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Available online at ajdhs.com 

Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences 
Open Access to Dental and Medical Research 

Copyright  © 2024 The  Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the 

original author and source are credited  

 

 

Addressing Gender-Based Violence to Support HIV Prevention Efforts: A Review 

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu * 

Department of Biomedical and Laboratory Science, Africa University, Zimbabwe 

Article Info: 
_____________________________________________ 
Article History: 

Received   24 Sep 2024     
Reviewed  19 Oct 2024 
Accepted   20 Nov 2024 
Published 15 Dec 2024 

_____________________________________________ 
Cite this article as:  

Obeagu EI, Addressing Gender-Based 
Violence to Support HIV Prevention Efforts: A 
Review, Asian Journal of Dental and Health 
Sciences. 2024; 4(3):51-56                                                                   

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22270/ajdhs.v4i4.102               

Abstract 
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a significant global health issue that exacerbates the spread of HIV, 
particularly among women and vulnerable populations. The links between GBV and HIV 
transmission are multifaceted, as violence increases individuals' exposure to unprotected sex, limits 
access to healthcare, and fosters environments of stigma and disempowerment. Victims of GBV, 
particularly women, may face greater barriers to HIV prevention and care, putting them at higher 
risk of both HIV infection and poor health outcomes. The intersection of gender inequality and 
violence creates a cycle that hinders effective HIV prevention efforts and impedes the overall fight 
against the epidemic. Addressing GBV is crucial to improving HIV prevention strategies. Integrating 
gender-sensitive approaches into HIV prevention programs can help mitigate the risk of HIV 
transmission. Key strategies include community-based interventions to shift harmful gender norms, 
comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services that address both GBV and HIV needs, and 
strengthening legal frameworks to protect survivors. Empowering individuals through education 
about sexual rights and HIV prevention is also essential, as is involving men and boys in the 
promotion of gender equality. These combined efforts can reduce both GBV and HIV transmission by 
addressing the root causes and providing support for survivors. 

Keywords: Gender-Based Violence, HIV Prevention, Gender Equality, Sexual and Reproductive 
Health, Violence Reduction Strategies 

*Address for Correspondence:   

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Department of Biomedical and Laboratory Science, Africa University, Zimbabwe 

 

Introduction 

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a widespread and 
deeply entrenched social issue that affects individuals 
globally, particularly women and marginalized groups. 
Defined as any harmful act directed at an individual 
based on their gender, GBV includes physical, sexual, 
emotional, and psychological violence. The intersection 
of GBV and HIV is a significant concern in global health 
efforts, as violence disproportionately affects women, 
increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection. The 
global prevalence of both GBV and HIV highlights the 
need for integrated approaches to address these 
interrelated public health challenges.1 Gender-based 
violence creates an environment in which individuals 
are more likely to engage in high-risk behaviors, such as 
unprotected sex or multiple sexual partners, due to 
coercion or lack of autonomy. These factors significantly 
increase the risk of HIV transmission. Women, 
particularly in contexts where they experience 
economic dependence or limited social power, may be 
unable to negotiate safer sexual practices or seek out 
HIV prevention and care services. In such environments, 
the act of violence itself may lead to physical injuries 
that make individuals more susceptible to infection, 
further exacerbating the cycle of risk. The emotional and 
psychological trauma associated with GBV can also 

diminish an individual's ability to seek necessary health 
services, including HIV testing, treatment, and 
prevention.2-3 

The relationship between GBV and HIV is complex and 
multifaceted, involving both direct and indirect 
mechanisms of risk. For instance, survivors of sexual 
violence may face injuries to their genital tract, which 
increases the likelihood of HIV transmission if exposed 
to the virus. Additionally, the long-term psychological 
effects of violence can contribute to behaviors such as 
substance abuse, which may impair judgment and lead 
to increased sexual risk-taking. Moreover, the stigma 
surrounding both HIV and GBV further complicates the 
situation, often preventing individuals from accessing 
essential health services and support. As a result, HIV 
transmission rates remain disproportionately high 
among survivors of GBV, particularly in settings where 
violence is normalized.4 The social and structural 
drivers of GBV, such as gender inequality, power 
imbalances, and discrimination, are central to 
understanding its impact on HIV transmission. In many 
societies, women and girls experience systemic 
disadvantages that limit their autonomy and agency. 
These gender norms and practices perpetuate violence 
and make it difficult for women to access healthcare, 
education, and other resources that could protect them 

                     Open Access                                                                                                                                                                                                                Review Article                                                                           

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Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu                                                                                                      Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2024; 4(4):51-56 

[52]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AJDHS.COM 

from HIV. Additionally, cultural beliefs that minimize or 
normalize violence against women further entrench the 
cycle of abuse. As these structural factors perpetuate 
both GBV and HIV, addressing them simultaneously 
becomes crucial in the effort to reduce new infections 
and support gender equality.5-6 Efforts to prevent HIV 
must take into account the crucial role of gender-based 
violence. A growing body of research supports the idea 
that HIV prevention interventions that do not address 
GBV are likely to be less effective, as violence 
undermines individuals' ability to take preventive 
actions, such as practicing safe sex, using HIV 
prevention tools like pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), 
or seeking treatment. Conversely, comprehensive 
approaches that address both HIV and GBV have proven 
more successful in reducing risk, as they simultaneously 
tackle the underlying issues of violence and the 
structural barriers to accessing care. As a result, 
integrating gender-sensitive strategies into HIV 
prevention programs is essential for creating 
sustainable health solutions.7-8 

Understanding the Link between Gender-Based 
Violence and HIV 

The connection between gender-based violence (GBV) 
and HIV is multifaceted, with GBV acting as both a direct 
and indirect determinant of HIV risk. GBV exacerbates 
individuals' vulnerability to HIV through several key 
mechanisms, including forced or coerced sex, limited 
negotiation power regarding safe sex, and physical and 
psychological trauma. As the risk of HIV transmission is 
strongly influenced by behaviors and access to care, the 
widespread nature of GBV becomes a critical factor that 
hinders efforts to prevent the spread of HIV, especially 
in regions where violence against women and 
marginalized groups is pervasive.9 One of the primary 
ways in which GBV increases HIV risk is through the 
practice of coerced or non-consensual sex. Victims of 
sexual violence, including rape and intimate partner 
violence, are more likely to be exposed to the virus 
during these violent acts, particularly if their assailant is 
HIV-positive. The lack of agency and the inability to 
negotiate safe sexual practices, such as condom use, 
further increases the likelihood of HIV transmission. In 
some cases, survivors of GBV may even be exposed to 
multiple instances of sexual violence, each increasing 
their cumulative risk of infection. Furthermore, injuries 
sustained during violent sexual encounters, such as 
genital trauma, can provide direct entry points for the 
HIV virus, raising the physical susceptibility to 
infection.10-11 

In addition to the direct effects of physical violence, the 
emotional and psychological impacts of GBV also 
contribute to heightened HIV risk. Survivors of GBV 
often experience trauma that can manifest in 
depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder 
(PTSD), which may lead to risky behaviors such as 
substance abuse and sexual risk-taking. These 
emotional burdens may impair a person’s ability to take 
preventive actions, such as using condoms or accessing 
HIV care, because their emotional well-being and 
decision-making capacity may be compromised. 

Furthermore, the stigma associated with both GBV and 
HIV often leads to isolation and a lack of support, 
preventing individuals from seeking help or disclosing 
their experiences to healthcare providers.12 Another key 
aspect of the link between GBV and HIV is the influence 
of gender inequality and power dynamics within 
relationships. In societies where women and girls are 
socially and economically disadvantaged, they are often 
less able to negotiate sexual practices or leave abusive 
relationships. Gender norms that condone male 
dominance and female submission further exacerbate 
this issue. In these settings, women may feel unable to 
refuse sex or insist on protective measures, leaving 
them vulnerable to HIV exposure. The pervasive nature 
of these gender inequalities means that GBV is not only 
a consequence of sexual violence but also a 
manifestation of broader societal structures that 
perpetuate both violence and vulnerability to HIV.13 

Moreover, the broader societal consequences of GBV 
often lead to limited access to essential HIV services. 
Victims of GBV, particularly women, may face multiple 
barriers to seeking healthcare, including fear of further 
abuse, lack of financial resources, and stigma from both 
their communities and healthcare providers. In many 
settings, survivors may be reluctant to disclose their 
experiences for fear of being blamed or judged. This 
reluctance to seek care can delay HIV diagnosis, 
treatment, and prevention, leading to worse health 
outcomes. Additionally, in cases where individuals are 
subjected to repeated violence, there may be chronic 
exposure to high-risk situations, increasing their 
lifetime risk of HIV infection.14-15 The link between GBV 
and HIV also highlights the importance of integrated 
approaches to prevention. Traditional HIV prevention 
efforts, such as condom distribution or PrEP programs, 
can be significantly less effective if they do not account 
for the presence of GBV. Programs that address both 
violence and HIV in a holistic manner, offering support 
to survivors of violence while also promoting safe 
sexual practices, are likely to be more successful. These 
programs must take a multi-sectoral approach, 
involving not only healthcare providers but also legal 
systems, community leaders, and education systems to 
challenge harmful gender norms and ensure that 
survivors have access to the resources they need to 
break free from the cycle of violence and risk.16-17 

Ultimately, the link between GBV and HIV underscores 
the importance of addressing gender inequality as a 
fundamental strategy in HIV prevention. Reducing 
violence against women and marginalized populations, 
empowering individuals to assert their rights, and 
providing comprehensive care for those affected by GBV 
can help reduce HIV transmission. This interconnected 
approach to GBV and HIV prevention is not only 
essential for improving health outcomes but also for 
promoting gender equality and fostering safer, healthier 
communities.18 

Impact of Gender Inequality on HIV Risk 

Gender inequality plays a critical role in increasing 
vulnerability to HIV infection, particularly among 
women and marginalized groups. In many societies, 



Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu                                                                                                      Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2024; 4(4):51-56 

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women and girls experience systemic disadvantages 
that limit their ability to protect themselves from HIV. 
These inequalities are often manifested in various 
aspects of life, including economic dependence, limited 
access to education, cultural norms, and social 
expectations, all of which contribute to a higher risk of 
HIV transmission. By understanding the impact of 
gender inequality on HIV risk, we can better develop 
interventions that address the root causes of this 
vulnerability and help reduce new infections.19 One of 
the primary ways in which gender inequality increases 
HIV risk is through the imbalance of power in sexual 
relationships. In many societies, women and girls are 
socialized to be submissive to male partners, which can 
hinder their ability to negotiate safer sex practices, such 
as condom use. The inability to refuse sex or insist on 
protective measures makes women more susceptible to 
HIV exposure, particularly in situations where their 
partners may have multiple sexual partners or be at risk 
of infection themselves. In some regions, the gendered 
expectation that women should prioritize their 
partner's desires over their own sexual health needs 
perpetuates this power dynamic, limiting their ability to 
protect themselves from HIV.20 

Economic dependence is another key factor that 
exacerbates HIV risk among women. In many societies, 
women are financially dependent on men, which can 
create a barrier to leaving unsafe relationships or 
seeking healthcare. Economic vulnerability increases 
the likelihood that women will stay in abusive or high-
risk situations, including relationships where their 
partners may refuse to use protection or engage in risky 
sexual behaviors. This financial dependency also limits 
women's ability to access HIV prevention tools, such as 
pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), or attend regular 
health checkups. When women lack financial 
independence, they may be less empowered to assert 
their health and sexual rights, further increasing their 
susceptibility to HIV.21 Cultural norms and social 
expectations also play a significant role in shaping 
gender inequality and HIV risk. In many cultures, 
traditional gender roles place women in a subordinate 
position, which can normalize gender-based violence 
(GBV) and exacerbate their vulnerability to HIV. For 
example, women who experience intimate partner 
violence or sexual violence are at a higher risk of HIV 
infection, as violence often includes coerced or non-
consensual sex. Additionally, the stigma surrounding 
HIV and gender-based violence may prevent women 
from disclosing their status, seeking treatment, or 
accessing preventative care. Women who are blamed for 
their own exposure to violence or HIV are less likely to 
receive the care and support they need, which 
perpetuates the cycle of risk.22 

The impact of gender inequality on HIV risk is also 
magnified by the intersectionality of other forms of 
discrimination, such as race, class, and sexual 
orientation. Women and girls who belong to 
marginalized communities, including ethnic minorities, 
refugees, and members of the LGBTQ+ community, face 
compounded risks due to social stigma and 
discrimination. These individuals often have less access 

to healthcare services, face greater barriers to 
education, and may experience higher levels of violence. 
For example, LGBTQ+ women and men who have sex 
with men (MSM) are more likely to face discrimination 
in healthcare settings, which may discourage them from 
seeking HIV testing, treatment, or prevention services. 
Addressing HIV risk in these populations requires 
acknowledging and combating multiple forms of 
inequality.23 Reducing gender inequality is therefore 
essential in mitigating HIV risk. Interventions that 
empower women and marginalized groups, improve 
economic independence, and promote gender equality 
can significantly reduce the vulnerability to HIV. 
Programs that focus on changing harmful gender norms, 
such as promoting mutual respect and consent in 
relationships, are essential in fostering safer sexual 
practices and improving HIV prevention efforts. 
Furthermore, strengthening access to sexual and 
reproductive health services, including HIV testing, 
prevention, and treatment, is crucial in ensuring that 
individuals have the tools and support they need to 
protect themselves. Legal reforms that protect women 
from violence and discrimination also play a critical role 
in reducing the intersectional risks that contribute to 
the spread of HIV.24 

Gender-Sensitive HIV Prevention Strategies 

Gender-sensitive HIV prevention strategies are essential 
for addressing the unique needs and vulnerabilities of 
individuals, particularly women and marginalized 
groups, who face disproportionate risks of HIV infection 
due to gender inequality, social norms, and violence. 
These strategies recognize that gender-based violence 
(GBV), gender inequality, and societal power dynamics 
significantly influence HIV transmission and the ability 
to access care. Effective gender-sensitive approaches go 
beyond general HIV prevention methods by integrating 
gender-specific interventions that empower individuals, 
challenge harmful gender norms, and address the 
structural and social barriers to HIV prevention.25 One 
key gender-sensitive strategy involves promoting 
women's empowerment and improving their autonomy 
in sexual relationships. In many contexts, women face 
social and cultural constraints that limit their ability to 
negotiate safer sex practices, such as condom use, or to 
refuse sexual activity altogether. Empowering women to 
make decisions about their sexual health is crucial for 
reducing HIV risk. This includes providing education on 
sexual and reproductive rights, promoting self-efficacy 
in negotiating safer sex, and increasing access to HIV 
prevention tools like pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) 
and condoms. Programs that focus on increasing 
women's agency in both sexual and economic spheres 
can lead to healthier decision-making, as women are 
more likely to take preventive actions when they have 
control over their sexual and financial choices.26 

Addressing gender-based violence (GBV) through 
integrated HIV prevention strategies is another critical 
component of gender-sensitive approaches. GBV, 
particularly intimate partner violence and sexual 
violence, increases the risk of HIV transmission by 
undermining a person’s ability to protect themselves 



Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu                                                                                                      Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2024; 4(4):51-56 

[54]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AJDHS.COM 

from infection. Gender-sensitive HIV prevention 
programs must incorporate support services for GBV 
survivors, such as legal assistance, mental health care, 
and access to post-rape care. These programs should 
provide education and resources for both men and 
women to challenge harmful gender norms that 
perpetuate violence, promote healthy relationship 
dynamics, and ensure that survivors of violence can 
seek timely HIV testing, care, and treatment. 
Incorporating GBV prevention into HIV strategies helps 
break the cycle of violence and infection, reducing 
overall HIV risk within communities.27 Access to gender-
responsive healthcare services is essential in ensuring 
that individuals, particularly women, can benefit from 
HIV prevention and care programs. Gender-sensitive 
healthcare goes beyond the provision of HIV testing and 
treatment by addressing the specific barriers that 
women and marginalized groups face in accessing 
services. For instance, in many settings, women 
experience challenges in accessing HIV prevention tools, 
including PrEP, due to societal stigma or logistical 
barriers such as lack of privacy, transportation, or 
financial resources. Health providers must be trained to 
offer non-judgmental, gender-sensitive care, ensuring 
that women feel safe and supported in accessing HIV 
prevention services. Programs that offer integrated 
sexual and reproductive health services, including 
family planning, maternal health, and HIV prevention, 
are critical in addressing the diverse needs of 
individuals.28 

Incorporating a focus on adolescent girls and young 
women is a particularly important aspect of gender-
sensitive HIV prevention strategies. This group faces a 
heightened vulnerability to HIV due to a combination of 
biological, social, and cultural factors. Adolescent girls 
may lack the knowledge, confidence, or agency to 
protect themselves from HIV, and they may also 
experience higher rates of sexual violence or coerced 
sex. Gender-sensitive programs aimed at young people 
should prioritize sexual education, safe spaces, and peer 
support, as well as ensuring access to HIV prevention 
tools like condoms and PrEP. Programs that engage 
both young women and young men in conversations 
about consent, gender norms, and healthy relationships 
can foster a more equitable environment, where both 
genders share responsibility for preventing HIV.29 

Finally, addressing the intersectional vulnerabilities 
faced by marginalized groups is an essential aspect of 
gender-sensitive HIV prevention. These groups, 
including LGBTQ+ individuals, sex workers, and people 
who inject drugs, experience compounded risks due to 
intersecting forms of discrimination, social exclusion, 
and violence. HIV prevention strategies must be tailored 
to the unique needs of these populations, recognizing 
their specific risks and barriers to accessing care. 
Providing safe, confidential spaces for marginalized 
groups to access HIV testing, prevention, and treatment 
services is crucial for ensuring that these individuals are 
not left behind in the fight against HIV. Legal 
protections, social support networks, and community-
led advocacy efforts can also play a vital role in reducing 

the stigma and discrimination that contribute to higher 
HIV risk in these groups.30 

Challenges and Limitations 

While gender-sensitive HIV prevention strategies are 
essential in addressing the unique vulnerabilities and 
needs of women and marginalized groups, their 
implementation and effectiveness face several 
significant challenges. These challenges stem from 
structural, cultural, and economic barriers, as well as 
the deeply entrenched gender norms and inequalities 
that continue to shape societal attitudes towards HIV, 
gender, and sexual health. Understanding these 
challenges is crucial for improving the design, scale, and 
impact of gender-sensitive interventions, ensuring that 
they can effectively reduce HIV risk and address the 
root causes of gender inequality.31 One of the primary 
challenges in implementing gender-sensitive HIV 
prevention strategies is the persistence of harmful 
gender norms and stereotypes. In many societies, 
traditional views about gender roles and sexuality often 
create barriers for women and marginalized groups to 
negotiate safer sex or to seek HIV prevention services. 
For example, the belief that women should be passive in 
sexual relationships or that men must be the primary 
decision-makers can prevent women from asserting 
their rights or negotiating condom use. These 
entrenched societal expectations make it difficult for 
gender-sensitive programs to achieve meaningful 
change, as they require not only changing individual 
behaviors but also transforming deep-seated cultural 
attitudes and norms. Overcoming these barriers 
requires long-term efforts that involve community 
engagement, education, and the active participation of 
both men and women in redefining gender roles and 
expectations.32 

Another limitation of gender-sensitive HIV prevention 
strategies is the challenge of addressing the 
intersectionality of risks faced by women and 
marginalized groups. Many individuals experience 
compounded vulnerabilities due to the overlap of 
gender with other forms of discrimination, such as race, 
class, sexual orientation, and disability. For example, 
Black and Indigenous women, as well as LGBTQ+ 
individuals, may face higher levels of violence, 
discrimination, and limited access to healthcare services 
compared to their peers. These intersecting forms of 
marginalization can make it more difficult for gender-
sensitive HIV prevention strategies to effectively reach 
and support the most at-risk populations. Tailoring 
interventions to address these diverse experiences 
requires a nuanced understanding of intersectionality 
and the development of programs that are culturally 
appropriate, inclusive, and flexible enough to meet the 
complex needs of different groups. However, achieving 
this level of specificity and inclusivity can be resource-
intensive and may require significant investment in 
community-led programs and localized research.33 

Economic barriers also play a crucial role in limiting the 
effectiveness of gender-sensitive HIV prevention 
strategies. In many low- and middle-income countries, 
women and marginalized groups face economic 



Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu                                                                                                      Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2024; 4(4):51-56 

[55]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AJDHS.COM 

dependency, which can restrict their ability to access 
HIV prevention tools, services, or educational resources. 
Financial constraints can prevent women from seeking 
HIV testing, accessing PrEP, or participating in HIV 
prevention programs. For example, in some settings, 
women may be unable to afford transportation to health 
clinics, or may face the risk of financial exploitation by 
male partners or family members who control 
household finances. Additionally, poverty can increase 
vulnerability to gender-based violence (GBV), as women 
may feel pressured to stay in abusive relationships due 
to economic dependency. Gender-sensitive strategies 
must address these economic disparities by offering 
financial support, subsidies, or accessible healthcare 
options. Without addressing the broader economic 
context, these interventions may fail to reach the 
individuals most in need of HIV prevention services.30 

Cultural and legal barriers further complicate the 
implementation of gender-sensitive HIV prevention 
strategies. In many societies, laws and policies related to 
gender, sexual health, and HIV prevention may not be 
supportive of the needs of women and marginalized 
groups. For example, laws that criminalize same-sex 
relationships, sex work, or drug use can create 
environments of fear and stigma, preventing individuals 
from accessing HIV prevention services. Additionally, 
the lack of legal protections for women experiencing 
intimate partner violence or sexual harassment can 
discourage them from seeking help or reporting abuse. 
Cultural taboos surrounding discussions of sex, HIV, and 
gender-based violence can also prevent open dialogue 
and awareness campaigns, leaving many individuals 
unaware of their rights or available services. To 
overcome these challenges, gender-sensitive HIV 
prevention strategies must be accompanied by advocacy 
for legal reforms and policies that protect human rights 
and reduce stigma and discrimination.31 

Lastly, the limited availability of gender-sensitive 
healthcare services poses another significant challenge. 
In many regions, healthcare systems are not equipped 
to provide the necessary support for women, LGBTQ+ 
individuals, or other marginalized groups in a safe and 
non-judgmental manner. Health providers may lack 
training on gender sensitivity or may perpetuate stigma 
themselves, creating an environment where individuals 
feel unsafe or uncomfortable seeking care. Moreover, 
HIV services may be siloed from other health services, 
such as sexual and reproductive health or mental health, 
which are essential for addressing the full spectrum of 
needs for women and marginalized groups. Integrating 
gender-sensitive care into broader healthcare systems 
requires training healthcare professionals, creating 
gender-responsive service delivery models, and 
ensuring that services are accessible and non-
stigmatizing.32-33 

Conclusion 

Gender-sensitive HIV prevention strategies are critical 
in addressing the disproportionate burden of HIV on 
women and marginalized populations, particularly 
those who are at the intersection of gender-based 
violence, social inequities, and discrimination. These 

strategies recognize that gender inequality and harmful 
societal norms significantly contribute to the 
vulnerability of individuals to HIV, and therefore, must 
be an integral part of the global HIV response. By 
empowering individuals to make informed decisions 
about their sexual health, challenging harmful gender 
norms, and providing comprehensive support for 
survivors of gender-based violence, these strategies can 
significantly reduce HIV transmission and promote 
healthier outcomes. 

Conflict of Interest: Author declares no potential 

conflict of interest with respect to the contents, 

authorship, and/or publication of this article. 

Source of Support: Nil 

Funding: The authors declared that this study has 

received no financial support. 

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.  

Data Availability Statement: The data supporting in 

this paper are available in the cited references.  

Ethics approval: Not applicable. 

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Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu                                                                                                      Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2024; 4(4):51-56 

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-022-03913-0
https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.4675
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7189(02)00046-0
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