EFFECT OF SELECTED INSECTICIDE ON WHITEFLY (Bemisia tabaci) INFESTING BRINJAL PLANTS 25 Pitfalls and potential pathways to commercialization of indigenous food crops, fruits, and vegetables in Africa Achoja Roland Onomu Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Fort Hare, Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa.  roland.onomu@gmail.com (Corresponding author) Article History ABSTRACT Received: 19 September 2022 Revised: 20 December 2022 Accepted: 13 January 2023 Published: 31 January 2023 Keywords Awareness Benefit Domestication Food security Mechanism Pitfalls Policy. All foods have local origins, but their commercialization and global acceptance remain challenging. Agricultural commercialization involves producing agricultural products for financial gain and market purposes beyond family consumption. Indigenous foods have vast societal benefits, including cultural, employment, medicinal, food security-related, nutritional, and financial. However, indigenous food consumption and demand are constantly declining because exotic foods are replacing them, despite recent campaigns for their increased commercialization. The study investigates the challenges associated with indigenous food commercialization, possible pathways to commercialization, and the role of the government in commercializing indigenous food. It offers a hypothesized structure and essential blueprint for sustainable indigenous food (crop) commercialization. The methodology involved a review of the literature using various search engines, scholarly sites, and print books, combining quantitative and qualitative research. Scaling indigenous food for sustainable commercialization beyond dependency on the wild product takes specific steps, including domestication, certification, and effective government-private collaboration. Policies to improve the sustainability of indigenous food are urgently required to save them from extinction and meet future demand. Many indigenous foods are hindered by low-status perception, poor value addition, inadequate knowledge of their potential, lack of market penetration, and global acceptability challenges. Indigenous food commercialization lacks a holistic and systematic approach involving careful planning, procedural steps, and an aggressive market-spreading mechanism for global adoption. An excellent strategic relationship between government and stakeholders is a prerequisite for indigenous food commercialization, but the onus is on the government to commit to indigenous food commercialization programs. Contribution/Originality: This study postulates a four-fold pathway to the commercialization of indigenous foods: identifying their significance, domestication, value addition, and market/awareness promotion. The development of these four broad areas and cooperation between private and government actors drives global acceptance of indigenous food, but lack of government support slows it. DOI: 10.55493/5005.v13i1.4716 ISSN(P): 2304-1455/ ISSN(E): 2224-4433 How to cite: Onomu, A. R. (2023). Pitfalls and potential pathways to commercialization of indigenous food crops, fruits, and vegetables in Africa. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1), 25–38. 10.55493/5005.v13i1.4716 © 2023 Asian Economic and Social Society. All rights reserved. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Volume 13, Issue 1 (2023): 25-38. http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7329-5781 http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 26 1. INTRODUCTION Indigenous food is ancestral cuisine of local origin that is naturally grown and consumed in an area. Indigenous food can include green leafy vegetables, fruits, crops, tubers, or animals (fauna) that are primary food sources for the local people (Nepfumbada, Dzinamarira, & Mashamba-Thompson, 2021). Indigenous food plays several societal, economic, and environmental roles, including in the health and nutritional value system. It is a cheap source of food diversity among rural people (Shackleton., Dzerefos, Shackleton, & Mathabela, 2000). Indigenous foods are mainly grown and sold by rural inhabitants of developing countries, especially young people and women. Therefore, they serve as a channel of empowerment for the vulnerable, offering a more regular and stable income (Baldermann et al., 2016; Chivenge, Mabhaudhi, Modi, & Mafongoya, 2015). For instance, women in Kenya and Benin generate additional income by growing and processing these foods (Rampa, Lammers, Linnemann, Schoustra, & De Winter, 2020a). Recent research has shown that the potential economic benefits of indigenous foods include the provision of livelihood diversification strategies and business transformation for many households (Rampa et al., 2020a; Shackleton et al., 2000). It provides enormous opportunities for collaboration in the areas of logistic improvement, value chain development, genetic improvement, and domestic and export markets (Rampa, Lammers, Linnemann, Schoustra, & De Winter, 2020b). Ironically, few households obtain a significant income from trading indigenous foods due to market failure (Shackleton et al., 2000). At the macro-economic level, indigenous food encourages tourism growth, which improves the economy of both the local community and the entire country (Fam, Syed Annuar, Tan, Lai, & Ingko, 2020). For example, the new yam festival of the Igbo people of Nigeria not only attracts many tourists to the local community but also stimulates recreational opportunities and contributes to its status as a modern, urbanized community (Onyeabor, 2016). The relationship between tourism and indigenous food is mutual; for instance, indigenous foods are known to play a supporting role, irrespective of a direct association between local food and tourism (Henderson, 2009; Santafe- Troncoso & Loring, 2021). Indigenous food stimulates economic activities through tourism, with most tourists willingly purchasing indigenous food even when unfamiliar with it Fam et al. (2020); Henderson (2009). Although inflows of tourists and tourism result in job creation, market opportunities, community empowerment, and the spread of indigenous food, their lack negatively impacts the indigenous food system (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2019). Inadequate tourist patronage, for instance, limits the spread and recognition of the brown mussel, Perna perna, despite its massive potential (Lasiak & Dye, 1989). A dwindling tourist market resulting from poor tourism development not only impacts indigenous dishes but has a general spillover effect on the entire community (Mbaiwa, 2003). One of the indigenous foods environmental advantages is that they are well adapted to local climatic conditions and natural environmental resources, leading to low input requirements for different kinds of cropping systems. They also display excellent resistance attributes to local pests and diseases, making them suitable for resilient agriculture and sustainable food systems (Omotayo & Aremu, 2020). Indigenous foods also have a cultural dimension, playing a role in the locals’ way of life (Kuhnlein, Erasmus, Spigelski, & FAO, 2009). They make a unique contribution to traditional marriage, festivals, and ritual performances as main cultural objects that are shared among the people (Unya, 2021). In other words, these foods are a means of defining the identity of the local people or ethnical group (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2019). Among the many functions of indigenous food is its use in traditional knowledge transfer and preservation of the indigenous culture (Martens, 2018). Due to the respect and value placed on the knowledge of indigenous foods by the local people, those who promote them earn respect and reverence as preservers of the cultural identity. Conversely, a decline in the adoption of indigenous food and knowledge bears the massive risk of eroding people's cultural knowledge (Rampa et al., 2020b). According to Rampa et al. (2020a), indigenous foods provide affordable but healthy and nutritious sustenance to many people, especially the rural poor in developing countries (Rampa et al., 2020b). The health benefits of indigenous food stem from its nutritional value and bioactive compound potential (Aziz & Jalil, 2019). Some indigenous edible fruits are rich in moisture, protein, fat, crude fiber, ash, and minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, P, K, and Na) (Kugedera et al., 2021; Saka & Msonthi, 1994). Hence, indigenous foods play an integral role in boosting the body's immune system while providing an excellent source of vitamins and micro and macronutrients to reduce malnutrition and support the food and nutritional security of local families (Richmond et al., 2021). The analysis of selected indigenous edible fruits in Malawi showed the presence of different rich nutritional components of the highest order, including 17.0% protein for Trichilia emetica, 31.2% fat for Strychnos spinosa, 45.3% fiber for Azanza garckeana, 11.2% ash for Ximenia caffra, and 88.2% carbohydrate for Parinari curatellifolia, respectively (Saka & Msonthi, 1994). In South Arica, J. Flava, an indigenous nutrition-rich leafy vegetable eaten locally, contains mineral concentrations exceeding 1% of the plant's dry weight, far higher than typical mineral concentrations in mainstream edible vegetables. Thus, J. Flava has been shown to stimulate 96% antioxidant activity (Odhav, Beekrum, Akula, & Baijnath, 2007). Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr) is an indigenous food with substantial health benefits eaten by the people of Asia, particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia (Aziz & Jalil, 2019). Durian has been shown to reduce cholesterol and blood glucose levels through extracted anti-proliferative and probiotic effects in vitro models (Aziz & Jalil, 2019). It also provides nutritional compounds such as thioesters, esters, and thioacetals (Aziz & Jalil, 2019). A study in Nigeria by Nnamani, Oselebe, and Agbatutu (2009) using three indigenous leafy vegetables (Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides hermes, Vitex doniana sweet, and Adenia cissampeloides zepernick,) showed that these indigenous vegetables have mineral values that exceed 1% dry weight. They contain high levels of macro and micronutrients Ca, Cu, and Mg, respectively Nnamani et al. (2009). In Zambia, traditionally fermented indigenous milk was experimented with Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 27 as a treatment for severely malnourished babies (Rampa et al., 2020b). Indigenous food helps synthesize microhybrid and nanocomposite food health material (Apaliya et al., 2022; Malhotra, Shenoy, Acharya, Shenoy, & Mayya, 2011). Hence, indigenous foods are used to combat food insecurity and nutritional and non-nutritional diseases (Sarkar, Walker-Swaney, & Shetty, 2020). However, the food insecurity challenge is on a constant upward trajectory in Africa, especially among Indigenous people in rural areas. Many households are faced with food insecurity though some of the households consume indigenous food at least one to four times a month (Nengovhela, Taruvinga, & Mushunje, 2018). According to Masekoameng and Molotja (2019), Van der Merwe, Cloete, and Van Der Hoeven (2016), and Vorster, Badham, and Venter (2013), despite the report that South Africa is a food-secure country at the national level, many rural households are ravaged by food insecurity, hunger, and malnutrition. As noted in other African countries, millions of households in South Africa have limited access to sufficient nutritionally safe food (Van der Merwe et al., 2016). This is despite the significant role of indigenous food in contributing to food security, nutritional value, income, and employment. For example, since ancient times, the people of Africa have consumed a wide variety of indigenous fruits and food crops, some of which have gained substantial recognition in the commercial market, like the case of marula, uninga (sesame) (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) (Mokgolodi, Ding, Setshogo, Ma, & Liu, 2011; Shackleton, Kirby, & Gambiza, 2011). However, in recent times, most people no longer consume or cultivate indigenous food crops or indigenous leafy vegetables, leading to continuous food insecurity in Africa, despite the rich supply of indigenous food available in sub-Saharan Africa. Until recent times, African indigenous vegetables were part of the food systems in sub-Saharan Africa for generations as the region is home to more than 45,000 species of indigenous foods, of which more than 1,000 can be eaten as green leafy vegetables (Muhanji, Roothaert, Webo, & Stanley, 2011). As is the case in most developing nations, a significant number of diverse indigenous foods, including fruit and vegetable species, have been abandoned in favor of foreign exotic crops (Pichop, Abukutsa-Onyango, Noorani, & Nono-Womdim, 2014; Shackleton et al., 2000). The reasons for the abandonment and slow recovery of indigenous foods include government laws and policies (Pichop et al., 2014). Distinct indigenous political/legal orders and authorities determine the sovereignties of indigenous food across diverse landscapes (Daigle, 2019). These policies, laws, and authorities sometimes cause bottlenecks to indigenous food sovereignty and its potential positive impact on the food system (Santafe-Troncoso & Loring, 2021). International law and the existing policies on food sovereignty also significantly impede the indigenous food system by impacting its market access and commercialization (Grey & Patel, 2015; Reinten & Coetzee, 2002). 1.1. Commercialization Every food crop, fruit, nut, or vegetable originates somewhere, but commercialization and global acceptance remain challenging. For example, maize (Zea mays), commonly referred to as corn, was first domesticated from a wild grass in central Mexico 7000 years ago (Ranum, Peña-Rosas, & Garcia-Casal, 2014). Rice (O. sativa) was developed from the Asian wild progenitor Oryza rufipogon, also called brown beard rice (Khush, 2000). The origin of O. rufipogon can be traced to East and South Asia, where it was distributed from Pakistan to China, Indonesia, and other parts of the world (Khush, 2000). Though different species of rice originated in different countries, most species are from Asian countries, including China, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Pakistan (Wang et al., 2020). The origin of wheat can be traced to the South-Eastern part of Turkey (Shewry, 2009). Oats, the world's fourth most important cereal, originated in Europe, although earlier research suggested that the naked Oat (A. nuda L) came from China, where it was widely grown (Sampson, 1954). The oldest grain cultivated by humans, barley, is believed to have originated in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Southeast Asia (Harlan, 1968). All these food crops have been commercialized; however, the commercialization of many indigenous African crops remains problematic, despite the rich and plentiful indigenous food available in sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural commercialization involves producing agricultural products for financial gain and market purposes beyond family consumption. It is a gradual developmental process between transformation and evolution, which includes subsistence production and semi- commercial and entirely commercial production to achieve various goals (Yaro, Teye, & Torvikey, 2017). The challenges of indigenous food commercialization can be linked to several different factors. Both developed and developing nations want to commercialize indigenous food (Sebastian & Donelly, 2013; Settee & Shukla, 2020). Indigenous peoples of North America, Australia, Canada, and India have championed the promotion and commercialization of indigenous food, but the challenges of controlling and commercializing indigenous food remain unabated (Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2021; Sebastian & Donelly, 2013; Settee & Shukla, 2020; Whyte, 2016). Even more worrisome is the increasing speed with which indigenous food is being replaced by exotic food, especially among urban dwellers (FAO, 1990). The rate at which exotic food is replacing indigenous food might drive indigenous foods in sub-Saharan Africa to extinction. This has hindered the growth and development of indigenous foods, despite the desire of many smallholders and rural dwellers engaged in indigenous food farming to see them commercialized (Agea, Obua, Waiswa, Okia, & Okullo, 2010). Moreover, these indigenous food stakeholders are challenged by limited practical procedures to follow when commercializing indigenous foods. It is yet more challenging as research and development targeting indigenous food commercialization is costly and laborious (Coetzee, Jefthas, & Reinten, 1999). However, the available research addressing indigenous food commercialization shows that the characteristics of the local agriculturist, especially smallholder farmers' socio-economics, are vital factors in indigenous food commercialization (Agea et al., 2010; Zondi, Ngidi, Ojo, & Hlatshwayo, 2022). The numerous pitfalls of indigenous food commercialization result in poor income generation and harnessing of indigenous food. These challenges make it difficult to commercialize indigenous food, including leafy vegetables, roots, and tubers such as cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) (Lewu, Adebola, & Afolayan, 2010; Quaye, Adofo, Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 28 Agyeman, & Nimoh, 2010). This has resulted in research into the various roles and significance of indigenous food, including food security and nutritional value (Odhav et al., 2007; Van Rensburg et al., 2004; Venter, Vorster, & Steyn, 2005). However, these studies have not achieved the aim of commercializing most indigenous leafy vegetables and food crops (Zondi et al., 2022). Consequently, factors affecting the commercialization of indigenous leafy vegetables and food crops have been investigated (Akinola, Pereira, Mabhaudhi, De Bruin, & Rusch, 2020; Belcher & Schreckenberg, 2007; Janke, 2018; Nkosi, Mostert, Dzikiti, & Ntuli, 2020; Reinten & Coetzee, 2002). Ironically, however, a step-by-step guide to the commercialization of indigenous food has yet to be developed. Despite most governments and stakeholders promoting the commercialization of indigenous food, especially in developing countries, they do not know what step/program to prioritize at each stage of indigenous food development. The wrong approach to the commercialization of indigenous food has led not only to the wastage of resources but to slow progress and low investment in indigenous food development (Adebooye & Opabode, 2004). Hence, this research aims to review the literature on the various factors affecting the commercialization of indigenous leafy vegetables and food crops while investigating how the commercialization of previously indigenous food was achieved. This paper also aims to create awareness and guide governments, policymakers, and stakeholders along the path to developing and commercializing indigenous food. 1.2. Specific Objectives Specifically, the objectives of the study are: To highlight the challenges affecting the commercialization of indigenous foods. To identify practical steps for the commercialization of indigenous crops. To investigate the contribution of some African governments to the commercialization of indigenous foods. 2. METHODOLOGY The reviewed literature was collected using various search engines, scholarly sites, and print books. The review employed a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative research. Data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) were used for the quantitative discussion to explain the quantity of one of the exotic crops produced by different countries for commercialization. The data were also used to compare and contrast the quantity of any indigenous food production with exotic food. The PRISMA procedure (www.prisma-statement.org) for a systematic review was used. Theses and dissertations on indigenous food were excluded, restricting the review to published articles and books. 3. SYNTHESIS OF LITERATURE BY OBJECTIVE In this section, the relevant literature is reviewed according to each specific objective. This includes investigating the different factors impacting indigenous food. It further discusses the necessary steps toward the commercialization of indigenous food. 3. 1. Challenges Affecting the Commercialization of Indigenous Foods This section presents a discussion of the challenges affecting the commercialization of indigenous foods. These include low status, limited information, lack of an approved and reliable production system, and lack of suitable markets and facilities to process, preserve, or add value. 3.1.1. Challenge Associated with Low Status of Indigenous Food Indigenous foods are affordable for the poor because of their low prices and constant availability (Rampa et al., 2020b). However, the low prices, among other things, result in their low status (Rampa et al., 2020b). For example, small indigenous fish found in Bangladeshi fresh waterways are eaten whole with organs and bones by mainly the rural poor, resulting in the diet of the poor being associated with these fish (Thilsted, Roos, & Hassan, 1997). These fish species include darkina (Esomus danricus), dhela (Rohlee colio), and mola (Amablypharyngon mola). The organs and bones of the 10 cm long Bangladeshi indigenous fish species contain large quantities of calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamin A (Thilsted et al., 1997). In Africa, most indigenous foods are linked with the historical food consumption and sociocultural habits that shape the lifestyles of the poor (Kuznesof, Tregear, & Moxey, 1997). The association of indigenous foods with the rural poor, the nature of their harvest and processing, and the lack of additives have a negative impact on their status (Cloete & Idsardi, 2013). These and many other complex constraints have also influenced the psychology, perceptions, and disposition of the rich toward the consumption of these indigenous foods, despite their nutritional benefits (Afari-Sefa, Tenkouano, Ojiewo, Keatinge, & d’A Hughes, 2012). These have, in turn, affected the commercialization of indigenous foods by making them unattractive for investors, especially commercial farmers (Hunde, 2017). Moreover, the low prices of indigenous food make its commercialization less attractive than it would ordinarily be (Rampa et al., 2020b). Ironically, however, if the prices of indigenous foods increase disproportionally, these nutritious foods will become less affordable for the poor (Rampa et al., 2020b). Another reason for the low status of indigenous foods is a lack of scientific knowledge of their nutritional components, as well as a lack of effective processing and preserving technologies (Rampa et al., 2020b). Positive changes in the financial and socio-cultural status of Indigenous people affect indigenous foods in several ways but result more in the low price of indigenous food. For example, when the financial condition of Indigenous food consumers improves, they opt for exotic foods at higher prices. The low price of indigenous food is thus the result of low demand (Asogwa, Okoye, & Oni, 2017). Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 29 3.1.2. Lack of Information on Indigenous Food So far, there has been inadequate research and innovation to bring indigenous foods to the fore of global acceptability while showcasing their holistic roles (Swiderska & Ryan, 2021). This is particularly relevant in Africa and developing nations on other continents where malnutrition and hunger are part and parcel of many households (Akinola et al., 2020). The various research areas where information on indigenous food is inadequate include value chain addition, domestication, commercialization, awareness campaigns, nutritional benefits, conservation, cultivation methods, breeding, pre-breeding, exploitation, adaptation ability, efficient use, medicinal value, economic value, genetic components, and genetic modification (Gerrano, 2021; Mbhenyane, 2017). The poor rural households making the most use of indigenous food do not have the essential research knowledge, technology, and facilities to research, improve, process, and preserve indigenous food (Kuyu & Bereka, 2020). Therefore, the limited empirical information and poor strategic drives of indigenous food development are evident in the skewness and trend of indigenous food information in Africa. 3.1.3. Lack of Consumption and Production Data on Indigenous Food The extant research, using a study done by Mbhenyane (2017) as an example, has reported that households, especially those in rural areas, depend on indigenous food, without giving the exact number of people depending on indigenous food. This trend of scanty research, which states the average number of people depending on specific indigenous foods, is unlike commercialized exotic foods, for which data are available concerning the proportion of production, utilization, consumption, and number of people depending on these foods (Ranum et al., 2014). For example, Table 1 shows the production level of selected exotic crops in different countries, but the production level of indigenous food crops is not available. Table 1. Production of selected exotic crops across a ten-year interval. Country Maize production tons Rice production tons Wheat production tons Year 2008 2018 2008 2018 2008 2018 USA 305911450 364262150 9241170 10152890 68016096 51305540 China 166032097 257348659 193352875 214078796 112464292 131446596 Brazil 58933347 82366531 12061465 11808412 6027131 5469236 Mexico 24320100 27169400 224371 283763 4019400 2943445 Argentina 22016926 43462323 1245800 1367968 16486532 18518045 India 19731400 28752880 148036000 174716730 78570200 99869520 Ukraine 11446800 35801050 100700 69210 25885400 24652840 Indonesia 16323922 30253938 57661000 59200534 - - France 16037988 12580430 111523 71430 39006372 35424140 Canada 10592000 13884800 - - 28619200 32351900 South Africa 12700000 12510000 3000 3074 2130000 1868000 Source: FAOSTAT (2022). The lack of data on the production, utilization, consumption level, and number of people depending on specific indigenous foods not only creates barriers to investment but also greatly impedes their commercialization. In general, the lack of documentation is gradually eradicating the adoption of indigenous food, while a high level of illiteracy also impedes its commercialization, especially in developing countries (Asogwa et al., 2017). 3.1.4. The Lack of an Approved and Reliable Production System The lack of a clear guide to best production practices is another pitfall hindering indigenous food crop development (Wang et al., 2014). A majority of research and research-related institutions have focused primarily on exotic staples and export crop cultivation mechanisms, including the performance of maize/bean and maize/pumpkin intercrops under different planting and weeding combinations. However, there appears to be a dearth of indigenous crop domestication procedures and cultivatable development processes (Wang et al., 2014). Research points to the fact that most research institutions, especially those in Africa, do not have separate variety release systems for indigenous crops (Afari-Sefa et al., 2012). Thus, the evaluation criteria, such as value for cultivation and use (VCU), developed explicitly for cereal and other exotic crops, are being misused for indigenous vegetable quality control and foundation seed development (Karanja et al., 2012). This, among other things, could be linked to the lack of research in more discrete areas that fall under indigenous food development regarding the cropping, spacing, and weed patterns that result in the best yields (Grivetti & Ogle, 2000). Some indigenous food cultivation, production, and productivity challenges start with the unavailability of improved seeds (Adebooye, Baidu- Forson, & Opabode, 2005). 3.1.5. The Lack of Formal Markets A high market potential could imply a risky opportunity for those (small farmers and entrepreneurs) who want to upscale indigenous food businesses because a more robust commercial company might hijack them. Still, a lack of suitable market conditions is one challenge that hampers the commercialization of indigenous foods and the potential economic benefits thereof (Rampa et al., 2020b). Again, most indigenous food markets are associated with Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 30 poor logistics processes amidst a bottleneck system in which middlemen exploit rural and urban dwellers (Rampa et al., 2020b). This is when deficient storage and transport facilities combine with a lack of physical market structure in shops or supermarkets to bring about the failure of indigenous foods to reach formal market channels. This has restricted most indigenous food sales to door-to-door and roadside selling in farming communities or peri-urban areas, which are more informal markets. Moreover, a lack of up-to-date and future market information also impedes the commercialization of indigenous foods (Rampa et al., 2020b). 3.1.6. Other Factors Influencing Indigenous Food The influence of Western culture is another leading factor influencing the erosion of indigenous foods (Asogwa et al., 2017). The argument is that not only Africans' indigenous foods but also their tastes and lifestyles are negatively affected because they are invariably being modified to suit Western culture (Asogwa et al., 2017). Many households involved in indigenous food preparation are rural and poor; as they do not have the requisite modern technology and facilities to process, preserve, or add value to the food, they have to rely on indigenous knowledge, which involves time-consuming methods (Kuyu & Bereka, 2020). Time has become another significant constraint to food preparation in this modern world with its growing population, making many people abandon foods that are time-consuming to prepare, such as indigenous foods, for convenient and easy-to-prepare foods (Asogwa et al., 2017). The lack of modern technology and facilities to promote value addition results in the failure of improved and reliable indigenous food production practices. While inflows of tourists and tourism result in job creation, market opportunities, community empowerment, and the spread of indigenous food, its lack, on the other hand, negatively impacts the indigenous food system (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2019). For instance, it has been noted that inadequate tourist patronage limited the expansion and recognition of the brown mussel, Perna perna, despite its massive potential (Lasiak & Dye, 1989). A dwindling tourist clientele arising from poor tourism development not only impacts indigenous dishes but has a general spillover effect on the entire community (Mbaiwa, 2003). 3.2. Steps to the Commercialization of Indigenous Food Crops Every commercialized agricultural product, including indigenous food, passes through some essential stages (Pingali & Rosegrant, 1995). These stages are necessary to meet sustainability and market requirements (Østerberg et al., 2017). 3.2.1. Unveiling the Economic Importance of Food Crops for Commercialization The first step to commercializing a food crop is associated with the priority placed on the crop when unveiling its economic importance (Akinnifesi et al., 2006). This encompasses revealing its contribution to food security, nutritional content, bioactive compounds, ethnobotany value, domestication trails, perception, and local people's acceptance (Cooper, 2015; Frankel, Brown, & Burdon, 1995; Piperno, 2017). This has resulted in the evolution of some crops, supported by research and development investment for domestication, including the crops formerly known as wild maize and wheat (Bushnell, 1976; Cooper, 2015). 3.2.2. The Role of Domestication in Commercialization The second step that leads to the commercialization of a food crop is domestication. For some food crops, their economic importance, environmental challenges, over-exploitation, and the need to conserve biological resources led to their domestication (McNeely, 1988). Moreover, the desire to meet market demand (commercialization) led to the domestication of wild crops, including today's exotic crops, such as maize, which was the foundation of crop transformation (Johannessen, Wilson, & Davenport, 1970). The process of plant domestication means placing plant species under human control through hereditary restructuring and modification of the plant by carefully selecting genetic alterations in response to human needs (Abbo, Lev-Yadun, & Gopher, 2012). It aims to increase the crop yield potential, eliminate or reduce undesirable traits, and increase the market value (Abbo et al., 2012; Brush, 1998). 3.2.3. The Role of the Spreading Mechanism in Commercialization Another vital step in the commercialization of a crop is the ability to spread it globally. Maize, for instance, originated in Mexico but spread to the United States, where its major transformation took place due to the awareness of its significance (Ranum et al., 2014). Maize is cultivated worldwide, with the United States being the primary producer (Dragomir et al., 2022; Ranum et al., 2014). As such, most commercialized exotic crops are internationally recognized on all continents (Muhanji et al., 2011). The awareness and spreading of domesticated crops or their products lead to their acceptability, which created a high demand for these crops or agricultural produce. The introduction of exotic crops such as wheat, barley, maize, and rice during the era of colonization helped to spread awareness of these exotic crops across many countries (Raschke & Cheema, 2008; Theoharides & Dukes, 2007). As the growth of exotic crops gained momentum through colonization, they have been described as invasive plants that impacted indigenous crops (Lockwood, Cassey, & Blackburn, 2009). Their introduction through colonization was not limited to Africa but occurred in many parts of the world (Weber, 1998). Aside from the colonization era, many countries gained knowledge of exotic crops during the world wars due to the high proliferation of domesticated exotic seeds and ornamental crops associated with the world wars, especially during and after World War II (Marsh, 1998). The knowledge of the benefits of these crops led to their adoption and consumption, consequently promoting their commercialization (Friedmann, 1993). Friedmann (1993) further described the spread of exotic crops during this era as a response to farm politics and the introduction of agricultural Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 31 support programs that undermined the postwar food regulation system and governed agro-food relations that aided the spread. However, while the commercialization of crops via war and colonization is no longer viable, an effective trade mechanism between people, tribes, or nations is a vital channel for the commercialization of crops and food (Maseko et al., 2017; Masekoameng & Molotja, 2019). Brassica rapa L. subsp. (brassicaceae) is an annual leafy vegetable that originated in China but found its way into Africa as a result of trade between the two continents (Maseko et al., 2017). During the introduction of Brassica rapa L in Africa, the Vhembe District of Limpopo Province in South Africa was the origin of its cultivation for commercial purposes (Maseko et al., 2017). Recently, the commercialization of uninga, an indigenous crop that was going extinct, started among the Ndau people of south-eastern Zimbabwe. The commercialization of uninga is thriving due to its current high market demand through trade agreements, especially in Mozambique (Muyambo & Shava, 2021). In the modern world, the commercialization of food is achieved via the mechanism of awareness campaigns. Unfortunately, such campaigns are among the few available ways to spread indigenous foods besides trade. These ways include research, newspapers, agricultural exhibitions, cooking competitions, plot demonstrations, and demonstrations using song, dance, and narratives in strategic places (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2010). The effectiveness of trained partner groups and extensive messages conveying the benefits of the crop through social media, radio, and TV cannot be overstated. The use of radio broadcasting media is significant as this type of message delivery is less costly (HarvestPlus, Lusaka, Zambia, & Simpungwe, 2017). However, while there is relatively much research exposing the benefits of indigenous food from Africa to the world, the same cannot be said for the media, particularly broadcast media (television media). Unlike the high level of broadcasting that exotic foods have enjoyed and their constant support through awareness campaigns in world-class media, few indigenous foods have been marketed in the media (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2010). Aside from being more locally based, awareness campaigns for indigenous foods have not regularly taken place through broadcast media (Muhanji et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the introduction of foods into the Western education curriculum significantly helped in the spread, adoption, and sustainability of exotic foods. Similarly, Abukutsa-Onyango (2010) suggested that effective curriculum development for indigenous foods is necessary at various learning institutions. 3.2.4. The Importance of Value Addition in the Commercialization of Indigenous Food Value addition, which entails processing, preserving, and packaging, is crucial in commercializing agricultural produce. All commercialized foods have undergone various stages of value addition, including genetic improvement, processing, preservation, and packaging. For example, at the domestication and production levels, maize has undergone different genetic improvements, leading to high-oil corn, green-eared corn, sweet corn, popcorn, baby corn, and quality protein maize (Yadav & Supriya, 2014). Maize’s value-added products at the processing, preserving, and packaging levels include baked products, savory snacks, health foods, infant foods, and various traditional foods (Yadav & Supriya, 2014). In the case of rice, it is notably consumed by more than half of the world's population (Gnanamanickam, 2009). It has undergone value addition that includes processing its waste (husk) into micro silica used to prepare advanced materials like SiC, Si3N4, elemental Si, and Mg2Si for economic benefit (Chandrasekhar, Satyanarayana, Pramada, Raghavan, & Gupta, 2003). In another development, improvements that encapsulate rice production’s value-added equipment have been made beyond mechanical threshers, winnowers, harvesters, and combine harvesters to include a suitable combine machine for drying and segregating immature rice grains (Samaddar et al., 2017). Brown rice, ready-made mixes, and noodles are rich products that have not only been commercialized at the regional level but have penetrated the global market due to their value-added contribution (Samaddar et al., 2017). Meeting the increasing demand and commercialization of wheat would not have been achieved by conventional plant breeding methods, irrespective of their role in growth. As such, the value-added application of recombinant techniques helped to overcome the obstacles to translating the full potential of the genomic era to wheat breeding to improve wheat quality and yield (Bhalla, 2006). All commercialized exotic crops have gone through various stages of value addition (Macauley & Ramadjita, 2015). However, many indigenous foods lag considerably in various areas of value addition. Indigenous crop value addition in the agronomic evaluation under different growing conditions is a fundamental challenge impeding the commercialization of indigenous crops and African leafy vegetables (Lewu et al., 2010). The lack of value-addition ensures that indigenous food crops, including vegetables, suffer from low acceptability status (Rampa et al., 2020b; Zobolo, Mkabela, & Mtetwa, 2008). 4. FRAMEWORK OF INDIGENOUS SUSTAINABLE FOOD (CROP) COMMERCIALIZATION Based on the literature, the author hypothesized the structural stages necessary for the sustainable commercialization of indigenous food, irrespective of the socio-economic characteristics of the farmer involved. The structure organogram presented in Figure 1, if followed meticulously, will result in commercialization. Other variables do play a role; these in-between variables include government policy, training/capital development of stakeholders, certification, financial support, research, and development. Constant exploitation of indigenous food from the wild could never result in commercialization; it will instead lead to extinction due to over-exploitation. Hence, the necessary starting point is aggressive research and development, which will lead to domestication after the economic potential of such indigenous food has been discovered. Figure 1 illustrates the commercialization of indigenous foods, using a plant as an example. It shows that all plants originate from the wild, and the commercialization process starts by identifying their significance (value). This includes identifying its nutritional, medicinal, food security, and commercial values. The realization of this Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 32 significance will create over-exploitation pressure on the wild progenitor or product. To reduce the pressure of over- exploitation and meet market demand while ensuring sustainability, domestication becomes a necessity. After domestication, the next necessary step is value addition; this could take the form of yield improvement, nutritional improvement, genetic improvement, preservation of production, packaging, etc. However, value addition may take place alongside the promotion of the market value of the plants by implementing market awareness strategies for its global acceptance, which must be completed to achieve commercialization. Each stage in the commercialization process requires government and private sector corporations to collaborate to commercialize the indigenous food. Before the worldwide spread of maize, its hybrid technology was originally developed and domesticated in the United States (Byerlee, 2020). Based on the demand for maize and its market context, diffusion of this hybrid technology from the United States to Latin America, Europe, Asia, and Africa was observed in the years up to 1970 (Byerlee, 2020). A good spreading mechanism, involving promotion, awareness, and marketing, is necessary for local and international commercialization. On the other hand, various types of value addition, including breeding and genetic modification, lead to better climatic adaptability, improved yield, and early maturity. Value addition also involves processing, branding, and packaging, which are needed for global acceptability and commercialization. Figure 1. Framework of indigenous food commercialization. 5. THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF SCLEROCARYA BIRREA (MARULA) Sclerocarya birrea (marula) is one indigenous fruit plant that has been commercialized in recent years. Analyses of various studies show that certain essential activities were carried out to ensure the commercialization of S. birrea (marula). These essential activities have been summarized and captured in the figure showing the empirical structure of indigenous food commercialization. The commercialization of S. birrea followed developmental strategies stemming from its economic importance in the areas of food security, nutritional value, health, and income generation, leading to domestication, value addition, and promotion (Bationo-Kando et al., 2016). Sclerocarya birrea (marula) is a deciduous tree crop with economic importance that is indigenous to southern Africa (Cádiz-Gurrea, Lozano-Sánchez, Fernández-Ochoa, & Segura-Carretero, 2019). Sclerocarya birrea (marula) contributes to food security in that the people of southern Africa widely consume its fruit. It has a rich nutritional content. The bark of the tree is used for medicinal purposes. It helps the local people to improve their income generation. Sclerocarya birrea (marula) has been domesticated from varieties of wild parent species to ensure domestic and cultivated offspring with desirable features to meet specific human needs. Part of its early domestication involved establishing orchards in southern Africa and Israel that were resilient to environmental factors and supplied both fresh fruit and fruit for the canning and beverage industries (Nerd, Aronson, & Mizrahi, 1990; Weinert, van Wyk, & Holtzhausen, 1990). While Sclerocarya birrea (marula) is naturally adapted to the climatic and environmental Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 33 conditions of southern Africa, four orchards were established for its domestication and to optimize the postharvest physiology of the fruits at different locations in the Negev Desert of Israel (Nerd & Mizrahi, 1993). To ensure its maximum performance when domesticated, the best soils were used for its propagation, although it grows in a wide variety of soils, preferably well-drained sandy or alluvial soil cuttings (Voget, Steele, & Streit, 2006). Sclerocarya birrea (marula) offers multiple nutritional benefits due to its abundant quantities of copper, calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It also contains other elements, including zinc, manganese, and sodium, although these elements are lower than the maximum level needed for adequate productivity and growth (Aganga & Mosase, 2001). The leaves, bark, root, and fruits are used in food and traditional medicine (Mariod & Abdelwahab, 2012). The extracts from different parts of S. birrea contain a significant amount of total phenolic compounds and radical-scavenging capacities (Mariod & Abdelwahab, 2012). The edible portion of S. birrea seeds has a 36.4% protein content. However, the protein standard is below the best standard recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) because it contains lower amounts of some essential amino acids, such as leucine, lysine, phenylalanine/tyrosine pair, and threonine (Glew et al., 2004). However, Mariod, Ali, Elhussein, and Hussien (2005) argued that all the essential amino acids are present in fair amounts, excluding tryptophan. It also has high ascorbic acid content (Hillman, Mizrahi, & Beit-Yannai, 2008). The fresh juice produced from marula has, on average, four times more antioxidants than the juice of either orange or pomegranate, so it is rich in antioxidants (Hillman et al., 2008). The fruit juice comprises sesquiterpene- hydrocarbon found in plants and is reported to have bacteriostatic properties (Mariod & Abdelwahab, 2012). The white kernel seed in S. birrea is rich in oil content (53.5%), including oleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic fatty acids (Mariod, Matthaus, & Eichner, 2004). In an evaluation of oil extracted from marula seed cake (MSC) (Sclerocarya birrea subspecies caffra) compared with commercial protein supplements (soya bean meal (SBM) and sunflower cake (SC)), it was discovered that MSC is as good as SBM and better than SC as a protein supplement for goats fed grass hay (Mlambo, Dlamini, Nkambule, Mhazo, & Sikosana, 2011). Despite its inherent nutritional content, value has been added to its products in several ways, including through genetic improvement, processing of the product into sesame paste and mixed sugars, biscuits, margarine, and liquor (Amarula), which is traded worldwide (Akinnifesi et al., 2006). Different laws and policies have been enacted, including those governing wild food uses, indiscriminate harvesting of Sclerocarya birrea, and Indigenous rights to benefit from Sclerocarya birrea (Wynberg, Cribbins, et al., 2002; Wynberg, Laird, Botha, & McHardy, 2002). In southern Africa, customary – rather than statutory – laws are employed and enforced to exploit and protect S. birrea, where the resource rights are secured (Wynberg & Laird, 2007). However, in 1992, at the United Nations’ Biological Diversity Earth Summit Convention in Rio de Janeiro, the international policy and principle for the conservation, sustainable use, management, and commercialization of marula was signed (Wynberg, Cribbins, et al., 2002). Article 15 of the Convention allowed countries providing genetic resources to benefit from the commercialization of their genetic resources, including a fair share of the profits generated, as well as non-monetary benefits such as technology and participation in the research and development process (Wynberg, Laird, et al., 2002). 6. THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT The government plays a crucial role in all stages of indigenous food development and commercialization. Early transformation, distribution, and commercialization of cocoa palm, for instance, were facilitated by the United States government (Cook, 1901). The commercialization of palm oil in Malaysia was achieved through strategic US– Malaysia relationships (Yacob, 2019). Scientists from the United States government embedded in local institutions linked to local seed systems and farmers helped develop maize cultivars for better domestication before its spread (Byerlee, 2020). In the case of maize development in the United States, the private sector played a secondary role; a handful of US public institutions headed the development and promoted its spread (Byerlee, 2020). Besides financial support, research, and development, the restructuring of domestic maize commercialization in Mexico was due to policy decisions of the government to support private agents in the maize market (Appendini, 2014). The Implementation of the indigenous African leafy vegetable (ALV) program in Kenya, jointly supported by a group of government ministries, non-governmental organizations, and local, national, and international institutions from 1996 to 2006, resulted in a tremendous increase in the consumption and adoption of indigenous vegetables (Maundu, 2014). This collaboration enabled some farmers in Kenya to navigate market constraints impeding the supply of indigenous vegetables to the local, national and international markets (Ngugi, Gitau, & Nyoro, 2007). To improve nutritional health and food security in South Africa, the government has encouraged the consumption of indigenous food. To achieve this objective, the government established the indigenous food crop program for commercialization through the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) (Gerrano, 2021). Hence, the ARC has embarked on developing new cultivars as an essential means of enhancing indigenous crop production. However, very little or no success has been achieved in the areas of indigenous food development due to a long period of neglect (Gerrano, 2021). This is because the governments of developing countries, especially those in Africa, have not provided sufficient support for the development of indigenous food (Mbhenyane, 2017). The neglect of indigenous food development is evidenced in poor legislation and certification of most indigenous crops and food. Owing to national and international food standards, agricultural products are not allowed to be sold in formal and export markets if not certified. A lack of product certification could impede consumer’' acceptance of that product because some consumers, especially those in urban areas, do not trust the microbiological safety of an un-certified product. Moreover, most supermarket outlets demand formal certification of indigenous food. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 34 A project on the development of infant formula achieved essential milestones and was sold in supermarkets after certification and approval by government agencies in Benin. In Uganda, a bottleneck was overcome to achieve a high level of acceptance and sales of certain indigenous vegetable seeds when granted legal recognition and certification (Rampa et al., 2020a). Ironically, these supermarkets increasingly attract poor consumers besides the middle and upper classes (Figuié & Moustier, 2009). This means that poor households that would have ordinarily purchased uncertified food are indirectly promoting the consumption of certified food. Therefore, to support the upscale of indigenous food beyond household consumption and the informal market level, a certain degree of certification and formalization is required to comply with formal quality standards. More challenging is the rate at which government agents (extension service providers) who are meant to promote the spread of agricultural knowledge rarely promote indigenous foods (Muhanji et al., 2011). 7. CONCLUSION Africa has a rich variety of indigenous foods, including leafy vegetables and crops. However, most of these indigenous foods have not been commercialized, meaning that their holistic benefits are poorly harnessed. The lack of domestication of some African indigenous crops and leafy vegetables has resulted in them being exploited to extinction, especially leafy vegetables that form trees, of which the tender leaves are consumed. Among other things, the lack of approved and reliable production systems, the low status of indigenous food, and poor knowledge of its nutritional benefits affect the popularity of indigenous food. A lack of documentation and information about the number of people demanding specific indigenous foods prevents investors from being attracted to them. Although numerous factors impede the commercialization of indigenous foods, the systematic procedures that will lead to their commercialization have not been aggressively and consistently followed. Unlike many other indigenous food crops, some fruits and leafy vegetables are being successfully promoted for commercialization; for instance, the significance of S. birrea was unveiled, ensuring its domestication and value addition and setting in motion a collaboration among the government, research institutions, and international organizations, leading to the application of good policies and laws by the government – all of which together resulted in its commercialization. The commercialization of indigenous food crops, fruits, and leafy vegetables is possible, but there has been little effort in this regard in terms of domestication, value addition, strategic procedures, working policies, holistic government support, and both local and international collaboration. Once the government effectively collaborates with the private sector, non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and international organizations, it will be a milestone achievement that will allow substantial economic benefits to be reaped from indigenous food. 8. RECOMMENDATIONS Domestication, value addition, and aggressive and consistent awareness campaigns/promotion through effective communication are necessary for the sustainable commercialization of indigenous food. This also includes the use of local and international media, especially broadcasting media. Most importantly, there should be huge domestication and value-addition drive for selected indigenous foods based on their economic value – since there is a wide variety of indigenous foods. The government needs to promote effective collaboration with the private sector, non- governmental organizations, research institutions, and international organizations. Funding: This research is supported by the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre of the University of Fort Hare (Grant number: P749). Competing Interests: The author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Views and opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors views; the Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage, or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. REFERENCES Abbo, S., Lev-Yadun, S., & Gopher, A. (2012). Plant domestication and crop evolution in the Near East: On events and processes. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 31(3), 241-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.645428 Abukutsa-Onyango, M. O. (2010). Strategic repositioning of African indigenous vegetables in the horticulture sector. Paper presented at the Second RUFORUM Biennial Meeting 20 - 24 September 2010, Entebbe, Uganda. Adebooye, O., Baidu-Forson, S. A. J., & Opabode, J. (2005). Seed constraint to cultivation and productivity of African indigenous leaf vegetables. African Journal of Biotechnology, 4(13), 1480-1484. Adebooye, O., & Opabode, J. (2004). Status of conservation of the indigenous leaf vegetables and fruits of Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology, 3(12), 700-705. Afari-Sefa, V., Tenkouano, A., Ojiewo, C. O., Keatinge, J., & d’A Hughes, J. (2012). Vegetable breeding in Africa: Constraints, complexity and contributions toward achieving food and nutritional security. Food Security, 4(1), 115-127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0158-8 Aganga, A., & Mosase, K. (2001). Tannin content, nutritive value and dry matter digestibility of Lonchocarpus capassa, Zizyphus mucronata, Sclerocarya birrea, Kirkia acuminata and Rhus lancea seeds. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 91(1-2), 107- 113. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-8401(01)00235-8 Agea, J. G., Obua, J., Waiswa, D., Okia, C. A., & Okullo, J. B. L. (2010). Farmers’ attitudes towards on-farm cultivation of indigenous fruit, trees in Adwari Sub-County, Lira District, Uganda. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 1(3), 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.645428 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0158-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-8401(01)00235-8 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 35 Akinnifesi, F., Kwesiga, F., Mhango, J., Chilanga, T., Mkonda, A., Kadu, C., & Sileshi, G. (2006). Towards the development of miombo fruit trees as commercial tree crops in Southern Africa. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 16(1), 103-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2006.9752548 Akinola, R., Pereira, L. M., Mabhaudhi, T., De Bruin, F.-M., & Rusch, L. (2020). A review of indigenous food crops in Africa and the implications for more sustainable and healthy food systems. Sustainability, 12(8), 3493. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083493 Apaliya, M. T., Kwaw, E., Osae, R., Alolga, R. N., Aikins, A. S. S., Otoo, G. S., . . . Amo-Broni, C. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 on food security: Ghana in review. Journal of Food Technology Research, 9(3), 160–175. https://doi.org/10.18488/jftr.v9i3.3228 Appendini, K. (2014). Reconstructing the Maize Market in Rural M exico. Journal of Agrarian Change, 14(1), 1-25. Asogwa, I. S., Okoye, J. J., & Oni, K. (2017). Promotion of indigenous food preservation and processing knowledge and the challenge of food security in Africa. Journal of Food Security, 5(3), 75–87. Aziz, A. N. A., & Jalil, M. A. M. (2019). Bioactive compounds, nutritional value, and potential health benefits of indigenous durian (Durio Zibethinus Murr.): A review. Foods, 8(3), 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8030096 Baldermann, S., Blagojević, L., Frede, K., Klopsch, R., Neugart, S., Neumann, A., & Schröter, A. (2016). Are neglected plants the food for the future? Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 35(2), 106-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2016.1201399 Bationo-Kando, P., Sawadogo, B., Kiebre, Z., Kientega, P., Sawadogo, N., Nanema, K., & Zongo, J. (2016). Productivity characteristics and development strategies of Sclerocarya birrea in Burkina Faso. African Crop Science Journal, 24(1), 35- 47. https://doi.org/10.4314/acsj.v24i1.3 Belcher, B., & Schreckenberg, K. (2007). Promotion of indigenous food preservation and processing knowledge and the challenge of food security in Africa. Development Policy Review, 25(3), 355–377. Bhalla, P. L. (2006). Genetic engineering of wheat–current challenges and opportunities. TRENDS in Biotechnology, 24(7), 305- 311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.04.008 Brush, S. B. (1998). Bio-cooperation and the benefits of crop genetic resources: The case of Mexican maize. World Development, 26(5), 755-766. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0305-750x(98)00017-5 Bushnell, G. (1976). The beginning and growth of agriculture in Mexico. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences, 275(936), 117-120. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1976.0074 Byerlee, D. (2020). The globalization of hybrid maize, 1921–70. Journal of Global History, 15(1), 101-122. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1740022819000354 Cádiz-Gurrea, M. D. L. L., Lozano-Sánchez, J., Fernández-Ochoa, Á., & Segura-Carretero, A. (2019). Enhancing the yield of bioactive compounds from Sclerocarya birrea bark by green extraction approaches. Molecules, 24(5), 966. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24050966 Chandrasekhar, S., Satyanarayana, K., Pramada, P., Raghavan, P., & Gupta, T. (2003). Review processing, properties and applications of reactive silica from rice husk—an overview. Journal of Materials Science, 38(15), 3159-3168. Chivenge, P., Mabhaudhi, T., Modi, A. T., & Mafongoya, P. (2015). The potential role of neglected and underutilised crop species as future crops under water scarce conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(6), 5685-5711. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605685 Cloete, P. C., & Idsardi, E. (2013). Consumption of indigenous and traditional food crops: Perceptions and realities from South Africa. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 37(8), 902-914. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2013.805179 Coetzee, C., Jefthas, E., & Reinten, E. (1999). Indigenous plant genetic resources of South Africa. Alexandria, VA: ASHS Press. Cook, O. F. (1901). Origin and distribution of the cocoa palm (Vol. 7). Washington: US Government Printing Office. Cooper, R. (2015). Re-discovering ancient wheat varieties as functional foods. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 5(3), 138-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2015.02.004 Daigle, M. (2019). Tracing the terrain of indigenous food sovereignties. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 46(2), 297-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1324423 Dragomir, V., Brumă, I. S., Butu, A., Petcu, V., Tanasă, L., & Horhocea, D. (2022). An overview of global maize market compared to Romanian production. Romanian Agricultural Research, 1(39), 535–544. Fam, K.-S., Syed Annuar, S. N., Tan, K. L., Lai, F. H., & Ingko, I. A. (2020). Touring destination and intention to consume indigenous food: A case of Kadazan-Dusun food in Sabah. British Food Journal, 122(6), 1883-1896. https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-08-2019-0635 FAO. (1990). Utilization tropical foods: Fruits and leaves (Vol. 47). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT. (2022). Crops and livestock products. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United. Figuié, M., & Moustier, P. (2009). Market appeal in an emerging economy: Supermarkets and poor consumers in Vietnam. Food Policy, 34(2), 210-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.012 Frankel, O. H., Brown, A. H. D., & Burdon, J. J. (1995). The conservation of plant biodiversity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Friedmann, H. (1993). The political economy of food: A global crisis. New Left Review, 197(2), 29–57. Gerrano, A. S. (2021). Indigenous African vegetables can contribute to food security, AgriAbout Digital Magazine. Retrieved from: Indigenous African vegetables can contribute to food security » Agri About [Accessed 04/07/2012]. Ghosh-Jerath, S., Kapoor, R., Barman, S., Singh, G., Singh, A., Downs, S., & Fanzo, J. (2021). Traditional food environment and factors affecting indigenous food consumption in Munda tribal community of Jharkhand, India. Frontiers in Nutrition, 7(1), 600470. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.600470 Glew, R., VanderJagt, D., Huang, Y.-S., Chuang, L.-T., Bosse, R., & Glew, R. (2004). Nutritional analysis of the edible pit of Sclerocarya birrea in the Republic of Niger (daniya, Hausa). Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 17(1), 99-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-1575(03)00101-7 Gnanamanickam, S. S. (2009). Rice and its importance to human life. In Biological Control of Rice Diseases. Dordrecht, England: Springer. Grey, S., & Patel, R. (2015). Food sovereignty as decolonization: Some contributions from Indigenous movements to food system and development politics. Agriculture and Human Values, 32(3), 431-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9548-9 https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2006.9752548 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083493 https://doi.org/10.18488/jftr.v9i3.3228 https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8030096 https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2016.1201399 https://doi.org/10.4314/acsj.v24i1.3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.04.008 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0305-750x(98)00017-5 https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1976.0074 https://doi.org/10.1017/s1740022819000354 https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24050966 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605685 https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2013.805179 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2015.02.004 https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1324423 https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-08-2019-0635 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.012 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.600470 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-1575(03)00101-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9548-9 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 36 Grivetti, L. E., & Ogle, B. M. (2000). Value of traditional foods in meeting macro-and micronutrient needs: The wild plant connection. Nutrition Research Reviews, 13(1), 31-46. https://doi.org/10.1079/095442200108728990 Harlan, J. R. (1968). On the origin of barley. In (pp. 9-31). Washington D.C: United States Department of Agriculture. HarvestPlus, Lusaka, Zambia, & Simpungwe, E. (2017). Orange maize in Zambia: Crop development and delivery experience. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 17(2), 11973–11999. Henderson, J. (2009). Food tourism reviewed. British Food Journal, 111(4), 317-326. https://doi.org/10.1108/00070700910951470 Hillman, Z., Mizrahi, Y., & Beit-Yannai, E. (2008). Evaluation of valuable nutrients in selected genotypes of marula (Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra). Scientia Horticulturae, 117(4), 321-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2008.05.008 Hunde, N. F. (2017). Opportunity problems and production status of vegetables in Ethiopia: A review. Ournal of Plant Science & Research, 4(2), 1-13. Janke, T. (2018). From smokebush to spinifex : Towards recognition of indigenous knowledge in the commercialisation of plants. International Journal of Rural Law and Policy, 1(2), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.5130/ijrlp.1.2018.5713 Johannessen, C. L., Wilson, M. R., & Davenport, W. A. (1970). The domestication of maize: Process or event? Geographical Review, 60(3), 393. https://doi.org/10.2307/214040 Karanja, D., Okoko, N., Kiptarus, E., Okongo, P., Samali, S., Katunzi, A., & Yala, K. (2012). Promoting farmer-led seed enterprises of African indigenous vegetables to boost household incomes and nutrition in Kenya and Tanzania. Paper presented at the Conference on Agricultural Biodiversity in Africa. Khush, G. S. (2000). Taxonomy and origin of rice. Los Banos: International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philipines or Aromatic Rices. Kugedera, A. T., Sakadzo, N., Museva, T., Kokerai, L. K., Muridzi, G., & Musaraf, A. (2021). Role and commercialisation of indigenous knowledge in the control of Covid-19 pandemic. The Dyke, 15(2), 43-57. Kuhnlein, H. V., Erasmus, B., Spigelski, D., & FAO. (2009). Indigenous peoples’ food systems: The many dimensions of culture, diversity and environment for nutrition and health. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Kuyu, C. G., & Bereka, T. Y. (2020). Review on contribution of indigenous food preparation and preservation techniques to attainment of food security in Ethiopian. Food Science & Nutrition, 8(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1274 Kuznesof, S., Tregear, A., & Moxey, A. (1997). Regional foods: A consumer perspective. British Food Journal, 99(6), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1108/00070709710181531 Lasiak, T., & Dye, A. (1989). The ecology of the brown mussel Perna perna in Transkei, Southern Africa: Implications for the management of a traditional food resource. Biological Conservation, 47(4), 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006- 3207(89)90068-2 Lewu, M., Adebola, P., & Afolayan, A. (2010). Comparative assessment of the nutritional value of commercially available cocoyam and potato tubers in South Africa. Journal of Food Quality, 33(4), 461-476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745- 4557.2010.00325.x Lockwood, J. L., Cassey, P., & Blackburn, T. M. (2009). The more you introduce the more you get: The role of colonization pressure and propagule pressure in invasion ecology. Diversity and Distributions, 15(5), 904-910. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00594.x Macauley, H., & Ramadjita, T. (2015). Cereal crops: Rice, maize, millet, sorghum, wheat. Acra: University of Cape Coast Institutional Repository Press. Malhotra, N., Shenoy, R. P., Acharya, S., Shenoy, R., & Mayya, S. (2011). Effect of three indigenous food stains on resin-based, microhybrid-, and nanocomposites. Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry, 23(4), 250-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8240.2011.00431.x Mariod, A. A., & Abdelwahab, S. I. (2012). Sclerocarya birrea (Marula), an African tree of nutritional and medicinal uses: A review. Food Reviews International, 28(4), 375-388. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.660716 Mariod, A., Ali, A., Elhussein, S., & Hussien, I. (2005). Quality of proteins and products based on Sclerocarya birrea (Marula) seed. Sudan Journal of Science and Technology, 6(1), 184–192. Mariod, A., Matthaus, B., & Eichner, K. (2004). Fatty acid, tocopherol and sterol composition as well as oxidative stability of three unusual Sudanese oils. Journal of Food Lipids, 11(3), 179-189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4522.2004.01131.x Marsh, R. E. (1998). Historical review of ground squirrel crop damage in California. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 42(2-3), 93-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-8305(98)00014-6 Martens, T. R. (2018). Responsibilities and reflections: Indigenous food, culture, and relationships. Canadian Food Studies/the Canadian Food Studies Journal, 5(2), 9-12. https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v5i2.216 Maseko, I., Mabhaudhi, T., Tesfay, S., Araya, H. T., Fezzehazion, M., & Plooy, C. P. D. (2017). African leafy vegetables: A review of status, production and utilization in South Africa. Sustainability, 10(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010016 Masekoameng, M. R., & Molotja, M. C. (2019). The role of indigenous foods and indigenous knowledge systems for rural households’ food security in Sekhukhune district, Limpopo province, South Africa. Journal of Consumer Sciences, 47(se1), 34-48. Maundu, P. M. (2014). Amaranthus dubius (Amaranthaceae): From despised to praised. In Nono-Wondim, R., Achigan-Dako, G.E., Pichop, G.N., Maundu, P., Baudoin, W., NeBambi, Apane, J., et al. (Eds.), Agrobiodiversity of Tropical Africa. A Guide to a Sustainable Production of Selected Underutilized Crops (Vol. 1). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United (FAO). Mbaiwa, J. E. (2003). The socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism development on the Okavango Delta, north- western Botswana. Journal of Arid Environments, 54(2), 447-467. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2002.1101 Mbhenyane, X. G. (2017). The contribution of ‘indigenous foods’ to the elimination of hidden hunger and food insecurity: An illusion or innovation? Western Cape: Stellenbosch University, SUN MeDIA. McNeely, J. A. (1988). Economics and biological diversity: Developing and using economic incentives to conserve biological resources. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Mlambo, V., Dlamini, B., Nkambule, M., Mhazo, N., & Sikosana, J. (2011). Nutritional evaluation of marula (Sclerocarya birrea) seed cake as a protein supplement for goats fed grass hay. Tropical Agriculture, 41(3216), 010035-010009. Mnguni, E., & Giampiccoli, A. (2019). Proposing a model on the recognition of indigenous food in tourism attraction and beyond. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 8(3), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1079/095442200108728990 https://doi.org/10.1108/00070700910951470 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2008.05.008 https://doi.org/10.5130/ijrlp.1.2018.5713 https://doi.org/10.2307/214040 https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1274 https://doi.org/10.1108/00070709710181531 https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(89)90068-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(89)90068-2 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00325.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2010.00325.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00594.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8240.2011.00431.x https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.660716 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4522.2004.01131.x https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-8305(98)00014-6 https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v5i2.216 https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010016 https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2002.1101 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 37 Mokgolodi, N. C., Ding, Y.-F., Setshogo, M. P., Ma, C., & Liu, Y.-J. (2011). The importance of an indigenous tree to southern African communities with specific relevance to its domestication and commercialization: a case of the marula tree. Forestry Studies in China, 13(1), 36-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11632-011-0110-1 Muhanji, G., Roothaert, R. L., Webo, C., & Stanley, M. (2011). African indigenous vegetable enterprises and market access for small-scale farmers in East Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 194-202. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0561 Muyambo, T., & Shava, S. (2021). Indigenous crop production for sustainable livelihoods: A case of uninga in the rural areas of South-Eastern Zimbabwe. International Journal of Community Well-Being, 4(3), 443-454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413- 020-00102-6 Nengovhela, R., Taruvinga, A., & Mushunje, A. (2018). Determinants of indigenous fruits consumption frequency among rural households: Evidence from mutale local Municipality, South Africa. Journal of Advanced Agricultural Technologies, 5(3), 227–231. https://doi.org/10.18178/joaat.5.3.227-231 Nepfumbada, G., Dzinamarira, T., & Mashamba-Thompson, T. P. (2021). Development of an acceptable indigenous food diet for Pedi children under five years in early childhood development centers in rural Limpopo, South Africa. Archives of Public Health, 79(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00743-9 Nerd, A., Aronson, J. A., & Mizrahi, Y. (1990). Introduction and domestication of rare and wild fruit F.nd nut trees for desert. In: J.Janick and J.E. Simons (Eds.), In Janick, J. and Simons, J.E. (Eds.), Advance. in New Crops. In (pp. 355-363). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. Nerd, A., & Mizrahi, Y. (1993). Domestication and introduction of Marula (sclerocarya birrea subsp. Caffra) as a new crop for the negev desert of israel. New Crops, 10(1), 496–499. Ngugi, I. K., Gitau, R., & Nyoro, J. K. (2007). Access to high value markets by smallholder farmers of African indigenous vegetables in Kenya, Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series. London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Nkosi, N. N., Mostert, T. H. C., Dzikiti, S., & Ntuli, N. R. (2020). Prioritization of indigenous fruit tree species with domestication and commercialization potential in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 67(6), 1567-1575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-020-00932-5 Nnamani, C., Oselebe, H., & Agbatutu, A. (2009). Assessment of nutritional values of three underutilized indigenous leafy vegetables of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(10), 2321-2324. Odhav, B., Beekrum, S., Akula, U., & Baijnath, H. (2007). Preliminary assessment of nutritional value of traditional leafy vegetables in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 20(5), 430-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2006.04.015 Omotayo, A. O., & Aremu, A. O. (2020). Evaluation of factors influencing the inclusion of indigenous plants for food security among rural households in the North West Province of South Africa. Sustainability, 12(22), 1-19. Onyeabor, E. N. (2016). Tourism potential of Onicha Igboeze community new yam festival Ebonyi State Nigeria. European Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 3(1), 13-25. Østerberg, J. T., Xiang, W., Olsen, L. I., Edenbrandt, A. K., Vedel, S. E., Christiansen, A., & Sandøe, P. (2017). Accelerating the domestication of new crops: Feasibility and approaches. Trends in Plant Science, 22(5), 373-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.01.004 Pichop, G. N., Abukutsa-Onyango, M., Noorani, A., & Nono-Womdim, R. (2014). Importance of indigenous food crops in tropical Africa: Case study. Paper presented at the XXIX International Horticultural Congress on Horticulture: Sustaining Lives, Livelihoods and Landscapes (IHC2014). Pingali, P. L., & Rosegrant, M. W. (1995). Agricultural commercialization and diversification: Processes and policies. Food Policy, 20(3), 171-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-9192(95)00012-4 Piperno, D. R. (2017). Assessing elements of an extended evolutionary synthesis for plant domestication and agricultural origin research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(25), 6429-6437. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1703658114 Quaye, W., Adofo, K., Agyeman, K. O., & Nimoh, F. (2010). Socioeconomic survey of traditional commercial production of cocoyam and cocoyam leaf. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 10(9), 4060-4078. Rampa, F., Lammers, E., Linnemann, A., Schoustra, S., & De Winter, D. (2020a). African indigenous foods: Opportunities for improved food and nutrition security. Food and Business Knowledge Platform. Rampa, F., Lammers, E., Linnemann, A., Schoustra, S., & De Winter, D. (2020b). Pathways to improved food and nutrition security of the poor: The promise of African indigenous foods and technologies: NWO WOTRO. Ranum, P., Peña-Rosas, J. P., & Garcia-Casal, M. N. (2014). Global maize production, utilization, and consumption. Annals of the new York academy of sciences, 1312(1), 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12396 Raschke, V., & Cheema, B. (2008). Colonisation, the new world order, and the eradication of traditional food habits in East Africa: Historical perspective on the nutrition transition. Public Health Nutrition, 11(7), 662-674. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980007001140 Reinten, E., & Coetzee, J. H. (2002). Commercialisation of South African indigenous crops: Aspects of research and cultivation of products, edited by Janick, J. and Whipkey, A. Alexandria, VA: ASHS Press. Richmond, C., Kerr, R. B., Neufeld, H., Steckley, M., Wilson, K., & Dokis, B. (2021). Supporting food security for Indigenous families through the restoration of Indigenous foodways. The Canadian Geographer, 65(1), 97-109. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12677 Saka, J. K., & Msonthi, J. D. (1994). Nutritional value of edible fruits of indigenous wild trees in Malawi. Forest Ecology and Management, 64(2-3), 245-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(94)90298-4 Samaddar, A., Azam, M. M., Singaravadivel, K., Venkatachalapathy, N., Swain, B. B., & Mishra, P. (2017). Postharvest management and value addition of rice and its by-products: The future rice strategy for India. New Delhi: International Rice Research Institute. Sampson, D. R. (1954). On the origin of oats. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 16(10), 265-303. https://doi.org/10.5962/p.168493 Santafe-Troncoso, V., & Loring, P. A. (2021). Indigenous food sovereignty and tourism: The Chakra Route in the Amazon region of ecuador. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(2-3), 392-411. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1770769 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11632-011-0110-1 https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0561 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-020-00102-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-020-00102-6 https://doi.org/10.18178/joaat.5.3.227-231 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00743-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-020-00932-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2006.04.015 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.01.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-9192(95)00012-4 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1703658114 https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12396 https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980007001140 https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12677 https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(94)90298-4 https://doi.org/10.5962/p.168493 https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1770769 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 13(1)2023: 25-38 38 Sarkar, D., Walker-Swaney, J., & Shetty, K. (2020). Food diversity and indigenous food systems to combat diet-linked chronic diseases. Current Developments in Nutrition, 4(Supplement_1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzz099 Sebastian, T., & Donelly, M. (2013). Policy influences affecting the food practices of indigenous Australians since colonisation. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2(1), 59–75. Settee, P., & Shukla, S. (2020). Indigenous food systems: Concepts, cases, and conversations. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Imprinting. Shackleton, S., Kirby, D., & Gambiza, J. (2011). Invasive plants–friends or foes? Contribution of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) to livelihoods in Makana Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 28(2), 177-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835x.2011.570065 Shackleton., C., Dzerefos, C., Shackleton, S., & Mathabela, F. (2000). The use of and trade in indigenous edible fruits in the Bushbuckridge savanna region, South Africa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 39(3), 225-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2000.9991616 Shewry, P. R. (2009). Wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(6), 1537–1553. Swiderska, K., & Ryan, P. (2021). Indigenous food systems, biocultural heritage and the SDGs. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development. Theoharides, K. A., & Dukes, J. S. (2007). Plant invasion across space and time: Factors affecting nonindigenous species success during four stages of invasion. New Phytologist, 176(2), 256-273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x Thilsted, S. H., Roos, N., & Hassan, N. (1997). The role of small indigenous fish species in food and nutrition security in Bangladesh. Naga ICLARM Quarterly, 20(3), 82-84. Unya, I. U. (2021). The transformation and Significance of the New Yam Festival in contemporary Igbo society of Nigeria. Uzu Journal, 8(3), 11–25. Van der Merwe, J. D., Cloete, P. C., & Van Der Hoeven, M. (2016). Promoting food security through indigenous and traditional food crops. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 40(8), 830-847. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2016.1159642 Van Rensburg, W. J., Venter, S., Netshiluvhi, T., Van Den Heever, E., Vorster, H., De Ronde, J., & Bornman, C. (2004). Role of indigenous leafy vegetables in combating hunger and malnutrition. South African Journal of Botany, 70(1), 52-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0254-6299(15)30268-4 Venter, C. S., Vorster, H. H., & Steyn, S. H. (2005). Nutrient intake and consumption of indigenous foods among college students in Limpopo Province. SAJCN, 18(1), 32–39. Voget, S., Steele, H., & Streit, W. (2006). Characterization of a metagenome-derived halotolerant cellulase. Journal of Biotechnology, 126(1), 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.02.011 Vorster, H. H., Badham, J., & Venter, C. (2013). An introduction to the revised food-based dietary guidelines for South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 26(2), S5-S12. Wang, J., Chen, T., Zhang, W., Zhao, Y., Yang, S., & Chen, A. (2020). Tracing the geographical origin of rice by stable isotopic analyses combined with chemometrics. Food Chemistry, 313, 126093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.126093 Wang, J. F., Dinssa, F. F., Ebert, A. W., Hughes, D. J., Stoilova, T., Nenguwo, N., & Dhillon, N. P. S. (2014). Indigenous vegetables worldwide: Their importance and future development. Horticulture: Sustaining Lives, Livelihoods and Landscapes (IHC2014), 1102, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2015.1102.1 Weber, E. (1998). The dynamics of plant invasions: A case study of three exotic goldenrod species (Solidago L.) in Europe. Journal of Biogeography, 25(1), 147-154. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.251119.x Weinert, I. A. G., van Wyk, P. J., & Holtzhausen, L. C. (1990). Marula P. In Nagy, S., Show, P.E. and Nardowsky, W.F. (Eds.), Fruits of Tropical and Subtropical Origin. In (pp. 88–115). Lake Alfred, Florida: Florida Science Source. Whyte, K. P. (2016). Indigenous food systems, environmental justice, and settler-industrial states. In Rawlinson, M. and Ward, C. (Eds.), Global Food, Global Justice: Essays on Eating under Globalization. In (pp. 143–156). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ady Stephenson Library. Wynberg, R., Cribbins, J., Leakey, R., Lombard, C., Mander, M., Shackleton, S., & Sullivan, C. (2002). Knowledge on Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra with emphasis on its importance as a non-timber forest product in South and southern Africa: A summary: Part 2: Commercial use, tenure and policy, domestication, intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing. Southern African Forestry Journal, 1(196), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/20702620.2002.10434620 Wynberg, R., Laird, S., Botha, J., & McHardy, T. (2002). The management, use and commercialisation of Marula: Policy issues. London: United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). Wynberg, R., & Laird, S. (2007). Less is often more: Governance of a non-timber forest product, marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) in Southern Africa. International Forestry Review, 9(1), 475-490. https://doi.org/10.1505/ifor.9.1.475 Yacob, S. (2019). Government, business and lobbyists: The politics of Palm oil in US–Malaysia relations. The International History Review, 41(4), 909-930. https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1457556 Yadav, V. K., & Supriya, P. (2014). Value addition in Maize. In Maize: Nutrition Dynamics and Novel Uses. In (pp. 141-152). New Delhi: Springer. Yaro, J. A., Teye, J. K., & Torvikey, G. D. (2017). Agricultural commercialisation models, agrarian dynamics and local development in Ghana. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44(3), 538-554. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1259222 Zobolo, A. M., Mkabela, Q. N., & Mtetwa, D. K. (2008). Enhancing the status of indigenous vegetables through use of kraal manure substitutes and intercropping. Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 7(2), 211-222. https://doi.org/10.4314/indilinga.v7i2.26437 Zondi, N. T. B., Ngidi, M. S. C., Ojo, T. O., & Hlatshwayo, S. I. (2022). Factors influencing the extent of the commercialisation of indigenous crops among smallholder farmers in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 15(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzz099 https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835x.2011.570065 https://doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2000.9991616 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2016.1159642 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0254-6299(15)30268-4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.02.011 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.126093 https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2015.1102.1 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.251119.x https://doi.org/10.1080/20702620.2002.10434620 https://doi.org/10.1505/ifor.9.1.475 https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1457556 https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1259222 https://doi.org/10.4314/indilinga.v7i2.26437