Microsoft Word - 16 Summer 111 final.docx Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts Volume 5, Issue 2 http://artivate.org pp. 7-22 _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Copyright © 2016, the authors ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRIES: INSIGHTS FROM AN EMERGENT FIELD Andrea Hausmann and Anne Heinze European University Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder), Germany Abstract This article reports the results of a systematic review of the current state of research on arts, cultural, and creative entrepreneurship. By means of a systematic database search, 50 scientific articles from peer-reviewed journals were identified and analyzed with regard to the interpretation of the terms and the primary objects and focal areas of current research. In conclusion, it can be stated that to date there is no consensual understanding of the terms. While some authors differentiate between entrepreneurs and other players in the cultural and creative industries, the majority of researchers makes no such distinction. Moreover, the specific objects of current research mainly fall into the two categories “groups of persons” and “sub-segments of the cultural and creative industries.” And, finally, while there exists some considerable research on entrepreneurship in the music industry by now, less attention was paid to other sub-sectors of the cultural and creative industries. Introduction Entrepreneurship research has become an established discipline over the past decades to such an extent that independent – albeit still relatively young – fields of research have emerged that examine entrepreneurship in special sectors. This includes, for instance, entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries (e.g. Hagoort, 2007; Klamer, 2011; Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001). The growing relevance of entrepreneurship in the arts and culture sector is closely related to the emergence of the creative industries starting in the 1990s in Great Britain (British Council, 2010). Those industries comprise i.e. the art, architecture, press and book market, performing arts, the music and film sector, and the software and games industry (e.g. Caves, 2000; Phillips, 2011). The term “entrepreneurship,” generally speaking, describes the discovery of new “means- ends relationships” (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000, p. 220) and includes the exploitation of an opportunity (Bygrave, 2010; Drucker, 1993) as well as the creation of a new organization to implement a novel idea (Gartner, 1990). In general entrepreneurship research, innovations and novel ideas are regarded as characteristic elements of the entrepreneurship process (Lumpkin & Dess, 1996, p. 142). General literature on entrepreneurship also largely agrees that an entrepreneur acts differently from a manager (Carton et al., 1998; Kelley & Marram, 2010; Schumpeter, 1934). An entrepreneur establishes an organization to realize an entrepreneurial opportunity (Carton et al., 1998, p. 3) and is at the same time responsible for the continued existence of this organization. By contrast, a manager is usually responsible for planning, organization, and management of a third-party enterprise (Kelley & Marram, 2010, p. 373). While in general entrepreneurship theory most researchers agree on these core characteristics of entrepreneurship by now, research on the terminology and understanding of entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries is still in its beginnings. Accordingly, the purpose of the present study is to shed more light on the current status quo of research on entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries or, more specifically, to answer the following research questions: To what extent are the terms “arts”, “cultural,” and “creative entrepreneurship” distinguished from one another and which subject areas are primarily discussed? Therefore, and by means of a systematic database search, we will identify refereed Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 8 scientific publications on arts, cultural, and creative entrepreneurship and analyze them with special regard to the interpretation of the respective term, the primary objects and focal areas of research in the following. The paper will be rounded off by a discussion of our findings, the main limitations of the study, and implications for future research.   Methodology and Data To answer the aforementioned research question, a database search by means of the Journal Articles Database (JADE) and the EBSCOhost® online reference system was conducted in March 2016. As a first step, the relevant databases were searched for the occurrence of the keywords “arts entrepreneurship,” “arts entrepreneurs,” “creative entrepreneurship,” “creative entrepreneurs,” “cultural entrepreneurship,” “cultural entrepreneurs,” and “culturepreneurs.” In a second step, and in order to filter our search results three selection criteria were subsequently applied. First, our search results were limited to those articles using the keywords within title, abstract, and/or keywords. This was based on the idea that for a literature review that aims to clarify the terms “arts,” “cultural,” and “creative” entrepreneurship the articles examined should also include and discuss the respective terms. Second, to ensure the academic quality of the papers, only full-length papers from peer-reviewed journals were taken into consideration. Research notes, literature review studies, book reviews, and editor prefaces were excluded. Third, we also excluded papers when their overall quality was not strong enough. Once identified, each paper was carefully reviewed by both authors in order to determine its inclusion. Data collection was conducted thrice, and all sets of selected papers were compared to ensure reliability. At the end of the data collection process, a sample of 50 papers was generated for analysis. Thereof, the keyword search of “cultural entrepreneurs/ship” and “culturepreneurs” yielded a total of 28 hits, while “arts entrepreneurs/ship” yielded 13, and “creative entrepreneurs/ship” 9 hits. As shown in Table 1, 22 of the 50 articles have a theoretical-conceptual focus (e.g. Dobransky & Fine, 2006; Ellmeier, 2003; Halim et al., 2006; Klamer, 2011), while 28 papers are empirical. The empirical articles comprise 19 qualitative studies – thereof 11 articles use case studies (e.g. Acheson et al., 1996; Cinnéide, 2005; Johnson, 2007; Metze, 2009; Kolsteeg, 2013) and another 8 articles use interviews (e.g. Dempster, 2008; Scott, 2012; Smit, 2011; Wilson & Stokes, 2006). There are 5 quantitative studies. Some authors choose a mixed-methods approach (Krzyżanowska & Tkaczyk, 2013; Rae, 2005; Welsh et al., 2014; Wilson & Stokes, 2004). In the context of the following analysis, we discuss the terminology as well as the objects and focal areas of the research conducted to date. Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 9 Table 1. Frequency of research methods (n=50). Findings Terminology of Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries Cultural entrepreneurship is a relatively young research field within entrepreneurship research. As shown in Table 2, the number of articles published in peer reviewed journals has risen significantly since 2001. It is in this regard that terms such as “arts,” “creative,” and/or “cultural” entrepreneurship have become more widely used and researched. Table 2 also shows that in 2011 an absolute maximum of manuscripts published in peer reviewed and mostly entrepreneurship related journals such as International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation and Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development was reached. From then on, the total number of articles has slightly decreased, even though Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts was launched in 2012 and since then has published a large number of peer-reviewed articles on the topic of arts entrepreneurship in particular. Table 3 shows that the authors primarily use the terms “cultural entrepreneurs/ship” / “culturepreneur” (23 of 50 articles). The terms “arts entrepreneurship” / “entrepreneurship in the arts” are used in twelve articles, while one uses both of the terms. In 6 articles the term “creative entrepreneurs/ship” is used. In 8 of the articles analyzed, the terms “cultural entrepreneurship” and “creative entrepreneurship” are both used. In one of the articles examined the terms are even used interchangeably and the author notes: “The current discourse about the creative economy draws on different notions of cultural and creative entrepreneurs. These definitions differ as to whether they include only nonprofit activities, such as the arts, or also commercial activities, including architecture, design, and media. However, they all concentrate on economic activities 0 5 10 15 20 25 N o.  o f  A rt ic le s   Research  Method   Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 10 dedicated to producing goods and services with mainly aesthetic and symbolic value” (Smit, 2011, p. 46). Following this approach, “cultural entrepreneurship” and “creative entrepreneurship” are thus related to economic or entrepreneurial activities of the cultural and creative industries as a whole. Table 2. Frequency of articles by year (n=50). Table 3. Frequency of terms (n=50). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 N o.  o f  A rt ic le s   Publication  Year   0 5 10 15 20 25 N o.  o f  A rt ic le s   Terms   Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 11 Irrespective of the precise term used, the concept of general entrepreneurship theory is the common basis of all definitions. Often, as the results of our analysis show, the general term “entrepreneurship” is initially explained by the authors (e.g. Beckman, 2007; Essig, 2015; Hausmann, 2010; Klamer, 2011; Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001; Preece, 2011; Scott, 2012; Wilson & Stokes, 2006). Where this is not the case, the authors usually also remain vague on the definition of “arts entrepreneurship”, “creative entrepreneurship” or “cultural entrepreneurship” (Cinnéide, 2005; Dempster, 2008; Drda-Kühn & Wiegand, 2010; Halim et al., 2011; Nijboer, 2006; Stanley & Dampier, 2007); all in all, 25 of 50 articles failed to provide an explicit explanation. The definitions provided in the remaining 25 articles differ quite considerably. Some authors understand cultural entrepreneurs as freelance artists and creative industry workers, who are forced to act as entrepreneurs, i.e. because of changing labor market conditions in the cultural sector (Ellmeier, 2003; Konrad, 2010). Interestingly, in the 1990s “cultural entrepreneurship” was predominantly discussed in the context of project management and was strongly associated with the realization of specific individual events (Acheson et al., 1996). From the year 2000 on, the term is more frequently used in the sense of founding a new company (rather than realizing one single project). Phrases like “to exploit as an enterprise” (Rae, 2005), “to result in economically sustainable cultural enterprises” (Kavousy et al., 2010), “to create a (micro) business” (Hausmann, 2010), “starting a not-for-profit organization” (Preece, 2011) and “through a mediating structure or organization” (Essig, 2015) clearly indicate that some authors refer to the creation of an enterprise/organization, which is a core characteristic of “entrepreneurship” in general as noted earlier. Additionally, our analysis showed that most of the authors identify entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative sector also by means of the other characteristics of general entrepreneurship theory. For example, the discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of an entrepreneurial opportunity is often mentioned (Hausmann, 2010; Johnson, 2007; Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001; Rae, 2005; Scott, 2012). Authors also refer to the aspect of “innovation,” which is another acknowledged characteristic of entrepreneurship. Our analysis revealed, for example, expressions such as “novel combinations” (Swedberg, 2006), “innovative applications” (Kavousy et al., 2010), “innovations or improvement of existing offerings” (Konrad, 2010; translated by the authors), “innovative ways of doing” (Scott, 2012) or “novel ideas” (Mokyr, 2013). In summary, there is no consensual understanding of entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative sector. With the exception of four articles (Wilson & Stokes, 2004 and 2006; Rae, 2005; Enhuber, 2014), which refer to other authors, the definitions provided differ quite widely from each other (see Table 4). What can also be derived from our analysis is that in many cases no precise distinction is made between cultural/creative/arts entrepreneurs and other players in the cultural and creative sector. Three of the 25 articles explaining the term include “managers” in the definition (Acheson et al,. 1996; Wilson & Stokes, 2004; Chang & Wyszomirski, 2015). In another article, managers are explicitly excluded from the definition (Klamer, 2011). Terms describing other players such as “freelancer” and “self-employed workers” (Ellmeier, 2003; Konrad, 2010) or “owner-managers” are sometimes used as synonyms for the entrepreneur (Johnson, 2007; Konrad, 2010; Smit, 2011; Wilson & Stokes, 2006). By contrast, Rae makes the following clear Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 12 for the creative sector: "Creative Entrepreneurs are diverse, from self-employed artists to owners of global businesses" (2005, p. 186). Cultural Entrepreneurs/ship Author/s and Publication Year Definition Acheson et al. (1996) "Cultural entrepreneurship involves a conception, an initial launch, and a transition to an established event." (p. 321) Enhuber (2014) "[..] cultural entrepreneurship can be understood to refer to `cultural change agents and resourceful visionaries who organize cultural, financial, social and human capital, to generate revenue from a cultural activity´ (Tremblay, 2013)." (p. 4) Ellmeier (2003) "Cultural entrepreneurialism means all-round artistic and commercial/business qualifications, long working hours and fierce competition from bigger companies." (p. 11) Hausmann (2010) "[…] cultural entrepreneurs are identified as artists undertaking business activities within one of the four traditional sectors of the arts [..]. [They] discover and evaluate opportunities in the arts and leisure markets and create a (micro) business to pursue them." (p. 19). Johnson (2007) "[…] `cultural entrepreneurship`which here refers both to the creativtiy and initiative of the founder and to the constraint and opportunity represented by the specific cultural schemas that structure the historical context in which the founder is embedded." (p. 99) Kavousy et al. (2010) "Cultural entrepreneurs are resourceful visionaries, generating revenues from culturally embedded knowledge systems and activities; their innovative applications of traditions to markets result in economically sustainable cultural enterprises." (p. 228) Klamer (2011) "When I view cultural entrepreneurs [...], I see people who are geared toward the realization of cultural values. […] The economics has to be an instrument for them in order to realize cultural values [...]. [...] cultural entrepreneurship has to involve more than marketing skills and sensitivityto the artistic process; it also involves the persuasive power to induce a candidate for art into the appropriate conversation and to realize it as a common good." (p. 154) Konrad (2010) "Cultural entrepreneurs are individuals who create new organizations, products or activities within the cultural sector […]" (p. 336, translated by the authors) Lange (2008) "Culturepreneur describes an urban protagonist who possesses the ability to mediate between and interpret the areas of culture and of service provision." (p. 116) Lounsbury/Glynn (2001) "We define cultural entrepreneurship as the process of storytelling that mediates between extant stocks of entrepreneurial resources and subsequent capital acquisition and wealth creation." (p. 545) Metze (2009) "The ‘cultural entrepreneurship’ discourse provides an alternative interpretation [and] aligns ‘entrepreneurship’ with a counter-cultural or subordinate discourse of ‘maintenance of cultural value’ that artists, residents and small business in the creative sector often express." (p. 2) Mokyr (2013) “Cultural entrepreneurs, then, are defined as individuals that add to the menus from which others choose. […] usually they build upon existing but diffuse notions, and formulate them in a sharp set of propositions or beliefs, which serve as a cultural Schelling focal point to their contemporaries. In that sense they create something new.” (p. 3) Scott (2012) "Therefore, the term cultural entrepreneur``can be understood as a subjectivity combining three elements. First, these individuals create new cultural products, such as songs [...]. Second, they are oriented towards accessing opportunities [...]. Third, [...] they have to find innovative ways of doing [...]." (p. 243) Swedberg (2006) "Cultural entrepreneurship, as I see it, may therefore be defined as the carrying out of a novel combination that results in something new and appreciated in the cultural sphere." (p. 260) Wilson/Stokes (2004) "[...] we follow Ellmeier´s definition of `cultural entrepreneurialism` - encompassing all-round artistic and commercial/business qualifications, long working-hours and fierce competition from bigger companies. [...] the particular ability of the cultural entrepreneur to coordinate artistic and managerial resources [...], can be seen as a defining characteristic of the use of the term `entrepreneur`." (p. 221) Wilson/Stokes (2006) "[...] we follow Ellmeier´s definition of `cultural entrepreneurialism` - encompassing all-round artistic and commercial/business qualifications, long working-hours and fierce competition from bigger companies. [...] This focuses attention squarely on the particular ability of the cultural entrepreneur to coordinate and leverage artistic and managerial resources." (p. 369) Yang (2005) "Cultural entrepreneurs tapped into the new cultural market by offering CR [Cultural Revolution, added by the authors] related cultural products. […] Cultural entrepreneurs understand the market and know how to negotiate political control. (p. 16, 22) Creative Entrepreneurs/ship Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 13 Rae (2005) "[…] creative entrepreneurship, which can be defined as the creation or identification of an opportunity to provide a cultural product, service or experience, and of bringing together the ressources to exploit this as an enterprise (Leadbeater and Oakley, 1999)." (p. 186) Cultural Entrepreneurs/ship and Creative Entrepreneurs/ship Kolsteeg (2013) "Cultural entrepreneurs by definition work in a social, political, economic and artistic discourse." (p. 5) Smit (2011) "The current discourse about the creative economy draws on different notions of cultural and creative entrepreneurs. These definitions differ [...]. However, they all concentrate on economic activities dedicated to producing goods and services with mainly aesthetic and symbolic value." (p. 170) Arts Entrepreneurs/ship Beckman (2007) „[…] to approach professional employment in the arts in a creative manner that will generate value for individuals and groups inside or outside traditional arts employment domains.” (p. 89) Chang und Wyszomirski (2015) "[...] a possible general definition: `arts entrepreneurship´ is a management process through which cultural workers seek to support their creativity and autonomy, advance their capacity for adaptability, and create artistic as well as economic and social value." (p. 11) Essig (2015) "Thus, in the arts and culture context [...] it may also be understood to include the creation of new expressions of symbolic meaning by individuals. [...] we can understand entrepreneurship, in the arts and culture sector and elsewhere, as a process for converting means to desirable ends through a mediating structure or organization that may be called a ´firm´ [...]" (p. 227) Phillips (2011) "[…] arts entrepreneurship refers to the process whereby tangible cultural capital is created." (p. 20) Preece (2011) "[…] performing arts entrepreneurship will refer to the process of starting a not-for-profit organization with the intent of generating artistic performances (creation and/or presentation)." (p. 105) Table 4. Definitions used by authors of sampled articles (n=25) Research Subjects Having discussed the terminology of entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries, we will now discuss the subjects of arts, cultural and creative entrepreneurship research. Our analysis revealed that the specific subjects mainly fall into the two categories “groups of persons” and “sub-segments of the cultural and creative industries.” Within the first category, some authors focus on a certain group of entrepreneurs: specifically, they address “muslim cultural entrepreneurs” (Fattah & Butterfield, 2006), “women cultural entrepreneurs” (Stanley & Dampier, 2007), “music entrepreneurs” (Hausmann, 2010), “creative entrepreneurs” (Halim et al., 2011), “cultural entrepreneurs” (Klamer, 2011; Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001), and “young entrepreneurs” (Krzyżanowska & Tkaczyk, 2013; Lange, 2008). These relatively vaguely defined groups of persons are characterized in greater details only in very few articles. Lange (2008) explicitly examines young design entrepreneurs, while Smit (2011) takes a look at “architects”, “graphic designers,” “filmmakers,” “photographers,” and “visual artists,” and Scott (2012) examines “music producers”. Three of the articles examine managers from different cultural fields (Konrad, 2010 and 2013; Küttim et al., 2011). In two of these articles (Konrad, 2010 and 2013), the founders of the respective enterprises are also taken into account; the studies by Wilson and Stokes (2004 & 2006) additionally refer to what is described as “owner- managers.” Other authors specialize in sub-segments of the cultural and creative industries, although the research subjects are mostly not defined in more concrete terms: Dempster (2008) and Preece (2011) take a look at the performing arts, Colbert (2003) addresses the art market and the performing arts, Faulkner et al. (2008) analyze a special segment of the broadcasting sector, namely the TV production segment, and Zhao et al. (2013) refer to the movie sector. Sperlich (2011) analyzes several segments of the cultural and creative sector, i.e. film, photography, and Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 14 architecture in particular, whereas Essig (2015) refers to the US arts and culture sector in general. Interestingly, more specific research subjects can mainly be found in articles that are based on a case study-oriented research approach. Cinnéide (2005) examines the Riverdance stage show. Acheson et al. (1996) and Preece (2014) take a similar approach with their analysis of the Canadian Banff Television Festival and the Grand River Jazz Society. Johnson (2007) examines the foundation of the Paris Opera under Louis XIV. Cyrs’s (2014) and Enhuber’s (2014) case studies focus on single entrepreneurs, the founder of Réalisations Inc. Montréal and Damien Hirst, the famous London artist. Other authors choose a certain region as the subject of their studies. The analysis by O’Connor and Gu (2010), for example, covers the city of Manchester, while the study by Drda- Kühn and Wiegand (2010) refers to Altenkirchen, a small German town in the Westerwald region. The study by Kolsteeg (2013) refers to the Netherlands and the city of Utrecht in particular. All of these articles mainly address the research area “creative cities” that we discuss in the following section. Research Areas With regard to the research areas, the results of our literature review revealed a wide variety of fields that are frequently examined exclusively by only one article (n=18). However, among all articles analysed, four main topics were identified: (1) different management areas in the meaning of “cultural intrapreneurship” (Acheson et al., 1996; Colbert, 2003; Dempster, 2008; Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001; Nijboer, 2006; Rae, 2005; Scott, 2012; Wilson & Stokes, 2004 & 2006; Zhao et al., 2013), (2) influencing or success factors for cultural entrepreneurship (Cyr, 2014; Faulkner et al,. 2008; Halim et al,. 2011; Hausmann, 2010; Kavousy et al., 2010; Klamer, 2011; Konrad, 2010 & 2013; Krzyżanowska & Tkaczyk, 2013), (3) “entrepreneurship education” (Beckman, 2007; Beckman & Essig, 2012; Essig, 2012; Küttim et al., 2010; Phillips, 2011; Welsh et al., 2014; White, 2013), as well as (4) the concept of the “creative cities” (Drda-Kühn & Wiegand, 2010; Enhuber, 2014; Kolsteeg, 2013; O’Connor & Gu, 2010; Phillips, 2011; Smit, 2011). The following insights have been gained from literature: 1. Most of the articles examined fall in the main research area of “cultural intrapreneurship” (n=10). The term “intrapreneurship” describes the implementation of innovative ideas in existing organizations. The studies focusing on cultural intrapreneurship thus address individual management areas, such as project management (Acheson et al., 1996), risk management (Dempster, 2008), library management (Nijboer, 2006), marketing management (Colbert, 2003; Rae, 2005; Zhao et al., 2013), and resource management (Lounsbury & Glynn, 2001; Scott, 2012), and in this context primarily the raising of financial capital (Wilson & Stokes, 2004 & 2006). 2. Concerning the influencing and success factors for cultural entrepreneurship (n=9), Halim et al. (2011) primarily examine the personality of the entrepreneur, while Konrad (2010) focuses on entrepreneurial competence and entrepreneurs’ social networking activities (2013). Klamer (2011) and Kavousy et al. (2011) address both internal and external influencing factors, whereas Hausmanns’ (2010) study is confined to external influencing factors of start-up management in the cultural sector. Krzyżanowska and Tkaczyk (2013) also take a look at start-up management, with a focus on the competitive orientation of cultural and creative Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 15 start-ups. The study by Faulkner et al. (2008) examines the exit strategies of smaller enterprises in the TV sector, which is another aspect of start-up management. Cyr (2014) analyzes the creation process of small and medium-sized creative enterprises as a whole. 3. The third research area identified, “entrepreneurship education”, is addressed by 7 of the 50 articles. Strikingly, 6 of them use the term “arts entrepreneurship” (Beckman, 2007; Beckman & Essig, 2012; Essig, 2012; Phillipps, 2011; Welsh et al., 2014; White, 2013). Beckman (2007) and Beckman & Essig (2012) examine arts universities’ and higher education institutions’ educational offerings related to entrepreneurship in general, while Welsh et al. (2014) refer to arts entrepreneurship in North Carolina higher education in particular. Essig (2012) looks at practices for arts entrepreneurship teaching, and Phillipps (2011) addresses the education of artists. The study of White (2013) is more specifically related to the key barriers in arts entrepreneurship education. Küttim et al. (2010) take a look at creative entrepreneurship trainings. Interestingly, the term “cultural entrepreneurship education” is not used in any of these studies and generally seems not to be used. 4. The concept of the “creative cities” is considered by 6 of the articles examined. The development of the concept is rooted in the context of an increasing discussion of the creative economy in the 1990s. Since then, it has been an important issue of cultural politics in Europe, and even worldwide it has become an important topic that, inter alia, was forwarded by Florida´s “Rise of the Creative Class” (2004). All in all, this research stream is primarily focused on the impact of the cultural and creative industries on urban and regional development. The articles analyzed here discuss, for example, the conditions for subsidization of the cultural and creative industries in small rural towns (Drda-Kühn & Wiegand, 2010), but also in large cities such as Manchester (O´Connor & Gu, 2010). Smit (2011) and Enhuber (2014) address selected neighborhoods of larger cities such as Amsterdam, Rotterdam and London. Kolsteeg (2013) refers to the local and national political context of Utrecht and the Netherlands. With the exception of Phillips (2011), who provides an overview of selected creative cities in the USA, Europe and Asia, the research area “creative cities” by now mainly focuses on European cities and regions. Discussion and Limitations The purpose of this article was to identify to what extent the terms “arts,” “cultural,” and “creative” “entrepreneurship” are distinguished from one another and which subject areas are primarily discussed. To answer this research question, we analyzed 50 scientific articles from peer reviewed journals identified by means of a systematic database research. In the context of our analysis, the discussion of the terminology as well as the objects and focal areas of research were examined. As our analysis has shown, many different interpretations, research objects and focal areas can be found in current arts, cultural, and creative entrepreneurship research. With regard to the discussion of the terms, it can be stated that to date, “cultural entrepreneurship” is the most commonly used term in research literature. Furthermore, and across all terms, a general theory defining the respective term is often missing. Characteristics of entrepreneurship discussed in classic literature, such as entrepreneurial opportunity, innovation, and novel combinations, as well as the creation of an organization, are partly included in an overall definition of arts, creative, and cultural entrepreneurship. In many cases, no distinction is made between Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 16 entrepreneurs, managers, self-employed workers, freelancer, and owner-managers, as general entrepreneurship theory usually does. This means that entrepreneurship in a more classic sense of the term is hardly in evidence in the cultural and creative industries. In contrast, during the analysis some of the papers examined could be identified as seminal articles. These articles strongly forward the understanding and discussion of the terms and the research area of entrepreneurship within the cultural and creative industries in general (Chang & Wyszomirski, 2015; Essig, 2015; Klamer, 2011; Konrad, 2010; Scott, 2012; Swedberg, 2006). Additionally, we came to the conclusion that the scopes of the three terms examined for the analysis vary significantly from one another. Thus, “arts entrepreneurship” is interpreted differently from “cultural” and “creative entrepreneurship”. With the exception of Essig (2015) and Preece (2014), who examine both the arts and culture sectors the research objects of articles using the term “arts entrepreneurship” are explicitly related to the artistic field (e.g. Beckman, 2007; Colbert, 2003; Enhuber, 2014; Phillipps, 2011; Preece, 2011). Colbert (2003) refers to particular arts organizations, i.e. symphony orchestras, theaters or museums. Beckman (2007) addresses artists and musicians; Phillips (2011) refers to artists in general while Enhuber’s study (2014) is related to the artist Damien Hirst in particular. Preece (2011) addresses the performing arts. In conclusion, those articles using the term “arts entrepreneurs/ship” position it within the cultural and creative sector. Thus, “arts entrepreneurship” is defined more narrowly and refers explicitly to the artistic field of the cultural industries. By contrast, “cultural entrepreneurship” and “creative entrepreneurship” are usually defined more broadly and also relate to the other sub- segments of the cultural industries and the creative industries as a whole. With regard to the research subjects and research areas, no consequential findings are available, as the authors rarely refer to each other in their studies. In respect to the research subjects in general, we conclude that these are often closely linked to the chosen research method or area. Furthermore, articles based on a case study-oriented research approach provide more specific research subjects. Additionally, our analysis revealed that the research subjects often fall into the “music” category. Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in the music industry are examined generally by Colbert (2003), Hausmann (2010), Preece (2011), Scott (2012), Wilson and Stokes (2004 and 2006) and in the specific by Cinnéide (2005), Johnson (2007) and Preece (2014) on the basis of a case study. Unlike the music sector, other cultural segments have so far been examined only in individual cases; these include, for instance, the performing arts, the broadcasting sector, the design industry and the movie industry. In the context of the research areas four main research topics were identified. Studies on entrepreneurship education primarily focus on the artistic area, with less attention paid to the cultural and creative sector as a whole. This underlines the results concerning the differences in the terminology of “arts” and “creative” and “cultural” entrepreneurship. Moreover, individual aspects of cultural management are often discussed under the heading “cultural entrepreneurship”; in most cases, no clear distinction is made between these two research areas. Closing our analysis and discussion we would like to point out that within a short period of time much has been done, written, and researched on entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries. However, there is still some research to do. Based on our findings some implications for future research follow. With regard to the limitations of the present study, it should be noted that the results presented here were generated on the basis of a systematic research and evaluation process Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 17 addressing particularly our research questions. In this context, some interesting articles for the research field in general, such as DiMaggio (1982), were excluded from the analysis as they were not using one of the terms examined. Additionally, it cannot be ruled out that, in spite of a careful search, individual articles in academic journals were overlooked – which is the case with every literature review (e.g. Kitchenham et al., 2009). However, it is safe to assume that the number of such publications is negligible, which means that the results of the present study would not change materially. Implications for Future Research The following implications for future research can be derived from the above. First, our analysis has shown that from 2012 on the number of published articles on entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries has slightly decreased. To examine whether this applies to publications in peer reviewed journals in particular or to research in general could be the task of future efforts. However, a number of articles on arts, creative, and cultural entrepreneurship have been published in books (e.g. Aageson, 2008; Cinnéide & Henry, 2007; Lindqvist, 2011; Towse & Blaug, 2011; Van Amerom & Nagtegaal, 2010). Second, the present paper shows that entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries is more broadly understood than in general entrepreneurship research, as cultural management is often included. Future research should try to establish a more precise distinction between cultural entrepreneurs and other players in the cultural and creative industries, and as a result, intrapreneurship and entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries should be examined separately from each other in the future. For the term “cultural entrepreneurship,” we propose the following definition be employed in future research: cultural or creative entrepreneurship, as we see it, can be defined as a number of individual activities undertaken to discover, evaluate, and exploit a commercial business opportunity within the cultural and creative industries. In this sense, the cultural entrepreneur acts in an innovative way of doing and launches a new start-up company in order to implement his/her issue. With regard to the discussion of the term, our analysis also revealed that the term “arts entrepreneurship” is more closely related to the artistic fields of the cultural industries, whereas “cultural” and “creative entrepreneurship” address all segments of the cultural and creative industries. As a consequence, independent research fields could be established – as it is already the case, for example, in “arts entrepreneurship education.” In respect to the research areas we recommend to expand research in all areas, for example, conceptual models could be developed and implemented as it is partly done in studies concerning the influencing or success factors for cultural entrepreneurship. Additionally, the analysis of “creative cities” outside Europe, i.e. in the thriving cities of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, could shed light on trends and future possibilities in different countries. With regard to the research subjects, research could also be expanded in all areas. For instance, findings already available for the music sector could provide an impetus for other cultural sectors. For this purpose, the specifics of other sectors, such as the performing arts or the broadcasting and film sector, which have been only little researched so far, should be examined. Findings from these fields could contribute to a better understanding of the needs and challenges of entrepreneurs within the individual sectors of the cultural and creative industries. On the basis of this knowledge, adequate support programs could be established. In Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 18 general, those programs will help to coordinate national policies, and a thriving creative economy. Finally, in terms of methodology, the authors of the present paper believe it would make sense to more strongly focus on studies pursuing a mixed methods approach in order to develop a more complete understanding of the research field. As a first step, explorative insights could be gained from best practices. In order to obtain representative results more quantitative methods should be applied. We believe multi-methodological studies would contribute to a better understanding and establishment of entrepreneurship in the cultural and creative industries in general. References Aageson, T. (2008). Cultural entrepreneurs: producing cultural value and wealth. In H. K. Anheier & Y. R. Isar (Eds.), The Cultural Economy (pp. 92-107). Los Angeles: SAGE. Acheson, K., Maule, C., & Filleul, E. (1996). Cultural entrepreneurship and the Banff television festival. Journal of Cultural Economics, 20(4), 321-339. Amerom, P. van & Nagtegaal, C. (2010). Guiding students to act and reflect as cultural entrepreneurs: a new impulse for the art and economy study career planning program. In G. Hagoort & R. Kooyman (Eds.), Creative Industries. Colourful Fabric in Multiple Dimensions: Yearbook 2009/ Research Group (pp.154-162). Eburon, Delft: Faculty of Art and Economics, Utrecht School of the Arts (HKU). Anheier, H. K. & Isar, Y. R. (2008). The Cultural Economy. Los Angeles: SAGE. Beckman, G. & Essig, L. (2012). Arts entrepreneurship: A conversation. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 1(1), 1-8. Beckman, G. (2007). ’Adventuring’ arts entrepreneurship curricula in higher education: An examination of present efforts, obstacles, and best practices. Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 37(2), 87-112. British Council (2010). Mapping the creative industries: a toolkit. Creative and Cultural Economy Series, 2. London, UK. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology) (2012). Monitoring zu ausgewählten wirtschaftlichen Eckdaten der Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft 2011. Langfassung. Berlin, Germany. Bygrave, W. (2010). The entrepreneurial process. In W. Bygrave & A. Zacharakis (Eds.), The portable MBA in entrepreneurship (pp. 1-26). 4th edn. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Bygrave, W. & Zacharakis, A. (2010). The portable MBA in entrepreneurship. 4th edn. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Carton, R., Hofer, C., & Meeks, M. (1998). The entrepreneur and entrepreneurship: Operational definitions of their role in society. Paper presented at the Annual International Council for Small Business Conference, Singapur. Retrieved from http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/icsb/1998/32.pdf. Cinnéide, B. (2005). Creative entrepreneurship in the arts: Transforming ´old´ into ´new´ - Irish dance and music test cases such as river dance and Lord of the Dance. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 6(3), 151-158. Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 19 Chang, W. J. & Wyszomirski, M. (2015). What is arts entrepreneurship? Tracking the development of its definition in scholarly journals. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 4(2), 11-31. Cinnéide, B. & Henry, C. (2007). Entrepreneurship features of creative industries: the Irish music and dance sector. In C. Henry & A. de Bruin, A. (Eds.), Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries. An International Perspective (pp. 72-86). Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar. Colbert, F. (2003). Entrepreneurship and leadership in the arts. International Journal of Arts Management, 6, 30-39. Cyr, C. (2014). Roger Parent and Réalisations Inc. Montréal: a flair for creativity. International Journal of Arts Management, 16, 60-70. Dempster, A. (2008). An operational risk framework for the performing arts and creative Industries. Creative Industries Journal, 1(2), 151-170. DiMaggio, P. (1982). Cultural entrepreneurship in nineteenth-century Boston: The creation of an organizational base for high culture in America. Media, Culture and Society, (4), 33-50. Dobransky, K. & Fine, G.A. (2006). The native in the garden: Floral politics and cultural entrepreneurs. Sociological Forum, 21(4), 559-585. Drdra-Kühn, K. & Wiegand, D. (2010). From culture to cultural economic power: Rural regional development in small German communities. Creative Industries Journal, 3(1), 89-96. Drucker, P. (1993; c1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship: Practice and principles. 1st edn. New York, NY: HarperBusiness. Edwards, J. (2008). Hybrid Organizations: Social enterprise and social entrepreneurship. Raleigh: Lulu.com. Ellmeier, A. (2003). Cultural entrepreneurialism: On the changing relationship between the arts, culture and employment. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 9(1), 3-16. Enhuber, M. (2014). How is Damien Hirst a cultural entrepreneur? Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 3(2), 3-20. Essig, L. (2015). Means and ends: A theory framework for understanding entrepreneurship in the US arts and culture Sector. Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 45 (1), 227- 246. Essig, L. (2012). Frameworks for educating the artist of the future: Habits of mind for arts entrepreneurship. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 1(2), 65-77. Faltin, G., Ripsas, S., & Zimmer, J. (1998). Entrepreneurship: Wie aus Ideen Unternehmen werden. München, Germany: C.H. Beck. Fattah, M. & Butterfield, J. (2006). Muslim cultural entrepreneurs and the democracy debate. Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies, 15(1), 49-76. Faulkner, S., Leaver, A., Vis, F., & Williams, K. (2008). Art for arts´s sake or selling up?. European Journal of Communication, 23(3), 295-317. Florida, R. (2004). The rise of the creative class. And how it's transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. New York, USA: Basic Books. Fueglistaller, U., Müller, C., & Volery, T. (2012). Entrepreneurship. Modelle – Umsetzung – Perspektiven: Mit Fallbeispielen aus Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz, 3rd edn. Wiesbaden, Germany: Gabler. Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 20 Gartner, W. B., Roberts, J., & Rabideau, M. (2015). Perspectives on arts entrepreneurship: Part 2. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 4(2), 3-9. Gartner, W. (1990). What are we talking about when we talk about entrepreneurship?. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(1), 15-28. Hagoort, G. (2007). Cultural entrepreneurship: On the freedom to create art and the freedom of enterprise, Summary Version. Utrecht: Utrecht School of the Arts, Research Group Art and Economics. Hagoort, G. & Kooyman, R. (2010). Creative Industries. Colourful Fabric in Multiple Dimensions: Yearbook 2009/ Research Group. Eburon, Delft: Faculty of Art and Economics, Utrecht School of the Arts (HKU). Halim, M., Muda, S., & Amin, W. (2011). The measurement of entrepreneurial personality and business performance in Terengganu creative industry. International Journal of Business and Management, 6(6), 183-192. Hausmann, A. (2010). German artists between bohemian idealism and entrepreneurial dynamics: Reflections on cultural entrepreneurship and the need for start-up management. International Journal of Arts Management, 12(2), 17-29. Henry, C. & Bruin, A. de (2007). Entrepreneurship in the creative industries. An international perspective. Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar. Johnson, V. (2007). What is organizational imprinting? Cultural entrepreneurship in the founding of the Paris Opera. The American Journal of Sociology, 113(1), 97-127. Kavousy, E., Shahosseini, A., Kiasi, S., & Ardahaey, F. (2010). Cultural entrepreneurship strategies in Iran. Serbian Journal of Management, 5(2), 227-241. Kelley, D. & Marram, E. (2010). Beyond start-up: Developing and sustaining the growing organization. In W. Bygrave and A. Zacharakis (Eds.), The portable MBA in entrepreneurship (pp. 355-384). 4th edn. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Klamer, A. (2011). Cultural entrepreneurship. The Review of Austrian Economics, 24(2), 141- 156. Kitchenham, B., Brereton, P., Budgen, D., Turner, M., Bailey, J. & Linkman, S. (2009). Systematic literature reviews in software engineering – a systematic literature review. Information and Software Technology, 51, 7-15. Kolsteeg, J. (2013). Situated cultural entrepreneurship. Artivate: A Journal of Entre- preneurship in the Arts, 2, 3-13. Konrad, E. (2010). Kulturunternehmertum. Wirtschaftspolitische Blätter, 57(3), 333-348. Konrad, E. (2013). Cultural entrepreneurship: The impact of social networking on success. Creativity and Innovation Management, 22(3), 307-319. Krzyżanowska, M. & Tkaczyk, J. (2013). Identifying competitors: Challenges for start-up firms. International Journal of Management Cases, 15(4), 234-246. Küttim, M., Arvola, K., & Venesaar, U. (2011). Development of creative entrepreneurship: Opinion of managers from Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Sweden. Business: Theory and Practice, 12(4), 369-378. Lange, B. (2008). Accessing markets in creative industries: Professionalization and social-spatial strategies of culturepreneurs in Berlin. Creative Industries Journal, 1(2), 115-135. Lindqvist, K. (2011). Artist entrepreneurs. In I. Zander & M. Scherdin (Eds.), Art Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 21 Entrepreneurship (pp. 10-22). Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar. Lounsbury, M. & Glynn, M. (2001). Cultural entrepreneurship: Stories, legitimacy, and the acquisition of resources. Strategic Management Journal, 22(6/7), 545-564. Lumpkin, G. and Dess, G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. The Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135-172. Metze, T. (2009). Discursive power in deliberations: A case of redevelopment for the creative economy in the Netherlands. Policy and Society, 28(3), 241-251. Mokyr, J. (2013). Cultural entrepreneurs and the origins of modern economic growth. Scandinavian Economic History Review, 61(1), 1-33. Nijboer, J. (2006). Cultural entrepreneurship in libraries. New Library World, 107(9/10), 434−443. O’Connor, J. & Gu, X. (2010). Developing a creative cluster in a postindustrial city: CIDS and Manchester. The Information Society, 26(2), 124-136. Phillips, R. (2011). Arts entrepreneurship and economic development: Can every city be ‘Austintatious’?. Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 6(4), 239-313. Preece, S. B. (2014). Social bricolage in arts entrepreneurship: Building a jazz society from scratch. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 3(1), 23-34. Preece, S. (2011). Performing arts entrepreneurship: Toward a research agenda. Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 41(2), 103-120. Rae, D. (2005). Cultural diffusion: A formative process in creative entrepreneurship?. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 6(3), 185-192. Schumpeter, J. (1998). Freude am Gestalten. In G. Faltin, S. Ripsas, & J. Zimmer (Eds.), Entrepreneurship: Wie aus Ideen Unternehmen werden (pp. 21-28). München, Germany: C.H. Beck. Scott, M. (2012). Cultural entrepreneurs, cultural entrepreneurship: Music producers mobilising and converting Bourdieu´s alternative capitals. Poetics, 40(3), 237-255. Shane, S. & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. The Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217-226. Smit, A. (2011). The influence of district visual quality on location decisions of creative entrepreneurs. Journal of American Planning Association, 77(2), 167-184. Sperlich, R. (2011). The mixed blessing of autonomy in digital cultural production: A study on filmmaking, press photography and architecture in Austria. European Journal of Communication, 26(2), 133-146. Stanley, L. & Dampier, H. (2007). Cultural entrepreneurs, proto-nationalism and women's testimony writings: From the South African war to 1940. Journal of Southern African Studies, 33(3), 237-255. Swedberg, R. (2006). The cultural entrepreneur and the creative industries: Beginning in Vienna. Journal of Cultural Economics, 30(4), 243-261. Taylor, E. A., Bonin-Rodriguez, P., & Essig, L. (2015). Perspectives on arts entrepreneur- ship: Part 1. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 4(1), 3-7. Towse, R. & Blaug, M. (2011). Cultural entrepreneurship. In R. Towse, R. (Ed.), A Handbook of Cultural Economics (pp. 153-157). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Hausmann and Heinze Entrepreneurship in the Cultural and Creative Industries _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artivate 5 (2) 22 Towse, R. (2011). A Handbook of Cultural Economics. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Ulfstjerne, M. (2011). The wasteland of creative production: A case study of contemporary Chinese art. The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies, 29(1), 17-38. Welsh, D. H. B., Onishi, T., DeHoog, R. H., & Syed, S. (2014). Responding to the needs and challenges of arts entrepreneurs: An exploratory study of arts entrepreneurship in North Carolina higher education. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 3(2), 21- 37. White, J. C. (2013). Barriers to recognizing arts entrepreneurship education as essential to professional arts training. Artivate: A Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts, 2(3), 28- 39. Wilson, N. & Stokes, D. (2004). Laments and serenades: Relationship marketing and legitimation strategies for the cultural entrepreneur. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 7(3), 218-227. Wilson, N. & Stokes, D. (2006). Managing creativity and innovation: The challenge for cultural entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12(3), 366-378. Yang, G. (2005). Days of old are not puffs of smoke: Three hypotheses on collective memories of the cultural revolution. The China Review, 5(2), 13-41. Zander, I. & M. Scherdin (2011). Art Entrepreneurship. Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar. Zhao, E., Ishihara, M., & Lounsbury, M. (2013). Overcoming the illegitimacy discount: Cultural entrepreneurship in the US feature film industry. Organization Studies, 34(12), 1747- 1776.