EFFECT OF SELECTED INSECTICIDE ON WHITEFLY (Bemisia tabaci) INFESTING BRINJAL PLANTS 105 NEMATODE ATTACKS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON FARMING ECONOMICS Rosmiza M. Z.1 Muhammad Zaim Samion2 Milah Zainal3 Mohd Nor Mohd Rosmi4 1,2Geography Program, Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia. 3Professional Development and Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. 4Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Research Centre, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Selangor, Malaysia.  miza@ukm.edu.my (Corresponding author) Article History ABSTRACT Received: 4 January 2021 Revised: 27 January 2021 Accepted: 10 February 2021 Published: 23 February 2021 Keywords Farming economics Food security Nematodes Nematode attacks Rice diseases Rice yields. Nematode attack is among the factors significantly reducing the world's rice production, to the extent of affecting farming economics and global food security. One of the factors involved in the decline in production is the prevalence of rice diseases and pests, among which are nematodes. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the level of farmers’ knowledge on the symptoms of nematode infection in Pasir Panjang, which is situated in the rice cultivation area, namely Integrated Agricultural Development Area (IADA), of Northwest Selangor. The study also analyzed the effects of nematode attacks on farming economics. Descriptive analysis was performed on 86 randomly selected samples of farmers whose crops had often been attacked by nematodes. The results of the study found that the farming community had knowledge of the symptoms of nematode infestation in rice crop fields. Analysis of the study results showed that farmers were significantly affected by nematode attacks on their rice crops. The effects of attack could be seen from the reduced income and economic levels of the farmers and consequent increase in management costs, in addition to the increasing costs of purchasing pesticides and fertilizers. Production output and yield quality also declined. This situation has negatively impacted the quality of life of these farmers. The implications of this study inform the strategies for integrated and continuous disease and pest control to ensure that the country's food security is more stable. Contribution/Originality: The paper's primary contribution is the finding that nematode attacks are seen to have a negative impact on farming economics and farmers’ quality of life. They are also a major threat to the country's rice supply security. Therefore, handling strategies using environmental friendly methods involving control and prevention need to be strengthened so that nematode attacks can be overcome effectively. DOI: 10.18488/journal.ajard.2021.111.105.112 ISSN(P): 2304-1455/ ISSN(E): 2224-4433 How to cite: Rosmiza M. Z. --- Muhammad Zaim Samion --- Milah Zainal --- Mohd Nor Mohd Rosmi (2021). Nematode Attacks and their Influence on Farming Economics. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 11(1), 105-112. 10.18488/journal.ajard.2021.111.105.112 © 2021 Asian Economic and Social Society. All rights reserved. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Volume 11, Issue 1 (2021): 105-112 http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4836-1548 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2750-3794 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1487-1574 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0278-0835 mailto:miza@ukm.edu.my http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.18488/journal.ajard.2021.111.105.112 http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 11(1)2021: 105-112 106 1. INTRODUCTION Global rice yield productivity shows a declining trend from 2017 to 2019. This is due to several factors, including climate change, pest attacks and rice diseases, and limited agricultural area (Ilakiya & Kalaivani, 2020; Nguyen & Ferrero, 2006). According to Nurul and Kalaivani (2014) and Pam (2019), a survey on crop health found that diseases and pests were among the main causes of huge losses of crop yields, as well as weed populations (Mardiana-Jansar, Bajrai, Ishak, & Ismail, 2019). At a global scale, pathogens and pests are causing losses of 10–28% in wheat, in rice (25–41%), maize (20–41%), potatoes (8–21%), and soybeans (11–32%) (Gonzalez-Chang, Tiwari, Sharma, & Wratten, 2019). In fact, according to Nguyen and Ferrero (2006), the problem of rice pests, including nematode attacks, has caused annual crop losses of up to 25%. It is clear that diseases and pests are among the problems for farmers that are threatening their crops to the extent of causing a decline in agricultural yields. Nematodes are invertebrates, a type of worm or microscopic parasite in the shape of a long circle, mostly metazoans (Bird, Opperman, & Davies, 2003; Davies, 2009; Decraemer & Hunt, 2006; Maisarah et al., 2018; Pracaya, 2008). More than 90 species of nematode have been recorded, and most are inactive endoparasites (Crow & Dunn, 2009; Decraemer & Hunt, 2006; Perry, Moens, & Starr, 2009). The original habitat of this organism is soil or plants, with some living in water. Therefore, most of the symptoms of nematode attack are seen in the parts of crops below soil level – the roots and tubers. Nematodes live in plants by consuming the contents of root cells, stems, and leaves (Department of Agriculture Sarawak, 2020). Generally, nematode attacks cause physical damage to the roots, stems, or leaves of plants. Their ability to attack crops, especially on the roots and leaves, can affect plant growth, yield, and production quality (Maisarah et al., 2018; Mirsam, 2018). The rate of damage to long-term crops is relatively low. The effect of nematode attack is more pronounced if the plant is under stress, such as during a long dry season (Department of Agriculture Sarawak, 2020). Serious nematode attacks pose a threat to a country's farming economy and food security (Auwal, Pham, Shi, & Zheng, 2013; Fleming, McGowan, Maule, & Fleming, 2016; Nicol et al., 2011). Significant impact on the farming economy in terms of production and quality of yields due to nematode attacks puts pressure on farmers and their quality of life. Accordingly, a study was conducted to assess the level of farmers' knowledge of the symptoms of nematode attack and its influence on their finances. The implications of this study are expected to enable formulation of control strategies to overcome the problem of continuous nematode attacks so that farmers’ quality of life is more secure, through increased productivity and the quality of their rice crops. This will also guarantee the security of the country's rice supply. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Symptoms and their Influence on Rice Yields and the Farming Economy Generally, crops attacked by nematodes show symptoms such as slow growth rate, stunted growth, leaf chlorosis and leaves falling off easily. However, these symptoms vary depending on the type of nematode that attacks the plant. These are (1) root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.), (2) leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides sp.), (3) lesion nematode (Pratylenchus sp.) and (4) rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella sp.) (Maisarah & Azmi, 2015; Mulyadi. & Triman, 1995; Nurjayadi, Munif, & Suastika, 2015; Smiley, 2015). Even though various methods have recently been introduced in developed countries to overcome pests, nematode attacks still affect crop yields by 5–10% (Nicol, 2002). Based on studies by Sasser and Freckman (1987), nematodes cause a yield loss of about 17–20%, equivalent to US$100 billion annually (Bird et al., 2003). In addition, plant- parasitic nematodes have resulted in a reduction in the quantity and quality of crop yields in the agricultural sector (Bird & Bird, 2001; Handoo, 1998). The symptoms of disease and damage to crops that are visible above the soil surface reflect the damaged root system as a result of nematode disturbance. Because of damage to the root system, the plant shows symptoms of nutrient deficiency, the leaves turn yellow and wither, the growth of the plant is stunted, and eventually the plant will die (Maisarah & Azmi, 2015). Besides direct physical damage, nematodes also encourage other pathogenic infections such as bacteria and fungi. For example, root knot nematodes mutually interact with Fusarium solani, resulting in severe damage to plants (Department of Agriculture Sarawak, 2020). According to Atkins et al. (2003), Koenning et al. (1999), Sasser (1977), and Perry et al. (2009), root knot nematodes are among the most common parasitic genera of plants and the main crop pests in the world (Fofie & Raymundo, 1979; Ruben et al., 1998); however, attacks are commonly more extreme in the tropics and subtropics (Moens, Perry, & Starr, 2009; Perry et al., 2009). Rice agriculture, especially in Asia, has major concerns concerning root knot nematode, as new approaches in agriculture due to environmental (climate change) and socioeconomic factors have resulted in a drastic rise in the prevalence of Meloidogyne graminicola (Mg) (De Waele & Elsen, 2007). Galls in a shape of a hook (root swellings) develop mainly at the infected plant root tips. As water and nutrients cannot be transported due to changes in the root vascular system, symptoms will develop on the upper part of the plant including loss of vigor, stunting, and chlorosis, contributing to poor crop growth and reproduction (Fahiem & Larry, 2005; Karssen & Moens, 2006; Mantelin, Bellafiore, & Kyndt, 2017; Michel, Richard, & John, 2005), which may account for up to 87% of production losses (Netscher & Erlan, 1993). According to Mulyadi (1997), the influence of root knot nematode on rice growth and yield – that is with Mg treatment at 16.0 heads/ml of soil – can cause 70.0% death of seedlings at the age of 20 days and 38.5% decrease in yield production. A study by Sari (2017) in Indonesia on five varieties of rice, namely IPB 3S, HIPA 14, Sintanur, Pertiwi 1, and Ciherang, found that the influence of leaf nematode attack (Aphelenchoides sp.) caused a decrease in high yields for all varieties of crop studied. On average, there was a decrease in yield of 30.0% while total decline in the growth of seedlings was 50.0% and in total number of rice seeds was 15.0%. According to Teuku (2018), attacks by leaf Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 11(1)2021: 105-112 107 nematodes on the IPB 3S rice variety in Purwakarta, West Java on average showed a decrease in plant height to 75 cm compared to the normal height of 88.5 cm. The number of seedlings decreased to six, whereas the normal number was nine, and the average incidence rate was up to 60.0%. Apart from the foregoing, there are three types of leaf nematode species, namely Aphelenchoides besseyi, Aphelenchoides fragariae, and Aphelenchoides itzemabosi, that have greatly impacted the economy, causing losses in various agricultural and horticultural crops (Duncan & Moens, 2013). A. besseyi, for example, can cause white tips on leaves, the affected parts then turnung dry and curly (Fahiem & Larry, 2005; Kepenekci, 2013). It is reported that leaf nematode attacks have infected more than 200 species of plant including rice, strawberries, and ornamentals (Cheng et al., 2013; Duncan & Moens, 2013). According to Tülek et al. (2014), Cheng et al. (2013), and De Jesus et al. (2016), A. besseyi attacks have affected rice crops resulting in loss of yield of 5.4–57.9% in Turkey and 71% in China. These attacks have caused losses to the farming community due to the increased costs of crop management. In Malaysia, nematode attacks are also causing reduced yields in rice (Abdul Karim, 1991; Maisarah et al., 2018; Nicol et al., 2011), resulting in farmers suffering losses due to markedly reduced income. Studies by Fahiem and Larry (2005), Nurjayadi et al. (2015), Michael, Claude, David, Thierry, and Elisavet (2018), and Goswami, Archana, Neetu, and Satyendra (2015) found that the symptoms of rice root nematode attack include decreased seedling production and delayed flowering of up to 14 days and above. In fact, Michel et al. (2005) recorded the symptom of roots turning brownish yellow. Eventually, the stem of the rice plant will rot after being attacked. The lesion nematode genus is Pratylenchus. Symptoms of attack by this nematode can be found on the panicle, spike, and spikelets (Fahiem & Larry, 2005). This species will infect the host plant causing stem lesions (Brooks, 2013; Crow, 2013; Mitiku, 2018; Perry & Moens, 2013). Lesions, which are initially brownish gray in color, will turn yellow on the leaves of a 22-day-old plant. This will cause the plant to become stunted, chlorotic, and wither, and eventually it will die (Michel et al., 2005). Attacks can result in significant loss of crop yield and are capable of causing secondary infections by bacteria and fungi as a result of the lesions (Perry & Moens, 2013). It is clear that nematode attacks on rice crops will increase crop management costs, especially regarding the purchase of pesticides and fertilizers. Continuous attacks will affect farmers’ income and quality of life (Rosmiza, Amriah, Rosniza, Jabil, & Mazdi, 2015; Xing et al., 2017). According to Briggs (2000) and Heong, Wong, and Reyes (2013), the use of appropriate pesticides and fertilizers is very important in overcoming the problems of rice diseases. However, nematodes will become resistant to pesticides when these are used over a long period. In fact, commonly used pesticides will not have any effect on diseases recently encountered. This puts pressure on farmers to bear additional costs for crop management, such as the purchase of pesticides and fertilizers. Farías (2020), Rosmiza, Rosniza, Jabil, and Mazdi (2019), and Fuad et al. (2012) found that prolonged use of chemical pesticides could have a negative impact not only on farmers, but also on the surrounding community and environmental. Thus, it is undeniable that rice diseases result in a progressive deterioration in farmers’ quality of life. 3. METHOD AND STUDY AREA A quantitative study design (survey) was used to study the influence of nematode attacks on farming economics in Pasir Panjang, Selangor. Descriptive analysis involving frequency, percentage, and convergence tendency (mean, variance, and standard deviation) was conducted to examine the types of nematode that most frequently attack rice plants, and the effects of attacks on farming communities. To obtain data in the field, questionnaires and observations were implemented. The Likert scale was used to assess farmers' level of knowledge on nematode attacks on cultivated rice crops. The Likert scale runs from 1 (Strongly disagree), 2 (Disagree), 3 (Somewhat disagree), and 4 (Agree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Observational methods were carried out at rice cultivation sites to thoroughly examine the types of nematode attack, as well as the symptoms of those attacks. This method of observation can give a clear picture of the symptoms of nematode attack and its effect on crop yields. The rationale for selecting Pasir Panjang as the study area is because the location is located in the Integrated Agricultural Development Area (IADA) in Northwest Selangor, one of eight major rice-growing areas in Malaysia. The 19,057-ha IADA area consists of nine blocks of crops among which is the study area, Pasir Panjang. The Pasir Panjang block has a cultivation area of 1589 ha and a farming population of 601. Purposive sampling was conducted by selecting farmers who cultivate rice, in addition to those having experienced nematode attacks. Based on sample size calculation by Yamane (1967), a total of 86 samples were randomly selected for the questionnaire. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The majority of farmers (85) in the study who cultivate rice were men (98.8%). Thirty-five of the 85 farmers (40.7%) were aged 31–40 years. Most respondents were Malay (83, 96.5%) and the rest were Chinese (3.5%). The majority of respondents had a level of education up to secondary school only (47.7%), and only one (1.2%) had attained the educational level of a higher learning institution. Nevertheless, all respondents had had a formal education. None of the respondents earned less than RM500 per month, while the majority earned in the range RM1000–1500 per month (38.4%), 31.4% earned RM1501–1999 and 16.3% earned more than RM2000 per month (Table 1). Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 11(1)2021: 105-112 108 Table-1. Farmers’ profile. Profile Category Frequency Percentage Gender Male 85 98.8 Female 1 1.2 Age 18-20 years 3 3.5 21-30 years 13 15.1 31-40 years 35 40.7 41-50 years 30 34.9 51 and above 5 5.8 Race Malays 83 96.5 Chinese 3 3.5 Educational level Primary school 5 5.8 Secondary school 41 47.7 High school 19 22.1 Technical and vocational 20 23.3 College/higher education institution 1 1.2 Income RM2000 14 16.3 Source: Fieldwork, 2020. 4.1. Profile of Rice Cultivation Most respondents carried out rice cultivation as their full-time employment (74, 86.0%). The majority of these worked on their own (81.4%) in cultivating rice without the assistance of family members. Only 12 respondents (14.0%) were doing it part-time. Full-time jobs for respondents who chose rice cultivation as a part-time job included traders, schoolteachers, and house builders (Table 2). The majority of farmers who cultivated rice in Pasir Panjang were tenants (67, 77.9%), but only a few owned their land (19, 22.1%). No farmers cultivated on leased land. Most farmers cultivated small farms, ranging from 1 to 2 acres only (36.0%), with medium-sized (3–4 acres) accounting for 39.5% while nine farmers (10.5%) worked on an area of over 7 acres (Table 2). Typically, the estimated value of operating costs in rice cultivation is in the range RM6000–8000 for a plot of area 3 acres. These operating costs include plowing, fertilizer and chemical pesticide inputs, and processing and other operating costs. Because the majority of the respondents cultivated more than 3 acres of rice, that is often taken as the basis for operating costs in rice cultivation. Most of the respondents (40.7%) obtained a yield of 4–6 tons in one cultivating season, with 34.9% obtaining 1–3 tons. None of the respondents obtained a yield of more than 10 tons or above for one cultivating season (Table 2). Table-2. Profile of rice cultivation. Profile Category Frequency Percentage Job status Full-time 74 86.0 Part-time 12 14.0 Land status Owned 19 22.1 Tenant 67 77.9 Leased - - Farm size 1-2 acres 31 36.0 3-4 acres 34 39.5 5-6 acres 12 14.0 7 acres and above 9 10.5 Length of time in rice cultivation <1 year - - 1-3 years 5 5.8 4-6 years 12 14.0 7-9 years 27 31.4 10 years and above 42 48.8 Operating costs of rice cultivation