EFFECT OF SELECTED INSECTICIDE ON WHITEFLY (Bemisia tabaci) INFESTING BRINJAL PLANTS 87 Nutritional value of edible Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam Chung Nhu Anha,b Nguyen Minh Chic Bernard Dellc,d aVietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi 11910, Vietnam. bTay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot city, Dak Lak 63000, Vietnam. cForest Protection Research Centre, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi 11910, Vietnam. dAgriculture and Forest Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch 6150, Australia.  nguyenminhchi@vafs.gov.vn (Corresponding author) Article History ABSTRACT Received: 20 May 2024 Revised: 18 July 2024 Accepted: 5 August 2024 Published: 27 August 2024 Keywords Edible mushroom Mycorrhiza Nutrient Russula griseocarnosa Vietnam Wild edible mushroom. This study examines the nutritional value of edible Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam. Russula griseocarnosa is a popular edible wild mushroom in northern Vietnam, where it is consumed locally or exported to China. Future market development and increased trade in Russula griseocarnosa require information on the composition and quality of mushrooms being harvested from the wild. As the nutritional value of this mushroom has not been documented, mushrooms were collected from secondary forests in Bac Giang and Cao Bang provinces, and primary forests in Quang Ninh province for determining the proximate and mineral contents. We dried the mushrooms and sequentially measured the proximate content using standard protocols. For mineral content, the mushroom powder was acid digested and analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry. The study found that Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam contained 18-29% protein, 57-68% carbohydrate, 8.7-13.7% crude fiber, 0.8-2.1% crude fat, and 0.9-1.1% ash, and has high mineral content (mg/kg dry weight) of K (19,836-24,966), P (2,631-3,335), Ca (573-1,530), Mg (350-636), Fe (143-836), Zn (60-93), and Cu (31-42). The data in this study can be used in establishing official product brands of Russula griseocarnosa, which could improve the livelihood of local people who are dependent on non- wood forest products. Further studies should explore the market chain and mushroom product opportunities, the livelihood of rural households, and the sustainability of harvesting wild mushrooms. Contribution/Originality: Whilst some data are available on the nutrient content of Russula griseocarnosa in China, there is no information on Russula griseocarnosa collected in forests in Vietnam. The research gap filled by this paper will assist in developing the market chain and mushroom product opportunities of this wild edible mushroom in Vietnam. DOI: 10.55493/5005.v14i3.5162 ISSN(P): 2304-1455/ ISSN(E): 2224-4433 How to cite: Anh, C. N., Chi, N. M., & Dell, B. (2024). Nutritional value of edible Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3), 87–94. 10.55493/5005.v14i3.5162 © 2024 Asian Economic and Social Society. All rights reserved. 1. INTRODUCTION Many species of the genus Russula are edible mushrooms with delicious flavor and rich in nutrients (Ijioma Blessing, Ihediohanma Ngozi, Onuegbu Ngozi, & Okafor Damaris, 2015; Kaewgrajang, Kaewjunsri, Jannual, & Nipitwattanaphon, 2020; Nadjombé et al., 2022; Sanmee, Dell, Lumyong, Izumori, & Lumyong, 2003). Therefore, indigenous people of Asia and Africa have widely collected them from the wild (Atri, Sharma, Kumar, & Mridu, 2019; Sanmee et al., 2003; Shiyan, Tianyan, Bin, Fuchang, & Xiaohua, 1998; Srikram & Supapvanich, 2016). Some species have been used as staple foods for indigenous peoples, such as R. alboareolata, R. cyanoxantha, R. lepida, R. virescens, and Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Volume 14, Issue 3 (2024): 87-94. http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7843-8647 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2345-2398 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8623-6425 mailto:nguyenminhchi@vafs.gov.vn http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 88 R. xerampelina in Thailand (Sanmee et al., 2003; Srikram & Supapvanich, 2016), R. congoana in India (Verma, Pandro, Mishra, Raj, & Asaiya, 2019) and Russula spp. in Angola (Kissanga et al., 2022). The chemical composition of a number of Russula species has been quantified. Ouzouni, Petridis, Koller, and Riganakos (2009) found that dried R. delica contained 26.1% protein, 2.4% fat, 63.9% carbohydrates and 5.6% ash. Similarly, R. alboareolata, R. cyanoxantha, R. emetica, and R. virescens comprised 29.5-49.2% protein, 3.9-12.5% fat, 27.4- 32.2% crude fiber, 9.6-27.1% carbohydrate, and 2.6-10.9% ash (Srikram & Supapvanich, 2016). Furthermore, R. delica contains a number of omega-3 fatty acids (Kalač, 2009). Russula griseocarnosa harvested in China is reported to contain many nutrients and useful phytochemicals (Chen, Xia, Zhou, & Qiu, 2010), polysaccharides (Liu, Zhang, & Meng, 2018), and some amino acids (Ming, Li, Huo, Wei, & Chen, 2014). People are not only using Russula griseocarnosa for food but also exploring its medicinal properties. Several substances extracted from Russula griseocarnosa have demonstrated inhibitory effects on cancer cells (Liu et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2017). Russula griseocarnosa naturally occurs in secondary and primary forest stands in northern Vietnam (Anh et al., 2023), and in southern China (Wang, Yang, Li, Knudsen, & Liu, 2009). This species is commonly used as food by local people in Vietnam (Anh et al., 2023; Chi, 2022) and it is also being traded in the region (Chi, 2022). However, there are no data on the nutritional composition of this wild edible mushroom in Vietnam. This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing the proximate and mineral composition of Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 2.1. Mushroom Materials In May 2022, mushrooms were sought in secondary forests in Bac Giang, Cao Bang, and primary forests in Quang Ninh provinces, Vietnam (Table 1; Figure 1) at sites where local people collected. Anh et al. (2023) identified Quang Ninh province as having the highest density of Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam, and this province has the largest market for this species (Chi, 2022). Therefore, we collected 80% of the mushroom samples in this study in Quang Ninh. At each forest site, ovoid or unopened fruiting bodies were randomly harvested, and the bulk collection was divided into 4 samples, each approximately 150 g fresh weight. The fruiting bodies were wrapped in tissue paper, placed in paper bags over ice in a cool container (Atalay & Erge, 2021), and transported to the Food Analysis Laboratory at the National Food Analysis and Inspection Center, Hanoi. We used a soft brush to clean the mushrooms of soil and humus without washing them. The base of the stalk plus mycelium with soil was removed using a sharp knife. The mushrooms were dried at 55 °C for 24 hours, and then crushed in a mortar and pestle to produce a fine powder. All 40 samples were used for chemical analysis. Table 1. Field data of Russula griseocarnosa fruiting bodies collected in northeast Vietnam for proximate and mineral analysis. Sample Location (Ward, district, province) Geographical coordinates Altitude (m) Forest type Host tree BG1 Nghia Phuong, Luc Nam, Bac Giang 21°15'32.2"N 106°27'42.2"E 295 Secondary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana CB2 Doai Duong, Trung Khanh, Cao Bang 22°46'00.8"N 106°29'57.1"E 468 Secondary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana QN7 Ha Lau, Tien Yen, Quang Ninh 21°25'12.2"N 107°18'21.7"E 106 Primary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana QN8 Ha Lau, Tien Yen, Quang Ninh 21°25'32.0"N 107°18'08.5"E 98 Primary forest Lithocarpus ducampii QN11 Thanh Son, Ba Che, Quang Ninh 21°17'47.7"N 107°14'28.6"E 213 Primary forest Lithocarpus dealbatus QN19 Thanh Son, Ba Che, Quang Ninh 21°18'04.1"N 107°14'47.5"E 239 Primary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana QN20 Ky Thuong, Ha Long, Quang Ninh 21°11'06.4"N 107°07'06.5"E 405 Primary forest Castanopsis tonkinensis QN22 Ky Thuong, Ha Long, Quang Ninh 21°10'48.7"N 107°08'44.1"E 437 Primary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana QN29 Vo Ngai, Binh Lieu, Quang Ninh 21°32'29.7"N 107°20'37.3"E 361 Primary forest Castanopsis cerebrina QN50 Vo Ngai, Binh Lieu, Quang Ninh 21°30'36.6"N 107°20'51.8"E 299 Primary forest Engelhardia roxburghiana Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 89 Figure 1. Location of the Russula griseocarnosa samples that were collected in Northeast Vietnam. 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Ash, Crude Protein, Crude Fat, Crude Fiber, and Carbohydrate Aliquots of the dried fungal powder were taken, and the proximate components were sequentially measured using standard protocols (AOAC, 2000). Briefly, the methods were as follows: crude nitrogen; crude fat by Soxhlet extraction in petroleum ether; crude fiber using 1.25% H2SO4 and 1.25% NaOH; and ash by combustion. The carbohydrate content was calculated as the difference between 100% and the combined percentages of crude protein + ash + fat + crude fiber. A conversion factor of 4.38 was used for crude protein as fungi contain non-protein nitrogen (Kalač, 2009). The results were expressed as % dry weight. 2.2.2. Mineral Elements Aliquots wet digested (HNO3 + H2SO4 + H2O2) (AOAC, 2000) and the concentrations of Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P and Zn were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (PerkinElmer AAnalyst™ 700, Waltham, MA, USA), using a deuterium background correction. 2.2.3. Data Analysis All samples were analyzed in triplicate. Data analysis was carried out using the GenStat Release 12.1 software package (VSN International Ltd., Hemel Hempstead, UK). Data for the chemical composition of mushrooms were examined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and then subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (p<0.05) for comparison of means. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Proximate Composition of Russula griseocarnosa The Russula griseocarnosa collected from forests in northern Vietnam contained 57.4-68.4% carbohydrate, 18.3- 29.0% crude protein, 8.7-13.7% crude fiber, 0.8-2.1% crude fat, and 0.9-1.1% ash (Table 2). The mushrooms from Quang Ninh province had more protein (23.2-29.0%) than those in Bac Giang and Cao Bang provinces (18.3-20.2%). Also, mushrooms from Bac Giang had the highest fat (2.1%) and carbohydrate (68.4%) concentrations (Table 2). Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 90 Table 2. Proximatse composition (% dry weight) of edible Russula griseocarnosa and comparison with other other edible Russula species in the region. Species Sample* Protein Fat Ash Fiber Carbohydrate Source Russula griseocarnosa BG1 18.3±0.17 2.05±0.03 1.01±0.01 10.2±0.18 68.4±0.31 This study Russula griseocarnosa CB2 20.2±0.20 1.45±0.02 1.03±0.01 10.9±0.16 66.5±0.33 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN7 29.0±0.25 1.36±0.01 1.06±0.02 8.7±0.10 59.9±0.15 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN8 24.5±0.21 1.47±0.02 0.98±0.01 11.4±0.13 61.6±0.26 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN11 23.3±0.19 1.63±0.03 1.00±0.01 12.3±0.11 61.8±0.19 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN19 23.3±0.16 1.48±0.01 1.00±0.03 10.4±0.10 63.9±0.22 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN20 26.5±0.24 1.38±0.01 1.00±0.01 10.0±0.09 61.1±0.30 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN22 25.2±0.21 0.80±0.01 0.89±0.02 13.4±0.17 61.1±0.14 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN29 23.3±0.22 1.68±0.03 0.96±0.01 11.9±0.12 62.1±0.29 This study Russula griseocarnosa QN50 26.6±0.23 1.36±0.02 0.97±0.02 13.7±0.15 57.4±0.27 This study Mean 24.01 1.46 0.99 11.29 62.38 p < 0.001 < 0.001 0.06 < 0.001 0.005 Russula alatoreticula NA 31.6 3.5 16.4 NA 63.6 Khatua, Sen Gupta, Ghosh, Tripathi, and Acharya (2021) Russula alboareolata NA 21.2 9.5 17.6 10.1 41.6 Sanmee et al. (2003) Russula brevipes NA 30.2 5.1 9.1 46.3 66.5 Shahid, Fatima, Anjum, and Riaz (2020) Russula lepida NA 18.3 5.6 7.6 8.4 60.1 Sanmee et al. (2003) Russula lepida NA 12.1 0.3 0.2 1.2 34.2 Sharma and Gautam (2015) Russula mairei NA 11.0 0.2 0.1 1.4 36.4 Sharma and Gautam (2015) Russula nigricans NA 22.6 4.8 6.7 9.6 56.3 Sanmee et al. (2003) Russula nobilis NA 25.5 2.8 2.1 44.1 82.5 Shahid et al. (2020) Russula griseocarnosa NA 32.3 7.2 7.8 8.85 48.1 Chen et al. (2010) Russula virescens NA 20.0 4.3 11.3 9.7 54.7 Sanmee et al. (2003) Russula xerampelina NA 22.4 4.5 6.7 10.4 55.8 Sanmee et al. (2003) Note: *Data are expressed as mean ± SD, n. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 91 This is the first study on the nutritional composition of Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam. According to the reports from China, (Chen et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019) this species is rich in nutrients, with protein (19.1- 32.3%) and carbohydrate (48.1-63.0%) concentrations comparable to those found in this study (Chen et al., 2010). Furthermore, the protein and carbohydrate concentrations in Russula griseocarnosa are similar to some other edible species in this genus, such as R. delica in Greece (Ouzouni et al., 2009) and R. alatoreticula, R. brevipes, R. cyanoxantha, R. heterophylla, and R. virescens in West Bengal (Khatua et al., 2021). However, edible Russula species in Togo had lower protein concentrations (Nadjombé et al., 2022). Protein content is important in marketing because mushrooms contain more protein than vegetables (Ouzouni et al., 2009; Satyanarayana, Das, & Johri, 2019). The fat and fiber content of the samples in this study are similar those reported by Chen et al. (2010) who found that Russula griseocarnosa collected in China was low in fat (5.2-7.2%) and high in fiber (8.9-11.7%). In addition, the ash content of Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam was lower than in China (6.6-7.8%) and also lower than for R. delica in Greece (5.6) (Ouzouni et al., 2009). 3.2. Mineral Composition of Russula griseocarnosa The mineral concentrations in Russula griseocarnosa were in the order: K > P > Ca > Mg > Fe > Na > Zn > Cu > Mn (Table 3). There were differences (p<0.001) due to forest type and sampling location. For example, sample QN50 (Vo Ngai, Binh Lieu) had the highest Ca concentration, sample QN11 (Thanh Son, Ba Che) had the highest Mg concentration, and sample QN8 (Ha Lau, Tien Yen) had the highest Zn concentration. These samples were collected in primary forest in Quang Ninh province. Sample BG1 (collected in secondary forest in Nghia Phuong, Luc Nam, Bac Giang) had the highest P concentration. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 92 Table 3. Mineral composition (mg/kg dry weight) of edible Russula griseocarnosa and comparison with other other edible Russula species in the region. Sample or species Ca Cu Fe K Mg Mn Na P Zn Source BG1 889.2±20.51 39.4±0.95 400.2±10.65 19,835±51.6 364.0±6.61 11.5±0.21 357.8±7.13 3335.1±18.6 72.3±3.15 This study CB2 811.1±16.99 35.3±1.02 310.2±11.03 19,944±52.6 360.1±6.32 11.1±0.18 368.3±6.55 2934.4±15.6 70.3±3.06 This study QN7 874.5±21.11 41.7±1.24 465.6±11.18 24,965±68.1 447.4±8.15 13.8±0.22 533.1±8.91 3093.0±17.2 76.4±2.89 This study QN8 573.5±13.68 41.1±1.17 566.0±13.46 24,243±62.3 489.4±9.07 12.0±0.17 299.3±5.88 3057.4±15.9 92.7±4.12 This study QN11 613.2±20.01 37.9±0.99 440.4±12.17 24,765±60.9 636.0±11.28 12.6±0.19 342.6±6.46 3085.9±16.7 77.8±3.27 This study QN19 685.5±18.87 38.9±1.22 453.4±11.28 24,661±69.1 552.1±12.03 12.6±0.20 345.5±7.33 3124.5±13.7 75.2±2.87 This study QN20 691.0±20.12 32.8±1.31 143.2±8.88 23,409±50.8 350.4±7.13 6.91±0.13 405.9±8.05 2631.3±15.4 68.9±2.45 This study QN22 1,010.0±30.0 34.2±1.40 402.0±9.75 23,485±71.5 409.5±6.98 17.6±0.14 322.8±7.12 3249.0±20.0 60.1±2.61 This study QN29 621.1±14.77 35.9±1.08 836.5±15.64 24,646±66.4 451.9±8.37 11.2±0.10 462.0±7.18 3296.3±18.6 69.9±3.05 This study QN50 1,530.1±51.2 31.0±0.86 298.8±10.31 21,333±57.3 369.4±6.68 10.6±0.16 384.1±8.24 2837.2±14.5 62.5±2.77 This study Mean 830.3 36.8 431.6 23,129 443.0 12.0 382.1 3064.4 72.6 p < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.003 < 0.001 R. alboareolata 200 71.8 3,118 36,200 1,300 66.1 NA 6,600 135 Sanmee et al. (2003) R. delica NA NA 2.78 16,000 NA 0.18 NA 4,700 NA Singdevsachan, Patra, Tayung, Sarangi, and Thatoi (2014) R. griseocarnosa 850 48.0 500 19,800 570 23.0 1,340 3,420 88 Chen et al. (2010) R. lepida 100 52.8 228 35,300 700 24.2 NA 4,100 108 Sanmee et al. (2003) R. nigricans 200 81.1 208 25,300 600 13.7 NA 3,400 62 Sanmee et al. (2003) R. sardonia 145 29.2 40 31,240 580 11.9 700 NA 47 Rasalanavho, Moodley, and Jonnalagadda (2020) R. vesca NA NA 4.24 18,000 NA 0.16 NA 8,100 NA Singdevsachan et al. (2014) R. virescens 100 41.3 283 27,600 800 18.4 NA 5,100 131 Sanmee et al. (2003) R. xerampelina 100 48.0 193 28,900 600 17.4 NA 3,300 94 Sanmee et al. (2003) Note: Data are expressed as mean ± SD, n. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(3) 2024: 87-94 93 The concentration (mg/kg) ranges of K (19,835.8-24,965.9), P (2,631.3-3,335.1), Ca (573.5-1530.1), Mg (350.4- 636.0), Fe (143.2-836.5), Zn (60.1-92.7), and Cu (31.0-41.7) in Russula griseocarnosa collected in Vietnam are quite similar to measurements obtained in China, being 19,800, 3,420, 850, 570, 500, 88, and 48 mg/kg, respectively (Chen et al., 2010). However, the concentrations of Na and Mn were lower than those reported in China (Chen et al., 2010) and in some edible Russula species in Togo (Nadjombé et al., 2022). In addition to their proximal and macro- and micronutrient contents, mushrooms contain a number of other chemicals with nutritional and health benefits to humans. In particular, consumption of wild edible mushrooms containing antioxidants enhances the scavenging of hydroxyl radicals and the free radical of 2.2-diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (Chen et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2017). Some mushrooms contain useful phytochemicals such as ergosterol, flavonoids, β-carotene, phenolics, and quercetin (Chen et al., 2010; Grangeia, Heleno, Barros, Martins, & Ferreira, 2011; Ouzouni et al., 2009). Quercetin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and is a major phytochemical component in Russula griseocarnosa with a concentration of about 95.8 mg/kg (Chen et al., 2010). In addition, edible mushrooms are a source of essential amino acids that are required in the human diet. Ming et al. (2014) found that Russula griseocarnosa in China contains 40 amino acids, including 20 non-structural amino acids. Further research should be undertaken on the profile of organic compounds for the populations being harvested for food in Vietnam. This includes the other edible species in the genus Russula such as R. albidula, R. cystidiosa, R. paludosa, R. rosea, R. variata, R. vinosa, and R. virescens (Anh et al., 2023; Kiet, 2012; Nguyen, 2017; Phu & Kiet, 2019). The results of this study suggest that Russula griseocarnosa in Vietnam is a valuable source of protein, carbohydrate, and essential minerals in the diet of local people who consume it. It has similar nutritional composition as the same species in China, where it is a popular food among local people (Chen et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2017). Not surprisingly, therefore, Russula griseocarnosa is now being purchased in large quantities by traders for export to China (Chi, 2022). The findings of this study can be used to add value to the current trade through the development of quality-controlled product brands for Vietnamese Russula griseocarnosa. This will aid in poverty reduction and income stabilization in the poorest part of Vietnam, where mushroom naturally occurs. Additionally, the impact of continuous harvesting on forest ecosystems must be investigated to ensure that harvesting practices are sustainable. Ideally in the future, the goal is to produce improved strains of Russula griseocarnosa that can be cultivated in household and village forest food orchards. 4. CONCLUSIONS Russula griseocarnosa collected from forests in Vietnam has rich nutritional composition and high mineral content. The nutritional composition of this mushroom in Vietnam largely mirrors values for this species in southern China. Products from Russula griseocarnosa with higher economic value will be created based on information of their nutritional composition obtained in this study. Funding: This research is supported by Quang Ninh Government (Grant number: 19/2021/HĐ-KHCN-BTG) and the Master, PhD Scholarship Programme of Vingroup Innovation Foundation (Grant number: VINIF.2023.TS.001). Institutional Review Board Statement: The Ethical Committee of the Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Vietnam has granted approval for this study on 31 December 2023 (Ref. No. 168/QD-KHLN). Transparency: The authors state that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. This study followed all writing ethics. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. REFERENCES Anh, C. N., Chi, N. M., Kiet, T. T., Long, P. D., Thuy, P. T. T., Van Loi, V., & Dell, B. (2023). Morphological and molecular identification of an edible Russula mushroom in Northeast Vietnam. Journal of Forestry Science and Technology, 15, 50-59. AOAC. (2000). Official method of analysis (13th ed.). Washington, USA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Atalay, D., & Erge, H. S. (2021). 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