EFFECT OF SELECTED INSECTICIDE ON WHITEFLY (Bemisia tabaci) INFESTING BRINJAL PLANTS 1 An analysis of environmental and economic impacts of the system of rice intensification : A case study in Thai Binh Province, Vietnam Do Quang Huya Minakshi Keenib Katsuhito Fuyukic a,b,cTohoku University, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Japan.  qhuy.do95@gmail.com (Corresponding author) ArticleHistory ABSTRACT Received: 17 July 2023 Revised: 22 September 2023 Accepted: 2 January 2024 Published: 19 February 2024 Keywords Climate change mitigation Economic benefit Environment protection Greenhouse gas emission Rice cultivation SRI Sustainable development. The current research investigates the environmental and economic impacts of the system of rice intensification. Rice, a fundamental staple in our diets, is paradoxically a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, fueling global warming and climate change. A promising solution to this is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). Embraced in Vietnam's National Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, SRI aims to boost rice yields while curbing greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional farming practices. This study focuses on Thai Binh, a key rice-producing province in the Red River Delta. Our objective is to assess the economic, environmental, and broader societal impacts of SRI versus conventional farming. We conducted a comprehensive analysis, utilizing tools such as Cost and Benefit (CBA) evaluations, Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC) calculations, and the Linkert scale to gauge the effects. Data from 175 farmers in Phu Luong commune, Dong Hung district, Thai Binh province, formed the basis of our study. The results highlight the advantages of adopting SRI. Implementing SRI not only leads to a substantial increase of approximately 12 million Vietnamese Dong (VND) in revenue but also showcases a remarkably favorable cost of -2.7 VND for reducing 1 ton of CO2eq/ha during the transition from conventional farming. This highlights the financial and environmental benefits of SRI. Furthermore, our assessment demonstrates that SRI consistently outperforms conventional farming across economic, environmental, and societal dimensions. In essence, our findings strongly advocate for the adoption of SRI over conventional rice cultivation, as it not only mitigates environmental harm but also enhances farmers' profitability and well-being, aligning with sustainable agriculture practices and climate change mitigation efforts. Contribution/Originality: While there have been individual studies examining the economic and environmental efficiency of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), there remains a notable gap in research when it comes to assessing the correlation between the costs and benefits associated with reducing greenhouse gas emissions through SRI in Vietnam. DOI: 10.55493/5005.v14i1.4983 ISSN(P): 2304-1455/ ISSN(E): 2224-4433 How to cite: Huy, D. Q., Keeni, M., & Fuyuki, K. (2024). An analysis of environmental and economic impacts of the system of rice intensification : A case study in Thai Binh Province, Vietnam. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1), 1–9. 10.55493/5005.v14i1.4983 © 2024 Asian Economic and Social Society. All rights reserved. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Volume 14, Issue 1 (2024): 1-9. http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3379-2098 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6544-0125 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7255-7145 mailto:qhuy.do95@gmail.com http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 2 1. INTRODUCTION Rice occupies a central position in Vietnam, both economically and culturally. As one of the world's foremost rice producers, Vietnam relies heavily on rice cultivation, a sector that fortifies the nation's food security and sustains over 15 million small farmers (RIKOLTO, 2017). Moreover, rice stands as a cultural pillar in Vietnam, integral to the nation's cuisine and a centerpiece in numerous traditional festivals and ceremonies. In 2020, rice farming was conducted over an expansive area of about 7.28 million hectares, producing an estimated 43.76 million tons (General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), 2020). Furthermore, Vietnam has established itself as a major player in the global rice export market, channeling a significant stream of foreign income. Vietnamese rice products reach over 100 countries globally, amounting to a turnover of 6.25 million tons and approximately $3.12 billion in 2020 (Tran & Nguyen, 2022). However, rice cultivation is notably the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other crops. These emissions stem from multiple avenues, including the decomposition of organic matter in waterlogged rice paddies and the employment of synthetic fertilizers (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2006). Consequently, the Vietnamese rice sector was responsible for about 39.36 mtCO2eq1 of emissions in 2020, nearly accounting for 40% of the total emissions from the country's agricultural sector (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), 2021). In recent years, climate change has emerged as a significant challenge, with Vietnam being acutely susceptible to its repercussions (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), 2016). The country has been consistently identified as one of the most at-risk nations globally (ranked 5th in 2016 and 6th in 2017) (Eckstein, Hutfils, & Winges, 2018). The tangible impact was felt in 2018 when over 250,000 hectares of rice lands were compromised (General Department of Natural Disaster Prevention and Control, 2018). Projected climate change scenarios suggest that by 2050, substantial portions of the agricultural areas in the Red River and Mekong Deltas will be lost, potentially reducing rice production by 10-20% (World Bank (WB), 2010). Without adaptive strategies, 21.4% of rice output could be forfeited by 2100 (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), 2022). At the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Vietnam joined nearly 200 other countries in adopting the Paris Agreement. This pact aims to curb global warming, thus diminishing the adverse impacts of climate change on human societies. The agreement encourages countries to delineate and periodically update nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which stipulate goals for cutting greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing adaptive initiatives. To address these challenges, the Vietnamese government has embarked on both adaptive and mitigative strategies for climate change. By 2030, the country's agricultural sector seeks to cut total greenhouse gas emissions by 12.4 million tons of CO2eq using domestic resources and 50.9 million tons of CO2eq with international assistance (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), 2016). SRI offers a potential approach for achieving Vietnam’s NDC objectives. This eco-friendly and efficient farming approach not only boosts yield but also cuts greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through reduced fertilizer and pesticide usage (Norman, Koma, Phrek, Klaus, & Humayun, 2000). First introduced in Vietnam in 2003, it was widely applied under Decision “No. 3062/QD-BNN- KHCN”, 2benefiting nearly 450,000 hectares and about 1.8 million farmers nationwide by 2015 (Hoang, Nguyen, & Nguyen, 2015). This study aspires to amass information on the implementation of SRI techniques in the face of climate change, intending to propose methods to foster environmentally sustainable economic development. Given the scant previous research evaluating the economic and environmental efficacy of SRI in the Red River Delta, this study seeks to fill the gap by analyzing the costs associated with emission reductions when transitioning from conventional farming to SRI. Policymakers are likely to find the insights garnered from this study invaluable in evaluating SRI against other rice cultivation methods and fulfilling the stipulations outlined in the NDCs. Furthermore, this research aims to perform a comprehensive assessment of the impact of SRI, taking into account farmers' viewpoints across economic, environmental, and social facets. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW The System of Rice Intensification (SRI)presents a promising methodology that optimizes the utilization of input resources such as plants, water, and nutrients to augment rice yields (Arsil et al., 2022; Shah, Tasawwar, Bhat, & Otterpohl, 2021). Currently, more than 20 million farmers in over 60 countries globally are employing SRI practices (Uphoff & Thakur, 2019). A multitude of studies have testified to the efficacy of SRI, highlighting benefits such as enhanced nutrient absorption, improved disease resistance, resilience to climate pressures, and increased rice yields (Doni, Mispan, Suhaimi, Ishak, & Uphoff, 2019; Nugroho et al., 2018; Thakur, Mandal, Verma, & Mohanty, 2023).Moreover, this approach allows for the reduction in the quantities and costs associated with inputs such as seeds, water, fertilizers, and laborcosts (Arif et al., 2022; Meesala & Rasala, 2022). 1CO2eq: CO2equivalent 2 Decision “No. 3062/QD-BNN-KHCN” issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development on October 15, 2007: recognized "Application of integrated intensive farming in rice production in some Northern provinces" as Technical Progress. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 3 Table 1. Economic and environmental efficiency when applying SRI compared to conventional cultivation in some regions. Country/Region Amount (%) Status Sources Seed/ Seed cost Nepal: Eastern 90 Surdeep (2010) Mali 85-90 Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) (2014) Vietnam: Tra Vinh 70 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (2013) Vietnam: Binh Dinh 21.3 Vu et al. (2018) Water usage China: Sichuan 70 Lu, Dong, Yuan, and Hilario (2013) Indo-gangetic plains 36 Jain et al. (2013) Mali 10 Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) (2014) Labor/Service cost Nepal: Eastern 17 Surdeep (2010) Mali 15-25 Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) (2014) Vietnam: Tra Vinh 10-29 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (2013) Vietnam: Binh Dinh 9.7 Vu et al. (2018) Fertilizer / Fertilizer cost Nepal: Eastern 46-49 Surdeep (2010) China: Sichuan 10-15 Lu et al. (2013) Mali 30 Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) (2014) Vietnam: Tra Vinh 35 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (2013) Pesticide Nepal : Eastern 99 Surdeep (2010) Vietnam: Tra Vinh 87 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (2013) Vietnam: Binh Dinh 34.8 Vu et al. (2018) Yield Nepal: Eastern 118 Surdeep (2010) China: Sichuan 19.8 - 59.8 Lu et al. (2013) Mali 34 Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) (2014) Vietnam: Quang Binh 19.6-23.6 Duong (2017) Vietnam: Tra Vinh 20 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (2013) Vietnam: Binh Dinh 10.6 Vu et al. (2018) Greenhouse gas emissions Indo-gangetic plains 28-30 Jain et al. (2013) Vietnam: Quang Binh 11.9-18.5 Duong (2017) Vietnam: Binh Dinh 47-69 Vu et al. (2018) SRI applications have shown promising potential for reducing emissions and fostering sustainable development when compared to traditional farming techniques (Hoang et al., 2015; Nirmala et al., 2021). Table 1 shows various benefits of adopting SRI over conventional farming methods. Applying SRI helped to reduce 21.3% (Vu et al., 2018), 70% (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2013), 85-90% (Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), 2014) and 90% (Surdeep, 2010) Seed/ seed cost; reduced water use 10% (Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), 2014), 36% (Jain et al., 2013) and 70% Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 4 (Lu et al., 2013); fertilizer quantity/fertilizer cost reduced 10-15% (Lu et al., 2013), 35% (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2013), 30% (Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), 2014), 46-49% (Surdeep, 2010); reduced pesticides 34.8% (Vu et al., 2018), 87% (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2013), 99% (Surdeep, 2010); reduced greenhouse gas emissions 47-69% (Vu et al., 2018), 11.9-18.5%(Duong, 2017), 28-30% (Jain et al., 2013); Reduced labor/ service costs 9.7% (Vu et al., 2018) and 17% (Surdeep, 2010) but in Tra Vinh province of Vietnam and Mali, labor costs when applying SRI was higher than conventional cultivation, 10-29% (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2013) and 15-25%(Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), 2014) respectively. Yields when applying SRI also gave overall results that were higher than conventional farming (10.6% (Vu et al., 2018), 20% (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2013), 19.6-23.6 (Duong, 2017), 34% (Oakland Institute and Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), 2014), 19.8-59.8% (Lu et al., 2013), 118% (Surdeep, 2010). In sum, different studies have found that the performance of SRI can vary depending on factors such as geographical location, soil type, or the specific rice variety grown. Despite the promising findings, it is clear that further research is necessary to fully delineate the potential of SRI and to tailor its application optimally to diverse regions and farming contexts. To formulate strategies for the effective implementation of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC), detailed assessments are required to analyze the cost-benefit efficiency, environmental impact, and emissions reduction costs—establishing a coherent relationship between economic and environmental dimensions. The objective of this study is to devise optimal solutions that guarantee economic viability for farmers while safeguarding environmental benefits. This will be achieved through the conceptualization of hypothetical calculation scenarios, which will serve as a foundation for policymakers in evaluating various prioritized mitigation strategies in rice cultivation, thereby facilitating Vietnam's commitment to reducing emissions. 3. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 3.1. Study Area Selection This study was conducted in Phu Luong commune, Dong Hung district, Thai Binh province, Vietnam. Nestled in the northern part of both the Dong Hung district and the Thai Binh province, Phu Luong is a mere 3 km away from Dong Hung town and borders National Highway 10. It spans a natural land expanse of 476.78 hectares. Predominantly, the inhabitants of Phu Luong Commune sustain themselves through agricultural endeavors. As per the data from the Phu Luong Commune People's Committee (2021), a significant portion of the land, encompassing 371.73 hectares, or 77.98% of the total area, is earmarked for agricultural production. Out of this, a substantial part, aggregating to 297.86 hectares, or just over 80%, is utilized for cultivating rice. 3.2. Data Collection Methods Primary data was gathered from 175 farmers who engaged in both SRI and conventional cultivation methods. The data collection process involved direct interviews facilitated through a detailed questionnaire, administered in October 2022. This questionnaire was segmented into three primary sections: particulars pertaining to rice farming households, insights into the economic indicators of rice farming, and evaluations of the economic, environmental, and social repercussions of both conventional and SRI rice farming approaches. The data compilation spanned two critical agricultural sessions: the spring season, which extended from November 2021 to May 2022, and the subsequent summer season, from June to October 2022.To ascertain the optimal sample size for this study, the renowned Yamane (1967) was employed: 𝑛 = 𝑁 1 + 𝑁 ∗ 𝑒2 Where, n is the sample size. N is the size of rice cultivation household. e is the allowable error of 10 percent. Table 2 presents a comparison of household details between those practicing SRI and conventional cultivation methods. Generally, the demographic of respondents involved in rice farming skews older, boasting an average age of 59.4 years. Additionally, the educational background among this group is relatively limited, with the majority, accounting for over 80%, having completed their education at the secondary school level. When it comes to labor division, just over half of the family's working members are engaged in rice cultivation. It was noted that 54% of the respondents were male. A notable fraction of the interviewees possess a substantial history in rice cultivation, including a duration of over three decades. However, the rice cultivation plots in the study area tend to be small and dispersed, averaging 0.175 hectares per household. To complement the primary data, secondary information was amassed from various sources, including books, newspapers, websites, legal documents, and publications and statistical yearbooks from organizations such as the General Statistics Office (GSO), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), and the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD). Furthermore, this study leveraged previously published projects, studies, and documents as references and foundational data sources. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 5 Table 2. Description of household background information between SRI and Conventional cultivation. Information SRI Conventional cultivation All respondents Mean SD3 Mean SD Mean SD Age of respondents 58.667 6.972 60.176 7.322 59.400 7.163 Primaryschool(%) 10.000 3.529 6.857 Secondary school (%) 72.222 92.941 82.286 High school (%) 8.889 1.176 5.143 University/college (%) 8.889 2.353 5.714 Number of family members (Person) 4.244 1.283 4.211 1.092 4.229 1.191 Number of family members in working age (Person) 2.944 0.964 3.011 0.837 2.977 0.903 Number of family members join rice production (Person) 1.822 0.384 1.776 0.419 1.800 0.401 Male respondents (%) 47.778 61.176 54.285 Head of households (%) 55.556 65.882 60.571 Year of experience 32.09 7.9 30.4 5.9 31.2 7.05 Rice farming area (ha)4 0.173 0.073 0.179 0.127 0.175 0.102 Total Agriculture areas (ha) 0.188 0.083 0.186 0.136 0.187 0.112 3.3. Data Analysis Method A Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) was conducted to assess the economic efficiency of implementing the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) in comparison to conventional cultivation practices. The economic data was gathered through direct interviews at the research site, utilizing the information gleaned from the questionnaire. To ascertain the costs associated with reducing emissions when transitioning from conventional cultivation to the SRI approach, the Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC) was calculated. The emission data was drawn from the research conducted by Dao Minh Trang and colleagues in 2019 in the specific study area of Phu Luong commune, Dong Hung district, and Thai Binh province. The marginal abatement cost (MAC) formula is based on cost-effectiveness and total mitigation potential: 𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 𝑁𝑃𝑉𝐵 − 𝑁𝑃𝑉𝑆𝑅𝐼 𝑁𝐺𝑇 Where SRI: SRI measure. B: Conventional cultivation measure. NPV: Net present value is calculated using the formula: 𝑁𝑃𝑉 = ∑ ( 𝑃 (1 + 𝑖)𝑡 ) − 𝐶 Where: P: Cash inflow. i : Discount rate = 10%. t: Time. C: Initial cost. NGT: Net total greenhouse gas emission is calculated using the formula: 𝑁𝐺𝑇 = ∑(𝐸𝑆𝑅𝐼 − 𝐸𝐵) ∗ 𝑡 Where: E: Emission. t: Time. The impact assessment of SRI was collected using a Likert scale from 1-5. It collected people's evaluations of the economy, society and environment. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 3 illustrates the difference in the cost structure between SRI and conventional cultivation methods per hectare per year. Initially, farmers utilizing the SRI methods incur lesser expenses compared to traditional farming, approximately 1.74 million Vietnamese Dong (VND).Notably, the largest cost reduction is witnessed in seeding and plouinglabor, amounting to around 1.39 million VND. Furthermore, the expenditures for seeds and pesticides are roughly 0.90 million VND and 0.55 million VND, respectively. Conversely, fertilizer costs under the SRI approach are about 1.10 million VND higher than those for conventional farming. 3SD: Standard deviation. 41ha = 10000 m2 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 6 Table 3. Description of the cost structure of rice production between SRI and conventional cultivation for 1 ha area/year. Items SRI Conventional cultivation Difference Mean Mean Input cost 8.813.330 9.164.622 -351.292 Seeds 1.000.080 1.900.152 -900.072 Fertilizer 4.924.130 3.819.750 1.104.380 Herbicide 583.380 583.380 0 Pesticides 1.944.600 2.500.200 -555.600 Irrigation expenses (Paid to the cooperative) 361.140 361.140 0 Labor and machine cost 21.104.300 22.493.300 -1.389.000 Soil making 3.889.200 3.889.200 0 Seeding. Plowing 5.556.000 6.945.000 -1.389.000 Caring. Fertilizing. Spray pesticides.Weeding. etc. 5.547.500 5.547.500 0 Harvest cost 4.167.000 4.167.000 0 Transporting. Drying. Cleaning 1.944.600 1.944.600 0 Other costs 2.027.940 2.027.940 0 Total 31.945.570 33.685.862 -1.740.292 Certain expenses remain similar between SRI and traditional cultivation due to fixed costs established by the cooperativebased on the land area owned by individuals. For instance, in the studied locale, irrigation costs are fixed, unrelated to the volume of water used. The trend extends to labor and machinery costs, which remain relatively unchanged in the area and are arranged by the cooperative to simplify management. Other costs, encompassing weeding, pruning, rat poison purchase, and contributions to the collective fund, are equivalent between the two methods. Fertilizer costs for SRI farmers are 28.91% higher compared to conventional farming. The observed disparity, in comparison to previous research results, can attributed to the lack of established protocols governing the use of fertilizers in the specific geographic region under investigation. Generally, SRI adoption leads to a reduction in NPK fertilizer usage, while the use of urea and potassium chloride fertilizers increases to enhance plant water and nutrient absorption. In contrast, conventional farming rarely involves the application of potassium fertilizer. Table 4 highlights the economic efficacy of adopting SRI over conventional farming. Generally, the SRI model yields a higher rice output (6.8 tons/ha compared to 6.2 tons/ha), resulting in an augmented income of about 8.52 million VND/ha, and reduced input costs of approximately 3.48 million VND/ha. Consequently, the overall profit derived from SRI surpasses that of conventional farming, amounting to roughly 12 million VND/ha. Moreover, the benefit-cost ratio of SRI stands at 1.43, exceeding the 1.24 ratio of traditional cultivation. Table 4. Economic efficiency between SRI and conventional cultivation for 1 ha area/year. Farming measure SRI Conventional cultivation Difference Average yield (ton/ha) 6.8 6.2 0.6 Total cost (mVND) 67.78 71.26 -3.48 Income (mVND) 96.64 88.12 8.52 Benefit cost ratio (%) 1.43 1.24 -0.19 Figure 1 illustrates the potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from utilizing SRI as opposed to conventional methods over a one-hectare area. This estimation leverages the findings from a 2019 carbon footprint study of rice production in Phu Luong Commune, Dong Hung District, Thai Binh Province, conductedby Dao, Huong, and Van Trinh (2019). The study indicates that SRI cultivation releases 32,144.35 kgCO2eq/ha, considerably less than the 35,144.18 kgCO2eq/ha, emitted through conventional rice cultivation (Dao et al., 2019). Employing the SRI method over a hectare can potentially curtail 3.03 tons of CO2eq emissions per hectare. Additionally, the marginal abatement cost equates to -2.7 million VND per ton of CO2eq when transitioning from traditional to SRI cultivation methods. According to the developmental blueprint of Thai Binh province, outlined in the rice construction and development project for 2023-2025 with a vision towards 2030, Figure 2 depicts the prospective greenhouse gas emission reduction in the region. The scenario unfolds in three phases: Initially, the Business As Usual (BAU) scenario maintains a 76,600 ha rice cultivation area in 2022, with SRI practices encompassing about 60% and conventional farming covering the remaining 40%. Subsequently, by 2025, the cultivation area is expected to shrink to 74,000 ha, with SRI practices covering approximately 85% and conventional methods accounting for 15%. Ultimately, by 2030, the rice cultivation area in Thai Binh province is projected to contract further to 70,000 ha, fully adopting the SRI technique. This transition is forecast to curtail 1.56 million tons of CO2 equivalent emissions, with a marginal abatement cost of -479.73thousand VND per ton of CO2 equivalent. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 7 Figure 1. Environment efficiency when applying SRI compared to conventional cultivation in 1 ha area/year. Figure 2. Environmental efficiency scenario of Thai Binh province in the period of 2023-2025, with orientation to 2030. Table 5 assesses the contrast between SRI and conventional cultivation, based on questionnaires administered directly to farmers in the survey area. According to respondents, SRI demonstrates a markedly positive impact compared to conventional farming, with significant differences in most assessment outcomes. Profits from SRI methods are estimated to be approximately 12 million VND/ha higher than those from traditional farming. The reduction in investment costs also augments farmers' opportunity costs, enabling them to allocate capital towards other economic activities, such as banking savings or investing in alternate ventures. Furthermore, increased financial resources mitigate the risk of accruing debt from credit reliance. Environmentally, SRI adoption facilitates a decrease in air pollution while enhancing water and soil quality. This is achieved by minimizing chemical fertilizer and pesticide applications directly to fields, consequently reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Meanwhile, this methodology reduces the negative impacts on advantageous insects and microorganisms that reside inside the agricultural fields, thereby decreasing the reliance on additional natural resources for the manufacturing of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.From a social perspective, rice production aids in securing and generating employment for a substantial segment of the local populace.Given that nearly half the individuals engaged in rice farming are women, the introduction of SRI fosters opportunities to advance women's empowerment, fostering gender equality in the production process. Additionally, workshops and experience-sharing sessions to familiarize farmers with SRI serve as a platform to forge connections among farmers, fostering awareness and understanding of the significant role people play in agriculture. -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 M A C ( V N D /t o n C O 2 eq ) Potential mitigation (tonCO2eq) SRI -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 M A C ( th o u sa n d V N D /t o n C O 2 eq ) Potential mitigation (mtonCO2eq ) SRI Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(1) 2024: 1-9 8 Table 5. Impact assessment between SRI and conventional cultivation. Component Indicators SRI Conventional cultivation Mean SD Mean SD Economic Contributing to increased productivity by saving capital and costs, reducing dependence on production inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, etc. 4.590 0.580 1.258 0,440 Contribute to changes such as technological changes and changes in manufacturing activities. 3.647 0.827 1.023 0.152 Contribute to creating business opportunities and investment activities such as: Selling rice straw… 2.272 0.670 1.047 0.213 Environment Contribute to reducing pollution and improving air quality 4.386 0.730 1.105 0.309 Contribute to reducing pollution and improving soil quality. 4.443 0.706 1.035 0.185 Contribute to reducing pollution and improving water quality. 4.352 0.692 1.023 0.152 Contribute to the sustainable use of natural resources and promote the development of ecosystem services. 1.863 0.873 1.011 0.108 Contribute to biodiversity conservation. 3.784 0.843 1.023 0.152 Social Contribute to increasing employment opportunities and income. 4.625 0.650 2.976 0.407 Contribute to improving health. 4.193 0.837 3.117 1.199 Contributing to raising community awareness in response to climate change and sustainable development. 4.681 0.653 1.247 0.433 Contributing to poverty alleviation, food security and quality of life. 4.670 0.521 4.211 0.874 Contributing to ensure social justice, especially for vulnerable groups, children, and women. 2.988 0.673 1.517 0.795 Contributing to the improvement of farmers' qualifications and skills. 4.022 0.639 1.788 0.465 5. CONCLUSIONS The research findings indicate that utilizing the SRI method for rice cultivation decreases input costs by 1.7 million VND while increasing the yield by 0.6 tons/ha. This results in a profit surge of approximately 12 million VND. Moreover, the adoption of SRI significantly curtails greenhouse gas emissions by 3.03 tons of CO2 equivalent per hectare compared to traditional rice farming methods, with the marginal abatement cost (MAC) standing at -2.7 millionVND per ton of CO2 equivalent per hectare. Additionally, the implementation of SRI yields positive impacts in economic, environmental, and social dimensions for farmers. In contrast to earlier studies, the cooperative has fixed some costs, such as labour and water, through contracts, so there is no difference between the two methods in these areas. However, it is noteworthy that the expenditure on fertilizers is higher when employing the SRI method compared to conventional farming practices. Regarding the initiatives by the Thai Binh authorities, it is imperative to persistently advocate for the proliferation of the SRI model, aligning with the province's strategic plan. This should coincide with the promotion of land-consolidation initiatives to facilitate large-scale production. It is vital to standardize techniques in accordance with local conditions to streamline the measurement of agricultural inputs effectively and consequently elevate the productivity and income levels of rice farmers. Concurrently, there is a need to further research and enhance the training quality for technicians specializing in SRI, equipping them to adeptly guide farmers in the region. Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Institutional Review Board Statement: The Ethical Committee of the Tohoku University, Japan has granted approval for this study. 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