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USING COMPUTER SUPPORTED REASONING MAPPING TO TEACH EFL 

LEARNERS CRITICAL REASONING AND ACADEMIC WRITING 

 
Sonja Elsegood 
selsegood@ialf.edu  

Indonesian Australian Language Foundation, Indonesia 

 

Ali Rahimi 
rahimijah@yahoo.com 

University of Kashan, Iran 

 
 

Abstract 

This paper describes how computer-generated argument mapping has been 

successfully incorporated in an English for Academic Purposes program to train 

Indonesian students en route to postgraduate studies in Australia, how to 

construct evidence-based logical reasoning in their English academic writing and 

also to critically follow the flow of reasoning in the English academic texts they 

read.  This paper attempts to demonstrate, with reference to student sample work, 

that training students in the use of reasoning mapping software to diagram 

reasoning makes the complex pyramid hierarchical structure of logical reasoning 

far more easily understandable and aids them in being able to create well-

reasoned academic writing in English.      

 

Keywords:   Computer Supported Argument Mapping (CSAM),    

 critical reasoning, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 

 

 

Introduction 

There has been a growing recognition in literature, that the key critical thinking skill for students 

to be successful in English language university study, is the ability to understand and use 

evidence-based logical reasoning. In virtually all disciplines, students are expected to be able to 

present both orally and in writing a well-argued logical academic case supporting conclusions 

based on research (Davies, 2001, 2003, 2006). Despite the importance of logical reasoning to 

academic success many students find it difficult either to present a well-reasoned academic case 

or to follow the flow of logical reasoning in their readings of academic texts let alone to engage in 

any kind of critical analysis of this reasoning. This is particularly the case in the TEFL context.  

We argue that the problem is that students usually do not receive any training in how to use 

evidence-based logical reasoning and that this problem can be overcome through training them in 

the use of Computer Supported Argument Mapping (CSAM). 

 

In the following paper we present a case in support of the following claims:  

1. EFL Students‟ problems with applying critical reasoning in their reading and writing of 

academic texts are not primarily language-based but result from a lack of explicit 

instruction in the mechanics and principles of evidence-based logical reasoning.   

2. Computer Supported Argument Mapping (CSAM) offers a useful way to help EFL 

students build critical reasoning skills in their reading and writing of academic texts. 

  

The contribution that this paper makes is that while there has been a considerable amount of 

research into the usefulness of CSMA for improving the critical thinking and reading/writing 

mailto:rahimijah@yahoo.com


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skills of native speaker students there is still a need for more research to look at its usefulness in 

the TEFL context. 

 

This paper attempts to answer the following questions:  

1. Why explicitly teach critical reasoning particularly in the TEFL context?  

2. How can CSAM help EFL students develop critical reading skills?  

3. How can CSAM help EFL students construct grammatically correct, well-structured logically 

reasoned academic writing?  

4. How can CSAM help EFL students develop critical thinking skills? 

 

1. Why explicitly teach critical reasoning in the TEFL context?  

The research demonstrates unequivocally that many university students lack critical reasoning 

skills when reading and writing academic texts (Benesch, 1999, Davies, 2003, Egege and 

Kutieleh, 2004; Moodie, 2001; Thomas, Kazlauskas and  Davis 2004). This is particularly the 

case in the TEFL context. The evidence for this is that EFL students often find it difficult when 

reading academic texts in English to:  

1. Distinguish between main and supporting ideas in a text  

2. Distinguish between a writer‟s major and minor claims  

3. Grasp the significance of logical connectors as cues signifying the logical relationships 

between ideas  

4. Understand a writer‟s position and stance  

5. Understand a writer‟s use of objection, rebuttal and concession to construct their 

academic case  

 

EFL students‟ lack of critical reasoning skills is even more apparent when they write academic 

texts in English. Many students find it difficult to:  

1. Logically develop their opinions and ideas by providing relevant, valid and sufficient 

support  

2. Incorporate their own position, voice or stance in their written texts 

3. Build a convincing academic case using evidence-based reasoning from research 

literature to support their position 

4. Incorporate critique in their writing through the logical use of objection, rebuttal, 

concession and counterargument  

5. Use logical connectors and rhetorical devices and formulas appropriately and correctly to 

link the ideas in their texts 

 

The research indicates that an important factor contributing to a student‟s lack of critical 

reasoning skills is the assumption in many education systems that students will pick up skills of 

logical reasoning and argumentation through a process of osmosis, through being exposed to 

good reasoning. However the reality is that many students fail to pick up these skills during their 

education. As Varghese and Abraham (1998) report, evidence for this is Connor, Gorman, and 

Vahapassi‟s study of undergraduate written composition in 14 countries (1987), which found that 

the vast majority of students demonstrated difficulties in arguing to advocate their viewpoint on a 

complex issue.  

 

Even more revealing are the results of Deanna Kuhn‟s 1991 study with 160 native speakers 

drawn from a wide range of age groups, occupations, and education levels, as reported by van 

Gelder (2005 a). Kuhn found that the majority of people interviewed, when asked their opinion 

on complex and controversial issues, were unable to provide genuine evidence in support of their 

views. Their responses demonstrated that many lacked basic skills of reasoning and 

argumentation. Van Gelder notes that this finding is confirmed by other studies (2005 b). 



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As a result of research such as the above, it is becoming accepted that critical reasoning skills, so 

vital to academic success in university, need to be explicitly taught.  The ability to deal with 

arguments is seen to be a key critical reasoning skill (Davies, 2001, 2003, 2006). Davies argues 

that academic success depends on students‟ ability to read, understand, evaluate, and construct 

arguments, both written and oral.  Talking about the Australian context, Davies notes that while 

the subject matter will vary from one university course to another, in almost all disciplines, the 

major purpose of study is to develop students‟ mastery of academic argumentation. Davies 

concludes that the principles of argument used in academic culture need to be explicitly taught to 

students as all disciplines require an ability to argue critically in essays, term papers or 

dissertations (2003, p 2). Davies also argues that, more often than not, EFL students‟ difficulties 

comprehending and constructing arguments are to do with problems with logic rather than 

language (2001, 2003, 2006). This conclusion is supported by Bolton‟s research (2007), analysing 

Indonesian students‟ essay writing in L1 and L2. He found that students faced similar problems 

with logic and argumentation in both L1 and L2 and this demonstrates that the issue is lack of 

training in logic rather than lack of proficiency in English.   

 

The logic that both Davies and Bolton refer to is obviously the conventions of Western logical 

reasoning and Aristotelian rhetoric. It might be claimed that based on the findings of contrastive 

rhetoric, it is ethnocentric to teach Western logic to EFL students in the Asia region. However as 

Varghese and Abraham note (1998), this objection is not convincing since much academic 

argumentation today still favors Aristotelian rhetoric as its preferred mode of inquiry and 

persuasion.  

 

Another objection to explicitly teaching Western logic and Aristotelian rhetoric is that the 

Western academic cultural tradition favours an adversarial style of argumentation, which is not in 

harmony with the consensual intellectual traditions of Asian cultures. Some Western scholars also 

critique the overly „attack and defend‟ character of Western academic argument culture and 

suggest there is a need to move from debate to dialogue (Tannen, 1998).  

 

However while there may definitely be valid grounds for developing a more consensual style of 

academic debate and critique, it does need to be acknowledged that students from exam 

orientated education systems in Asia often have an overly factual orientation to academic texts. 

There is a tendency to see the „claims‟ made by scholars as „facts‟ to be reproduced in 

examinations rather than as debatable propositions that they are expected to challenge by 

presenting argumentation and critique (Sinclair 2000). It would be an advantage for all students to 

be explicitly trained to see academic texts as advancing and supporting debatable claims. Indeed 

it could be said that all academic writing and research is comprised of claims and supports 

because it involves evaluation (making a judgment about something) and analysis (drawing a 

conclusion about something which is then supported). Even „factual‟ claims require supports, as 

for example where scientific claims are supported by evidence that is constantly subjected to 

scrutiny and challenge. All research reports have a „conclusion‟ or „interpretation‟ section where 

writers present claims (draw conclusions) supported by evidence. In a critical review too, a writer 

presents claims about the text they are reviewing which they then support. Similarly, in a case 

study, the writer draws conclusions and supports these conclusions.  Thus it could be argued that 

all academic texts consist of claims and supports and thus „argumentation‟, though not all texts 

have an explicitly „persuasive‟ tenor. This demonstrates the usefulness of giving all students 

explicit training in the principles of argumentation and Aristotelian rhetoric. 

 



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2. How can computer-supported argument mapping (CSAM) help EFL students develop 

critical reading skills?  

 CSAM provides a useful tool to help students understand firstly what argumentation is and 

secondly how a writer constructs an academic case using Aristotelian rhetoric.  Trying to decode 

and follow the flow of reasoning in argumentative prose is a challenge for native speaker students 

let alone L2 readers. This is because students have to deconstruct a writer‟s arguments from the 

argumentative prose in which they are embedded. As Monk notes (2004), there are a number of 

steps involved in the decoding process when reading.  Students need to ask themselves:  

1. How many distinct arguments (minor claims) does a writer provide for their main 

point/claim/contention?  

2. How many main lines of argument do they have to back it up?  

3. Do they support all of these primary arguments with further evidence?  

4. Do they provide any objections to their argument and rebut them? - Are these 

supported by evidence? (Monk 2004)   

 

Based on research at Melbourne University (Twardy 2004), Van Gelder (2005 a) argues that if 

CSAM forms the basis for teaching logical reasoning, students find it easier to grasp the logical 

structure of argument. According to Van Gelder, the basic idea in argument mapping is very 

simple. Arguments have a structure, often quite complex, and complex structure is generally more 

easily understood and conveyed in visual or diagrammatic form. Thus argument mapping 

involves using graphical or diagrammatic methods to display the structure of reasoning and 

argumentation more clearly and explicitly so that the reader can follow the reasoning more easily. 

The rationale is that being able to more easily understand the structure of reasoning helps 

improve reasoning and argument skills. This can be clearly seen if we attempt to answer Monk‟s 

decoding questions above about a writer‟s argumentation when it is presented as argumentative 

prose or as an argument map. In the second instance it is far easier to follow the flow or reasoning 

and assess how the writer‟s case is structured and how well it is supported. Please refer to 

Appendix 1 and 2 in order to make this comparison. 

 

The idea of argument diagramming is not new and the concept was first developed by Wigmore  

in 1913 and then Engelbart in the  1960s ( Van Gelder 2005 b). Neither is the idea that producing 

diagrams of arguments can help students with developing their critical reasoning (Horn 1998). 

However it has only been with the development of CSAM software that the possibility of 

diagrammatic representation of complex argumentation has become a reality (Van Gelder 2005 

b).  

  

Monk (2004) argues that CSAM is a useful tool for comprehending and communicating 

reasoning because argument maps present reasoning in a completely clear and unambiguous 

form. The benefits of Argument maps are that they:  

1. Make explicit the logical relationships that the linearity and abstractness of prose 

argumentation obscures the evidential and logical relationships between claims and 

supports are visually explicit (Monk 2004). 

2. Reduce drastically the cognitive burden because we don‟t have to assemble a 

representation of the argument in working memory which is, as research shows, limited 

(Monk 2004)  

3. Offer an instant and effortless scan ability of the overall structure of the argument, 

something that cannot easily be derived from prose. (Monk 2004). Argument maps provide 

a big picture as well as a little picture view of a writer‟s case.  

4. Give unambiguous visual clues as to the significance of particular details due to the 

hierarchical ordering of the structure and the inferential relations between individual 

boxes (Monk 2004).   



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Students can practice a number of skills using CSAM software like Rationale:  

(The following is from the Rationale website   (http://rationale.austhink.com/learn) 

Basic reasoning 

1. Map out reasons for and against a contention  

2. Classify evidence sources (basis boxes)  

3. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of reasons and evidence 

4. Show evaluation of claims through colour and icons (evaluation tab)  

5. Essay writing with essay planning templates (essays panel)  

 

Advanced reasoning 

1. Identify assumptions and co-premises (advanced reasoning maps)  

2. Identify individual premises, including unstated assumptions  

3. Distinguish between the acceptability of premises and the validity or strength of 

inferences.  

 

3. How can CSAM help EFL students construct grammatically correct, well structured 

logically reasoned academic writing? 

As has already been discussed, many EFL students find it difficult both to present a clear position 

in their academic writing and to provide relevant and sufficient support for their position, both to 

substantiate their own claims and to weaken opposing claims. Many have problems sequencing 

different „levels‟ of support to „unpack‟ claims, for example, by providing a supporting reason 

before adding relevant supporting evidence or examples. EFL students‟ problems may indicate a 

lack of familiarity with the hierarchical ordering conventions of logical Western reasoning, such 

as the need to develop ideas by moving from the general to the particular and from the debatable 

to the more factual.  Evidence for this is that EFL students tend to misuse logical connectors 

suggesting that they don‟t fully grasp what the logical relationships are between ideas in their 

writing.  

 

The benefits of using CSAM for teaching academic writing is that:  

1. Argument maps clearly show how writers and speakers logically support, develop or 

„unpack‟ their ideas or oppose other people‟s ideas. 

2. Through argument mapping students learn that logical reasoning has a tree or pyramid 

shaped hierarchical   structure and must follows certain „rules‟ or conventions. 

3. Argument mapping make it easier for students to tell the difference between core 

sentences in a text which carry the main and supporting ideas and connective words and 

phrases which structure the text. 

4. Argument mapping makes it easier for students to understand the logical links between 

claims and supports in a text and how these logical links are signaled through particular 

connective words and phrases. 

 

Another benefit of CSAM is that it can be usefully combined with a genre approach to teach 

academic writing because argument mapping can be used to support the genre cycle of text 

deconstruction and then joint and individual construction of the target genre using teacher led 

scaffolding. Teaching the generic conventions of different text types is much easier in 

combination with argument mapping. The weakness of the traditional genre approach is that it 

doesn‟t systematically address the issue of how logical reasoning is constructed because the focus 

is not on the content of argumentation but rather on how texts are realized through particular 

generic structures and conventions and language features (Cope and Kalantzis 1993). This issue is 

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addressed when argument maps are constructed with students before commencing the genre 

cycle. Using an argument map that includes objections and rebuttals, a teacher can jointly 

scaffold various essay types merely by embedding supporting and opposing arguments into 

different rhetorical formulas and essay structures. (See examples of 3 different essay types based 

on one argument map see Appendix 3, 4, 5, and 6).  In this way, students‟ awareness of how a 

writer moves from reasoning to argumentative prose increases dramatically.  

 

A major advantage of argument mapping is that it reduces the cognitive load of students when 

learning to write academic texts because they need only focus on one thing at a time. This is 

because an argument map separates the „content‟ ideas out from the generic framework in which 

they are embedded. By this is meant the rhetorical conventions of the text, as well as the 

rhetorical formulas and devices used to convey stance and evaluation, the connecting words and 

phrases which introduce and link ideas between sentences and paragraphs. These don‟t appear in 

an argument map so it is much easier for students to focus on their reasoning before converting 

this reasoning into argumentative prose.  

 

Argument mapping also makes it much easier for a teacher to be able to identify the students‟ 

problems in terms of English sentence structure and grammar. In an argument map students write 

full, grammatical, declarative sentences in boxes. They use complete sentences, not words or 

phrases as in an outline. Thus the teacher can focus on whether the student really understands 

how to structure an English sentence, how to construct nominalizations, verb phrases and to use 

English tenses, modals, adverbial and adjectival phrases, correct word forms, passives etc. It is far 

easier for a teacher to give language error feedback on an argument map than in a whole essay 

where there may be so many errors at the sentence paragraph and whole text level that it is 

overwhelming. 

 

An additional benefit of CSAM is that argument mapping can help to fight plagiarism. When 

argument mapping using academic sources, students clearly see which ideas and evaluations they 

have drawn from the research literature are „intellectual property‟ of scholars that need to be both 

paraphrased carefully and referenced and which are their own. Argument maps can also be 

usefully combined with synthesis and paraphrasing grids. At the Indonesian Australian language 

Foundation in Bali, teachers guide EAP students through a step-by-step construction process 

when learning to write research based academic texts. This involves students first researching 

then mapping a „skeleton‟ academic case presenting argumentation in support of a contention 

related to a debatable issue in their field. This map includes the major objections and rebuttals to 

their position and uses full, complete grammatical, declarative sentences in boxes. The next stage 

is that students conduct further research to identify supporting reasons and evidence for their case 

which they then bring together in a synthesis grid which shows how the major and minor claims 

in their argument map will be supported and opposed from all their sources. The next step is for 

students to create a paraphrasing grid in which they both paraphrase and reference each separate 

support or evidence they have extracted from the research literature to flesh out their argument 

map. The paraphrasing grid enables the teacher to evaluate students‟ paraphrasing efforts as both 

the original quote and extract from the literature and the students‟ paraphrased rendition are 

presented side by side. The final step is the writing of the research paper by adding appropriate 

logical connectors to signal the logical relationships between the claims and supports in their 

argument map.  

 

Students learn how to add appropriate rhetorical devices and formulae to convey their 

positive/negative evaluation of opposing or supporting reasons or evidence reported from 

research.  At this stage students are guided in how to convey stance or insert their own writer‟s 



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voice through the skillful use of rhetorical devices, problematising phrases, modals, adjectives 

and adverbs which either weaken or strengthen their own or other‟s claims or evidence. 

Based on our experience at IALF Bali, we have found it extremely useful if students are required to 

provide a map of their reasoning whenever they hand in a piece of written work that involves 

presenting some kind of reasoning or argument. In addition, in order to promote critical thinking it is 

highly recommended that students be required to present their reasoning maps to each other for peer 

critiquing before writing up their essay or papers.  

 

As has been mentioned, mandatory mapping before writing makes teachers‟ lives easier because 

an argument map offers an instant and effortless scan ability of the overall structure of the 

argument or academic case presented by the student. What arguments are well or poorly 

supported, what objections are presented, whether these are skillfully rebutted or whether the 

rebuttal needs further evidence, etc. is all clearly evident.  It saves teachers considerable time and 

effort, which they usually spend in trying to decipher what a student‟s argument in a piece of 

prose argumentation consists of. 

 

An example of a student‟s argument map (appendix 7), an extract from her paraphrasing grid 

(appendix 8) and her final research assignment (appendix 9) is attached. This student commenced 

her 3 month EAP program with an IELTS Writing band score of 5.5. The research essay 

assignment was undertaken in the final phase of her EAP program 

 

How can CSAM help EFL students develop critical thinking skills? 

Van Gelder (2005 b) has presented a convincing case arguing that CSAM has the potential to 

enhance human reasoning and augment human intelligence. He argues that CSAM helps 

strengthen and extend peoples‟ intrinsic reasoning skills, i.e., the skills they deploy unconsciously 

when engaging in reasoning in everyday or educational or professional contexts, particularly 

those involving complex reasoning   

 

Rider and Thomason (2008), argue that “Lots of Argument Mapping Practice” (LAMP) using a 

software tool like Rationale considerably improves students' critical thinking skills and has 

additional cognitive and pedagogical benefits like helping students to learn to better understand 

and critique arguments, to improve in their reading and writing, to become clearer in their 

thinking and even to gain meta-cognitive skills that ultimately make them better learners.  

 

It does seem irrefutable that argument mapping is a useful tool for developing critical thinking 

particularly in helping students to critically evaluate reasoning. One reason as previously 

mentioned, is because argument maps make the structure of reasoning completely explicit and 

thus they help students see strengths and weaknesses in their own and others‟ argumentation  that 

would otherwise be obscured or hidden (Monk 2004).  

 

However an even more important reason why argument mapping is a useful tool for developing 

critical thinking is that mapping an issue from two sides encourages rational debate about issues 

and mitigates against biases like belief preservation and confirmation bias (Monk 2004). Van 

Gelder (2004) argues that in particular the explicit teaching of counterargument (objection, 

rebuttal and concession), helps overcome a natural human tendency to belief preservation. He 

points out that the human mind has a natural tendency toward cognitive biases and blind spots, in 

particular belief preservation.  There is the tendency to pay more attention to evidence that 

supports our existing opinions rather than contradicts them. He argues that teachers need to push 

students to apply compensatory strategies, in particular to use counterargument. Teachers should 

therefore encourage students to put extra effort into searching for and attending to evidence that 

contradicts what they currently believe. In addition, when “weighing up” the arguments for and 



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against, students should be encouraged to be given “extra credit” for those arguments that go 

against their position and students also need to be trained to cultivate a willingness to change their 

mind when the evidence starts mounting against their position. 

 

Hoffman also believes that the true benefit of CSAM is its capacity to promote flexible thinking 

and reduce biased thinking. He points out that the primary goal of such mapping so far, has been  

to clarify the structure of argumentation, but not necessarily to change the ways students frame 

what is going on.  Hoffman however argues that the main goal of CSAM should be to visualize 

the mostly implicit logic of people‟s reasoning in order to stimulate self-reflection and the 

modification of implicit assumptions thus aiming for positive cognitive change (Hoffmann 2004). 

This is another claim for CSAM that could be usefully tested in the TEFL context. 

 

Concluding Remarks 

Computer-generated argument mapping can be effectively utilized in English for Academic 

Purposes programs to equip students with the ability to create evidence-based logical reasoning in 

their English academic writing. Acquainted with critical thinking competency, they are able to 

delve into the argumentation and reasoning in the English academic texts they read. Students are 

in need of training in the utilization of reasoning mapping software to diagram reasoning to be 

able to cope with the formidable task of realizing the complex pyramid hierarchical structure of 

logical reasoning. This way they can perceive the intricate network of discussions and avoid 

specious argumentation as well as erroneous interpretation. Hence, they learn to relate the ideas to 

one another logically and meaningfully. They can contribute fully, valuably, and effectively to the 

development of ideas and, in turn, gain from what these ideas critically offer them. By expanding 

students‟ critical thinking ability and providing them with logical reasoning techniques, teaching 

them what to value and what to ignore, computer-generated argument mapping further empowers 

students to take a critical, profound and innovative stance while dealing with certain texts. They 

will be able differentiate between cogent, well-grounded argument and specious discussion.  

   

 

References 

Austhink (developers of Rationale CSAM software) http://rationale.austhink.com/learn 

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Language Writing, 4(2), 191-195. 

Benesch, S. (1999).Thinking critically, thinking dialogically. TESOL Quarterly, 3 (3),  

573-580. 

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submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of MEd Educational Technology and 

ELT 

Connor, U., Gorman, T. and Vahapassi, A. (1987). The argumentative/persuasive task.In  

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November.2003   

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(1), 2004, pp. 3-18. 

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Davies, W. M., (2003), „A Cautionary Note about the Teaching of Critical Reasoning‟, Higher Education 

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Inc. 

Moodie, J. (2001) The Development of critical voice in the writing of international 

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Wollongong, 28 Nov  

Monk , P and van Gelder, T. (2004) Enhancing our Grasp of Complex Arguments 

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Conference on the Environment, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 24 May 2004. [15 

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Cartograp y Springer  

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Rider,
 
Y and Thomason, N  (2008) „Cognitive and Pedagogical Benefits of Argument 

Mapping: LAMP Guides the Way to Better Thinking‟ in  Okada, A. J. Buckingham, S.J.  Shum 

and Sherborne, T (eds) (2008) Knowledge Cartography Springer 

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University, November 27-28, 2000  

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   House 

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van Gelder, T. (2005 a). Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science 

College Teaching, 45(1), 1–6. 

van Gelder, T. (2005 b) „Enhancing and Augmenting Human Reasoning‟ in  Zilhão A (ed.) 

(2005) Evolution, Rationality, and Cognition: A Cognitive Science for the Twenty-First 

Century, Routledge 

Twardy, C. R., (2004). Argument Maps Improve Critical Thinking Teaching Philosophy, 27:2 

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Twenty-First Century, Routledge 

 

APPENDIX 1  

 

Should marine mammals be kept in captivity in marine parks? Discuss.  

 

(Marine mammals are warm-blooded sea animals such as whales, dolphins and seals. Marine 

parks are places where these animals are kept in pools and perform in shows for the public to see. 

An example of a marine park in Australia is „Seaworld‟ on the Gold Coast in Queensland, 

Australia) 

 

Adapted from online text by Bill Daly, 1997,http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/frntpage.htm 

http://www.fyhe.qut.edu.au/past_papers/papers04.htm
http://www.science.org.au/events/fenner/index.htm
http://www.science.org.au/events/fenner/index.htm
http://rationale.austhink.com/
http://www.fyhe.qut.edu.au/past_papers/papers04.htm
http://sarbayes.org/ctwardy/Papers/reasonpaper.pdf
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The issue of whether we should allow marine parks to stay open has been widely debated in our 

community recently. It is an important issue because it concerns fundamental moral and 

economic questions about the way we use our native wildlife. A variety of arguments have been 

put forward. This essay will consider arguments for having marine parks and point to some of the 

problems with these views. It will then put forward good reasons why laws should be introduced 

to prohibit these unnecessary and cruel institutions. 

 

It has been argued that dolphin parks provide the only opportunity for much of the public to see 

marine mammals (Smith, 1997). Most Australians, so this argument goes, live in cities and never 

get to see these animals. It is claimed that marine parks allow the average Australian to appreciate 

our marine wildlife. However, as Smith states, dolphins, whales and seals can be viewed in the 

wild at a number of places on the Australian coast. In fact, there are more places where they can 

be seen in the wild than places where they can be seen in captivity. Moreover, most Australians 

would have to travel shorter distances to get to these wild locations than they would to get to the 

marine parks on the Gold Coast. In addition, places where there are wild marine mammals do not 

charge exorbitant entry fees - they are free. 

 

Dr Alison Lane, Director of the Cairns Marine Science Institute, contends that we need marine 

parks for scientific research (The Age, 19.2.1999).  

She argues that much of our knowledge of marine mammals comes from studies that were 

undertaken at marine parks. The knowledge obtained at marine parks, she says, can be useful for 

planning for the conservation of marine mammal species. However, as Jones (1998) explains, 

park research is only useful for understanding captive animals and is not useful for learning about 

animals in the wild. Dolphin and whale biology changes in marine park conditions. Their diets 

are different, they have significantly lower life spans and they are more prone to disease. 

Furthermore, marine mammals in dolphin parks are trained, and this means that their patterns of 

social behaviour are changed. Therefore, research undertaken at marine parks can be generally 

seen to be unreliable. 

 

It is the belief of the Marine Park Owners Association that marine parks attract numerous foreign 

tourists (The Sun-Herald 12.4.1999). The organisation asserts that these tourists spend a great 

deal of money, increasing our foreign exchange earnings and assisting our national balance of 

payments. However, it is arguable that foreign tourists would still come to Australia if the parks 

were closed. Indeed, recent surveys of overseas tourists show that they come here for a variety of 

other reasons and not to visit places like Seaworld (The Age, Good Weekend 16.8.1999). Tourists 

come here to see our native wildlife in its natural environment and not to see it in cages and 

cement pools. There are plenty of opportunities for them to see animals in these conditions in 

their own countries. What is more, we should be promoting our beautiful natural environment to 

tourists, not the ugly concrete marine park venues. 

 

Marine parks are unnecessary and cruel, and they should not be supported. The dolphins and 

whales in these parks are kept in very small, cramped ponds, whereas in the wild they are used to 

roaming long distances freely across the seas. Another point to consider is that the concrete walls 

of the pools interfere with the animals' sonar systems of communication making it difficult or 

impossible for them to communicate with each other.                                                 

 

A related argument is that keeping these animals in confined areas is a terrible restriction of the 

freedom of highly intelligent creatures that have sophisticated language ability. Moreover, these 

animals are friendly and helpful to human beings and as such deserve our respect. There are many 



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documented cases of marine mammals helping humans who are in danger at sea or helping 

fishermen with their work. 

 

In conclusion, marine parks need to be closed, or at the very least, no new animals should be 

captured for marine parks in the future. Our society should no longer be prepared to tolerate 

unnecessary cruelty to animals for the purposes of science or entertainment. If these creatures 

continue to suffer as victims of captivity, future generations will surely remember us as cruel and 

inhumane. 

 

Bibliography 

 The Age, 19.2.1999 

 The Age Good Weekend, 16.8.1999 

 Jones, G. (1998). „The Myths about Animal Research in Marine Parks‟. In Scientific  

  Australian. vol 12, no 3.  

 Smith, H. (1997). „Marine Parks: Good for Business, Good for Australia‟. In Leisure  

  Business Review. vol 24, no. 4  

 The Sun-Herald, 12.4.1999 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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APPENDIX 2 



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APPENDIX 3 
 

The following claims and supports were adapted from an online text by Bill Daly, 1997 Writing 

Argumentative Essays http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/frntpage.htm 

 

Opinion essay- One-sided Rhetorical Pattern  

 

The essay below uses only supporting arguments. Notice the rhetorical formulas or devices are 

italicized   

 

FOR childcare & subsidising childcare 

 

Over the last decades there has been increasing financial pressure on mothers to contribute to 

their families income by working. However, childcare is expensive and many working mothers 

could not afford to work without the government childcare subsidy. Some people argue that 

childcare has negative effects and should not be subsidised by the government. Others argue that 

childcare benefits children, parents and the economy. This essay supports this last view and 

argues that the government should provide more not less financial assistance to parents who use 

childcare because childcare has many positive effects. 

 

Firstly, childcare may assist children in early learning.  For example, childcare gives children an 

opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social skills at any early age. Indeed a 

whole range of learning occurs in childcare centers. 

 

Secondly, childcare benefits the relationship between parents and children. For example, children 

become less dependent on their parents and parents themselves are less stressed if there are 

periods of separation. In fact, recent studies show that the parent child relationship can be 

improved by the use of high quality childcare facilities. 

 

Finally, childcare benefits the national economy. Evidence for this is that working parents 

contribute to the national economy because they are able to utilize their productive skills and pay 

income tax. 

 

In conclusion, government support for childcare services assists individual families and is 

important of the economic well-being of the whole nation. For these reasons the government 

should subsidise childcare services. 

http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/frntpage.htm


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APPENDIX 4 

 

Two sided essay: Clustering Rhetorical pattern 

 

 The following is a classic ‘discussion essay’ which presents both sides of the argument but 

opposing and supporting arguments are listed in separate paragraphs  

Notice that opposing or counter arguments/objections to the writer’s thesis (which is given in the 

conclusion) are presented first and are then followed by rebuttals or arguments supporting the 

writer’s thesis. Notice the rhetorical formulas or devices are italicized   

 

FOR childcare & subsidising childcare 

 

Recent changes in federal government priorities have seen a reduction in financial support for 

parents who use childcare. This is occurring at a time when there is increasing social and 

financial pressure on parents, particularly mothers, to work. There is ongoing debate about 

whether childcare is really beneficial and should be subsidized by governments or not. This essay 

presents arguments for and against subsiding childcare. 

 

People who disagree agree with subsiding childcare contend that childcare has many detrimental 

effects on children, parents and the economy and should therefore not be subsidised by 

governments. They claim that children who attend childcare centers at an early age may miss out 

on important early learning that occurs in parent child interaction. They also argue that children 

may become emotionally deprived and emotionally insecure if they go to childcare. Another point 

they make is that the government and the economy as a whole cannot afford the costs involved in 

supporting childcare for working parents. 

 

However, there are also strong arguments in support of subsiding childcare.  Proponents of 

childcare say that childcare benefits children, parents and the economy. They argue that childcare 

assists children in early learning because it gives children an opportunity to mix with other 

children and so develop social skills at an early age. Another argument they make is that childcare 

benefits the relationship between parents and children because children become less dependent on 

their parents and parents become less stressed if there are periods of separation. Furthermore they 

believe that childcare benefits the national economy because working parents are able to utilize 

their productive skills and pay income tax. 

 

In conclusion, after looking at the different points of view and the evidence for them, it is my 

contention that government support for childcare should continue because the many benefits of 

childcare outweigh the drawbacks. 



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APPENDIX 5 

 

Two sided essay: Alternating Rhetorical pattern  

In the following essay, the writer shifts between objection and rebuttal for each separate theme or 

topic used to develop their case.. Notice the rhetorical formulas or devices are italicized   

FOR childcare and subsidising childcare 

Recent changes in federal government priorities have seen a reduction in financial support for 

parents who use childcare. This is occurring at a time when there is increasing social and 

financial pressure on parents, particularly mothers, to work. The issue of childcare and 

working mothers has been debated for some time. Many argue that the best place for children 

is always in their own homes with their own parents. However, it is my contention that there are 

many advantages to be had from using childcare and therefore the government should provide 

more financial assistance to parents who do so. 

 

It has been argued that children who attend childcare centres at an early age miss out on 

important early learning that occurs in parent-child interaction. These children, so this 

argument goes, may be educationally disadvantaged later in life. However, childcare centres 

may actually assist children in their early learning. For example, they give children an 

opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social skills at an early age. Indeed, a 

whole range of learning occurs in childcare centers. 

 

Another argument against the use of childcare facilities is that children can be emotionally 

deprived in these facilities compared to the home. This argument assumes that the best place 

for children is to be at their parents', especially mothers', side for twenty-four hours a day. It 

claims that children's emotional development can be damaged when they are left in childcare 

facilities. However, it is my contention that childcare actually benefits the relationship between 

parents and children. The reason is that children become less dependent on their parents and 

parents themselves are less stressed and more effective caregivers when there are periods of 

separation. In fact, recent studies indicate that the parent-child relationship can be improved by 

the use of high-quality childcare facilities. 

 

It could further be asserted that the government and the economy as a whole cannot afford the 

enormous cost involved in supporting childcare for working parents. However, childcare 

actually benefits the national economy because working parents contribute to the national 

economy. Evidence for this is that they are able to utilise their productive skills and pay income 

tax, while nonworking parents can become a drain on the tax system through dependent spouse 

and other rebates. 

 

In conclusion, despite the claims by opponents of childcare that childcare has a negative impact 

on children, families and on the national budget, in fact, childcare services assist individual 

families and are important for the economic well-being of the whole nation. Therefore 

government support for childcare should continue. 



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APPENDIX  6 

Following Claims and supports were adapted from an online text by Bill Daly, 1997 Writing 

Argumentative Essays, http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/frntpage.htm 

http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/frntpage.htm


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APPENDIX 7 

 

Sample student map for research essay assignment 

(On entry to her 3 month EAP program this student has IELTS writing score of 5.5, this assignment 

represents the final course task) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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APPENDIX 8 

Sample Paraphrasing Grid (extract only) 

 

Main Claim: Offshore outsourcing is a positive economic phenomenon. 

 

Source Quote from literature Paraphrase 

Commander  

et al (2006) 

Today, there is broad agreement among 

economists that the offshoring of jobs has 

created net benefits for both host and home 

countries. 

Offshoring is seen as benefiting 

both the origin and destination 

countries. 

Ulferts and 

Howard  

(2005) 

Manufacturing, for example, has been using 

offshore arrangements for decades as a way 

to drive down costs and boost production. In 

the 1990s the production of IT hardware 

moved offshore, resulting in price reduction 

of 10% to 30%. In deciding which company 

to choose, US businesses can tap into an 

international pool of highly talented, 

experienced workers who do the same 

skilled job at a lower price. 

It could lower cost of goods and 

services to the origin country and 

provide jobs to the destination 

country. 

Liikanen 

 (2004) 

The current economic slowdown in the EU 

does not guarantee that new jobs will be 

created t replace those lost. Secondly, 

deindustrialisation is often accompanied by 

offshoring of some jobs as activities are 

transferred abroad; however, this time part 

of the offshoring process includes high-tech 

and research-intensive jobs as opposed to 

the blue-collar job migration that has been 

traditionally easier to accept. That could 

well have serious implications for Europe‟s 

future competitiveness. 

Offshoring process includes high 

technology activities and research-

intensive jobs as opposed to the 

blue-collar job migration that has 

been traditionally accepted in 

developed countries  

Trefler, D 

(2005) 

Service offshoring is the use of workers 

located abroad to provide sophisticated 

services to US customers. Service 

offshoring is currently small. As it grows it 

will undoubtedly have important effects on 

America. However, the real concern is that 

in the longer run of 10 – 20 years, Chinese 

and Indian exports will devastate the United 

States. What we are less familiar with is 

losing high paying jobs to India. 

Service offshoring employs highly 

skilled, white-collar workers 

operating in low cost countries. 

This concern raises issue that a 

number of people will lose their 

jobs and in the longer run the 

offshore destination countries will 

devastate the developed nations. 



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APPENDIX 9 

 

Sample Student Research Essay Assignment  

OFFSHORING IS A POSITIVE ECONOMIC PHENOMENON 

 

Offshore outsourcing (offshoring) refers to purchases by companies (or government) for services from 

foreign providers, or the transfer of particular tasks within the organization to a foreign country 

(Kierkegaard 2004). Offshoring has been a worldwide phenomenon that is especially affecting the 

developed countries of the world such as the US, European Union and Japan.  Offshoring has intensified 

due to the rapid rise in available infrastructure for sending digital information around the globe at very 

low and declining cost (Commander et al 2006). According to (Kierkegaard) the advances in information 

and communication technology have been one of the major factors which trigger offshoring. The Internet 

and lower cost telecommunication increase connectivity and business networking throughout the world. 

Another factor that has driven the recent rapid increase in offshoring is access to a large pool of skilled 

English speaking labour in several countries.  

 

Offshoring as one element in a significantly changing world is seen as benefiting both the origin and 

destination countries (Commander et al 2006).  It could lower cost of goods and services to the origin 

country and provide jobs to the destination country (Ulferts and Howard 2005). Nevertheless, offshoring 

has been a controversial issue causing debate among economists. 

 

The current debates reflect several concerns. Opponents of offshoring state that offshoring process 

includes high technology activities and research-intensive jobs as opposed to the blue-collar job migration 

that has been traditionally accepted in developed countries (Liikanen 2004). Service offshoring employs 

highly skilled, white-collar workers operating in low cost countries. This concern raises issue that a 

number of people will lose their jobs and in the longer run the offshore destination countries will 

devastate the developed nations (Trefler 2005).  In addition to some other risks, another concern is the 

disruption caused by the growth of service offshoring, which may make it less worthwhile for firms to 

make long-term investments in their own human capital (Trefler 2005). On the other hand, proponents of 

offshoring often say it is necessary to move jobs overseas because of a shortage of qualified workers in 

the domestic market and the great amount of qualified candidates in foreign markets (Ulferts and Howard 

2005). Also, lowering cost, deploying work opportunities and increasing competitiveness of products and 

services in the global market are viewed as other advantages offering by offshoring. 

 

As concerns are widespread about advantages and drawbacks, this paper will examine the risks and 

benefits of offshoring and argues that the likely risks involved are overstated, while the potential 

economic benefits are far greater. 

A study by (Trefler 2005) finds that offshoring might lead to the loss of job opportunities in developed 

countries and reduce salaries of well-paid workers. According to Brainard and Litan (2004) offshoring 

could result in around 250,000 layoffs in U.S each year. This figure was drawn from research conducted 

by Forrester, an information technology consulting firm, who predicts that the number of U.S. jobs 

outsourced will increase from about 400,000 in 2004 to 3.3 million in 2015. However, a later study by 

Farrell (2006), reveals that apprehension of job losses because of offshoring is very much overstated. 

Research by McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) finds that jobs lost by offshoring are approximately only 

about 300.000 each year. This figure is small compared to average job revenue in the economy. For 

example, about 4.7 million Americans started jobs with a new company in the month of May 2005. 

Theoretically, the greatest number of US service jobs that could be carried out offshore is only about 11% 

of total service employment. In fact, projection of all US service jobs essentially will be done offshore by 

2008 is less than 2% (Farrell 2006). 

 



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Due to the requirement of a physical presence only a small portion of service jobs could ever go offshore, 

for example, stocking shelves, providing nursing care, or installing networks. In health care and retail, 

which are two of the largest service sectors, only 8% and 3% of jobs respectively could be done distantly. 

The highest percentage of jobs that could be performed remotely in industries such as packaged software 

(49%) and IT services (44%) represent only 1 or 2 % on the whole employment )Farrell 2006). Similarly, 

a study by Kirkegaard (2004) investigates the relationship between offshoring and mass layoffs in Europe 

as well as in the US. Using data about various reasons for mass layoffs in the US from 1996 to 2003 this 

study finds that offshoring has a relatively small impact on both the US and European labour markets 

compared to other sources of job losses. Furthermore, this study concludes that jobs moved from 

developed countries to low level salaries in the developing countries are low paid work and the range is 

limited (Kirkegaard 2004). 

A large body of evidence confirms that offshoring is not the cause of mass layoffs. The US Bureau of 

Labour Statistics shows that only 1% of service layoffs involving more than 50 employees in the first 

quarter of 2004 was linked with offshoring (Farrell 2006) 

Additionally, Mary Amity and Shang-Jin Wei, two economists at the IMF, (cited in Farrell 2006) estimate 

that US and UK service sectors exposed to offshoring are creating as many or more new jobs than the 

ones that move offshore. 

 

Another argument against offshoring is that offshoring might lead to the destruction of human capital. 

Trefler (2005) assumes that if a worker is separated from his/her firm, firm-specific human capital is lost 

as well. This may reduce the incentives of both managers and workers to invest in developing firm-

specific knowledge. For example, a well-paid Information System (IT) consultant will typically know 

much more than just IT. He/she will know about the unique needs of the firm. Offshoring leads to more 

frequent separations between workers and firms, thus destroying important dimensions of human capital. 

In other words, this study presumes that offshoring is likely to reduce the length and value of worker-firm 

relationships. However, as the above analysis indicates, the assertions are likely to be overstated as there 

is no clear evidence which support this view. While it is true that there may be losses in human capital, 

these losses are offset by the gain in total production achieved through offshoring. Offshoring allows 

more developed countries to focus their economic activities on more highly skilled, value-adding 

processes which may be more financially profitable. It can be further stated that offshoring the production 

of intermediate business services to low-cost locations could enhance the productivity of companies, 

allowing them to reduce their prices and earn higher profit (Commander et al 2006). What is more, some 

of the gains from offshoring can be used to help displaced employee cope. Wage loss insurance, for 

example, would cost only a fraction of the savings that offshoring will bring (Farrell 2006).  

 

Moreover, profit generated through offshoring can be used to develop firm‟s human capital. Workers 

need help coping with the accelerated pace of job change that accompanies openness to global trade 

(Farrell 2006). Improving human capital would help to overcome losses from offshoring. Education and 

training can have a significant impact on economic growth, particularly through the influence of human 

capital on the introduction and absorption of new technologies, which in turn can raise overall 

productivity. In addition, higher profit then can finance more investment to improve existing products or 

produce new products (Commander et al 2006).  

 

Unfairly exploiting inexpensive foreign labour is also cited as one negative consequence of offshoring. 

Some people believe that companies simply take advantage of paying low level wages and sometimes 

offer bad working conditions when shifting production to low wage countries. However, a study released 

by Ulferts and Howard (2005) indicates that offshoring helps the development of developing countries. 

Many developing countries have exploded into the technology scene in a very short time. As the worker 

base becomes more skilled and as demand increases for services, wages are increasing. A number of 

economists think that India's wages could increase so fast that they could push much of the offshore 



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labour market from India to China and Southeast Asia in the next decade.  Research by Commander et al 

(2006) supports this point and add that India and China which attract offshored jobs will benefit through 

more jobs, higher incomes, and faster growth. Consequently, there will be increased demand for exports 

from the offshoring nations.  

 

In terms of risk involved, opponents of offshoring try to argue that offshoring may lead to certain major 

risks such as loss of critical skills or abilities and loss of control over the supplier. A good quality product 

needs to be maintained by firms in order to be competitive and therefore the design, production and the 

logistics has to be controlled. Moving a particular task remotely will make companies lose technical 

capability and eventually its ability to innovate (Pellicelli 2006). It might be true that some risks will be 

faced through offshoring. However, offshoring basically encourages efficiency. According to a survey, 

usual cost savings range in between 30 to 60 % (Kirkegaard 2004). Liikanen (2004) argues that through 

offshoring many benefits can be obtained as the process also creates value for the home country in a 

number of ways. For example, by saving costs for the companies that move abroad, by repatriating 

earnings, and indirectly by redeploying labour with high average wages.  

 

In addition, Liikanen (2004) remarks that over the medium term the economy will be more proficient and 

will be using its assets more realistically. Employment will also be intensified even in different sectors 

than those experiencing turn down. Still during the transitional stage nationally produced goods and 

services will take some part of employment lost.  

 

Furthermore, profit generated by offshoring allows companies to invest in advanced technologies, 

creating jobs at home as well as abroad. Companies‟ skills are even more strengthened because of global 

competition (Farrell 2006). 

 

Offshoring offers an even larger degree of benefits. As Ulferts and Howard (2005) state that everyone 

benefits when considering that shifting jobs offshore would lower costs as a company can sell its products 

cheaper. Shifting particular business functions to other offshore companies allows a company to have no 

overhead costs. For instance, offshore companies supply their own facilities to do the work. There is no 

need to take on, hire, or train new employees at all for the company. Also, other expenditure related to 

employees such as insurance, worker‟s compensation, social security, and company benefits are all gone 

(Ulferts and Howard 2005). Offshoring encourages firms in developed countries to be part of a global 

market and hence to compete globally. Thus, this promotes investment and competitiveness (Trefler 

2005). 

 

A significant study by Commander et al (2006) finds that the most important trigger for offshoring have 

been cost considerations. Labour costs in many countries that magnetize offshored activities are 70 – 90 

percent lower than in the highly developed market economies. For example, the wages of Indian software 

engineers are about 25% of the wages of comparably skilled American software engineers (as measured 

between the late 1990s and 2003). Such large wage gaps can create considerable costs savings for firms, 

allowing them to reduce their price and reinforce their competitive position in global markets.  

Foreign outsourcing can speed up the formation of innovative products and services (Brainard and Litan 

2004).  Most firms especially those depending on information and technology are using highly trained 

foreign technicians to build prototypes of new products and services. A fast escalation of traded services 

involving innovative, technology-intensive processes has been occurring and involves high paid white-

collar workers (Trefler 2005). 

 

It is therefore clear that offshoring will have parallel beneficial effects for economic growth and job 

creation in the companies and in the countries from which jobs are offshored. India and China that mostly 

attract offshored jobs will also benefit through more jobs, higher incomes, and faster growth. 

Consequently, there will be increased demand for exports from the offshoring nations. Briefly, offshoring, 



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like other forms of trade should be positive for both offshored and offshoring countries (Commander et al 

2006). 

 

In conclusion, in spite of many different arguments against offshoring, one cannot assume that risks 

related to offshoring would scale up for the broader economy. Indeed, there are obvious benefits that 

offset the disadvantages of offshoring. Offshoring which is caused by improvement in international 

communication, the computerization of business services as well as the availability of an educated labour 

force has provided substantial cost savings and improved economic growth for both original and 

destination countries. The challenge is to deal with these forces and trends so as not only to compete 

better, but also to create higher paying jobs which in turn result in a higher quality of life. Clearly, 

offshoring presents attractive opportunities for enterprises and converts benefits to costumers (Liikanen 

2004). Offshoring is likely to grow in the future and could have positive effect on global economic 

development. 

Bibliography  

 

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Changing World: A High-Tech Perspective”, Advancing the Business of Technology, retrieved 9 

August 2008, http://www.aeanet.org 

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