Publisher: Asian Economic and Social Society 
ISSN (P): 2304-1455, ISSN (E): 2224-4433 
Volume 2 No. 2 June 2012. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Acknowledgement: Authors thank Mr Rodrigues, M.N.F. for providing the Brazil nuts brown skin produced in the 

Renmero factory 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Brazil Nut (Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) Selenium Distribution and 

Physical Chemical Characteristics of Shell, Brown Skin and Edible 

Part from Two Amazon Regions 
 

 

Daniel Manfio., Manuel N. F. Rodrigues., Geovana D. Savi and Vildes M. 

Scussel (Food Science and Technology Department, Center of Agricultural 

Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, P.O. Box 476, Florianopolis – 

SC, CEP 88034-001, Brazil) 

 

 

  

 

Citation: Daniel Manfio., Manuel N. F. Rodrigues., Geovana D. Savi and Vildes M. Scussel (2012): “Brazil Nut 

(Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) Selenium Distribution and Physical Chemical Characteristics of Shell, Brown Skin 

and Edible Part from Two Amazon Regions”, Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vol. 2, No. 

2, pp. 287-293.  

  



Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

287 

 

 
 

Keywords: Amazon basin, Brazil nut, brown skin, nut shell, selenium, waste 

 

 

Introduction 

 
Selenium (Se) is an essential metabolism trace element 

that can be found under different forms (inorganic, 

metallic, oxyanions and organic). It can be present in 

soils at different levels being wide-spread in China, 

Russia, South and North America which is derived 

from seleniferous matters (Johnson et al. 2010; 

Fordyce, 2005; Broadley et al. 2006). The organic Se 

forms is produced by its link to sulfur amino acids 

(cysteine-Cys and methionine-Met) forming selenoCys 

(SeCis) and selenoMet (SeMet) (Suzuki, 2005). Once 

the Se compounds are recognized as Se species, they 

are transformed to selenide, an intermediate metabolite, 

and then used for the Se-proteins (enzymes) synthesis 

or excreted. The SeMet can be transformed to SeCys 

through trans-selenation, and be lysed by β-lyase or y-

lyase enzymes to selenide. It is important to emphasize 

that; the SeMet can be used for protein synthesis in the 

body without distinction between SeMet and Met by 

the t-RNA (Suzuki, 2005; Schrauzer, 2000). 

Se intake through food varies worldwide due to the 

different  levels  found  in  different  food  diets. The Se  

content in plants is affected by its concentration in the 

soil they are grown. Similarly, its concentration in 

animal products depends upon the Se content in the diet 

they eat (Barclay et al. 1995;
 
McNaughton and Marks, 

2002; Pacheco and Scussel, 2007; 2011). The same is 

true for humans. However, in this case, they may also 

meet Se needs by taking supplements and/or vitamin 

complexes that include minerals (Fairweather-Tait et al. 

2011, Manfio et al. 2012).  

 

Se is known for its antioxidant activity and in the 

therapeutic aspect, for its chemo preventive and 

antiviral properties. Appropriate amounts of this 

element are essential for the human body to have a 

balanced health. Several physiological roles are 

assigned to the presence of Se-proteins, such as DNA 

synthesis, that depends upon the presence of Se in the 

catalytic site of TrxR (Fairweather-Tait et al. 2011; 

Rayman, 2005). 

 

 

Brazil Nut (Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) Selenium 

Distribution and Physical Chemical Characteristics of 

Shell, Brown Skin and Edible Part from Two Amazon 

Regions 
 

Abstract 

 
Author(s) 

 

Daniel Manfio., Manuel, N. F. 

Rodrigues., Geovana D. Savi 
Food Science and Technology Department, 

Center of Agricultural Sciences, Federal 
University of Santa Catarina, P.O. Box 476, 

Florianopolis – SC, Brazil 

 

Vildes M. Scussel  
Food Science and Technology Department, 

Center of Agricultural Sciences, Federal 

University of Santa Catarina, P.O. Box 476, 
Florianopolis – SC, Brazil 

Email: vildescussel_2000@yahoo.co.uk  

 
 

Brazil nuts (Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) shell, brown skin and edible part 

from Eastern (E) and Central-Western (C-W) Amazon regions were 

evaluated for their selenium (Se) distribution, physical chemical 

characteristics regarding proximate composition, nut ratio and water 

availability (moisture content and water activity). Nuts samples were 

collected from two factories located in Manaus and Cameta cities (C-W 

and E, respectively) to where they are delivered from each State 

(Amazonas and Para) for processing. Se analysis was carried out by mass 

spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma, proximate composition by 

the AOAC official methods and nut ration by gravimetry. Se levels varied 

among nut parts from the shell to edible part as follows: shell<brown 

skin<edible part with 0.44/0.31<20.58/6.12<44.13/19.25 mg/kg for 

Manaus/Cameta. Regarding lipid and protein content, they were low for 

shell and brown skin, however high in dietary fiber (57.17%). The 

shell/brown skin/edible part ratio was 4.2/3.8 g (1.2). Brown skin weight 

was only 1.23.05 g of the whole nut. Se is a powerful antioxidant for 

human metabolism balance being the highest concentration detected in the 

edible part. From the discarded nuts parts, the brown skin had the highest 

percentage of that element, especially those from C-W region which could 

be used as a source of Se in different food applications. As expected the 

shell and brown skin showed low level of lipids and proteins, however 

quite high fiber content, especially the brown skin which is quite promising 

on the food fiber enrichment point of view. 

mailto:vildescussel_2000@yahoo.co.uk


Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

288 

 

Certain types of nuts, especially those of tropical origin, 

have relatively high levels of Se. In a study conducted 

with different tree nuts authors reported increasing 

levels of Se in different nuts: hazelnuts (0.008 to 0.036 

mg/kg); macadamia (from 0.034 to 0.087 mg/kg) and 

cashew (from 0.17 to 0.39 mg/kg) nuts. They reported 

that Se levels of these nuts were far below the high 

levels found in the same study for Brazil nuts 

(Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) with 0.85 to 6.86 mg/kg 

(Barclay et al. 1995).  

 

Whereas the edible part of the Brazil nut is known to 

contain high amounts of Se, which varies with the level 

present in the Amazon soil (Pacheco and Scussel, 

2007), no information on the shelled nut factory wastes 

shell or brown skin are reported to date. Therefore the 

aim of this study was to determine the Se levels in the 

dry shelled Brazil nut wastes for the possibility of 

further Se utilization, thus adding value to the Brazil 

nut producing chain. This is the first study describing 

the Se distribution in Brazil nuts different parts. 

 

 

Material and Methods 
Samples: Consisted of dry (processed) in-shell Brazil 

nuts from two Amazon regions, medium size Type (40-

50 mm), individual weight average of 8.07 g (min 5.14; 

max 10.6 – De-Mello and Scussel, 2007). They were 

from the Eastern (E) and Central-Western (C-W)* 

regions of the Brazilian Amazon basin kindly provided 

by the factories: Renemero (Cameta city, Para State-

PA) and CIEX (Manaus city, Amazonas State-MA), 

respectively. Initial moisture content (mc) and water 

activity (aw) of 5.30/6.02% and 0.61/0.55 for E/C-W. 

No aflatoxin contamination (up to the method LOQ = 

1.34 ng.g
-1

 - Sobolev, 2007). Figure 1. A shows the 

location of the nut trees of the Brazilian Amazon region 

and Figure 1. B the points of harvesting of each State. 

A total of 45 kg each were utilized for the study. 

*Important to emphasize that Manaus city-MA, 

although is considered  located in the Western region, it 

is very close to the Eastern (E) region border, thus 

called here C-W (Figure 1.B). We utilized and referred 

for this study to the official geographic location of the 

two main Amazon regions as reported by Pacheco and 

Scussel (2007). 

 

 

 
 

Figure 1:  (A). Brazil nut tree distribution in the South American Amazon basin - Western (occidental) and Eastern (oriental) 

regions. [---] delimited area of the Brazil nut tree distribution. [  ] some of the major extractive areas of Brazil nuts; (B). 

Northern Brazilian States comprising the Amazon basin, and the regions of sample collection (Central-Western region: Manaus 

city and Eastern region: Cameta city) where nuts collected from each region [--] converge to factories reception for selection 

and processing (dry in-shell or shelled Brazil nut) (Pacheco; Scussel, 2007, modified by Manfio & Scussel) 

 

Standards, Reagents and Solvents: Se standard Nist. 

Hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid, supra pure grade 

were from Veteco. Citric acid, glacial acetic acid, 

hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, trichloroacetic acid, 

ammonium acetate, sodium sulphate sodium hydroxide, 

potassium sulfate, copper sulfate, titanium dioxide, 

silver nitrate, anhydrous methyl red indicator, all 

analytical reagent grade from Vetec. Ferric chloride 

from CRQ and tartaric acid, analar from HiMed. The 

solvents acetone, ether, ethanol, petroleum ether, were 

all analar and fromVetec.  

EASTER
N 

WESTER
N A 

WESTERN EASTERN 

WESTERN EASTERN 

                      Macapa       ●   
                        Castanhal ●  
                               ● Tucurui 

     ● Oriximina                  Cameta 

                                                                          Maraba ●          
  ●Santarem 
     ● Itatuba 
   
                                              Parauapeba ●        
 

(A) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                                                 (B) 



Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

289 

 

Equipament and Apparatus: Microwave digestion 

system, model Ethos Plus, from Milestone, inductive 

coupled plasma spectrometer ICP, D Nexion 300, from 

Perkin Elmer. Dissecator with  200 mm from 

Diprolab, autoclave from Fanen, microbiological oven 

from Tecnal, analytical balance, AY220 from 

Shimadzu and metal crucibles of  70 mm. Peristaltic 

pump, model MS-Reglo from Ismatec, commercial 

Brazil nuts cracker from CIEX, blenders, 1 l of 

Metvisa, pressure cooker, 7 l, Panelux, microscope 

stereoscopic from CarlZeiss Jena. The scan electronic 

microscope - SEM, JSM, from Jeol, Gold coater, 

SCD500 from Leica, digestive Kjeldahl system, model 

Q327-26B, SPLabor, Kjeldahl flasks, 800 ml from 

SPLabor, analytical balance, Metla Toledo, Adventurer 

Pro, water activity meter, Aqualab, Soxhlet extractor 

apparatus, model MA-491, SPLabor, microbiological 

oven, 315SE, from Fanem, spectrophotometer, model 

8425A from Hewlett-Packard and vertical autoclave 

modelAV50, Phoenix. 

 

Brazil Nut Samples Preparation. (a) heating: Nuts 

from each region were submitted to autoclavation/ (to 

facilitate the brown skin/shell detaching off the edible 

part - as carried out in the factories) and left cooling to 

proceed for next step: (b) shelling. That was carried out 

utilizing a commercial nut cracker and (c) nut parts 

separation. Each part was separated into different 

containing as brown skin, shell and edible part  (Figure 

2), followed by weighing, grinding in a blender and 

portions separate for Se, proximate composition, mc 

and aw analysis (n=5). 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 
                                                                                                  

Figure 2: Brazil nut (Bertholettia excelsa H.B.K.) samples utilized for the Se distribution study: [a] whole, [b) shell, [c] edible 

nut and [c] brown skin [A] microscope sterioscopic, x1; [B]  scan electronic microscope (x50 10Kv, 500 µm). 

 

Selenium Analysis: They were performed by ICP (US 

EPA, 1996). Briefly, samples were digested (0.4g) with 

HNO3 and hydrogen peroxide in microwave digestion 

system followed by ICP analysis. The limit of 

quantification (LOQ) was 3.50 mg/kg, which was 

defined as the lowest point of the calibration curve with 

high repeatability. The recovery was 92 % (n=5). 

 

Proximate Composition of Brazil-Nut Parts: The 

nuts shell, brown skin and edible part content of lipids, 

proteins, dietary fiber, carbohydrates and ash were 

analyzed according to the AOAC official methods 

(AOAC, 2005). 

 

Temperature (60 and 121°C) and Pressure Effect on 

Se Levels: Nut parts were submitted to 60°C 

(dehydrating temperature – similar to in-shell dry nut 

process) in a microbiological oven and to 121°C 

(sterilizing temperature – similar to shelled dry nut 

process) in an autoclave, both for 120 min. Se levels 

and mc were determined prior and after heating 

application.  

 

Mc and Aw: were determined by gravimetry (AOAC, 

2005) and by applied the Aqualab apparatus at 25°C, 

respectively. 

 

Statistical Analysis: They were performed by variance 

analysis (ANOVA) and included the Tukey´s test to 

evaluate significant differences among the means (p< 

0.05). The results were expressed as the mean values 

and standard errors. 

 

 

   [A]                                                                     [B] 

 
 
   whole (a)                   (b)                                         shell (b) 
   (dry nut)             

                           
 
 

              
                   

                      (c) 
                                                                  edible part (c) 

                                                                
 
 
                                        (d)                                       brown skin(d) 
 
                                                                             
        

                                                                                    
 
 
 
 
 

           
                                                          Amêndoa  
                                                       (desidratada) 
 
 
            (b)Testae  
                                                                 (resíduo) 
 



Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

290 

 

Results and Discussion 
  

From the data obtained it was possible to observe that 

the Se levels increased among the (a) nut parts and the 

(b) Amazon nut site of collection: from nut shell to 

edible part and from Cameta (E) to Manaus (C-W) 

cities. Tables 1 and 2 show the data on Se levels, each 

part proximate composition, mc, aw and weight ratio of 

each Brazil nut part evaluated.  

 

Distribution of Se in the Brazil nut Parts and its 

Variations among Site of Collection  
Levels of Se for each nut part increased in the 

following order: shell < brown skin < edible part 

reaching 0.44 < 20.58 < 44.13 mg/kg and 0.31 < 6.12 < 

19.25 mg/kg for the two Amazon site of nut collection, 

respectively. Thus being Manaus’ (C-W) with the 

highest levels.  

 

Shell, Brown Skin & Edible Part Se Distribution: 

The Se level of the Brazil nuts factories waste - brown 

skin - was 3.5 fold higher for C-W (22.58 mg/kg) than 

the E (6.12 mg/kg) city of collection. The values 

obtained for the shells, despite the nuts origin, were 

inferior to those of the other nuts components (C-W: 

0.44 and E: 0.31 mg/kg), showing that shells do not add 

to the whole Brazil nut Se content, but the brown skin.   

Therefore, the brown skin of Manaus city, C-W region 

(20.58 mg/kg) could be consider a possibility of Se 

extraction for use in food fortification and/or in 

supplements, followed by that of Cameta city, Eastern 

regions, however, with a lower concentration (6.12 

mg/kg). As expected the edible part, already reported 

by several authors (Barclay et al. 1995; Pacheco and 

Scussel, 2007; Furr et al. 1979; Secor and Lisk, 1989; 

Chang et al. 1995; Vonderheide et al. 2002; Coutinho et 

al. 2002; Chunhieng et at., 2004; Kannamkumarath et 

al. 2002) showed to be rich in Se with its content 

detected more than 2 fold higher in the C-W (44.13 

mg/kg) than the E (19.25 mg/kg) site of collection.  

 

Central-Western & Eastern Brazil Nuts Se 

Variation: Whole and/or edible part (despite if with or 

without brown skin on) Brazil nuts Se variation 

throughout the Amazon region has been reported in the 

literature (Barclay et al. 1995; Pacheco and Scussel, 

2007; Furr et al. 1979; Secor and Lisk, 1989; Chang et 

al. 1995; Vonderheide et al. 2002; Coutinho et al. 2002; 

Chunhieng et at., 2004). That variation is dependent of 

several factors as the soil Se concentration; the 

chemical Se form in different Amazonian soil (acid or 

alkaline rivers); presence of heavy metal (Hg, mining); 

rain intensity and the genetic characteristics of the plant 

on metabolizing the Se absorbed from the soil and also 

the forms that Se is present in the nut (SeMet and 

SeCys) (Pacheco and Scussel, 2007). It has been 

reported that the soil of Eastern Amazon is rich in Se 

with concentrations ranging from 5.2 to 9.4 mg/kg 

which are much higher than the Western region (1.0 to 

2.4 mg/kg) (Nogueira, 2002). In fact, the soil Se 

concentrations of Itacoatiara and Autazes cities (which 

are located closer to the border between W and E 

regions) are higher with 9.4 and 8.1 mg/kg, 

respectively. FAO in 1993 reported that the reason that 

Brazil nut tree concentrates Se is due to the fact that Se 

is very similar chemically to sulfur, an essential 

nutrient for the nut seed amino acids (Met and Cys) and 

protein formation. Sulfur is often deficient in Amazon 

soils, especially after decades of Brazil nut harvesting 

and export. If the soil contains significant amounts of 

Se, it may be used by the plant instead of sulfur (FAO, 

1993). Despite the Amazon location and soil type, 

Brazil nut trees also have special absorption capacity 

due to their long roots system which reaches dipper soil 

layers finding nutrients, different of the well-known 

sandy/rather poor surface Amazon soil.   

 

Effect of Temperature on Brazil Nuts Se Levels: 

During this study, questions raised whether temperature 

would have some effect on Brazil nuts Se level, which 

was checked. The data on nuts submitted to 60°C and 

121°C in oven (temperature) and autoclave 

(temperature + moist pressure), respectively are in 

Table 1. Temperature did not affect Se levels, despite 

the method applied. In fact, it increased by 0.3%, due 

to moisture evaporation, leading to a false level 

increment, reaching at 60 and 121°C, levels of 20.65 

and 6.13 mg/kg for C-W nut brown skin and 22.64 and 

6.15 mg/kg for E, respectively. As Se forms in Brazil 

nuts are mainly water soluble (Fairweather-Tait et al. 

2011), the inclusion of any water step probably would 

have interfered on its loss during processing. However 

that does not occur throughout the whole Brazil nuts 

drying process in the factory. Other food processing 

could lead to Se loss though, such as boiling. In 

addition, the high lipid (65- 70%) content in nuts cells 

can play a role on reducing Se extraction through moist.

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

291 

 

Table 1: Selenium Distribution in the Brazil Nut (Berthollethia excelsa H.B.K.) Parts Collected from the Central-Western 

and Eastern Brazilian Amazon Basin 

Brazil nuta From amazon basin regions* 

Name Botany 

C-W (Manaus)b E (Cameta)b T°C effect on Se (mg/kg) 

Weight (g) 
Se level 

(mg/kg)* 
Weight (g) 

Se level 

(mg/kg)* 

40°C (C-

W/E) 

121°C (C-

W/E) 

Nut Parts 

 Shell Tegument 4.2±1.21 
0.44±0.02     

(0.71%) 
4.0±3.13 

0.31±0.03 

(1.21%) 
NA** NA 

 Brown 

Skin 
Testae 1.2±3.05 

20.58±0.32 

(30.7%) 
1.2±2.03 

6.12±0.05 

(23.8%) 
20.65/6.13 20.64/6.15 

 Edible Endosperm 3.8±4.15 
44.13±0.25 

(68.6%) 
3.6±3.21 

19.25±0.11 

(75.0%) 
44.26/19.32 44.26/19.35 

In-shell Nut 

Whole*** Seed 8.033.01 32.65±0.07 8.1243.2 12.28±0.06 NA NA 

C-W: Central-Western E: Eastern Se: selenium  a medium size Type, weight average 8 g/width 19.9-26.3 for face ABC, S/N ratio 

1.2 (Classif. by De Mello; Scussel (13) length 40-50 mm, bnuts collected from  each region converging to the factory site C-W 

and E, respectively *standard deviation (n=5) T°C temperature 

** not analysed  *** analysed whole nut (shell+brown-skin+edible-part) all together 

 

  

Brazil Nuts Parts Proximate Composition and Nut 

Ratio 

Despite of the large amount of information regarding 

Brazil nut edible part proximate composition, nothing 

has been published regarding the factories dry shelled 

nut discarded products: shell and brown skin. In this 

study we were able, apart from, Se quantification, to 

determine their proximate composition (Table 2). 

Although the shell and brown skin showed low level of 

lipids (7.3/7.23 and 15.83/16.04%) and proteins 

(3.83/3.26 and 8.34/7.91%) for C-W/E sites of 

collection, respectively, the fiber content was quite high 

for those factory wastes especially the brown skin, 

reaching 57.17% of dietary fiber which is quite 

promising on the food fiber enrichment point of view. 

Regarding the mc and aw of the Brazil nut components 

of C-W/E Amazon origin utilized in the current work, 

they were for edible nut, shell and brown skin of 

4.20/4.21; 3.32/4.12; 4.81/3.48% and 0.65/0.65; 

0.70/0.62; 0.32/0.45 for mc and aw, respectively. 

 

 
Table 2: Proximate Composition of Brazil Nut  (Berthollethia excelsa H.B.K.) Shell, Brown Skin and Edible Parts from 

Different Amazon Regions 

Brazil nut 

C-Wa/Eb Amazon Region  

Lipid 

(%) 

Protein 

(%) 

Carbohydrates 
Ash 

(%) 

mcc 

(%) 
aw

d 

Starch (%) 
Dietary Fiber 

(%) 

Nut Parts 

 Shell 7.30/7.23 3.82/3.26 3.34/.3.53 32.25/22.91 5.80/6.77 3.32/4.12 0.70/0.62 

 Brown Skin 15.83/16.04 8.34/7.91 3.80/3.902 57.13/60.02 4.25/4.32 4.81/3.48 0.32/0.45 

 Edible Part 68.00/66.43 15.90/16.34 2.41/2.37 5.91/4.05 3.59/3.70 4.20/4.21 0.65/0.65 

In-shell Nut 

 Whole 31.15/32.90 9.96/10.02 24.60/25.32 22.7/23.03 2.45/2.64 5.3/6.02 0.61/0.55 
aCentral-Western   bEastern   cmoisture content   dwater activity 

 

Brazil nut Parts Ratio 
The ratio of the three components (shell/brown 

skin/edible part) of the Brazil nuts did not differ much 

from that established in the literature (De-Mello and 

Scussel, 2007) for shell/edible part of 4.2/3.8 or 

53/47% for a medium size nut (8 g) with a Shell/Nut 

ratio of 1.2. The amount of brown skin obtained from 

each nut did not reach 2 g, i.e., average of 1.23.05 g 

thus not interfering to that ratio. 

 

Conclusion 

 
Se plays an important role in human’s metabolism and 

health. Brazil nuts are Se rich, mainly the edible part 

however; the brown skin holds a quite high portion of 

that element, apart from being rich in fiber.     

 

Currently the factories that produce shelled dry Brazil 

nuts consider brown skins as waste, thus discarding or 

sending them together with the nut shell residue for 

fuel. Considering the importance of Se and the need of 

human body Se intake, brown skin could be consider a 

possibility of utilization either in supplements or to be 

added in food for Se and fiber enrichment (shakes, ice 

creams, cheese) (Pereira et al. 2010a; 2010b). For those 

use, brown skin should pass through quality and safety 

analyses, as currently is applied for the edible part of 

Brazil nuts (either in-shell or shelled). Other studies 

need to be carried out regarding differences on Brazil 



Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(2), pp. 287-293  

 

  

292 

 

nuts varieties that growth in the soils of the Amazon 

rain forest. 

 

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/auth:Furr,AK
/auth:MacDaniels,LH
/auth:St%20John,LE
/auth:Gutenmann,WH
/auth:Pakkala,IS
/auth:Lisk,DJ
/auth:Lisk,DJ
/pmid:444731
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