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AsiaCALL Online Journal Received: 20/09/2021 

ISSN 1936-9859; https://asiacall.info/acoj  Revision: 19/10/2021 

Vol. 12, No.5, 2021  Accepted: 20/10/2021 

pp. 77-99  Online: 21/10/2021 

 

CITATION | Miyashita, H. (2021). Successive Action Research to Develop the Higher Order Thinking of EFL 

Learners Through Discussion Forums. AsiaCALL Online Journal, 12(5), 77-99. EOI: 

http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.12.05.006 

 

Successive Action Research to Develop the Higher Order Thinking of EFL Learners 

Through Discussion Forums 

Hiroshi Miyashita 

 

Tokyo Metropolitan Showa High School, Japan 

Correspondence: Hiroshi Miyashita, Tokyo Metropolitan Showa High School, Japan. E-mail: 

moana38ffy@gmail.com 

EOI: http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.12.05.006  

 

Abstract 

Classrooms of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Japan tend to lack learning activities to 

develop higher order thinking due to the test-oriented practices. The purpose of this successive 

action research is to explore discussion forums embedded in extracurricular blended learning 

programs created to develop the higher order thinking of EFL learners at a public high school in 

Japan, drawing on the construct of mediation from sociocultural theory. In the first program, 

fifteen participants engaged in online synchronous and asynchronous activities with English as a 

medium of instruction and communication while being supported by face-to-face sessions 

conducted in Japanese. Data were collected through three methods: discussion forums to obtain 

written texts from participants, surveys, and the researchers’ observations. Participants’ 

interactions posted in discussion forums are transformed into quantitative data using the 

Interaction Analysis Model. Then, the quantitative data are triangulated with qualitative data 

derived from surveys and observations. The findings of the trial program showed that 

participants found collaborative constructivist learning meaningful and exhibited higher order 

thinking development to varying degrees. However, learner-learner interaction was not so 

activated as expected. Based on the researcher’s reflection, the second intervention was 

redesigned and implemented in the cyclical process of successive action research. The last 

section presents the projected benefits of successive action research and suggestions for EFL 

educators to make informed decisions about how discussion forums can be effectively used in 

education.  

Keywords: discussion forums, blended learning, English as a foreign language (EFL), dynamic 

assessment, higher order thinking 

 

1. Introduction 

One of the major challenges in the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) at high 

schools in Japan is that English classrooms tend to lack learning activities to develop higher 

order thinking. I conducted action research in summer 2020 with a co-researcher to explore an 

extracurricular blended learning (BL) program created as an intervention to develop the higher 

https://asiacall.info/acoj
http://eoi.citefactor.org/10.11251/acoj.12.05.006


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order thinking of EFL learners at a public high school in Japan. This study was guided by two 

research questions: (a) to what extent can higher order thinking be improved among EFL learners 

at a high school in Japan by engaging in online asynchronous forums embedded in the BL 

program? and (b) what factors of the BL program facilitated or inhibited the presence of higher 

order thinking? In the BL program, the participants engaged in online synchronous and 

asynchronous activities with English as a medium of instruction and communication while being 

supported by face-to-face (F2F) sessions conducted in Japanese. Data were collected through 

three methods: (a) asynchronous forums to obtain participants’ written text, (b) pre- and post-

surveys with open-ended questions, and (c) researchers’ observations recorded in a research 

journal. The details of the study will be described in Section 2.  

I developed the first action research into my doctoral project. The second intervention, which I 

designed after reflecting on the findings of the trial program in 2020, was implemented in 

summer 2021 as part of my doctoral project. I will describe the reflection process in which I 

redesigned the second action research in Section 3. In the last section, I will present the projected 

benefits of successive action research and suggestions for EFL educators to make informed 

decisions about how discussion forums can be effective, making use of both affordances that the 

in-person face-to-face and online components of the blended learning design provides.  

 

2. The first action research: A trial program in summer 2020 

2. 1 Problem and Background 

Technologies can be a catalyst for educational transformation to increase the quality of learning 

experiences (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). While we have to be careful about the non-neutrality 

that technologies might entail in and of themselves, the rationale underpinning the belief rests on 

the assumption that technologies provide the inherent potential to facilitate higher levels of 

learning (Kanuka, 2008). In that sense, technology is only a tool, and what matters is what we 

can do with the tool. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, we are still encountering 

online learning programs that seem to be little more than a direct translation of traditional 

correspondence courses or traditional F2F classes on lecture formats. In contrast, online learning 

has developed in the past few decades as a new method of technology-mediated learning to 

replace the concept of self-study in traditional distance education and knowledge transmission 

common to F2F institutions with the concept of knowledge construction through interaction in 

collaborative communities of learners.  

The focus on collaborative constructivist approaches in online learning in the past few decades 

rests on the belief that these approaches can lead learners to higher order thinking. It is said that 

the educational systems concentrated on providing students with the basic skills for working in 

an industrial economy in the past and that now the focus has shifted to higher order thinking 

skills that are needed in the knowledge-based economy (Morrison, 2007). The implication here is 

that educational institutions have critical responsibilities to provide learning environments 

conducive to the development of capable and creative minds ready for the challenges of this 

complex world.  



 
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In high school settings (Grade 10 to 12 in the K-12 system) in Japan, EFL classrooms tend to 

lack learning activities to develop higher order thinking due to test-oriented practices that are 

based on cognitive-behavioral theory (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008). Despite initiatives led by 

Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) to promote 

instructional reform, including its decision to include the goal of realizing proactive, interactive, 

and authentic learning in the new government course guidelines revised in 2018 (MEXT, 2018), 

the change on the ground in that direction has been slow and sporadic. Related to this problem, 

in Japan, where technological advancement has been at the forefront of the world, the 

infrastructure and use of technology in both secondary and post-secondary education is far 

behind, as has been revealed by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 (Aoki, 2010; Kittaka, 2020).  

To better understand the reasons why EFL classrooms in Japan tend to lack learning activities to 

develop higher order thinking, we need to explore the social and political background of the 

country. In the field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), Japan is 

categorized not as an English-as-an-additional-language (EAL) setting but as an English-as-a-

foreign-language (EFL) setting. EFL settings are those where students living in a non-English- 

speaking country learn English as a school subject. In other words, most people in Japan do not 

have to use English in their everyday lives.  

English as a school subject is a crucial part of university entrance examinations in Japan. English 

is included in almost all university entrance examinations, including the largest-scale national 

test, which is administered by an independent administrative institution called the National 

Center for University Entrance Examinations (National Center for University Entrance 

Examinations, 2020). The English portion of university entrance examinations in Japan tends to 

require students to answer questions as fast as possible only by using decoding skills. In this 

reality, it might be more accurate to suggest that the focus only be on test-solving skills in 

classrooms. 

Another reason for EFL classrooms dominated by test-oriented practices is related to English 

education policies driven by neoliberalism, which is generally defined as a revisionist approach 

to transform the welfare state into a post-welfare state that relegates every aspect of society to the 

wisdom of the market. Neoliberalism has permeated into the area of education, especially 

English education, in the past few decades. Some researchers call English education driven by 

neoliberalism linguistic instrumentalism (Barrett & Miyashita, 2015; Guo, 2012; Kubota, 2011; 

Wee, 2010). Linguistic instrumentalism can be defined as an ideology that emphasizes the 

utilitarianism of learning English for sustaining economic development as a society and for 

mobility obtained by an individual. Linguistic instrumentalism tends to promote competition 

rather than cooperation. The discourse of developing human resources, which is often observed 

in English education policies in Japan, emphasizes fierce competition on the global stage and 

implies that students should serve the nation as a resource. This discourse tends to encourage 

students to study English harder to enter prestigious universities. 

A closer examination of the reasons might be necessary and profitable, but such an examination 

is out of the scope of this study. This action research was intended to mitigate problems observed 

on the ground practically.  



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2. 2 Purpose of the Study 

The purpose of this study was to investigate a BL program created as an intervention to improve 

higher order thinking of EFL learners at a public high school in Japan. By adopting an action 

research approach with a pragmatic paradigm, the intervention was designed to mitigate 

problems observed in the classroom while drawing on the concept of praxis, a dialectical unity of 

theory and practice with reflective thought (Lantolf & Poehner, 2011).  

2. 3 Background Literature 

This literature review is an analysis of the empirical and theoretical research that bears directly 

on the purposes of this study.  

2. 3. 1 Higher Order Thinking 

Despite the popularity and importance of the concept of higher order thinking in education, there 

is no clear definition of the term. A framework that is often mentioned when higher order 

thinking is defined or considered is Bloom’s taxonomy (1956). Forty-five years after Bloom’s 

taxonomy was published, Anderson et al. (2001) introduced the revision of the original 

framework. There were two explicit changes in the revision. First, the new knowledge dimension 

contains four subcategories instead of three in the original scheme. The one added to the new 

framework is Metacognitive Knowledge, which was not widely recognized at the time the 

original version was developed. The other explicit change is in the overall structure of the 

cognitive process dimension. The six major categories in the new scheme are: (1) Remember, (2) 

Understand, (3) Apply, (4) Analyze, (5), Evaluate, and (6) Create.  

The Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of lower mental functions 

(LMFs) and higher mental functions (HMFs) to reconcile his claim that human mental functions 

are social in origin with the other contradicting fact that newborn infants already possess certain 

mental functions (Vygotsky & Rieber, 1997). Vygotsky viewed the development of human 

mental functions as their transition from the original LMFs into HMFs. LMFs are genetically 

inherited in terms of origins, unmediated in terms of structure, involuntary in terms of the way of 

functioning, and isolated in terms of the relation to other mental functioning. HMFs are socially 

acquired, mediated, voluntarily controlled, and linked to a broader system of other functions.  

In this study, higher order thinking is defined using Anderson et al.’s (2001) revised taxonomy of 

educational objectives and Vygotsky’s concept of LMFs and HMFs (Vygotsky & Rieber, 1997); 

Higher order thinking represents the cognitive mental functions of understanding, applying, 

analyzing, evaluating, and creating knowledge that is voluntarily controlled and facilitated 

through interaction. Recently, developing students' higher order thinking has been a widely 

shared goal in both secondary and post-secondary education. In the next section, I explore how 

higher order thinking can be developed in formal education.  

2. 3. 2 Online Asynchronous Forums 

One way of developing higher order thinking that has been adopted in many institutions is online 

learning, or to be more specific, asynchronous forums. The term asynchronous forums, which is 

sometimes referred to as computer-mediated conferencing or discussion boards, is defined in this 



 
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study as a learning activity where participants interact with written language asynchronously.  

The focus on collaborative constructivist approaches in online learning in the past few decades 

rests on the belief that these educational approaches can lead learners to higher order thinking 

(Morrison, 2007). Different scholars have introduced different perspectives on constructivism. 

Two major strands are cognitive constructivism and social constructivism (Powell & Kalina, 

2009). Others include radical constructivism (Glasersfeld, 1995), holistic constructivism (Scheer 

et al., 2012), and ecological constructivism (Hoven & Palalas, 2016). In asynchronous forums, 

which is one major form of collaborative constructivist approach, the act of writing leads 

students to deeper thinking (Conrad and Openo, 2018; Garrison, 2016). Reflection is another 

practice that can be incorporated in asynchronous forums to develop higher order thinking 

(Conrad & Openo, 2018; Garrison, 2016; Hoven, 2019; Rose, 2013). Time available in engaging 

in asynchronous forums enables participants to reflect, while in F2F or synchronous 

communication, participants are usually forced to respond immediately with no time available 

for deeper thinking.  

A theoretical basis is needed for teachers’ effective facilitation in constructivist-based 

asynchronous forums to develop students’ higher order thinking. In the next section, I will 

examine how sociocultural theory and dynamic assessment, an assessment and teaching 

approach derived from sociocultural theory, can be applied to asynchronous forums for more 

effective facilitation.  

2. 3. 3 Dynamic Assessment as a Pedagogical Approach 

In this study, sociocultural theory (SCT) refers to a Vygotsky-inspired theory. The central tenet of 

the theory is that human thinking is symbolically mediated (Lantolf, 2013). Sociocultural in this 

context means that language, by which thinking is mediated, is a social, cultural, and historical 

artifact. A method that is emerging in SCT, especially in SCT-based second-language research, is 

dynamic assessment (DA). DA, where mediation is given intentionally, is a procedure that unites 

the goals of better understanding a learner’s potential through structured sets of interactions and 

fostering development through those interactions (Lantolf, 2011).  

As the name shows, DA is an approach to assessment, but it is also an approach to teaching. In 

DA, teachers are expected to provide learners with ongoing intervention attuned to learner 

development based on Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Rather 

than waiting for individuals to become developmentally ready to learn, in DA, instructions are 

given intentionally to prepare learners for more complex concepts (Lantolf, 2013). DA links 

ongoing assessment to the provision of instructions that are appropriate mediation for 

development. Lantolf (2011) noted that research on DA within group-wide ZPDs is an important 

area for future research. As a group develops, the individuals comprising the group also develop, 

which is an important notion with regard to ZPDs in education (Lantolf & Poehner, 2011).  

DA or any other form of formative assessment tends to be intuitive on the part of teachers rather 

than guided by principles of learning theories (Lantolf & Poehner, 2004). In the next section, I 

review the literature on content analysis, which is expected to measure the effects produced by 

asynchronous forums with DA-based mediation.  



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2. 3. 4 The Interaction Analysis Model: An Instrument for Content Analysis 

Content analysis has been established as an effective method for analyzing asynchronous 

communication and is widely used in the field of online and blended learning (De Wever et al., 

2006; Hall, 2014; Lucas et al., 2013). In general, the goal of content analysis is to reveal 

information that is not observed at the surface level of the transcripts. Among many content 

analysis instruments, the Interaction Analysis Model (IAM), which was developed by 

Gunawardena et al. (1997), was chosen for this study. The IAM is an established instrument 

(Lucas et al., 2013; Hall, 2014), and it is an instrument that fits the purposes of this action 

research. Jonassen et al. (1994) stated that constructivist learning outcomes should be evaluated 

using evaluation methods that are sensitive to the goals of constructivist learning. Gunawardena 

et al. (1997) noted that knowledge construction necessitates higher order thinking and that the 

IAM begins with what could be described as lower mental functions to higher mental functions 

in Vygotsky's terms.  

Research that used the IAM to examine the knowledge construction in asynchronous forums 

revealed several challenges that this learning activity often entails. Wang et al. (2009) reported 

that many students did not know how to behave in the environment, which suggests that 

participants need a phase where they practice the unfamiliar way of learning before entering the 

program. Hou et al. (2009) reported that knowledge construction was inhibited due to 

participants' lack of skills to use the technology adopted in the program and that interaction 

among participants was not activated when they had no obligation to participate. Some of these 

challenges might be addressed by adopting a blended learning (BL) approach. BL environments 

can offer different affordances that allow for meaningful learning experiences to take place 

(Graham, 2006). In the next section, I will explore blended learning systems.  

2. 3. 5 Blended Learning Systems 

BL is expected to emerge as a predominant system and become more common in secondary and 

post-secondary education than either fully online or fully F2F instruction in brick and mortal 

institutions (Graham, 2019; Halverson et al., 2017; Watson, 2008). Despite the increasing 

popularity, theories that are specific to BL have not yet developed (Graham, 2019; Halverson, 

2017). While the definition of BL is not fixed, I define BL in this study as the integration of 

classroom F2F learning experiences and online learning experiences within a thoughtful course 

design.  

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, BL practice and research not only in higher 

education but also secondary education have been increasing (Ndoricimpa & Barad, 2021; Thi 

Thanh Tran, 2021), but BL research in K-12 settings focusing on constructivist learning is still 

scarce especially in Japan. Learners in secondary education often need direct instruction and 

careful scaffolding. Considering increasing BL practice and the difficulty of implementing 

learner-centered activities in secondary education, more BL research focusing on secondary 

education is expected. BL design might be a possible solution to make constructivist online 

learning more effective in K-12 settings.  

 



 
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2. 4 Methodological Approach 

This research used an action research approach. Action research can take many forms, but 

typically it is “a small-scale intervention in the functioning of the ‘real’ world and a systematic, 

close examination, monitoring and review of the effects of such an intervention, combining 

action and reflection to improve practice” (Cohen et al., 2018, p. 441). While different scholars 

have introduced different sets of principles, the consensus is that action research is a cyclical 

process (Bargal, 2006; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2014). In each cyclical procedure, the link 

between action and reflection on action is readily apparent. At the same time, throughout the 

procedure, theories are as an essential tool to provide teachers and researchers with the 

understanding necessary to take effective action.  

2. 4. 1 Overview of the Intervention 

The BL program created as an intervention for this action research is an extracurricular program, 

which means that the program is not part of regular classes that require official grading needed 

for participants’ graduation but is rather a supplemental course in which students participated 

voluntarily. In the BL program, fifteen EFL students engaged in online synchronous and 

asynchronous activities with English as a medium of instruction and communication while being 

supported by face-to-face sessions conducted in Japanese (see Figure 1). The online component 

of the program consists of two five-day asynchronous forums and two ninety-minute 

synchronous meetings. Concerning the F2F component, two ninety-minute meetings are placed: 

at the beginning and at the end of the program. This study focused on online asynchronous 

forums, where instructors draw on the construct of mediation from SCT, or especially from DA, 

to lead the participants to higher order thinking by engaging them in student-teacher and student-

student interaction in the content-based EFL learning program. 

Figure 1.  

The Structure of the Trial Program 

Phase 1: Face-to-Face Meeting I (1.5 hours)  

The aims of the program and how to operate technology in use were explained in Japanese, 

emphasizing how and why student-student interaction can be a meaningful educational 

experience. Also, participants were asked to submit a pre-survey by the following day. 

Phase 2: Asynchronous Forum I (5 days) 

This is one of the two main asynchronous forums in this program. Participants read materials 

and discussed a given theme, which was chosen to build a foundation for the next 

asynchronous forum. 

Phase 3: Synchronous Meeting I (1.5 hours) 

Two synchronous meetings are prepared to integrate the four skills for English proficiency 

(i.e., reading, writing, listening, and speaking). The main goal of Synchronous Meeting I is to 



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break the ice with no cognitively demanding topics.  

Phase 4: Asynchronous Forum II (5 days) 

In Asynchronous Forum II, participants read materials, watched two short video clips, and 

discussed more complicated issues on a given theme based on their foundation in the previous 

forum.  

Phase 5:  Synchronous Meeting II (1.5 hours) 

In Synchronous Meeting II, participants were required to give a three-minute individual 

presentation on a given topic. The topic was related to what they discussed in the previous two 

asynchronous forums.   

Phase 6: Face-to-face Meeting II (1.5 hours) 

Participants shared what they learned in the whole process of the program. Also, participants 

were asked to submit a post-survey within five days. 

 

2. 4. 2 Goals of Online and F2F Components  

Both synchronous and asynchronous activities in the online component were designed to be 

places where students engage in constructivist learning. Two meetings in the F2F component 

were opportunities to provide students with direct instructions about the procedure, contents, and 

technologies in use. K-12 students tend to need direct instruction due to a lack of independent 

learning abilities. That is why a BL design was adopted in this study so that the instructor can 

provide participants with the needed direct instruction in the F2F component to guide them in the 

online component.  

2. 4. 3 Roles of Researchers 

I am a full-time EFL teacher working at a public high school in Tokyo. I invited one external 

researcher, an adjunct professor working at two universities in the United States of America. 

Both of us took on the roles of researcher, program designer, and instructor in the BL program. I 

focused on higher order thinking while the external researcher focused on language development 

in his study.  

2. 4. 4 Description of the Teaching Context 

The site of this study, S High School, is one of 186 public senior high schools in Tokyo. S High 

School is designated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education as an “Advanced School,” 

which is expected to show high achievement in university entrance examinations. S High School 

has about 960 students, with approximately 320 students in each grade.  

 



 
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2. 4. 5 Participants 

Student participation in the BL program was totally voluntary. The program was advertised to all 

the students at the school. Students who were interested in the program applied to the program. 

The number of participants was limited to a maximum of fifteen to ensure the quality of the 

program. Eleven students first applied, and later four more students were recruited. They were all 

advanced EFL learners who had already acquired the basics of English grammar and vocabulary. 

In that sense, this BL program was a value-added option for higher achieving students.  

2. 4. 6 Instructional Design 

This program took inquiry-based instruction as the main instructional method. According to 

Laurillard (2012), the inquiry "is a term that expresses the value to the learner of being in control 

of their own knowledge and skills development, in contrast with the teacher-led form of learning 

through acquisition" (p. 140). Seen from the perspective of TESOL, the teaching method used in 

this program is categorized as content-based instruction and cooperative language learning 

(Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Instructors refrained from giving immediate grammatical 

feedback due to our focus on facilitating students’ thinking.  

2. 4. 7 Course Topic 

In the individual presentation required in Synchronous Meeting II, participants tried to answer 

this question: How can learning English be meaningful to me and to the world? Two 

asynchronous forums were designed for participants to deepen their thought to answer this 

question. Many Japanese students are made to believe that English is necessary for their future 

success under the social and political climate; thus, the topic was chosen to lead the participants 

to think about why they learn English from broader perspectives in a metacognitive way.  

2. 5 Data Collection and Analysis 

In this study, qualitative data were gathered through three methods: (1) asynchronous forums to 

obtain textual data, (2) researchers’ observation during the whole process of the program 

recorded in a research journal, and (3) pre- and post-surveys to obtain qualitative data through 

the open-ended questions. Participants' transcripts stored in asynchronous forums were converted 

into quantitative data through the IAM. Then, the quantitative data were triangulated with 

qualitative data derived from the researcher's observation and surveys. 

2. 6 Findings and Discussions 

2. 6. 1 Findings from the IAM 

I used the IAM to explore the first research question: to what extent can higher order thinking be 

improved among EFL learners at a high school in Japan by engaging in online asynchronous 

forums embedded in the BL program? I scrupulously read the transcript, divided the transcript 

into messages, and assigned each message to one or multiple phases according to the phases 

described in the IAM (see Figure 2).  

 

 



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Figure 2. 

Interaction Analysis Model for Examining Social Construction of Knowledge in Computer 

Conferencing 

Phase I: Sharing/comparing of information  

A. Statement of observation or opinion 

B. Statement of agreement from one or more other participants 

C. Corroborating examples provided by one or more participants 

D. Asking and answering questions to clarify details of statements 

E. Definition, description, or identification of a problem 

Phase II: The discovery and exploration of dissonance or inconsistency among ideas, 

concepts, or statements 

A. Identifying and stating areas of disagreement 

B. Asking and answering questions to clarify the source and extent of disagreement 

C. Restating the participant's position and possibly advancing arguments or considerations in 

its support by references to the participant's experience, literature, formal data collected, or 

proposal of relevant metaphor or analogy to illustrate the point of view 

Phase III: Negotiation of meaning/co-construction of knowledge 

A. Negotiation or clarification of the meaning of terms 

B. Negotiation of the relative weight to be assigned to types of arguments 

C. Identification of areas of agreement or overlap among conflicting concepts 

D. Proposal and negotiation of new statements embodying compromise, co-construction 

E. Proposal of integrating or accommodating metaphors or analogies 

Phase IV: Testing and modification of proposed synthesis or co-construction 

A. Testing the proposed synthesis against ‘received fact’ as shared by the participants and/or 

their culture 

B. Testing against the existing cognitive schema 

C. Testing against personal experience 

D. Testing against formal data collected 

E. Testing against contradictory testimony in the literature 

Phase V: Agreement statements(s)/application of newly-constructed meaning 



 
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A. Summarization of agreement(s) 

B. Applications of new knowledge 

C. Metacognitive statements by the participants illustrating their understanding that their 

knowledge or ways of thinking (cognitive schema) have changed as a result of the 

conference interaction 

 

Table 1 provides the number of posts, messages, and total words that each student submitted. The 

total number of posts was 45 in Forum I and 43 in Forum II. Comparing Asynchronous Forum I 

and II, while the number of posts is close, the number of messages in Forum I is larger than in 

Forum II. The reason is that in Forum I, participants were asked to answer three questions listed 

in the Prompt I that the I created; thus, most of the students' first responses were divided into 

three messages.  

Table 1. 

The Number of Posts, Messages, and Total Words in Asynchronous Forums 

 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 Totals 

Forum I               

Posts 3 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 45 

Messages 6 5 3 3 7 1 2 3 3 4 3 3 0 43 

Total Words 341 328 228 200 442 96 110 168 90 222 143 94 0 2462 

Forum II               

Posts 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 43 

Messages 3 2 3 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 0 1 24 

Total Words 262 212 192 105 340 74 54 187 109 220 145 0 77 1977 

 

Table 2 provides the total numbers of messages coded at each phase in the IAM. According to 

Gunawardena et al. (1997), Phase I and II are considered to represent the lower mental functions 

while Phase III to V represent the higher mental functions. Comparing Forum I and II, the ratio 

of Phase III in Forum II is larger than in Forum I, and this is because the question in Prompt II 

that the I created was the one that encouraged participants to think about both advantages and 

disadvantages of English as a global language. In the pre-survey, no student identified negative 

aspects of English as a global language; thus, many of the students had to interact with the 

reading material and video clips provided by the instructors before presenting their statements, 



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many of which were products derived from negotiation with these materials. Findings from the 

IAM provide evidence to suggest that the participants were capable of the co-construction of 

knowledge, although to a limited extent.  

Table 2. 

IAM Coding Results for Asynchronous Forums 

IAM Phase Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV Phase V Totals 

Forum I 91 (85.0%) 5 (4.7%) 11 (10.3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 107 (100%) 

Forum II 22 (56.4%) 0 (0%) 16 (41.0%) 0 (0%)) 1 (2.6%) 39 (100%) 

 

2. 6. 2 Closer Examination of Knowledge Co-Construction in Asynchronous Forum I 

Although almost all the participants replied to questions described in the prompts and instructors’ 

postings in both forums, learner-learner interactions were scarce. The number of posts that were 

directed to other participants was 1 in Forum I and 4 in Forum II. Table 3 provides a string that 

drew learner-learner interaction at the end (Turn 6) in Forum I, which also illustrates the 

instructors’ DA-based mediation.  

Table 3. 

An Example of Knowledge Co-Construction in Asynchronous Forum I 

Turn  Post 

1 S2 … Certainly, English is necessary to make connections with people and 

countries. But, we must not forget "respect of native languages," which is one of 

the great features of each country. People also should use native language 

positively … [Phase III/D] 

2 T1 [To S2] You have brought up a very important topic: our mother tongue. Our 

mother tongue is important in many way … First, our mother tongue is 

important to develop our thinking system … Second, language is a culture as 

you wrote. This is a popular example, but other languages do not have a word for 

mottainai in Japanese. Japanese have the word mottainai, so Japanese people 

have the feeling. 

3 S2 … But I now find it is only "feeling" and also that I have the feeling when I 

speak Japanese. "Feeling" is so vague thing, and words are so clear thing. 

However, I think they have deep relations. What do you think about this, 

everybody? [Phase III/D] 

4 T2 [To S2] Yes language allows us to experience 'deep' feelings, and it is part of our 

personal 'existential' experience. On the one hand, my language, the words I 



 
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speak are mine from my soul, and on the other hand, my words are the words I 

learned from others because they shared their language with me and language 

was given to me … Bakhtin suggested, language is half mine and half yours and 

when we communicate we meet in the middle.  

5 S2 … Needless to say, culture and language vary from country to country. I think it 

is better than not. If countries all over the world had the same culture and 

language, we would not have Interests each other. Not knowing each other, we 

will mutually try to know. So, these differences are what we should focus on 

every time … [Phase III/D] 

6 S5 [To S2] I agree with you. They will have deep relation. I think that it's our 

experience, nare in Japanese. At first, our feeling for a language is almost 

nothing because we don't have any experiences. However, If we get many 

experiences by talking with foreigners or writing sentences, we will be able to 

get the feeling and English skills, too. Certainly, the feeling is vague. However, 

our experience can improve it … [Phase I/B and III/D] 

 

Turn 1 is part of S2’s first post in this forum. S2 negotiated with the reading material in Prompt I 

and presented an idea of “respect of [sic] native languages” while thinking about why people 

learn English. Turn 2 is Instructor 1’s response to Turn 1. Complimenting S2’s statement, 

Instructor 1 provided two specific reasons why our mother tongue is important. Throughout the 

forums, the instructors refrained from pushing participants to reply to instructors; thus, Instructor 

1 ended the post without adding further questions. Turn 3 is S2’s reply to Turn 2. S2 presented 

his thought about relationships or differences between feelings and words. S2 is thought to have 

further considered why our mother tongue is important after reading Turn 2. Turn 4 is Instructor 

2’s response to Turn 3. Instructor 2 extended the discussion about relationships or differences 

between feelings and words by providing a philosophical discourse, which was intended to 

further stretch S2’s thought. Turn 5 is S2’s reply to Turn 4. This message is close to Phase V of 

the IAM in that S2 pondered not only about himself but about relationships among different 

cultures from a broader perspective. In the end, however, the I coded this message as Phase III/D 

because the metacognitive aspect is not so explicit in this message. Nevertheless, it is evident 

throughout this string that S2’s cognitive functions developed from Turn 1 to Turn 3 and 5. Turn 

6 is the sole post in this forum that is categorized as learner-learner interaction. S5 replied to 

Turn 3, S2’s post. After showing her agreement to S2’s statement, S5 presented a related concept, 

experience, through which she thinks feelings can be connected to words.  

2. 6. 3 Challenges Identified in the Analysis of the Trial Program 

I triangulated data derived from the IAM with observational data and qualitative data obtained 

from pre- and post-surveys to answer the second research question: what factors of the BL 

program facilitated or inhibited the presence of higher order thinking? While almost every 

participant found collaborative constructivist learning to be meaningful, the most explicit 

challenge was the lack of learner-learner interaction, which resulted in the lack of messages 

coded as Phase III to V in the IAM, representing higher mental functions (Gunawardena et al., 



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1997). Interaction is divided into three categories: learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-

learner, each of which should be facilitated for effective knowledge co-construction (Anderson, 

2003; Moore, 1989). 

I identified four reasons why learner-learner interaction was not activated. First, to students who 

are usually given direct face-to-face instruction, online instruction might have been unclear. 

Although instructors provided guidance for participants’ online participation, it might not have 

been enough. Secondly, the participants needed more time to get accustomed to the new learning 

environment. Several students wrote in the post-survey that they hesitated to express their own 

opinions and reply to other participants. Thirdly, some participants had difficulty using the online 

platform adopted for the asynchronous forums. Most of them found no technical problems, but 

the instructors should have provided more guidance, especially to those who were not familiar 

with the technology. Finally, English proficiency was a factor to inhibit interaction for some 

participants. Although all the participants were thought to be advanced EFL students, some of 

them wrote in the post-survey that they needed more time to decode messages from other 

students and the instructors and to write their own posts in English.  

 

3. The second action research: A doctoral project in summer 2021  

Based on the outcomes from the trial program described in the previous section, I designed a 

new BL program by making modifications to the trial program. I implemented it at the same high 

school in summer 2021. This BL program was conducted as an intervention in my doctoral 

project. The purpose and the methodological approach are the same as the ones established in the 

trial program. In this section, I will describe the modifications, introduce revised research 

questions, and briefly discuss the ethical requirements.  

3. 1 Modifications 

After analyzing the data taken from the trial program, I concluded that the participants found 

collaborative constructivist learning meaningful and exhibited higher order thinking 

development to varying degrees. However, learner-learner interaction in asynchronous forums 

was not so activated as I expected, which might have contributed to the limited development of 

higher order thinking identified in the analysis of participant interactions. I identified two 

possible ways to overcome this challenge. To increase learner-learner interaction in 

asynchronous forums, I first decided to make use of affordances that the in-person F2F 

component of the BL programs provides. In the case of the intervention, the participants were 

high school students who were not familiar with computer-mediated collaborative constructivist 

learning. Also, most of them still lacked the ability to manage their learning independently. 

Therefore, I gave them more careful direct instruction, answering their questions so that the 

students could understand the purposes and procedures of collaborative constructivist learning 

more clearly. Secondly, to increase learner-learner interaction in asynchronous forums, I 

provided participants with more opportunities to practice this new way of learning with easier 

tasks in order for them to get accustomed to the new way of learning and technology employed 

in the proposed program.  



 
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Although there are certainly various ways to increase the presence of higher order thinking in 

asynchronous forums, and the need to carefully and purposefully design materials to fit the 

program may seem obvious, the data underscored the importance of carefully designing 

materials and tasks in the program. Also, many participants illustrated metacognitive aspects in 

their responses to two questions listed in the post-survey: what did you learn in this BL 

program?; and how was the virtual classroom experience? Thus, I added an explicit reflection 

phase at the end of the proposed program, where participants were encouraged to reflect more 

deeply on what they learned, guided by the questions in a post-survey, and share their reflections 

within the cohort.  

Based on my reflection on the trial program, I added three phases to the trial program: (1) one 

asynchronous forum for practice before the main program, (2) one in-person F2F meeting in the 

middle, and (3) a phase for the final reflection at the end of the program. The intervention 

consists of nine phases instead of six in the trial program. Figure 3 illustrates the flow of the 

intervention. 

Figure 3. 

The flow of the Blended Learning Program 

 



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3. 2 Subsequent Actions 

Action research is a cyclical process, and therefore modification is always necessary. I will 

describe the procedure for these modifications in the following three stages.  

3. 2. 1 After the Trial Program in 2020 

As described above, I added three phases to the trial program. Also, I re-designed the learning 

materials and learning tasks in the intervention to fit the aims of the intervention, carefully 

considering the skills and abilities of the expected participants.  

3. 2. 2 During the Implementation of the Proposed Intervention Scheduled in 2021 

This study drew on the construct of mediation from sociocultural theory (SCT), especially 

dynamic assessment (DA), a method for better mediation that is emerging in SCT. In DA, 

teachers are expected to provide learners with ongoing intervention attuned to learner 

development based on ZPD (Lantolf & Poehner, 2004). In that sense, I made constant 

modifications in my mediation throughout the program. Also, after each phase in the proposed 

intervention, I reflected on the process and students’ achievements at each stage to make 

modifications diligently for the next phase.  

3. 2. 3 After the Implementation of the Doctoral Project in Summer 2021 

I have plans to implement a similar BL program again in summer 2022. The findings of the 

proposed study and my reflection on the intervention will be utilized in both the design and the 

implementation phase of the next BL program. In addition, the findings of the successive action 

research may be used to improve not only extracurricular programs but also regular classes by 

partly applying constructivist and/or blended learning perspectives into regular classes that are 

currently dominated by test-oriented practices based on cognitive-behavioral theory. Figure 4 

illustrates the development of the cyclical process in this action research study in a longer term.  



 
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Figure 4. 

The Development of This Action Research in a Longer Term 

1. A problem in the classroom 

In Japan, EFL classrooms tend to lack learning activities to develop higher order thinking due 

to test-oriented practices based on cognitive-behavioral theory. 

2. The trial program in summer 2020 

A BL program that consists of six phases, including two asynchronous forums and two in-

person F2F meetings. 

3. Findings of the trial program 

The participants exhibited higher order thinking development to some extent, but learner-

learner interaction was not so activated as I expected. 

4. Modifications to the trial program 

One asynchronous forum for practice, one in-person F2F meeting in the middle, and a phase 

for reflection at the end of the program were added. 

5. The doctral project in summer 2021 

A BL program that consists of nine phases, including three asynchronous forums, three F2F 

meetings, and a phase for reflection at the end of the program. 

6. Modifications to the doctoral project 

Modifications will be added for the third BL program in summer 2022. In addition, the 

findings of the proposed intervention may be used to improve regular EFL classes by partly 

applying the findings of this doctoral study. 

 

3. 3 Main Research Questions 

I established three main questions below to guide this doctoral project.  

a) To what extent can higher order thinking be improved among participants in asynchronous 

online forums?  

b) What factors in students’ engagement in asynchronous online forums may contribute to the 

development of higher order thinking, if any? 

c) What factors in blended learning design may contribute to the development of higher order 



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thinking, if any?  

I used the same data collection and analysis procedures as the ones adopted in the trial program. 

In brief, I used the record of participants’ interactions posted in the two asynchronous forums as 

data to examine the first main research question. I will triangulate the results with data derived 

from pre- and post-surveys and my observation recorded in a research journal to examine the 

second and third questions.  

3. 4 Ethical Requirements 

Ethical considerations are critical in research (Cohen et al., 2018). In preparation for this doctoral 

project, I completed the required TCPS2 CORE tutorial to develop my understanding of the 

ethical treatment of human participants. Before this action research study was carried out, my 

proposal was approved by the Research Ethics Board at Athabasca University.  

Participation was totally voluntary. The principal of S High School, the site of this study, gave 

me permission in a written form. The age of the participants ranged from sixteen to seventeen 

years; thus, I created an informed consent form for both the participants and their 

parents/caregivers. I took enough time for them to understand the aims, risks, and benefits of the 

program before they signed the form.  

 

4. Conclusion and recommendations  

4. 1 Cyclical Process of Action Research as Socially Engaged Applied Research 

These successive interventions in summer 2020 and 2021 are motivated by a desire to improve 

practice through a cyclical action research process. As I described in Section 1, the problem that 

I identified is that EFL classrooms tend to lack learning activities to develop higher order 

thinking due to test-oriented practices that are based on cognitive-behavioral theory in high 

school settings in Japan. Adopting an action research approach with a pragmatic paradigm, I 

designed interventions to mitigate problems observed on the ground, drawing on the concept of 

praxis, a dialectical and ecological unity of theory and practice that is realized through reflective 

thought (Sanchez Vasquez, 1977).  

According to Kemmis (1997), there are two camps in the field of action research: the reflective 

practitioners and the critical theorists. These two camps are two ends of a continuum with no 

clear distinction, but for the former, action research is an improvement in professional practice at 

the local level, and for the latter, action research is part of a broader agenda of changing 

education and changing society. In this study, I took elements from both sides. As a reflective 

practitioner, I designed the BL program as an alternative or a supplemental way of teaching to 

the current test-oriented practices. As a critical theorist, I designed a BL program that can be 

inspirational to our colleagues and try to disseminate the findings to encourage instructional 

diversification in society.  

 

 



 
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4. 2 Delimitations and Limitations 

The focus of this successive action research was to describe qualitative and quantitative 

dimensions of the presence or absence of higher order thinking development only in 

asynchronous forums embedded in the BL program and analyzed what factors were responsible 

for the development. This study was not designed to examine whether or how participants’ EFL 

proficiency was improved.  

Four main limitations are identified. First, this study used an action research approach in a 

particular context with a limited number of participants; thus, the conclusions derived are not 

generalizable. However, efforts were made to make the conclusions transferable by providing a 

thick description of the research site, course design, and procedures. Secondly, while the content 

analysis instrument that was adopted in this study is widely recognized, what can be captured by 

any instrument is only a part of the participants’ actual thoughts. I used observational data and 

data taken from surveys in addition to the transcript analysis to describe a more nuanced picture 

of the participants’ higher order thinking development. Thirdly, while the focus of this study is 

on the development of higher order thinking, the language used in the online components of the 

intervention was English, which is the target language for the participants. Participants’ 

development of higher order thinking might have been restricted by the language in use. Finally, 

the BL program was designed and implemented targeting advanced EFL students who already 

acquired the basics of English grammar and vocabulary; thus, for students struggling with 

learning EFL, another type of intervention will have to be considered.  

4. 3 Future Directions 

In this paper, I described how a trial program in 2020 was developed into a doctoral project in 

2021. Findings from the trial program showed that collaborative constructivist learning using 

discussion forums could be effective for EFL learners in high school settings to develop higher 

order thinking. Also, the results suggest that blended learning design can help learners attending 

online discussion forums by providing needed direct instruction in the face-to-face component 

when participants are not accustomed to online constructivist learning and are lacking the ability 

to manage their learning independently. The most explicit challenge identified in the trial 

program was the lack of learner-learner interaction. To overcome the challenge, the second 

intervention, a doctoral project in summer 2021, was redesigned and implemented. The findings 

from the second intervention will be used to further refine the cyclical process of this successive 

action research.  

Broadly, this study was intended to enable educators to make informed decisions about how 

technologies can be effectively used in education. To be more specific, the findings of this study 

might inform EFL instructors, course designers, and policymakers in Japan and possibly in other 

countries about an alternative or supplementary way of teaching EFL. Furthermore, the 

knowledge and insights gained in this study may help uncover an effective model of BL.  

 

 

 



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Biodata  

Hiroshi Miyashita is an EFL teacher at a public high school in Tokyo. He earned an MEd in 

teaching English as an additional language at the University of Calgary. He is currently a 

doctoral candidate at Athabasca University. His research interests include online learning, 

sociocultural theory, and language policy.  

https://asiacall.info/acoj/index.php/journal/article/view/22

