also a 
business venture. It was a way to earn a living. . .” Goodden () herself recalls,  

For three years, FOOD earned enough money to pay its bills, feed Gordon and me, some 
friends, our workers, and some bums who came in the back door. For three years FOOD 



70 

employed, over that time, roughly sixty artists so that they could afford to live in New York 
while they struggled with their art career. 

As a result, FOOD challenged conventions within the domains of art and business alike. 
The restaurant-as-art might be as confounding to the conventions of art as the restaurant-as-
not-business might be to business. 

Before FOOD disbanded in , Matta-Clark and Goodden would attempt to sell it to 
the art dealer Leo Castelli. Castelli, a midtown dealer who in  had opened a satellite 
gallery on Greene Street around the corner from FOOD, declined to acquire the startup. Thus, 
FOOD ended its run. Thirty-four years later, in a  New York Times food section review of 
the Whitney Museum’s Matta-Clark retrospective, critic Randy Kennedy writes of the many 
practices—once deemed “countercultural”—that emerged from FOOD and which are today 
widespread: 

fresh and seasonal foods, a geographically catholic menu, a kitchen fully open to the dining 
room, cooking as a kind of performance—have now become so ingrained in restaurants in 
New York and other large cities that it is hard to remember a time when such a place would 
have seemed almost extraterrestrial. (Kennedy, ) 

FOOD, like Interfaith Charity Shop, elevated an everyday setting to the status of stage and 
enabled chance encounters coupled with commercial transactions to generate an art form that 
merged art and business operations in what could be labeled “entrepreneurial art,” not only 
because it manifested signs of organizing, but because it performed entrepreneurial processes 
as art processes. The art was restaurant; the restaurant was art. 

Artwork Formation 
FOOD, a socially engaged artwork that ran for three years, was continuously organizing. This 
ongoing act of organizing, artwork formation, extends the improvisational and collective 
models of effectuation and emancipation to the continuous formation of socially engaged 
artwork. Because art was restaurant and restaurant was art, signs of intentionality, resources, 
boundaries, and exchange are readily apparent. Effectual principles of affordable loss, 
strategic alliance, exploitation of contingencies, and control of an unpredictable future are 
also evident, as are emancipatory principles of seeking autonomy, authoring, and making 
declarations. 

FOOD innovated by merging meals, art, and architecture in a “living sculpture” 
(Goodden, ) that generated the restaurant-gallery, the meal-performance, and the artist-
chef. FOOD improvised. It created and implemented simultaneously, “design and execution 
of novel activities converge[d]” (Baker, Miner, & Eesley, ). Its creators were effectuators 
who bet what they had, made use of what was on hand, contracted with local vendors, 
networked with neighbors—many of whom were fellow artists already seeking to “work with 



71 

abandon” and to “deconstruct existing structures”—and collaborated with patrons who might 
wear their dinner home. FOOD converted unforeseen events into opportunities to sustain a 
dynamic venture that operated “outside the pale of art establishments” (Kaprow ). Those 
who participated in the creative evolution and financial sustainability of FOOD became 
economic actors rather than those acted upon, the traders instead of the traded (Rindova, 
Barry, & Ketchen, ). They sought creative and economic autonomy not only for 
themselves but also for the cultural collective of which they were apart.  

Making declarations to develop webs of meaning is par for the course in art. This idea is 
especially true for the avant-garde; dismantling conventions requires an interpretive 
framework. Much is known about Matta-Clark’s intentions and how he anticipated others 
would receive the artwork because in interviews, letters, and written statements he announced 
them; in declaring and recording his intentions, Matta-Clark may have had his legacy in 
mind, but he was also priming the audience. That audience, those stakeholders, included the 
art critics and journalists who would amplify the declarations. Declarations were made in 
other ways. The advertisement for FOOD in Avalanche promoted the project; in listing  
cocreators it declared what kind of project it was. 

Sarasvathy writes that the logic for using effectuation processes “is particularly useful in 
areas where human action (locally or in the aggregate) is the predominant factor shaping the 
future” (, ). Beyond Goodden’s monetary investment and the purchase of meals, it 
was social capital that fueled FOOD. Participation was a resource. Resource holders were those 
who engaged with FOOD as patrons, cocreators, and customers. A network defined “the 
relationships, arrangements, and rules of engagement” that would “preserve and potentially 
enhance the change potential” (Rindova, Barry, & Ketchen , ) of the project. The 
effectuator’s definition of the market—“a community of people willing and able to commit 
enough resources and talents to sustain the particular enterprise” (Sarasvathy , )—
fits. Of effectuation, Sarasvathy writes, “the structure of what exactly the enterprise is is left 
open and is dependent upon the particular commitments made by the stakeholders” 
(Sarasvathy , ). Socially engaged artwork does not know how it will end. The artist 
initiates, but ultimately relies on others—and unknowns—to fully realize the artwork. 

While most writings about FOOD focus on its sculptural, performative, architectural, 
culinary, and urban development implications, few focus on the entrepreneurial, and none 
explicitly name it as such. The omission may stem from a conflation of entrepreneurship with 
business and the perception that the efficiencies of business thinking are antithetical to the 
aspirations of artmaking. By the standard account, business locks down processes and 
standardizes outputs; art cultivates an embrace of unknowns and shifts perspectives. 
According to this narrative, the art market reduces the artist to a cog in the supply chain, 
while the field of artistic practice positions the artist to transgress. To label FOOD 
entrepreneurial would thus be to negate its designation as art; profit cannot substitute for 
soul, so the thinking goes. 



72 

These reductive narratives indeed render entrepreneurship and art incommensurable. 
However, this perspective relies on an oversimplification of entrepreneurship as a profit 
generator and of artmaking as self-expression. Newer ways of thinking emerging out of the 
entrepreneurship field have challenged such binary thinking, pointing in particular to the 
palpable costs it incurs to business. In “Inviting the Unexpected: Entrepreneurship and the 
Arts,” Meisek and Haefliger (), for example, posit that in setting remunerative goals 
instead of valorizing creative process and the production of meaning, a venture curtails its 
full potential and cuts short entrepreneurship’s inherently creative capacity. “The dominant 
account of entrepreneurship,” they maintain, “neglects concomitant processes by which 
meaning rather than business value is created” (Meisek, Haefliger, , ). 

Disaggregating business and entrepreneurship, Meisek and Haefliger () contrast 
“the analysis, planning and implementation impetus” against the entrepreneurial impulse to 
create new forms: 

If we assess entrepreneurs’ value propositions only in terms of their pay-off, we lose a more 
nuanced account, where the meaning of a novelty is not equal to its functionality or economic 
success, but relates to the aesthetical and ethical sentiments it evokes, and where dreaming, 
discovering and free imagination are central aspects of the process of creation. 

Identifying the unexpected as an essential component of novelty creation, they note that 
in an entrepreneurial process that measures success according to an economic rationale, 
unexpected events—while initially welcome—are ultimately problematic: “The entrepreneur 
has to avoid them or adapt to them quickly to maintain stakeholder connections and to secure 
the economic success of the venture” (Meisek & Haefliger, ). 

 Meisek and Haefliger () argue for a more nuanced account of entrepreneurship—
one in which “the unexpected takes the role of something to be invited throughout the process 
of creation, rather than something merely to hope for in the beginning and to react to later.” 
In “Arts Entrepreneurship vs. the Sum of Its Parts,” E. Andrew Taylor () resists 
disaggregation of the entrepreneur, the entrepreneuring, and the enterprise: 

What if the unique and compelling aspect of arts entrepreneurship is not its separate parts, 
nor the paths between them, but its complete integration as a system? What if the person, the 
process, and the outcome inform and transform each other in ways we cannot observe or 
explain when considering them separately? 

Taken further, if the dominant account of entrepreneurship were to acknowledge 
“concomitant processes by which meaning rather than business value is created” (Meisek, 
Haefliger, , ), it would not be so easy to draw a line between art and entrepreneurship 
(Meisek & Haefliger, ). At the point where art and entrepreneurship become indivisible, 
entrepreneurship could be recognized as an art form and the arts entrepreneur as, simply, an 
artist. 



73 

These examples of recent academic scholarship in the field of entrepreneurship and art 
entrepreneurship offer a way forward for thinking about how we might conceptualize the 
integration of art and entrepreneurship. The recent history of art offers a trove of examples—
FOOD paramount among them—demonstrating the ways artists have already begun and 
continue to implement such integration. In the case of FOOD, the business and the art are 
one and the same. When one recognizes that Matta-Clark not only supplied food in a food 
desert but also introduced innovations in art, architecture, and cuisine that reverberate to this 
day, it is difficult to separate the artist from the entrepreneur. 

Perhaps the most apt model to characterize such an endeavor is at the threshold between 
what Aulet and Murray () describe as two distinct entrepreneurial models: Small and 
Medium Enterprise (SME) and Innovation Driven Enterprise (IDE). Aulet and Murray 
() identify SMEs as vehicles for self-employment that “give people the opportunity to 
work independently and use their skills.” Enterprise defined as SME is most commonly the 
formation of small or medium firms focused on recognizable products and services. For 
example, an opera company might ditch the opera house for a subway platform, but if it still 
provides something recognizable as opera, it is operating as an SME. Enterprise defined as 
IDE, by comparison, pursues “global opportunities based on bringing to customers new 
innovations that have a clear competitive advantage and high growth potential” (Aulet & 
Murray, ). IDEs generate “new-to-the-world ideas.” 

Aulet and Murray () do not suggest that IDEs are better than SMEs, or that an SME 
is incapable of growing into an IDE, but that support for each is different, and institutions 
need to approach them with their differences in mind. In a nutshell: an SME can get off the 
ground and employ people quickly, and—if successful—will experience steady linear growth, 
but an SME is limited to local or regional impact. Generally, an IDE takes much longer to 
launch, operates initially at a loss, and requires large amounts of investment capital. However, 
when an IDE launches—if successful—its economic growth potential is exponential. An IDE 
has a global transformative impact. 

By all appearances, FOOD was an SME. It looked like a restaurant. It acted as a restaurant. 
It was a vehicle for self-employment that “gave people the opportunity to work independently 
and use their skills.” But FOOD also generated “new-to-the-world” ideas. It intersected the 
architectural and the culinary in the arts, significantly impacting all three fields. Its concepts 
and practices were scaled over time and across sectors. FOOD was both IDE and SME. And it 
was art.  

Arts entrepreneurship literature often reinforces the distinctions between arts and 
business. Its apologists defend entrepreneurship as a means of growing audience participation 
(Nytch ; Lord ), increasing employment within the arts (Roberts ; White ; 
Thom ), developing an entrepreneurial mindset in future arts leaders (Essig ), 
strengthening community engagement (Wilson and Manti ), enhancing collaborative 
practices (Whitaker ), and activating authentic career trajectories (Hart ). 
Positioning entrepreneurship as the means and art as the end, Essig’s ouroboros model of arts 



74 

entrepreneurship draws on entrepreneurial orientations ranging from entrepreneurial 
mindset to firm formation for sustaining and strengthening the production and distribution 
of art, rather than mere maximization of profits (Essig ). Gangi beautifully articulates 
alignment between effectuation and creative process to support effectuation as a highly 
relevant pedagogical tool for arts entrepreneurship education, the goal of which is “to help 
artists, and non-artists who desire to work in the arts, to create their own opportunities and 
ventures that result in sustainable careers” (Gangi , ). Arts entrepreneurship, a nascent 
and controversial field, relies on such advocacy to counter “perceptual barriers” (Gangi , 
) and “longstanding romantic notions” (Bonin-Rodriguez , ) that foster disciplinary 
resistance to entrepreneurship and frame art as high, commerce as low, and the artist as 
disinterested. 

Bonin-Rodriguez traces a vein of this resistance to s neoliberal rhetoric that 
weaponized the term “entrepreneur” to cynically promote self-reliance and unravel social 
welfare programs and he interrogates issues of “access, strategy, and privilege” (Bonin-
Rodriguez , ) in the handling of the term within an art context. In “The Value-Based 
Approach to Economics” (), cultural economist Arjo Klamer argues that, despite the 
myth of the artist as a lone genius, an individualistic narrative runs counter to prevalent 
artistic values. While these values do not skirt monetary or aesthetic concerns, Klamer points 
out, they underscore a strong engagement with the social (contributions to a specific 
community) and the societal (contributions to “social justice, political freedom, human 
rights, or national identity”) (, ). In a values-based approach, rational choice (the 
economic premise that all action is motivated by self-interest) and neoliberal valorization of 
entrepreneurship as proof that self-reliance trumps social cohesion do not sit well. In their 
 literature review, Chang and Wyszomirski offer a definition of arts entrepreneurship 
that supports the perspective that the arts maintain the social as a core concern: “a 
management process through which cultural workers seek to support their creativity and 
autonomy, advance their capacity for adaptability, and create artistic as well as economic and 
social value” (Chang and Wyszomirski , ). The measures do not have to be equal, but 
social value is part of the equation. 

Socially engaged art allows for seamless integration of social value and entrepreneurship 
and enables arts entrepreneurship research to direct its efforts at both venture formation and 
artwork formation. If arts entrepreneurship can be an art form in its own right, will it still be 
necessary to argue whether arts entrepreneurship belongs more to art or more to 
entrepreneurship? The apologist defends the controversial; the appropriator takes ownership 
of material not their own. The apologist plays an important role in justifying 
entrepreneurship’s place in the fine arts, and may also substantiate the relevance of the arts 
to broader entrepreneurship research, but in identifying alignments between art and 
entrepreneurship, might we also call on appropriators? Certain entrepreneurial motives and 
processes apply to the formation of certain kinds of art. This certain kind of art is always in 
formation; the work itself is entrepreneurial. 



75 

Conclusion 
My research and writing in this article responds to, resists, and works around a long line of 
“art for art’s sake” presumptions about art and artists, perhaps best exemplified by the work 
of art critic Clement Greenberg (-). Greenberg sought to preserve painting’s 
autonomy from cultural relativism by advocating its turn inward. Greenberg argued for purity 
and singularity. He made a case for painting’s niche. Painting was to concern itself with that 
which only painting could accomplish. According to Greenberg, modernist painting could 
only withstand the threat of intrusion by isolating its core and delineating its boundaries. This 
tactic enabled the discipline to withstand upheaval wrought by ideological encroachment, but 
the concentrated center of any practice loses relevance when it amputates the exploratory and 
often integrative fringe that would infuse—even as it threatens—the core. The single-
trajectory narrative of Abstract Expressionism eventually gave way to multivalent painting 
terrains, but porousness was possible only after perpetuity was certain. A degree of 
destabilization is essential to innovation, but acceptance of the new requires some measure of 
continuity. Arts entrepreneurship scholarship makes eloquent and empirical arguments that 
support entrepreneurship’s inclusion in arts pedagogy and practice, but full acceptance of 
entrepreneurship by art will depend on the extent to which art appropriates entrepreneurship 
as a medium and a process, in form and formation. 

Socially engaged art embraces process and relinquishes control to the chance operations 
engendered by human interactions. The socially engaged artwork is itself an act of organizing; 
it continuously emerges. Embedded in the form and formation of socially engaged art are 
effectual and emancipatory processes. What other entrepreneurial processes might apply? 
How might these processes apply to other forms of art? As entrepreneurship confronts art, 
inevitably the inverse arises: art confronts entrepreneurship. How might social engagement 
theory inform entrepreneurship? And what does entrepreneurship-as-medium look like in 
fields outside the fine arts?  

In defense of entrepreneurship studies in a liberal arts education, Godwyn writes, 
“[E]ntrepreneurship represents not only engagement with the outside world, but also the 
attempt to change the world according to a particular vision” (Godwyn, , ). In 
“Entrepreneurship as a new liberal art,” Baker and Powell link organizing, agency, and 
participation in civic life: 

For most of us, accomplishing anything of substance in the contemporary world requires 
using an organization (Aldrich ; Tausky, ). Because existing organizations are mostly 
oriented toward what someone else is trying to do, accomplishing what we want often means 
needing to create a new organization. Therein lies a primary and distinctive domain of 
entrepreneurship: organization creation (Gartner, ). If we consider this ability to pursue 
one’s own desires to create accomplishments of substance part of peoples’ freedom to 
participate fully in society, then the skills and knowledge required to engage in 
entrepreneurship are therefore vital elements of citizenship. (Baker and Powell, , ). 



76 

The cooperative principles of a socially engaged art practice temper the individualistic 
tone of these statements without sacrificing entrepreneurship’s change-making potential and 
application to civic participation. The socially engaged art effectuator becomes an agent of 
participatory democratic practice. In conversation with the editor of the influential arts blog, 
Hyperallergic.com, the curator and social practice critic Nato Thompson asked, “To what 
degree are we talking about the role of artists in civil society?” and answered, “I do think they 
have a huge role to play in terms of dream makers. And I don’t mean this even tangentially . . . 
look to Occupy Wall Street, there were artists directly involved” (Vartanian ). Beyond 
assuaging artists’ very real concern that entrepreneurship could invade and co-opt the arts 
with a neoliberal agenda that is antithetical to the arts’ imperative to add social value, the 
merits espoused above point to arts and humanities imperatives embedded within the practice 
of entrepreneurial processes. They give artists leeway to make entrepreneurship essential to 
rather than in service of their practice. 

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