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L2 CMC Motivation in Task-based Computer-mediated Communications 

Pin-hsiang Natalie Wu 

Chien-kuo Technology University, Taiwan 
natalie@ctu.edu.tw 

 

Wan-ting Chuang 

National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan 

 

 

Abstract 
The Internet and new technologies have enabled easy implementation of cross-cultural 

communications, which has also lead to new trends in L2 learning. Studies of computer-mediated 

communication competence are rich in content, but discussions regarding L2 language learning are 

rare. In recent theoretical discussions, Media factors, Message factors, Contextual factors 

including cultural background and Function of CMC, had correlatively influenced the Outcome of 

CMC interactions. However, the popularity of cross-cultural collaborative learning in English 

highlights the need for more attention to the possible ways to assess L2 learning via computer-

mediated communication. In this study, second language CMC motivation (L2 CMC Motivation) 

serves as a major factor, corresponding with other factors in a cross-cultural, web-based activity 

oriented for English learning. This study emerged from a larger research project in which a L2 

learning activity involving participants from Taiwan and Japan had exchanged ideas using a web 

platform communication tool established by Nicenet organization. The purpose of this paper is to 

understand how other factors involved in CMC interactions would correlate with L2 CMC 

Motivation on the side of Taiwanese students. Items adapted from Spitzberg’s (2006), were 

blended in a survey (Cronbach’s á=.902) to understand the correlation between the three factors to 

the major one L2 CMC Motivation. The results showed that the above four factors were strongly 

correlated. Among Message factors, expressiveness is especially related to L2 CMC Motivation. 

Regarding contextual factors, Patterns of behavior and Function also had significant influence on 

L2 CMC Motivation. 

 

Keywords: computer-mediated communication competence (CMCC), CMC Motivation, L2 

learning, cross-cultural, web-based 

 

 

Background  

Developed under the notion Globalization and enabled by the advance of new technologies, applications 

of technological communications for collaborative learning projects for educational purpose are now 

popular and prevalent. Teleconferencing, email system, social network, Line and many other application 

tools enable synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communications (CMC) for computer 

users. These web-based activities are believed to support student learning and develop better skills in a 

wide array of areas (Kozma, 2003) including cross-cultural encounters, intercultural competence, 

communicative competence and developing cultural awareness. Cross-cultural communications are 

usually conducted via English, the language served as either a mother tongue or the second language for 

an increasing growing population. As a matter of fact, the learning of English could be seen as one of the 

major purposes of the use of CMC for a great amount of English as second language learners. When a non 

English native CMC user is proficient and expressive in the language he uses, other achievements can be 

examined. Likewise, if a non English native CMC user’s English level is low, or the motivation to use or 

to learn English is not strong, it would influence his CMC motivation. In other words, for non English 

native users, CMC Motivation should be discussed together with L2 Motivation in any CMC-based 

project. Motivation for learning English had hardly been discussed along side with Motivation for CMC.  

 

This study discussed how Motivation for learning English (L2 Motivation) would influence a person’s 

asynchronous communications in a task-based activity. The research questions are:  

mailto:natalie@ctu.edu.tw


AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Pin-hsiang Natalie Wu & Wan-ting Chuang 

 
 

 

1. What is the relation between L2 Motivation and CMC Motivation? How do we combine 

items from the two to examine L2 CMC Motivation?  

2. Combining L2 Motivation and CMC Motivation, how would the L2 CMC Motivation 

influence other factors included in a computer-mediated communication competence (CMCC) 

model, in a task-based situation?  

3. How are International Attitudes related to L2 CMC Motivation?  

 

Theoretical Framework 

This study examines related theoretical background and blended items from Brian Spitzberg’s Computer-

mediated Communication Competence (2006, 2007, 2009) Model (CMCC Model) and Japanese scholar 

Yashima Tomoko’s (2004, 2006) discussions on L2 Willingness to Communicate (L2 WTC).  

 

Brian Spitzberg’s CMCC Model 

Spitzberg (2006, 2009) proposed various individual differences that moderate CMC uses and outcomes. In the 

CMCC model proposed in 2006, Spitzberg measured the potential infinitely complex of a person’s computer-

mediated communication competence in which CMC Knowledge and CMC Motivation predict achievement 

in the usage of CMC. A person needs to be motivated, alongside with sufficient knowledge, to conduct actual 

utilization of CMC (Perse and Ferguson 2000). CMC Motivation can be indexed by a range of constructs such 

as willingness to use technologies for communication, openness to new technologies, gratification, online 

apprehension and communication apprehension. CMC Motivation would also be influenced by personality 

traits and other social cultural contexts. Even though based on a broad cluster of constructs, CMC Motivation, 

to Spitzberg, is the most important role in actual utilization of online communication and is defined as the 

ratio of approach to avoidance attitudes, beliefs, and values in a given CMC context. Except that, a person has 

to have good skills to perform online communication. In a CMCC model, Motivation, Knowledge and Skills 

will further be interfered with the Media and Message Factors in the process of communications, to lead to a 

person’s Competence. CMC Skills are manifested on the following areas: Attentiveness can be displayed 

through a variety of tactics, including the degree of message content, use and appropriateness of questions, 

social support and comforting sophistication of message content, and politeness and appropriateness of 

message content. Composure can be displayed through avoiding cues of uncertainty, such as linguistic 

qualifiers used in message content, the proportion of valenced opinion expression of message content, the 

directive or imperatives used relative to inquiries, the use of compliance-gaining tactics, and task or topical 

redirection and topic initiation. Coordination can be displayed through the deft management of the number of 

messages, the length of messages, the rapidity of response, and the content and task relevance of response. 

Expressiveness can be displayed through the use of emotion and similar paralinguistic features of message 

content, the use of humor, and even the depth and breadth of self-disclosure (Castella et al., 2000; Whitty, 

2003). 

 

Tomoko Yashima L2 Willingness to Communicate 

Tomoko Yashima (2002, 2004) built his L2 WTC theory on Peter Macintyre and Richard Clément (1998, 

2002, 2003, 2007) in which variables influencing a person’s WTC in second language is presented in a 

heuristic model. Examining the motivation for communication in the usage of second language in Japanese 

context, Tomoko hypothesized a serious of variables related to cross-cultural situations which he termed as 

International Posture. The items included for the measurement of International Posture are Intercultural 

Friendship Orientation in Learning English, Interest in International Vocation/Activities, Interest in Foreign 

Affairs, and Intergroup Approach Avoidance Tendency. As for the utilization of second language, two items, 

Motivational Intensity and Desire to Learn English, had been used in Yashima’s investigation of Japanese 

students’ willingness to communicate using English. The path from L2 competence to WTC, and from 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Pin-hsiang Natalie Wu & Wan-ting Chuang 

 
 

International Posture to WTC, were significant, with lower level of anxiety, positive attitude toward 

intercultural communication or international interest, and perception of L2 communication competence, all 

led to a higher level of WTC.  

 

Blending models in a Survey  

This survey is designed to detect the Motivation using second language for online communication. The 

blending of Spitzberg’s CMC Motivation and Yashima’s L2 WTC is the crucial part of this survey. This part 

has been given the name L2 CMC Motivation. CMC Skills, with constructs proposed in Spitzberg’s CMCC 

model, had been created into items in a given CMC context. The researchers want to understand if the path 

from CMC Skills to L2 CMC Motivation is significant. If significant, which construct included in CMC Skills 

has the most significant influence on L2 CMC Motivation. Media Factor had also been examined in terms of 

richness, interactivity, speed, accessibility and level of social presence (Spitzberg 2006, 2009). The reason of 

including the Media Factor in this survey is to understand if the choice of media would affect L2 CMC 

Motivation particularly because the current experiment is task-based. Participants had not been given any 

freedom on the choice of the communication tool, and this might influence CMC Motivation. Nine items were 

included to examine the correlation between Media Factor and L2 CMC Motivation. Besides, Yashima’s 

consideration for specific items included in International Posture had also been included, termed Attitudes 

toward Online Cultural Exchange, for the path from attitudes toward cross-cultural interaction is significant 

to L2 CMC Motivation. Eight items were included in Attitudes toward Online Cultural Exchange and had also 

been revised in the given CMC context. 

 

L2 CMC Motivation 

In order to fathom willingness to communicate via computer-mediated communication utilizing English, 

items included in CMC Motivation and L2 Learning Motivation were blended for the part L2 CMC 

Motivation. Six items were included with consideration of Desire to learn English, anxiety toward using 

English online, communication apprehension via English, online apprehension, satisfaction from the use of 

CMC to learn English, openness to the learning of English via computer technologies.  

 

CMC Skills 

Items of skills included in CMCC model had been revised to be in a given CMC context that fits the task. 

Expressiveness, Attentiveness, and Coordination were constructs included to exam participants’ online 

communication skills in the task-based situation.  

 

Media Factor 

We had chosen a free, non-beneficial online classroom called Nicenet (www.nicenet.org) for cross-cultural 

communication between participants of the two countries. Nine items included in the survey were created to 

understand how Media Factor would influence L2 CMC Motivation in the given context. 

 

Attitudes toward Online Cross-cultural Exchange  

Constructs proposed in International Posture including interest on foreign affairs and culture, international 

friendship, and time management, were made eight items to examine the correlation between online 

intercultural interaction and L2 CMC Motivation. These items were clustered under the section Attitudes 

toward Online Cross-cultural Exchange. 

 

The reliability of the survey questionnaire is significant high (Cronbach’s á=.902). 

 

Participants and Instructional Design 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Pin-hsiang Natalie Wu & Wan-ting Chuang 

 
 

Fifty participants, currently university students studying at Chien-kuo Technology University in Central 

Taiwan, and Kansei Gakuin University, Japan, were recruited for the activity in Fall 2011. Three questions, 

all globally orientated, had been created by the researchers. The questions were posted online for comments 

and feedbacks from participants. Participants had to write comments based on one’s own thoughts or 

research, and were required to give at least two feedbacks, one to Taiwanese participant and the other to 

Japanese participant. The researchers also logged in Nicenet as teachers to give reminder, to supervise the 

whole communication process, and to make sure a smooth flow on the online interaction. The three questions 

are:  

 

1. You are both ESL students in the summer intensive program of New York University. You are 

in the same class and became friends. You decided to take a trip to Miami and on the way 

there, your wallets were stolen. You have no money, no credit cards, and no cell phones. You 

are now stranded on the streets.  

2. You are both on the committee of the United Nations for the poor. Someone gave your 

organization a donation of one million dollars. The only requirement is that the money be 

donated to one country and a particular group.  Please research and propose where the money 

should go.   

3. You are both foreign students at Harvard. You are both in the same class. Now, you are both 

assigned to host a party for the American students at the university.  The purpose is for the 

American students to know more about East Asian cultures. What food will you serve? What 

program and entertainment will you prepare? 

 

The duration of the English learning, task-based CMC experiment was exactly two months. The survey 

questionnaire was given to Taiwanese participants only, due to technical difficulty on the side of Japanese 

participants. 

 

Results 

CMC Skills, Media Factor, and Attitudes toward Online Cross-cultural Exchange were found to be significant 

to the major factor L2 CMC Motivation, with CMC Skills to L2 CMC Motivation (t=.473 p=.001), Media 

Factor to L2 CMC Motivation (t=.452 p=.001), and Attitudes toward Online Exchange to L2 CMC Motivation 

(t=.496 p=.000). This means that factors mixing from Spitzberg’s and Yashima’s models in this survey were 

significantly correlated to each other. Certain construct in different section had been examined via Regression 

using SPSS. Results showed that in CMC Skills, the construct Expressiveness was highly significant to L2 

CMC Motivation. This means that L2 competence is particularly influential to the expression in written 

English in computer-mediated communication. Low competence will baffle students in CMC communication, 

leaving them unable to express clearly. Regarding the section of Attitudes toward Online Exchange, there is 

also one construct which was found to be significantly related to L2 CMC Motivation. Considering 

International Friendship, two items “It was difficult for me to interact with Japanese students of another 

culture” and “I am not sure what to say to Japanese students of another culture using CMC” were significantly 

related to L2 CMC Motivation. However, “I like to discuss things about food, clothing, and tradition with 

Japanese students using CMC” did not have a significant influence on L2 CMC Motivation. This means that 

participants hold a positive attitude toward international friendship but when it comes to specific cultural 

exchange context, L2 Motivation will matter.  

 

Discussion 

Using Internet is gradually becoming a prosperous and new sector not only for cross-cultural collaboration 

but also for the utilization of the learning of English. With the growing demand of studying English in almost 

every part of this world, and a rapid expansion of the non-native English speaking population, the relation 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Pin-hsiang Natalie Wu & Wan-ting Chuang 

 
 

between English learning and computer utilization will be closer and stronger (Chapelle 2009). A closer 

examination of Motivation both in CMC and WTC fields seem inevitably and therefore an integration of 

willingness to communication using English with computer-mediated communication factors appear to be 

necessary.  

 

It is notable from the results of this study that a combination of constructs from several studies, namely, the 

study of CMC (Spitzberg 2006, 2009, Tolmie & Boyle 2000), the exploration of L2 WTC, and a close 

examination of the use of CMC for students in EFL contexts (Yashima 2002, 2004) worked well in a given 

CMC context. The results drawn from this study indicate that separate factors were significant correlated to 

each other, moving toward a much complex measurement of online behavior via English. 

 

Specific items for the measurement of linguistic competence, like writing competence, reading competence 

and communication competence, can be examined particularly in their relationship to the utilization of 

CMCC. On the other hand, items included in the measurement of motivation toward international affair can 

be considered to be combined into L2 CMC Motivation discussed in the current study in further research 

projects. 

 

 

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