EFFECT OF SELECTED INSECTICIDE ON WHITEFLY (Bemisia tabaci) INFESTING BRINJAL PLANTS 184 Evaluating the challenges of food access and the factors influencing it among residents of peri- urban areas in Ray Nkonyeni Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa Tulisiwe Pilisiwe Mbombo- Dwebaa Simiso Lembeteb Themba Andries Samboc a,b,cDepartment of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, South Africa.  mbombtp@unisa.ac.za (Corresponding author) Article History ABSTRACT Received: 5 July 2024 Revised: 12 November 2024 Accepted: 25 November 2024 Published: 17 December 2024 Keywords Food access Food gardening Food security Household income Poverty Urban agriculture Urban households. This research examines the assessment of food insecurity and its determinants among different provinces in South Africa. A quantitative study design was conducted to assess food insecurity status and its determinants in a peri-urban area, namely Ray Nkonyeni Local Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Data was collected from 360 systematic, randomly selected households. The results showed that 71.00% of these were food insecure. Food insecurity was more pronounced among older, unemployed, less educated, and low-income respondents. Households with an income of between R4001 and R5000 (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=0.05; 95% confidence interval (95% CI):0.01–0.41) and those with an income ≥R5000 (AOR=0.01; 95% CI:0.00– 0.11) had lower odds of experiencing food insecurity compared with those with an income of 70 years, a large majority, at 84.21% and 77.42%, respectively, were food insecure. In terms of marital status, respondents in all categories except for those who identified themselves as cohabiting reported high levels of food insecurity. In the latter category, there were more food secure households (66.67%) than food-insecure households (33.33%) (see Table 1). Households of which the head had been widowed were found to be more food-insecure (82.61%; n=9), with this percentage being higher than in other categories such as single (77.05%), divorced (74.19%), and married (58.16%). The majority of respondents owned formal houses, and the majority of households in this category (72.36%) were food insecure. The results reported in Table 1 further indicate that 84.21% of households with more than 6 household members were food insecure, while 72.38% of households with 4 to 6 members reported as food insecure. By contrast, only 57.43% of households with 1 to 3 household members were food insecure. Of the respondents who lacked agricultural experience, a slightly higher percentage were food secure (52.78%) than were food insecure (47.22%). Among the respondents who indicated that they participated in food gardening, a higher percentage (78.93%) were food insecure, while of those who did not participate, the majority (50.51%) were food secure. Table 1. Results showing socio-demographics of respondents based on their food security status. Food security status Variable Level Food secure Food insecure Overall n=105 %=29.0 n=255 %=71.0 Gender of the household head Male 31 27.93 80 72.07 Female 74 29.72 175 70.28 Age 18–40 27 35.53 54 67.50 41–50 26 32.50 54 67.50 51–60 33 34.02 64 65.98 61–70 12 15.79 64 84.21 Above 70 7 22.58 24 77.42 Marital status of the household head Single 44 22.45 152 77.55 Married 41 41.84 57 58.16 Divorced 8 25.81 23 74.19 Widowed 4 17.39 19 82.61 Cohabiting 8 66.67 4 33.33 Dwelling type Formal (Own) 89 27.64 233 72.36 Informal (Own) 4 33.33 8 66.67 Renting 12 46.15 14 53.85 Number of household members 1–3 members 43 42.57 58 57.43 4–6 members 50 27.62 131 72.38 Over 6 12 15.79 64 84.21 Experience of the household head in agriculture Yes 67 23.26 221 76.74 No 38 52.78 34 47.22 Household participating in food gardening Yes 55 21.07 206 78.93 No 50 50.51 49 49.49 3.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Households Based on their Food Security Status Table 2 presents socio-economic characteristics of households based on their food security status. It was found that of the respondents who had access to land, the greater percentage (74.84%) were classified as food insecure. With regard to the educational level achieved by the head of the household, in the case of respondents with no formal education, 76.67% of households were food insecure, in the case of respondents with primary education, 87.21% of households were food insecure; and where respondents had a high school education, 69.65% of households were food insecure. By contrast, where the household head had a tertiary education, 60.47% of households were food secure, and only 39.43% were food insecure. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(4) 2024: 184-193 188 As reflected in Table 2, among the respondents who identified themselves as unemployed, the larger percentage (84.30%) of households were food insecure, while among those that were employed, 58.51% of households were food insecure. In cases where respondents had one income source, 71.77% of households experienced food insecurity, whereas among households with more than one source of income, this figure was 68.75%. 92.77% of the households without any employed members experienced food insecurity. Table 2 further reveals that as the number of employed members per households decreased. Table 2. Results showing socio-economic characteristics of respondents based on their food security status. Variable Level Food secure Food insecure Overall N=105 %=29.0 n=255 %=71.0 Access to land Yes 77 25.16 229 74.84 No 28 51.85 26 48.15 Level of education of the household head No formal education 7 23.33 23 76.67 Primary school 11 12.79 75 87.21 High school 61 30.35 140 69.65 Tertiary 26 60.47 17 39.43 Employment status Unemployed 27 15.70 145 84.30 Employed 78 41.49 110 58.51 Number of income sources 1 income 70 28.23 178 71.77 More than 1 income 35 31.25 77 68.75 Number of household members employed Number of member employed 6 7.23 77 92.77 1–2 members employed 83 34.30 159 65.70 >3 members employed 16 45.71 19 54.29 Income of the household head Less than 1000 2 8.70 21 91.30 R1000–R2000 12 13.04 80 86.96 R20001–R3000 21 19.81 85 80.19 R30001–R4000 24 35.29 44 64.71 R40001–R5000 19 54.29 16 45.71 Over R5000 27 75.00 9 25.00 Table 2 further shows that with regard to household monthly income, of the households with an income of over R5000, 75% were food secure and 25% were food insecure, while among households with an income of more than R4000, 54.29% were food secure and 45.71% were food insecure. Households with incomes of 65.00%) of the food insecure households in the study indicated that they often worried about food, were unable to eat the food they preferred, and ate a limited variety of food. These are regarded as mild forms of food insecurity (Rudolph et al., 2021). Other studies conducted in South Africa (Rudolph et al., 2021) and Eastern Ethiopia (Derese, Belay, Fentie, & Derese, 2023) have found similar results to ours. However, the numbers reported in our study are slightly higher than those reported in the study by Rudolph et al. (2021). For example, in the latter study, approximately 50% of respondents reported experiencing the occurrences described by the first HFIAS questions. Just as was observed in previous studies conducted in urban areas in South Africa (Rudolph et al., 2021), a declining trend from the first to the ninth question was observed in our study. While this is reassuring in light of the fact that these questions reveal the severity of food insecurity, these proportions are high in comparison with findings of other studies conducted in other urban areas in Gauteng province (Rudolph et al., 2021) and Eastern Ethiopia (Derese et al., 2023). In the study by Derese et al. (2023) less than 15% of respondents experienced severe forms of food insecurity, such as sleeping hungry or not eating the whole day and night, compared with 20% and 18% of the respondents in our study who responded in the affirmative to these questions. With regard to domains of food insecurity, the proportion of households in our study reported as having insufficient food intake (59.01%) was slightly higher than the percentage in other urban areas in Gauteng (Rudolph et al., 2021). While insufficient food intake is considered a milder form of food insecurity, its existence is problematic due to its association with poor educational and psychological performance and health outcomes in both adults and children (Arora, 2018; Gregory, Mancino, & Coleman-Jensen, 2019; Reuter, Forster, & Brister, 2021). Differences between the study areas could explain the observed inconsistencies between the two studies. Generally, recent reports have indicated that at 51% food insecurity is much lower in Gauteng than in KZN (Simelane, 2024). Furthermore, over 70% of the households in our study experienced anxiety and uncertainty about food supply and insufficient food intake; this percentage was much higher than that reported in the previous studies (Derese et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2021). The age of the respondents may explain the observed difference between these studies. The majority of the respondents in our study (55.38%) were in the age category of 51 years and older; this age category is dominated by retirees and beneficiaries of old age grants. Available evidence suggests that retirees and beneficiaries of old age grants are more vulnerable to food insecurity (Sandile Mthethwa & Wale, 2020). People of working age, with an average age of 30 years, dominated the latter studies (Derese et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2021). This suggests that households headed by members of the younger generation are less likely to experience Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(4) 2024: 184-193 191 food insecurity than households headed by older people. This view is supported by authors such as Oduniyi and Tekana (2020) who observed that food insecurity increases with the increase in age of the household head. The mean HFIAS score in this study was 8.50. This is high by most standards and denotes high levels of food insecurity (Simelane, 2024). Moreover, this mean score is high in comparison with similar studies conducted in South Africa. For example, in a study involving 1000 households in the City of Johannesburg, a mean score of 5.7 was recorded (Rudolph et al., 2021), and a study conducted in selected smaller cities in KwaZulu-Natal revealed an average HFIAS score of 5.5 and 8.3 in Richard’s Bay and Harrismith, respectively (Chakona, 2022). This suggests that the households in our study experienced difficulty in accessing food (Simelane, 2024). Furthermore, the results revealed 71.00% of households in our study to be food insecure. These results correspond with the results from studies conducted among urban dwellers in South Africa and Ghana (Nenguda & Scholes, 2022; Tuholske, Andam, Blekking, Evans, & Caylor, 2020). However, this percentage was considerably higher than that reported in urban areas in Eastern Ethiopia (41.7%) (Derese et al., 2023); East Africa (60.91%) (Gebremichael et al., 2022); and in Tembisa Township, South Africa (62%) (Mojela, Hlongwane, & Ledwaba, 2018). Time could explain the discrepancies between our study and these earlier studies, as evidence suggests an increasing trend in food insecurity (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO, 2022). Of the respondents in our study, 40% were moderately food insecure, while 18% were severely food insecure. While the percentage of severely food insecure households was slightly lower than that reported in the literature from other peri-urban areas (Chakona, 2022; Nenguda & Scholes, 2022) these numbers are worrying, especially considering that this percentage represents people who have run out of food and have gone for days without eating. In our study, total monthly income, number of income sources, and participation in food gardening were significantly correlated with household food insecurity. The study showed that households with higher monthly incomes were less likely to be food insecure than those with lower incomes. This result is consonant with previous studies Kundu et al. (2021) and Nkomoki, Bavorová, and Banout (2019) where income was found to be inversely associated with household food insecurity, and confirms the finding of previous studies that income is the main determinant of food security in urban and peri-urban areas (Mazenda et al., 2022; Nenguda & Scholes, 2022; Ruel, Garrett, & Yosef, 2017). The association between income and food security in urban areas is attributable to the high dependency of urban households on the markets for food supply (Battersby & Haysom, 2019). Consequently, when food prices rise (FAO et al., 2022; Writer, 2022) households with low incomes struggle to meet their basic needs. The odds of being food insecure were higher in households with multiple sources of income than in those with a single source of income. Although these results are consistent with the results of a study by Atuoye, Antabe, Sano, Luginaah, and Bayne (2019) conducted in the Upper West Region of Ghana, they were not expected. For example, in a study conducted using data extracted from the 2019 General Household Survey in South Africa, Sandile Mthethwa and Wale (2020) observed that income diversification reduced household food insecurity. Therefore, findings reported here may appear counterintuitive, given the broad body of literature substantiating the impact of income diversification on food insecurity (Akrasi, Eddico, & Adarkwah, 2020; Etea, Zhou, Abebe, & Sedebo, 2019). However, in an earlier study we published from the same study group, we observed that households with multiple income sources were recipients of pensions and government social grants, namely old age, disability, and children’s grants (Lembete, Agyepong, & Mbombo-Dweba, 2024). These income sources are insufficient to maintain consumption and alleviate household food insecurity and poverty (Mthethwa & Wale, 2023). As a result, pensioners and beneficiaries of social grants are more vulnerable to food insecurity (Sandile Mthethwa & Wale, 2020). Berlie (2023) argues that it is the total income earned from these different sources, not the number of income sources, that determines food security. In our study, households that participated in food gardening were more likely to experience food insecurity than those that did not engage in this activity. Similar findings were reported by Oguttu, Mbombo-Dweba, and Ncayiyana (2021) in a study conducted among urban residents in Gauteng, which revealed that households that had experienced some form of food insecurity in the previous year or lived in the poorest areas were more likely to engage in food gardening. Tawodzera and Chigumira (2019) found 92% of respondents in a study conducted in Epworth, an urban area in Zimbabwe, to be food insecure despite the majority of them participating in urban agriculture. Low-income urban households often use food gardening as a strategy to mitigate food insecurity, according to literature. However, the literature has also revealed that urban agriculture is often limited due to zoning laws and access to productive resources (Ruel et al., 2017; Tawodzera & Chigumira, 2019). Furthermore, the literature has demonstrated that agricultural activities in urban areas are limited to personal consumption and are highly seasonal (Lembete et al., 2024). This leaves low-income households vulnerable to food insecurity during the off-season. 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Although the majority of households in the study participated in food gardening, the level of food insecurity among the study population remained high. This demonstrates the complexity of food security in urban areas and provides an indication that finding a solution to the problem of food insecurity requires a multidimensional approach. Income, sources of income, and participation in food gardening were identified as factors that correlated with household food insecurity in the area. This suggests the necessity of targeted policy interventions intended to alleviate the unique difficulties that urban households are facing. This could include a review of the minimum wage in the informal sector to ensure that wages are on par with the rising costs in urban areas. Nevertheless, the study’s findings of widespread adoption of food gardening are encouraging, and we recommend that we not ignore urban agriculture, but rather consider it as one of a range of strategies to enhance food security. However, innovative methods and support from extension and advisory services to maximize the outcome of this endeavour are necessary. Moreover, there is a need for training and resources to assist those participating in urban agriculture in producing not only for their own consumption but for income generation as well. This will not only benefit the participating households but could also Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 14(4) 2024: 184-193 192 boost local food systems. Financial support and/or incentives to establish off-farm or non-farm income-generating ventures and the creation of employment safety nets such as the Community Work Programme and Expanded Public Works Programme are possible strategies to assist in improving household income. Further research is required to investigate the obstacles limiting the effectiveness of urban agriculture. Funding: This research is supported by University of South Africa. Institutional Review Board Statement: The Ethical Committee of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences of the University of South Africa, South Africa has granted approval for this study on 26 April 2019 (Ref. No. 2019/CAES/047). Transparency: The authors state that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. This study followed all writing ethics. 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