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Inquiry into enhancing reflective learning in an online language course 

 
Robert Snell 

robsnell84@gmail.com 
City and Guilds (Freelance Content Editor), Great Britain 

   

 

 

Abstract  
In a learner-centered approach, lecturers constantly adapt their teaching methods to better suit their 

students’ goals and needs. City and Guilds examinations for speakers of other languages are high 

stakes language examinations approved by the UK Border Agency. An online examination 

preparation course has been developed that consists of activities and teacher presentations to help 

develop students’ language skills and improve examination performance. One of the aims of this 

course is to enhance reflective learning, using a teacher presentation of explanatory feedback after 

the controlled practice activity in the lessons. It is envisaged that this would provide an opportunity 

for students to identify gaps in language knowledge as well as re-balance any misunderstandings. 

The process would be similar to a situation in a classroom when students request explanatory 

feedback after they have completed a task. This paper presents the background to the course 

content, the learning framework of the online lessons and the format of the feedback presentations. 

Initial informal inquiries have revealed the feedback presentations are generally not currently 

prompting reflective feedback as evidenced by improved scores, as was originally predicted. 

However, all students were viewing the presentations consistently indicating that some level of 

knowledge consolidation maybe taking place. It may be possible that students are not fully aware 

of their purpose and the information contained is not always relevant to each particular individual 

student. Measures to address these issues are suggested and improvements to the learning 

experience are discussed. 

 

Keywords: online, examination preparation, reflective learning, teacher role, feedback 

 

 

Online language learning courses offer instant feedback and the opportunity for students to try activities 

more than once. One key element often lacking is explanatory feedback relating to the answers of the 

questions. It was envisaged that for students taking the City and Guilds online examination preparation 

course, motivation and completion rates could be improved by providing text and visual presentations 

with narration. The presentations are used to provide three areas of support for the learner: academic, 

practical, and emotive, as would be provided by the teacher in the classroom (White, 2003). With regard 

to academic support, activities carried out by the students are explained, the process of answering the 

questions is examined and incorrect answers are outlined carefully with regard to why they were incorrect. 

Encouragement (emotive support) and organisational information (practical support) about the course 

(length of study time etc.) are also provided. It is hoped that this will enhance the reflective element of the 

students' learning, improve progress and lead to greater motivation. This paper outlines an initial inquiry 

into an attempt at implementing teacher presentations to enhance reflective learning and summarises the 

how the initial findings have informed improvements to the learning experience. Initial student feedback 

at this stage consists of informal interviews and user statistics from a small sample of Chinese students. 

The examinations can be considered as one of the ‘high-stakes English tests’ alongside IELTS, TOEIC 

and others, approved by the UK Border Agency. The online course will soon be adopted by students 

preparing for the City & Guilds English examinations internationally and particularly in schools, 

universities and test centres in Eastern Europe and Asia (China, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and 

Indonesia). 

 

The City and Guilds English examinations are proficiency tests. They consist of International English for 

Speakers of other Languages (IESOL) and International Spoken English for speakers of other languages 

mailto:robsnell84@gmail.com


AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

(ISESOL) examinations. The examinations are proficiency based level tests that refer to the Common 

European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment (CEFR). The 

CEFR sets out to provide a common basis for the development of language syllabuses, curriculum 

guidelines, examinations and textbooks. There are 6 examinations, one for each level of the CEFR: A1, 

A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2. Each of the examinations seeks to assess the candidates’ ability to perform the 

can-do statements of the CEFR for each level. For example, the City and Guilds ‘Communicator’ 

examination is aligned to the B2 CEFR can-do descriptors. 

 

The ESOL examination consists of 3 skills: Listening, Reading and Writing. The SESOL examination 

assesses Speaking. The CEFR descriptors determine the design of the examination. For example:  ‘can 

understand the way meaning is built up in a range of texts’ is a requirement for a B2 candidate. In the B2 

Reading examination Part 2, the student is required to identify how meaning is built up using cohesive 

devices, discourse markers and referencing techniques. In this particular task the candidate is presented 

with a text with 6 sentences missing. They are given a separate list of 8 sentence options and are required 

to identify which sentences fill the gaps. To complete the task, the candidate would need to understand the 

referencing and discourse features of the sentences before and after each gap, as well as in the text as a 

whole. Therefore if the student completes the task successfully, we can say with some level of certainty 

that the student ‘can understand the way meaning is built up in a range of texts’ and meets this descriptor 

for B2 from the CEFR.  

 

Preparation course 

The examination preparation course is an online self-study course that provides approximately 35 hours of 

study time for each level. The course primarily provides an opportunity for the students to become 

familiar with the task types and the language performance requirements for each level. For each Part of 

the examination, there are 2-3 one-hour lessons focusing on key language skills and language features 

including: grammar structures, vocabulary items and functional phrases. The course consists of skills and 

language development activities, teacher presentations and mock examinations. The language features of 

the lesson material are determined by the language features and skills required to complete the 

examination tasks successfully. For example, B2 Listening Part 1 of the IESOL examination requires 

candidates to listen to a short dialogue and predict what is said next to continue the conversation. The 

candidate requires good awareness of intonation and stress patterns to do this. The activities in the lesson 

are focused on developing awareness of these features in order to be able to recognise the topic, speakers 

and context of the conversation and importantly, the emotion of the speakers. 

 

The Learning Process 

The course assumes that the learning process is dynamic and non-linear. Stages of learning do not follow 

consecutively from one another. However, it does assume that there are certain attractor states 

(Harshbarger, 2007). It assumes and relies on output as indicators of language ability at that point in the 

learner’s knowledge and application. It also assumes the learning path can be controlled and changes 

made to the learning path can enhance or detract from the effectiveness of the learning. The course 

follows a ‘noticing & sense-making, remembering and application, incorporating’ model as it is felt that 

this learning framework, when compared to alternative learning frameworks, leads to deeper 

understanding, new skills and knowledge are better integrated into previous knowledge and application of 

knowledge will be more fluent when required in the future. 

 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

Noticing and sense-making  

Language is presented in context with questions that require students to notice the language feature. This 

would help the student integrate the new skill into their previous knowledge. The learner finds something 

new and interesting and considers this to be true and correct (Harshbarger, 2007). 

 

Application and remembering 

Having introduced the language feature, the student would be asked to try out the new skill in a controlled 

secure environment. This would help the student try out their new understanding of the language feature 

with language input designed to highlight this language feature. This leans towards the Universal 

Grammar theory of learning (Chomsky in Cook, 1996). The input provides the basis to set the parameters 

based on the language feature. Although debatable, for the purposes of the course, it is also assumed that 

output is a form of applying language learnt and provides evidence of current state of understanding 

(Krashen, 1998; Swain, 1985 in Harshbarger, 2007).  

 

Allowing for processing theory and focus on practice, questions are given to the students (Cook, 1996). 

Incorrect answers are assumed to indicate performance errors and an incorrect assumption related to the 

language item being learned or a gap in learning to be filled. The feedback can help the student assess 

whether their assumptions were correct or help students identify their ‘gap’ (e.g. a missing vocabulary 

item). This process of sense-making encompasses temporary states which are then subsequently corrected 

and re-organised. If the student does not answer the questions correctly, then the student can re-formulate 

their parameters in light of this feedback and then try the activity again. This could be framed within the 

information processing model of McLaughlin (1983 in Cook, 1996). The aim is to help the knowledge 

move from controlled process of application to automatic and therefore each activity would generally 

contain a series of questions focused on the same language point. 

 

Incorporating 

Finally, at the end of the lesson, the student is faced with an examination task. This would provide 

motivation for learners and another opportunity to apply language features covered in the lesson. It is 

hoped that the knowledge would become incorporated into the learners’ identity and would be evident in 

their language competency from that point. In effect, one or more ‘can-do’ statements of the CEFR would 

better fit a description of the learner and this would hopefully be reflected in his or her examination results 

after taking the actual examination. 

 

Explanatory feedback – teacher presentations 

After the student has reached the end of the controlled practice activities, it is expected that sufficient 

information processing will have taken place. The students may develop cognitive disequilibrium – that is 

to say in this case the student applies his or her understanding of the language point and chooses an 

incorrect answer to a question. The incorrect answer reveals an inconsistency or an anomaly in relation to 

his or her understanding (Otero & Graesser, 2001). The feedback page of the online platform presents the 

‘student’s answer’ and ‘correct answer’ (or model answer in the case of free writing and speaking 

activities). The presentation of the correct answer may be enough for some students to rebalance their 

understanding and to answer similar questions correctly in the future. However, in a classroom the student 

may then ask for an explanation with a ‘why is this option the answer, not this?’ or ‘what if I do this – is 

this OK?’ type of questions (from PREG model, Otero & Graesser, 2001).  

 

At this point in the lesson, the learner is presented with explanatory feedback presentation to highlight the 

reasons why the answers are correct from the previous activity or to highlight the language features of a 

model answer for productive skills. This could be referred to as the important 'reflective' point of the 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

learning process (Siemens, 2006). The aim is to consolidate understanding, as well as rebalance 

understanding and help students identify gaps in knowledge. It is assumed that in a classroom situation the 

student may seek additional assistance from the teacher to re-formulate their understanding of a language 

point if the questions have revealed to them an inconsistency in their understanding. The teacher 

explanation presentations aim to promote this classroom learning process in an online learning 

environment. In short, the explanatory feedback aims to prompt reflection and consolidation of learning or 

rebalance understanding, as well as increase motivation.  

 

At this point, encouragement is also given. The feedback pages for all activities on the platform contain a 

brief: ‘Well done’, ‘Try again’, ‘Excellent’ depending on the percentage of success. The teacher 

presentations and narration also contain the teacher saying: ‘If you got all the questions correct, well done. 

If you didn’t, you can try the activity again.’ It is hoped that this will provide additional motivation to the 

learner to repeat the activity and improve their score. The relevance of the activities in the lesson is also 

emphasised and the link between the language features and improved examination performance is 

highlighted. 

 

Initial inquiry 

This study is focused on the benefit of the explanatory feedback presentations presented to the student 

after the controlled practice activity. It was hoped that in cases where the student was unable to score 

100%, the student would then view the subsequent presentation explaining why their answers were not 

100% correct and then finally the student would return to the activity and improve their score. The sample 

of students is too small to provide conclusive findings but can provide an initial indication of student 

activity and reasons for that activity.  The sample size was determined by the availability of data and 

access to students for follow-up inquiry.  

 

The initial feedback from students consists of user statistics from the learning platform from eight early 

adopter students and in-depth interview feedback with two students. The interviewees were asked to give 

reasons for his study patterns. 

 

Interview feedback 

Two individual students were asked about their reaction to the teacher feedback presentations. The 

teaching assistant was also questioned regarding any additional explanations provided to the students 

related to the activities of the online course. 

 

Interviewee 1 

Reason for study: intending to move to UK as an investor 

Level: C1 

Explanatory feedback presentations: average of 0.9 views per presentation (an average of ‘1’ would 

indicate that the student viewed all presentations exactly once, with no content skipped and no pausing) 

Average % score on examination-style activities: 87% 

Comments: works as a university professor, able to regulate learning, reflect on performance, took C1 test 

shortly after study completion (well-motivated) 

 

Interviewee 2 

Reason for study: Professional development 

Level: B1 

Explanatory feedback presentations: average of 0.86 views per presentation (an average of ‘1’ would 

indicate that the student viewed all presentations exactly once, with no content skipped and no pausing) 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

Average % score on examination-style activities: 94% 

Comments: currently has no intention of taking examination, course provides opportunity to develop 

English skills for work purposes 

 

Teaching assistant 

The students also have access to a teaching assistant. It was hypothesised that if the students had 

additional questions related to the activities that were not covered by the teacher presentations, then the 

student would ask the teacher assistant for an explanation. The students had access to the teaching 

assistant through phone calls and an online question submission system on the homepage of the course. 

They were not studying in the classroom as part of a blended learning course.  

 

The statistics showed that the students were looking at the presentations, although the number of views 

appeared to reduce rapidly to one or occasionally two views after the first unit of the course. It was also 

evident that the time spent viewing the presentation was on average longer than the original length of the 

presentation. This meant that the students were viewing the content completely and to the end of the 

presentation. Interviewee 2 spent approximately 175% of the original presentation length for each view 

(when he chose to view a presentation rather than skipping it). He explained that he paused the 

presentation as he listened. If he did not understand the narration clearly, he paused the narration, checked 

that he understood the text on the screen regardless of the narration. When he was comfortable that he 

understood the text, he continued listening. The emphasis placed on the text could reflect the focus on 

reading in Chinese schools. Listening ability is often below reading ability for many Chinese learners of 

English. 

 

Did the feedback presentations prompt students to try activities again and did their scores improve? 

 

The statistics revealed that of the 178 activity attempts that were followed by a feedback presentation, 

only 17% of the activities were attempted more than once. In the majority of cases (83% of the time), the 

student did not repeat the activity. 

 

 
Graph 3 (left): Repeats of activity preceding teacher feedback presentations  

Graph 4 (right): percentage scores for activities NOT repeated 

 

It’s also clear that for those activities not repeated, there was significant room to improve scores as 

indicated by the red slice of the pie in Graph 4. It was originally hoped that the students would view the 

teacher feedback presentations and then repeat the activity with an improved score.  

 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

 
Graph 5: When the activity was repeated 

 

Graph 5 shows that the students were almost always repeating the activity before viewing the 

presentation. The students were not repeating the activity after the feedback presentation in almost all 

cases. In over a quarter of the cases, the students scored 100% on the activity on the first attempt. It is 

understandable that the student would not repeat the activity again here. 

 

It is maybe more than a coincidence that scores of over 60% for any activity are shown as ‘completed’ on 

the online learning system. In only 2 cases was the score below 60 and not repeated (see Graph 4) until a 

score above 60 was achieved (for the activities followed by a teacher feedback presentation.) This 

indicates that achieving a score above 60 was important to the learners and was a key motivator behind 

repeating the activities. 

 

Interviewee 2 confirmed that the main motivation to repeat the activity was to improve his score and not 

due to the feedback presentations. He also stated that he was not sure of the benefit of the feedback 

presentations and in later units he began to skip them. He felt he had mastered the language skill of the 

lesson without the presentations and therefore did not need to view them. In this case, the lack of views 

could be explained by a combination of non-existent cognitive disequilibrium (he got the answers right 

anyway) and a lack of motivation (after all, he was not planning to take the examination). In the absence 

of deep goals, perhaps the learner cannot be expected to seek a deep explanation.  

 

Interviewee 1 prepared for the C1 examination by only following the online course and using no other 

form of assistance. The statistics indicated that she also skipped some of the presentations in later units. 

She indicated time pressure as the key reason. She felt that the activities themselves were the most useful 

and that the experience of the different question types and indication of level/requirements were the most 

helpful elements of the course. Given the time constraint (she only had 2 weeks to complete the whole 

course of approximately 40 hours of learning, while working full-time), she felt that she did not receive 

much benefit from the presentations. She also suggested that the presentations could be in video format to 

increase engagement. 

 

Both interviewees indicated that the presentations were difficult for them to understand at times. They 

were both very reliant on the text to ensure understanding. Given the effort required to understand the 

explanations, and the uncertainty over the benefit, interviewee 2 skipped some of the presentations in 

lessons he considered less relevant to his needs.  

 

The C1 student (a university professor of chemical engineering) indicated that time constraints were the 

main reason behind her decision to skip some of the feedback presentations. She was aware of the aim but 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

she did not feel that the information contained was pertinent to her needs. As a university professor, she 

could also be considered as a good learner in that she actively self-regulates her learning goals (Otero & 

Graesser, 2001).  In this case, it’s possible that the explanatory feedback was additional to her learning 

goals. These were stated as to become familiar with the examination requirements of the level and 

questions types. She was familiar with students asking questions for further explanations. She recognised 

that the feedback was explaining some of the answers to the previous questions but she thought that not all 

the possible questions students might have were being covered.  

 

Regarding questions asked to the teaching assistant, there were no instances of the questions related to 

activities that were explained within the content of a teacher feedback presentation from the B1 or C1 

course.  

 

Evidence of reflective learning 

The reflective learning can be divided into two stages of learner processing. For learners that had already 

scored 100% on the previous activity before viewing the explanatory feedback, the presentation can be 

said to be consolidating learning through reflection. The explanation could be moving the students 

(successful) process of application of the language point or skill from a controlled process to automatic. 

Although yet to be validated by more thorough research, the number of presentation views and length of 

view for the majority of the presentations suggest that the student placed some value on viewing the 

presentations and therefore considered them to be helpful in some way. The students were at liberty to 

skip all the presentations if they had wished. 

 

There were two situations when a student repeated an activity after viewing the feedback presentation. 

Reflective learning may have occurred, leading the student to balance an original cognitive disequilibrium 

or identify a gap in understanding. 

 

Case 1 

Level B1  

Lesson: Writing Part 3 Correcting errors  

Act 10 - Write the sentence with the correct capitalisation [students are presented with a sentence with 

incorrect capitalisation and required to rewrite the incorrect elements correctly] 

Act 11 – Teacher feedback presentation [Presents and confirms answers for all questions] 

 

The student attempted activity 10 and scored 0% on the first attempt. The student then viewed the 

feedback presentation (length of presentation: 1.23s, view time 1.29s: this is consistent with a complete 

view). The student had a break of nearly two hours and then attempted act 10 again. The student was able 

to score 66% on the second attempt.  

 

However, this activity is the same as the activity in which two students scored less than 60% without 

making further attempts to improve their score. In fact the average final score for the all six learners who 

completed this unit was 58%. This was an anomaly as most activities had a much higher average score. It 

seems likely that the activity itself had been constructed unfairly. As the activity required the writing of 

multiple sentences, it’s possible that minor typing mistakes could have led the students to consistently 

achieve a low score even after they had learnt and understood the language focus of the lesson. [The 

activity has now been improved.] 

 

Case 2 

Level B1 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

Lesson: Listening Part 4 Following a discussion 

 

Act 5 – Multiple-select activity [students are required to identify what topics are talked about by two 

teachers having a discussion, gist activity] 

Act 6 – Teacher feedback presentation [samples from the listening script are presented on the screen and 

the process of identifying the topic from the vocabulary is explained] 

 

Student scored 0% on three attempts and then viewed the presentation (presentation length: 1.48s, view 

time: 1.59s: this is consistent with complete view). The student scored 100% on the fourth attempt. 

 

In this case, as there was only one question item for the multiple-select activity, the scoring mechanism of 

the automated marking system meant that anything except all the items selected correctly is scored 0%.  

 

In both these cases, the student may have experienced frustration related to the construct of the activity. 

The student may have been confident of their mastery of the language point but were still unable to 

achieve the 60% score required for completion. Although it was disappointing to find evidence of poorly 

constructed activities in the course, the analysis has provided a method of identifying poorly constructed 

activities.  

 

Further developments 

The average number of views of the presentations and length of view indicate that for students who scored 

100% on the previous activity, some consolidation of understanding could be taking place as a result of 

the teacher feedback presentations. This is supported by the absence of student questions directed to the 

teaching assistant. However, the feedback presentations have not proven as successful in enhancing 

reflective learning as evidenced by improved performance, as was originally predicted.  

 

Ideas to improve rate of reflective learning from teacher presentations: 

1. Increase pass rate from 60% to 70% 

It appears the motivation to improve score is tied closely to the desire to repeat an activity. To 

reach a higher score of 70% the additional learning to be gained from the teacher presentations 

may become more necessary and useful. 

2. To increase awareness of benefit by changing the title of and location of teacher feedback 

presentations 

The lesson overview presentations, feedback presentations and examination tips presentations are 

all labelled ‘Listen to the teacher’. This may have caused the student to fail to realise the full 

benefit of the teacher feedback presentations. An explicit activity title could be ‘Help from the 

teacher for activity 6’. Currently, in order to view the presentations related to a particular activity, 

the students must move on from the automated feedback pages indicating their score and the 

correct answers. If the student were able to view the presentation without moving away from the 

feedback page, the student may be more inclined to view it before repeating the activity. 

3. Content – whose question is the feedback answering? 

The teacher explanations may be useful if it relates to the particular misunderstanding of the 

individual student but otherwise it may be irrelevant to his or her needs. 

4. What if the students could choose the question and then watch a teacher-created video based on 

that question? This would make it more relevant to the students' needs and more engaging for the 

students. Teachers using the online course with their students could use a simple screen capture 

video tool and upload the video for all students to view. The students could view a list of 

questions, each with a related video. They would then select the video related to their own 



AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

question. If the question is not listed, then an explanation to answer this question could be 

requested from a teacher. This process would more closely mimic the question and answer 

process that would take place in the classroom. Ultimately, the majority of the students’ questions 

would have a video providing explanatory feedback. It may be possible to increase the standard 

number of ‘good’ questions asked by an average student in a classroom. In addition, the student 

has the flexibility to ask many questions without feeling that they are wasting other students’ 

time. 

5. To increase validity of repeated activity as an indicator of learning: item banking 

If a student repeats the activity and answers the same questions as before it’s likely that memory 

of the answers and questions will assist the student in achieving a better score. To eliminate this 

issue, the student could be presented with different questions related to the same language point. 

6. Reassess the format of the teacher presentation - too passive? 

7. It’s likely that the presentation style does not prompt the active processing that is necessary for 

effective reflective learning to take place. The student is told how to apply the language skill to 

achieve the correct answer but it would be better if the student is required to form his or her own 

explanation first before listening to the teacher explanatory feedback. 

 

Research possibilities 

This initial investigation has shown that motivation for deeper learning appears could be tied to pass rate 

score. Students may see this as an indicator of satisfactory learning required to achieve success in the 

examination. Future research questions generated from this initial inquiry are: 

 

1. Does an increase in pass rate percentage lead to an increased use of teacher presentations and 

improved scores on the online course activities? 

2. Does viewing the teacher presentations increase learning evidenced by better results in the 

examination?  

 

Conclusion 

This paper has outlined the learning process following an initial inquiry into an attempt at enhancing 

reflective learning in an online language learning course. The predicted use of the presentations did not 

match the actual use of the early-adopter students. The inquiry has shed light on the correlation between 

student motivation and online language study activity. It has shown that motivation may be a key variable 

to determine the effectiveness of any attempt to promote reflective learning as part of an online course. 

This offers an interesting research possibility for the future. Further analysis of student use will hopefully 

improve the learning effectiveness of the course in the future. 

 

 

 

References 

Cook, V. (1996). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching 2
nd

 Edition. Edward Arnold 

Publishers Limited. 

Graesser A.C., McNamara D. S., & Van Lehn K., (2005). Scaffolding Deep Comprehension Strategies 

Through Point & Query, Autotutor, and iSTART. Educational psychologist, 40(4), 225-234, 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.  Retrieved from: 

http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/graesser%20mcnamara%20vanlehn%20ep%200

5.pdf 

Harshbarger, B. (2007). Chaos, Complexity and Language Learning. Language Research, Bulletin, 22, 

Tokyo, ICU. Retrieved from: http://web.icu.ac.jp/lrb/volume-22.html 

http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/graesser%20mcnamara%20vanlehn%20ep%2005.pdf
http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/graesser%20mcnamara%20vanlehn%20ep%2005.pdf
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AsiaCALL Online Journal (ISSN 1936-9859) 2013 – Special Issue – AsiaCALL2012 Proceedings, Robert Snell 

 
 

Krashen, S. (1998). Comprehensible Output. System, 26, p175-182. Retrieved from: 

http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles/comprehensible_output/01.html 

Siemens, G (2006). Knowing Knowledge. Retrieved from: www.knowingknowledge.com  

Swain, M. (2007). Keynote presentation slides, Beijing Foreign Studies University 2007. Retrieved from: 

http://www.celea.org.cn/2007/keynote/ppt/Merrill%20Swain.pdf 

White, C. (2003). Language Learning in Distance Education. Cambridge University Press. 

 

Websites 

Council of Europe CEFR http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp  City & Guilds English 

examinations: http://www.cityandguildsenglish.com/ 

City & Guilds ESOL/ISESOL online courses: www.cgetutor.com [Demo account login information 

available here: http://www.cityandguildsenglish.com/cat/120] 

UK border agency approved tests http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/applicationforms/new-

approved-english-tests.pdf 

For level alignment of City & Guilds examinations with Cambridge examinations: 

www.cambridgeesol.org 

 

http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles/comprehensible_output/01.html
http://www.knowingknowledge.com/
http://www.celea.org.cn/2007/keynote/ppt/Merrill%20Swain.pdf
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp
http://www.cityandguildsenglish.com/
http://www.cgetutor.com/
http://www.cityandguildsenglish.com/cat/120
http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/applicationforms/new-approved-english-tests.pdf
http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/applicationforms/new-approved-english-tests.pdf
http://www.cambridgeesol.org/

