VOL. 12 2023–2024 Evaluating an Art and Design Students’ Gender- Based Entrepreneurial Potential Model Peter Oluwagbenga Odewole Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye ABSTRACT: Extant literature has revealed the issue of gender inequality in art and design edu- cation and entrepreneurship. Given that gender inequality hinders socio-economic develop- ment in any nation, it is crucial to gather empirical evidence on whether the entrepreneurial potential of art and design students is influenced by gender. Hence, this study examined the relationship between art and design students’ gender and their entrepreneurial potential. Using a well-structured questionnaire, the study sampled 204 art and design undergraduate students from different higher institutions across Nigeria. Data were collected from participants using a questionnaire that included measures of their entrepreneurial traits. The hypothesized rela- tionships among variables were tested based on Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Struc- tural Equation Modeling (SEM). The findings indicate that CFA and SEM results showed a good fit between the proposed model and the observed data for both female and male groups. This suggests that both genders of art and design students have significant potential to become en- trepreneurs without any biases. KEYWORDS: gender, art and design students, entrepreneurial potential, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Struc- tural Equation Modeling (SEM). DOI: doi.org/10.34053/artivate.12.1.204 Introduction Entrepreneurship, in the context of this article, encompasses a range of activities, includ- ing innovation, risk management, value creation, resource allocation, intrapreneurship within organizations, social and serial entrepreneurship, economic development, lifestyle choices, cultural expression, academic and research endeavors, and global engagement, all centered around identifying opportunities and applying entrepreneurial principles in diverse contexts beyond traditional venture creation. This agrees with De Avila and Davel (2023), who reasoned that arts entrepreneurship could be innovation-based, mindset- ARTIVATE 12 2 based, project-based, and organization-based. Like other fields, entrepreneurship in art and design involves identifying opportunities, taking risks, organizing resources, and us- ing innovation and creativity to bring a new product, service, or business concept to the marketplace. Entrepreneurship is relevant to economic growth and significant for driving social development in every nation of the world. Ungureanu (2020) opines that entrepreneur- ship and economic development have become significantly interlinked in the new global economy. Fostering entrepreneurship in the art and design field is increasingly essential. The reason for this is the increasing need for channeling the teeming unemployed youths towards viable and sustainable pathways to self-reliance. The art and design discipline offered in higher education institutions is vocational-based and provides a vital path for creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship. Emphasizing the teaching and learning of entrepreneurship in the arts and design field is driven by the need to facilitate artists’ in- tegration into the workforce and equip individuals who can drive the creative economy (De Avila & Davel, 2023). The art and design field is a domain of the creative economy that offers prominent entrepreneurial potential (Jalil et al., 2019). Entrepreneurship potential comprises a set of psychological cognitions and percep- tions of oneself about confidence, success, risks, motivations, and competencies, including everything that influences entrepreneurial intentions (Ward et al., 2019). Entrepreneurial potential connects with several personality traits that characterize successful entrepre- neurs, including self-efficacy, opportunity-seeking, calculated risk-taking, leadership, per- sistence, and more (Souza et al., 2017). This implies that the more entrepreneurial traits individuals possess or can develop, the greater their potential to become entrepreneurs (Windapo, 2018). According to Zefane (2012), people with the desire or potential to be- come entrepreneurs are usually more inclined to start a business. Youth unemployment and gender stereotypes continue to persist as significant issues in the field of entrepreneurship (Mahlaole & Malebana, 2022). In Nigeria, a developing country with over 200 million people, youth entrepreneurship research is crucial for ad- dressing the issue of high unemployment rates. Nevin et al. (2020) reported that 41% and 31% of the Nigerian population aged 15-34 years and 25-34 years were unemployed. The percentage of unemployed individuals with a bachelor’s degree was 41%, which is higher than 18% for those with vocational skills. This indicates that more than obtaining a higher education is required to secure employment. To tackle this problem, the Nigerian govern- ment introduced the NPower policy, which aims to create 600,000 new jobs and provide entrepreneurial training and skills development opportunities for graduates and non- graduates (Nevin et al., 2020). However, according to Akabuike (2022), Nigeria has not yet tapped into the entrepreneurial potential of its students. The interest in entrepreneurship education in the 21st century now hinges on achiev- ing sustainable development goals (SDGs) (Ashari et al., 2021). In this sense, the extent to which an entrepreneurship course can achieve the SDGs determines its effectiveness. The ARTIVATE 12 3 attempt to attain SDGs 4 and 5 has recently driven the need for more inclusive and equi- table quality education and more gender-based research in developing countries. Regard- ing entrepreneurship, gender inequality is deleterious to socio-economic development in any country, particularly developing countries (Olarewaju & Fernando, 2020). In Nigeria, addressing gender biases in entrepreneurial undertakings is one of the significant con- cerns of vocational education and training in recent times (Akwa, 2016). Since Odewole et al. (2022) addressed the gender suitability of the art and design dis- cipline, considering gender issues relating to art and design students’ entrepreneurial po- tential is also relevant. Gender disparities and the efficacy of entrepreneurship training programs are interconnected with gender concerns in entrepreneurship education and advancement. The claim in some extant literature that entrepreneurship is male-oriented presents gender as a mystifying variable that moderates entrepreneurial intentions and behavior (Ward et al., 2019). According to Miller (2013), sociological literature on gender and artistic careers revealed numerous ways in which cultural perceptions of artists tend to assume a masculine subject. Thus, there is a need to provide empirical evidence on whether or not the potential of art and design students to become entrepreneurs is gen- der-driven. “Gender-driven” in the context of this article suggests that entrepreneurial potential may vary by gender-related factors, such as the experiences, challenges, or opportunities that individuals of different genders encounter when pursuing entrepreneurial activities in the art and design field. Nonbinary groups have been an essential community in art and design, like in other fields of human endeavor (Furman et al., 2019). Therefore, it is imper- ative to clarify that the female or male gender referred to in this article is the “genetic female or genetic male,” according to the Nigerian cultural context, instead of the socially attributed meanings to the masculine and feminine genders. To the researcher’s best knowledge based on the literature review, no empirical study has yet been conducted to investigate art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential in Nigeria’s tertiary institutions. Hence, this study examined art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test the hypothe- sized relationships among variables. Theoretical Background Gender in Entrepreneurship Gender is a significant factor, particularly regarding stereotypes about women in the labor market (Pech & R ehor , 2021). There is evidence of disparity in the gender gaps in entre- preneurial involvement in some African countries, including Nigeria (Ndofirepi et al., 2018). Gender inequalities in entrepreneurship typically encompass several factors, in- cluding limited access to credit and finance/capital, fewer networking opportunities for ARTIVATE 12 4 women entrepreneurs, horizontal gender segregation, challenges balancing work and family life, and gender biases and stereotypes about women in business (Arnaut et al., 2016). The perpetuation of a stereotypical and male-centric view in entrepreneurial activ- ities can dissuade women from engaging in such activities (Cardella et al., 2020). Hence, promoting gender equality can foster the establishment and success of enterprises char- acterized by increased innovation, sustainability, and a rewarding workplace (Muntean & Ozkazanc-Pan, 2015). Gender and Entrepreneurial Potential in Art and Design Education Higher education provides an appropriate avenue for the development of entrepreneur- ship (Hatt, 2018). Entrepreneurial learning in higher institutions provides avenues to de- velop students’ entrepreneurship mindset (attitudes) and skills (Olorundare & Kayode, 2014). However, the role of gender in entrepreneurship education is an important and complex issue, as gender can influence the opportunities and challenges faced by aspiring entrepreneurs of different genders. Entrepreneurial potential, which comprises both the environment and personality traits that motivate individuals to intend to start a business or become an entrepreneur, can serve as a tool for analyzing gender differences (Ward, 2019). Gender is important in considering the variables of entrepreneurial potential since gender inequality plays a significant part in entrepreneurial activities (Bela et al., 2021). In the context of this article, gender-based entrepreneurial potential refers to the inherent capabilities, qualities, and attributes that enable individuals to identify opportunities, take calculated risks, and create value in various domains, including traits like creativity, inno- vation, resourcefulness, and the ability to transform ideas into successful endeavors, which may differ in the biological female and male gender. Gender-based entrepreneurial potential hinges on the assumptions of differences between male and female propensity to become entrepreneurs, given the significant concerns that young people with high en- trepreneurial potential are more inclined to be enterprising than those with lower entre- preneurial potential (Zeffane, 2013). The issue of gender inequalities concerns entrepre- neurial intentions, considering the significant gap between genders in entrepreneurship globally (Konutgan, 2022). Gender Inequality in Art and Design Education in Nigeria Taking Nigeria as a case study, gender inequality in art and design education is traceable to historical patriarchal structures and cultural norms preceding colonization. Aina et al. (2015) noted that the disparities in Nigeria’s higher education system are rooted in tradi- tional gender roles. Before colonial influence, the Nigerian society adhered to distinct gen- der-specific roles and skill development. Boys were predominantly entrusted with acquir- ing essential occupational skills such as farming, fishing, carpentry, masonry, and ARTIVATE 12 5 blacksmithing/goldsmithing. These skills were considered essential for the economic sus- tenance of the community. Conversely, girls were traditionally taught skills related to re- productive functions, including housekeeping and childbearing. This division of labor along gender lines created a dichotomy in skill training and access to education, perpetu- ating a gender gap in vocational and creative fields, including art and design. However, Abodunrin (2017) shed light on women’s historical involvement in Nige- ria’s art realm, traced back to their engagement in traditional crafts such as pottery, weav- ing, and other artisanal works. These crafts were essential components of Nigeria’s cul- tural heritage and economy, and women played a vital role in their preservation and development. In essence, while patriarchal structures and historical gender-based divi- sions of labor have contributed to gender disparities in art and design education, women’s historical involvement in traditional crafts underscores their significant contributions to Nigeria’s artistic and creative heritage. Efforts to address gender inequity in the art and design field should acknowledge and build upon these historical foundations, working to break down the barriers that have limited women’s participation and opportunities in art and design education. Wall-Andrews and Luka (2022) underscored the need for fostering gender equity among diverse artists who aspire to professionalize their careers through acquiring production and entrepreneurship skills. Like in other parts of the globe, students pursuing entrepreneurship in art and design education in Nigeria face challenges related to the lack of curricula that strongly empha- size entrepreneurial skills development, issues with balancing creativity with commer- cialism, and a need for mentorship and support, among others (Thom, 2015). Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach, including integrating business educa- tion into art and design curricula, providing access to resources, creating supportive eco- systems, promoting the value of creativity and entrepreneurship, and encouraging gender equality in art and design entrepreneurship. In Nigeria, as in many other places, recogniz- ing and supporting the potential of art and design entrepreneurship, with no regard for gender biases, can be vital for economic development, cultural enrichment, and diversifi- cation of the arts and design industry. Stereotype Activation and Gender-Integrative Theories Addressing gender-related challenges in arts and design education and entrepreneurship involves promoting gender equality and breaking down stereotypes and biases. According to Lo, Sun and Law (2012), changing the normative perceptions that associate entrepre- neurship primarily with males is difficult, as these notions reflect self-perceptions molded by entrenched gender stereotypes regarding entrepreneurship. Hence, based on the liter- ature review, the author considered the stereotype activation and gender-integrative the- ories pertinent to examining gender-based entrepreneurial potential among art and de- sign students in this study. The reason is that these two concepts address different aspects ARTIVATE 12 6 of gender perception. While stereotype activation theory focuses on how stereotypes af- fect individuals’ self-perception and behavior, gender-integrative theory challenges tradi- tional gender biases, countering the deleterious effects of stereotypes. Stereotype Activation Theory The stereotype activation theory suggests that stereotypes can automatically and unin- tentionally affect people’s perceptions, judgments, and behaviors (Wheeler & Petty, 2001). It highlights the significance of being aware of different biases and working actively to challenge and correct them to promote fair and unbiased interactions with others. Accord- ing to stereotype activation theory, when a stereotype becomes cognitively accessible (stereotype activation) in specific situations, it will influence attitudes and behaviors (Sweida & Reichard, 2013). Gender stereotyping hinders the prospects of female entre- preneurs from thriving in the entrepreneurial arena, preventing them from exploring un- familiar sectors and managing larger businesses with the potential for higher profits (Adom & Anambane, 2020). Gender roles and stereotypes negatively influence women’s entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intention to initiate high-growth businesses (Sweida & Reichard, 2013). Stereotypes contribute to social categorization, a critical factor in fostering preju- diced attitudes, thereby giving rise to distinctions between in-groups and out-groups (Tu - rko, 2016). Regarding the outcomes of the stereotype activation theory, the gender stere- otyping of entrepreneurial endeavors leads to reduced entrepreneurial intentions and a decreased likelihood of women embarking on their business ventures (Jennings & Tonoyan, 2022). Within the realm of entrepreneurship, gender stereotypes are prevalent, historically portraying entrepreneurship as a predominantly male domain (Jennings & Tonoyan, 2022). These stereotypes can create barriers for women, including female art and design students, who may encounter societal expectations and biases undermining their entrepreneurial potential. In the context of art and design entrepreneurial education, gender stereotypes can influence the attitudes and behaviors of both male and female stu- dents, leading to varying levels of gender inequality. Based on the reviewed literature, a hypothesis is proposed as follows: H1: Art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports stere- otype activation theory. Gender-Integrative Theory Muntean and Ozkazanc-Pan (2015) criticized existing approaches to studying women’s entrepreneurship drawn from various feminist theories, suggesting the consideration of a gender-integrative perspective to entrepreneurship that attributes gender appropri- ately to both men and women instead. Research has indicated that individuals of both ARTIVATE 12 7 genders tend to evaluate business opportunities equally when entrepreneurs are de- scribed using gender-neutral attributes (Gupta et al., 2014). The gender-integrative theory requires a departure from rigid gender stereotypes, acknowledging that entrepreneurial success is not inherently linked to specific gender traits or characteristics. Stereotype nul- lification, which entails linking gender-neutral attributes with domains traditionally asso- ciated with males, can eradicate gender disparities in entrepreneurial intentions (Gupta, Turban & Bhawe, 2008). According to Muntean and Ozkazanc-Pan (2015), the potential of stereotype nullification is an effective remedy for gender bias in entrepreneurship as the gender gap in entrepreneurial intentions can be eliminated by deliberately associating en- trepreneurship with gender-neutral characteristics. The gender-integrative theory establishes a supportive ecosystem that encourages all individuals, irrespective of gender, to pursue their entrepreneurial aspirations and unlock their full potential, recognizing individual strengths, skills, or competencies as the driving factors rather than gender, acknowledging the unique capabilities that both males and fe- males possess to ensure an unbiased assessment. Regarding art and design entrepreneur- ship education, this approach supports equal opportunities for all students, encouraging them to develop their entrepreneurial skills and promoting an inclusive environment of innovative ideas and diverse perspectives, irrespective of gender. Based on the reviews, the following hypothesis is formed: H2: Art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports gen- der-integrative theory. Required Skill Sets for Entrepreneurship According to Cooney (2012) and Agogbua and Mgbatogu (2021), the skill sets required for entrepreneurship can be classified into three main groups: entrepreneurial, tech- nical/soft, and business management skills. Entrepreneurship education equips individu- als with technical, business management, and personal entrepreneurial skills to thrive in- dependently (Okoro, 2021). For art and design students to increase their chances of achieving entrepreneurial success in the creative industry, developing and refining per- sonal entrepreneurial skills, technical/soft skills, and management skills through contin- uous learning, practice, and real-world experiences is essential. Entrepreneurial skills encompass traits and abilities crucial for success in the entre- preneurial journey. These skills include creativity and innovation, self-motivation and de- termination, risk-taking, resilience, adaptability, and flexibility (Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & Mgbatogu, 2021). Technical/soft skills are the practical knowledge and expertise needed in art and design entrepreneurship. These skills include but are not limited to communi- cation and presentation, coordination, time management, and networking/collaboration (Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & Mgbatogu, 2021). Management skills are crucial for operating a flourishing art and design business venture. These skills include business planning and ARTIVATE 12 8 strategy, financial management, and marketing/promotion (Cooney, 2012; Agogbua & Mgbatogu, 2021). Combining these required skill sets could positively influence students’ entrepre- neurial potential in art and design. According to Zeng et al. (2023), experiential entrepre- neurship learning methods have significantly contributed to cultivating entrepreneurship and management skills within the cultural and creative industries. Combining entrepre- neurial and technical/soft skills would not diminish any expected qualities of an entrepre- neur but rather enhance their potential for success by incorporating additional attributes (Cooney, 2012; Alroaia & Baharun, 2017). Technical/soft and managerial skill traits are complementary rather than mutually exclusive toward achieving entrepreneurial success (Wang et al., 2019). Research findings by Njoku et al. (2020) revealed that students’ gender significantly influenced their business management, technical, marketing, accounting, financial man- agement, and ICT compliance skills in creating business ventures. However, it is essential to reflect on these results prudently and consider the broader context of gender dynamics in entrepreneurship. Addressing gender disparities, challenging stereotypes, and promot- ing equal opportunities is essential to fostering inclusive and diverse entrepreneurial eco- systems (Veckalne & Tambovceva, 2023). Based on the extant literature reviewed, the fol- lowing hypotheses are proposed: H3: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ technical/soft and managerial skill traits, regardless of gender. H4: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial and technical/soft skill traits, regardless of gender. H5: There is a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial and managerial skill traits, regardless of gender. Methodology The study used a quantitative research design based on an online survey. Art and design students from some Nigerian tertiary institutions were selected as the sample to gather data. Tertiary education institutions in Nigeria include universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, and monotechnics, providing advanced levels of education. An online ques- tionnaire survey was designed using Google Forms. The survey questions centered on the three main skill sets required for entrepreneurship: technical skills (TES), managerial skills (MNS), and entrepreneurial skills (ETS), and were measured using a five-point Lik- ert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). However, Fricker (2012) identified some drawbacks of an unrestricted, self-selected sampling method for online surveys as used in ARTIVATE 12 9 this study. In the context of this study, the potential presence of self-selection, which oc- curs when individuals voluntarily choose to participate in the survey, can lead to a non- random sample (Fricker, 2012). The respondents in this study involved only the art and design students from various Nigerian tertiary institutions, who accepted to voluntarily participate in the survey without any form of enforcement or inducements. The survey link was distributed to the volunteering art and design students’ WhatsApp platforms with the help of students and lecturers from the respective institutions. Data were collected from a sample of 204 students enrolled in colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities within the designated timeframe for data collection. It is generally accepted that a sample size greater than 200 is sufficient for most models (Kline, 2005). Hence, considering the 36 hypothesized variables used in this study, a sample size of 204 is considered suitable for SEM. The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 29 and IBM SPSS Amos 29 Graphics. The hypothesized relationships among variables were tested based on Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The SEM is a multivariate statistical analysis technique combining aspects of factor analysis and multiple regression analysis to explore and assess the structural relation- ships between observed variables and latent constructs in a given dataset (Setiawan et al., 2020). The SEM holds broad applicability due to its quantitative approach in testing sub- stantive theories and explicitly considers the presence of measurement error, a pervasive factor in most disciplines (Civelek, 2018). This makes SEM a valuable tool for researchers seeking to validate theoretical constructs and explore complex relationships in their stud- ies. In conducting SEM, researchers frequently employ CFA as an initial step to assess the measurement model’s adequacy, ensuring that the observed variables accurately repre- sent the intended constructs or factors before evaluating the structural model (Jackson & Gillaspy, 2009). The CFA model is often categorized as a type of measurement model within the broader framework of SEM (Harrington, 2009). The CFA also plays a pivotal role in validating measurements and assessing the reliability of a research instrument (Hamdan, Badrullah, & Shahid, 2011). Given the drawbacks of traditional correlational analysis methods, such as the Pearson coefficient analysis in measuring reliability and va- lidity (Hamdan, Badrullah, & Shahid, 2011), the study preferred using CFA/SEM. More so, the CFA/SEM distinguishes itself by encompassing both observed (measured) and unob- served variables (latent constructs) and explicitly specifies error, necessitating a formal model specification for estimation and testing, while traditional correlational methods rely on default models and analyze only measured variables, assuming measurements oc- cur without error (Suhr, 2006). ARTIVATE 12 10 Results and Discussion Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Table 1 shows the respondents’ demographic characteristics. The data presented in Table 1 indicated that the samples have good gender distribution, with 66 (32%) females and 138 (68%) males. The current higher institution of study of the respondents cut across all the three major tertiary institutions in Nigeria, which are the College of Education with 13 (6%), Polytechnic with 28 (14%), and University with 163 (80%), respectively. The re- spondents’ educational level is categorized as follows: 100 Level (OND 1, or Year 1) with 41 (20%), 200 Level (OND 2, or Year 2) with 67 (33%), 300 Level (HND 1 or Year 3) with 59 (29%), 400 Level (HND 2) with 30 (15%), and 500 Level with 7 (3%). The areas of spe- cialization of the respondents are Art Education with 5 (2.5%), Art History with 3 (1.5%), Ceramics with 17 (8.3%), General Art/Design with 28 (13.7%), Graphics with 52 (25.5%), Painting with 49 (24%), Sculpture with 15 (7.3%), and Textiles with 35 (17.2%). With the satisfactory frequency distributions of the demographic characteristics surveyed in the study, it can be inferred that the respondents who participated in the survey adequately represent the target population. Table 1. Respondents’ demographic characteristics Respondents’ demographic characteristics Frequency (n=204) Percentage (%) Gender Female 66 32 Male 138 68 Type of current higher institution of study College of Education 13 6 Polytechnic 28 14 University 163 80 Educational Level 100 Level, OND 1, Year 1 41 20 200 Level, OND 2, Year 2 67 33 300 Level, HND 1, Year 3 59 29 400 Level, HND 2 30 15 500 Level 7 3 Area of specialization Art Education 5 3 Art History 3 2 Ceramics 17 8 ARTIVATE 12 11 General Art/Design 28 14 Graphics 52 25 Painting 49 24 Sculpture 15 7 Textiles 35 17 Descriptive Analysis Table 2 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondents regarding the 36 items meas- ured in this study. TES10: “I like searching for appropriate methods and techniques to en- sure success in whatever I do” has the highest mean of 4.378. TES6: “I enjoy having many friends” has the lowest mean of 3.039. This implies that the art and students’ research and development skills are the most pronounced, while their networking skills are the least pronounced. Table 2. Descriptive data of the respondents S/N Item Variable Skill Trait Mean Sd Mean Score Rank 1 TES1 I prefer not to interrupt other people when they are speaking. Communica- tion 3.431 1.397 28 2 TES2 I pay attention to non- verbal signals—body language, facial expres- sions, and gestures— when communicating with others. Communica- tion 3.956 1.155 17 3 TES3 It is easy for me to in- spire others to do what I want. Leadership 3.299 1.111 31 4 TES4 I am not afraid of acting as a leader during activ- ities. Leadership 3.412 1.254 29 5 TES5 I like to be in contact with other people. Networking 3.902 0.983 19 6 TES6 I enjoy having many friends. Networking 3.039 1.203 32 7 TES7 I can work out good re- lations with different people. Team playing 4.039 0.977 14 8 TES8 I can work together with a person or a team. Team playing 4.275 0.927 3 ARTIVATE 12 12 9 TES9 I like researching and challenging old ideas and practices and find- ing ways to improve things. Research & Development 3.971 0.904 16 10 TES10 I like searching for ap- propriate methods and techniques to ensure success in whatever I do. Research & Development 4.378 0.729 1 11 MNS1 I do not get caught by surprise in situations that I could have planned. Planning 3.642 0.989 26 12 MNS2 I like to have the activi- ties of my next year al- ways well planned. Planning 3.725 1.014 24 13 MNS3 My own decisions are influential in my work. Decision Making 4.127 0.777 8 14 MNS4 I think I can shape my life with my decisions. Decision Making 4.132 0.846 7 15 MNS5 I can improve efficiency by pooling the re- sources I have. Resource Management 4.054 0.878 12 16 MNS6 I can transform the re- sources I have effi- ciently to produce goods/services. Resource Management 4.118 0.891 10 17 MNS7 I am very capable of or- ganizing and executing actions to be successful. Motivation 4.127 0.917 8 18 MNS8 I have control over the critical factors that in- fluence my success. Motivation 3.882 0.891 19 19 MNS9 I can easily convince an- ybody to buy a prod- uct/service. Marketing 3.637 0.949 28 20 MNS10 I can provide sales sup- port. Marketing 3.750 0.983 23 21 MNS11 I like to have a budget plan for the money I spend. I enjoy tracking and recording my ex- penses. Financial/ Accounting 4.044 0.959 13 22 MNS12 I enjoy saving and in- vesting my money. Financial/ Accounting 4.167 0.899 6 ARTIVATE 12 13 23 MNS13 I enjoy building rela- tionships and creating win-win outcomes when dealing with other people. Negotiation 4.201 0.784 4 24 MNS14 I am willing to compro- mise during a negotia- tion when necessary to solve problems. Negotiation 3.863 0.899 20 25 ETS1 I try to work in new ways that others have not employed before. Creativity/ Innovation 3.882 0.960 19 26 ETS2 I like working on pro- jects that allow me to try something new. Creativity/ Innovation 4.113 0.849 11 27 ETS3 I face difficult situations in my daily activities as personal challenges. Persistency 3.858 0.917 21 28 EST4 The obstacles I face make me increase my energy to overcome them. Persistency 4.118 0.874 10 29 ETS5 I can make effective de- cisions regarding busi- ness in the future. Visionary 4.093 0.908 15 30 ETS6 I like making prepara- tions for the future. Visionary 4.373 0.787 2 31 ETS7 I am open to changes in my work and studies. Flexibility 4.176 0.841 5 32 ETS8 I have no problem adapting to a new situa- tion and practice. Flexibility 3.975 0.975 15 33 ETS9 I have an excellent abil- ity to detect business opportunities. Opportunity seeking 3.848 0.937 22 34 ETS10 I am interested in know- ing the market needs for determining prod- ucts/services. Opportunity seeking 3.951 0.940 18 35 ETS11 I like to run financial risks for potential bene- fits. Risk-taking 3.672 1.048 25 36 ETS12 I like to be exposed to situations that involve some risk. Risk-taking 3.343 1.183 30 ARTIVATE 12 14 Internal Validity and Reliability of the Constructs by CFA Five (5) out of the initial ten items for TES, six (6) out of the initial 14 items for MNS, and five (5) out of the initial 12 items for ETS provided a good measure of residual matrix and evidence of convergent validity. Thus, they were used for the CFA. The remaining items for each of the TES, MNS, and ETS constructs used for CFA and their factor loadings are shown in Table 3. According to Su ru cu and Maslakçı (2020), the reliability of a scale is established when the composite reliability (CR) exceeds 0.7, as in Cronbach’s alpha value, and convergent validity is confirmed when the average variance extracted (AVE) exceeds 0.5. Hence, as shown in Table 3, the CR values exceed 0.7, and AVE values exceed 0.5, re- vealing good convergent validity. Approaches employed to address missing data in this study include conducting exploratory data analysis to visually inspect response patterns, identify trends, and detect any unusual patterns that may indicate data quality issues and implementing robust maximum likelihood estimation in SEM to reduce the impact of out- liers on parameter estimates. Table 3. Results of the Internal Validity and Reliability of the Constructs based on CR and AVE Item Factor Loading CR AVE TES 0.842 0.516 TES1 0.713 TES3 0.692 TES4 0.649 TES7 0.781 TES8 0.751 MNS 0.861 0.510 MNS2 0.626 MNS3 0.663 MNS6 0.771 MNS7 0.792 MNS8 0.691 MNS10 0.729 MNS2 0.626 ETS 0.852 0.537 ETS2 0.751 ETS3 0.787 ETS5 0.75 ETS7 0.74 ETS8 0.626 ARTIVATE 12 15 Results of the CFA Model Figure 1 shows the CFA results for the female art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential regarding the tested constructs. The CMIN/DF ratio of 1.192 suggests a good fit between the proposed model and the observed data. Gener- ally, a ratio below the threshold of 2 is consid- ered acceptable, indicating that the model ade- quately represents the data. The Incremental Fit Index (IFI) value of 0.939 indicates a good fit be- tween the proposed model and the observed data. An IFI value closer to 1 suggests a better fit, and a value above 0.90 is typically considered ac- ceptable. The Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) value of 0.919 represents a moderate fit between the model and the data. Similar to the IFI, a TLI value closer to 1 is desired. However, a value above 0.90 is generally considered acceptable. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) value of 0.935 sug- gests a satisfactory fit between the model and the observed data. Like the IFI and TLI, a CFI value closer to 1 is desirable, with values above 0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) value of 0.058 indicates a good fit between the model and the data. A lower RMSEA value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered accepta- ble. The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) value of 0.08 represents a rea- sonable fit between the model and the data. A lower SRMR value indicates a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. Based on the provided CFA results, it can be inferred that the proposed model fits the data reasonably well for female art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential. Figure 2 shows the CFA results for the male art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential regarding the tested constructs. The CMIN/DF ratio of 1.414 suggests a good fit Figure 1. CMIN/DF = 1.192; IFI = 0.939; TLI = 0.919; CFI= 0.935; RMSEA = 0.058; SRMR = 0.08 ARTIVATE 12 16 between the proposed model and the observed data. Generally, a ratio below the threshold of 2 is considered acceptable, indicating that the model adequately represents the data. The IFI value of 0.927 indicates a good fit between the proposed model and the observed data. An IFI value closer to 1 suggests a better fit and a value above 0.90 is typically considered acceptable. The TLI value of 0.902 represents a moderate fit between the model and the data. Similar to the IFI, a TLI value closer to 1 is desired. However, a value above 0.90 is generally considered acceptable. The CFI value of 0.924 suggests a satisfactory fit between the model and the observed data. Like the IFI and TLI, a CFI value closer to 1 is desirable, with values above 0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. The RMSEA value of 0.057 indicates a good fit be- tween the model and the data. A lower RMSEA value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. The SRMR value of 0.0657 represents a good fit between the model and the data. A lower SRMR value indicates a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. Based on the provided CFA results, it can be inferred that the proposed model fits the data reasonably well for male art and design students’ entre- preneurial potential. Comparing the CFA results for female and male art and design students’ entrepre- neurial potential, the CMIN/DF ratio for female and male students is 1.192 and 1.414, re- spectively. Both ratios are below the threshold of 2, indicating a good fit for both groups. However, the CMIN/DF ratio for female students (1.192) is lower than that for male stu- dents (1.414), suggesting a slightly better fit for the female group. The IFI values for female and male students are 0.939 and 0.927, respectively. Both values indicate a good fit, with the female group having a slightly higher IFI value. The TLI values for female and male students are 0.919 and 0.902, respectively. While both values indicate a good fit, the female group shows a slightly higher TLI value. The CFI values for female and male students are 0.935 and 0.924, respectively. Both values suggest a satisfactory fit, with the female group having a slightly higher CFI value. The RMSEA values for female and male students are 0.058 and 0.057, respectively. Both values indicate a good fit, with no substantial differ- ence between the two groups. The SRMR values for female and male students are 0.08 and 0.0657, respectively. Both values suggest a good fit, with the male group showing a slightly lower SRMR value. Figure 2. CFA for Male. CMIN/DF = 1.414; IFI = 0.927; TLI = 0.902; CFI= 0.924; RMSEA = 0.057; SRMR = 0.0657 ARTIVATE 12 17 Results of the SEM Model and Hypothesis Testing Figure 3 shows the results of the SEM analysis on data regarding female and male art and design stu- dents’ entrepreneurial potential. The CMIN/DF ra- tio of 1.287 suggests a good fit between the pro- posed model and the observed data for both female and male groups. Generally, a ratio below the threshold of 2 is considered acceptable, indi- cating that the model adequately represents the data. The IFI value of 0.960 indicates a good fit be- tween the proposed model and the observed data for both groups. An IFI value closer to 1 suggests a better fit, and a value above 0.90 is typically con- sidered acceptable. The IFI value of 0.960 suggests a strong fit for both female and male students. The TLI value of 0.948 represents a good fit between the model and the data for both groups. Similar to the IFI, a TLI value closer to 1 is desired. A TLI value above 0.90 is generally considered acceptable. Therefore, the TLI value of 0.948 indicates a satisfactory fit for both female and male students. The CFI value of 0.958 suggests a good fit between the model and the ob- served data for both groups. Like the IFI and TLI, a CFI value closer to 1 is desirable, with values above 0.90 typically indicating an acceptable fit. The CFI value of 0.958 indicates a strong fit for both female and male students. The RMSEA value of 0.039 indicates a good fit between the model and the data for both female and male students. A lower RMSEA value suggests a better fit, and values below 0.08 are generally considered acceptable. The RMSEA value of 0.039 indicates a strong fit for both groups. The SRMR value of 0.0531 represents a good fit between the model and the data for both groups. A lower SRMR value indicates a good fit between the proposed model and the data. Typically, values below 0.08 are considered acceptable in assessing model fit. In this case, the obtained SRMR value of 0.0531 suggests a strong fit for both female and male students. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis results allow us to infer that the proposed model effectively captures the relationship between variables associated with entrepreneurial potential among female and male art and design students. This inference is supported by the favorable fit indices, including CMIN/DF, IFI, TLI, CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR, indicating a strong fit for both groups. The findings suggest that the proposed model accurately represents the interconnections between various factors related to en- trepreneurial potential in art and design education for both female and male students. These results provide confidence in the validity and applicability of the model to under- stand and assess entrepreneurial potential in this specific population. The stereotype activation theory posits that individuals can be influenced by Figure 3. CMIN/DF = 1.287; IFI = 0.960; TLI = 0.948; CFI= 0.958; RMSEA = 0.039; SRMR = 0.0531 ARTIVATE 12 18 stereotypes associated with their gender, leading to impacts on their behaviors, attitudes, and self-perceptions (Wheeler & Petty, 2001). In this regard, gender stereotypes can neg- atively influence the perception of art and design students regarding entrepreneurial po- tential. However, the SEM results indicate a good fit of the proposed model for both female and male respondents, suggesting that gender stereotypes may not significantly influence art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential within the context of this study. Therefore, H1 is not supported. Hence, H1, which proposes that art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports stereotype activation theory, is rejected. The gender-integrative theory supports recognizing and respecting gender differences while avoiding stereotypes (Muntean & Ozkazanc-Pan, 2015). Since the SEM results indicate a good fit of the proposed model for female and male art and design students, this suggests that gender may not be a significant differentiating factor when predicting entrepreneurial potential among art and design students. Therefore, H2 was supported. Hence, H2, which suggests that art and design students’ gender-based entrepreneurial potential model supports gender-integrative theory, is accepted. Table 4. Testing hypotheses H3, H4, and H5. Hypothesis Relationship Estimate S.E. C.R. P Decision H3 ETS <--> MNS .246 .049 5.016 *** Accepted H4 TES <--> MNS .126 .046 2.765 .006 Accepted H5 ETS <--> TES .120 .043 2.777 .005 Accepted The results of the hypotheses testing the relationship between technical/soft skill traits (TES), managerial skill traits (MNS), and entrepreneurial skill traits (ETS) among art and design students are shown in Table 4. When examining the relationships between variables, hypotheses are tested to determine the significance of their influence by ana- lyzing the critical ratio (C.R.) and probability values (p-values). The C.R. value ≥1.96 or the p-value ≤0.05 indicates a significant influence between the studied variables (Syamsudin et al., 2022). As shown in Table 3, the connection of ETS with MNS was positive and signif- icant (C.R.=5.016, p= 0.001); hence, H3 was supported. The relationship between TES and MNS was positive and significant (C.R.=2.765, p= 0.006); therefore, H3 was supported. The association between ETS and TES was positive and significant (C.R.= 2.777, p < 0.005); hence, H4 was supported. In Table 4, the results of testing H3 revealed a p-value of 0.000, which is lower than the generally recommended significance level of 0.05. Therefore, hypothesis H3, which proposes a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial skill traits and their managerial skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This implies that, irrespective of gender, students with specific entrepreneurial skills in art and design are ARTIVATE 12 19 more likely to exhibit corresponding managerial skills. While art and design students of- ten possess creative and innovative mindsets, developing entrepreneurial and managerial skills can significantly enhance their ability to turn their ideas into successful ventures. Entrepreneurial skill traits are essential for identifying and exploiting opportunities, tak- ing calculated risks, and managing the overall business process. These skills are valuable for art and design students who aim to create their businesses or work as freelancers. On the other hand, managerial skill traits are crucial for organizing and executing the daily operations of a business. The relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneur- ial and managerial skill traits is vital in determining their entrepreneurial potential. Com- bining creativity, problem-solving abilities, adaptability, networking, leadership, time management, financial literacy, and communication skills empowers them to transform their artistic talents into successful entrepreneurial endeavors. According to Zeng et al. (2023), experiential entrepreneurship learning methods have significantly contributed to cultivating entrepreneurship and management skills within the cultural and creative in- dustries. In Table 4, the result of H4 testing indicated a p-value of 0.006, which is lower than the generally recommended significance level of 0.05. Consequently, hypothesis H4, which proposes a significant relationship between art and design students’ technical/soft skill traits and their managerial skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This implies that, irrespective of gender, students with specific technical/soft skills in art and design are likelier to exhibit corresponding managerial skills. Technical/soft skills form the basis of the artistic value and quality of products or services offered by art and design entrepre- neurs. These skills are essential for creating unique, visually appealing, and innovative works that attract customers and differentiate them in the market. Managerial skills help art and design students translate their technical skills into successful entrepreneurial ven- tures. By developing managerial abilities, students can effectively market their work, man- age finances, build client relationships, and lead teams, thereby enhancing their chances of business success. Technical/soft and managerial skill traits are complementary rather than mutually exclusive toward achieving entrepreneurial success (Wang et al., 2019). While technical/soft skills allow artists and designers to produce compelling and aestheti- cally pleasing work, managerial skills provide the necessary entrepreneurial acumen to turn that work into a sustainable business. While exceptional technical/soft skills are val- uable, lacking managerial abilities may limit their capacity to commercialize their work effectively. On the other hand, solid managerial skills without sufficient technical profi- ciency may result in a lack of artistic quality and innovation. Therefore, art and design students with a combination of technical/soft and managerial skills traits are more likely to realize their entrepreneurial potential. These students can establish successful creative enterprises and thrive as artistic entrepreneurs by continuously honing their tech- nical/soft skills while developing managerial competencies. ARTIVATE 12 20 In Table 4, the result of H5 testing showed a p-value of 0.005, which is below the gen- erally recommended significance level of 0.05. As a result, hypothesis H5, which suggests a significant relationship between art and design students’ entrepreneurial skill traits and their technical/soft skill traits, regardless of gender, is accepted. This indicates that, irre- spective of gender, students with particular entrepreneurial skills in art and design are likelier to exhibit complementary technical/soft skills. Combining entrepreneurial and technical/soft skills would not diminish any expected qualities of an entrepreneur but rather enhance their potential for success by incorporat- ing additional attributes (Cooney, 2012; Alroaia & Baharun, 2017). The relationship be- tween art and design students’ entrepreneurial and technical/soft skill traits significantly determines their entrepreneurial potential. Both sets of skills are essential and comple- mentary, contributing to the overall success of students in pursuing entrepreneurial ven- tures in the art and design industry. While entrepreneurial skill traits provide the vision, adaptability, and business acumen necessary to launch and manage a successful venture, technical/soft skill traits enable the execution and delivery of high-quality artistic prod- ucts or services. Students who combine both skill sets effectively have more potential to succeed as entrepreneurs in the art and design industry. Practical Implications To address gender inequalities and biases, there is a need to design and deliver entrepre- neurship education that is more inclusive and tailored to the needs of diverse aspiring entrepreneurs (Pimpa, 2021). It is important to continue exploring and addressing gender inequalities in entrepreneurship education to promote a more inclusive and equitable en- trepreneurial ecosystem. Ndofirepi et al. (2018) accentuated the necessity for gender-sen- sitive approaches to formulating and executing entrepreneurship development and sup- port measures among potential entrepreneurs. Hence, modifying entrepreneurship education curricula will mitigate stereotypes hampering gender equality in entrepreneur- ship (Tu rko, 2016). Entrepreneurship should not be centered around contrasting the ap- proaches of male and female entrepreneurs but rather on how both genders can contrib- ute to the economic progress of a nation. Moberg (2020) suggested some approaches teachers can employ to handle gender issues in entrepreneurship education. These strategies include using entrepreneurial role models with varied backgrounds, teaching how to do entrepreneurship rather than how to become an entrepreneur, using gender-mixed groups, conveying the image of entrepre- neurship as a rewarding endeavor, and providing different images of entrepreneurship that will boost students’ entrepreneurial mindset (Moberg, 2020). Adopting these teach- ing approaches will enable students to focus more on entrepreneurial activities in a man- ner that surpasses the gender-stereotypical image of entrepreneurship. To properly harness art and design students’ entrepreneurial potential, there is a ARTIVATE 12 21 need to consider the adoption of the gender-responsive pedagogy framework. According to Chapin and Warne (2020), gender-responsive pedagogy involves teaching and learning processes tailored to address the distinct learning needs of female and male students. In- corporating gender as a fundamental perspective in higher education pedagogy fosters a more inclusive and interactive learning environment that ensures equitable participation from both women and men (Chapin & Warne, 2020). By creating an inclusive environment that appreciates diversity and avoids perpetuating gender biases, art and design educa- tion can foster an entrepreneurial culture where all students are encouraged to explore their entrepreneurial potential, regardless of gender. Limitations Regarding the drawbacks of an unrestricted, self-selected sampling method for online sur- veys as used in this study, students who are more inclined towards entrepreneurial activ- ities might be more likely to participate, skewing the results and making it challenging to generalize the findings to the entire population of art and design students. It is essential to minimize self-selection bias in surveys, especially in niche populations like art and de- sign students, by introducing incentives to encourage more representative participation. Though both showed a good fit in the study, the CMIN/DF ratio of the female students could have been lower than that of the male students due to the much smaller sample size of female participants (32%). Future research should consider using the same number of male and female participants to check this pattern. Within the study duration, the re- searcher could not acquire a comprehensive number of art and design undergraduate stu- dents in higher institutions across Nigeria. More so, the study does not have detailed in- formation about the specific population of art and design students being targeted. Factors such as family and cultural backgrounds and other demographic variables can signifi- cantly influence students’ entrepreneurial potential in art and design. Without a clear def- inition of the population, the generalizability of the study’s findings becomes questiona- ble. Future research in the context of this study should take cognizance of these limitations and make necessary improvements. Conclusion This study has contributed to the knowledge that can assist art and design educators and policymakers in promoting an inclusive and equal opportunity environment that encourages and supports entrepreneurship among art and design students, regardless of gender. The finding of this study showed good responses from both female and male students, signifying a promising entrepreneurial potential, agreeing with Zeffane (2013). The research findings by Konutgan (2022) also revealed that, although the pursuit of status and a willingness to take risks substantially influence an individual’s choice to pursue entrepreneurial goals, there is no significant relationship between gender ARTIVATE 12 22 differences and entrepreneurial intention. This is, however, in contrast to the survey that revealed that males are about three times more likely than females to start a business after graduation (Pech & R ehor , 2021). The findings by Ndofirepi, Rambe and Dzansi (2018) also established the existence of significant gender differences in entrepreneurial intention. These inconsistencies highlight the complex and multifaceted relationship between gender and entrepreneurship, suggesting a need for further research. It is essential to note that the findings of this study are specific to the sample and context of the art and design students within higher education institutions across Nigeria. Further research is needed to validate these results in different settings and to explore potential variations in entrepreneurial potential across gender groups within the art and design field. While the proposed model in this study demonstrates a good fit with the data, further research is warranted to delve deeper into the intricacies of gender stereotypes and their potential impact on entrepreneurial potential in various contexts. Addressing and mitigating gender biases and stereotypes remains crucial to promoting equal opportunities and supporting all individuals’ entrepreneurial endeavors, irrespective of gender. More efforts should be made to address gender-related issues in art and design entrepreneurship education to ensure continuous progress and inclusivity. ARTIVATE 12 23 References Abodunrin, J.A. (2017). Training in Nigerian art schools: A critique of gender distribution, Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 17 (2), 105–112. DOI: 10.15294/harmo- nia.v17i2.9826 Adom, K. & Anambane, G. (2020). Understanding the role of culture and gender stereotypes in women entrepreneurship through the lens of the stereotype threat theory, Journal of Entrepre- neurship in Emerging Economies, 12(1), 100-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-07-2018-0070 Agogbua, S.N., & Mgbatogu, C.D. (2021). Entrepreneurial skills and self-employment: A theoretical exposition, International Jour- nal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Research, 10(2), 16- 35. Aina, O.I. et al. (2015). Institutionalization of gender mainstreaming in Nigeria’s tertiary, European Scientific Journal, 314–339. Akabuike, C.C. (2022). Entrepreneurial engagements: Its motiva- tions and challenges among undergraduate students of Nsukka Arts School in Nigeria, Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 11(2), 1-15. doi.org/10.34053/artivate.11.2.172 Akwa, E. M. (2016). Issues and prospects of gender in entrepre- neurship practice in Nigeria, International Journal of Educa- tional Benchmark (IJEB), 3(1), 117–128. Arnaut, C. et al. (2016). Gender in entrepreneurship. European In- stitute for Gender Equality, Lithuania. Bela, L. R., Riani, A. L., & Indriayu, M. (2021). Entrepreneurial po- tential influence to the intention of students based on gender, Randwick International of Social Sciences (RISS) Journal, 2(4), 428-435. https://doi.org/10.47175/rissj.v2i4.284 Cardella, G. M., Herna ndez-Sa nchez, B. R., & Sa nchez-Garcı a, J. C. (2020). Women entrepreneurship: A systematic review to out- line the boundaries of scientific literature, Front. Psychol., 11 (1557), 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01557 Chapin, J., & Warne, V. (2020). Gender responsive pedagogy in higher education: A framework. International Network for In- ternational Network for Advancing Science and Policy (INASP). Cooney, T.M. (2012). Entrepreneurship skills for growth-orientated businesses. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/cooney_en- trepreneurship_skills_HGF.pdf Civelek, M.E. (2018). Essentials of structural equation modeling. Zea E-Books, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries. doi: 10.13014/K2SJ1HR5 De Avila, A.L., & Davel, E.P.B. (2023). Entrepreneurship education in the arts: Perspectives and challenges, CADERNOS EBAPE.BR, 21(2), 1-19. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1679- 395120220097x Fricker, R.D. (2012). Sampling methods for web and e-mail surveys, SAGE Internet Research Methods, J. Hughes, ed., London: SAGE Publications. Reprinted from The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods, N. Fielding, R.M. Lee and G. Blank, eds., chapter 11, London: SAGE Publications, 195-216. Furman, E., Singh, A.K., Wilson, C., D’Alessandro, F., & Miller, Z. (2019). “A space where people get it”: A methodological reflec- tion of arts-informed community-based participatory research with nonbinary youth, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919858530 Gupta, V.K., Goktan, A.B., & Gunay, G. (2014). Gender differences in the evaluation of new business opportunity: A stereotype http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-07-2018-0070 https://doi.org/10.47175/rissj.v2i4.284 https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/cooney_entrepreneurship_skills_HGF.pdf https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/cooney_entrepreneurship_skills_HGF.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1679-395120220097x http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1679-395120220097x https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919858530 ARTIVATE 12 24 threat perspective, Journal of Business Venturing, 29, 273–288. Gupta, V.K., Turban, D.B., & Bhawe, N.M. (2008). The effect of gen- der stereotype activation on entrepreneurial intentions, Jour- nal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 1053–1061. Hamdan, S., Badrullah, B.B., & Shahid, M. (2011). Confirmatory fac- tor analysis (CFA) for testing validity and reliability instrument in the study of education, Australian Journal of Basic and Ap- plied Sciences, 5(12), 1098-1103. Harrington, D. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis. Oxford Univer- sity Press, Inc. Hatt, L. (2018). Threshold concepts in entrepreneurship – the en- trepreneurs’ perspective, Education + Training, https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-08-2017-0119 Jackson, D.L., & Gillaspy, J.A. (2009). Reporting practices in confirm- atory factor analysis: An overview and some recommendations, Psychological Methods, 14(1), 6–23. DOI: 10.1037/a0014694 Jalil, J., Irfan, I., & Hamrin, H. (2019). Entrepreneurial opportunities in art and design as a creative economy subsector, Advances in Social Science, Education, and Humanities Research, 301, 117- 122. Jennings, J.E., & Tonoyan, V. (2022). Research on gender stereotyp- ing and entrepreneurship: Suggestions for some paths worth pursuing, Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 12(3): 187–212. https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2022-0235 Kline, R.B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press. Konutgan, S. (2022). Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions. Master Thesis, University of Twente, Netherlands. http://essay.utwente.nl/90491/1/Konutgan_MA_Faculty%20o f%20Behavioural%2C%20Management%20and%20So- cial%20Sciences.pdf Lo, C., Sun, H., & Law, K. (2012). Comparing the entrepreneurial intention between female and male engineering students, Jour- nal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 28-51. Mahlaole, S. T., & Malebana, M. J. (2022). Effects of gender on stu- dents’ entrepreneurial intentions: A theory of planned behav- iour perspective, Open Journal of Business and Management, 10, 57-76. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2022.101004 Miller, D.L. (2013). Gender and the artist archetype: Understanding gender inequality in artistic careers, Sociological Compass, 10(2), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12350 Moberg, K. (2020). Gender issues in entrepreneurship: The im- portance of cultural rather than biological explanations. Fact Sheet. Fonden for Entreprenørskab Medlem Af Ja Worldwide. https://www.ffe-ye.dk/media/791782/viden-om-entrepreno- erskab-og-koen_forskningen.pdf Muntean, S., & Ozkazanc-Pan, B. (2015). A gender integrative con- ceptualization of entrepreneurship, New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 18(1), 27-40. Ndofirepi, T. M., Rambe, R., & Dzansi, D.Y. (2018). An exploratory study on the gender-based differences in entrepreneurial in- tention and its antecedents amongst students of a South Afri- can University of Technology, Southern African Business Re- view, 22, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.25159/1998-8125/4345 Njoku, J. U., Nwackwuckwu, J. C., & Uchendu, B. A. (2020). Students’ gender as a predictor to their entrepreneurial skills in business enterprise in South East tertiary institutions of Nigeria, Global Journal of Education, Humanities and Management Sciences (GOJEHMS), 2(1), 174 – 190. Odewole, P. O., Odji E., & Ario, B. (2022). Investigation into stu- dents’ perception of industrial design as a prospective career, https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2022-0235 http://essay.utwente.nl/90491/1/Konutgan_MA_Faculty%20of%20Behavioural%2C%20Management%20and%20Social%20Sciences.pdf http://essay.utwente.nl/90491/1/Konutgan_MA_Faculty%20of%20Behavioural%2C%20Management%20and%20Social%20Sciences.pdf http://essay.utwente.nl/90491/1/Konutgan_MA_Faculty%20of%20Behavioural%2C%20Management%20and%20Social%20Sciences.pdf https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2022.101004 https://www.ffe-ye.dk/media/791782/viden-om-entreprenoerskab-og-koen_forskningen.pdf https://www.ffe-ye.dk/media/791782/viden-om-entreprenoerskab-og-koen_forskningen.pdf https://doi.org/10.25159/1998-8125/4345 ARTIVATE 12 25 Gaziantep University Journal of Educational Sciences, 6(1), 1-18. Okoro, P.E. (2021). Entrepreneurship skills needed by Nigerian ter- tiary institution students and graduates for global relevance, International Journal of Higher Education, 10(4), 247–257. Olarewaju T., & Fernando, J. (2020). Gender inequality and female entrepreneurship in developing countries. In: W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Decent Work and Economic Growth, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_92-1 Olorundare, A. S., & Kayode, D. J. (2014). Entrepreneurship educa- tion in Nigerian universities: a tool for national transformation, Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 29, 155–175. Pech, M., & R ehor , P. (2021). Gender differences in entrepreneur- ship education of the students of management, Acta Universita- tis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 69(4), 455–465. https://doi.org/10.11118/actaun.2021.040 Pimpa, N. (2021). Overcoming gender gaps in entrepreneurship education and training, Front. Educ., 6, 774876. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.774876 Setiawan, E., Pratiwi, A., Herawati, N., Nisa1, K., & Faisol, A. (2020). A structural equation modeling of factors affecting student mo- tivation in thesis preparation, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1751, 012030. doi:10.1088/1742- 6596/1751/1/012030 Souza, G. H. S., Santos, P.C.F., Lima, N.C., Cruz, N.J.T., Lezana, A.G.R., & Coelho, J.A.P.M. (2017). Entrepreneurial potential scale: Evi- dence on confirmatory factor validity, dimensional structure and predictive effectiveness, Gest. Prod., 24(2), 324-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-530X3038-16 Su ru cu , L. & Maslakçı, A. (2020). Validity and reliability in quantita- tive research, Business and Management Studies: An Interna- tional Journal, 8(3): 2694-2726. http://dx.doi.org/10.15295/bmij.v8i3.1540 Suhr, D. (2006). The basics of structural equation modeling. https://www.lexjansen.com/wuss/2006/tutorials/TUT- Suhr.pdf Sweida, G.L. & Reichard, R.J. (2013). Gender stereotyping effects on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and high-growth entrepreneurial intention, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Develop- ment, 20(2), 296-313. DOI 10.1108/14626001311326743 Syamsudin, N., Eliyana, A., Nurdin, N., Sudrajat, A., Giyanto, B., Emur, A.P., & Zahar, M. (2022). Are job satisfaction and role breadth self-efficacy the links to proactive work behavior? He- liyon, 8 (e08710), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.he- liyon.2021.e08710 Thom, M. (2015). The suffering of arts entrepreneurs: Will fine art students be educated on how to become successfully self-em- ployed? Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(1), 64–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i1 Tu rko, E.S. (2016). Can entrepreneurship education reduce stereo- types against women entrepreneurship? International Educa- tion Studies, 9(11), 53–65. doi:10.5539/ies.v9n11p53 Ungureanu, A.V. (2020). Entrepreneurship in the new global econ- omy: The role of innovation in economic development, Ovidius University Annals: Economic Sciences Conference Series, 20(1), 541-548. Veckalne, R., & Tambovceva, T. (2023). The importance of gender equality in promoting entrepreneurship and innovation, Mar- keting and Management of Innovations, 1, 158-168. https://doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2023.1-14 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_92-1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-530X3038-16 https://www.lexjansen.com/wuss/2006/tutorials/TUT-Suhr.pdf https://www.lexjansen.com/wuss/2006/tutorials/TUT-Suhr.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08710 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08710 http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i1 ARTIVATE 12 26 Wall-Andrews, C. & Luka, M.E. (2022). Advancing equity in arts en- trepreneurship: A case study on gender equity and empower- ment in music production, Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneur- ship in the Arts, 11(1), 1–22. doi.org/10.34053/artivate.11.1.154 Wang, S.-M., Yueh, H-P., & Wen, P-C. (2019). How the new type of entrepreneurship education complements the traditional one in developing entrepreneurial competencies and intention, Front Psychol., 10(2048), 1–12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02048 Ward, A., Herna ndez-Sa nchez B.R., & Sa nchez-Garcı a J.C. (2019). Entrepreneurial potential and gender effects: The role of per- sonality traits in university students’ entrepreneurial inten- tions, Frontiers in Psychology, 10(2700), 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02700 Wheeler, S.E., & Petty, R.E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activa- tion on behavior: A review of possible mechanism, Psychologi- cal Bulletin, 127(6), 797–826. doi: 10.1037/0033- 2909.127.6.797 · Windapo, A. (2018). Entrepreneurial factors affecting the sustaina- ble growth and success of a South African construction com- pany, Sustainability. 10:1-11. doi:10.3390/su10041276 Zeffane, R. (2013). Gender and youth entrepreneurial potential: Evidence from the United Arab Emirates, International Journal of Business and Man- agement, 8(1), 60–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n1p60. Zeng, L., Ye, J.-H., Wang, N., Lee, Y.-S., & Yuan, J. (2023). The learning needs of art and design students in Chinese vocational colleges for entrepreneurship education: From the perspectives of the theory of entrepreneurial thought and action, Sustainability, 15(2366), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032366 Cover image designed by the author. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v8n1p60 https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032366