









































citation


AsiaCALL Online Journal Received: 29/09/2021 

ISSN 1936-9859; https://asiacall.info/acoj Revision: 01/11/2021 

Vol. 13, No. 1, 2022  Accepted: 16/11/2021 

pp. 40-72  Online: 17/11/2021 

 

CITATION | Pham, N. K. T. (2022). Vietnamese Students’ Perspectives on Online Micro-Teaching (OMT) as a 

Technique in English Teacher Education in the 4.0 Era. AsiaCALL Online Journal, 13(1), 40-72. EOI: 

http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.13.01.003 

Vietnamese Students’ Perspectives on Online Micro-Teaching (OMT) as a 

Technique in English Teacher Education in the 4.0 Era 

Pham Ngoc Kim Tuyen 

Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 

Correspondence: Pham Ngoc Kim Tuyen, University of Social Sciences & Humanities (USSH), Vietnam 

National University, Ho Chi Minh City (VNUHCM), Vietnam. E-mail: pnkimtuyen@hcmussh.edu.vn   

EOI: http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.13.01.003 

  

Abstract 

Since its emergence in 1963, micro-teaching has been widely adopted as an effective 

technique in teacher training and development across various disciplines, especially in 

English language teaching. A huge body of research focuses on its effectiveness and students’ 

and teachers' perceptions of this practice. However, scant literature can be found on online 

micro-teaching (OMT), particularly in Vietnam. Therefore, this survey research is aimed to 

explore Vietnamese students' perspectives on OMT, centering on (1) what and how they 

learned, (2) what difficulties they faced, and (3) what suggestions they made on future OMT. 

To address those questions, both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to 

collect data. Specifically, a questionnaire via Google Forms, consisting of 17 closed- and 

open-ended questions, was delivered to 142 students at the Faculty of English Linguistics and 

Literature, the USSH, VNUHCM. The study results show that the participants could learn 

teaching and digital competencies from OMT through six main ways. Additionally, they 

faced three main difficulties, namely (1) checking students' learning 

progress/attention/concentration, (2) promoting students' participation, engagement, and 

collaboration, and (3) technology (Internet connection and teaching equipment). However, to 

better improve future OMT sessions, the participants provided five key suggestions, 

including (1) backup plans, (2) preparation, (3) training and rehearsal with tools and OMT, 

(4) engagement methods, and (5) classroom management and professionalism. They also 

recommended some online tools for OMT. 

Keywords: micro-teaching, online micro-teaching, teacher education 

 

1. Introduction  

Since its emergence in Stanford University’s Teacher Education Program in 1963, micro-

teaching has been conceived as an effective teacher-training technique and has been 

implemented around the globe. Micro-teaching, with its typical characteristics of (1) reduced 

length, (2) narrowed scope, and (3) fewer students than usual, has been considered as a “safe” 

setting in which students may learn how to teach (Allen & Ryan, 1969, cited in Park, 2021). 

Therefore, micro-teaching has been implemented in a myriad of forms in various disciplines, 

especially in English Teacher Education programs.  

http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.13.01.003
mailto:pnkimtuyen@hcmussh.edu.vn
http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.13.01.003


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41 

In Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, several institutions offer English Teacher Education programs, 

most of which embed micro-teaching as part of the training process for preservice teachers or 

student teachers. One such institution is the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature (EF), 

University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH), Vietnam National University, Ho Chi 

Minh City (VNUHCM). At the EF, it is compulsory for all students to take the Teaching 

Methodology course, which provides them with the fundamentals of English Language 

Teaching, followed by a micro-teaching episode as one final assessment task. In addition, 

students majoring in English Language Teaching are required to take further teaching-related 

courses, namely Teaching Practice 1 and 2. While the Teaching Methodology course is theory-

oriented, Teaching Practice 1 and 2 courses are practice-oriented, and micro-teaching is also an 

integral part of the two courses. Besides the full-time undergraduate program, the EF offers a 

TESOL Certificate Program intended for those who do not major in English Language Teaching 

or TESOL but wish to teach English at foreign language centers. The program enrollees receive 

a TESOL certificate when they finish all the required courses, one of which is Teaching Practice 

3. The course gives the students opportunities for more intensive English teaching practice with 

the micro-teaching technique. 

Last May 2021, when the students of Teaching Methodology, Teaching Practice 1, 2, and 3, 

taught by the researcher, were preparing their lesson plans for the coming micro-teaching 

episodes, the Covid-19 pandemic started raging in Vietnam for the fourth time. Consequently, 

the remaining theory-oriented sessions switched from face-to-face to online teaching and 

learning, and all students of those courses conducted their micro-teaching sessions online for 

the first time. However, this new type of practice, online micro-teaching (OMT), particularly in 

the Vietnamese teaching context, is needed given technological advancements in the Fourth 

Industrial Revolution, also known as the 4.0 era of the digital revolution. Azrai, Rini, and 

Suryanda (2020) concluded in their study that micro-teaching was still essential in teacher 

education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Also, teacher education programs are now 

challenged with the goal of developing the next generation of teachers who are proficient in 

integrating technology into their daily practice (Diana, 2013). To that end, OMT needs to be 

studied to provide student teachers teaching practice opportunities but also help familiarize 

themselves with teaching online.  

Given the potential value of OMT, the current study is aimed to explore the students' 

perspectives on their OMT experiences. The study results are expected to give the researcher, 

the teacher in charge of the teaching-related courses mentioned earlier, a better understanding 

of OMT to improve it in the future. Further, the study is hoped (1) to make a theoretical 

contribution to the research body on micro-teaching in general, on OMT in particular, (2) to 

benefit other teachers, managers, or developers in the design of OMT as part of their English 

teacher education programs, and (3) to lay the groundwork for future research on OMT. 

 

 



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2. Literature review  

This section displays related theories on micro-teaching and explores how micro-teaching can 

be conducted online in relevant studies.  

2.1 Micro-teaching 

In this part, micro-teaching is reviewed in terms of its definitions, rationale, procedure and 

cycle, applications, benefits and limitations, and some other related aspects. 

2.1.1 Definitions of micro-teaching 

Several definitions of micro-teaching can be found throughout the literature. For example, 

Cooper and Allen (1971) defined micro-teaching as “a teaching situation which is scaled down 

in terms of time [4-20 minutes per teaching episode] and numbers of students [3-10 students]” 

(p. 8). Another definition which also focuses on the "scaled-down" nature of micro-teaching 

was given by McAleese and Unwin (1971), who considered micro-teaching as a "scaled-down 

teaching encounter, scaled-down in terms of class size, lesson length and teaching complexity" 

(cited in Trott, 1976, p. 2). In addition, micro-teaching was later defined as "a laboratory 

training procedure aimed at simplifying the complexities of regular teaching-learning 

processes'' (Perlberg, 1987, cited in Grossman, 2009).  

Despite the variations in the way micro-teaching was defined, micro-teaching frequently 

involves a micro-teaching episode, including a lesson and immediate feedback on a student 

teacher's effectiveness. The sources of feedback can be diverse, from videotape or audio-tape 

recordings, supervisors, students to the student teacher's self-perception. Some other aspects of 

micro-teacher encompass lesson length, number of re-teaches, the amount and kind of 

supervision, the use of video or audiotape recordings, and the number and type of students 

(Cooper & Allen, 1971). 

Further, Allen and Eve (1968, p. 181) put forward five essential conditions for creating a micro-

teaching setting as follows: 

1) Actual teaching takes place. 

2) The complexity of the normal teaching situation, including the student numbers, the 

lesson scope, and the class time, is deliberately reduced. 

3) The focus of teacher training is reduced to accomplishing a specific task, such as the 

practice of instructional skills or techniques of teaching, the mastery of specific 

curriculum materials, or the demonstration of a particular teaching methodology. 

4) A high degree of control over elements such as time, the use of students, and the methods 

of feedback and supervision are structured into the training situation. 

5) The typical feedback dimension in teaching is greatly expanded through an immediate 

follow-up critique utilizing sources such as the student teacher's own analysis, students' 

or peers' reactions, videotapes, and the supervisor. 



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Overall, a major attraction of the micro-teaching format is that it simplifies the teaching 

activities and provides an opportunity for real experimental control and manipulation of 

variables in teaching (Allen & Eve, 1968). 

2.1.2 Rationale for micro-teaching 

In addition to the definitions of and essential conditions for micro-teaching, Cooper and Allen 

synthesized and presented the rationale for its application as a teacher training technique (1971). 

However, some of the following claims made about micro-teaching overlap the five essential 

conditions mentioned above. 

1) Micro-teaching is real teaching, reduces the complexities of normal classroom teaching, 

and permits greater control over the trainee's environment regarding students, feedback 

methods, supervision, and other aspects. 

2) Knowledge and information about the student teacher's performance (through various 

sources of feedback) aids him/her in his/her acquisition of teaching skills. 

3) Micro-teaching provides a setting in which the trainee can teach students of varying 

backgrounds, intellectual abilities, and age groups before teaching a real class. 

4) Micro-teaching provides a low-threat and low-risk situation in which the trainee can 

reduce his/her anxiety level and fear of failure experienced by beginning teachers in 

actual classrooms. 

5) Micro-teaching allows for spaced or distributed, repetitive practice over a period of 

time, necessary to overlearn skills that will be used during regular teaching. 

In general, micro-teaching has been a favorable teacher training technique because of its real, 

simplified, controlled, low-threat, low-risk, practical, and feasible nature. Therefore, the above 

rationale for micro-teaching can function as the foundation for its benefits later mentioned in 

Section 2.1.5. 

2.1.3 Micro-teaching procedure and cycle 

Traditionally, according to McKnight’s description (1980), in a typical micro-teaching program, 

after a teaching skill is described for the trainee through a videotape of a master teacher 

modeling the skill, the trainee delivers a brief teaching performance which is videotaped and 

played back for review and feedback/critique from various sources including the trainee’s 

supervisor, peers, students, and self-perceptions. The trainee later revises his/her lesson and 

teaches it again to a different group of students. The second teaching situation is also followed 

by a critique session.  

Such a procedure is repeated until the trainee can master the identified teaching skills and has 

been known as the teach/re-teach format. The micro-teaching cycle is summarized and visually 

represented in Figure 1. 

 



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Figure 1. Micro-teaching cycle (adopted from Reddy, 2019, p. 69) 

As shown in Figure 1 (adopted from Reddy, 

2019, p. 69), the trainee first plans his/her 

lesson based on a set of teaching skills 

which have been described and 

demonstrated or modelled by his/her 

supervisor. The trainee teaches the first 

lesson, which is usually observed by 

his/her supervisor and peers and 

videotaped for review and critique. Based 

on the given feedback, the trainee re-plans, 

revises the lesson, and teaches it again for another critique session. The cycle may repeat several 

times until the trainee can gain an adequate level of mastery of the designated teaching skills 

and apply them in actual classroom teaching.  

Overall, this cycle resonates with the micro-teaching procedure as earlier described by 

McKnight (1980). 

2.1.4 Applications of micro-teaching 

Given the rationale for micro-teaching as presented in Section 2.1.2, micro-teaching can be 

applicable in a wide range of situations, contexts, and disciplines. Cooper and Allen (1971) 

summarized six main applications of micro-teaching as follows: 

1) Preservice training: This was the original purpose of micro-teaching when it was 

developed at Stanford University, which is the preservice training of student or intern 

teachers through their practice and acquisition of teaching skills.   

2) In-service training: Several uses of micro-teaching for in-service teachers have been 

suggested. Micro-teaching can be used as one of the following: (a) as a trial framework 

for team presentation (experiments with new techniques in content and mode of 

presentation), (b) as a site for ascertaining the proper instructional level of materials, 

(c) as a method of pre-employment prediction (as a framework for selection or rating 

experienced teachers seeking employment), and (d) as a means of training supervisors 

to evaluate beginning teachers. 

3) Micro-counselling: Through micro-teaching, trainees practice basic component skills 

of counseling such as attending behavior, the reflection of feeling, and summarization 

of feeling. 

4) Supervisor training: Micro-teaching has great utility for training supervisors, 

especially with the strongly recommended use of videotape recorders in enhancing the 

supervisory effectiveness in observation and assessment of instruction. 

5) College teachers training: Micro-teaching has been used to improve college teaching, 

for example, by developing teaching skills and techniques. 



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6) Peace Corps Training: Micro-teaching became a major component in the training of 

Peace Corps volunteers into English teachers. 

Apart from the six main applications above, micro-teaching has been employed in a wide 

variety of areas such as in (1) medical education (assisting medical students to acquire the skills 

of relating to patients), (2) administration and personnel (training administrators, secretaries, 

receptionists, politicians, or ministers presentation and communication skills), or (3) service 

areas (enhancing professional competence of social workers, psychiatrists, and police officers) 

(Allen & Eve, 1968). 

2.1.5 Benefits and limitations of micro-teaching 

This section examines the benefits and limitations of micro-teaching, primarily based on the 

review of some related theoretical papers on micro-teaching. Seven groups of benefits of micro-

teaching can be identified as follows: 

1) Micro-teaching promotes real-time teaching experiences (Remesh, 2013), offers an 

opportunity for actual practice (Ralph, 2014), a real teaching situation for developing 

teaching skills (Reddy, 2019), opportunity to apply and practice the pedagogic theories 

student teachers learned (Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020). 

2) It has a positive influence on student teachers' consciousness and perceptions about 

their teaching skills (Ismail, 2011) and helps to develop, improve, sharpen, accomplish, 

and master specific teaching skills and competencies (Ismail, 2011; Fernadez, 2012; 

Reddy, 2019; Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020). 

3) Specifically, it helps student teachers develop timing, planning, asking questions, 

management of the class, using different materials and examples, and physical 

appearance during the teaching process (Saban & Çoklar, 2013); improved classroom 

use of language, introductory, procedure, and closure (Wangchuk, 2019), and lesson 

planning skill (Ralph, 2014). 

4) Besides, micro-teaching provides expert supervision and constructive feedback on 

prospective teachers based on their individual differences in teaching behavior, 

especially with the support of video recordings of their performances (Ralph, 2014; 

Reddy, 2019). 

5) Micro-teaching allows a chance to evaluate their own strengths and weaknesses (Saban 

& Çoklar, 2013), learn from trainees' peers' performances (Ralph, 2014), and is 

effective in understanding and modifying teaching behaviors (Reddy, 2019). 

6) It increases the confidence of trainee teachers in their teaching (Ralph, 2014; Reddy, 

2019; Wangchuk, 2019). 

7) Finally, the typical characteristics of micro-teaching were also considered as its 

advantages, summarized by Ralph (2014), including (a) it is a vehicle of continuous 

training applicable at all stages not only to teachers at the beginning of their career but 



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also for more senior teachers, (b) it enables the projection of model instructional skills, 

(c) it provides repeated practice (re-planning, re-teaching, and re-critique) without 

adverse consequences to the trainee teacher or his/her students, (d) it reduces the 

complexity of teaching process as it is scaled-down teaching (reduced class time, class 

size, and lesson content), and (e) it is a safe environment for prospective teachers to 

plan, teach, and reflect on their teaching. 

However, six groups of limitations of micro-teaching can also be found throughout the 

literature. 

1) Sometimes, micro-teaching does not involve teaching actual students, deviates from 

normal classroom teaching, requires a special classroom setting, resulting in the lack 

of real experience regarding classroom conditions at school (Ralph, 2014; Reddy, 2019; 

Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020). 

2) Student teachers experience initial nervousness about teaching their peers (Ralph, 

2014). 

3) There is limited class time, thus limited opportunities to reflect on trainees’ own teaching 

(Lee & Wu, 2006). 

4) Micro-teaching is skill-oriented (only focusing on a few specific skills), and content is 

not emphasized (Reddy, 2019). 

5) A large number of trainee teachers cannot be given the opportunity for re-teaching and 

re-planning (Reddy, 2019). 

6) Finally, micro-teaching is a very time-consuming technique and may raise 

administrative problems as regards arranging micro-lessons (micro-teaching episodes) 

(Reddy, 2019). 

In general, the benefits and limitations of micro-teaching will serve as the theoretical basis for 

the discussion of the study findings later presented in Section 4. 

2.1.6 Other aspects of micro-teaching 

To justify the study's conceptual framework, which is given in Section 2.3, the design of the 

questionnaire, the main data collection method in the study, and the implementation of OMT, 

some other components of micro-teaching are worth considering. Those components include 

(1) modeling and supervision, (2) feedback, (3) observation, (4) criteria for teaching evaluation, 

and (5) teaching skills. 

First, Cooper and Allen (1971) stressed the importance of modeling, reporting that when 

videotaped modeling performance demonstrates desired behavior, trainees' ability to acquire 

modeled teaching skills in a transfer task is enhanced. Likewise, Grossman (2009) placed great 

value on supervision as part of professional development. Specifically, the important roles of 

the supervisor or teacher trainer are highlighted during the student teachers' planning stage 

when the supervisor provides them with the necessary knowledge and skills of teaching in 



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preparation for their micro-teaching episodes. Additionally, the supervisor helps to point out 

teacher trainees' teaching strengths and weaknesses in the feedback giving sessions.  

Second, feedback is a very effective technique for modifying some teaching behaviors (Cooper 

& Allen, 1971). It plays a pivotal role in enhancing the preservice teachers' skills by enabling 

them to pursue a reflective teaching experience, reflecting on their strengths, and rectifying 

their errors (Wangchuk, 2019). As mentioned earlier, feedback can derive from various sources 

such as the student teacher's own analysis, students' or peers' reactions, videotapes, and the 

supervisor (Allen & Eve, 1968). To obtain information about a teaching performance for 

critique, feedback needs to be closely associated with observation. 

Traditionally, classroom observation has occupied a prominent role in terms of its use as a tool 

by which to judge and subsequently promote good practice (O’Leary, 2004, cited in Leshem & 

Bar-Hama, 2008). Cooper and Allen (1971) summarized three main advantages of observation, 

including (1) observation broadens the experience of the observer and lessens the number of 

actual presentations by each trainee to alter his/her teaching behavior, (2) it enables the trainee 

to assess his/her own teaching behavior more critically, and (3) it results in a variety of creative 

approaches for presenting similar lessons or concepts. Some of the most common tools for 

observation are (1) observation forms, (2) detailed written notes on the lesson, (3) audio-

recordings for reinforcement of written notes, and (4) video recordings (Leshem & Bar-Hama, 

2008). However, whatever observation tools are used, teacher trainees need explicit criteria for 

effective teaching to identify the quality of their teaching (Leshem & Bar-Hama, 2008). 

Examples of criteria for assessment on an observation form were given by Leshem and Bar-

Hama (2008, p. 259), consisting of:  

1) instructional components: clarity of instructions, sequence of activities, and classroom 

management; 

2) affective components: giving feedback and reinforcement, awareness of students’ 

needs; 

3) language components: use of L1, oral, and written proficiency; 

4) cognitive components: lesson planning, stating clear objectives, and designing 

activities to achieve lesson objectives; and 

5) metacognitive components: the ability to analyze the lesson and to reflect upon their 

professional development. 

Those criteria were considered, together with the teaching skills synthesized by Cooper and 

Allen (1971) and Reddy (2019) regarding the design of the questionnaire used in the study. The 

following is the list of teaching skills summarized by Cooper and Allen (1971): 

1) Frequency in asking questions (asking as many questions as possible) 

2) Probing questions (asking students for more information, asking them to justify their 

responses, prompting or giving them hints, refocusing their attention on a related issue 



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or earlier responses) 

3) Higher-order questions (prompting students to use reasons/ideas instead of 

remembering information) 

4) Divergent questions (requiring students to think creatively, asking them to make 

hypotheses and use their imagination to reorganize concepts into novel patterns) 

5) Reinforcement (using positive reinforcement such as rewards to increase students’ 

participation) 

6) Recognizing attending behavior (observing students’ verbal and non-verbal responses 

so that the teacher can make proper instructional and classroom management 

decisions) 

7) Silence and non-verbal cues (controlled use of teacher silence to get students to speak 

and techniques of using non-verbal communication) 

8) Cueing (giving students hints or clues regarding their answering questions or making 

comments to enhance their perception of success experience) 

9) Set induction (ways of introducing upcoming activities and establishing common 

frames of reference between the teacher and students to facilitate communication) 

10) Stimulus variation (techniques and behaviors to keep students attentive and alert 

throughout a lesson) 

11) Closure (helping students to perceive a logical organization of the main points/ideas 

presented in a lesson and perceive a feeling of achievement through their ability to 

connect past and new knowledge at the end of a lesson) 

12) Lecturing (delivery techniques, use of visual aids, pacing, etc.) 

13) Use of examples (using examples relevant to students’ experience and knowledge, 

relating examples to the principles or ideas being taught, asking students to give 

examples that illustrate the points of teaching to check their understanding or whether 

lesson objectives are met, and using analogies or metaphors to relate the unknown to 

the known) 

14) Planned repetition (clarifying and reinforcing major ideas, keywords, principles or 

concepts in a lecture or discussion) 

15) Completeness of communication (sensitivity training on the importance and difficulty 

of being understood, helping teaching to be more responsive to possible 

miscommunication) 

Reddy (2019) also gave a list of teaching skills for micro-teaching, most of which overlap 

Cooper and Allen’s (1971) such as (1) Introduction skill (Set induction), (2) Reinforcement, (3) 

Skill of stimulus variation, (4) Skill of probing questions, (5) Silence and nonverbal cues, and 

(6) Skill of achieving closure. The remaining additional teaching skills are presented below. 



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1) Lesson planning (with clear-cut objectives and an appropriate planned sequence. The 

content should be concise, appropriate, relevant, and could cover the specified 

duration.)  

2) Presentation and explanation skills (Teacher enthusiasm, explanation, narration, 

giving appropriate illustrations and examples, planned repetition, and encouraging 

group discussion wherever necessary. The trainee teacher should be able to explain the 

concept by simple, relevant, rightly, and interesting examples to increase students’ 

understanding.) 

3) The skill of stimulus variation (The effective components of the skill are gestures (hand, 

facial, body), change in the speech pattern, voice variation and modulation (pitch, 

volume, speed), change in the interaction pattern, focusing, pausing movement, and 

emphasis on significant points) (added description from Reddy (2019)) 

4) Proper use of audio-visual aids (the key components for this skill are neatness, 

readability, adequate spacing, distinct size, proper spacing between words and lines, 

and use of relevant words or phrases 

5) The skill of black-board writing (The components of the skill of black-board writing: 

legibility (easy to read), size and alignment (in a straight line), highlighting main points, 

utilization of the space, black-board summary, correctness, the position of the teacher, 

contact with students.) 

6) Classroom management (Providing proper instructions, restricting inappropriate 

behavior, and calling the students by name are essentials of this skill.) 

Overall, the two lists of teaching skills above serve as the frameworks of reference regarding 

the design of questionnaire items on teaching competencies which are discussed later in 

Section 3.4.  

2.2 Online micro-teaching (OMT) and relevant studies 

This section explores how micro-teaching can be conducted online through a review of the most 

related studies.  

It appears that no specific definition of online micro-teaching (OMT) can be found in the 

literature. However, a thorough review reveals four main ways in which micro-teaching takes 

place, highly associated with online tools for teaching. Online tools refer to any kinds of 

applications, programs, or software that are used on the Internet. Son (2011) classified online 

tools for language teaching into 12 categories, including: 

1) Learning/content management systems (LMSs/CMSs): Blackboard, Drupal, Joomla, 

Moodle, and Sakai   

2) Communication tools: Gmail, Skype, TokBox, Windows Live Messenger, Yahoo! 

Messenger, Jabberwacky, Verbot, MyBB, phpBBTangler, and Voxopop 

3) Live and virtual worlds: Elluminate, Livestream, OpenSimulator, ActiveWorlds, Second 



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Life, Ustream, Wimba Classroom, and WiZiQ   

4) Social networking and bookmarking sites: Delicious, Diigo, Elgg, Facebook, Grouply, 

MySpace, Ning, SocialGo, LinkedIn, Twitter, Lang-8, and Livemocha 

5) Blogs and wikis: Blogger, Edmodo, Edublogs, LiveJournal, WordPress.com, PBWorks, 

Wikispaces, and Penzu 

6) Presentation tools: 280 Slides, Animoto, Empresser, Prezi, SlideRocket, and Zoho   

7) Resource sharing tools: Google Docs, TitanPad, Zoho Writer, Box.net, Dropbox, 

VoiceThread, Xtranormal, Flickr, Picasa, MyPodcast, PodOmatic, Glogster, Screenr, 

Slideshare, PhotoPeach, Dipity, OurStory, Jing, SchoolTube, TeacherTube, VideoPress, 

Vimeo, WatchKnow, and YouTube 

8) Website creation sites: Google Sites, Jimdo, KompoZer, Mahara, Movable Type, 

SnapPages, Weebly, Webnode, Webs, and Wix   

9) Web exercise creation tools: ContentGenerator, SMILE, ESL Video, JClic, Hot 

Potatoes, Quia, Lingt and Listen and Write   

10) Web search engines: Ask.com, Bing, Google, and Yahoo! Search 

11) Dictionaries and concordances: Dictionary.com, Merriam-Webster Online, 

YourDictionary.com, Compleat Lexical Tutor, Forvo, Howjsay, Visuwords, OneLook 

Dictionary Search, and VLC Web Concordancer 

12) Utilities: CalculateMe, CalendarFly, Doodle, ClustrMaps, Currency Converter, 

Dvolver Moviemaker, Google Earth, Lesson Writer, Storybird, Cacoo, Mindmeister, 

Mindomo, Remember the milk, SurveyMonkey, Voki, Time and Date, TinyURL.com, 

W3C Link Checker, Wallwisher, Wayback Machine, and Wordle 

The above categorization helps to give an overview of online tools to facilitate a better 

understanding of how any tools can be integrated into a micro-teaching procedure or episode. 

An emphasis on the implementation of micro-teaching episodes in the following research 

examples is placed; only the one that most fits the operational definition of OMT in the current 

study is closely reviewed. 

First, Kelleci, Kulaksiz, and Pala's study (2018) illustrate the first way of how micro-teaching 

is conducted. The focus of the study is social network-supported micro-teaching (SNSM) which 

takes place in a two-phase process. In the planning phase, preservice teachers prepared lesson 

plans and posted them in a Facebook group for the supervisor's feedback. In the implementation 

stage, preservice teachers conducted micro-teaching sessions face-to-face in real classroom 

settings. They taught their peers, played the students' roles, the lesson in their revised lesson 

plans, and received feedback from their supervisor and peers at the end of the second stage. 

Google Drive, Google Forms, and Spreadsheets were used to upload the lesson plans in the 

Facebook group as well as to exchange feedback on the lesson plans and micro-teaching. 

Overall, despite the use of online tools, micro-teaching in this study, with no detailed 



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description, still took place face-to-face in real classroom settings, as traditionally depicted. 

The next three studies show the second way of carrying out micro-teaching episodes, all of 

which were video-recorded and posted on an online platform. Specifically, Kusmawan (2017) 

considered micro-teaching in his study as OMT consisting of four key elements, namely video 

recordings, expert judgment, teacher judgment, and discussion forums. Elementary teacher 

participants of the study video-recorded their best teaching strategies within five to six minutes, 

while experts and other teachers gave their judgments on those micro-teaching episodes based 

on the given guidelines. All those video recordings and experts’ and teachers' judgments were 

posted into the Smart Teacher Portal, created in 2011 with support from the World Bank under 

the program of Better Education through the Reformed Management and Universal Teacher 

Upgrading Project (BERMUTU). Afterward, a moderator, usually a lecturer knowledgeable 

about micro-teaching, moderated discussion forums in the same portal.  

In Bodis, Reed, and Kharchenko’s study (2020), however, the core component of the micro-

teaching process is VoiceThread, a multimodal asynchronous computer-mediated 

communication tool that provides a space for students to upload their work in a secure 

environment, as well as receive feedback both from their teachers and peers. To prepare the 

preservice teachers for their final assessment of video-recording a mini-lesson and writing a 

self-reflection paper on their teaching, two VoiceThread micro-teaching tasks were assigned. 

VoiceThread task 1 asked the preservice teachers to video-record a lesson teaching a language 

skill or aspect such as pronunciation, and task 2 teaching any language focus. The instructors 

made modeling videos of micro-teaching samples, showed the technical capabilities of 

VoiceThread, and gave feedback. In short, all the video recordings, feedback, and self-reflection 

practice assignments were exchanged via VoiceThread. In the next study by Roza (2021), the 

video conferencing application Zoom was used for theory sessions on micro-teaching skills, 

while YouTube was the channel for student teachers to post their video-recorded micro-teaching 

lessons. Unfortunately, no detailed description of micro-teaching implementation was given in 

the study. 

The last two studies demonstrate how micro-teaching can be conducted online using the 

synchronous mode of interaction but in two different manners. Ledger and Fischetti (2020) 

employed micro-teaching 2.0 in their study. Micro-teaching 2.0 refers to traditional micro-

teaching in combination with SimLab HITL simulation technology as a virtual classroom. In 

simulation technologies, HITL refers to a human interactor working behind the scenes to enable 

synchronous voice and body responses. An HITL learning environment consists of four 

components: an interactor (trained improvisation actors and puppeteers to control the actions 

and responses of the avatars), avatars (symbols representing students in the virtual classroom), 

students (student teachers), and observers (experts or supervisors/instructors) connected via 

computer and Internet access. Each micro-teaching experience is recorded for feedback and 

self-reflection, but how feedback and self-reflection were provided was not described. Besides, 

some other examples of simulation technologies for micro-teaching include Kindergarten 

Classroom, simSchool, Second Life, TeachLivE™, Mursion™, and SimLab™ (Ledger & 



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Fischetti, 2020). 

Unlike Ledger and Fischetti (2020), Ersin, Atay, and Mede (2020) studied micro-teaching 

conducted synchronously online with real people, not in a virtual classroom with avatars. This 

makes their study the most similar to the current one; therefore, it deserves a closer examination 

than the others above. The participants of the study were preservice teachers of an English 

Education program offered by a state university in Turkey. Due to Covid-19 outbreak, their 

theory sessions switched into the online mode via Zoom, and so did their micro-teaching 

sessions, as part of the so-called "e-practicum" followed by "e-mentoring". The study is aimed 

to explore the "e-practicum" and "e-mentoring" from the perspectives of the preservice teachers. 

Three major phases of the study include (i) preparation and construction phase before the “e-

practicum”, (ii) the “e-practicum” itself, and (iii) the “e-mentoring” provided to preservice 

teachers afterward. In the first stage, six volunteer preservice teachers designed their lesson 

plans on the topics and content given on the syllabus for feedback from their e-mentor, a 

university supervisor. All communication took place in a WhatsApp group created by the e-

mentor earlier. The “e-practicum” micro-teaching consisted of three forty-minute Zoom 

sessions. The sessions were held in a row with ten-minute breaks in between. During the 

sessions, four preservice teachers conducted reading lessons, and two of them speaking lessons 

to teach English as a foreign language. Right after the “e-practicum” micro-teaching sessions, 

the students (student teachers’ peers) shared their reflections, detailed feedback, and comments 

on the student teachers’ micro-teachings in the WhatsApp group. Finally, the e-mentoring was 

provided by the e-mentor to the student teachers one day after the “e-practicum” micro-teaching 

sessions. The e-mentor organized three forty-minute Zoom sessions for this purpose. The e-

mentor identified the strengths and weaknesses of each student teacher's micro-teaching 

performance, making suggestions on problematic areas for improvement. Before the end of the 

"e-mentoring” sessions, the student teachers were asked to write their feelings and thoughts 

about “e-mentoring” in the WhatsApp group.  

The findings from two interviews with the student teachers before and after the “e-practicum” 

revealed the participants’ feelings and thoughts about the “e-practicum” and “e-mentoring”. 

Generally, the participants held a positive attitude towards the “e-practicum” and “e-

mentoring”, finding them useful, beneficial, achievable, and feasible. They also highlighted the 

importance of peers’ reflections and feedback, the e-mentor’s theoretical instructions, practical 

support, and feedback on micro-teaching sessions, which resonates with the ideas by Cooper 

and Allen (1971), Wangchuk (2009), and Grossman (2009) as mentioned earlier. In addition, 

four benefits the preservice teachers could gain from the "e-practicum" and "e-mentoring" 

include (1) experiencing online teaching practice (aligned with Remesh, 2013; Ralph, 2014; 

Reddy, 2019; Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020), (2) developing teaching skills and competences 

(aligned with Ismail, 2011; Fernadez, 2012; Reddy, 2019; Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020), (3) 

reducing their teaching anxiety, and boosting their confidence and readiness in teaching 

(aligned with Ralph, 2014; Reddy, 2019; Wangchuk, 2019) and teaching online, and (4) learning 

how to deal with problems posed in online teaching.  



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Apart from the benefits, during their micro-teaching sessions, the participants faced two main 

difficulties that are usually faced by teachers in online education: classroom management and 

technical problems. The participants said they had to struggle with how to keep the students 

engaged, how to prevent daydreaming, and how to control students’ attention span. This 

problem is also one of the challenges of online teaching and learning given by Gillett-Swan 

(2017), and Yusuf and Jihan (2020). Further, the listed technical problems in the study entail 

not being able to broadcast the sound of the video recording, not being able to see the chatbox 

when they shared their screen or not being able to unmute the students on time, while Yusuf 

and Jihan (2020) emphasized both teachers’ and students’ limited access to the Internet. Three 

main suggestions were also made by the student teachers to address their problems. They 

suggested that (1) student teachers possess a calm attitude, (2) they make use of the virtues of 

online tools to facilitate the learning process, and (3) they build up their virtual experience and 

skills. The last suggestion is in line with Darling-Hammond's (2010, cited in Diana, 2013) 

recommendation, who believed that access to technology and training with technology 

significantly influences a teacher's ability to integrate technology into the classroom. Likewise, 

Gillett-Swan (2017) emphasized step-by-step instructions for how to access and use each of the 

platforms and technologies as one of the ways to overcome challenges of online teaching and 

learning, while Yusuf and Jihan (2020) highlighted the importance of providing workshops or 

training programs on management of online classes for educators. 

Additionally, research on the disadvantages or challenges of online learning and teaching in the 

Vietnamese context is worth considering because OMT in the current study was conducted in 

Vietnam. For example, Nguyen and Duong (2021) explored the challenges facing students 

during their online learning using Microsoft Teams, which is a video conferencing application 

like Google Meet. The challenges include (1) Internet connection, (2) learning equipment 

(errors of laptop or Microsoft Teams software), (3) power failure, (4) lack of computer skills, 

(5) working in groups, and (6) students’ having no self-motivation to study online. Meanwhile, 

Hoang and Le (2021) investigated Vietnamese teachers' challenges with their online teaching. 

Specifically, they claimed problems with (1) teachers’ technology competence, (2) their virtual 

classroom management, (3) heavy workload, (4) students’ motivation in online learning, (5) 

students’ technology competence and technical support, (6) the institution’s purposes and 

strategies of online teaching implementation (lack of training workshops on what kinds of tools 

they should use for their teaching, assessing, and even monitoring their virtual classes).  

Further, seven main elements for effective online English teaching gleaned from Le’s study 

(2021) encompass (1) teaching method, (2) course content, (3) learning activities (updated news 

delivery, games, polls, and student presentations), (4) myriad interaction (short questions), (5) 

learning incentives (bonus marks), (6) supportive learning environment (teacher voice, praise, 

encouragement, good teacher-student and student-student relationships, turning on webcams), 

and (7) supplementary materials. She also made four recommendations on providing effective 

online teaching, namely (1) structuring an effective course design, (2) creating community and 

engagement, (3) facilitating online interaction, and (4) supplying adequate learning support. It 



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can be implied from those four suggestions that the teacher plays an important role in delivering 

an effective online lesson, which is also agreed by Ngo (2021), who emphasized the teacher’s 

role and their adequate training in online teaching to ensure students’ engagement during online 

teaching and learning. The aforementioned findings by Vietnamese authors serve as a 

framework of reference for the questionnaire design, especially regarding the students’ 

difficulties during their OMT and the discussion of the current study’s findings.  

In short, micro-teaching can be conducted online in four main ways: (1) face-to-face micro-

teaching with technology-assisted administration process such as exchanging materials and 

feedback, (2) video-recorded micro-teaching lessons with technology-supported materials and 

feedback exchanges, (3) synchronously online micro-teaching in a virtual classroom with 

avatars moderated by an interactor, and (4) synchronously online micro-teaching with real 

people. Micro-teaching in the current study was conducted in a fourth way, and very few similar 

studies can be found in the Vietnamese context. Therefore, the current study is expected to 

bridge such a gap, thus contributing to research on OMT in Vietnam. 

2.3 Conceptual framework of the study 

Based on the review of micro-teaching and how micro-teaching can be conducted online in 

Sections 2.1 and 2.2, OMT in the current study refers to a combination of traditional micro-

teaching with the support of online tools, namely a video conferencing program such as Google 

Meet for theory-oriented and micro-teaching sessions, and a learning management system, 

Google Classroom, to manage the courses, to exchange materials and discussions between the 

teacher and students. A detailed description of OMT episodes is given in Section 3.3. 

 

3. Research methodology  

3.1 Research setting and participants 

The study was conducted at the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature (EF), University 

of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City (USSH, 

VNUHCM). With the purposive sampling method, the participants were selected based on two 

main criteria: (1) they attended at least one of the teaching-related courses, namely Teaching 

Methodology, Teaching Practice 1, 2, or 3, undertaken by the researcher, and (2) they 

experienced OMT at the end of the course. Further, participants of the study enrolled in different 

study programs at the EF, including Standard, High-quality, and TESOL Certificate. However, 

the syllabuses for Teaching Methodology (TM), Teaching Practice (TP) 1, 2, or 3 are quite 

similar across the programs except that Teaching Practice 3 is only delivered in TESOL 

Certificate Program. Table 1 gives a brief description of the participants’ backgrounds based on 

the data from questions 1 to 5 in the questionnaire.  

 

 



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Table 1. Participants’ background information (N=100) 

 

Category 

 

Items 

Count/ 

Percentage 

(%) 

  

Category 

 

Items 

Count/ 

Percentage 

(%) 

 

Age 

18-19 6  

 

 

 

Courses 

taken 

Teaching 

Methodology 

86 

20-21 74 Teaching Practice 1 29 

22-over 20 Teaching Practice 2 12 

 

Gender 

Male 22 Teaching Practice 3 10 

Female 78 Using IT in Language 

Teaching 

33 

 

 

Year of 

study 

Second-year 47 Teaching English to 

Young Learners 

24 

Third-year 26 Materials 

Development for 

Language Teaching 

29 

Fourth-year 15 Classroom-based 

Assessment 

5 

Graduate 12 

Study 

program 

Standard 69 

High-quality 28 

TESOL 

Certificate 

10 

 

3.2 Research design and questions 

To explore the EF students' perspectives on their OMT experiences, a survey research design 

was employed because surveys are useful for gathering factual information, data on attitudes 

and preferences, beliefs and predictions, behavior, and experiences – both past and present 

(Weisberg, Krosnick, & Bowen, 1996, cited in Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Both 

quantitative and qualitative methods were used as regards data collection and analysis, which 

is further elaborated in Section 3.4. To achieve the study aim, three main research questions 

(RQ) were raised: 

(1) What and how did the EF students learn from their online micro-teaching 

experience? 

(2) What difficulties did they encounter during their online micro-teaching experience? 

(3) What are their suggestions on how to improve online micro-teaching sessions? 

 

 

 

 



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3.3 Description of OMT sessions in this study 

The following describes how the researcher implemented OMT in her classes. During the 

teaching-related courses, namely Teaching Methodology (TM) and Teaching Practice (TP) 1, 

2, and 3, the researcher-cum-teacher-in-charge provided knowledge and instructions on English 

language teaching approaches, methods, and techniques. Once theory sessions were finished, 

the researcher guided the students to design their lesson plans in groups focusing on one aspect 

such as Grammar or Pronunciation or one of the four skills such as Listening or Speaking. 

Vocabulary teaching was recommended to be integrated into any lesson. The students posted 

their lesson plans in Google Classroom for the teacher’s feedback. The students then delivered 

their OMT sessions, teaching their revised lesson plans as one final assessment task at the end 

of the courses. Afterward, those from the TM course took a written final exam, while those from 

TP courses submitted a reflection paper as a substitute for the final.  

As regards OMT sessions, students, in groups, took turns to deliver their micro-teaching (OMT 

groups) within the given time limit while some others observed their peers (peer observation-

PO-groups), and the rest played the role of students (volunteer student-VS-groups). Because 

TM courses are more theory-oriented than practice-oriented (TP 1, 2, and 3), their micro-

teaching duration for TM students is less than for TP 1, 2, and 3 students. Moreover, the 

researcher utilized the existing micro-teaching evaluation form (also observation form) 

designed by herself and approved by the EF for those teaching-related courses. There are four 

main areas for assessment on the form, including (1) lesson effectiveness, (2) teacher's delivery, 

(3) teacher's language use, and (4) teacher's professionalism. Meanwhile, the reflection form 

for volunteer student groups consists of four open-ended questions, including (1) What did you 

learn? (2) What can you do after the lesson? (in relation to the lesson focus) (3) What do you 

like and dislike the most about the lesson? And (4) What suggestions/recommendations do you 

make to help improve the lesson? Table 2 gives a more detailed description of OMT episodes 

based on the conceptual framework of the study. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 2. Description of an OMT session (conducted by the researcher)  

1. Characteristics 

(1) Delivery mode: synchronous, via Google Meet 

(2) Lesson focus (based on the approved Lesson plan): Grammar, Pronunciation, Listening, 

Speaking, Reading, Writing, (+ Vocabulary) 

(3) Duration (per group): 45 minutes (TM), 60 minutes (TP 1&2), & 120 minutes (TP3) 

(4) Duration (per student teacher): 9 or 12 minutes (TM), 15 or 20 minutes (TP 1&2), & 30 

minutes (TP3) 

(5) Student roles: OMT groups, PO groups, & VS groups 

(6) Forms: the micro-teaching evaluation form, also used as the observation form (for the 

teacher-in-charge and observers), & a reflection form (for volunteer students) 

(7) Feedback: feedback based on the given forms (verbally given or typed in the chatbox), 

directly given at the end of each OMT session 

2. Procedure for an OMT episode 

 

Before 

OMT 

• OMT groups: prepare the materials & equipment for their lesson 

• PO groups: prepare micro-teaching evaluation (PO) forms 

• VS groups: get ready to join the lesson 

• Teacher-in-charge: prepare micro-teaching evaluation (PO) forms 

 

During 

OMT 

• OMT groups: take turns to teach 

• PO groups: observe student teachers & take notes 

• VS groups: participate in the lesson 

• Teacher-in-charge: observe and evaluate 

 

After 

OMT 

• OMT groups: take notes of feedback 

• PO groups: give feedback on their peers 

• VS groups: give feedback on the student teachers 

• Teacher-in-charge: give final comments on each student teacher’s strengths & 

weaknesses, feedback on the demonstration lesson, the lesson plan, & provide 

suggestions for improvement  

 

3.4 Data collection and analysis 

Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected in the survey. A questionnaire designed on 

Google Forms was delivered to 142 students who finished at least one of the teaching-related 

courses, namely TM, TP 1, 2, or 3, which the researcher was in charge of, but only 100 

participants submitted their responses. The questionnaire consists of 17 questions. A brief 

description of 17 questions is given in Table 3. For quantitative data from questions 9 to 15, 

descriptive analysis was employed, focusing on measures of frequency. Meanwhile, qualitative 

data collected from questions 16 and 17 were analyzed using thematic analysis. 

 

 

 



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Table 3. Description of 17 questions in the questionnaire 

Question 

(Q) 

Type of question Purpose 

Q1→Q5 Closed-ended (Multiple 

choice) 

Participants’ background information 

Q6→Q8 Closed-ended 

(Checkboxes) 

Participants’ OMT experience 

Q9→ Q13 Closed-ended 

(Checkboxes) 

What participants learned from OMT (RQ1) 

Q14 Closed-ended 

(Ranking) 

How participants learned from OMT (RQ1) 

Q15 Closed-ended 

(Checkboxes) 

What difficulties participants faced during OMT 

(RQ2) 

Q16→Q17 Open-ended (Short 

answers) 

Participants’ suggestions on how to improve OMT 

(RQ3) 

 

The following justifies the statements used in the questionnaire. For questions 10 to 13, the 

participants were given a list of statements beginning with “I am able to” followed by specific 

actions they could do during the OMT to describe their teaching competencies. The rationale 

for those statements consists of (1) the course syllabus, (2) the micro-teaching evaluation form, 

(3) the teacher’s instructions and supervision, and (4) the teaching skills (Cooper & Allen, 1971; 

Reddy, 2019) and observation criteria (Leshem & Bar-Hama, 2008), reviewed in Section 2.1.6. 

Table 4 presents the alignment between the teaching competencies in the questionnaire and 

those reviewed in the literature. However, though some skills or competencies such as selecting, 

designing, and using materials, problem-solving, and demonstrating teacher's characteristics 

such as dressing and appropriate attitude, and teacher preparation do not receive theoretical 

support from previous studies, they are still worth exploring on the grounds of the course 

syllabus, the micro-teaching evaluation form, and the teacher’s instructions and supervision. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 4. Alignment between the teaching competencies in the questionnaire and teaching 

skills (Cooper & Allen, 1971; Reddy, 2019) and observation criteria (Leshem & Bar-Hama, 

2008) 

Teaching 

competencies in 

the questionnaire 

Reviewed ideas in Section 2.1.6 Relevant authors 

 

 

(1) Lesson 

planning & 

Teaching 

techniques 

Lesson planning, sequence of activities, 

setting clear objectives, & designing activities 

to achieve lesson objectives 

Leshem & Bar-Hama 

(2008) 

Lesson planning skill Reddy (2019) 

Proper use of audio-visual aids Reddy, 2019 

Introduction skill (set induction) & skill of 

achieving closure 

Cooper & Allen 

(1971) 

Reddy (2019) 

 

 

 

(2) Teacher’s 

delivery & 

Language use 

Clarity of instructions, giving feedback and 

reinforcement 

Leshem & Bar-Hama 

(2008) 

Reinforcement, skill of stimulus variation, 

skill of probing questions, & silence and 

nonverbal cues 

Cooper & Allen 

(1971) 

Reddy (2019) 

Presentation and explanation skills Reddy (2019) 

Frequency in asking questions, higher-order 

questions, divergent questions, cueing, 

lecturing, use of examples, planned repetition, 

& completeness of communication 

Cooper & Allen 

(1971) 

Oral and written proficiency Leshem & Bar-Hama 

(2008) 

(3) Teacher’s 

Professionalism 

Recognizing attending behavior Cooper & Allen 

(1971) 

Classroom management Leshem & Bar-Hama 

(2008) 

Classroom management Reddy (2019) 

 

Similarly, a list of "I am able to" statements was included to describe what the participants could 

do with technology to conduct their OMT, labeled as Digital competence. The statements were 

made based on the three main components of an online classroom, including (1) delivery and 

reception of information content, (2) interaction between, among students and teacher, and (3) 

student rehearsal and practice (Berge, 2000). To better understand how the participants learned 

what they thought they could learn, question 14 asked the participants to rank the importance 

of different components of micro-teaching, as discussed in Sections 2.1.5 and 2.1.6. Finally, the 

statements for students’ difficulties in question 15 are primarily gleaned from studies by Gillett-

Swan (2017), Ersin, Atay, and Mede (2020), Yusuf and Jihan (2020), Nguyen and Duong 

(2021), Hoang and Le (2021), and Le (2021). 



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4. Results and Discussion  

4.1 What and how the EF students learned from their OMT experience 

To answer question 9 "What did you learn from your OMT experience?", 98% of the 

respondents selected "Teaching competence" and 74% "Digital competence." Data from the 

participant's responses to questions 10 to 13 show that all participants claimed they could learn 

both teaching and digital competencies to varying degrees. For Lesson planning & Teaching 

techniques, a high percentage of respondents, between 77% and 93%, said they could design 

and organize the lesson and select activities. A little more than half of them, from 62% to 73% 

said they could select and design materials and effectively design and use visual aids. However, 

a small number of respondents, 46% and 51%, though they could effectively conduct the 

activities and effectively use the teaching materials, respectively. Figure 2 illustrates the data 

for Lesson planning and teaching techniques. 

Figure 2. Lesson planning and teaching techniques 

 

As regards Teacher's delivery and Language use, a high proportion of participants, between 76 

and 80%, believed they could present adequate and relevant theory and give appropriate 

instructions during the lesson. Around 60% to 70% of the respondents thought they could 

efficiently employ their presentation skills, including delivery manner, body language, voice 

quality, background avatar, language use, interaction with their students via examples, CCQs 

(concept checking questions), explanations, answers, feedback and comments, and student 

encouragement. Finally, approximately less than 50% seemed not to be confident about their 

abilities to (1) control their speaking rate and amount, teaching pace, tone of voice, (2) promote 

understanding between teacher-students, (3) relate students to their background 

knowledge/personal life, (3) promote student-student interaction and collaboration, and (4) 

draw students' attention to the lesson. Table 5 illustrates the data for Teacher’s delivery & 

Language use. 

 

 

 

 



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Table 5. Teacher’s delivery & Language use 

“I am able to” statement Count/ 

Percenta

ge (%) 

(1) Present adequate and relevant theory on the taught subject 78 

(2) Deliver my lecture smoothly and adequately in terms of speaking rate and 

teaching pace 

54 

(3) Deliver my lecture in an enthusiastic, communicative, and lively manner 65 

(4) Appropriately use my body language (e.g., eye contact, facial expressions, 

hand gestures) 

60 

(5) Select a formal and appropriate background in my avatar (OMT) 67 

(6) Effectively use my voice (e.g., loud, and clear enough, and easy to follow) 68 

(7) Effectively use my tone of voice (e.g., interesting, engaging, and varied) 49 

(8) Understand my students well (e.g., what they are saying, what they mean) 57 

(9) Be well understood by my students (e.g., what I am saying, what I mean) 52 

(10) Use accurate and easy-to-understand English pronunciation 64 

(11) Use accurate and easy-to-understand English grammar 72 

(12) Use schema theory (e.g., asking questions) to activate my students’ prior and 

existing knowledge about the taught subject 

50 

(13) Give adequate examples to illustrate the theory as well as the exercises in an 

English lesson 

65 

(14) Balance teacher talking time and student talking time 40 

(15) Give clear and easy-to-follow instructions 80 

(16) Relate the lesson (e.g., theory, vocabulary) to students’ personal life (i.e., 

personalization) 

47 

(17) Provide social/background knowledge related to the lesson topic 42 

(18) Use ICQs (instruction checking questions) to check students’ understanding 

of the instructions for an activity or a task 

76 

(19) Use CCQs (concept checking questions) to check students’ understanding 

of new concepts or theory in an English lesson 

65 

(20) Draw students’ attention (e.g., asking checking questions) to the lesson when 

they show some signs of distraction or boredom 

44 

(21) Give students adequate feedback and comments during the exercise 

correction 

60 

(22) Give students adequate explanations and answers for their questions 65 

(23) Encourage students to participate in the class activities 60 

(24) Promote student-student interaction and collaboration (e.g., by asking them 

to work in pairs or groups) 

50 

When it comes to Teacher's professionalism, a large number of respondents, from 84% to 90%, 

believed in their abilities in preparation, showing appropriate attitudes and dressing style during 

the OMT. 60% and 62% of the participants said they could show their confident demeanor and 

manage their students, while nearly half thought they could manage the class time and deal with 

unexpected problems. Figure 3 illustrates the data for Teacher's professionalism. 



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Figure 3. Teacher’s professionalism 

Finally, the participants revealed how they could use technology during their OMT episodes. 

Specifically, between 76% and 94% said they could use technology to design and present the 

lesson content, a little over half can simulate real-life and real-time interaction, while below 

50% can provide effective platforms for students' collaboration. The data for Digital 

competence is presented in Figure 4. 

Figure 4. Digital competence 

Overall, what the participants could learn from OMT corroborates the findings yielded in the 

study by Ersin, Atay, and Mede (2020) in a way that OMT helps the student teachers to develop 

their teaching skills and competencies, which is also one of the key benefits of micro-teaching 

(Ismail, 2011; Fernadez, 2012; Reddy, 2019; Azrai, Rini, & Suryanda, 2020). Further, the 

student teachers believed they could handle an online classroom, which is aligned with Ersin, 

Atay, and Mede’s findings (2020), with how they could apply technology to fulfill the three 

main functions of an online classroom (delivery and reception of information-content, 

interaction between, among students and teacher, and student rehearsal and practice), put 

forward by Berge (2000).  

Next, question 14, whose results are displayed in Table 6, was raised to answer how the 

participants learned from their OMT episodes. As shown in Table 6, the most important way 

that helps the student teachers to learn their teaching and digital competencies is by receiving 

feedback from the teacher, observers, and volunteer students, one of the biggest strengths of 

micro-teaching (aligned with Cooper & Allen, 1971; Ralph, 2014; Wangchuk, 2019; Reddy, 

2019). The second most important way is by following the teacher’s instructions and guidelines, 



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which is aligned with the emphasis of the instructor/teacher’s role in micro-teaching (aligned 

with Cooper & Allen, 1971; Grossman 2009; Ralph, 2014; Reddy, 2019). The next three ways, 

in a decreasing order of importance, include the experience of micro-teaching itself, another 

benefit of micro-teaching aligned with Remesh (2013) and Ralph (2014), self-reflection, and 

observation and giving feedback (or evaluating on each other’s OMT performances), which are 

believed to be important and useful in micro-teaching by previous authors such as Cooper and 

Allen (1971), O’Leary (2004, cited in Leshem & Bar-Hama, 2008), Saban and Çoklar (2013), 

and Ralph (2014). Finally, the participants could learn from OMT thanks to the criteria for OMT 

provided by the teacher, which resonates with the importance Leshem and Bar-Hama (2008) 

placed on the criteria for MT evaluation to ensure the quality of micro-teaching sessions. 

Table 6. The levels of importance of how student teachers learned from OMT 

Items 

Total 

frequency 

Levels of 

importance 

By observing and giving feedback on the other peers' 

teaching 300 5 

By delivering an online micro-teaching section 383 3 

By using the criteria for OMT evaluation provided by the 

teacher 254 6 

By receiving feedback from the teacher, observers, & 

volunteer students 439 1 

By following the teacher's instructions & guidelines 390 2 

By self-reflecting on my own teaching after OMT & during 

my peer observation 334 4 

 

4.2 What difficulties the EF students encountered during their OMT experience 

The data from question 15, presented in Figure 5, reveal two main kinds of difficulties student 

teachers face during their OMT, including mostly online teaching-related and technology-

related. Very few participants (11% to 30%) had difficulties with (1) the student teacher's 

distracting background, (2) students' background noise and lack of discipline, and (3) their 

inability to get access to materials. The next group of respondents, occupying from 39% to 49%, 

had difficulty in dealing with (1) failed activities, (2) teacher's solo talk, (3) too much wait-

time, (4) their inability to finish the teaching section as scheduled, and (5) their equipment. The 

largest group of participants, which makes up 59% to 70%, a not so high percentage though, 

said they faced such challenges as (1) how to check students' progress/attention/concentration, 

(2) students' unwillingness to work, and students' difficulty with collaboration, and (3) the 

Internet connection. In general, the participants' greatest difficulties during OMT can be 

categorized into three big groups, which are also faced by in-service teachers while teaching 

online, including (1) checking students' learning progress/attention/concentration (aligned with 

Gillett-Swan, 2017; Yusuf & Jihan, 2020; Ersin, Atay, & Mede, 2020; Hoang & Le, 2021), (2) 

promoting students’ participation, engagement, and collaboration (aligned with Yusuf & Jihan, 



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64 
 

2020; Nguyen & Duong, 2021), and (3) technical problems (Internet connection & teaching 

equipment) (aligned with Yusuf & Jihan, 2020; Nguyen & Duong, 2021).  

In addition, Gillett-swan (2017) believed that digital literacy skills can be a hindrance to the 

online learning environment; however, the results above might implicate that the student 

teachers do not have much trouble with those skills. Also, the participants' suggestions, 

presented in Section 4.3, may help address the difficulties they encountered during OMT. 

Figure 5. Difficulties faced by the student teachers during OMT 

 

4.3 What suggestions the EF students made on improving OMT sessions 

The participants’ suggestions can be categorized into suggested tools for OMT, suggestions on 

Teaching competence (TC) and Digital competence (DC). The top ten suggestions on Teaching 

and Digital competence from question 16’s data are summarized in Table 7. 

Table 7. Top ten suggestions on OMT 

Suggestion Category Frequency 

1. Have backup plans in case of problems TC & DC 15 

2. Design interesting activities (fun icebreakers, games) TC 13 

3. Design some activities for students to interact with each other 

easily  

TC 12 

4. Check equipment carefully before start  DC 10 

5. Give rewards/ bonuses for voluntary/correct answers TC 10 

6. Call students unexpectedly rather than let them volunteer at all 

times (use Wheel of names, let more students speak) 

TC 10 

7. Ask students to turn on their camera  TC 8 

8. Ask more ICQs and CCQs  TC 7 

9. Familiarize the student teachers with the platforms and tools 

before OMT / rehearse OMT with timekeeping 

TC 5 

10. Give students quick quizzes (that need to be answered in 3 or 4 

minutes) to stimulate their concentration 

TC 5 

The other recommendations mentioned once, twice or three times include: (1) show students 

where they can get technical support, (2) send materials to students in advance, (3) check all 



ACOJ- ISSN 1936-9859 AsiaCALL Online Journal  Vol. 13; No. 1; 2022 

65 

the links and sources for materials carefully before getting started, (4) engage students: use 

videos and varied activities, do not conduct too many activities, use the chatbox, let students 

lead the activities, create a friendly learning environment, give students time for questions and 

practice, and improve the quality of Teacher Talking Time (TTT) by giving more hints and 

prompts to the teacher’s questions, repeating the key points, presenting the theory briefly, and 

giving detailed and easy-to-follow instructions, and (5) manage the classroom by letting 

students host the online meeting room, asking students to turn off their microphones, sometimes 

asking them to share screen to check their attention, selecting an appropriate background, being 

well-dressed, and giving students more time to fix technical problems. 

Overall, the participants' suggestions, some of which are in line with some previous authors', 

center around Teaching competence, especially in the context of online teaching and learning. 

All those suggestions can be grouped into: 

(1) backup plans;  

(2) preparation (equipment and materials);  

(3) training and rehearsal with tools and OMT (aligned with Darling-Hammond, 2010, 

cited in Diana, 2013; Gillett-Swan, 2017; Yusuf & Jihan, 2020; Ngo, 2021); 

(4) engagement methods: a) activities (interesting, varied, sufficient) and “content 

beyond lectures” (e.g., games, quizzes, and videos) (aligned with Le, 2021), b) 

collaboration and practice tasks (aligned with Le, 2021), c) rewards/bonuses (aligned 

with Le, 2021), d) ICQs/CCQs, e) sudden calls/screen check, f) students’ camera on 

(with teacher’s encouragement and patience) (aligned with Le, 2021), g) chatbox, h) 

improved quality of TTT, i) a friendly and active learning environment (aligned with 

Le, 2021); 

(5) classroom management and professionalism: a) students’ microphones off, b) 

allowing students to host the meeting room, c) selecting appropriate background and 

dressing style, d) giving students more time to fix technical problems. 

Additionally, question 17 explores what online tools (e.g., applications or platforms) the student 

teachers used and would recommend for future OMT episodes, supported by one suggestion 

made in Ersin, Atay, and Mede’s study (2020). The suggestion is to make use of the virtues of 

online tools to facilitate the learning process. The top list of tools the participants suggested 

includes (1) Google Meet/Docs/Classroom/Slides/PowerPoint/Hangouts/Forms, (2) Zoom, (3) 

Microsoft PowerPoint/Word, (4) Kahoot, and (5) Canvas, Quizizz, and Quizlet. Those tools 

serve different purposes in an OMT episode based on the Teacher's Digital competence, as 

mentioned in Section 4.1 (see Appendix for the comprehensive list of all suggested tools).  

Overall, the current study confirms one of the key benefits of traditional micro-teaching, which 

is to help the student teachers develop their teaching skills and competencies through the 

essential components of traditional micro-teaching such as observation, feedback, and self-

reflection, and supervision. More importantly, a contribution of the study is a specification of 



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66 
 

digital competencies the student teachers believed they could learn from their OMT experience. 

This is important in making OMT a feasible and useful teacher training technique, given the 

technological advances in the 4.0 era. In addition, the difficulties, mainly associated with online 

classroom management and technical problems, faced by the student teachers in the study are 

similar to those faced by existing students and teachers during online teaching and learning. To 

address those problems as well as to improve future OMT episodes, a list of suggestions was 

given by the student teachers. This is where another contribution of the study emerges. Apart 

from the already mentioned suggestion of training and rehearsal with tools and OMT, the 

student teachers provided very specific strategies and techniques to deal with online classroom 

management (e.g., students’ attention, engagement, and participation) and technical problems 

(e.g., Internet connection and teaching equipment), plus recommending online tools for 

different purposes in an online classroom. 

 

5. Conclusion  

In short, three conclusions were reached in relation to the three research questions earlier put in 

the paper. First, the student teachers in the study believed they could develop their teaching and 

digital competencies from their OMT experiences. Teaching competencies include (1) Lesson 

planning and Teaching techniques, (2) Teacher's delivery and Language use, and (3) Teacher's 

professionalism. Meanwhile, digital competencies cover abilities that they could use to serve 

the three main functions of an online classroom concerning (1) delivery and reception of 

information content, (2) interaction between, among students and teacher, and (3) student 

rehearsal and practice. Also, the student teachers reflected their thoughts about the different 

components of micro-teaching, through which they could learn and develop their teaching and 

digital competencies, by ranking their importance. The decreasing order of importance of their 

means of learning from OMT is: (1) by receiving feedback from the teacher, observers, & 

volunteer students, (2) by following the teacher's instructions and guidelines, (3) by delivering 

an online micro-teaching section, (4) by self-reflecting on their own teaching after OMT and 

during their peer observation, (5) by observing and giving feedback on the other peers' teaching, 

and (6) by using the criteria for OMT evaluation provided by the teacher. 

Second, the study results show three main difficulties facing the student teachers during OMT, 

namely (1) checking students’ learning progress/attention/concentration, (2) promoting 

students’ participation, engagement, and collaboration, and (3) technical problems (Internet 

connection and teaching equipment). Last, the student teachers provided suggestions on how to 

improve OMT episodes in the future. The suggestions consist of useful tools for OMT such as 

(1) Google Meet/Docs/Classroom/Slides/PowerPoint/Hangouts/Forms, (2) Zoom, (3) 

Microsoft PowerPoint/Word, (4) Kahoot, and (5) Canvas, Quizizz, and Quizlet (see Appendix 

1 for the exhaustive list of online tools for OMT). As regards the online teaching and learning 

aspect of OMT, the participants recommended five key solutions: (1) backup plans, (2) 

preparation, (3) training and rehearsal with tools and OMT, (4) engagement methods, and (5) 

classroom management and professionalism (see Section 4.3 for more details).  



ACOJ- ISSN 1936-9859 AsiaCALL Online Journal  Vol. 13; No. 1; 2022 

67 

Overall, the study's findings show that from the student teachers’ perspectives, OMT offers 

benefits that traditional micro-teaching does, particularly in helping the student teachers 

practice and develop their specified teaching skills and competencies. Therefore, OMT is highly 

recommended as an alternative teacher training technique in various programs, especially in 

English Language Teaching, which the current study focused on. That is also a trend given the 

continuous outbreaks of Covid-19 pandemic as well as the possible needs and demands of 

online teaching and learning in the 4.0 era. 

Like any other studies, the current one has its own limitations. Due to the small scope of the 

paper, the study did not include in-depth interviews to gain the participants’ deeper insight into 

their responses as previously planned. Also, OMT sessions were not video recorded for more 

thorough analysis because of the student teachers’ shyness and discomfort during their first-

time experience with OMT. Therefore, further research on OMT can take those two factors into 

consideration. Besides, future research can continue delving into how technology integration 

facilitates and promotes OMT, or how OMT can be effectively combined with other 

methods/techniques in English teacher education, especially in the digital era. 

 

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Biodata 

Pham Ngoc Kim Tuyen holds a Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics from La Trobe 

University, Australia, and that in TESOL from the USSH, VNUHCM. Throughout her 15 years 

of experience, she has taught English skills, Public Speaking, Translation and Interpreting, 

Intercultural Communication, and TESOL-related courses. Her research interests include 

teacher education, technology-assisted (language) teaching and learning, leadership in 

education, and research methodology. 

https://asiacall.info/acoj/index.php/journal/article/view/60
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1779/1/012033/meta
https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987608549185


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Appendix. The exhaustive list of suggested tools for OMT with their specific purposes 

Purposes Recommended 

tools 

Count /  

Percenta

ge 

(%) 

 Purposes Recommended 

tools 

Count / 

Percenta

ge  

(%) 

1. Design 

lesson 

content & 

related 

visual aids 

(e.g., 

slides) 

1. Microsoft 

PowerPoint 

40 

8. Collect 

students’ 

answers, 

responses

, votes, & 

questions 

1. Google Forms 10 

2. Google Slides 25 2. Google Meet, 

Google Docs 

8 

3. Canvas 9 3. Google 

Classroom, Zoom 

6 

4. Google Docs 8 4. Kahoot 3 

5. Powtoon, 

Quizlet 

3 5. Poll 

Everywhere, 

Facebook 

Messenger 

2 

6. Kahoot, Prezi 2 6. Gmail, Slido, 

Quizlet 

Microsoft, Class 

Dojo, Schoology, 

Shub Classroom, 

Google Hangouts, 

Google Sheets, 

Zalo, Padlet, 

Google Jamboard 

1 

7. Slidego, Miro, 

Skype, Microsoft 

Word 

1 

 

2. Share 

materials 

with 

students 

1. Google Meet 24  

9. Present 

a more 

formal & 

professio

nal 

backgrou

nd to 

students 

1. Google Meet 

 

24 

2. Zoom 21 2. Zoom 9 

3. Google Docs 18 3. Canvas 2 

4. Google 

Classroom 

10 4. Snapchat, Miro, 

Google Hangouts,  

Google Docs, 

Google Slides, 

Microsoft Teams 

1 

5. Google Slides 4 

6. Google Sheets, 

Google Hangouts, 

Google Drive, 

Facebook 

Messenger 

2 

7. PDF File, Miro, 

Skype 

Shub Classroom, 

Microsoft Word, 

Gmail, Google 

Jamboard, 

Microsoft Teams 

1 



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71 

 

3. Present 

the lesson 

content & 

related 

visual aids 

to students 

(e.g., 

slides) 

1. Google Meet 30  

10. 

Simulate 

real-time 

interactio

n (face to 

face) 

(e.g., 

using the 

camera, 

micropho

ne) 

1. Google Meet 

 

24 

2. Zoom 22 2. Google 

Hangouts 

16 

3. Google Slides 12 3. Zoom, 

Microsoft Teams 

1 

4. Microsoft 

Powerpoint 

9 

5. Google Docs, 

Canvas 

4 

6. Powtoon, 

Videos, Charts, 

Images, Skype, 

Google Hangouts, 

Prezi, Quizlet, 

Microsoft Teams 

1 

 

4. Use an 

online 

learning 

platform 

for the 

class 

meeting 

(e.g., 

Google 

meet) 

1. Google Meet  51  

11. 

Design 

handouts 

& 

workshee

ts 

1. Google Docs 31 

2. Zoom 29 2. Microsoft Word, 

Microsoft 

Powerpoint 

7 

3. Microsoft 

Teams 

2 3. Google Slides 6 

4. Google Docs, 

Miro, Facebook 

Messenger, 

Google Hangouts 

1 4. Canvas 5 

5. Google Sheets 3 

6. Powtoon 2 

7. Google Meet, 

Kahoot, Socrative, 

Google Classroom, 

Microsoft Excel 

1 

 

5. Provide 

a 

platform/sp

ace for 

students’ 

brainstormi

ng ideas 

1. Google Docs 25  

12. 

Design 

games for 

different 

purposes 

1. Kahoot 28 

2. Zoom 10 2. Microsoft 

Powerpoint 

9 

3. Google Meet 8 3. Quizizz 8 

4. Google 

Jamboard 

6 4. Bamboozle 6 

5. Google Slides 5 5. Quizlet 4 

6. Microsoft Word, 

Mural 

2 6. Canvas, 

Wordwall, Skribbl, 

MyPuzzle, 

Edmodo, Google 

Slides, Google 

Jamboard, IXL 

Learning, 

Puzzlemaker, 

1 



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72 
 

Mentimeter, My 

Aloha 

7. Miro, Microsoft 

Powerpoint, 

Lucidchart 

Padlet, Mindmap, 

Google Forms, 

Facebook 

Messenger, 

Microsoft Forms, 

Microsoft Teams 

1   

 

6. Provide 

a 

platform/sp

ace for 

students’ 

group/pair 

discussion 

& work 

collaborati

on 

1. Google Meet 23  

13. 

Design 

quizzes/t

ests to 

reinforce/

test/chec

k 

students’ 

knowledg

e about 

the taught 

subject 

1. Kahoot 34 

2. Zoom 22 2. Quizizz 18 

3. Google Docs 14 3. Quizlet 9 

4. Facebook 

Messenger 

3 4. Google Forms 8 

5. Kahoot, Google 

Slides, Google 

Jamboard 

2 5. Socrative 5 

6. Zalo, Miro, 

Quizlet, Padlet, 

Microsoft Teams 

1 6. Microsoft 

Powerpoint 

3 

7. Google Docs, 

Bamboozle, My 

Aloha 

2 

8. MyPuzzle, 

Mentimeter, 

Edmodo, Google 

Slides, Microsoft 

Word 

1 

 

7. Provide 

a 

platform/sp

ace for 

students’ 

exchanging 

ideas 

1. Google Meet 25   

2. Zoom 21 

3. Google Docs 11 

4. Padlet, Google 

Jamboard 

2 

5. Miro, Quizlet, 

Kahoot, 

Schoology, 

Facebook 

Messenger, Zalo, 

Google Forms, 

Slides, Microsoft 

Teams 

1 

 


